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+Project Gutenberg's The History of Cuba, vol. 4, by Willis Fletcher Johnson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The History of Cuba, vol. 4
+
+Author: Willis Fletcher Johnson
+
+Release Date: October 8, 2010 [EBook #33848]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF CUBA, VOL. 4 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Etext transcriber's note:
+
+The use of Spanish accents in this text varies and has not been altered
+(ie. both Senor and Señor [tilde n], Senora and Señora [tilde n], José
+[acute accented letter e] and Jose appear; both Nunez and Nuñez [tilde
+n], Marti and Martí [acute accented i], Carreno and Carreño appear
+[tilde n].)
+
+Several typographical errors have been corrected
+(Almandares=>Almendares, Donate=>Donato, etc.).]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: JOSÉ MARTÍ
+
+The first great apostle and martyr of the Cuban War of Independence,
+José Martí, was born in Havana on January 28, 1853, and fell in battle
+at Dos Rios on May 19, 1895. He was a Professor of Literature, Doctor of
+Laws, economist, philosopher, essayist, journalist, poet, historian,
+statesman, tribune of the people, organizer of the final and triumphant
+cause of Cuban freedom. He suffered imprisonment in Spain and exile in
+Mexico, Guatemala, and the United States, doing his crowning work in the
+last-named country as the vitalizing and energizing head of the Cuban
+Junta in New York. His fame must be lasting as the nation which he
+founded, wide as the world which he adorned.]
+
+
+
+
+THE
+
+HISTORY OF CUBA
+
+BY
+
+WILLIS FLETCHER JOHNSON
+
+A.M., L.H.D.
+
+Author of "A Century of Expansion," "Four Centuries of
+the Panama Canal," "America's Foreign Relations"
+
+Honorary Professor of the History of American Foreign
+Relations in New York University
+
+_WITH ILLUSTRATIONS_
+
+VOLUME FOUR
+
+[Illustration]
+
+NEW YORK
+
+B. F. BUCK & COMPANY, INC.
+
+156 FIFTH AVENUE
+
+1920
+
+Copyright, 1920,
+
+BY CENTURY HISTORY CO.
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+ENTERED AT STATIONERS HALL
+
+LONDON, ENGLAND.
+
+PRINTED IN U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                              PAGE
+
+  CHAPTER I                        1
+
+Cuba for the Cubans--Era of the War of Independence--Organization of the
+Cuban Revolutionary Party--Vigilance of the Spanish Government--The
+Sartorius Uprising--The Abarzuza "Home Rule" Measure--Beginning of the
+War of Independence--José Marti, His Genius and His Work--Members of the
+Junta in New York--Independence the Aim--Marti's Departure for
+Cuba--Association with Maximo Gomez--Death of Marti--His Legacy of
+Ideals to Cuba.
+
+  CHAPTER II                      19
+
+Aims and Methods of the Junta--Efforts to Avoid American
+Complications--Filibustering Expeditions--Contraband Messenger
+Service--Attitude of the Various Classes of the Cuban People Toward the
+Revolution--No Racial nor Partisan Differences--The Spanish Element--The
+Mass of the Cuban People United for National Independence.
+
+  CHAPTER III                     29
+
+The First Uprising--Failure in Havana--Success in Oriente--Response of
+the Spanish Authorities--Superior Numbers of the Spanish Forces--Early
+Complications with the United States-Seeking Terms with the
+Patriots--Grim Reception of an Envoy--Ministerial Crisis at Madrid over
+Cuban Affairs--Martinez Campos, "Spain's Greatest Soldier," Sent to
+Cuba--His Conciliatory Policy--His Military Preparations--Antonio
+Maceo--Uprisings in Many Places--Provisional Government of the
+Patriots--Campos's Barricades--Campos Beaten by Maceo.
+
+  CHAPTER IV                      47
+
+Declaration of Cuban Independence--First Constitutional Convention--The
+First Government of Ministers--Founders of the Cuban
+Government--Desperate Efforts of Campos--Disadvantages of the
+Cubans--Plantation Work Forbidden--Campaigns by Maceo and Gomez--Losses
+of the Spaniards at Sea--Reenforcements from Spain Welcomed--Cuban
+Headquarters at Las Tunas--Invasion of Matanzas--Defeat and Narrow
+Escape of Campos--Action of the Autonomists--Loyalty Pledged to
+Campos--State of Siege in Havana--Campos Recalled to Spain.
+
+  CHAPTER V                       65
+
+General Marin--General Weyler the New Captain-General--His Arrival and
+Remorseless Policy--Cuban Elections a Farce--The Trocha--A War of
+Ruthless Destruction--Many Filibustering Expeditions--Interest of the
+United States Government--Diplomatic Controversies--Efficiency of the
+Provisional Government--Strengthening the Trocha--Activity of Maceo--His
+Betrayal and Death--Campaigns of Gomez and Others--Calixto Garcia--The
+Great Advance Westward--President Cleveland's Significant Message to the
+United States Congress.
+
+  CHAPTER VI                      82
+
+Bad Effects of Maceo's Death--Weyler in the Field Against Gomez--Daring
+and Death of Bandera--Dissensions in the Camp of Gomez--Weyler's
+Concentration Policy--A Practical Attempt at Extermination--Senator
+Proctor's Observations--President McKinley's Message--Crisis in
+Spain--Weyler Recalled and Succeeded by Ramon Blanco--Further Attempts
+at Reform and Conciliation--Condition of Cuba--The Revolutionists
+Uncompromising--The Ruiz-Aranguren Tragedy--Organization of the
+Autonomist Government--Attitude of the Spaniards--Visit of the Maine to
+Havana--Destruction of the Vessel--The Investigations--Futile Efforts of
+the Autonomist Government
+
+  CHAPTER VII                    103
+
+The Destruction of the Maine not the Cause of American
+Intervention--Causes Which Led to the War--Diplomatic
+Negotiations--German Intrigue--President McKinley's War Message--His
+Attitude Toward the Cuban People--Spanish Resentment--Declaration of
+War--American Agents Sent to Cuba--Attitude of Maximo Gomez--Supplies,
+not Troops, Wanted--Blockade of the Cuban Coast--Spanish Fleet at
+Santiago--Landing of the American Army--Operations at Santiago--Services
+of the "Rough Riders"--Naval Battle of Santiago--Surrender of the
+Spanish Army--The Armistice.
+
+  CHAPTER VIII                   118
+
+Departure of the Spanish Forces from Cuba--Treaty of Peace Between the
+United States and Spain--Cuba to be Made Independent--The Cuban
+Debt--First American Government of Intervention--The Roll of Spanish
+Rulers from Velasquez in 1512 to Castellanos in 1899--Relations between
+Americans and Cubans--Disbandment of the Provisional Government and
+Demobilization of the Cuban Army--A Mutinous Demonstration--Paying Off
+the Cuban Soldiers.
+
+  CHAPTER IX                     139
+
+American Occupation of Cuba--General Wood's Administration at
+Santiago--His Antecedents and Preparation for His Great Work--A
+Formidable Undertaking--Conquering Pestilence--Organization of the Rural
+Guards--American Administration at Havana and Throughout the
+Island--Grave Problems Confronting General Brooke--Agricultural and
+Industrial Rehabilitation--Reorganizing Local Government--Triumphal
+Progress of Maximo Gomez--Unification of Sentiment Among the
+People--Finances of the Island--Church and State--Marriage
+Reform--Franchises Refused--The Census--Improving the School System.
+
+  CHAPTER X                      158
+
+General Brooke Succeeded by General Leonard Wood--Favorable Reception of
+the Soldier-Statesman--A Cabinet of Cubans--Efficient Attention Paid to
+Public Education--Cuban Teachers at Harvard--Caring for Derelict
+Children--Public Works--Sanitation--Port
+Improvements--Roads--Paving--The Heroic Drama of the Conquest of Yellow
+Fever--Work of General Gorgas--A Home of Pestilence Transformed into a
+Sanitarium--Reforms in Court Procedure--Cleaning Up the Prisons--The
+First Election in Free Cuba--Rise of Political Parties--Taxation and the
+Tariff--Increase of Commerce.
+
+  CHAPTER XI                     185
+
+Preparations for Self-Government--Call for a Constitutional
+Convention--The Election--Meeting of the Convention--General Wood's
+Address--Organization of the Convention--Framing the
+Constitution--Debates over Church and State, and Presidential
+Qualifications--Signing of the Constitution--No Americans Present at the
+Convention--General Provisions of the Constitution--Relations between
+Cuba and the United States--Controversy between the Two
+Governments--Origin of the "Platt Amendment"--Attitude of the Cubans
+Toward It--Malign Agitation and Misrepresentation--A Mission to
+Washington--Final Adoption of the Amendment.
+
+  CHAPTER XII                    204
+
+Text of the Constitution of the Cuban Republic--The Nation, Its Form of
+Government, and the National Territory--Cubans and Foreigners--Bill of
+Rights--Sovereignty and Public Powers--The Legislature--The
+President--The Vice-President--The Secretaries of State--The Judicial
+Power--Provincial and Municipal Governments--Amendments.
+
+  CHAPTER XIII                   240
+
+Election of the First Cuban Government--Candidates for the
+Presidency--Tomas Estrada Palma Chosen by Common Consent--General Maso's
+Candidacy--The Election--Close of the American Occupation--A Festal Week
+in Havana--Transfer of Authority to the Cuban Government--The Cuban Flag
+at Last Raised in Sovereignty of the Island--President Roosevelt's
+Estimate of General Wood's Work in Cuba--President Palma's Cabinet--His
+First Message--The United States Naval Station--Reciprocity Secured
+after Discreditable Delay at Washington.
+
+  CHAPTER XIV                    259
+
+Admirable Work of the Palma Administration--Rise of Sordid
+Factionalism--José Miguel Gomez, Alfredo Zayas and Orestes
+Ferrara--Character of the Liberal Party, and of the Conservative
+Party--Conspiracy to Discredit an Election--An Abortive
+Insurrection--Pino Guerra's Intrigues--The Rebellion of José Miguel
+Gomez--President Palma's Unpreparedness and Incredulity--His Faith in
+the People--The Crisis--Suggestions of the American
+Consul-General--American Intervention sought--Ships and Troops
+Sent--Arrival of Mr. Taft--His Negotiations with the Rebels--His
+Yielding to Their Threats--Resignation of Estrada Palma--Mr. Taft's
+Pardon to the Rebels--Charles E. Magoon Made Provisional
+Governor--Estimate of President Palma and His Administration.
+
+  CHAPTER XV                     283
+
+Mr. Magoon's Administration--Recognition of the Liberals--The Offices
+Filled with Liberal Placeholders--Execution of Many Public Works--A New
+Census Taken--New Electoral Law--Proportional Representation--New
+Elections Held--Split in the Liberal Party--The Presidential
+Campaign--Bargain between José Miguel Gomez and Alfredo Zayas--General
+Menocal and Dr. Montoro--The Victory of the Liberals--Changes in
+Provincial and Municipal Administrations--Revision of Laws--Settling
+Church Claims--End of the Second Intervention.
+
+  CHAPTER XVI                    297
+
+Administration of President José Miguel Gomez--His Cabinet Sketch of His
+Career--Sketch of Vice-President Zayas--Army Reorganization--New
+Laws--The President's Sensitiveness to Criticism--Officials in
+Politics--Charges of Profligacy and Corruption--Clash with the Veterans'
+Association--The United States Interested--Quarrels between Gomez and
+Zayas--Formidable Negro Revolt Suppressed--Reluctance to Settle
+Claims--Outrage Upon an American Diplomat--Amnesty Bill--The Lottery
+Established--The "Dragado" Scandal--The Railroad Terminal.
+
+  CHAPTER XVII                   312
+
+The Fourth Presidential Campaign--Candidacy and Career of Mario G.
+Menocal--His Brilliant Work in the War of Independence and in the Sugar
+Industry--Sketch of Enrique José Varona--Dr. Rafael Montoro's
+Distinguished Career--His Diplomatic Services and Literary
+Achievements--President Menocal's Cabinet--His Aims and Plans for His
+Administration--First Message to Congress--Factional Obstruction--Paying
+Off Old Debts--Trying to Abolish Gambling--The Civil
+Service--Controversy Over the Asbert Amnesty Bill--A Small Insurrection.
+
+  CHAPTER XVIII                  328
+
+Reelection of President Menocal--Features of the Campaign--Liberal
+Conspiracy to Invalidate the Election by Revolutionary Means--Disputed
+Elections--The Double Treason of José Miguel Gomez--Outbreak of a
+Carefully Planned Insurrection--Intrigues of Orestes Ferrara in the
+United States--Vigorous Military Action of President Menocal--American
+Assistance Wisely Declined--Capture of the Rebel Chieftain--Efforts of
+the Insurgents at Devastation--Continuance of the Rebellion by Carlos
+Mendieta--Dr. Ferrara Warned by the American Government--Attempts to
+Assassinate President Menocal--Clemency Shown to Criminals--Attitude of
+the United States Government--Some Plain Talk from Washington.
+
+  CHAPTER XIX                    346
+
+Cuba's Entry into the War of the Nations--President Menocal's War
+Message--Prompt Response of Congress--Sentiments of the Cuban
+People--German Propaganda--Attitude of the Church--Liberal Intrigues
+with Germans--Seizure of German Ships--Conservation and Increased
+Production of Food--Military Services--Generous Subscriptions to Liberty
+Loans--Mrs. Menocal's Leadership in Red Cross Work--Noble Activities of
+the Women of Cuba--Moral and Spiritual Effect of Cuba's Participation in
+the War.
+
+  CHAPTER XX                     355
+
+Marti's Epigram on the Revolution--How It has been Fulfilled by the
+Cuban Republic--The Sense of Responsibility--Progress in Popular
+Education as a Criterion--Great Gain in Health--Enormous Growth of the
+Sugar Industry--Commerce of the Island--Stable Finances--Sanitary
+Efficiency--Military Reorganization--Statesmanship of President
+Menocal--Cuba's Unique Situation Among the Countries of the
+Globe--Significance of the Record Which She has Made from Velasquez to
+Menocal.
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+FULL PAGE PLATES
+
+José Marti _Frontispiece_
+
+FACING PAGE
+
+The Prado                                                             16
+
+Maximo Gomez                                                          44
+
+José Antonio Maceo                                                    74
+
+Bay and Harbor of Havana                                              98
+
+Old and New in Havana                                                134
+
+Leonard Wood                                                         158
+
+University of Havana                                                 164
+
+Carlos J. Finlay                                                     172
+
+The Capitol                                                          204
+
+Tomas Estrada Palma                                                  248
+
+The President's Home                                                 268
+
+The Academy of Arts and Crafts                                       288
+
+Mario G. Menocal                                                     312
+
+Enrique José Varona                                                  316
+
+Rafael Montoro                                                       320
+
+Senora Menocal                                                       352
+
+Boneato Road, Oriente                                                358
+
+
+TEXT EMBELLISHMENTS
+
+
+Ricardo del Monte                                                      2
+
+Julian del Casal                                                       6
+
+José Ramon Villalon                                                   13
+
+George Reno                                                           21
+
+La Punta Fortress, Havana                                             33
+
+Aniceto G. Menocal                                                    50
+
+General Weyler                                                        66
+
+William McKinley                                                      87
+
+Antonio Govin                                                         95
+
+Admiral Cervera                                                      110
+
+Admiral Schley                                                       110
+
+Old Fort at El Caney                                                 112
+
+Theodore Roosevelt                                                   113
+
+Monuments on San Juan Hill                                           114
+
+Admiral Sampson                                                      115
+
+Peace Tree near Santiago                                             116
+
+Part of Old City Wall of Havana                                      122
+
+Gonzalez Lanuza                                                      146
+
+Evelio Rodriguez Lendian                                             162
+
+Antonio Sanchez de Bustamente                                        165
+
+Almendares River, Havana                                             167
+
+Old Time Water Mill, Havana Province                                 169
+
+Street in Vedado, Suburb of Havana                                   176
+
+Aurelia Castillo de Gonzalez                                         192
+
+Scene in Villalon Park, Havana                                       247
+
+Flag of Cuba                                                         250
+
+Coat of Arms of Cuba                                                 251
+
+William H. Taft                                                      276
+
+José Miguel Gomez                                                    298
+
+Dr. Alfredo Zayas                                                    300
+
+Birthplace of Mario G. Menocal                                       313
+
+Dr. Juan Guiteras                                                    321
+
+General D. Emilio Nuñez                                              328
+
+José Luis Azcarata                                                   341
+
+Francisco Dominguez Roldan                                           357
+
+José A. del Cueto                                                    359
+
+Dr. Fernandez Mendez-Capote                                          360
+
+General José Marti                                                   360
+
+Eugenio Sanchez Agramonte                                            362
+
+Academy of Sciences, Havana                                          364
+
+
+
+
+THE HISTORY OF CUBA
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+
+Cuba for Cuba must be the grateful theme of the present volume. We have
+seen the identification of the Queen of the Antilles with the Spanish
+discovery and conquest of America. We have traced the development of
+widespread international interests in that island, especially
+implicating the vital attention of at least four great powers. We have
+reviewed the origin and development of a peculiar relationship,
+frequently troubled but ultimately beneficent to both, between Cuba and
+the United States of America. Now, in the briefest of the four major
+epochs into which Cuban history is naturally divided, we shall have the
+welcome record of the achievement of Cuba's secure establishment among
+the sovereign nations of the world.
+
+The time for the War of Independence was well chosen. That conflict was,
+indeed, a necessary and inevitable sequel to the Ten Years' War and its
+appendix, the Little War; under the same flag, with the same principles
+and issues, and with some of the same leaders. Indeed we may rightly
+claim that the organization of the Cuban Republic remained continuous
+and unbroken, if not in Cuba itself, at least in the United States,
+where, in New York, the Cuban Junta was ever active and resolute. The
+Treaty of Zanjon ended field operations for the time. It did not for one
+moment or in the least degree quench or diminish the impassioned and
+resolute determination of the Cuban people to become a nation.
+
+We have said that the War of Independence was inevitable. That was
+manifestly so because of the determination of the Cubans to become
+independent. It was also because of the failure of the Spanish
+government to fulfil the terms and stipulations of the Treaty of Zanjon,
+concerning which we have hitherto spoken. It must remain a matter of
+speculation whether that government ever intended to fulfil them. It is
+certain that few thoughtful Cubans, capable of judging the probabilities
+of the future by the actualities of the past, expected that it would do
+so. We may also regard it as certain that even a scrupulous fulfilment
+of those terms, while it might have postponed it, would not and could
+not permanently have defeated the assertion of Cuban independence.
+
+[Illustration: RICARDO DEL MONTE
+
+Journalist, critic, poet and patriot, Ricardo del Monte was born at
+Cimorrones in 1830, and was educated in the United States and Europe. In
+Rome he was attached to the Spanish embassy. In Spain he was a
+journalist with liberal and democratic tendencies. He returned to Cuba
+in 1847 and edited several papers in Havana, including, after the Ten
+Years War, _El Triunfo_ and _El Pais_, the organ of the Autonomists. He
+was a writer in prose and verse of singular power and grace, his works
+ranking in style with the best of modern Spanish literature. He died in
+1908.]
+
+The Cuban Revolutionary Party, which as we have said never went out of
+existence, was reorganized for renewed activity in New York in April,
+1892; from which time we may properly date the beginning of the War of
+Independence. Its leader was Jose Marti, of whom we shall have much more
+to say hereafter; but he did not accept the official headship of the
+Junta. That place was taken by Tomas Estrada Palma, the honored veteran
+of the Ten Years' War, who at this time was the principal of an
+excellent boys' school at Central Valley, New York. He was the President
+of the Junta. The Secretary was Gonzalo de Quesada, worthy bearer of an
+honored name; a fervent patriot and an eloquent orator. The Treasurer
+was Benjamin Guerra, an approved patriot, and the General Counsel was
+Horatio Rubens. This New York Junta, meeting at No. 56 New Street, New
+York City, was the real head of the whole movement. But it was
+supplemented by many other Cuban clubs elsewhere. There were ten in New
+York, 61 at Key West, Florida; 15 at Tampa, two at Ocala, two in
+Philadelphia, and one each at New Orleans, Jacksonville, Brooklyn,
+Boston, Chicago, Atlanta, and St. Augustine. There were also six in the
+island of Jamaica, two in Mexico, and one in Hayti.
+
+The multiplication of these organizations and their increasing activity
+did not escape the observation of the Spanish government, which realized
+that revolution was in the air, and that it behooved it to do something
+to counteract it if it was to avoid losing the last remains of its once
+vast American empire. Accordingly early in 1893 the Cortes at Madrid
+enacted a bill extending the electoral franchise in Cuba to all men
+paying each as much as five pesos tax yearly. The Autonomist party at
+first regarded this concession with doubt and suspicion, but finally
+decided to give it a trial and participated in the elections held under
+the new law. But the result was unsatisfactory; owing, it was openly
+charged, to gross intimidation and frauds by the Government. The sequel
+was increased activity of the revolutionary organizations.
+
+The Spanish government was vigilant and strenuous. It sent more troops
+to Cuba, and it sent a large part of its navy to American waters, to
+patrol the Cuban coast, to cruise off the Florida coast, and to guard
+the waters between the two, in order to prevent the sending of
+filibustering expeditions or cargoes of supplies from the United States
+to Cuba. These efforts were so efficient that no important expeditions
+got through. But in spite of that fact an insurrection was started in
+Cuba in the spring of 1893.
+
+The leaders were two brothers, Manuel and Ricardo Sartorius, of Santiago
+de Cuba. On April 24 they put themselves at the head of a band of twenty
+men and, at Puernio, near Holguin, they proclaimed a revolution. The
+next day they were joined by eighteen more, and by the time they had
+marched to Milas, on the north coast, the band was increased to 300,
+while other bands, in sympathy with them, were formed at Holguin,
+Manzanillo, Guantanamo, and Las Tunas. This movement, however, was
+purely a private enterprise of the Sartorius Brothers; in which they
+presumably expected to be supported by a general uprising of the Cuban
+people. As a matter of fact there was no such uprising. The people
+seemed indifferent to it. The juntas and clubs in New York and elsewhere
+knew nothing about it. The Executive Committee of the Autonomist Party
+in Cuba adopted resolutions condemning it and giving moral support to
+the Spanish government, and the Cuban Senators and Deputies in the
+Cortes at Madrid took like action.
+
+Meantime the Spanish authorities in the island acted promptly and with
+vigor. The Captain-General summoned a council of war on April 27, and
+sent troops to the scene of revolt, and directed the fleet to exercise
+renewed vigilance to prevent aid from reaching the insurgents from the
+United States. The next day martial law was proclaimed throughout the
+province of Santiago de Cuba, and four thousand troops, divided into
+seven columns, were in hot pursuit of the revolutionists. The numbers of
+the latter rapidly dwindled through desertions and in a couple of days
+all had vanished save the two brothers and 29 of their followers. On May
+2 these all surrendered, on promise of complete pardon, a promise which
+was fulfilled, and on May 9 martial law was withdrawn and the abortive
+revolt was ended.
+
+This occurrence moved the Spanish government, however, to further
+efforts to placate the Cubans, and in 1894 the Minister for the
+Colonies, Senor Maura, proposed a bill for the reorganization of the
+insular government. The six provincial councils were to be merged into a
+single legislature. With this was to be combined an Executive Council,
+or Board of Administration, to administer the laws; consisting of the
+Governor-General as President, various high civil and military
+functionaries, and nine additional members named by Royal decree. This
+arrangement was strongly opposed and finally defeated, whereupon Senor
+Maura resigned. Later in the same year the Cabinet was reorganized with
+him as Minister of Justice and with Senor Abarzuza, a follower of Emilio
+Castelar, the Spanish Republican leader, as Minister for the Colonies.
+The Prime Minister was Praxedes Sagasta, the leader of the Spanish
+Liberals, and a statesman of consummate ability. There was much
+complaint by Conservatives that the Captain-General in Cuba, Emilio
+Calleja, favored the native Autonomists over the Loyalists or Spanish
+party. Despite this, Senor Abarzuza, after taking much counsel with the
+Prime Minister and others, planned radical action in behalf of Cuban
+autonomy, hoping to establish a new regime which, he fondly hoped, would
+allay discontent, abate disaffection, and confirm Cuba in her
+traditional status of the "Ever Faithful Isle." Accordingly he entered
+into long and earnest consultation with the leaders of the various
+political parties in Spain, including the Carlists and Radical
+Republicans, and also with representative Loyalists and Home
+Rulers--otherwise Spaniards and Autonomists--of Cuba. Never, indeed, was
+a more thorough attempt made to secure the judgment of all parties and
+thus to frame a measure that would be satisfactory to all. Moreover, an
+exceptionally reasonable and conciliatory spirit was shown by all the
+leading politicians, of all shades of opinion, so that it seemed for a
+time that the resulting bill, framed by Senors Sagasta and Abarzuza,
+would be accepted with scarcely a word of criticism and would mark the
+opening of a new era in colonial affairs.
+
+[Illustration: JULIAN DEL CASAL
+
+During his brief life, from 1863 to October 21, 1891, Julian del Casal,
+invalid and misanthrope though he was, made a brilliant record in the
+world of letters, and gave to Cuban poetry its greatest modern impulse.
+Most of his life was spent in penury, on the meagre earnings of a hack
+journalist, but his memory is cherished as that of one of the foremost
+men of letters of his time.]
+
+The bill was drafted. It was in purport a West Indies Home Rule bill.
+Its salient feature was the establishment in Cuba of an Insular Council,
+which would be the local governing body of the colony. Of it the Spanish
+Viceroy, or Captain General, would be the President; and of course he
+would continue to be appointed by the Crown. Of the members of the
+Council, one half would be appointed by the Crown, from among certain
+specified classes of the inhabitants of Cuba; and the other half would
+be elected by the suffrages of the Cuban people. This body would have,
+subject only to the veto of the Captain-General, control of all insular
+affairs, including supervision of provincial and municipal councils. It
+would also, subject to the approval of the Madrid government, legislate
+for the regulation of immigration, commerce, posts and telegraphs,
+revenue, and similar matters. On the face of it the measure promised
+great improvement in the government of the island, and the investing of
+the people of Cuba with a very large measure of self-government, both
+legislative and executive. It was the last and probably the best
+voluntary attempt ever made by Spain to give Cuba self-government.
+
+Unfortunately for Spain there were two fatal flaws in the scheme; one
+subjective, one objective. The former was the fact that the appointment
+of half the members of the Council by the Crown would assure in that
+body a constant majority devoted to and subservient to the Crown, and
+that circumstance, together with the veto power, would prevent the
+possibility of any legislation not entirely pleasing to Madrid. That
+made the thing quite unacceptable to all Cubans whose aim was the
+independence of the island or even genuine autonomy and home rule. The
+other flaw was the fact that while Cuban Loyalists and Autonomists were
+called into consultation over the bill, and gave it their approval,
+Cuban advocates of Independence were not called; they would not have
+entered into conference; and they were irrevocably committed against any
+scheme that did not provide for the complete separation of the island
+from Spain and the creation of an entirely independent government. The
+bill was adopted by the Spanish Chamber of Deputies by a practically
+unanimous vote, on February 14, 1895, and was likewise adopted by the
+Senate. In Cuba it was regarded by the Autonomists as not satisfactory,
+in that it retained too much power for the Crown. As for the party of
+Cuban Independence, it looked upon it as unworthy of serious
+consideration. Ten days after its passage by the Chamber of Deputies,
+the Cuban Revolution was proclaimed.
+
+The reproachful comment has been made by some writers that the Cuban
+leaders started the revolution at that date, February 24, 1895, in order
+to defeat the beneficent designs of Spain in granting autonomy to the
+island, and that if they had not done so, the Abarzuza law would have
+been generally accepted and successfully applied, and Cuba would have
+remained a colony of Spain, contented, loyal and prosperous. For this
+strange theory there is no good foundation. It had been made perfectly
+clear for more than two years preceding that no such arrangement--indeed,
+that nothing short of complete separation from Spain--would satisfy the
+Cuban people. Moreover, preparations had been copiously made for the
+revolution, long before the passage of this measure. Cubans in the
+United States, of whom there were many, had contributed freely of their
+means for the purchase of arms and ammunition. There were considerable
+stocks of arms in Cuba which had remained concealed since the Ten Years'
+War, and these had been added to by surreptitious shipments from the
+United States. It is a matter of record that considerable quantities of
+first rate Mauser rifles were obtained from the arsenals of the Spanish
+government, being secretly purchased from custodians who were either
+corrupt or in sympathy with the revolutionists. Efforts were also made
+to land expeditions from the United States. One formidable party was to
+have sailed from Fernandina, Florida, a month before the passage of the
+Abarzuza law, but it was checked and disbanded by the United States
+authorities.
+
+The year 1895 was not inappropriate for the beginning of a war which
+should annihilate the Spanish colonial empire and should add a new
+member to the world's community of sovereign nations. In almost every
+quarter of the globe great things were happening. At the antipodes Japan
+was completing her crushing defeat of China and was thus bringing
+herself forward as one of the great military and naval powers. The
+ancient empire of Siam was establishing an enlightened constitutional
+and parliamentary system of government. In Africa the epochal conflict
+between Boer and Briton was developing inexorably, and France was about
+to achieve the conquest of Madagascar. In Europe, Nicholas II was newly
+seated upon the throne of the Czars, and the strange resignation of the
+Presidency by Casimir-Perier threw France into such a crisis as she had
+scarcely known before since the foundation of the Republic. Nearer home,
+Peru and Ecuador were convulsed with revolution, and the controversy
+between Venezuela and British Guiana began to loom acute and ominous. In
+such a setting was the War of Cuban Independence staged.
+
+The foremost director of that war, its organizer and inspirer, was José
+Marti; one of those rare geniuses who have appeared occasionally in the
+history of the world to be the incarnation of great ideals of justice
+and human right. He was indeed many times a genius: Organizer,
+economist, historian, poet, statesman, tribune of the people, apostle of
+freedom, above all, Man. In himself he united the virtues, the
+enthusiasm and the energising vitality which his countrymen needed to
+have aroused in themselves. To his disorganized and disheartened country
+he brought a magic personality which won all hearts and inspired them
+all with his own irrepressible and indestructible ideal, National
+Independence.
+
+Marti was a native Cuban, born in Havana on January 28, 1853. In his
+mere boyhood he became an eloquent and inspiring advocate of the ideal
+to which he devoted his life and which he did so much to realize; and at
+the outbreak of the Ten Years' War, when he was scarcely yet sixteen
+years old, the Spanish government recognized in him one of its most
+formidable foes and one of the most efficient propagandists of Cuban
+independence. For that reason, before he had a chance to enter the ranks
+of the patriot army, he was deported from the island and doomed to
+exile. He made his way to Mexico, thence to Guatemala, and there, a lad
+still in his teens, became Professor of Literature in the National
+University of that country--a striking testimonial to his erudition and
+culture. After the Treaty of Zanjon he was permitted to return to Cuba,
+but he was one of those whom the Spanish government most feared, and he
+was therefore kept under the closest of surveillance by the police. It
+was not in his nature to dissemble, or to be afraid. He quickly came
+before the public in a series of memorable orations, memorable alike for
+their sonorous eloquence, their cultured erudition, and their intense
+patriotism; in which he set forth the deplorable state in which Cuba
+still lay, after her ten years' struggle for better things, and the need
+that the work which had been so bravely undertaken by Cespedes and his
+associates should be again undertaken and pressed to a successful
+conclusion. His orations seemed to have the effect attributed to
+Demosthenes in his Philippics: They made his hearers want to take up
+arms and fight against their oppressors.
+
+This of course brought upon him the wrath of Spain. He was arrested, and
+since he was altogether too dangerous a person to be set free in exile,
+he was carried a close prisoner to Spain. But he quickly made his escape
+and found asylum in the United States of America; and there his greatest
+work for Cuba was achieved. Porfirio Diaz had invited him to make his
+home in Mexico, where he might have risen to almost any eminence in the
+state, but he declined. "I must go," he said, "to the country where I
+can accomplish most for the freedom of Cuba from Spain. I am going to
+the United States." In New York City, where he made his home, he engaged
+in literary work, and was for some time a member of the staff of the New
+York _Sun_. But above all he devoted his time, thought, strength and
+means to organizing the Cuban revolution.
+
+He gathered together in the Cuban Revolutionary Party all the surviving
+veterans of the Ten Years' War, Cuban political exiles--like
+himself--the remnants of Merchan's old "Laborers' Associations," and
+welded them into a harmonious and resolute whole. He also traveled about
+the United States, in Mexico and Central America, and in Jamaica and
+Santo Domingo, wherever Cubans were to be found, rousing them to
+patriotic zeal and organizing them into clubs tributary to the central
+Junta in New York. In Cuba itself many such clubs were organized, in
+secret, which maintained surreptitious correspondence with the New York
+headquarters.
+
+We have already mentioned some of those with whom he surrounded himself:
+Tomas Estrada Palma, the President of the Junta; Gonzalo de Quesada, its
+Secretary, who lived to see the Republic established and to become its
+Minister to Germany, where he died; Benjamin F. Guerra, its Treasurer;
+and Horatio Rubens, its Counsel, who had been trained in the law office
+of Elihu Root. Others of that memorable and devoted company were General
+Emilio Nunez, afterward Vice-President of the Cuban Republic; and Dr.
+Joaquin Castillo Duany, formerly an eminent physician in the United
+States Navy, who had distinguished himself in the relief of the famous
+Jeannette Arctic expedition. These two had charge of the filibustering
+or supply expeditions which were surreptitiously dispatched from the
+United States to Cuba. At first General Nunez had charge of all, but
+when Dr. Duany came from Cuba the work was divided, and the former
+devoted himself to the coast from Norfolk to the Rio Grande, while the
+latter supervised that from Norfolk to Eastport, Maine. Dr. Duany and
+his brother had been prominent citizens and officials in Santiago de
+Cuba. As soon as the War of Independence began they joined the patriot
+forces, and Dr. Duany was made Assistant Secretary of War in the
+Provisional Government. As such, he ran the Spanish blockade of the
+island, in company with Mr. George Reno, another ardent patriot, and
+bore to New York authority from the Provisional Government for the
+issuing of $3,000,000 of Cuban bonds. He also carried with him in a
+little satchel $90,000 in cash, which had been contributed by various
+patriotic residents of Cuba.
+
+Another of Marti's associates in New York was Dr. Lincoln de Zayas, a
+brilliant orator, afterward Secretary of Public Instruction of the Cuban
+Republic; a man greatly loved by all who knew him. Dr. Enrique
+Agramonte, brother of that gallant Ignacio Agramonte who was a leader in
+the Ten Years' War and was killed in that conflict, was a member of the
+Junta in New York, who inspected and selected all the men who were to
+go on filibustering expeditions; a keen judge of the physical, mental
+and moral fitness of all the candidates who presented themselves before
+him. Colonel José Ramon Villalon was also active in the Junta; and he
+has since been Secretary of Public Works at Havana under President Mario
+G. Menocal. Nor must Ponce de Leon, a publisher and bookseller, of No.
+32 Broadway, New York, be forgotten. His office was frequently the
+meeting place of the conspirators, if so we may call the patriots, and
+he and his two sons--one a physician, the other in charge of the
+archives of the Cuban government--were among the most earnest and
+efficient workers for the cause of independence.
+
+[Illustration: JOSE RAMON VILLALON
+
+José Ramon Villalon, Secretary of Public Works, was born at Santiago in
+1864. He was sent to Barcelona to be educated and later studied at the
+Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa., where he graduated as civil engineer
+in 1899. On the outbreak of the war he accompanied General Antonio Maceo
+on his famous raid in Pinar del Rio province, and was present at the
+engagements of Artemisa, Ceja del Negro, Montezuelo, attaining the rank
+of lieutenant-colonel of engineers. While serving under Maceo he
+designed and constructed the first field dynamite gun, now in the
+National Museum in Havana. After the war he was made Secretary of Public
+Works under the military government of General Leonard Wood. Col.
+Villalon is a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, the
+American Institute of Mining Engineers, the Academy of Sciences
+(Havana), and the Cuban Society of Engineers.]
+
+The ideal of Marti and these associates was unequivocally that of Cuban
+independence. They had no thought of accepting or even considering mere
+autonomy under Spanish sovereignty, or any promises of reforms in the
+insular government. They might not have been inexorably opposed to
+annexation to the United States, had opportunity for that been offered.
+They might have accepted it, in fact, for the sake of getting entirely
+away from Spain; for that would at least have meant independence from
+Spain. But as a matter of fact, annexation was not considered. It was
+never discussed. It formed no part of the programme, not even as an
+alternative.
+
+Although a poet and a seer, Marti was one of the most practical of men.
+He realized with Cicero that "endless money forms the sinews of war."
+One of his first cares, therefore, was to finance the revolution. To
+that end he made a direct appeal to Cuban workmen--and women,
+too--wherever he could get into contact with them, to give one tenth of
+their weekly wages to the cause of Cuban independence. Probably never
+before or since in the world's wars has such a system of voluntary
+tithing been so successfully conducted. It seemed as though every Cuban
+in the United States responded. Wealthy men gave one tenth of their
+large incomes, and Cuban girls in cigar factories gave one tenth of
+their small wages. In many cases they did more, giving one day's wages
+each week. Indeed, this is said to have been the general rule in the
+cigar and cigarette factories of the United States. Next to Marti
+himself, Lincoln de Zayas was perhaps the most successful money raiser.
+Numerous speakers and canvassers went to all parts of the country where
+Cubans might be found, soliciting funds. Appeal was also made to
+Americans, but not so much for pecuniary aid as for sympathy and moral
+aid. But in fact much money was given by liberty loving Americans. John
+Jacob Astor, afterward a Colonel in the United States army in the war of
+intervention, gave $10,000. William E. D. Stokes, of New York, was also
+a large contributor and manifested much interest in the cause,
+presumably in part because his wife was a Cuban.
+
+Most of this work of Marti's was done in 1893 and 1894. His original
+plan was to launch a vast plan of numerous invasions of the island and
+simultaneous uprisings in all the provinces in 1894. He purchased and
+equipped three vessels, the _Amadis_, the _Baracoa_ and the _Lagonda_,
+only to suffer the mortification and very heavy loss of having them
+seized by the American authorities for violation of the neutrality law.
+Undaunted and undismayed, he renewed his efforts, and at last had the
+satisfaction of seeing the revolution openly begun at Baire, near
+Santiago, on February 24, 1895. And then occurred one of the most
+lamentable and needless tragedies of the whole war--indeed, of all the
+history of Cuba.
+
+It was not in Marti's generous and valiant spirit to remain at the rear
+and send others forward to face the fire of the foe. Accordingly, as
+soon as the revolution was started, he went from New York to Santo
+Domingo to confer with the old war horse of the Ten Years' conflict,
+Maximo Gomez, and from that island he issued his manifesto concerning
+the purposes and programme of the revolution. Well would it have been
+for him and for Cuba had he remained there, or had he returned to New
+York, to continue the work which he had been so successfully doing. But
+because of a thoughtless clamor in the press and on the part of the
+public he was moved to proceed to Cuba with Gomez. They landed in a
+frail craft at Playitas on April 11, with about 80 companions, many of
+them veterans of the Ten Years' War. They at once joined the cavalry
+forces of Perico Perez, and plunged into the thick of the fighting;
+Marti showing himself as brave in battle as he had been wise in council.
+Meantime a Provisional Government had been formed, by the proclamation
+of Antonio Maceo, with Tomas Estrada Palma as Provisional President of
+the Cuban Republic, Maximo Gomez as Commander in Chief of the Army, and
+José Marti as Secretary General and Diplomatic Agent Abroad. This
+appointment was agreeable to Marti, and would have meant the most
+advantageous utilization of his masterful talents for the good of Cuba.
+But it was not possible for him immediately to begin such duties. He was
+with the army in the interior of the island, and his approach to the
+coast whence he was to sail on his mission must be effected with
+caution.
+
+While Gomez set out for Camaguey, Marti turned toward the southern
+coast, intending to go first to Jamaica, whence he could take an English
+steamer for New York or any other destination he might select. Marti had
+with him an escort of only fifty men, and soon after parting company
+with Gomez he was led by a treacherous guide into a ravine where he was
+trapped by a Spanish force outnumbering the Cubans twenty to one. The
+Cubans fought with desperate valor, Marti himself leading a charge which
+nearly succeeded in cutting a way through the Spanish lines. But the
+odds were too heavy against them, and without even the satisfaction of
+taking two or three Spanish lives for every life they gave, the Cubans
+were all slain, Marti himself being among the last to fall. Word of the
+conflict reached Gomez, and he came hastening back, just too late to
+save his comrade, and was himself wounded in the furious attack which he
+made upon the Spaniards in an attempt at least to recover Marti's body.
+But his vengeful valor was ineffectual. Marti's body was taken
+possession of by the Spaniards, who demonstrated their appreciation of
+his greatness, though he was their most formidable foe, by bearing it
+reverently to Santiago and there interring it with all the honors of
+war.
+
+[Illustration: THE PRADO
+
+Havana's most fashionable residence street and driving thoroughfare
+extends from the gloomy Punta fortress along the line of the ancient
+city wall, past the Central Park to Colon Park, shaded with laurels and
+lined with handsome homes and clubs. In 1907 a hurricane wrecked many of
+the great laurels, as well as the royal palms of Colon Park, but in the
+genial climate of Cuba the ravages of the elements were rapidly
+repaired. The Prado was officially renamed by the Cuban Republic the
+Paseo de Marti, in honor of José Marti, but the old name still clings
+inseparably to it.]
+
+Thus untimely perished the man who should have lived to be known as the
+Father of His Country. But he left a name crowned with imperishable
+fame. A Spanish American author has said that the Spanish race in
+America has produced only two geniuses, Bolivar and Marti. If that
+judgment be too severe in its restriction, at least it is not an
+over-estimate of those two transcendent patriots. Marti left, moreover,
+an example and an inspiration which never failed his countrymen during
+the subsequent years of war. Their loss in his death was irreparable,
+but they were not inconsolable; for while he perished, his cause
+survived. That cause was well set forth by him in the manifesto which he
+issued at Monte Cristi, Hayti, on March 25, 1895, and which read as
+follows:
+
+"The war is not against the Spaniard, who, secured by his children and
+by loyalty to the country which the latter will establish, shall be able
+to enjoy, respected and even loved, that liberty which will sweep away
+only the thoughtless who block its path. Nor will the war be the cradle
+of disturbances which are alien to the tried moderation of the Cuban
+character, nor of tyranny. Those who have fomented it and are still its
+sponsors declare in its name to the country its freedom from all hatred,
+its fraternal indulgence to the timid Cuban, and its radical respect for
+the dignity of man, which constitutes the sinews of battle and the
+foundation of the Republic. And they affirm that it will be magnanimous
+with the penitent, and inflexible only with vice and inhumanity.
+
+"In the war which has been recommenced in Cuba you will not find a
+revolution beside itself with the joy of rash heroism, but a revolution
+which comprehends the responsibilities incumbent upon the founders of
+nations. Cowardice might seek to profit by another fear under the
+pretext of prudence--the senseless fear which has never been justified
+in Cuba--the fear of the negro race. The past revolution, with its
+generous though subordinate soldiers, indignantly denies, as does the
+long trial of exile as well as of the respite in the island, the menace
+of a race war, with which our Spanish beneficiaries would like to
+inspire a fear of the revolution. The war of emancipation and their
+common labor have obliterated the hatred which slavery might have
+inspired. The novelty and crudity of social relations consequent to the
+sudden change of a man who belonged to another into a man who belonged
+to himself, are overshadowed by the sincere esteem of the white Cuban
+for the equal soul, and the desire for education, the fervor of a free
+man, and the amiable character of his negro compatriot.
+
+"In the Spanish inhabitants of Cuba, instead of the hateful spite of the
+first war, the revolution, which does not flatter nor fear, expects to
+find such affectionate neutrality or material aid that through them the
+war will be shorter, its disasters less, and more easy and friendly the
+subsequent peace in which father and son are to live. We Cubans
+commenced the war; the Cubans and Spaniards together will terminate it.
+If they do not ill treat us, we will not ill treat them. Let them
+respect us and we will respect them. Steel will answer to steel, and
+friendship to friendship."
+
+It may be that not all the generous and altruistic anticipations of this
+exalted utterance were fully realized. It may be confidently declared
+that all were sincerely meant by their author; and the world will
+testify that seldom if ever was a war begun with nobler ideals than
+those thus set forth by Jose Marti.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+
+We have said that there was no consideration of annexation to the United
+States, on the part of the organizers and directors of the Cuban War of
+Independence. Neither was there much if any thought of intervention by
+the United States in Cuba's behalf; though that was what ultimately
+occurred. No doubt, if ever a fleeting thought of that passed through a
+Cuban patriot's mind, he esteemed it "a consummation devoutly to be
+wished." But it was not reckoned to be within the limits of reasonable
+possibility. Certainly it was never discussed, and it may be said with
+even more positiveness that there was never any attempt to bring it
+about by surreptitious means. The charge was occasionally made, in
+quarters unfriendly to the Cuban cause, that the Junta was endeavoring
+to embroil the United States in a war with Spain. That was absolutely
+untrue. No such effort was ever made by any responsible or authoritative
+Cuban.
+
+It might rather be said that the Junta was solicitous to avoid so far as
+possible danger of complications between the United States and Spain.
+For example, it did not encourage Americans to enter the Cuban army, but
+discouraged them from so doing and often rejected them outright. An
+expert ex-Pinkerton detective was employed by the Junta to serve
+constantly in its New York office. His duties were in part to detect if
+possible any spies or Spanish agents who might come in and want to
+enlist with, of course, the intention of betraying the cause. But he
+also did his best to dissuade all but Cubans from enlisting. He was
+under directions from the Junta to warn all American applicants, of whom
+there were many, that they had better not enter the Cuban service:
+First, because they did not realize the formidable and desperate
+character of the undertaking in which they were seeking to participate;
+second, because the Junta could give them no assurance of pay, or even
+of food; and third, because they were sure soon to grow tired of the
+arduous discouraging, up-hill campaign which was before them. The only
+men who were wanted, and the only men who were generally accepted were
+Cubans, whose patriotic interest in the island would enable them to
+endure cheerfully what would be intolerable to an alien. They were
+believed by the Junta to be the only men who would permanently stand the
+test.
+
+As a matter of fact only a very few Americans were accepted; probably
+not more than forty or fifty all told. They were accepted partly because
+they were so insistent and persistent in their desires and demands, and
+partly because of some qualifications which made them of special value.
+They were chiefly sharpshooters who had formerly served in the United
+States army. When they were accepted they were reminded that they were
+forfeiting all claim upon the United States government for protection or
+rescue, no matter what might befall them. Thus if they were killed or
+captured and ill treated in any way by the Spanish they would be
+debarred from appealing to the United States, and there would be no
+danger of any friction between the United States and Spain on their
+account.
+
+The only way in which the Junta deliberately incurred the risk of
+causing international trouble was in the organization and dispatching of
+filibustering and supply expeditions from the United States to Cuba. Of
+course, all such performances were illegal. Spain protested and raged
+against them, and the United States government sincerely and
+indefatigably strove to prevent them. But it was to no avail. The
+expeditions kept going. For two years there was an average of one a
+month, carrying men, arms and ammunition, and other supplies.
+
+[Illustration: GEORGE RENO]
+
+Another important traffic between Cuba and the United States was that in
+information between the patriots in the island and the Junta in New
+York. The chief agent in this perilous but essential work was Mr. George
+Reno, who has since served in important capacities under the civil
+government of the Cuban Republic. It was his duty periodically to run
+the blockade between the little town of Guanaja and Nassau. The former
+was a little place of a few hundred inhabitants on the Bay of Sabinal,
+on the northern coast of Camaguey; and the latter was the capital of New
+Providence Island in the British Bahamas, the favorite resort of
+blockade runners during the Civil War in the United States, and since
+then the terminus of a cable line running to Jupiter, on the Florida
+coast. At Nassau Dr. Indalacio Salas, a Cuban physician, who had lived
+there many years, represented the Junta and acted as a sort of Cuban
+postmaster; receiving letters and messages from Cuba and forwarding them
+to the United States, and vice versa.
+
+This contraband messenger service between Cuba and Nassau was one of the
+romantic features of the campaign of which the public knew nothing. The
+trips were made in a little sloop-rigged yacht, carrying three or four
+men, and while they afforded no spectacle to the public eye and did not
+figure in the news as did various filibustering expeditions, they were
+often of vital importance to the patriot cause, and they were fraught
+with much peril. The passage of several hundred miles was made across
+the Great Bahama Bank and the Tongue of Ocean; perilous waters dotted
+with reefs and rocks and subject to violent storms, and closely watched
+at the south by Spanish cruisers. The portion of the trip nearest the
+Cuban coast was generally made at night, to avoid the Spaniards, but the
+darkness added to the peril in other respects.
+
+This service was the chief though not the sole means of communication
+between the Cuban patriots and the rest of the world. Some
+correspondence was smuggled out of Havana on American steamers, but that
+was perilous work and was seldom attempted. Some was carried by a Cuban
+sailor in a little cat-rigged boat, with which he made trips when
+occasion offered between some point on the southern coast of Oriente and
+the island of Jamaica. On these trips, both from Nassau and Jamaica,
+were carried not only letters and communications of all sorts but also
+important supplies of medicines, surgical instruments, and other small
+articles which were often of indispensable value. The service was
+therefore of the greatest possible value to the Cubans, and it was
+arduous and perilous to those who rendered it. It was performed,
+however, without remuneration or compensation of any kind, save the
+satisfaction of aiding the patriot cause. The Cuban revolution had no
+money with which to pay salaries, but all men served for the sake of
+Cuba Libre.
+
+The attitude of the people of Cuba toward the revolution, so far as at
+this early date they knew what was going on, was varied according to
+their occupations, interests and relationships. The professional
+classes, the lawyers, physicians, educators, men of letters and others,
+for the most part wished for complete separation from Spain, and aided
+the cause of independence with their money and their influence. There
+were, however, some of them, including not a few of the most estimable
+and most patriotic men on the island, whose faith was not able to
+forecast victory. They saw on the side of the Cubans lack of money, lack
+of arms and ammunition, and lack of that direct connection with the
+outer world which was indispensable for support; and on the side of
+Spain plenty of money, equipment and communications, and an army of
+200,000 trained soldiers thrown into a territory about the size of the
+State of Pennsylvania, together with an inflexible resolution never to
+surrender the island but to suppress every insurrection at no matter
+what cost. It was surely not strange that they regarded such odds as too
+formidable to be overcome, by even the most ardent and self-sacrificing
+patriotism, and therefore thought that the course of greater wisdom
+would be to persuade, compel or otherwise prevail upon Spain to bestow
+upon the island a genuine and satisfactory measure of autonomy.
+
+The merchants and commercial classes very largely consisted of
+Spaniards, a fact which sufficiently indicates their attitude. They were
+not only resolutely committed against the revolution, and indeed against
+autonomy, but they were almost incredibly bitter against the Cuban
+Independence party. It was from those classes that the notorious "Cuban
+Volunteers" had been recruited in the Ten Years' war, men who, though
+living in Cuba and enriching themselves from her resources, were "more
+Spanish than Spain." They corresponded with the Tories of the American
+Revolution, and not merely the Tories who sat in their chairs and railed
+against the Revolution, but rather those who took up arms in the
+British cause, and who allied themselves with the Red Indians with
+tomahawk and scalping knife. The animus of these Spaniards in Cuba was
+not, generally speaking, love of Spain, nor yet hatred of the Cubans,
+but rather greed of gain. They were not patriotic, but simply sordid.
+With Cuba under Spanish domination, they were enabled to amass great
+wealth, and they wanted such conditions and such opportunities of
+enrichment continued. That was not an exalted attitude, and it was
+naturally odious to the Cuban patriots who were serving without pay and
+sacrificing their all for the independence of the island and for the
+attainment of a degree of material prosperity as well as of civic and
+spiritual enfranchisement immeasurably beyond the sordid conceptions of
+these selfish time-servers.
+
+The attitude of another important though less numerous and less
+demonstrative class, the manufacturers of sugar and tobacco, varied
+greatly according to the individual. Some were Spaniards; and they, like
+the merchants, were inflexibly opposed to the revolution, for similar
+reasons. Some were Autonomists, and they inclined toward compromise.
+They did not want their lands to be ravaged and their cane fields and
+buildings to be burned in war; not because they would hesitate at any
+necessary sacrifice for the welfare of Cuba but because they regarded
+such sacrifices as unnecessary. Some were members of the Cuban
+Independence party, and they cordially and eagerly supported the
+revolution; saying: "Let our fields and buildings be burned. If it is
+necessary in order to free the island that our property shall be ruined,
+let it be ruined!"
+
+This patriotic attitude of some of the great property-owners, who had
+most to lose through the ravages of war but who were ready to risk all,
+was finely displayed in the very midst of the conflict. There were in
+the Province of Santa Clara two very wealthy Cuban women, sisters. They
+were Marta Abreu, who became the wife of the Vice-President of the Cuban
+Republic, and who died in France, and Rosalie Abreu, whose home is
+preeminently the "show place" of Cuba and is perhaps the most beautiful
+residence in all the tropical regions of the world. These women gave
+large sums of money for the revolution and made many sacrifices for it,
+beside running great risks of utter disaster to their fortunes. They
+were both in Paris when news came of the death of Antonio Maceo, the
+brilliant and daring commander who had carried the war westward into
+Havana and Pinar del Rio and who fell in battle in the former province.
+His death was a disaster well calculated to shake the fortitude of the
+patriots, if not to strike them with despair. But immediately upon
+hearing the news Marta Abreu sent a cable dispatch to Benjamin Guerra,
+the Treasurer of the Junta, urging him not to be discouraged but to
+"keep the good work going," and adding that she and her sister were each
+mailing him a check for $50,000. Such a spirit was indomitable.
+
+The small farmers of the island, or "guajiros," the peasantry and rural
+workingmen, were strongly in favor of the revolution, although it meant
+unspeakable hardships to them. They sent their families up into the
+mountains, where they would be comparatively safe from the actual
+fighting, and where the old men, the women and the children could
+cultivate little patches of ground, planted with sweet potatoes, yucca
+and other food plants, which would supply them with nourishment and also
+contribute to the feeding of the patriot army. Then the men joined the
+ranks of the revolutionary army. It should be added that among the most
+eager recruits were many sons of Autonomists. Their fathers deprecated
+the war, but the sons realized its necessity. There were even some sons
+of Spanish Loyalists in the patriot army, who fought faithfully for the
+Cuban cause against their own fathers.
+
+The priesthood of the island was absolutely against the revolution and
+in favor of maintaining the sovereignty of the Spanish crown in Cuba.
+There may have been a few exceptions, of priests who not only favored
+independence but who actually went into the field with the patriot army
+and fought for it. But apart from them the Church was solidly for Spain.
+The great majority of the priests had come from Spain, and remained
+Spaniards at heart and in political sympathy. They preached from their
+pulpits against the revolution, and undoubtedly exerted considerable
+influence in that direction. That fact was not forgotten after the war,
+and it explained the very general antipathy toward or at least lack of
+sympathy with the Church which then and thereafter prevailed among the
+men of Cuba. The women, even the most patriotic, largely remained
+faithful to the Church and subject to its spiritual influence, but the
+men renounced it because of what they regarded as its unfaithfulness to
+the cause of Free Cuba.
+
+There were at this time happily no racial nor partisan differences among
+the patriots of Cuba. There were white men, there were negroes, and
+there were those of mixed blood. But the same spirit of independence
+animated them all, and they fought side by side in the field, and sat
+side by side in council, with never a thought of prejudice. Antonio
+Maceo, one of the most honored and trusted patriot generals, was a
+mulatto, but he was regarded as the peer of any of the white commanders,
+white men gladly served under him, and we have already seen how his
+death was regarded by the Abreu sisters, who were aristocrats of the
+purest Creole blood. It was only in later years, after Cuban
+independence had been attained, that so much as an attempt was made at
+the raising of race issues in Cuba, and then only through the exercise
+of the most sinister and unworthy influences for sordid ends.
+
+Nor were there partisan differences. Indeed at this time the Cuban
+Independence Party was a harmonious unity. There were no symptoms of any
+factional division. The rise of partisanship did not occur until after
+the war of independence had been won and, if we may for a moment
+anticipate the course of events, until it was realized that the United
+States really meant to keep its word and make Cuba an independent
+Republic. For, truth to tell, when the United States intervened in the
+conflict between Cuba and Spain, in the spring of 1898, while there was
+assured confidence throughout the island that the end of Spanish rule
+was at hand, there was also a general belief that annexation to the
+United States was inevitable. The great majority of the Cuban people
+probably did not know of the pledge which was appended to the
+Declaration of War, that the United States would withdraw and leave Cuba
+to self-government, and they assumed that American intervention meant
+American conquest and annexation. The comparatively few who did know
+about it had little expectation that it would ever be fulfilled. Even if
+the United States made the promise in good faith, something would happen
+to prevent its being carried out. When at last it was found that the
+United States was in earnest, and that Cuba was indeed to have
+independence, just as though she had won it without aid, there was
+surprise amounting almost to stupefaction, there was unbounded
+exultation, and there was, unhappily, division of the people into
+antagonistic parties. Of these we shall hear more hereafter.
+
+Thus was the issue joined. The great mass of the Cuban people was united
+and harmonious in its determination at last to achieve that independence
+of the island for which so many men during so many years had wished and
+worked and suffered. The Spanish party was implacable; and the
+Autonomists were largely unsympathetic--not all, for some in time joined
+the revolution; but the Cuban Independence party, comprising the large
+majority of the population, was resolute and irrepressible in its
+course.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+
+The war was on. Marti and his comrades had planned to have a
+simultaneous uprising in all six provinces on February 24. In each a
+leader was appointed, an organization was formed, and such supplies as
+could be obtained were provided. But in only three provinces did an
+actual insurrection occur. These were Oriente, or Santiago as it was
+then called, Santa Clara, and Matanzas; the extreme eastern and the two
+central provinces. In Oriente uprisings occurred at two points, under
+Henry Brooks at Guantanamo, and at Los Negros under Guillermon Moncada.
+In Matanzas there were also two uprisings; one at Aguacate, on the
+Havana borderline, under Manuel Garcia, and one at Ybarra. In Santa
+Clara the chief demonstration was near Cienfuegos, under General
+Matagas. The uprising in Havana was to have been under the leadership of
+Julio Sanguilly, but in some way never satisfactorily explained he was
+betrayed and arrested and the outbreak did not occur. There were not a
+few who at first suspected and even charged that Sanguilly himself had
+betrayed the cause, for Spanish money, but his sentence to life
+imprisonment by the Spanish authorities seemed abundantly to disprove
+this charge.
+
+The insurgents naturally made most headway at first in Oriente. There
+were fewer Spanish troops in that province and there were more mountain
+fastnesses for refuge in case of enforced retreat, than in the more
+densely settled and populated central provinces. We have already seen
+that a numerous company of patriots marched from Baire to Santiago to
+present to the Spanish commander there, General Jose Lachambre, their
+demands for the independence of Cuba. That officer of course rejected
+their demands, and on their retirement sent Colonel Perico Perez after
+them with 500 troops, to capture or disperse them. But Perez and his men
+did neither. Instead, they joined the insurgents under Henry Brooks, and
+were among the foremost to do effective work against the Spaniards. Maso
+Parra recruited a strong band near Manzanillo, but instead of fighting
+there proceeded to Havana Province, accompanied by Enrique Cespedes and
+Amador Guerra, in hope of raising the standard of revolution where
+Sanguilly had failed. The Spanish forces were so strong there, however,
+as to overawe most of the Cubans, or at any rate to make it seem more
+expedient to put forward their chief efforts in other places. In
+Matanzas the earliest engagements were fought by troops under Antonio
+Lopez Coloma and Juan Gualberto Gomez, with indifferent results. Another
+sharp conflict occurred at Jaguey Grande, and there were yet others at
+Vequita; at Sevilla, where the patriots defeated 1,500 Spanish regulars
+commanded by General Lachambre; at Ulloa, at Baire, and at Los Negros. A
+belated uprising in Pinar del Rio under General Azcuy came speedily to
+grief, as did another near Holguin. By the early days of March the
+entire movement seemed to have subsided save in the southern parts of
+Oriente.
+
+The Spanish authorities had acted promptly and vigorously. The
+revolution began on February 24. The very next day a special meeting of
+the Spanish Cabinet was held at Madrid, as a result of which the
+Minister for the Colonies, Senor Abarzuza, authorized Captain-General
+Callejas to proclaim martial law throughout Cuba. This was in fact done
+by Callejas before Abarzuza's order reached him, and he also put into
+operation the "Public Order law" which provided for the immediate
+punishment of anyone taken in the performance or attempt of a seditious
+act. The Captain-General had at his disposal at this time nominally six
+regiments of infantry and three of cavalry, two battalions of garrison
+artillery and one mountain battery, aggregating about 19,000 men, and
+nearly 14,000 local militia, remains of the notorious Volunteers of the
+Ten Years' War; a total of nearly 33,000 men. But these figures were
+delusive. Callejas himself reported, on his return to Spain two or three
+months later, that half of the regular forces existed only on paper, and
+that the militia was altogether untrustworthy. He had learned the latter
+fact by bitter experience when at the very beginning Perico Perez and
+his 500 men had deserted to the Cuban cause. The fact is that the leaven
+of patriotism had begun to work even among the old Volunteers and still
+more among their sons, and many of them came frankly over to the cause
+which they or their fathers had formerly so savagely opposed. Callejas's
+forces were very weak in artillery, but that did not greatly matter,
+since the revolutionists at this time had none at all. He enjoyed the
+great advantage of having possession of all the large towns and cities
+along the coast with their fortifications both inland and seaward;
+fortifications which were somewhat antiquated but still sufficiently
+effective against ill-armed insurgents without artillery. The Spanish
+navy in Cuban waters comprised five small cruisers and six gunboats; not
+a formidable force, but infinitely superior to that of the
+revolutionists, which consisted of nothing at all. It assisted in
+protecting the coast towns, and served for the transportation of troops
+and supplies, but its chief function was to guard the coast against
+filibustering and supply expeditions.
+
+Although the Spanish forces were very considerably superior to the
+revolutionists numerically as well as in equipment and abundance of
+supplies, Calleja realized that they would not be sufficient to cope
+with the patriots on their own ground and in the increasing numbers
+which he prudently anticipated would rally to their standard.
+Accordingly early in March he sent to Spain an urgent call for large
+reenforcements for both army and navy, declaring that he could not hold
+his own, much less suppress the revolt, without them, and giving warning
+that unless he received them promptly he would not be responsible for
+the consequences. In response a battalion of regulars was immediately
+transferred to Cuba from Porto Rico, and 7,000 more were sent from
+Spain. All the civil prefects throughout the island were replaced with
+military officers. In Havana and elsewhere all prominent Cubans
+suspected of complicity or even sympathy with the revolution were
+arrested and imprisoned. The Morro Castle at Havana was crowded with the
+best citizens of the metropolitan province. But this attempt at
+repression only added fuel to the flame. The revolution burst out anew
+in the Province of Oriente, and when Callejas ordered the local troops
+of Havana to proceed thither, they mutinied and refused to go. In such
+circumstances Callejas, who at first had affected to regard the outbreak
+as mere sporadic brigandage, now openly confessed that it was an
+island-wide revolution.
+
+Complications with the United States also speedily arose. The arrest of
+Julio Sanguilly and others at Havana has been mentioned. These men had
+been in the United States for years, and had become naturalized citizens
+of that country, wherefore the United States consul-general at Havana,
+Ramon O. Williams, made formal demand that they should be tried before a
+civil court and should have the benefit of counsel, instead of being
+summarily disposed of by court martial. This was a legitimate demand,
+which had to be granted, but it incensed Callejas so much that he asked
+the Spanish government to demand Williams's recall; which that
+government very prudently did not do. At Santiago, also, two American
+sailors, who had landed there in a small boat, and had been arrested as
+filibusters, made appeal to the American consul there, who also insisted
+that they should have a civil trial; as a result of which they were
+acquitted.
+
+[Illustration: LA PUNTA FORTRESS, HAVANA]
+
+While thus careful to protect the rights of its citizens, native or
+naturalized, the United States government was equally energetic in its
+endeavors to prevent violations of the neutrality law by filibustering
+expeditions, and went to great expense and pains therein. It watched and
+guarded all Atlantic and Gulf ports to prevent the departure of such
+expeditions, and gave hospitality to a Spanish cruiser which lay at Key
+West to watch for and intercept them. Hannis Taylor, the American
+Minister at Madrid, assured the Spanish government that the United
+States would do all that was in its power to prevent such expeditions
+from departing from its shores, and that promise was fulfilled with
+exceptional efficiency. Indeed, the United States administration
+incurred much popular censure for its energy in stopping the sailing of
+vessels which were suspected of carrying supplies to Cuba; for it did
+stop a number of them, to the very heavy pecuniary loss of the patriots.
+Nevertheless some vessels were successful in eluding the vigilance of
+the federal guards, and that fact gave umbrage in Spain; so that while
+at home the American government was charged with hostility to the Cuban
+cause, in Spain it was charged with too greatly favoring it.
+
+With the receipt of reenforcements, Callejas made renewed efforts to
+suppress the revolution; though he had little heart in the matter and
+seemed to realize the hopelessness of the task. Practically all the
+fighting was in Oriente. Colonel Santocildes made an unsuccessful attack
+upon the patriots near Guantanamo on March 10, and a week later Colonel
+Bosch had an equally unsatisfactory meeting with them under Brooks and
+Perez near Ulloa. So strong were the insurgents becoming in that
+province that they began to exercise the functions of civil government,
+in the carrying of mails and the collection of taxes. Beside Henry
+Brooks and Perico Perez, under whom were the largest forces, Bartolome
+Maso, who had returned from Havana, held Manzanillo with a thousand
+troops, Jesus Rabi occupied Baire and Jiguani with 1,500, and Quintin
+Banderas, Amador Guerra and Esteban Tomayo had among them 2,000 more.
+After his repulse at Guantanamo the Spanish Colonel Santocildes went to
+Bayamo, where he was attacked and routed with heavy loss. A few days
+later, on March 24, a battle was fought at Jaraguana between Amador
+Guerra, with 900 Cubans, and Colonel Araoz, with 1,000 Spanish regulars,
+in which the latter suffered the heavier losses, though they finally
+compelled the Cubans to retire from the field.
+
+At this time an effort was made by both the Captain-General and some
+leaders of the Cuban Autonomists to make terms with the revolutionists.
+With the assent and cooperation of Callejas a commission of Autonomists,
+headed by Juan Bautista Spotorno,--who had once been for a time
+President of the Cuban Republic, shortly after the Ten Years'
+War,--proceeded to Oriente and sought a conference with Bartolome Maso
+at Manzanillo. That sturdy patriot received them grimly. He listened to
+their proposals in ominous silence. Then, in a voice all the more
+menacing for its repression of passion, he addressed Spotorno:
+
+"You were once President of the Cuban Republic in the Field?"
+
+"Yes, Bartolome; you know that."
+
+"You then as President issued a decree of death against anyone who
+should seek to persuade the Cuban government to accept any terms short
+of independence?"
+
+"Yes, but...."
+
+"Then, Bautista Spotorno, for this once, go in peace; but go very
+quickly, lest I change my mind as you have changed yours. And be assured
+that if you or any of your kind ever come hither with such proposals
+again, I shall execute upon you or upon them your own decree!"
+
+The next day Jose Marti and Maximo Gomez issued in Hayti the manifesto
+which we have already cited, which had the result of assuring all
+wavering or doubtful Cubans that the most authoritative leaders of their
+nation were directing the revolution, and that it was to be indeed a
+struggle to a finish. There was another result. The Spanish
+Captain-General, Emilio Callejas, despaired of coping with the steadily
+rising storm, and on March 27 he placed his resignation in the hands of
+the Queen Regent of Spain. That sovereign immediately summoned a Cabinet
+council, herself presiding. It was no longer the Liberal Cabinet of
+Praxedes Sagasta. That body had fallen a few days before, in a
+political crisis which had arisen in Madrid over a newspaper controversy
+about Cuban affairs. An advanced Liberal paper, _El Resúmen_, had
+imputed cowardice to army officers who, it said, were always eager to
+serve in Cuba in time of peace, but shunned that island whenever there
+was fighting going on. At this a mob of officers attacked and wrecked
+the offices of the paper, and the next evening attacked the offices of
+_El Heraldo_ and _El Globo_, which had denounced their doings. The next
+day all the papers of Madrid notified the government that they would
+suspend publication unless assured of protection against such outrages.
+General Lopez Dominguez approved the conduct of the riotous officers and
+demanded that the editors of the papers be delivered to him for trial by
+court martial. The Prime Minister, Sagasta, replied that that would not
+be legal, since all press offences against the army short of treason
+must be tried before civil juries. Then Marshal Martinez Campos, who as
+Captain-General had ended the Ten Years' War in Cuba, led a deputation
+of army officers to demand of Sagasta that he should suppress _El
+Resúmen_ and have more strict press laws enacted. Sagasta refused and,
+finding his support in the Cortes untrustworthy in the face of military
+bullying, offered the resignation of the Ministry, on March 17. The
+Queen Regent invited Campos to form a Ministry, but he declined; though
+he announced that all newspaper men attacking the army would be shot,
+and he arbitrarily haled before military tribunals a number of editors,
+while other journalists fled the country.
+
+The Queen Regent then called upon Canovas del Castillo, the Conservative
+leader, to form a cabinet, and on March 25 he did so, despite the fact
+that his party was in a minority in the Cortes, and it was this
+Conservative cabinet which the sovereign consulted four days later
+concerning the resignation of Callejas and affairs in Cuba in general.
+It was decided to accept Callejas's resignation, with special thanks for
+his loyal services, to appoint Martinez Campos to succeed him, to ask
+fresh credits of $120,000,000 for the expenses of the war, to send large
+reenforcements to Cuba, and to increase the peace footing of the Spanish
+army from 71,000 to 82,000 men. The troops in Cuba were at once to be
+increased to 40,000 men, and 40,000 more were to be added, if needed, in
+four months. Thus did Spain rouse herself to fight her last fight for
+the retention of her last American possession.
+
+It was not, however, until April 15 that Callejas received a message
+from the Queen Regent, formally accepting his resignation, thanking him
+for "the activity, zeal and ability" with which he had conducted the
+military operations against the revolutionists, complimenting all the
+forces under his command for their valor, and directing him to return to
+Spain by the next steamer that sailed from Havana after the arrival of
+his successor. And his successor landed the very next day, at
+Guantanamo. There was much adverse comment among Spaniards in Cuba upon
+this summary recall of Callejas. The explanation of it was that the
+government regarded him as culpable for letting the revolution gain so
+great headway, but it did not deem it politic to censure him publicly,
+or at all until he was back at Madrid. As for Martinez Campos, he
+promised on his acceptance of the appointment that he would quickly
+suppress the revolt, as he had done the Ten Years' War; and doubtless he
+expected that he would be able to do so.
+
+Indeed, in sending Martinez Campos to Cuba, Spain "played her strongest
+card." He had long been known as "Spain's greatest General," and also as
+the "King-Maker," since it was he who had restored the Bourbon dynasty
+to the throne. He was undoubtedly a soldier of great valor, skill and
+resource. He was also a statesman of more than ordinary ability, and had
+been for a time Prime Minister of Spain, and for fifteen years had been
+making and unmaking ministries at will. Now, at the age of sixty-four he
+was still in the prime of his powers and at the height of his popularity
+and influence. His departure from Madrid for Cuba was attended with
+demonstrations, both official and popular, which could scarcely have
+been exceeded for royalty itself. He reached Guantanamo on April 16, and
+on the following day assumed his office. It was not until a week later
+that he reached Havana. There he was received with unbounded rejoicings
+by the Spanish party, and with sincere satisfaction by the Autonomists,
+while it must be confessed that many Cuban patriots regarded his coming
+with dismay. There could be no doubt that it portended the putting forth
+of all the might of Spain against the revolution, under the command of a
+great soldier-statesman who had never yet failed in an undertaking.
+
+On the very day after his arrival at Guantanamo the new Captain-General
+issued a proclamation to the people of Cuba. In it he pledged himself to
+fulfil in good faith all the reforms which had been promised in his own
+Treaty of Zanjon and in subsequent legislation by the Spanish Cortes,
+provided the loyal parties in Cuba would give him their support; this
+admission of dependence upon the people being obviously a bid for
+popularity. The parties in question were, of course, the Spaniards, who
+were divided into Conservatives and Reformists, and the Autonomists, or
+Cuban Home Rulers. They or their leaders at once pledged him their
+support, and the Spaniards gave it, for a time. But a number of the
+Autonomists were dissatisfied because he would promise nothing more
+than the fulfilment of reforms which had never been regarded as
+sufficient, and on that account refused him their support. Instead, they
+gave it to the revolutionists, and many of them, especially the younger
+men, actually joined the revolutionary army, or went to Jamaica or the
+United States to assist in the raising of funds and the equipping of
+expeditions. It was thus at this time that the disintegration of the
+once influential Autonomist party began.
+
+To the revolutionists he tried to be conciliatory. He offered full and
+free pardon to all who would lay down their arms, excepting a few of the
+leaders, and he doubtless expected that there would be a numerous
+response. It does not appear that there was any favorable response
+whatever. If any insurgents did surrender themselves--of whom there is
+no record--they were outnumbered a hundred to one by the Autonomists who
+at that time were transformed into revolutionists.
+
+Campos did not rely, however, upon his proclamation for the suppression
+of the insurrection. He set to work at once with all his consummate
+military skill and his knowledge of the island and of Cuban methods of
+warfare, to organize a military campaign of victory. He made General
+Garrich governor of the Province of Oriente, with General Salcedo in
+command of the First Division, at Santiago, and General Lachambre of the
+Second Division, at Bayamo. He undertook the organization of numerous
+bodies of irregular troops, to wage a guerrilla warfare against the
+Cubans similar to that which the Cubans themselves waged successfully
+against Spanish regulars. When he found his troops from Spain
+disinclined toward such work, or unsuited to it, he sought the services
+of young Spaniards who had for some years been settled in Cuba, such as
+had been so ready to serve in the former war. They generally declined,
+whereupon he sought to draft them into the service, and at that they
+threatened mutiny. As a last resort he sent for Lolo Benitez, a life
+prisoner at Ceuta. This man had been a guerrilla leader, on the Cuban
+side, in the Ten Years' War, but had been guilty of cruelties which
+caused the Cubans to repudiate him. He had been captured by the
+Spaniards and sent to the penal colony in Africa for life. But Campos
+brought him back and gave him a free pardon and commission as lieutenant
+colonel in the Spanish army, on condition that he would conduct a
+guerrilla warfare against his own countrymen. When this was done, and
+when under this man were placed numerous criminals released from Cuban
+jails, there were vigorous protests from Spanish officers against such
+degradation of the Spanish army, and warnings that such unworthy tactics
+would surely react against their author.
+
+The official attitude of the Spanish government was at this time set
+forth by the Spanish Minister to the United States, Senor Dupuy de Lome.
+He belittled the reports of Spanish oppressions and of Cuban uprisings.
+"There is very little interest," he said, "being taken in the revolt by
+the people of Havana. I think the uprising will speedily be put down.
+The arrival of General Martinez Campos has brought order out of chaos.
+He has shown clearly to the people that their interests will be
+protected, and as a result has caused a feeling of security. He is every
+inch a soldier, not a toy fighter. He is loyal to his country, but he is
+humane, and as far as possible he will treat his enemies leniently. In
+the case of the leaders of the revolt, however, severe justice will be
+meted out."
+
+Meantime the revolution was proceeding. The most formidable figure in
+its ranks in Cuba was that of Antonio Maceo, the mulatto general who
+above most of his colleagues possessed a veritable genius for war, both
+in strategy and in direct fighting. He had come of a family of fighters,
+and had been born in Santiago in 1849, and had fought in the Ten Years'
+War. He was highly gifted with the qualities of leadership among men,
+with valor and resolution, with keen foresight and great intelligence.
+He was probably the ablest strategist in the War of Independence, and
+personally the most popular commander. At the end of March he arrived in
+Cuba from Costa Rica with an expedition well equipped with rifles and
+small field pieces. With him were his brother Jose Maceo, Flor Crombet,
+Dr. Francisco Agramonte, and several other officers. The landing was
+made at Baracoa, the Spanish gunboats which were watching the coast
+being successfully eluded. Soon after landing the patriots were attacked
+by General Lachambre's troops at Duaba, but the latter were repulsed
+with considerable loss. A part of the expedition was then sent around by
+sea to Manzanillo, on a British schooner. That vessel was wrecked and in
+consequence its captain and crew were captured by the Spaniards, who put
+the captain to death. Dr. Agramonte was one of several members of the
+expedition who were also taken, but he, being an American citizen,
+escaped court martial and was more leniently dealt with by a civil
+court, on the demand of the American consul at Santiago.
+
+In a short time this masterful leader, Antonio Maceo, had control of
+practically all of the Province of Oriente outside of a few fortified
+coast cities and camps. The Captain-General, vainly imagining that the
+insurrection would be confined to that province, sent thither all
+available troops, leaving Havana, Matanzas and the others with scarcely
+more than police guard. Thus greatly outnumbered, Maceo wisely resorted
+not so much to guerrilla warfare as to what may be called Fabian
+tactics. He maintained his army in complete organization and observed
+all the rules of civilized warfare. But he also maintained a high degree
+of mobility, avoiding any general engagement, and wearing out the morale
+of the Spaniards with forced marches, surprise attacks, and all the
+bewildering and baffling tactics of which so resourceful and alert a
+commander was capable. Early in April he was indeed in much peril, being
+almost completely surrounded by superior forces near Guantanamo, and
+actually suffering severe losses at Palmerito; but he cut his way out by
+desperate fighting in which he also showed himself a master hand. The
+most serious loss at that time was the death of the brave revolutionist
+Flor Crombet. He was killed not by Spaniards but by a traitor in his own
+command, whom Maceo presently detected and hanged. Soon after the affair
+at Palmerito, however, Maceo captured El Caney, in the very suburbs of
+Santiago, and seized the rich supplies in the Spanish arsenal at that
+place.
+
+The sending of so many troops from the other provinces to Oriente
+emboldened the patriots of Havana and Matanzas to take up arms, and
+uprisings occurred at various places, particularly at Cardenas and the
+city of Matanzas. In the city of Havana itself a daring attempt was made
+to seize Cabanas and El Morro, liberate the political prisoners, and
+destroy the magazines if they could not be held. To encourage these
+movements Maceo sent detachments of his forces from Oriente westward,
+into Camaguey, then still known as the Province of Puerto Principe.
+Jesus Rabi occupied Victoria las Tunas, near the boundary of the latter
+province, and soon had bands operating beyond the border. There was an
+Autonomist organization at Camaguey, which at first disavowed the
+revolution and gave its adherence to the Captain-General, but it became
+demoralized upon the approach of the revolutionary forces, and many of
+its members were soon serving zealously in Maceo's ranks.
+
+The arrival of Jose Marti and Maximo Gomez in Cuba at the middle of
+April, as already related, almost simultaneously with the arrival of
+Martinez Campos, was promptly followed by increased activity on the part
+of the Cubans. Floriano Gascon organized a force of negro miners at
+Juragua, and inflicted a crushing defeat upon a Spanish garrison at
+Ramon de las Jaguas; the Spanish commander being afterward tried by
+Spanish court martial and condemned to death for inefficiency. At the
+end of the month a Spanish force was entrapped and almost destroyed by
+Jose Maceo, near Guantanamo. The first half of May was also marked with
+much fighting in the southern part of Oriente, in which the
+revolutionists were generally successful. Railroads were destroyed to
+break Spanish lines of communication, valuable supplies were captured,
+and Martinez Campos was made to realize the formidable character of the
+insurrection which he had so confidently promised to suppress.
+
+Mention has already been made of the Provisional Government which was
+proclaimed by Maceo early in April. On May 18 this was succeeded by
+another organization elected by a convention of delegates consisting of
+one representative of each 100 revolutionists actually in the field.
+Bartolome Maso, who had been in control of the district of Bayamo since
+early in March, was unanimously chosen President; Maximo Gomez was
+designated as Commander in Chief of the army; and Antonio Maceo was made
+Commander of the Division of Oriente. The next day occurred the tragedy
+of Marti's death, whereupon Tomas Estrada Palma, who had formerly been
+Provisional President, was named to succeed him as the delegate at large
+of the Cuban Republic to the United States and other countries; Manuel
+Sanguilly being later associated with him at Washington.
+
+All through that summer the strife continued, steadily extending its
+area westward into Camaguey and Santa Clara. Campos endeavored to
+confine the war to Oriente, by stretching a line of 4,000 Spanish troops
+across the island at the western boundary of that province, but on June
+2 Maximo Gomez broke through that line, crossed the Jobabo River, and
+entered Camaguey. There he was joined by a nephew of Salvador Cisneros,
+Marquis of Santa Lucia, with a large force, and by Marcos Garcia, mayor
+of Sancti Spiritus, who came across from the Province of Santa Clara.
+With these reenforcements Gomez soon had control of all the southern
+part of Camaguey, and on June 18 the Captain-General was compelled to
+declare that province in a state of siege.
+
+[Illustration: MAXIMO GOMEZ
+
+The foremost military chieftain of the War of Independence, Maximo Gomez
+y Baez, was a Cuban by adoption rather than birth, having been born at
+Bani, Santo Domingo, in 1838. He was an officer in the last Spanish army
+in that island, and went with it thence to Cuba. There he became
+disgusted with the brutality of the Spanish officers toward the Cubans,
+personally assaulted his superior, General Villar, and quit the Spanish
+service, returning to Santo Domingo, where he engaged in business as a
+planter. At the beginning of the Ten Years' War he returned to Cuba,
+joined the patriots, and did efficient service, rising to the chief
+command. After that war he returned to his plantation in Santo Domingo,
+but in 1895 joined José Marti in leading the Cuban War of Independence.
+Thereafter his story was the story of the Cuban cause. Declining to be
+considered a candidate for the Presidency of the Republic, he retired to
+private life after the establishment of independence, and died in 1905,
+full of years and honor.]
+
+Then Campos attempted a second barricade. He placed a line of troops
+across the island from Moron to Jucaro, near the western boundary of
+Camaguey, to prevent Gomez from going on into Santa Clara province. This
+was the line along which was afterward built a military railroad, and on
+which was constructed the famous "Trocha" or barrier of ditches, wire
+fences and block houses. It almost coincided with the line of
+demarcation between the two ecclesiastical dioceses into which the
+island was divided. But this attempt to confine the insurrection was no
+more successful than the other. Indeed it was folly to try to shut the
+revolution out of Santa Clara when it was already there. Marcos Garcia
+had left behind him many fervent patriots at Sancti Spiritus, and
+these soon organized a formidable force under the competent lead of
+Carlos Ruloff, and took the field, advancing northward and westward as
+far as Vega Alta. General Zayas and other patriotic leaders operated in
+the southern part of Santa Clara, and soon that province was almost as
+fully aflame with revolution as Oriente itself. This was the more
+significant, because it was a populous and opulent province, where the
+inhabitants had much to lose through the ravages of war. But like the
+Romans in the "brave days of old," the Cubans of the revolution "spared
+neither lands nor gold, nor limb nor life," for the achievement of their
+national independence.
+
+Meantime in Oriente the Cubans were more than holding their own. They
+suffered a sore loss in the death of the dashing champion Amador Guerra,
+who was treacherously slain in the moment of victory at Palmas Altas,
+near Manzanillo. But Henry Brooks landed supplies of artillery and
+ammunition at Portillo; Jesus Rabi almost annihilated a strong Spanish
+force in a defile near Jiguani and thus frustrated General Salcedo's
+plans to surround Maceo's camp at San Jorge; and on July 5 Quintin
+Bandera and Victoriano Garzon attacked and dispersed a newly landed
+Spanish army and captured its stores of arms and ammunition. These
+reverses for his arms exasperated Campos into the issuing of a
+proclamation on July 7, in which, while still offering pardon to all who
+voluntarily surrendered, he threatened death to all who were captured
+under arms, and exile to African prisons to all who were convicted of
+conspiring against the sovereignty of Spain.
+
+Following this, Campos, "Spain's greatest soldier," took the field in
+person. Of this there was need, for Maceo was besieging Bayamo,
+capturing all supplies which were sent thither, and threatening the
+Spanish garrison with starvation. Campos hastened to the relief of that
+place with General Santocildes and a strong force. But Maceo did not
+hesitate to measure strength with Campos. He attacked him openly at
+Peralejo, out-manoeuvered him and out-fought him and came very near to
+capturing him with his whole headquarters staff. Campos was indeed saved
+from capture only by the desperate valor of Santocildes, who lost his
+life in defending him: but he did lose his entire ammunition train and
+was compelled to retreat with the remnant of his shattered forces into
+Bayamo and there undergo the humiliation of being besieged by the
+"rebels" whom he had affected to despise. There he remained for a week,
+until General Suarez Valdez could come with an army, not to defeat the
+Cubans but to help Campos to flee in safety over the road by which he
+had come. Then, when the Spaniards had concentrated more than 10,000
+troops at Bayamo for a supreme struggle the wily Maceo quietly and
+swiftly removed his forces to another scene of action.
+
+Meantime in the far east of the province the patriots besieged the fort
+in Sabana and would have forced its surrender had not Spanish
+reenforcements arrived from Baracoa for its relief. The fort was
+destroyed, however, and the place had to be abandoned by the Spanish.
+Also at Baire, where the revolution began, Jesus Rabi captured a Spanish
+fort and its garrison. Everywhere throughout Oriente the Spaniards were
+on the defensive, while in every other province, even in Pinar del Rio,
+the revolution was ominously gaining strength.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+
+It now seemed opportune to effect a more complete organization of the
+civil government of the Cuban Republic, and for that purpose a
+convention was held in the Valley of the Yara, at which on July 15 a
+Declaration of Cuban Independence was proclaimed, and on August 7, near
+Camaguey the action of May 18 was confirmed and amplified, Bartolome
+Maso being retained as President; Maximo Gomez as Vice-President and
+Minister of War; Salvador Cisneros as Minister of the Interior; Gonzalo
+Quesada as Secretary for Foreign Affairs, with residence in the United
+States; Antonio Maceo as General in Chief of the Army; and Jose Maceo as
+Commander of the Army of Oriente.
+
+This was not, however, a finality. A national Constitutional Convention
+was called, at Najasa, near Guiamaro, in the Province of Camaguey, at
+which were present regularly elected representatives from all six
+provinces of the island. It afterward removed to Anton, in the same
+province, where it completed its labors on September 23, when the
+Constitution of the Republic of Cuba was completed and promulgated.
+Salvador Cisneros y Betancourt, Marquis of Santa Lucia, was chosen by
+acclamation to preside over the deliberations of this important body,
+and associated with him were the ablest and best minds of the Cuban
+nation.
+
+This Constitution provided for the government of Cuba by a Council of
+Ministers, until such time as the achievement of independence and the
+signing of a treaty of peace with Spain should make it practicable for a
+Legislative Assembly to be convoked and to meet for the performance of
+its functions. The Council of Ministers was to consist of six members: a
+President, Vice-President, and Secretaries of War, Foreign Affairs,
+Interior, and Treasury. This Council was to have full governmental
+powers, both legislative and administrative, civil and military; to levy
+taxes, contract loans, raise and equip armies, declare reprisals against
+the enemy when necessary, and in the last resort to control the military
+operations of the Commander in Chief. Treaties were to be made by the
+President and ratified by the Council. It was provided, however, that
+the treaty of peace with Spain, when made, must be ratified not only by
+the Council but also by the National Legislative Assembly which was then
+to be organized. No decree of the Council was valid unless approved by
+four of the six members, including the President. The President had
+power to dissolve the Council, in which case a new Council had to be
+formed within ten days. It was required that all Cubans should be
+obliged to serve the republic personally or with their property, as they
+might be able. But all property of foreigners was to be exempt from
+taxation or other levy, provided that their governments recognized the
+belligerency of Cuba. It was provided that there should be a national
+judiciary entirely independent of the legislature and executive.
+
+Under this system the Council was organized as follows: President,
+Salvador Cisneros y Betancourt, of Camaguey; Vice-President, Bartolome
+Maso, of Manzanillo, Oriente; Secretaries--of War, Carlos Roloff, of
+Santa Clara; of Foreign Affairs, Rafael Portuondo, of Santiago; of the
+Treasury, Severa Pina, of Sancti Spiritus; of the Interior, Santiago J.
+Canizares, of Los Remedios. Each Secretary appointed his own Deputy, who
+should have full power when taking his chief's place, as follows: War,
+Mario G. Menocal, of Matanzas; Foreign Affairs, Fermin G. Dominguez;
+Treasury, Joaquin Castillo Duany, of Santiago; Interior, Carlos Dubois,
+of Baracoa. The Commander in Chief was Maximo Gomez; the
+Lieutenant-General, or Vice-Commander in Chief was Antonio Maceo, and
+the Major Generals were Jose Maceo, Maso Capote, Serafin Sanchez, and
+Fuerto Rodriguez. Tomas Estrada Palma was minister plenipotentiary and
+diplomatic agent abroad. Later Bartolome Maso and General de Castillo
+were made special envoys to the United States.
+
+Salvador Cisneros, the President, has already been frequently mentioned
+in this history. He came of distinguished ancestry, the names of
+Cisneros and Betancourt frequently occupying honorable places in the
+annals of Cuba. Born in 1832, he was by this time past the prime of
+life, but he was just as zealous and efficient in the cause of Cuban
+freedom as he was when he sacrificed his title of Marquis of Santa
+Lucia, and sacrificed his estates, too, which were confiscated by the
+Spanish government, when he joined the Ten Years' War, later to succeed
+the martyred Cespedes as President. Of Bartolome Maso, too, we have
+spoken much. He also was advanced in years, having been born in 1831,
+and he, too, had served through the Ten Years' War and had in
+consequence of his patriotism lost all his estates.
+
+Carlos Roloff, the Secretary of War, was a Pole, who had come to Cuba in
+his youth and settled at Cienfuegos; bringing with him the passionate
+love of freedom which had long been characteristic of the Poles. He
+fought through the Ten Years' War and gained distinction therein, by his
+valor and military skill.
+
+Mario G. Menocal, the Assistant Secretary of War, was a native of Jaguey
+Grande, Matanzas, at this time only twenty-nine years old. He came of a
+family eminent in Cuban history, and indeed in the history of North
+America, since he was a nephew of that A. G. Menocal who was perhaps the
+most distinguished and efficient of all the engineers and surveyors for
+the Isthmian Canal schemes, both at Nicaragua and Panama. He himself
+was, even thus early in life, one of the foremost engineers of Cuba.
+
+[Illustration: ANICETO G. MENOCAL]
+
+Rafael Portuondo y Tamayo, Secretary of Foreign Affairs, was another
+young man--born at Santiago in 1867--of distinguished family and high
+ability. His Assistant Secretary, Fermin Valdes Dominguez, was one of
+the most eminent physicians of Havana, and was one of those students
+who, as hitherto related, were falsely accused by the Volunteers of
+desecrating an officer's grave. He escaped the fate of shooting, which
+was meted out to one in every five of his comrades, but was sent to
+life-long penal servitude at Ceuta. After the Treaty of Zanjon he was
+released and returned to Havana, where he attained great distinction in
+his profession.
+
+Severa Pina, Secretary of the Treasury, belonged to one of the oldest
+families of Sancti Spiritus. His Assistant, Dr. Joaquin Castillo Duany,
+has already been mentioned as one of the organizers of the Cuban Junta
+in New York. He had served on the United States Naval relief expedition
+which went to the Arctic regions in quest of the survivors of the
+_Jeannette_ exploring expedition.
+
+Santiago J. Canizares, Secretary of the Interior, was one of the
+foremost citizens of Los Remedios, and his Assistant, Carlos Dubois,
+enjoyed similar rank at Baracoa.
+
+Meantime Martinez Campos was straining every effort to fulfil his
+promise of victory. At the middle of July he had nearly 40,000 regular
+infantry, more than 2,500 cavalry, more than 1,000 artillery and
+engineers, 4,400 civil guards, 2,700 marines, and nearly 1,200
+guerrillas. His navy comprised 15 vessels, to which were to be added six
+which were approaching completion in Spain and 19 which were being
+purchased of other European nations. Thus his troops outnumbered the
+Cubans by just about two to one. For the latter aggregated only 24,000,
+of whom 12,000 were under Maceo in Oriente, 9,000 in Camaguey under
+Gomez, and 3,000 under Roloff and Sanchez in Santa Clara. In August
+large reenforcements for Campos arrived from Spain, and they were no
+longer, as before, half trained boys, but were the very flower of the
+Spanish army. They brought the total that had been sent to Cuba up to
+80,000, of whom 60,000 were regular infantry. However, probably between
+18,000 and 20,000 must be subtracted from those figures, for killed,
+deserted, and died of yellow fever and other diseases. But even if thus
+reduced to 60,000, the Spanish were still twice as many as the Cubans,
+who had increased their forces to not more than 30,000.
+
+The plans of campaign gave the Cubans, however, a great advantage. Fully
+half of the Spaniards had to remain on garrison duty in the cities and
+towns, especially along the coast, so that the number free to take the
+field against the Cubans was no greater than that of the latter. With
+numbers anywhere near equal, the Cubans were almost sure to win, because
+of their superior morale and their better knowledge of the country.
+
+The Cubans suffered much, it is true, from lack of supplies, and this
+lack became the more marked and grievous as the Spaniards increased
+their naval forces and drew tighter and tighter their double cordon of
+vessels around the island. Several costly expeditions which were fitted
+out in the United States during the year came to grief, being either
+restrained from sailing by the United States authorities or intercepted
+and captured by the Spanish. One such vessel, fully laden with valuable
+supplies, was seized at the mouth of the Delaware River, as it was
+setting out for Cuba, and the cargo was confiscated. The company of
+Cubans in command of the vessel were arrested and brought to trial, but
+were acquitted since the mere exportation of arms and ammunition in an
+unarmed merchant vessel was no violation of law. Far different was the
+fate of any such who were captured by the Spanish at the other end of
+the voyage, as they were approaching the Cuban coast. The mildest fate
+they could expect was a term of many years of penal servitude at Ceuta.
+Such was the sentence imposed upon sailors who were guilty of nothing
+more than smuggling the contraband goods into Cuba. As for Juan
+Gualberto Gomez and his comrades in an expedition which presumptively
+was intended for fighting as well as smuggling, twenty years at Ceuta
+was their sentence.
+
+During the summer of 1895 a severe but necessary order was issued by the
+Cuban commander in chief. This, addressed to the people of Camaguey
+Province, directed the cessation of all plantation work, save such as
+was necessary for the food supply of the families there resident; and
+also strictly forbade the supplying of any food to the Spanish garrisons
+in the towns and cities. Disobedience to these orders, it was plainly
+stated, would mean the destruction of the offending plantation. It was
+the purpose of General Gomez to deprive the Spaniards of all local
+supplies and make them dependent upon shipments of food, even, from
+Spain. This meant, no doubt, much hardship to the Cuban people. But
+there was little complaint, and it was seldom that the rule was
+violated. Whenever a flagrant violation was detected, the torch was
+applied, and canefield and buildings were reduced to ashes. There was
+also much destruction of railroads, bridges, telegraph lines and what
+not, to deprive the Spanish of means of transport and communication. It
+was a fine demonstration of the patriotism of the Cuban people that they
+almost universally acquiesced in this plan of campaign, without demur
+and without repining, although it of course meant heavy loss and untold
+inconvenience and often severe suffering, to them. They realized that
+they were at war, and that war was not to be waged with lace fans and
+rosewater.
+
+At the end of September, after the close of the Constitutional
+Convention, preparations were made for renewing the military campaign
+with more aggressive vigor. Jose Maceo was assigned to the command of
+the eastern part of Oriente, General Capote and General Sanchez took
+respectively the northern and southern parts of the western half, and
+General Rodriguez led the advance into Camaguey. Maximo Gomez himself
+accompanied Rodriguez's army, and was presently joined by Antonio Maceo,
+and together they planned the great campaign of the war, which was
+conceived by Gomez and executed by Maceo. This was nothing less than the
+extension of the war into every province and indeed every district and
+village of the island, by marching westward from Oriente to the further
+end of Pinar del Rio.
+
+Early in October Antonio Maceo set out to join Gomez in Camaguey, taking
+with him 4,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry. At San Nicolas he suffered a
+setback at the hands of General Aldave and a superior force of
+Spaniards, but resolutely continued his progress. Gomez meanwhile pushed
+on into Santa Clara, established headquarters near Las Tunas, where he
+could be in touch with expeditions from Jamaica, and began the
+aggressive against the Spaniards around Sancti Spiritus. Roloff,
+meanwhile, was operating at the northern part of the province, at
+Vueltas. Martinez Campos himself was in the field near Sancti Spiritus,
+but failed to check the Cuban advance. In fact, at almost every point
+the campaign was going steadily against the Spanish; so much against
+them that Campos feared to let the truth be known to the world.
+Accordingly he issued a decree forbidding the publication of any news
+concerning the war save that which was officially given out at his
+headquarters or by his chief of staff at Havana. Only Spanish and
+foreign--no Cuban--correspondents were permitted to accompany the army,
+and they only on their compliance with the rules.
+
+Still Campos appeared to cherish the thought that he could end the war
+by compromise, through pursuing a policy of leniency toward at least the
+rank and file of the insurgents; and in this he had the support of the
+Madrid government. That government had staked its all upon him, and was
+naturally disposed to give him a free hand and to approve everything
+that he did. However, it insisted that the rebellion must be crushed and
+that no further reforms for Cuba could be considered until that was
+done. It was feeling the strain of the war severely, especially since
+its last loan for war funds had to be placed at more than fifty per cent
+discount.
+
+October was a disastrous month for the Spanish at sea. One of their
+gunboats was wrecked on a key, and another, which had just been
+purchased in the United States, was boarded and seized by a party of
+revolutionists in the Cauto River, stripped of all its guns and
+ammunition, and disabled and scuttled. General Enrique Collazo, who
+earlier in the season had several times been baffled in such attempts,
+at last got away from Florida with a strong party of Cubans and
+Americans and effected a safe landing in Cuba. A little later Carlos
+Manuel de Cespedes did the same, bringing a large cargo of arms. Two
+expeditions also came from Canada, under General Francisco Carillo and
+Colonel Jose Maria Aguirre. The latter, by the way, was an American
+citizen who had been arrested in Havana at the very beginning of the
+war, along with Julio Sanguilly, but was released at the very urgent
+insistence of the United States government. Sanguilly, who was suspected
+by some Cubans of having betrayed their cause, was held, tried, and
+condemned to life imprisonment; a fact which cleared him of suspicion of
+complicity with the Spaniards.
+
+Maceo advanced through Camaguey and on November 12 reached Las Villas
+with an army of 8,000 men. Gomez had meanwhile moved northward almost to
+the Gulf coast, and was operating with 5,000 men between Los Remedios
+and Sagua la Grande, where he joined forces with Sanchez, who had
+marched westward, and with Roloff, Suarez, Cespedes and Collazo. He
+established headquarters near the Matanzas border, where he was in touch
+with Lacret, Matagas and other guerrilla leaders who were actively
+engaged in the latter province. In that same month Maceo fought a
+pitched battle with General Navarro, near Santa Clara, and a few days
+later Gomez similarly fought General Suarez Valdes in the same region.
+These were two of the greatest battles of the war, in point of numbers
+engaged and losses suffered, and were both handsomely won by the
+Cubans.
+
+In view of these losses, Campos welcomed the arrival of 30,000
+additional troops from Spain, under General Pando and General Marin. He
+also resorted to recruiting troops in some of the South American
+countries, particularly in Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay, thinking to
+find them hardier and better able to endure the climate and the
+hardships of Cuba than men from the Peninsula. Such recruiting was not
+regarded with favor in those countries, where sympathy was generally on
+the side of the Cubans; but a considerable number of adventurers were
+found who were willing to serve for good pay as soldiers of fortune.
+More and more, too, the Spanish soldiery indulged in excesses against
+the inhabitants of Cuba as well as against the revolutionists in the
+field, and the conflict showed symptoms of degenerating into the
+savagery which marked it at a later date. It is to be recalled to the
+credit of Campos that he resisted all such tendencies, and that he
+indeed sent back to Spain two prominent Generals, Bazan and Salcedo,
+because of their barbarous methods and their criticisms of his humanity.
+General Pando, on arriving with the fresh troops from Spain, was placed
+in command at Santiago; General Marin was assigned to Santa Clara;
+General Mella operated in Camaguey; and General Arderius was charged
+with the hopeless task of guarding Matanzas, Havana and Pinar del Rio
+from invasion by the revolutionists.
+
+The Cuban government, of President Cisneros and his colleagues,
+established its headquarters at Las Tunas, and there approved another
+military proclamation by the Commander in Chief, ordering the burning of
+all cane fields and the laying waste of all plantations which were
+providing or were likely to provide supplies to the Spaniards, and
+threatening with death all persons found giving the Spaniards aid or
+comfort. One notable blow was struck at the south, before the final
+advance was made toward Havana and the west. This was at the middle of
+December. Campos himself was at Cienfuegos, with 20,000 troops, and
+Gomez and Maceo decided to give him battle. The redoubtable negro
+farmer, Quintin Bandera, from Oriente, who at the age of sixty-three
+years had become one of the most agile, daring and successful guerrilla
+leaders, raided the Spanish lines and drew out a considerable force,
+upon which the Cubans fell at Mal Tiempo, thirty miles north of
+Cienfuegos. Only a couple of thousand men were engaged on each side, but
+it was one of the most significant battles of the war, because it was
+the first in which the Cubans relied upon the machete, and the result of
+the experiment made that fearful weapon thereafter their favorite arm,
+particularly in cavalry charges, and it struck a terror into the hearts
+of the Spanish soldiers such as nothing else could do. The machete was
+an enormous knife, as long as a cavalry sabre or longer, with a single
+edge as sharp as a razor on a blade almost as heavy as the head of a
+woodsman's axe. It had been used on sugar plantations, for cutting cane,
+and was so heavy that a single stroke was sufficient to cut through half
+a dozen of the thickest canes. Swung by the expert and sinewy arm of a
+Cuban soldier, it would sever a man's head from his body, or cut off an
+arm or leg, as surely as the blade of a guillotine. At Mal Tiempo a
+whole company of Spanish regulars was set upon by Cuban horsemen armed
+with nothing but machetes, and every one of them was killed.
+
+Turning swiftly away from Mal Tiempo, where they had both been present,
+Gomez and Maceo led their troops swiftly to the northwest and before
+Campos realized what their objective was they were raiding and defeating
+Spanish troops around Colon, in the east central part of the Province
+of Matanzas, between Campos and Havana. The distracted Captain-General
+hastened thither and, learning that they were retiring eastward toward
+the town of Santo Domingo, in Santa Clara, directed his course thither;
+only to find himself outwitted by the Cubans who had really moved
+further toward Colon. At last he came into contact with them, and with
+Emilio Nunez who had joined them, near the little village of Coliseo,
+and there he was badly worsted in the fight, and came near to losing his
+life, his adjutant being shot and killed at his side. The coming of
+night saved him from further losses. But then the Cubans, pursuing
+Fabian tactics, withdrew to Jaguey Grande, in Santa Clara, well content
+with their achievement, where they took counsel over plans for the great
+drive which was to carry them through Matanzas and Havana clear into
+Pinar del Rio.
+
+Campos made the best of his way hastily back to Havana, in a far
+different frame of mind from that in which he had come to Cuba eight
+months before. He had at that time in the island more than 100,000
+troops in active service. Since his appointment as Captain-General
+nearly 80,000 men had been sent thither from Spain. In addition there
+were the Volunteers, or what was left of them. According to Spanish
+authorities at Havana at that time the Volunteers numbered 63,000. True,
+they would not take the field. But they were serviceable for police and
+garrison duty in cities and towns, thus permitting all the regular army
+to be put into the field. The same authorities declared that with the
+Volunteers, marines and all other branches, Campos had at his disposal
+189,000 men. It is probable that the entire force under Gomez and Maceo
+in that first invasion of Matanzas did not exceed 10,000 men. These
+things gave "Spain's greatest General" much food for thought; not of
+the most agreeable kind.
+
+It gave others food for thought; the Spanish Loyalists of both
+Constitutionalist and Reformist predilections, and the dwindling but
+still resolute body of Cuban Autonomists. The last-named were at this
+desperate conjuncture of affairs Campos's best friends. The
+Constitutionalists were hostile to him. They had from the first
+disapproved his moderate and humane methods, wishing to return to the
+savagery of Valmaseda in the Ten Years' War. The Reformists were
+hesitant; they had little faith in Campos, yet they doubted the
+expedience of openly repudiating him. The Autonomists, having faith in
+his sincerity, respecting his humanity, and deploring the devastation
+and ruin which was befalling Cuba, urged that he should be supported
+loyally in at least one last effort to pacify the island and abate the
+horrors of civil war.
+
+The intellectual and moral power of the Autonomists carried the day. The
+Reformists first and then the Constitutionalists agreed to join them in
+making a demonstration of loyalty and confidence to the Captain-General,
+to cheer and sustain him in the depression--almost despair--which he was
+certainly suffering. So the representatives of all three factions
+appeared publicly before Campos. For the Constitutionalists, Santos
+Guzman spoke; an intense reactionary, who could not altogether conceal
+his feelings of disapproval of Campos's liberal course, or his
+realization of the desperate plight in which the country was at that
+time. But he made an impassioned pledge of the loyalty of his party to
+the Captain-General. For the Autonomists, Dr. Rafael Montoro was the
+spokesman, one of the foremost orators and scholars of the
+Spanish-speaking world. He had been a Cuban Senator in the Spanish
+Cortes, and perhaps more than any other man in Cuba commanded the
+respect and confidence of all parties, Spanish and Cuban alike. He also
+pledged to Campos the unwavering support of the Autonomists in what he
+believed sincerely to be the best policy for both Cuba and Spain. A
+representative of the Reformists spoke to the same effect. Then Campos
+responded with a frank confession that he had meditated resignation,
+fearing that he had lost the united confidence of the various parties;
+but that after this demonstration of loyalty, he would continue his
+military and civil administration with restored hope of success in
+pacifying the island.
+
+We have called the Autonomists at this time the best friends of Campos.
+It might be possible, however, to argue successfully that they were his
+worst friends, or at least badly mistaken friends. It might have been
+better, that is to say, for him to have persisted in retirement at that
+time, instead of merely postponing the day of wrath. For his renewed
+efforts either to crush or to pacify the revolutionists were vain. At
+the very moment when he was gratefully listening to those pledges of
+loyal support, Gomez and Maceo were pushing unrelentingly forward, not
+merely through Matanzas but far into Havana province itself. And like
+Israel of old, they were guided or accompanied by a pillar of fire by
+night and a pillar of cloud by day. The plantations near the capital
+were sources of supply for the Spanish, and they must be destroyed. It
+seemed savage to doom canefields and factories to the torch. But it was
+more humane to do that and thus make the island uninhabitable for the
+Spaniards, than to lose myriads of lives in battle. Moreover, the
+destruction of the sugar crop, then ripe for harvest, would do more
+than anything else to cripple the financial resources of Spain in the
+island. All Spain wanted of Cuba, said Gomez, grimly but truly, was what
+she could get out of it. Therefore if she was prevented from getting
+anything out of it she would no longer desire it but would let it go.
+
+So night after night "the midnight sky was red" with the glow of blazing
+canefields and factories, and day after day the tropic sun was half
+obscured by rolling clouds of smoke from the same conflagrations; while
+behind them the advancing armies left a broad swath of blackened
+desolation, above which gaunt, tall chimneys towered solitary, above
+twisted and ruined machinery, grim monuments of the passing of the
+destroyer. Day after day the inexorable terror rolled toward the
+capital. On the last day of the year the vanguard of the patriot army
+was at Marianao, only ten miles from Havana, and every railroad leading
+out of the city was either cut or had suspended operations. Two days
+later Campos proclaimed martial law and a state of siege in the
+Provinces of Havana and Pinar del Rio. Thus the new year opened with the
+entire island involved in the War of Independence. Nor was it merely a
+nominal state of war. Already Pinar del Rio was overrun by bands of
+Cuban irregulars, who destroyed the cane fields of Spanish Loyalists and
+ravaged the tobacco plantations of the famous Vuelta Abajo. But this was
+not enough. On January 5, 1896, Gomez, leaving Maceo and Quintin Bandera
+to hold Campos in check at Havana, drove straight at the centre of the
+Spanish line which strove to bar his progress westward, broke through
+it, and marched his whole army into Pinar del Rio.
+
+That was the beginning of the end for Campos. In desperation he flung
+all available troops in a line across the western part of Havana
+Province vainly hoping, since he had not been able thus to keep him out
+of Pinar del Rio, that thus he could keep Gomez shut up in that
+province, deprived of supplies or succor. Meantime he sent three of his
+ablest generals, Luque, Navarro and Valdez, into the western province,
+in hope of capturing Gomez. But the wily Cuban chieftain played with
+them, marching and countermarching at will and wearing them out, until
+he had completed his work there. Then as if to show his scorn at
+Campos's military barriers, he burst out of Pinar del Rio and reentered
+Havana, sweeping like a besom of wrath through the southern part of that
+province, and defeating the army of Suarez Valdez near Batabano. Then,
+while all the Spanish columns were in full cry after Gomez, Maceo
+crossed the border into Pinar del Rio at the north, and marched along
+the coast as far as Cabanas, destroying several towns on his way.
+
+From Batabano the Cubans under Gomez and Angel Guerra turned northward
+again, and by January 12 were at Managuas, in the outskirts of Havana,
+from which the sound of firing could be heard in the capital itself. The
+railroads had been stopped before, and now all telegraph communication
+with Havana was cut, save that by submarine cable. The city was not
+merely in a technical state of siege but was actually besieged, and if
+Jose Maceo and Jesus Rabi, who were on the eastern border of the
+province, had been able promptly to join Gomez and Bandera, Havana would
+probably have been captured. In this state of affairs the Spanish
+inhabitants of the city were frantic with fear, and with faultfinding
+against Campos for his inability to protect them from the
+revolutionists. The Volunteers mutinied outright refusing to serve
+longer under his orders unless he would alter his policy to one of
+extreme severity. The Spanish political leaders openly inveighed against
+him.
+
+In these circumstances Campos invited the leaders of the various
+parties, the very men who shortly before had pledged their support to
+him, to meet him again for a conference. They came, but in a different
+spirit from before. Santos Guzman was first to speak. He declared that
+the Constitutionalists had lost confidence in the Captain-General and
+did not approve his policy, and that they could no longer support him.
+The spokesman of the Reformists was less violent of phrase but no less
+hostile in intent and purport. From neither of the factions of the
+Spanish party could Campos hope for further support. There remained the
+Cuban Autonomists, and with a constancy which would have been sublime if
+only it had been exercised in a better cause, they reaffirmed their
+loyalty to Campos and to his policy and renewed their pledges of
+support. But this was in vain. Campos realized that a Spanish
+Captain-General who had not the support and confidence of the Spanish
+party would be an impossible anomaly. He would not resign, but he
+reported to Madrid the state of affairs, and placed himself, like a good
+soldier, at the commands of the government; excepting that he would not
+change his policy for one of ruthless severity. If he was to remain in
+Cuba, his policy of conciliation, in cooperation with the Autonomists,
+must be maintained.
+
+The answer was not delayed. On January 17 a message came from Madrid,
+directing Campos to turn over his authority to General Sabas Marin, who
+would exercise it until a permanent successor could be appointed and
+could arrive; and to return forthwith to Spain. Of course there was
+nothing for him to do but to obey. In relinquishing his office to his
+temporary successor he spoke strongly in defence of the policy which he
+had pursued. Later, out of office, he talked with much bitterness of the
+political conspiracies which had been formed against him by the
+Spaniards of Cuba, of their moral treason to the cause of Spain, and of
+the sordid tyranny which they exercised. He declared that Spain herself
+was at fault for the Cuban revolution, which never would have occurred
+if the island had been treated as an integral province of Spain and not
+as a subject and enslaved country; and he prophesied that the verdict of
+history would be, as it had been in the case of Central and South
+America, that Spain had lost her American empire through the perverse
+faults of the Spaniards themselves. "My successor," he added, "will
+fail." Three days later he sailed for Spain.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+
+The administration of General Marin lasted only a few weeks, but it was
+marked with strenuous doings. His first effort was to do what Campos had
+failed to do, namely, to maintain an impassable barrier between Pinar
+del Rio and Havana. He massed troops on the line between Havana and
+Batabano, and took command himself at the centre, hoping to draw Maceo
+into a general engagement. But Maceo sent Perico Diaz with 1,400 men
+from Artemisia to create a diversion just north of the centre, which was
+done very effectively, Diaz and General Jil drawing a large Spanish
+force into a trap and inflicting terrible slaughter with a cavalry
+machete charge. Taking advantage of this, Maceo with a small detachment
+easily crossed the trocha at the south. At once the Spanish forces all
+rushed in that direction, to head off Maceo and to prevent him from
+joining Gomez, whereupon the remainder of Maceo's troops crossed the
+trocha at the centre and north. After raiding Havana Province at will,
+and capturing fresh supplies, Maceo returned to Pinar del Rio, fought
+and won a pitched battle at Paso Real, won another at Candelaria, where
+the Spanish General Cornell was killed, and captured the city of Jaruco
+and its forts with 80 guns.
+
+By this time the new Captain-General had arrived. This was General
+Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau; the man most of all desired--and indeed
+earnestly asked for--by the Volunteers and other extremists among the
+Spanish party in Cuba, the man most undesired by the Autonomists, and
+the man most hated by the Cuban revolutionists. He had made himself
+unspeakably odious in the Ten Years' War as the chief aid of Valmaseda
+in his savage outrages, and he was confidently expected to renew in Cuba
+the horrors of that campaign; as he did. Upon the announcement of his
+appointment the Autonomists largely abandoned hope of any amicable
+arrangement, and those of them who were mayors or other officers
+promptly resigned their places, being unwilling to serve under him. Many
+of them left Cuba altogether, dreading the horrors which they knew were
+impending. As for the masses of the Cuban people, they flocked to the
+standard of the revolution in greater numbers than before. Within a
+month after Weyler's arrival at Havana, more than 15,000 fresh recruits
+were following the banners of Gomez and Maceo.
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL WEYLER]
+
+It was on February 10 that Weyler landed in Cuba. He promptly issued a
+number of decrees addressed to both the Spanish Loyalists and the Cuban
+Revolutionists. He chided the former for their indifference and fears,
+warned them that they must expect to make sacrifices and endure
+sufferings, and demanded of them that they should themselves undertake
+the guardianship of their cities and towns so as to release all his
+troops for service in the field. The latter he threatened with all
+possible pains and penalties if they persisted in their contumacy. Death
+or life imprisonment was to be the fate of all who circulated news
+unfavorable to the government, who interfered with the operation of
+railroads, telegraphs or telephones, who by word of mouth disparaged
+Spain or Spanish soldiers or praised the enemy, who aided the enemy in
+any way, or who failed to help the government and to injure the
+revolutionists at every opportunity. All inhabitants of Oriente,
+Camaguey and the district of Sancti Spiritus in Santa Clara were
+required to register at military headquarters and receive permits to go
+about their business. Later he ordered all persons living in rural
+districts to move into fortified towns, and confiscated the property of
+all who were absent from their homes without leave. It should be added
+that at the beginning of his administration he sought to curb and even
+reproved and punished the cruelties of his subordinates.
+
+In spite of the repudiation of Campos and his policy of pacification,
+and the accession of Weyler and his policy of severity, the Spanish
+Prime Minister, Canovas del Castillo, determined to make another attempt
+at amicable settlement. Elections for a new Cortes were to be held, and
+he directed that they should be held in Cuba as well as in the
+Peninsula. To that end it was desirable to raise the state of siege in
+at least the three western provinces, and on March 8 Weyler issued an
+order which he hoped would conduce to that end. The civil guard, or
+rural military police, was to be restored to duty, amnesty was offered
+to all insurgents who surrendered within fifteen days and who had not
+been guilty of burning or confiscating property, and all others were to
+be treated as bandits, to be put summarily to death. All loyal
+inhabitants were required actively to assist in repairing railroads,
+telegraph lines, etc. A similar proclamation was issued for the other
+provinces.
+
+The elections were set for April 12, and were then held. The Reformist
+faction of Spaniards refused to take part in them, not approving the
+policy of Weyler. The Cuban Autonomists also refused to vote, or to
+nominate candidates, excepting for Deputies from the University of
+Havana and the Economical Society of Havana. They did this at great risk
+to themselves, because Weyler after trying persuasions resorted to the
+most ominous threats against them if they would not take part in the
+elections, and there really was much danger that at least their leaders
+would be arrested and imprisoned for treason. The outcome was that only
+Constitutionalists voted, and only their candidates were elected;
+representing an insignificant fraction of the Cuban people.
+
+Meantime the war raged unceasingly. Having failed to keep the Cubans
+from invading Pinar del Rio, and then from emerging from that province,
+Weyler again formed a trocha from Havana to Batabano to prevent them
+from moving further east. But both Gomez and Maceo broke through, the
+former marching into the heart of Matanzas and playing havoc with the
+sugar plantations, and the latter going southward to the Cienaga de
+Zapata and thence into Santa Clara, where he received strong
+reenforcements from Oriente and Camaguey. Then, when Weyler was massing
+his troops in Santa Clara, Maceo with 10,000 men swept back to the very
+gates of Havana. With the adoption of Weyler's policy as announced in
+his proclamations, the war became a campaign of destruction on both
+sides, each burning towns in order that they might not be occupied by
+the other. In this fashion in a few weeks there were burned or laid in
+ruins in Pinar del Rio the towns of Cabanaz, Cayajabos, Vinales,
+Palacios, San Juan Martinez, Montezuelo, Los Arroyos, Cuano, San Diego,
+Nunez, Bahia Honda, Hacha and Quiobra; in Havana there perished La
+Catalina, San Nicolas, Nueva Paz, Bejucal, Jaruco, Wajay, Melena and
+Bainoa; in Matanzas, Los Ramos, Macagua, Roque, San Jose and Torriente;
+and in Santa Clara, Amaro, Flora, Mata, Maltiempo, Ranchuelo, Salamanca
+and San Juan. Many other towns were partially destroyed. On March 13
+Maceo attacked Batabano, one of the most strongly defended Spanish coast
+towns, took 50 guns and much ammunition, and destroyed the town. Nine
+days later Gomez sent troops into the city of Santa Clara, and captured
+240,000 rounds of ammunition. He established his headquarters so near
+Las Cruces that General Pando fled from that place to Cienfuegos; for
+which cowardice he was recalled to Spain, as were several other
+generals. Maceo, after his exploit at Batabano, returned to Pinar del
+Rio, routed General Linares at Candelaria and another Spanish army at
+Cayajibaos, and destroyed part of the town of Pinar del Rio.
+
+Filibustering was now rife. In spite of the vigilance of the United
+States government and of the Spanish navy, numerous expeditions carried
+men and arms to the Cuban patriots. Those which were successful were
+little heard of by the public, while those which failed often attracted
+much attention. General Calixto Garcia, one of the most resolute and
+daring veterans of the Ten Years' War, sent one on the steamer
+_Hawkins_, which was lost at sea. He organized another on the British
+steamer _Bermuda_, which was detained by the United States authorities
+on February 24, and he was arrested and tried for "organizing a military
+expedition," but was acquitted. A little later he reorganized the
+expedition and reached Cuba with it in safety. Enrique Collazo and
+others sent an expedition from Cedar Keys on the _Stephen R. Mallory_,
+which was detained, for a time, but finally got off and landed most of
+the cargo in Matanzas. The Danish steamer _Horsa_ was seized by the
+United States authorities for carrying a military expedition. The
+_Commodore_ carried a cargo of arms safely from Charleston, S. C. The
+_Bermuda_ took another expedition from Jacksonville under Col. Vidal and
+Col. Torres, but was attacked by a Spanish gunboat before all the cargo
+was landed, and took to flight, throwing the rest of the cargo
+overboard. Other successful expeditions in the early part of 1896 were
+five on the steamer _Three Friends_, one of which was led by Julian
+Zarraga and one by Dr. Joaquin Castillo Duany; three on the _Laurada_,
+of which one was led by Juan Fernandez Ruiz and one by Rafael Portuondo;
+several led by Rafael Cabrera, one by General Carlos Roloff, and one by
+Juan Ruiz Rivera. One came from France, under Fernando Freyre y Andrade,
+bringing 5,000 rifles and 1,000,000 cartridges. President Cleveland
+issued a warning, that all violators of the United States neutrality
+laws would be prosecuted and severely punished, and General Weyler
+offered large rewards for information leading to the capture of such
+expeditions, but the chief effect was to stimulate Cuban patriots to
+greater efforts, if also to increased precautions.
+
+Much attention was meanwhile paid to Cuban affairs by the United States
+government, not only in trying to check filibustering but also in
+looking after the rights--and wrongs--of American citizens, and also in
+seeking an ending of a war which was commercially ruinous and humanely
+most distressing. Several joint resolutions were introduced in the
+Congress at Washington, for recognizing the Cubans as belligerents, for
+inquiry into the state and conditions of the war, for intervention, and
+for recognizing the independence of the Cuban Republic. There were
+finally adopted on April 6 resolutions favoring recognition of Cuban
+belligerency and the tender of good offices for the settlement of the
+war on the basis of Cuban independence. It was of course necessarily
+left to the discretion of the President to execute these designs. He did
+not deem it expedient to recognize Cuban belligerence, but he did
+promptly, on April 9, direct the American Minister at Madrid to make the
+tender of good offices for ending the war on the basis of reforms which
+would be satisfactory to the Cuban people. True, it had been made clear
+that the great mass of the Cuban people would accept nothing short of
+independence; but the American Secretary of State, Mr. Olney, believed
+that if a genuine measure of Home Rule were granted and put into effect,
+the Cubans and their friends in the United States would withdraw their
+support from the revolution and thus constrain the revolutionists to
+yield and accept the compromise. To this overture of the United States
+government Spain made no reply; nor did it to a similar suggestion
+offered by the Pope. But Tomas Estrada Palma, speaking for the Cuban
+Junta in New York and for Cubans and Cuban sympathizers throughout the
+United States, declared that they were not at all interested in any such
+scheme, and that they would consider nothing short of absolute
+independence.
+
+The Spanish government did, indeed, consider a scheme of so-called
+autonomy, somewhat resembling that of Senor Abarzuza at the beginning of
+the war; but in the speech from the throne at the opening of the Cortes
+on May 11 it was frankly recognized that the revolutionists would accept
+nothing short of independence, and that therefore it would be expedient
+to attempt any such reforms until the insurrection had been subdued by
+force of arms; which was, of course, General Weyler's policy.
+
+There were numerous diplomatic controversies between Spain and the
+United States over Cuban affairs. The American Consul-General at Havana,
+Ramon O. Williams, intervened in behalf of numerous American citizens
+who had been arrested for complicity in the revolution, insisting upon
+their trial by civil and not by military courts. In the case of five
+American sailors taken on a filibustering expedition, death by shooting
+was ordered by Weyler, but the Spanish government quashed the sentence
+and ordered a civil trial on Mr. Williams's threat to close the
+Consulate and thus suspend relations. Antagonism between the consul and
+the Captain-General became so intense that Mr. Williams offered to
+resign his office, but the President requested him to remain. However he
+finally retired, at his own volition, and was succeeded on June 3 by
+Fitzhugh Lee; who proved equally resolute in his protection of American
+interests.
+
+Meantime, what of the revolutionary civil government of the Republic of
+Cuba? At the beginning it was a fugitive in the mountain fastnesses of
+the Sierra Maestra, in the southern part of Oriente, between Santiago
+and Manzanillo. Thence it removed to Las Tunas, in the same province.
+But after the great eastward drive by Gomez and Maceo it established
+itself permanently in the Sierra de Cubitas, in the Province of
+Camaguey, midway between the city of Camaguey and the north coast of
+Cuba. There it remained, in a practically impregnable stronghold, and
+there it surrounded itself with such military industries as it was
+capable of conducting--largely the manufacture of dynamite, machetes,
+and of clothing. From that capital it directed an efficient
+administration of the major part of the island. It levied and collected
+taxes, and gave to about two-thirds of the island a mail service at
+least as efficient as that of the Spanish government had ever been. A
+complete judicial and police system was maintained, and was more
+respected by the people than that of Spain. In brief it was
+substantially true, as President Cisneros declared, that the island was
+peaceful, law-abiding and well-governed, excepting in those places where
+the Spanish invaders were making trouble!
+
+But the Spanish did make trouble. Weyler once more strove to place an
+impassable barrier between Pinar del Rio and Havana, to keep Maceo shut
+up in the former province. He constructed it so strongly, with ditches,
+block houses, barbed wire fences, artillery and what not as to make it
+almost impossible of passage. Then he put 10,000 of his best troops west
+of it, to fight Maceo, and distributed 28,000 more along the trocha to
+keep Maceo from breaking out. The result was most unfortunate for the
+Spanish troops west of the trocha. They were there to hunt down Maceo.
+Instead, Maceo hunted them. If they ventured to attack him, he repulsed
+them. More often he attacked them, and almost invariably routed them. At
+Lechuza he cut to pieces Colonel Debos's column and drove its survivors
+to the shelter of a gunboat at the shore. At Bahia Honda and Punta Brava
+the Spanish were badly beaten. In the Rubi Hills a Spanish force was all
+but annihilated, and the commanders began to clamor for reenforcements;
+though Maceo had only 11,000 men, and the Spanish had 50,000 along the
+trocha to keep him from crossing it. During the summer the campaign
+slackened a little, though Maceo won several spirited engagements and
+maintained his control of practically all the province excepting parts
+of the coast. In the early fall, with his army increased to 20,000 he
+resumed the aggressive; using for the first time a dynamite gun which
+thoroughly demoralized the Spaniards. Near Pinar del Rio city, at Las
+Tumbas Torino, at San Francisco, at Guayabitos and at Vinales, he
+defeated the enemy and inflicted heavy losses. The same record was made
+early in October at San Felipe, at Tunibar del Torillo, at Manaja, at
+Ceja del Negro, and Guamo. A solitary Spanish victory was won at
+Guayabitos.
+
+Like the general government at Cubitas, Maceo had headquarters in the
+mountains, and there guarded effectively a large and fertile region,
+where supplies ample for feeding his army could be produced. He also
+conducted workshops for the manufacture of arms and ammunition. Against
+this position, in his rage and desperation, Weyler himself in November
+led an army of 36,000 picked troops, with six Generals. For several days
+attack after attack was made, every one being repulsed by Maceo with
+heavy loss to the Spaniards, until at last, with a third of his army
+destroyed, Weyler abandoned the attempt and retreated. Unfortunately, on
+December 4 Maceo with his staff and a small force decided to undertake a
+secret expedition to seek a conference with leaders in Havana Province.
+They accordingly crossed the Bay of Mariel in a small boat and thus
+reached the eastern side of the trocha. Messages were sent to
+revolutionary chiefs in Havana and Matanzas, asking them to come to a
+council of war at a designated point near Punta Brava, familiar to them
+all as secure rendezvous. A few came promptly, but in some way the
+secret of the meeting became known to the Spanish. In consequence, on
+December 7, while he was expecting the arrival of more of his friends,
+Maceo heard the sound of firing at the outposts of his camp. Riding to
+the scene, he found Spanish troops attacking him. He rallied his troops
+and under his directions they were soon mastering the enemy, when a shot
+struck Maceo and he fell mortally wounded; his last words, referring to
+the progress of the skirmish, being, "It goes well."
+
+[Illustration: JOSÉ ANTONIO MACEO
+
+Born at Santiago de Cuba in 1849, of a family of patriots and brave
+fighters, and dying in battle at Punta Brava, near Havana, on December
+7, 1896, José Antonio Maceo was one of the most gallant soldiers in the
+Ten Years' War and one of the very foremost chieftains of the War of
+Independence. Gifted with military genius and with leadership of men, he
+was the greatest strategist and the most popular commander in the
+Liberating Army, and the greatest terror to the foe. Partly of Negro
+blood, he was an equal honor to both races, and finely typified in
+himself their union in the cause of Cuban independence. A monument to
+his imperishable memory crowns Cacagual Hill, where his remains were
+buried.]
+
+At his fall his troops were panic stricken and gave way, so that the
+Spaniards occupied the field and plundered and stripped the dead. It was
+said that they did not know that it was Maceo whom they had killed until
+a native guide who was with them recognized his body. While they were
+still plundering the dead Cuban reenforcements under Pedro Diaz came up,
+furious at the loss of their peerless chief, and a desperate fight
+ensued, which ended in the rout of the Spaniards and the recovery of
+Maceo's body by the Cubans. When the defeated Spaniards got back to
+headquarters and reported that they had slain Maceo, they were not
+believed. It was not considered possible that he had crossed the trocha.
+But a little later convincing confirmation came to them from a Cuban
+source. This was furnished when Dr. Maximo Zertucha, who had been
+Maceo's surgeon-general and who was the only member of his staff who had
+survived the disastrous fight at Punta Brava, came to Spanish
+headquarters and surrendered himself. He explained that he did so
+because he had seen Maceo killed, and he regarded the loss of that
+leader as certainly fatal to the cause of the Cuban revolution. The
+Spanish authorities accepted his surrender and granted him full amnesty,
+a circumstance which caused many Cubans to suspect that he had betrayed
+his chief, by sending word of his whereabouts to the Spanish commander.
+Of this there appears, however, to have been no proof. Thus perished
+Antonio Maceo, who would have been the generalissimo of the Cuban forces
+but for the prudent fear that maligners might then have spread
+successfully the damaging libel that the revolution was nothing but a
+negro insurrection; a fear which he himself felt, and on account of
+which he insisted that Maximo Gomez should be the Commander in Chief of
+the Cuban Revolutionary armies. Thus perished Antonio Maceo, a soldier
+and a man without a superior in either of the contending armies, and a
+commander, indeed, who, in personal valor, in strategic skill, in
+resource, in resolution, in knowledge of the art of war, and in all the
+elements of military greatness, was worthy to be ranked among the great
+captains of all lands and of all time. The loss of him was irreparable.
+But it was not fatal to the Cuban cause. Thereafter the effort of every
+Cuban soldier and patriot was to increase his own efficiency to some
+degree, so that the aggregate would atone for the loss that had been
+sustained.
+
+While Maceo was thus baffling the Spanish in the far west of the island,
+Gomez and his lieutenants were more than holding their own in the other
+five provinces. Jose Maceo in April marched from Oriente all the way to
+the western side of Havana, where he was joined by Serafin Sanchez,
+Rodriguez, Lacret, Maso, Aguirre and others, until nearly 20,000 Cubans
+were gathered there. Gomez remained in Santa Clara, where the Spaniards
+had a precarious foothold at Cienfuegos, protected by their fleet.
+Colonel Gonzalez, commanding in the district of Remedios, routed the
+forces of General Oliver. Then, the Spanish power in the three great
+eastern provinces having been rendered negligible, a general movement
+westward was undertaken, following in the trail of the two Maceos. Gomez
+himself took supreme command, and Collazo, Calixto Garcia and others
+marched their forces to join him. Calixto Garcia, after only Maximo
+Gomez and Antonio Maceo, was the foremost chieftain of the patriots, and
+not unworthy to rank with them in a trinity of military prowess. He was
+now advanced in years, having been born in 1839, at Holguin, Oriente.
+From childhood a fervent patriot, at the outbreak of the Ten Years' War
+he took the field under Donato Marmol. His native bent for military
+achievement assured him advancement, and at Santa Rita and Baire he was
+a Brigadier General under Gomez. In 1871 he besieged Guisa and Holguin,
+and then, when Gomez marched westward into Camaguey, thence to force
+passage of the trocha between Jucaro and Moron, Garcia was left in
+supreme command in Oriente. In that capacity he was active, triumphing
+at Santa Maria, Holguin, Chaparra, the siege and capture of Manzanillo,
+and at Ojo de Agua de los Melones. Then came the incident which for the
+time ended his military career and which gave him that scar in the
+centre of his forehead which was ever after so conspicuous a feature. At
+San Antonio de Baja he and only twenty of his men were surprised and
+surrounded by a large force of Spaniards. Seeing that escape was
+impossible, and having vowed never to fall alive into the hands of
+Spain, he put the muzzle of a pistol beneath his chin and fired. The
+bullet passed through the tongue, the roof of his mouth, behind his
+nose, and out at the centre of his forehead. But not thus was he to die.
+The Spaniards took him to a hospital at Santiago, where he recovered,
+and then sent him to prison in Spain; whence he returned to Cuba after
+the Treaty of Zanjon. He was a leader in the "Little War"; then,
+enjoying the respect and friendship of Martinez Campos, he went back to
+Spain and for a time was a bank clerk at Madrid. Thus he was engaged
+when the War of Independence began. Suspected and watched, he was not
+able to escape until a year later. But on March 24, 1896, he landed at
+Baracoa with an important expedition, and thereafter he was a raging and
+consuming flame of war.
+
+The westward march was marked with victory. On May 14 Colonel Segura's
+whole battalion was captured. On June 9 and 10 near Najasa General
+Jiminez Castellanos was soundly beaten and forced to retreat to
+Camaguey. Then, hoping to bar the Cubans from Santa Clara, the Spanish
+reconstructed the eastern trocha, from Jucaro to Moron, and sent forces
+inland from Santiago and other coast towns to create a back fire in
+Oriente. Calixto Garcia turned upon these latter, and routed them on the
+Cauto River, at Venta de Casanova, and near Bayamo, and captured great
+stores of supplies. At Santa Ana several stubbornly contested battles
+occurred between Garcia and General Linares, in which the latter was
+finally worsted. At Loma del Gato on July 5 the Cubans under Jose Maceo
+and Perequito Perez defeated the forces of General Albert and Colonel
+Vara del Rey, but at the heavy cost of Maceo's death. Meanwhile Juan B.
+Zayas, Lacret and others penetrated Havana Province at will, in
+guerrilla warfare; but Zayas was finally killed in an engagement near
+Gabriel.
+
+During the rainy season there was comparatively little activity, but in
+the fall the advance westward began in earnest. Garcia captured
+Guaimaro, and Gomez pushed on to Camaguey, but left the place to be
+dealt with by Garcia and hastened on, with Rodriguez, Rabi, Bandera and
+Carrillo. He crossed the trocha with ease, penetrated Santa Clara, and
+was soon in Matanzas, where Aguirre joined them with 3,200 men. He put
+an end to sugar making throughout most of the province, and then
+encamped in the Cienaga de Zapata, leaving a number of active guerrilla
+bands to harass and menace Havana. In the latter province at the
+beginning of December Raoul Arango and Nicolas Valencia attacked the
+town of Guanabacoa, only five miles from Havana, and seized great
+stores of supplies. Beyond the western trocha Ruiz Rivera succeeded
+Antonio Maceo in command, and carried on his work with much success.
+Thus the second year of the war drew to a close with the patriots
+despite some heavy losses decidedly in the ascendant, and the Spanish
+campaign of ruthless severity no more successful than that of moderation
+and conciliation had been.
+
+One other incident of the year 1896 was highly significant. At the
+beginning of December the President of the United States, Mr. Cleveland,
+in his annual message to Congress, discussed the Cuban problem very
+fully and frankly. He practically reasserted the historic policy toward
+that island first enunciated by John Quincy Adams, as quoted in a
+preceding volume of this history. He reasserted the Monroe Doctrine. He
+made it clear that the United States had special interests in Cuba,
+which not only all other nations but also Spain herself must recognize
+and acknowledge. Concerning the war he said, most justly:
+
+"The spectacle of the utter ruin of an adjoining country, by nature one
+of the most fertile and charming on the globe, would engage the serious
+attention of the government and people of the United States in any
+circumstances. In point of fact, they have a concern with it which is by
+no means of a wholly sentimental or philanthropic character. It lies so
+near us as to be hardly separated from our territory. Our actual
+pecuniary interest in it is second only to that of the people and
+government of Spain. It is reasonably estimated that at least from
+$30,000,000 to $50,000,000 of American capital are invested in
+plantations and in railroad, mining and other business enterprises on
+the island. The volume of trade between the United States and Cuba,
+which in 1889 amounted to about $64,000,000, rose in 1893 to about
+$103,000,000, and in 1894, the year before the present insurrection
+broke out, amounted to nearly $96,000,000. Beside this large pecuniary
+stake in the fortunes of Cuba, the United States, finds itself
+inextricably involved in the present contest in other ways both
+vexatious and costly."
+
+Then he added, in words the purport of which was unmistakable:
+
+"When the inability of Spain to deal successfully with the insurrection
+has become manifest, and it is demonstrated that her sovereignty is
+extinct in Cuba for all purposes of its rightful existence, and when a
+hopeless struggle for its reestablishment has degenerated into a strife
+which means nothing more than the useless sacrifice of human life and
+the utter destruction of the very subject-matter of the conflict, a
+situation will be presented in which our obligations to the sovereignty
+of Spain will be superseded by higher obligations, which we can hardly
+hesitate to recognize and discharge."
+
+To those who knew Mr. Cleveland, and who appreciated the care with which
+he selected every word in all important addresses, this could have but
+one meaning. It meant that American intervention was inevitable. Note
+that he did not say "_If_ the inability of Spain _should_ ... a
+situation _would_ ..." as though the thing were still problematic. No;
+but he said plumply "When the inability of Spain _has_ become manifest
+... a situation _will_ be presented...." In his mind the thing was
+certain to come. It had already come, and only awaited disclosure and
+recognition. Remember, too, that of all men of his time Mr. Cleveland
+was one of the most opposed to "jingoism," and meddling with the affairs
+of other lands; while to any suggestion of conquest and annexation of
+Cuba to the United States he would have offered the most resolute
+opposition of which he was capable. In view of those facts, that
+utterance in his message was of epochal import. It foreshadowed
+precisely what did occur less than a year and a half later. It was in
+effect a declaration of intervention and of war with Spain in behalf of
+Cuban independence, made more than a year before the steamer _Maine_
+entered Havana harbor.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+
+We have said that the death of Antonio Maceo moved Cuban patriots to
+redouble their efforts to atone for the grievous loss which their cause
+had thus suffered. Unfortunately not all of them were capable of so
+doing, while those who did so were unable to make devotion and zeal take
+the place of consummate military genius. In consequence, despite the
+utmost efforts of Gomez and his colleagues matters went badly for the
+revolution through most of the following year. Gomez himself indeed felt
+that he had lost his right arm. He was at La Reforma, near Sancti
+Spiritus, at the beginning of 1897, and he summoned the other
+revolutionary leaders to meet him there, to concentrate their forces,
+and to plan a new campaign. They came promptly and eagerly, some of them
+unfortunately thus leaving without protection important strategic points
+and centers of revolutionist industry, which were pounced upon and
+captured by the Spanish. When the patriot forces were thus gathered it
+was expected that there would be immediately undertaken a general
+advance westward, into Matanzas and Havana; for which it was believed
+the Cuban army was strong enough, and which the Spanish were not
+believed to be able to resist.
+
+Instead, Gomez decided first to effect the reduction of Arroyo Blanco.
+This was a small and unimportant town in the Province of Camaguey, near
+the Santa Clara border; containing a Spanish garrison under Captain
+Escobar. Gomez first summoned Escobar to surrender, in order to avoid
+the destruction which would be caused by the bombardment of the place
+with a dynamite gun, which he threatened to begin forthwith. Escobar
+defied him, and the bombardment was undertaken, but proved ineffective,
+and before Gomez could capture the place strong Spanish reenforcements
+arrived and the attempt had to be abandoned. Thereafter Gomez contented
+himself with sending several strong bands westward, to conduct guerrilla
+warfare against the Spaniards wherever they could, while he himself
+remained near Sancti Spiritus, also engaging in irregular operations.
+
+There he was presently menaced by Weyler himself. That formidable foe
+had practically achieved the conquest of Pinar del Rio. After Maceo's
+death the Cuban forces in that province had largely dispersed, some
+abandoning the struggle altogether as hopeless, and others going to the
+east, to join themselves with Gomez, Garcia or other surviving leaders.
+Only a few roving bands remained. Accordingly Weyler announced that the
+western province was pacified. That was sufficiently true; but it was
+conspicuously true in the sense expressed by Tacitus, and Byron. They
+had made a solitude, and called it peace. Seldom had any comparable
+region been so thoroughly devastated and desolated. Then Weyler felt
+himself free to lead his army elsewhere.
+
+He set out from Havana with an imposing array of troops, and marched
+through the heart of the province and of Matanzas, into Santa Clara. On
+the way there was little fighting to do, not even to beat off guerrilla
+bands. His attention was given, therefore, to devastating the country,
+and to driving the inhabitants into "concentration camps," where they
+were doomed to starve to death by thousands. By the end of February he
+was triumphantly encamped at the foot of the Guamuhaya Mountains,
+between Santa Clara and Trinidad, and had the satisfaction of having
+wrought vast destruction upon the property of Cubans and upon the
+essential supplies of the Cuban army.
+
+A few weeks later Quintin Bandera with a small force came from Camaguey
+and, by wading through the shallow water of the Bay of Sabanabamar, got
+around the trocha and joined Gomez. The latter directed him to continue
+westward, and to harass the Spaniards with guerrilla attacks. This was
+done, and Bandera proceeded as far as Trinidad. Then failing to receive
+necessary support he turned back, and on July 4 was killed in a skirmish
+at Pelayo. East of the trocha Calixto Garcia continued his formidable
+career against such Spanish forces as remained in that region. He
+captured Las Tunas after forty-eight hours of almost incessant fighting.
+In Matanzas and Havana the revolutionary bands were badly broken up by
+the Spaniards, and they seemed to lack efficient leadership. Their
+leader, General Lacret, fell into an unfortunate controversy with Gomez
+over his treatment of Cubans who disregarded government orders,
+especially in their attitude toward the Spaniards. Gomez, remorseless,
+would have had them shot as traitors, but Lacret insisted upon more
+lenient treatment of them, realizing that they were almost literally
+"between the devil and the deep sea" and were therefore entitled to
+sympathetic consideration. The outcome was that Gomez relieved Lacret of
+his command and appointed Alexander Rodriguez in his place, in Matanzas.
+That officer failed to command the loyalty of his troops, and the result
+was that the latter generally deserted and dispersed. Mayia Rodriguez
+was then ordered to the scene, but was unable to collect a sufficient
+force, and remained in Santa Clara, hemmed in by the Spanish. General
+Jose Maria Aguirre, who died in December, 1896, was succeeded in command
+in the Province of Havana by Nestor Aranguren, who performed some
+creditable minor operations, particularly against Spanish railroad
+communications, but achieved nothing of real importance. His lieutenant,
+General Adolfo Castillo, in the southern part of the province, was
+killed in battle, in September, and was succeeded by Juan Delgado. The
+Spanish General Parrado in October marched without opposition as far as
+Los Palos, and there received the surrender of a small Cuban band; and
+in November General Pando with a powerful army made his way without
+serious opposition from Havana to the western part of Oriente.
+
+It was during this year that Weyler's ever infamous "concentration"
+policy, which was really a policy of extermination, reached its infernal
+climax and was then repudiated and abandoned. This system, as already
+related, was decreed on October 21, 1896. It required all Cubans, men,
+women and children, to leave their homes in the rural regions and enter
+concentration camps. These were simply huge pens, enclosed with fences
+and barbed wire and guarded by Spanish soldiers. There the hapless
+prisoners were huddled together, without shelter from the elements, and
+with little or no food save such as could be procured by stealth. There
+was none to be had within the enclosures, of course, and the prisoners
+could not go out to get any, even if any was to be found in the
+devastated country around them. Their friends outside seldom dared
+approach the camps to bring them food, because as they had not
+themselves surrendered as commanded by Weyler, they were liable to be
+shot at sight.
+
+Elsewhere Cubans by thousands were driven into towns and cities which
+were still under Spanish control, and were there kept prisoners within
+the Spanish lines. They were not quite so badly off as those in the
+concentration camps, though the difference was not great. They had no
+means of obtaining food, save as the municipal authorities, more
+merciful than Weyler, opened "soup kitchens" and thus in charity kept
+some of them from starvation. As it was the mortality from starvation,
+disease and exposure was appalling. As it was reported that many of
+these sufferers were American citizens, the President of the United
+States asked Congress to appropriate $50,000 for their relief. This was
+done, and the sum was sent to the Consul-General at Havana. He was,
+however, able to reach only a small proportion of the sufferers, and
+thus was presently compelled to report that he had been unable to expend
+more than a fraction of the sum at his disposal. This monstrous policy
+of waging war against non-combatants, including women and children, did
+more perhaps than anything else to crystallize public opinion throughout
+the United States against Weyler and against the Spanish government
+which he represented and which was responsible for him, and to
+strengthen the demand that was being made for intervention in behalf of
+humanity.
+
+This demand was made not merely by the "yellow press," which was
+inspired by sordid and sinister motives, but also by the most
+thoughtful, disinterested and upright men of America. Fitzhugh Lee, the
+highly competent and trustworthy consul-general at Havana, officially
+reported in December, 1897, that in the Province of Havana alone there
+had been 101,000 of the "reconcentrados," of which more than half had
+died. About 400,000 innocent and unoffending persons, chiefly women and
+children, had been transformed into imprisoned paupers, to be sustained
+by charity or to die of disease and famine. Senator Proctor, of Vermont,
+one of the foremost members of the United States Senate, made a personal
+tour of investigation in such parts of the island as were accessible,
+and reported to his colleagues that "It is not peace, nor is it war; it
+is desolation and distress, misery and starvation." The people of the
+United States thus came to the conclusion that the Spanish were unable
+to subdue the Cubans, and that the Cubans were unable to expel the
+Spanish, and that the war was therefore nothing but a campaign of
+destruction and extermination, which would end only when one side was
+exhausted or extirpated. It was impossible that a civilized and humane
+nation should regard such a spectacle at its very doors with
+indifference. We have hitherto quoted the significant remarks of
+President Cleveland on the subject in his message of December, 1896,
+clearly foreshadowing intervention. His successor, President McKinley,
+in his message of just a year later, in December, 1897, expressed in
+slightly different language the identical convictions and purposes. He
+said:
+
+[Illustration: WILLIAM MCKINLEY]
+
+"The near future will demonstrate whether the indispensable conditions
+of a righteous peace, just alike to the Cubans and to Spain, as well as
+equitable to all our interests so intimately involved in the welfare of
+Cuba, is likely to be attained. If not, the exigency of further and
+other action by the United States will remain to be taken. When that
+time comes, that action will be determined in the line of indisputable
+right and duty.... If it shall hereafter appear to be a duty imposed by
+our obligations to ourselves, to civilization, and to humanity, to
+intervene with force, it shall be without fault on our part, and only
+because the necessity for such action will be so clear as to command the
+support and approval of the civilized world."
+
+If McKinley, a less aggressive and more conciliatory man than Cleveland,
+spoke a little less positively than his predecessor, in that he employed
+the hypothetical form, the purport of his words was the same. The one a
+Democratic President, the other a Republican President, long before that
+incident of the _Maine_ which has incorrectly been regarded by some as
+the cause of the American war with Spain, openly and in the most
+explicit manner contemplated the prospect of forcible intervention in
+Cuba and of consequent war.
+
+Meantime Spain herself passed through a political crisis, which made a
+change in her Cuban administration. Loud protests were made there
+against the ruthless and inhuman policy of Weyler, but the Prime
+Minister, Canovas del Castillo, was deaf to them and persisted in
+retaining Weyler in command. But on August 8 Canovas was assassinated by
+an Anarchist, and was succeeded by General Azcarraga, Minister of War,
+who continued his policy unchanged. But on September 29 the whole
+Cabinet resigned, and on October 4 Sagasta, the Liberal leader, became
+Prime Minister. He promptly recalled Weyler and appointed General Ramon
+Blanco to be Captain-General of Cuba in his stead. Weyler departed,
+breathing wrath and hatred against Cuba and against America, and
+predicting failure for his successor, even as Campos had predicted it
+for Weyler himself.
+
+Blanco arrived at Havana on November 1, 1897, with the purpose, as he
+had announced before sailing, of putting sincerely into effect the
+reforms which Sagasta had outlined, reforms which would, he believed, be
+acceptable to the Cuban people. He found the condition of affairs in the
+island to be far worse than it had been reported, or than he had
+expected. The "reconcentrados" had been dying and were still dying by
+tens of thousands. The soldiers had not been paid for months and in
+consequence were disaffected and mutinous, and were looting to obtain
+food which they had no money to buy. Both the Spanish and the Cuban
+Autonomists were profoundly dissatisfied; while the Revolutionists,
+though making no progress, were as implacable as ever. He at once
+ordered the concentration camps to be abolished, saying that he would
+not make war upon women and children, and he secured a credit of
+$100,000 from the Spanish government to assist the Cuban peasantry in
+the rehabilitation of their ruined farms. All American citizens were
+released from prison, as were also many Cubans who were under sentence
+of death. Cuban refugees and exiles were invited to return home, and
+every facility possible was afforded for the resumption of sugar making
+and agriculture. He then undertook to put into effect a system of home
+rule which he fondly hoped would satisfy the Autonomists and would bring
+the masses of the Cuban people over to the side of that party.
+
+Let us review briefly the state of Cuba at this epochal time, the ending
+of 1897 and the beginning of 1898, the ultimate climax of four centuries
+of Cuban history. The War of Independence had been in progress less than
+three years. Five successively unsuccessful Captains-General had striven
+to conquer a brave people resolved to be free. No fewer than 52,000
+Spanish soldiers had lost their lives in battle or from disease, 47,000
+had been returned to Spain disabled, 42,000 were in hospitals unfit for
+duty, and 70,000 regulars and 16,000 irregulars still kept up the
+fatuous struggle. The infamies of Weyler had destroyed by starvation and
+disease 250,000 Cubans, the majority of them women and children,
+reducing the population of the island to 1,100,000 Cubans intent on
+independence and 150,000 Spaniards opposed to their having it. The Cuban
+army consisted of 25,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry, fairly well armed,
+with some artillery. Maximo Gomez was Commander in Chief. Major-General
+Calixto Garcia commanded in Camaguey and Oriente, with Pedro Perez,
+Jesus Rabi and Mario G. Menocal as his lieutenants. Major-General
+Francisco Carrillo commanded in Santa Clara, aided by Jose Rodriguez,
+Hijino Esquerra, Jose Miguel Gomez and Jose Gonzales. In the western
+three provinces Major-General Jose Maria Rodriguez commanded, with Pedro
+Betancourt, Alexandra Rodriguez, Pedro Vias and Juan Lorente as his
+chief aids. The civil government of the Republic had been changed
+somewhat, Bartolome Maso being President, Domingo Mendez Capote
+Vice-President and Secretary of War, Andreas Moreno Secretary of Foreign
+Affairs, Ernesto Fonts-Sterling Secretary of Finance, and Manuel Silva
+Secretary of the Interior. This organization, with its provincial and
+municipal subordinates, was performing the functions of government under
+great difficulties, yet much more efficiently and to a much wider extent
+throughout the island, than the Spanish administration.
+
+The uncompromising attitude of the Revolutionists, and the hopelessness
+of any attempt at amicable adjustment of affairs, was at this time
+strikingly shown in a tragic incident. It was in December, 1897. There
+was in Havana a young Spanish officer named Joaquin Ruiz, who had
+formerly served as a civil engineer, and had been intimately associated
+with Nestor Aranguren, another young engineer who had become a leader of
+the Revolutionists and had made himself particularly active and annoying
+to the Spanish in the Province of Havana. The two were close friends,
+and were both men of charming personality. The Spanish authorities in
+Havana determined to use this friendship in an attempt to seduce
+Aranguren into betraying or at least deserting the patriot cause. So
+Ruiz was directed to open a correspondence with Aranguren, with a view
+to securing a personal interview with him. Aranguren wrote to Ruiz that
+he would be glad to meet him personally, but could not do so if he came
+on any political errand; and he warned him that for him to come to the
+Cuban camp with any proposal of Cuban surrender or acceptance of
+autonomy would subject him to the penalty of death, which would
+infallibly be carried out. Despite this warning, and presumably against
+his own better judgment, Ruiz obeyed the orders of his superiors, and
+undertook the errand. He had no safe conduct. He bore no flag of truce.
+He went through no agreement between the commanding officers of the
+respective sides. He went in the circumstances and manner of a spy; and
+his purpose was to persuade, if possible, a Cuban officer to betray his
+trust and become a traitor to his own cause.
+
+When in these circumstances Ruiz reached Aranguren, the latter was so
+distressed that it is said he burst into tears and, embracing his old
+friend, exclaimed, "Why have you come? It will mean your certain death!
+I cannot save you!" And such indeed was the case. Aranguren was devoted
+to his friend, but still more to Cuba. Ruiz was taken before a court
+martial. He made no defence. He admitted the character and purpose of
+his errand. And he received the sentence of death with the fortitude of
+a brave man. An attempt was made by the Spanish authorities to exploit
+Ruiz as a martyr to Cuban savagery, but it recoiled upon their own
+heads. It was shown that they had unworthily employed a brave and
+devoted soldier in a discreditable errand, and that he had been dealt
+with according to the stern but just rules of war. It was also
+demonstrated that Cuban patriots were not thus to be corrupted. By a
+strange turn of fate, only a few weeks later Nestor Aranguren was killed
+by the Spanish during one of his daring raids against Havana. It was
+said that he was betrayed by a Spaniard who had become one of his
+followers for the purpose of avenging Ruiz. His body fell into the hands
+of the Spanish, and, despite their former assumed wrath over the
+execution of Ruiz, they treated it with all respect and interred it in
+the Columbus Cemetery at Havana, close to the grave of Ruiz.
+
+This was not the only incident of the sort. Only a few weeks after the
+death of Ruiz a civilian named Morales went to the camp of Pedro Ruiz,
+in the Province of Pinar del Rio, with proposals for compromise on the
+basis of autonomy. He was promptly taken before a court martial, tried,
+condemned, and put to death. Whether Blanco himself was responsible for
+this policy of sending emissaries to the Cuban camp with proposals which
+he would not venture to make openly in an accredited manner to the Cuban
+government, did not appear. The presumption, because of his known
+character, is that he was not, and indeed that he was not aware that
+they were being made. There is even reason for thinking that after the
+Morales case was brought to his attention, he prohibited any more such
+clandestine and illegal enterprises. Tragic as the incidents were, and
+especially regrettable as was the sacrifice of such a man as Ruiz, it
+was well to have it made unmistakably clear that the Cubans were not
+inclined to end the war by surrender or by compromise, but were intent
+upon fighting it out to the end.
+
+In such circumstances Blanco strove for the last time to defeat the
+Cuban national desire for independence. He probably realized in advance
+the certainty of failure. He had been Captain-General before, succeeding
+Campos after the Ten Years' War and during the Little War, and he must
+have known the temper of the Cuban people and the unwillingness of the
+great majority of them to accept the delusive scheme of autonomy which
+Spain was fitfully offering, and in which he himself never had any real
+faith and which, indeed, he had never favored. But he was a loyal
+Spanish soldier, of the better type, and he was personally as little
+odious to the Cubans as any Spanish Captain General could be, for he had
+never been notably tyrannical or cruel. The decree of autonomy was
+adopted by the Spanish government on November 25, 1897, largely because
+of the urgings--to use no stronger term--of the United States, and was
+promulgated by Blanco in Cuba early in December. The scheme provided for
+universal suffrage; a bi-cameral Legislature consisting of a Council of
+eighteen elected members and seventeen appointed by the crown, and a
+House containing one elected member for each 25,000 inhabitants. To this
+Legislature were nominally committed most of the functions of
+government. But it was provided that "The supreme government of the
+colony shall be exercised by a Governor-General." That was the crux of
+the whole matter. That made the Captain-General, or Governor-General as
+he was thereafter to be called, the practical dictator of the island.
+
+To this entirely illusive and delusive scheme, the remnant of the
+Autonomist party gave adherence with a devotion worthy of a better
+cause. The Reformist faction of the Spanish party also, though not so
+readily, approved it. The intransigent Constitutionalists would have
+none of it. Tenuous and futile as were its apparent concessions to the
+Cubans, they were far too much for these insular Bourbons to be willing
+to grant. They socially ostracised Blanco, and before the system was to
+go into effect they called a convention at Havana to protest and to
+foment against it. The president of the party, the Cuban-born Marquis de
+Apezteguia, was indeed in favor of giving autonomy a trial. But he could
+not control the party whose other members were almost unanimously
+against it. They had defeated and expelled Campos. Now they resolved to
+do the same with Blanco. At the convention Apezteguia was rebuked and
+repudiated, though left in office. A telegram of sympathy was sent to
+Weyler. Speeches were made denouncing the United States, its President
+and its Congress. A resolution was adopted condemning and opposing
+autonomy, and another declaring that Constitutionalists would not vote
+nor take any part in public affairs.
+
+[Illustration: ANTONIO GOVIN
+
+Antonio Govin, born at Matanzas in 1849 and deceased in Havana in 1914,
+was a jurist, publicist, orator and patriot of distinction. He was
+Professor of Administrative Law at the University of Havana, and was the
+author of a number of volumes on law and on Colonial history. He was one
+of the founders and strong advocates of the Autonomist party and a
+member of the Autonomist cabinet.]
+
+In the face of these circumstances, Blanco organized his Autonomist
+Cabinet. The date was January 1, 1898. The place was the historic throne
+room of the Captain-General's palace. There were present beside the
+Cabinet the various foreign consuls and the dignitaries of the Roman
+Catholic Church. A small crowd of the people gathered outside, but the
+public in general paid little attention to the event. Yet the Cabinet
+which then came into brief existence was a body of men that in other
+circumstances would have commanded most favorable attention. The nominal
+head, President of the Cabinet without portfolio, was José Maria Galvez,
+a lawyer and orator, the author of the Autonomist manifestoes of 1879
+and 1895. The real head, the most forceful and influential member, not
+only, indeed, of the Cabinet but of the whole Autonomist party, was Dr.
+Rafael Montoro, the "Cuban Castelar" as his friends used to call him. He
+had long been an advocate of real autonomy, he had been the chief
+founder of the Autonomist party, he had been a Cuban Deputy to the
+Spanish Cortes, he had signed the Autonomist manifestoes of 1879 and
+1895, and he had approved the insular reforms proposed by Canovas del
+Castillo. As lawyer, orator, scholar, writer, he had no superior if
+indeed a peer in Cuba. It was the inscrutable tragedy of a great career
+that he identified himself with the Autonomist movement. He was Minister
+of Finance. The Minister of Justice was Antonio Govin, also one of the
+original Autonomists, a man of great courage and ability, who on the
+failure of the Autonomist regime left Cuba and settled in the United
+States. Francisco Zayas, an accomplished educator, was made Minister of
+Instruction. Laureano Rodriguez, a Peninsular Spaniard, was Minister of
+Agriculture, Labor and Commerce. Eduardo Dolz, a Reformist, was also a
+member, who was supposed to be the special representative of the Spanish
+crown. Two other men, not Ministers but high in Autonomist councils,
+Senors Amblard and Giberga, were regarded by the Spanish party as
+traitors who were really in league with the Revolutionists. Blanco swore
+in these Ministers, addressed them with an exhortation to support
+autonomy and to suppress the revolution, and gave them as the watchword
+of their administration "Long live Cuba, forever Spanish!"
+
+For a few days the glamor and the illusion lasted. Some inconspicuous
+revolutionists yielded to Spanish blandishments and surrendered; to whom
+the honest and chivalrous Blanco granted in good faith the amnesty which
+he had promised. Some Cuban refugees returned from the United States.
+The Autonomists--the few who still remained; for the majority had by
+this time joined the Revolutionists, gone into exile, or been
+imprisoned--declared their adherence to the new order of affairs and
+professed satisfaction with it. Apparently they accepted at face value
+the explanations which were voluminously put forth by the government, to
+the effect that the system was practically identical with that of
+Canada, under which that country had long been contented, loyal and
+prosperous. Technically, no doubt, there was a tolerably close analogy
+between the two. It was quite true that the powers reserved to the
+Spanish crown in Cuba through the Governor-General were similar to those
+reserved to the British crown in Canada through the Viceroy. But the
+decisive factor in the case, which the Autonomists apparently ignored,
+was this, that while in Canada it was an unwritten but unbroken law
+that the crown did not exercise its powers save in accordance with the
+will of the people, it was morally certain that in Cuba the Spanish
+crown would exercise its powers to the full, whether the people liked it
+or not. The Cuban Autonomists in the United States, where many of them
+deemed it prudent to remain, did not suffer from the illusions of their
+compatriots in Cuba, and generally expressed dissatisfaction with the
+scheme, or at least reserved their judgment upon it.
+
+The Spanish Reformists in Cuba also approved the scheme. They had
+deserted and betrayed Campos, and had been ignored by Weyler. Now they
+struggled to return to public recognition and influence. True, they had
+never before wanted or approved autonomy. But they saw that now they
+must do so or remain in retirement. So they joined hands with the Cuban
+Autonomists, congratulated the Spanish government, and pledged their
+loyalty to Blanco. This gave the Spanish government ground for its
+exultant belief that these two parties had united in its support, and
+would probably control the island in behalf of autonomy.
+
+But there were still the Constitutionalists to be reckoned with. They
+were implacable. They had shown in their convention a few weeks before
+their hostility to autonomy. They had ostracised Blanco. Now they
+proceeded to further extremes. They organized riotous disturbances in
+Havana, and made violent demonstrations against Blanco and, which was in
+some respects more serious, against the American government and the
+American citizens in Cuba. So ominous did these disturbances become at
+the middle of January that the Consul-General, Fitzhugh Lee, was driven
+to request the sending of a war ship to Havana harbor for the protection
+of American citizens. In consequence, on January 24 the cruiser _Maine_
+was sent to Havana. This action was taken after consultation with the
+Spanish government, in which that government expressed great pleasure at
+the prospect of thus having a friendly visit of the American vessel to
+Cuban waters, and arranged to have its own cruiser the _Vizcaya_ make a
+return visit to New York.
+
+This was not satisfactory, however, to the Spanish Minister at
+Washington, Senor Dupuy de Lome, who having failed to bring President
+McKinley to his own point of view of Cuban affairs, showed plainly his
+animosity against that gentleman, and wrote a letter to a personal
+friend characterizing the President as a vacillating and time-serving
+politician. This letter through some clandestine means was placed in the
+hands of the United States Secretary of State, who at once sent for the
+Minister and asked him plumply if he had written it. The latter of
+course acknowledged that he had. Thereupon the Secretary cabled to the
+American Minister at Madrid to request the Spanish government to recall
+the offending envoy. This the Spanish government would doubtless have
+done, but for the fact that De Lome forestalled such action by cabling
+his resignation an hour before the dispatch of the Secretary of State
+reached Madrid. The Spanish government then sent Senor Polo y Bernabe to
+be its Minister at Washington.
+
+[Illustration: THE BAY AND HARBOR OF HAVANA
+
+The capital of Cuba is seated upon the shore of a spacious and beautiful
+bay, the entrance to which is between the two bold headlines crowned
+respectively by the Morro Castle and La Punta fortress, while the domes
+and spires of the great city have for a background the central mountain
+range of the island. The harbor of Havana is one of the most secure and
+commodious in the world, and in commercial importance, measured by
+tonnage of shipping, ranks among the foremost in the Western
+Hemisphere.]
+
+There next occurred the greatest and most mysterious tragedy of the
+entire revolutionary period. On the evening of February 15, at twenty
+minutes before ten o'clock, a violent explosion occurred under or in the
+forward portion of the _Maine_ as she lay in Havana harbor, sufficient
+to lift the hull some distance above its normal level. A few seconds
+later another and more violent explosion followed, which so completely
+destroyed the forward part of the ship that most of it could never
+be found. The remainder of the vessel almost immediately sank, in about
+six fathoms of water. Of the complement of 360, two officers and 264 men
+were killed, and of the remainder 60 were wounded. Captain Sigsbee,
+commander of the _Maine_, telegraphed to Washington that all judgment
+upon the matter should be suspended until after full investigation.
+Blanco telegraphed to Madrid that the catastrophe was doubtless due to
+an accident within the ship, and the Madrid government promptly
+expressed regret and sympathy.
+
+In the United States there was a great outburst of grief and rage. Even
+the most restrained and conservative could not help a degree of
+suspicion of foul play, though of course not on the part of the Spanish
+government. A semi-criminal faction, in the "yellow" press, clamored
+furiously for war, charging Spaniards, even the Spanish government, with
+direct and malicious responsibility for the tragedy, and even publishing
+the grossest of falsehoods for the sake of inflaming popular sentiment.
+Too large a proportion of the nation was swayed by these latter sordid
+and sinister influences. But at least the government kept its head, and
+acted with admirable discretion; though for so doing the President
+incurred the virulent animosity of the chief clamorer for war, an
+animosity which was persistently maintained until it culminated in the
+incitement of a criminal Anarchist to assassinate the President.
+
+When the explosion occurred, and Blanco learned what it was, it is said
+that he shed tears and exclaimed, "This is the beginning of the end!"
+Despite his message to his government, he probably feared that there had
+been foul play, and he realized what effect, in any case, the incident
+would have upon Spanish-American relations. As for the Cuban
+revolutionists, both in Cuba and in the United States, they were almost
+stunned by two emotions. The hideous atrocity of the thing was
+overwhelming, and they grieved at the loss of the American sailors as
+though they themselves had been Americans. At the same time they could
+not be blind nor insensible to the almost certain sequel. They felt
+that, as Blanco said, it was the beginning of the end, and that now
+American intervention was practically assured.
+
+The Spanish government proposed a joint investigation into the disaster,
+but the United States government declined and conducted a thorough
+investigation of its own, through a board of eminent official experts.
+The report was that the loss of the ship was not due to any accident or
+to any negligence on the part of the officers and crew. The first
+explosion was external to the hull, as if caused by a torpedo or mine,
+and it caused the second explosion, which was that of the ship's
+magazines. The Spanish government then conducted an investigation of its
+own, resulting in a report that both explosions were within the ship and
+were presumably purely accidental. It may be added that a final
+examination in after years, when a cofferdam was built about the hulk
+and it was floated and then taken out to sea and sunk in deep water,
+fully confirmed the report of the American investigating board.
+
+It is to be recalled that Ramon O. Williams, who had only a little while
+before retired from the office of American Consul-General at Havana, and
+was particularly well informed and judicious, earnestly warned the
+United States government against sending a ship to Havana, because the
+harbor was very elaborately mined, and there was a bitter and truculent
+feeling among the Spaniards against the United States; wherefore the
+danger of some untoward occurrence was too great to be incurred without
+a more pressing necessity than was then apparent. But despite his
+warning the _Maine_ was sent. She was conducted by a Spanish official
+pilot to her anchorage at a buoy between Regla and the old custom house.
+Whether a mine was attached to that buoy or not is unknown, though Mr.
+Williams was confident that one was. His theory was that some malignant
+Spanish officer, who had access to the keyboard of the mines, perhaps
+through connivance with some other fanatic, watched to see the tide
+swing the ship directly over the mine and then touched the key and
+caused the explosion. That would account for the enormous hole which was
+blown in the side of the ship, and which could not have been caused by
+any little mine or torpedo which might have been floated to the side of
+the ship, but must have been produced by a very large mine planted deep
+beneath the hull.
+
+The findings of the American board of investigation were reported
+officially to the Spanish government, and the President in a message to
+Congress expressed confidence that Spain would act in the matter
+according to the dictates of justice, honor and friendship. The Spanish
+government replied that it would certainly do so, and it presently
+proposed to submit the whole subject to investigation by impartial
+experts, and to determination by arbitration. But this proposal was not
+made until April 10, when so much else had occurred to strain relations
+between the two countries that it could not be entertained by the United
+States.
+
+Meantime the Autonomist government in Cuba, with a devotion that was
+pathetic to behold, persisted in its efforts to justify its existence.
+An electoral census was taken, though of course it could not cover more
+than a small fraction of the island, and on March 27 an "election" of
+Cuban Deputies to the Cortes was held. In fact there was no popular
+voting at all. A list was prepared of eligible candidates, twenty of
+them being Autonomists and Reformists, or supporters of the government,
+and ten representing the Constitutionalist opposition. The list was
+submitted to the Governor-General and approved by him, and the
+candidates were declared to have been duly elected. Jose Maria Galvez,
+the president of the Autonomist cabinet, reported to the President of
+the United States that the new government was satisfactorily performing
+its functions, and entreated him to give no encouragement to the
+revolutionists which would militate against its success. In April there
+was another "election" for members of the two houses of the Insular
+Legislature. On May 4 that Legislature met, chose Fernando del Casco as
+President of the Assembly, and confirmed the Autonomist cabinet in its
+place; and it continued patiently and valiantly to hold sessions, make
+laws, and act as though it were a real government, exercising real
+authority over the island, all through the period of the American war
+with Spain and the practical siege of the island by the American navy.
+When the Spanish forces yielded and a protocol for peace was signed, on
+August 12, the Legislature held its last meeting, and was declared
+dissolved by Blanco in October. The Autonomist Cabinet continued to
+exercise its functions, at least nominally, until the end of Spanish
+sovereignty in Cuba.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+
+There could be no greater mistake than that which has been too often and
+too persistently made, in regarding the destruction of the _Maine_ as
+the cause of American, intervention in Cuba. The declarations of policy
+which we have already quoted from the messages of President Cleveland
+and President McKinley, the former fourteen months and the latter two
+months before that vessel went to Havana, are ample indications of the
+purpose of the American government to intervene unless there were a
+satisfactory amelioration of Cuban affairs. But there was no such
+amelioration, and therefore war was declared. It unquestionably would
+have been declared just the same, perhaps at a later and perhaps at an
+earlier date, if there had been no _Maine_ at all.
+
+Beginning before the destruction of the _Maine_, and accelerated after
+that event, both sides were preparing for war. Nevertheless diplomatic
+negotiations continued, chiefly conducted by the American Minister,
+Stewart L. Woodford, at Madrid. In order to facilitate such
+negotiations, President McKinley withheld the report on the _Maine_ from
+Congress for a time. Spain asked that the pacification of Cuba, which
+the United States was urging, be left to the Autonomist Legislature,
+which was to meet on May 4. The United States, declaring that it did not
+want Cuba but did want peace in Cuba, proposed an armistice to begin at
+once and to last until October 1, itself meantime to act as mediator
+between the Cubans and Spain. Spain replied that an armistice would be
+granted, to last at the pleasure of the Spanish commander, if the Cubans
+would ask for it themselves; and that already General Blanco had
+abandoned the "concentration" system. This was of course regarded as
+entirely unsatisfactory to the United States, but the peace-loving
+President McKinley hesitated to report to Congress his dissatisfaction
+with it.
+
+Meantime the Pope semi-officially expressed to both governments his
+earnest desire for the maintenance of peace; but to no effect. The
+German government, strongly sympathizing with Spain and seeking to
+foment ill-feeling between the United States and Great Britain, had its
+Ambassador at Washington, Dr. Von Holleben, form a cabal of the chief
+members of the Diplomatic Corps, to call on the President with what
+amounted to a suggestion of mediation, maliciously persuading the
+British Ambassador to act as spokesman of the delegation, in order that
+any resentment or odium should fall upon him and his country; but the
+President with admirable temper and resolution declined with thanks all
+foreign meddling in a controversy which concerned only the United States
+and Spain. The Spanish government proclaimed on April 10 a suspension of
+hostilities, in deference to the wishes of the Pope and of the great
+European powers. It was reported officially to the United States
+government that this armistice was granted without conditions, though
+General Blanco's proclamation declared that it was to continue only at
+the pleasure of the Spanish commanders. The Cuban government, through
+Maximo Gomez, replied that it had not sought the armistice and would not
+accept it unless Spain agreed to evacuate Cuba.
+
+The President of the United States at last, on April 11, laid the whole
+matter before Congress in a message which for calm moderation in the
+presence of unspeakable provocation, for convincing logic, for lofty and
+unselfish benevolence, for keen and just perception of existing
+conditions, and for valorous resolution to deal with them in the only
+satisfactory way, must take high rank among the great historic state
+documents of the world. After reviewing the story of the Cuban
+revolution and the condition into which it had plunged the island, he
+said: "The war in Cuba is of such a nature that, short of subjugation or
+extermination, a military victory for either side seems impracticable."
+Then, recounting the efforts of the United States to effect a just
+settlement by negotiation, he added: "The only hope of relief and repose
+from a condition which can no longer be endured is the enforced
+pacification of Cuba. In the name of humanity, in the name of
+civilization, in behalf of endangered American interests which give us
+the right and duty to speak and to act, the war in Cuba must stop. In
+view of these facts and these considerations I ask the Congress to
+authorize and empower the President to take measures to secure a full
+and final termination of hostilities between the government of Spain and
+the people of Cuba, and to secure in the island the establishment of a
+stable government capable of maintaining order and observing its
+international obligations, insuring peace and tranquillity and the
+security of its citizens as well as our own, and to use the military and
+naval forces of the United States as may be necessary for these
+purposes."
+
+It is to be observed that the President spoke of the war "between the
+government of Spain and the Cuban people"--the Cuban people, not the
+Cuban government. There had as yet been no official recognition of the
+Cuban government, either as independent or as belligerent, and the
+President could therefore not properly refer to it. At the same time he
+spoke of "the Cuban people" and not of merely a part of them,
+recognizing by inference that fact that the Cuban people were
+substantially a unit in revolting against Spain and in demanding
+independence.
+
+Spain made it dear that she bitterly resented what she regarded as the
+unwarrantable meddling of the United States in Cuban affairs, and that
+she would prefer war to yielding to that meddling. France and Austria,
+at German suggestion, made one more effort at mediation by the great
+powers, but abandoned it when Great Britain refused to have anything to
+do with it and indicated clearly her sympathy with the United States.
+
+Finally, on April 20 President McKinley signed the act of Congress which
+was made in response to his message of April 11. That memorable act, the
+Magna Charta of the Cuban Republic, declared that the people of Cuba
+were and of right ought to be free and independent; that it was the duty
+of the United States to demand, and it accordingly did demand, that
+Spain should immediately relinquish her authority and government in Cuba
+and withdraw her military and naval forces from that island and its
+waters; that the President be authorized to employ the army and navy of
+the United States as might be necessary to carry these resolutions into
+effect; and that the United States disclaimed any disposition or
+intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction or control over Cuba,
+except for the pacification thereof, and asserted its determination,
+when that was accomplished, to leave the government and control of the
+island to its people.
+
+Before signing this act the President cabled its substance to General
+Woodford at Madrid, in an ultimatum to the Spanish government, giving
+Spain three days in which to comply with the demands. Before the three
+days expired the Spanish Minister at Washington asked for his passports
+and departed, and the Spanish government notified General Woodford that
+diplomatic relations between the two countries were at an end. He
+thereupon took his passports and departed. It should be added that on
+April 21 the Autonomist government of Cuba issued a proclamation to the
+people of the island, urging them to unite in support of the Spanish
+government in its resistance to the war of conquest which the United
+States was about to wage for the seizure and annexation of the island.
+The success of the United States, it added, would mean that Cuba would
+be subjugated, dominated and absorbed by an alien race, opposed to
+Cubans in temperament, traditions, language, religion and customs.
+
+Thus the War of Independence entered a new and final phase, with the
+armed might of the United States assisting that Cuban cause the success
+of which had already become practically certain. The Cuban army rapidly
+grew in numbers and improved in morale, and was of course abundantly
+supplied with arms and ammunition, while the sending of reenforcements
+and supplies to the Spaniards was interfered with by the United States
+navy. As soon as the state of war began three United States agents were
+sent to Cuba, to investigate the condition and strength of the
+revolutionary army, and to arrange for its reenforcement and for
+cooperation between it and the American troops. Lieutenant Henry Whitney
+was thus sent to visit Maximo Gomez in the centre of the island;
+Lieutenant A. S. Rowan was sent to Oriente, and Lieutenant-Colonel J. H.
+Dorst was sent to Pinar del Rio.
+
+Lieutenant Whitney reached the camp of Gomez in Santa Clara Province on
+April 28, found affairs in a most promising state, and arranged for the
+prompt forwarding of supplies and of a considerable company of Cubans
+who had been enlisted in the United States for the revolutionary army.
+Gomez had an effective force of 3,000 men, and reenforcements of 750
+under General Lacret, with supplies of food and munitions, were promised
+him. But the expeditions, in two steamers, failed to reach him, and
+after waiting for them on the coast for two weeks, until his supplies of
+food were exhausted, he was compelled to disband his army. Domingo
+Mendez Capote, Vice-President of the Cuban Republic, hastened to
+Washington, to explain to the government the urgent need of sending
+supplies, and as a result renewed efforts were made to land expeditions,
+but with little success.
+
+The mission of Lieutenant-Colonel Dorst to Pinar del Rio was similarly
+unsuccessful. A few United States troops were landed under protection of
+the fire of gunboats, on May 12, but an attempt to deliver a great cargo
+of rifles and cartridges to the Cubans was defeated by the Spaniards,
+and the American troops were compelled to return to their ship and
+depart.
+
+In Oriente Lieutenant Rowan was more successful, owing to the fact that
+few Spanish forces remained in that province. He found the Spanish,
+indeed, in possession of only the three towns of Santiago, Bayamo and
+Manzanillo, and the forts along the railroad; and on April 29 they
+evacuated Manzanillo, which was thereupon occupied by Calixto Garcia.
+Lieutenant Rowan reported to Washington that Garcia was able to put
+8,000 efficient troops in the field, and presently considerable supplies
+were sent to him with little difficulty.
+
+Perhaps the most significant information obtained by these American
+envoys, and particularly by Lieutenant Whitney in his visit to the Cuban
+Commander in Chief, was that the Cubans, while exulting in American
+intervention, did not welcome but rather deprecated American invasion
+of the island. Maximo Gomez said frankly that he would prefer that not a
+single American soldier should set foot on the island, unless it were a
+force of artillery, which was an arm in which the Cubans were sorely
+lacking. All he asked was that the United States should supply the
+Cubans with arms and ammunition, and prevent supplies from reaching the
+Spaniards. If that were done, the Cubans would do the rest, and would
+expel the Spanish from the island without the loss of a single drop of
+American blood.
+
+The reasons for this reluctance to have American troops invade the
+island were chiefly two. One was a certain praiseworthy pride in Cuban
+achievements and a desire to retain for Cubans the credit of winning
+their own independence. Gomez and his comrades had been fighting to that
+end for years, and they wanted the satisfaction of completing the job
+and of gaining for Cuba herself the glory of victory. The other reason
+was the very natural fear that American invasion and occupation of the
+island would mean American annexation, or at least perpetual American
+domination of Cuban affairs. It seemed contrary to human nature,
+contrary to all the experience and examples of the past, that it should
+not be so. Of course, there was the promise in the act of intervention,
+that the United States would leave the government of the island to its
+own people. But it is probable that only a very small percentage of
+Cubans ever so much as heard of it, while it would be surprising if more
+than a small minority of those who did know of it had any real
+confidence that it would be fulfilled. It will be recalled that a very
+considerable proportion of the people of the United States regarded that
+pledge as mere "buncombe" and declared unhesitatingly that it would not
+be permitted for one moment to stand in the way of the annexation of
+Cuba. Truly, it would have been miraculous if Cubans had esteemed the
+integrity of an American promise more highly than Americans themselves.
+
+[Illustration: ADMIRAL CERVERA]
+
+[Illustration: ADMIRAL SCHLEY]
+
+The first weeks of the war were confined chiefly to naval operations. A
+blockade of Cuban ports was established and pretty well maintained,
+beginning along the central and western part of the north coast on April
+22. A number of small Spanish vessels were captured, and there were some
+bombardments of shore towns and exchanges of shots with Spanish
+gunboats. Despite the vigilance of the American scouts and blockading
+squadrons, Admiral Cervera with several powerful Spanish warships,
+sailing from Cadiz on April 8 and touching at Martinique on May 11,
+succeeded in entering the harbor of Santiago on May 19. There he was
+soon besieged by a more powerful American fleet under the command of
+Commodore, afterward Admiral, Schley; who on June 1 was joined by
+Admiral Sampson, who thereafter took command. Lieutenant Victor Blue was
+sent ashore on June 11, to make a long detour to the hills back of the
+city, from which he was able to see and identify the Spanish ships.
+Meantime Lieutenant Richmond P. Hobson with seven picked men in the
+early morning of June 3 took the big coal hulk _Merrimac_ in to the
+narrowest part of the harbor entrance and there sunk it with a torpedo,
+hoping thus to block the passage and prevent Cervera's ships from coming
+out. The exploit was not entirely successful, the vessel not being sunk
+at quite the right point, though it did make exit much more difficult.
+Hobson and his comrades were taken prisoners by the Spaniards, but were
+treated with distinguished courtesy and consideration in recognition of
+their daring exploit. Thereafter the blockading fleet kept close watch
+day and night upon the harbor mouth, brilliantly illuminating it with
+searchlights all night, to prevent the escape of the Spanish fleet.
+
+Meanwhile General Nelson A. Miles, commander of the United States army,
+was preparing for an invasion of the island. The Fifth Army Corps was
+organized at Tampa, Florida, under the command of Major-General William
+R. Shafter, and on June 14 was embarked on a fleet of 37 transports.
+This fleet sailed around Cape Maysi to the southern coast of Cuba, and
+on June 21 was off Santiago. General Shafter and Admiral Sampson went
+ashore to confer with General Calixto Garcia at his camp at Acerradero,
+and found the situation by no means as encouraging as they had hoped.
+Garcia had only about 3,500 Cubans in his force, and they were not all
+well armed, and there were 1,000 more at Guantanamo. General Shafter's
+army numbered fewer than 16,000 men. Against these the Spaniards under
+General Linares numbered about 40,000.
+
+Averse as the Cubans had been to the landing of American troops, General
+Garcia accepted the inevitable, and promptly offered to place all his
+men under General Shafter's command. General Shafter accepted the offer,
+though he reminded General Garcia that he could exercise no control
+over the troops beyond what he, Garcia, authorized. He of course saw to
+it that they were abundantly supplied with arms and ammunition, Garcia's
+troops were then employed very effectively in protecting the landing of
+the American troops, at Daiquiri; 6,000 of them being put ashore on June
+22 and the remainder in the next two days. General Henry W. Lawton
+promptly led the advance to Siboney, from which the Spaniards were
+driven, being pursued after their evacuation by the Cubans under General
+Castillo.
+
+[Illustration: OLD FORT AT EL CANEY, WRECKED BY FIGHTING OF JULY, 1898]
+
+The next attack was made upon the Spaniards at Las Guasimas, an action
+in which material aid was rendered by Cubans, and which resulted in the
+Spaniards being driven back a mile or more. By June 25 the Americans
+were on the Ridge of Sevilla, looking down upon Santiago, only six miles
+away, and two days later their outposts were within three miles of the
+city. There followed on July 1 a desperate contest at the fortified
+village of El Caney, resulting in the capture of that place by storm,
+with great slaughter of the Spanish, who held their ground with stubborn
+valor. Simultaneously an attack was made by another part of the American
+forces upon Kettle Hill and San Juan Hill, where heavy losses were
+sustained on both sides. The climax of this engagement was a charge of
+Wheeler's division, the Tenth Cavalry, against the Spanish entrenched
+lines. The van of this division was occupied by the "Rough Riders"
+regiment, an organization recruited chiefly among western plainsmen and
+"cowboys" by Theodore Roosevelt, who had resigned the Assistant
+Secretaryship of the Navy thus to engage in active service. The charge
+was led by Colonel Roosevelt in person, though he was in fact second in
+command of the regiment, the chief command of which he had declined in
+favor of his friend Leonard Wood, who was destined to play one of the
+greatest parts in the establishment of Cuban independence. In this hot
+engagement the Americans were also completely victorious.
+
+[Illustration: THEODORE ROOSEVELT]
+
+General Pando was now rushing 8,000 Spanish troops from the west to
+reinforce General Linares at Santiago, and Calixto Garcia with his Cuban
+forces undertook to hold him in check, though he was greatly outnumbered
+by the Spanish. On July 2 fighting was resumed, the Spanish assuming the
+aggressive, and before the day was done the Americans, greatly
+outnumbered and exhausted by the incessant fighting and the heat of the
+weather, began seriously considering withdrawal from positions which
+they feared they would not be able to hold. General Shafter urged
+Admiral Sampson to aid him by making an attack upon the city with his
+fleet, but the latter demurred on account of the danger of entering a
+mined harbor. It was arranged that the two commanders should meet again
+for another council of war on the morning of July 3, and Admiral Sampson
+actually started up the coast toward Siboney for that purpose, when a
+dramatic event in a twinkling transformed the whole situation.
+
+[Illustration: MONUMENTS ON SAN JUAN HILL, NEAR SANTIAGO]
+
+This was the unexpected emergence of the Spanish fleet from the Santiago
+harbor, on the morning of July 3, in a desperate attempt to break
+through the American blockade and fight their way around to Havana. In
+Admiral Sampson's temporary absence the command devolved upon Admiral
+Schley, and orders instantly were given to close in and engage the
+Spanish ships. The latter were four in number, the _Maria Teresa_, the
+_Vizcaya_, the _Colon_ and the _Oquendo_, with two torpedo boats,
+_Pluton_ and _Terror_. Admiral Sampson quickly retraced his course but
+did not arrive until the close of the fight, which raged for hours,
+along the coast for fifty miles westward from Santiago. The result was
+the destruction of every one of the Spanish ships and the killing of
+one-third of their crews. Admiral Cervera with 1,200 men surrendered. On
+the American side only one man was killed and three were wounded, and
+not one of the ships was seriously damaged.
+
+[Illustration: ADMIRAL SAMPSON]
+
+The Spaniards now knew that Santiago was doomed, though they continued
+to hold out with stubborn valor. On the night of July 4 they sank a
+vessel in the harbor mouth, in emulation of Hobson's deed, to shut the
+American fleet out, but failed to get it in the right place.
+Preparations were made for a joint attack by army and fleet on July 9, a
+truce being arranged until that date, and thereafter more or less
+continuous fighting prevailed, without important results, for three
+days. On July 12 General Toral, who had taken the Spanish command in
+place of General Linares, who was wounded at San Juan Hill, entered into
+negotiations with General Miles and General Wheeler, and on July 17
+terms of surrender were adopted. All the Spanish troops in Oriente save
+10,000 at Holguin, were surrendered, about 22,000 in all. Some minor
+naval operations followed at Manzanillo and Nipe, but there was no more
+serious fighting. For all practical purposes the war was ended.
+
+[Illustration: PEACE TREE NEAR SANTIAGO, UNDER WHICH SPANISH COMMANDER
+OF SANTIAGO CAPITULATED JULY 16, 1898]
+
+The next step was taken in behalf of Spain by the French Ambassador at
+Washington, Spain having committed to the French government the care of
+her diplomatic interests in America. M. Cambon on July 26 inquired of
+President McKinley if he would consider negotiations for peace. The
+President replied on July 30 that he was willing to discuss peace on the
+basis of certain conditions, the first of which was that Spain should
+relinquish all claim of sovereignty over or title to the island of Cuba,
+and should immediately evacuate that island. That was significant. It
+indicated that the United States purposed to fulfil its pledge
+concerning the independence of Cuba. The next condition was that Spain
+should cede to the United States the island of Porto Rico. But there was
+no hint at her cession of Cuba to the United States. She was merely to
+renounce her own sovereignty. These conditions were accepted by the
+Spanish government through M. Cambon on August 12; the naval and
+military commanders on both sides were ordered to cease hostilities, the
+blockade of Cuba was discontinued; and the War of Independence was at a
+triumphant end.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+
+Following the protocol and the cessation of hostilities, two major tasks
+were to be performed. One was to remove the Spanish forces from the
+island and to establish permanent terms of peace, and the other was to
+organize and establish a permanent Cuban government.
+
+The former of these was promptly undertaken, by the governments of the
+United States and Spain. A joint commission arranged the details of
+evacuation, which was a formidable undertaking because of the number of
+persons to be transported and the paucity of shipping facilities at the
+command of the Peninsular government. The city of Havana was not
+evacuated until January 1, 1899, and the last Spanish troops were not
+removed from the island until the middle of February following. There
+were about 130,000 officers and soldiers transported, together with some
+15,000 military and civilian employes and their families.
+
+Simultaneously the task of treaty-making proceeded. President McKinley
+on August 26 appointed five Commissioners to conduct the negotiations.
+They were William R. Day, Secretary of State, Chairman; Cushman K.
+Davis, Senator; William P. Frye, Senator; Whitelaw Reid, Ambassador; and
+Edward D. White, Justice of the Supreme Court. Mr. White found himself
+unable to serve, and on September 9 George Gray, Senator, was appointed
+in his place. The Spanish government named as Commissioners five of
+Spain's foremost statesmen: Eugenio Montero Rios, Buenaventura
+d'Abarzuza, Jose de Garnica, Wenceslao Ramirez de Villa Urrutia, and
+Rafael Cerero. The Commissioners began their deliberations in Paris on
+October 1.
+
+The first question discussed was the disposition of Cuba, and over it
+strong disagreement arose on two major points. The Spanish Commissioners
+declined to recognize the existence of any Cuban government, and argued
+that as there was no such government, and as Spain in relinquishing
+sovereignty over the island could not let that sovereignty lapse but
+must transfer it to some other responsible and competent power, the
+United States should accept cession of Cuba to it; which Spain was
+willing to grant. The American Commissioners replied that the United
+States was pledged not to annex the island, and as a matter of fact did
+not intend to do so and therefore could not and would not accept cession
+of the island to itself. Spain in the protocol had agreed to renounce
+her sovereignty without any stipulations further, and by that
+arrangement she must abide. The United States would, however, make
+itself responsible for the due observance of international law in Cuba
+so long as its occupation of the island lasted. The Spaniards were
+reluctant to yield, as a matter of pride and sentiment preferring to
+give Cuba to the United States rather than to surrender it to the
+insurgent Cubans. But the American Commissioners were resolute, and on
+October 27 the first article of the treaty was adopted; to wit:
+
+"Spain relinquishes all claim of sovereignty over and title to Cuba.
+
+"And as the island is, on its evacuation by Spain, to be occupied by the
+United States, the United States will, so long as such occupation shall
+last, assume and discharge the obligations that may under international
+law result from the fact of its occupation for the protection of life
+and property."
+
+This was clear and unmistakable notice to the world that the American
+government intended to fulfil its pledge, not to annex Cuba but to
+render that island to the control and government of its own people.
+True, not yet were all convinced that this would be done. The Spaniards
+were courteously skeptical. A considerable faction in the United States,
+half "Jingo" and half sordid, insisted that the island must be annexed.
+The majority of Cubans, inclined to judge all governments by their
+bitter experiences with that of Spain, were frankly incredulous, not
+understanding how any government could be thus altruistic and
+self-denying.
+
+The second point of dispute was that of the Cuban debt. The Spanish
+government for years had been charging against Cuba the cost of
+maintaining an army for its subjugation and the costs of suppressing the
+various insurrections that had occurred, and the Commissioners proposed
+that all that enormous debt should be saddled upon the island and made a
+first charge upon its customs revenues. To this the American
+Commissioners demurred. Cuba had for centuries been "the milch cow of
+Spain," and had given to Spain far more than she had ever received in
+return. It would be monstrous injustice to burden a people with the cost
+of subjugating them and keeping them in slavery. In the end the Spanish
+Commissioners yielded, and no mention was made in the treaty of any debt
+resting upon Cuba.
+
+It was further agreed that both parties should release and repatriate
+all prisoners of war, and that the United States would undertake to
+obtain such release of all Spanish prisoners held by the Cubans. Each
+party relinquished all claims for indemnity of any and every kind which
+had arisen since the beginning of the Cuban war. Spain relinquished in
+Cuba all immovable property belonging to the public domain and to the
+crown of Spain; such relinquishment not impairing lawful property rights
+of municipalities, corporations or individuals. Spanish subjects were to
+be free to remain in Cuba or to remove therefrom, in either event
+retaining full property rights; and in the former case being free to
+become Cuban citizens or to retain their allegiance to Spain; and they
+were to be secured in the free exercise of their religion. There were
+various other stipulations, such as are customary in treaties, intended
+to assure Spain and Spaniards of equitable treatment and relationships
+in Cuba. It was added that the obligations of the United States in Cuba
+were to be limited to the period of its occupation of that island; but
+upon the termination of that occupation the United States promised to
+advise the succeeding Cuban government to assume the same obligations.
+The treaty was finally agreed to and signed on December 10, 1898, and it
+was ratified by the United States Senate on February 6, 1899.
+
+General Ramon Blanco meanwhile, on November 26, 1898, resigned the
+Governor-Generalship of Cuba and returned to Spain. To General Jiminez
+Castellanos was left the unwelcome duty of holding nominal sway for a
+few weeks and then surrendering the sovereignty of four centuries to an
+alien power. Already American troops were in actual occupation and
+control of nearly all the island. In the latter part of December, 1898,
+the Seventh Army Corps, commanded by Major-General Fitzhugh Lee, was
+brought into the outskirts of Havana in readiness for the final function
+which was to be performed on the first day of the new year.
+
+The end came. It was on January 1, 1899. Four hundred and six years, two
+months and three days before, the first Spaniard had landed upon Cuban
+soil and had planted there the quartered flag of Leon and Castile in
+token of sovereignty. Now, after all that lapse of time, largely, it
+must be confessed, ill spent and ill-improved, the Spanish flag was
+finally to be lowered and withdrawn, in token of the passing away of
+Spanish sovereignty forever from the soil of Cuba.
+
+[Illustration: PART OF OLD CITY WALL OF HAVANA, STILL STANDING]
+
+The ceremonies were brief and simple; far more brief and simple, we may
+well believe, than were those with which the imaginative and exuberant
+Admiral proclaimed possession of the island centuries before. The
+official representatives of Spain and the United States met at noon in
+the Hall of State in the Governor's Palace, the scene of so many proud
+and imperious events in Spanish colonial history. On the one side the
+chief was General Jiminez Castellanos, the last successor of Velasquez.
+On the other, Major-General John R. Brooke. The one was the last of a
+long, long line of Spanish Governors-General; the other was the first
+of a brief succession of American Military Governors who were soon to
+give way to an unending line of native Cuban Republican Presidents and
+Congresses. With a sad heart, with tear-suffused eyes, and with a hand
+that trembled to hold a pen far more than ever it had to wield a sword,
+General Jiminez Castellanos signed the document which abdicated and
+relinquished Spanish sovereignty in that Pearl of the Antilles which was
+nevermore to be known as the "Ever Faithful Isle." The crimson and gold
+barred banner of Spain descended. The Stars and Stripes rose in its
+place. The deed was done. The final settlement was made with Spain.
+
+For three hundred and eighty-seven years Spain had been the sovereign of
+Cuba, exercising her power through one hundred and thirty-six
+administrations, of which the first was one of the longest and the last
+was one of the shortest. It will be worth our while to recall the roll,
+which bears some of the noblest and some of the vilest names in Spanish
+history:
+
+   _No._      _Date_
+
+    1          1512    Diego Velasquez, Lieutenant-Governor
+
+    2          1524    Manuel de Rojas, Lieutenant-Governor, provisional
+
+    3          1525    Juan de Altamirano, Lieutenant-Governor
+
+    4          1526    Gonzalo de Guzman, Lieutenant-General
+
+    5          1532    Manuel de Rojas, Lieutenant-Governor, provisional
+
+    6          1535    Gonzalo de Guzman, Lieutenant-Governor
+
+    7          1538    Hernando de Soto, Governor-General
+
+    8          1544    Juan de Avila, Governor-General
+
+    9          1546    Antonio Chavez, Governor-General
+
+    10         1550    Gonzalo Perez de Angulo, Governor-General
+
+    11         1556    Diego de Mazariegos, Governor-General
+
+    12         1565    Francisco Garcia Osorio, Governor-General
+
+    13         1568    Pedro Menendez de Avilas, Governor-General
+
+    14         1573    Gabriel Montalvo, Governor-General
+
+    15         1577    Francisco Carreno, Governor-General
+
+    16         1579    Gaspar de Torres, Governor-General, provisional
+
+    17         1581    Gabriel de Lujan, Captain-General
+
+    18         1589    Juan de Tejada, Captain-General
+
+    19         1594    Juan Maldonado Balnuevo, Captain-General
+
+    20         1602    Pedro Valdes Balnuevo, Captain-General
+
+    21         1608    Gaspar Ruiz de Pereda, Captain-General
+
+    22         1616    Sancho de Alguizaz, Captain-General
+
+    23         1620    Geronimo de Quero, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    24         1620    Diego Vallejo, Captain-General
+
+    25   Aug. 14, 1620 Francisco de Venegas, Captain-General
+
+    26                 Juan Esquivil, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    27                 Juan Riva Martin, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    28         1624    Garcia Giron de Loaysa, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    29         1624    Cristobal de Aranda, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    30         1625    Lorenzo de Cabrera, Captain-General
+
+    31         1630    Juan Bitrian de Viamontes, Captain-General
+
+    32         1634    Francisco Riano de Gamboa, Captain-General
+
+    33         1639    Alvaro de Luna, Captain-General
+
+    34         1647    Diego de Villalba, Captain-General
+
+    35         1653    Francisco Xeldes, Captain-General
+
+    36         1655    Juan Montano, Captain-General
+
+    37         1658    Juan de Salamanca, Captain-General
+
+    38         1663    Rodrigo de Flores, Captain-General
+
+    39         1664    Francisco Dairle, Captain-General
+
+    40         1670    Francisco de Ledesma, Captain-General
+
+    41         1680    Jose Fernandez de Cordoba, Captain-General
+
+    42         1685    Andres Munibe, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    43                 Manuel Murguia, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    44         1687    Diego de Viana, Captain-General
+
+    45         1689    Severino de Manraneda, Captain-General
+
+    46         1695    Diego de Cordoba, Captain-General
+
+    47         1702    Pedro Benites de Lugo, Captain-General
+
+    48         1705    Nicolas Chirino, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    49         ....    Luis Chacon, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    50         1706    Pedro Alvares Villarin, Captain-General
+
+    51         1708    Laureano de Torres, Captain-General
+
+    52         1711    Luis Chacon, Captain-General
+
+    53         1713    Laureano de Torres, Captain-General
+
+    54         1716    Vicente Baja, Captain-General
+
+    55         1717    Gomez de Alvarez, Captain-General
+
+    56         1717    Gregorio Guazo, Captain-General
+
+    57         1724    Dionisio Martinez, Captain-General
+
+    58         1734    Juan F. Guemes, Captain-General
+
+    59         1745    Juan A. Tineo, Captain-General
+
+    60         1745    Diego Pinalosa, Captain-General
+
+    61         1747    Francisco Cagigal, Captain-General
+
+    62         1760    Pedro Alonso, Captain-General
+
+    63         1761    Juan de Prado Portocarrero, Captain-General
+
+    64   July 1, 1762   Ambrosio Villapando, Count of Riela,
+                           Captain-General
+
+    65    June, 1765    Diego Manrique, Captain-General
+
+    66    July, 1765    Pasual Jimenez de Cisners, Captain-General,
+                           provisional
+
+    67  March 19, 1766  Antonio M. Bucarely, Captain-General
+
+    68         1771     Marques de la Torre, Captain-General
+
+    69   June, 1777     Diego J. Navarro, Captain-General
+
+    70    May, 1781     Juan M. Cagigal, Captain-General
+
+    71         1782     Luis de Unzaga, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    72         1785     Bernardo Troncoso, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    73         ....     Jose Espeleta, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    74         ....     Domingo Cabello, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    75   Dec. 28, 1785  Jose Espeleta, Captain-General
+
+    76   Apr. 20, 1789  Domingo Cabello, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    77   July 8, 1790   Luis de las Casas, Captain-General
+
+    78   Dec. 6, 1796   Juan Bassecourt, Captain-General
+
+    79   May 13, 1799   Salvador de Muro, Captain-General
+
+    80   Apr. 14, 1812  Juan Ruiz de Apodaca, Captain-General
+
+    81   July 2, 1816   Jose Cienfuegos, Captain-General
+
+    82   Apr. 20, 1819  Juan M. Cagigal, Captain-General
+
+    83   Mar. 3, 1821   Nicolas de Mahy, Captain-General
+
+    84   July 2, 1823   Sebastian Kindelan, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    85   May 2, 1823    Dionisio Vives. Given absolute authority
+                                     by royal decree, 1821
+
+    86   May 2, 1832    Mariano Rocafort. Given
+                                     absolute authority by
+                                     royal decree, 1825
+
+    87   June 1, 1834   Miguel Tacon. Given absolute
+                                     authority by royal
+                                     decree of 1825
+
+    88     From June 1, 1834,    Lt.-Gen. Miguel Tacon y
+             to Apr. 16, 1838       Rosique, Captain-General
+
+    89     From Apr. 16, 1838,   Lieut. Gen. Joaquin Espeleta
+             to Feb., 1840          y Enrille
+
+    90     Feb., 1840, to May    Lieut. Gen. Pedro Tellez
+             10, 1841               de Gironm, Prince of
+                                    Anglona
+
+    91     From May 10, 1841,    Lieut. Gen. Geronimo Valdes
+             to Sept. 15, 1843      y Sierra
+
+    92     From Sept. 15, to     Lieut. Gen. of the Royal
+             Oct. 26, 1843          Navy, Francis Xavier de
+                                    Ulloa, provisional
+
+    93     From Oct. 26, 1843,   Lieut. Gen. Leopoldo
+             to Mar. 20, 1848       O'Donnell y Joris, Count
+                                    of Lucena.
+
+    94     From Mar. 20, 1848,   Lieut. Gen. Federico Roncali,
+             to Nov. 13, 1850       Count of Alcoy
+
+    95     From Nov. 13, 1850,   Lieut. Gen. Jose Gutierrez
+             to Apr. 22, 1852       de la Concha
+
+    96     From Apr. 22, 1852,   Lieut. Gen. Valentin Canedo
+             to Dec. 3, 1853        Miranda
+
+    97     From Dec. 3, 1853,    Lieut. Gen. Juan de la
+             to Sept. 21, 1854      Pezuela, Marquis of de
+                                    la Pezuela
+
+    98     From Sept. 14, 1854,  Lieut. Gen. Jose Gutierrez
+             to Nov. 24, 1859       de la Concha, Marquis
+                                    of Habana, second time
+
+    99     From Nov. 14, 1859,   Lieut. Gen. Francisco Serrano,
+             to Dec. 10, 1862       Duke de la Torre
+
+    100    From Dec. 10, 1862,   Lieut. Gen. Domingo Dulce
+              to May 30, 1866       y Garay
+
+    101    From May 20, 1866,    Lieut. Gen. Francisco Lersundi
+              to Nov. 3, 1866
+
+    102    From Nov. 3, 1866,    Lieut. Gen. Joaquin del
+              to Sept. 24, 1867     Manzano y Manzano
+              on which date he
+              died
+
+    103    From Sept. 24, 1867,  Lieut. Gen. Blas Villate,
+              to Dec. 12, 1867      Count of Valmaseda
+
+    104    From Dec. 13, 1867,   Lieut. Gen. Francisco Lersundi
+              to Jan. 4, 1869
+
+    105    From Jan. 4, 1869,    Lieut. Gen. Domingo Dulce
+              to June 2, 1869       y Garay, second time
+
+    106    From June 2, 1869,    Lieut. Gen. Felipe Ginoves
+              to June 28, 1869      del Espinar, provisional
+    107    From June 28, 1869,   Lieut. Gen. Antonio Fernandez
+              to Dec. 15, 1870      y Caballero de Rodas
+
+    108    From Dec. 15, 1870,   Lieut. Gen. Blas Villate,
+              to July 11, 1872      Count of Valmaseda
+
+    109    From July 11, 1872,   Lieut. Gen. Francisco Ceballos
+              to Apr. 18, 1873      y Vargas
+
+    110    From Apr. 18, 1873,   Lieut. Gen. Candido Pieltain
+              to Nov. 4, 1873       y Jove-Huelgo
+
+    111    From Nov. 4, 1873,    Lieut. Gen. Joaquin Jovellar
+              to Apr. 7, 1874       y Soler
+
+    112    From Apr. 7, 1874,    Lieut. Gen. José Gutierrez
+              to May 8, 1875        de la Concha, Marquis of
+                                    Habana
+
+    113    From May 8, 1875,     Lieut. Gen. Buenaventura
+             to June 8, 1875        Carbo, provisional
+
+    114    From June 8, 1875,    Lieut. Gen. Blas Villate,
+             to Jan. 18, 1876       Count of Valmaseda,
+                                    third time
+
+    115    From Jan. 18, 1876,   Lieut. Gen. Joaquin Jovellar
+             to June 18, 1878       y Soler. He was
+                                    under Martinez Campos,
+                                    who was the general in
+                                    chief
+
+    116    From Oct. 8, 1876,    Lieut. Gen. Arsenio Martinez
+             to Feb. 5, 1879        Campos
+
+    117    From Feb. 5, 1879,    Lieut. Gen. Cayetano Figueroa
+             to Apr. 17, 1879       y Garaondo, provisional
+
+    118    From Apr. 17, 1879,   Lieut. Gen. Ramon Blanco
+             to Nov. 28, 1881       y Erenas
+
+    119    From Nov. 28, 1881,   Lieut. Gen. Luis Prendergast
+             to Aug. 5, 1883        y Gordon, Marquis
+                                    of Victoria de las Tunas
+
+    120    From. Aug. 5, 1883,   Lieut. Gen. of Division
+             to Sept. 28, 1883      Tomas de Reyan y
+                                    Reyna, provisional
+
+    121    From Sept. 28, 1883,  Lieut. Gen. Ignacio Maria
+             to Nov. 8, 1884        del Castillo
+
+    122    From Nov. 8, 1884,    Lieut. Gen. Ramon Fajardo
+             to Mar. 25, 1886       e Izquierdo
+
+    123    From Mar. 25, 1886,   Lieut. Gen. Emilio Calleja
+             to July 15, 1887       e Isasi
+
+    124    From July 15, 1887,   Lieut. Gen. Saba Marin y
+             to Mar. 13, 1889       Gonzalez
+
+    125    From Mar. 13, 1889,   Lieut. Gen. Manuel Salamanca
+             died Feb. 6, 1890      y Begrete
+
+    126    From Mar. 13, 1889,   General of Division Jose
+             to Apr. 4, 1890        Sanchez Gomez, provisional
+
+    127    From Apr. 4, 1890,    Lieut. Gen. Jose Chinchilla
+             to Aug. 20, 1890       y Diez de Onate
+
+    128    From Aug. 20, 1890,   Lieut. Gen. Camilo Polavieja
+             to June 20, 1892       y del Castillo
+
+    129    From June 20, 1892;   Lieut. Gen. Alejandro Rodriguez
+             died July 15, 1893     Arias
+
+    130    From July 15, 1893,   General of Division Jose
+             to Sept. 5, 1893       Arderius y Garcia, provisional
+
+    131    From Sept. 5, 1893,   Lieut. Gen. Emilio Calleja
+             to Apr. 16, 1895       e Isasi
+
+    132    From Apr. 16, 1895,   Captain Gen. Arsenio Martinez
+             to Jan. 20, 1896       Campos
+
+    133    From Jan. 20, 1896,   Lieut. Gen. Savas Marin y
+             to Feb. 11, 1896       Gonzalez
+
+    134    From Feb. 11, 1896,   Lieut. Gen. Valeriano Weyler
+             to Oct. 31, 1897       y Nicolau
+
+    135    From Oct. 31, 1897,   Capt. Gen. Ramon Blanco
+             to Nov. 30, 1898       y Erenas
+
+    136    From Nov. 30, 1898,   Lieut. Gen. Adolfo Jimines
+             to Jan. 1, 1899,       Castellanos
+              at 12 noon.
+
+There must be added an unwelcome note. The Spaniards--not their high
+officials--left most ungraciously. It is not to be wondered at that they
+were sad, that they were sullen, that they were resentful; that they
+were fearful lest the Cubans should rise against them at the last moment
+and inflict upon them vengeance for the treasured wrongs of many years.
+But there was of course no such uprising. The Cubans wished to make the
+day an occasion of great public celebration, but the authorities--Cuban
+and American as well as Spanish--would not permit it. It was not
+courteous to exult over a beaten foe. Besides, any such celebration
+would have caused great danger of trouble. What was inexcusable,
+however, was the condition in which the Spanish left all public
+buildings. They looted and gutted them of everything that could be
+removed. They destroyed the plumbing and lighting fixtures. They broke
+or choked up the drains. They left every place in an indescribably
+filthy condition. There was nothing in all their record in Cuba more
+unbecoming than their manner of leaving it. Such was the last detail of
+the settlement with Spain.
+
+The settlement with Cuba came next. Indeed, it was concurrently
+undertaken. And it was by far the more formidable task of the two. It
+was necessary to arrange for the transfer of the temporary trust of the
+United States to a permanent Cuban authority, and to do so in
+circumstances and conditions which would afford the largest possible
+degree of assurance of success. It is said that when the American flag
+was raised at Havana in token of temporary sovereignty, on January 1,
+1899, an American Senator among the spectators exclaimed, "That flag
+will never come down!" There were also, doubtless, those among the Cuban
+spectators who thought and said that it should never have been raised,
+but that sovereignty should have been transferred directly from Spain to
+Cuba.
+
+Both were wrong; as both in time came to realize. It was necessary for
+the sake of good faith and justice that the American flag should in time
+come down and give place to the flag of Cuba. It was equally necessary
+for the sake of the welfare of Cuba and of its future prosperity and
+tranquillity that there should be a period of American stewardship
+preparatory to full independence.
+
+There was, as we have already indicated, some friction between Cubans
+and Americans at the time of intervention in the Spring of 1898. The
+Cubans thought that the American army should not enter Cuba at all, save
+with an artillery force to serve as an adjunct to the Cuban army. On the
+other hand, Americans were too much inclined to disregard the Cuban army
+and Provisional Government, to forget what the Cubans had already
+achieved, and to act as though the war were solely between the United
+States and Spain. When the actual landing of Shafter's army was made,
+however, the Cubans accepted the fact loyally and gracefully, and gave
+the fullest possible measure of helpful cooperation.
+
+The Provisional Government of the Cuban Republic, as soon as hostilities
+were ended and negotiations for peace had begun, decided to summon
+another National Assembly to determine what should be done during the
+interval which should elapse before the United States placed the
+destinies of Cuba in the hands of Cubans. This decision was made at a
+meeting at Santa Cruz on September 1, at which were present the
+President, Bartolome Maso; the Vice-President, Mendez Capote; and the
+three Secretaries, Aleman, Fonts-Sterling and Moreno de la Torre. It was
+felt, and not without reason, that the Insular government and its forces
+had not received the recognition which was their due. Calixto Garcia and
+Francisco Estrada had given valuable participation in the siege and
+capture of Santiago, yet they were not permitted by General Shafter to
+participate in the ceremony of the surrender of the Spanish forces, or
+even to be present on that exultant occasion. When the Americans thus
+took possession of Santiago and Oriente, the Cuban government, military
+and civil, was ignored, and General Leonard Wood was made Military
+Governor just as though there was no Cuban government in existence.
+
+[Illustration: OLD AND NEW IN HAVANA
+
+The architecture of Havana ranges from the sixteenth century to the
+twentieth, and specimens of all five centuries may in some places be
+found grouped within a single scene; with electric lights and telephones
+in buildings which were standing when Francis Drake threatened the city
+with conquest.]
+
+During the months of the American blockade of the island, moreover, the
+Cubans had suffered perhaps even more than the Spanish from lack of
+supplies. It was felt that while it was well thus to deprive the Spanish
+army of supplies, the Cuban people ought not to have been left to
+suffer. After the armistice affairs remained in a distressing condition.
+The Cuban army was without food and without pay with which to purchase
+food; and the Provisional Government was powerless to help it or to help
+the starving civilian population. It had no funds, and of course could
+not now raise any either by taxation or by loans. Late in November some
+relief was afforded by the sending of food from the United States, but
+on the whole the conditions were unsatisfactory, and did not conduce to
+cordial confidence between the Cubans and the Americans.
+
+The National Assembly which had been called on September 1 met at Santa
+Cruz on November 7, and resolved upon the disbandment of the Provisional
+Government, and the appointment of a special Commission to look after
+Cuban interests during the period of American occupation. This
+Commission consisted of Domingo Mendez Capote, President; Ferdinand
+Freyre de Andrade, Vice-President; and Manuel M. Coronado and Dr.
+Porfirio Caliente, Secretaries. The army organization was to be
+retained, for the present, with General Maximo Gomez as
+Commander-in-Chief.
+
+The real crux of the situation, at the moment, was the demobilization of
+the Cuban army. This could not be done--Gomez would not consider
+it--until the men could be paid, and there was no money with which to
+pay them. Among the 36,000 men on the rosters, there were said to be
+20,000 who had served two years or more, and who were entitled to pay.
+Gomez issued an appeal to the army and to the Cuban people generally to
+accept loyally the temporary American occupation and to cooperate with
+the Americans in the reestablishment of order and the development of
+governmental institutions, in order that at the earliest possible moment
+Cuba might be able to assume the whole task of self government. At the
+same time he urgently requested the United States government to advance
+money with which to pay off the soldiers, in order that the army might
+be disbanded and the men might return to their homes and their work, and
+thus restore the industrial prosperity of the island. For this purpose
+he suggested the sum of $60,000,000, not only for actual pay but also
+for compensation for the losses which the officers and men had suffered
+during the war. He was inclined to keep his men under arms until the
+United States should relinquish control of Cuba to the Cubans, or should
+fix a date for so doing; and toward the end of January, 1899, he
+mustered all his forces in the Province of Havana, and made his staff
+headquarters in the former palace of the Captain-General. Meantime the
+Commission of the Cuban National Assembly recommended that the men be
+granted furloughs, to enable them to go to work in response to the great
+demand for labor that was arising throughout the island. This course was
+pursued to a considerable extent.
+
+Ultimately the United States government granted the sum of $3,000,000
+for the purpose of paying off the soldiers. This was not a loan, to be
+repaid, but was an outright gift, being the remainder of the sum of
+$50,000,000 which had been voted to the President at the beginning of
+the war to use at his discretion. It was given on the conditions that
+every recipient should prove his service in the army and should
+surrender a rifle. To this latter requirement, which meant the disarming
+of the Cubans, General Gomez strongly objected, but in the end he
+acquiesced and agreed to carry out the plan as soon as the money was at
+hand. Thereupon some other Cuban officers disputed his right to commit
+the Cuban army to any such arrangement. They were dissatisfied with the
+small amount, and they insisted that only the Cuban Assembly had power
+to act upon the American offer. They added that they would refuse to
+obey the orders of General Gomez, and would look to the Assembly for
+justice. It should be added that these officers were not those who had
+been most active and efficient in the field.
+
+General Gomez ignored this mutinous demonstration, and proceeded with
+arrangements to receive and distribute the $3,000,000; whereupon the
+Assembly came together and on March 12 impeached General Gomez and
+removed him from office as Commander-in-Chief, the charge being that he
+had failed in his military duties and had disobeyed the orders of the
+Assembly. This scandalous performance was ignored by Gomez, and was
+condemned by the great majority of the Cuban people. It was also ignored
+by the American authorities. General Brooke continued his negotiations
+with Gomez, and finally reached an agreement. The terms were as follows:
+Every Cuban soldier who had been in service since before July 17, 1898,
+and who was not in receipt of salary from any public office, upon
+delivery of his arms and equipments was to receive $75 in United States
+gold. The arms and equipments were to be surrendered to municipal
+authorities, and to be placed and kept in armories, under the charge of
+armorers appointed by General Gomez, as memorials of the War of
+Independence. The Cuban Commissioners protested against and resisted
+this settlement, but finally yielded when they saw all the soldiers
+accepting it. They continued for some time, however, to manifest
+disaffection and distrust toward the United States, and to propagate
+doubt whether that country would ever fulfill its promise to make Cuba
+independent. Some agitators went so far as to try to provoke
+insurrections against the American administration. But all such things
+met with no encouragement from General Gomez or from any of the real
+leaders of the Cuban people, who expressed the fullest confidence in the
+good faith of the United States and did their utmost to lead the nation
+to take advantage of the unparalleled opportunity which had been placed
+before it. Day by day the magnitude of that opportunity became more
+apparent, as did the practical beneficence of the American
+administration.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+
+American occupation of Cuba, formal and complete, did not begin, as we
+have seen, until January 1, 1899, when the ceremonial transfer of
+sovereignty was effected at Havana. But nearly six months before that
+epochal date actual occupation and administration was begun on an
+extensive scale and in a most auspicious manner. With singular
+appropriateness this was effected at that city which nearly four
+centuries before had been the first capital and metropolis of the
+island, and in that Province which had been the scene of the first
+Spanish settlements in Cuba and which had been more perhaps than all the
+rest of the island the scene and the base of operations of the
+revolution for independence.
+
+The surrender of Santiago by General Toral on July 17, 1898, made the
+American army master of that city and practically of the Province of
+Oriente. Having the power and authority of government, the Americans had
+necessarily to assume the full responsibility of it; and this was
+promptly done. Even in advance of the date named, on July 13, the day
+after negotiations for the capitulation began, in anticipation of what
+was to occur President McKinley decreed that, pending further orders,
+existing Spanish laws should be maintained in the occupied territory. As
+soon as the protocol was signed on August 12, General Henry W. Lawton
+was appointed Military Governor of the Province of Oriente and commander
+in chief of the American forces. This was an honor due to that gallant
+officer, because of his leadership in the act of invasion and conquest.
+But Lawton was a soldier rather than an administrator, and his services
+were indispensable in the field. Accordingly, after brief but most
+honorable occupancy of the governorship, he was succeeded on September
+24 by a man who combined the qualities of soldier and administrator in a
+uniquely successful and triumphant degree, and whose advent in Cuba was
+auspicious of inestimable advantage to that country and to its relations
+with the United States and with the world. Indeed, though the fact was
+unrecognized at the time, it is not too much to say that Leonard Wood
+bore in his hand and mind and heart the destinies of Cuba. There might,
+it is true, have been found some other man who as a soldier would have
+pacified the island and would have held it firmly in the grasp of peace.
+There might have been found a sanitarian and physician who would free
+the island of pestilence. There were financiers who might have placed
+its fiscal interests upon a sound basis. There were jurists who could
+have revised its laws. There were statesmen who could have supervised
+and directed its general governmental affairs, both domestic and
+foreign. But there was need that all these qualities should be combined
+in and all these activities should be performed by one man.
+
+Leonard Wood was at this time still a young man, scarcely thirty-eight
+years of age. Born at Winchester, New Hampshire, the son of an eminent
+physician and a descendant of a Mayflower Pilgrim, he had in boyhood
+engaged in seafaring pursuits, and then had been thoroughly trained for
+the medical profession at Harvard University. Obeying the promptings of
+patriotism, perhaps with some unrecognized pre-intimation of the vast
+services which he was destined to render to his country and to the
+world, he turned away from prospects of professional preferment and
+profit to undertake the arduous and often thankless tasks of an army
+surgeon. He was appointed to that duty from the state of Massachusetts
+on January 5, 1886, as an Assistant Surgeon, and five years later was
+promoted to the rank of Captain. The nominal rank is, however, a slight
+indication of the merit of his services, for in the very first year of
+his army life he was credited with "distinguished conduct in campaign
+against Apache Indians while serving as medical and line officer of
+Captain Lawton's expedition"; for which he was later awarded the
+Congressional Medal of Honor.
+
+At the beginning of American intervention in the Cuban War of
+Independence, Theodore Roosevelt resigned the office of Assistant
+Secretary of the Navy, which he had filled with distinction and to the
+great profit of the country, in order to organize from among the cowboys
+and frontiersmen of the West his famous regiment of "Rough Riders." But
+he would not himself accept the supreme command of it. His unerring
+judgment of men led him to select Leonard Wood for the Colonelcy, under
+whom he was himself glad to serve as Lieutenant-Colonel. So it was that
+Wood first went to Cuba, as Colonel of the First Regiment of United
+States Cavalry Volunteers. There soon followed the achievements at
+Guasimas and at San Juan Hill, to which reference has already been made,
+in recognition of his services in which on July 8, 1898, he was promoted
+to be Brigadier General, and on December 7 following to be Major General
+of Volunteers. It may be added that he was promoted to these same ranks
+in the regular army respectively on February 4, 1901 and August 8, 1903.
+
+With these antecedents, on September 24 he entered upon the task of
+governing Santiago and the Province of Oriente. It was a position of
+unique responsibility and power. The President's order made it
+incumbent upon him to administer the existing municipal laws so far as
+in his own judgment they were properly applicable to the new state of
+affairs. That was all. Otherwise he was thrown absolutely upon his own
+resources, with no treaty obligations or government promises to bind
+him. He was simply a "benevolent despot," intent upon tranquillizing and
+rehabilitating that vast eastern province of Cuba by methods of his own
+devising. It was a region at once the most unruly and the most
+impoverished in Cuba, and it had for its capital a plague-smitten city.
+For six months he labored there, and in that short period he so far
+advanced the work of reconstruction that thereafter Oriente served as an
+example and a model for all the other provinces of Cuba. Sympathetic,
+alert, untiring, frank, without vanity or ostentation, resolute,
+diplomatic, and always supremely just, General Wood's personality stood
+to the people of Cuba for qualities seldom if ever before associated
+with the occupant of the governor's palace, while his energy in fighting
+disease, relieving distress, reviving industry and maintaining order
+revealed to them as the Spanish régime never had done the beneficence of
+enlightened government. It would be impossible to estimate too highly
+the value of his services during those few months at Santiago, in
+commending to Cubans the benevolent purposes and attitude of the
+Americans toward them and in disclosing to them the vast material and
+moral benefits which would accrue to them through self-government wisely
+administered.
+
+He began his work at Santiago in gruesome circumstances. An epidemic of
+smallpox and yellow fever was raging, and clouds of smoke hung over the
+city from the funeral pyres where were being burned many of the bodies
+for which burial was impossible. The city was reeking with filth. Half
+the people were threatened with starvation. Lawlessness and complaints
+of grievances were rife. He had to be at once sanitarian, steward and
+judge. He labored heroically at all three tasks, and performed them so
+well that in a few weeks Santiago seemed like a new city. Of course
+there was much to do in other places in the province. In Holguin there
+were three thousand cases of smallpox, of which he treated 1,200 in
+hospitals. He sent thither as nurses 600 thoroughly vaccinated immunes,
+not one of whom contracted the disease. Hundreds of infected buildings,
+of flimsy construction, were burned, while all others were thoroughly
+disinfected, and the epidemic was conquered.
+
+Early the next year General Wood sought a well earned rest in a brief
+visit to his former home in Boston, leaving, as he thought, affairs in
+Santiago in a securely satisfactory condition. But he was compelled to
+hasten back in July, 1899, to deal with another outbreak of disease. On
+his arrival he found both the city and his own army camp in the grip of
+malignant yellow fever. It was a time for heroic action, and that was
+what he performed. In a day he removed his troops to healthful places on
+the adjacent hills, and then subjected the city to such a cleansing and
+scientific sanitation as neither it nor any other Cuban city had ever
+known. The island and the world looked on with interest, to see if thus
+he could cope with and suppress the epidemic.
+
+He succeeded. Not yet had the theory of Dr. Carlos J. Finlay, that
+mosquitoes were the sole propagators of the disease, been practically
+tested and applied, though it had been propounded by that eminent Cuban
+physician many years before. That immortal achievement was postponed for
+Messrs. Reed, Carroll, Agramonte and Lazear to effect, under General
+Wood's subsequent administration at Havana. But even without it, by
+means of strenuous sanitation, the epidemic of July, 1899, was
+conquered, and Santiago was made clean and sound.
+
+Another achievement of General Wood's at Santiago in the latter part of
+1898 proved highly successful and was soon afterward extended to the
+other provinces of the island. This was the organization of the Rural
+Guards, a force which became invaluable for the policing of the rural
+portions of the island; just as Pennsylvania and some others of the
+United States are cared for by State Police. General Wood selected for
+this service officers and soldiers of the Cuban Army in the War of
+Independence who were recommended for their good character and
+efficiency. By the end of the year 1898 he had about 300 of these
+troopers patrolling the roads of Oriente, in the districts where such
+guardianship was most needed, with admirable results. The value of this
+service was observed and appreciated by the officers of the other
+provinces, and at the beginning of 1899 the system was introduced into
+all the provinces excepting Matanzas, where the same purpose was served
+by a mounted police force maintained by the larger municipalities. In
+the city of Havana the Military Governor, General Ludlow, held a
+conference with General Mario G. Menocal, of the Cuban Army, who had
+been invited to become Chief of Police in that city under the American
+administration, and with him worked out the details of the organization
+of Rural Guards in the suburbs of the capital and the rural portions of
+Havana Province. They formed a force of 350 men for service there, and
+thus quickly made all that region, even in the more or less disturbed
+period immediately following the war, noteworthy for its security and
+orderliness. When at the end of the American occupation the Rural Guards
+were transferred to the Cuban Government, they comprised 15 bodies,
+numbering 1,605 officers and men, stationed at 247 different posts.
+
+Meantime American occupation and administration were established
+throughout the island. Immediately upon the transfer of sovereignty on
+January 1, 1899, John R. Brooke, Major General commanding the Division
+of Cuba, and Military Governor, issued a proclamation to the people of
+the island. He told them that he came as the representative of the
+President, to give protection to the people and security to persons and
+property, to restore confidence, to build up waste plantations, to
+resume commercial traffic, and to afford full protection in the exercise
+of all civil and religious rights. To the attainment of those ends, all
+the efforts of the United States would be directed, in the interest and
+for the benefit of all the people of Cuba. The legal codes of the
+Spanish sovereignty were to be retained in force, with such changes and
+modifications as might from time to time be found necessary in the
+interest of good government. The people of Cuba, without regard to
+previous affiliations, were invited and urged to cooperate in these
+objects by the exercise of moderation, conciliation and good-will toward
+one another.
+
+The island was divided for administrative purposes into seven
+departments, corresponding with the provinces and with the city of
+Havana forming the seventh. The commanders of these departments, under
+General Brooke, were: Havana City, Gen. William Ludlow; Havana Province,
+Gen. Fitzhugh Lee; Pinar del Rio, Gen. George W. Davis; Matanzas, Gen.
+James H. Wilson; Santa Clara, Gen. John C. Bates; Camaguey, Gen. L. H.
+Carpenter; Oriente, Gen. Leonard Wood. A civil government was organized
+on January 12, by the appointment of the following Cubans as Ministers
+of State: Secretary of the Department of State and Government, Domingo
+Mendez Capote; Secretary of Finance, Pablo Desvernine; Secretary of
+Justice and Public Instruction, Jose Antonio Gonzalez Lanuza; Secretary
+of Agriculture, Commerce, Industries and Public Works, Adolfo Saenz
+Yanez. Later in the spring of that year the provinces of Havana and
+Pinar del Rio were united in one department, as were Matanzas and Santa
+Clara, and Camaguey and Oriente.
+
+[Illustration: GONZALEZ LANUZA
+
+A distinguished jurist, penologist, and man of letters, Gonzalez Lanuza,
+was born in Havana on July 17, 1865. He rose to eminence at the bar and
+on the bench, became professor of penal law in the University of Havana,
+and was the author of several important works on jurisprudence. He was
+an agent of the revolution in Havana in 1895, and Secretary of the Cuban
+Delegation in New York. During General Brooke's Governorship he was
+Secretary of Justice and Public Instruction, and during President
+Menocal's first term was Speaker of the House of Representatives. He was
+a delegate to the Pan-American Congress at Rio de Janeiro in 1906.]
+
+The problems which confronted the American military administrators and
+their Cuban colleagues of the civil government were manifold and grave.
+There was the work of sanitation, which was undertaken on lines similar
+to those which General Wood had pursued in Santiago. The city of Havana
+had the advantage of the services of General Ludlow, an expert engineer
+and sanitarian. Then there was the work of feeding a starving
+population. So vast had been the ravages of war, so great had been the
+destruction of resources, that one of the most fertile and productive
+countries in the world was unable for a time to provide food for its own
+inhabitants, although their numbers had been diminished by one-fourth
+by the horrors of war. In these circumstances the American government
+was compelled to establish a system of food distribution, on very
+liberal lines. In Havana alone more than 20,000 persons were dependent
+upon it to save them from actual starvation. So well was the system
+administered, however, and so vigorously did the Cubans themselves apply
+themselves to self-help that within five months it was found possible to
+abolish the general system of food supply, and to restrict such work to
+such cases of special need as are liable to occur in any community.
+
+In thus redeeming the island from threatened if not actual famine, the
+American government undoubtedly did much, but the Cuban people
+themselves did far more. Self-help and mutual aid were the order of the
+day. All who could do so hastened to secure employment, either upon
+their own property or on the land or in the establishments of others.
+Planters whose fields had been ravaged and whose buildings had been
+destroyed borrowed money wherever they could, when necessary, for
+rehabilitation. If they could not raise money to pay their employes,
+they pledged them an interest in the proceeds of the coming harvest. The
+small farmers, who had lost all their implements and had no money to buy
+others to replace them, worked almost without tools, or borrowed and
+loaned among themselves so that a single plow would serve for half a
+dozen, and even hoes and spades were similarly passed from garden to
+garden. In the absence of horses and mules, plows were actually drawn by
+teams of four or six men, in such cases doing, perhaps, little more than
+to scratch the surface of the soil, though even this was sufficient to
+enable the planting of seed.
+
+Reference has been made to the borrowing of money by the planters for
+the rehabilitation of their estates. This was no easy task, because of
+the extent to which they were already overburdened with debts. Nearly
+all the land in Cuba was mortgaged, for a large percentage of its value.
+The census which was taken by the American authorities in 1899 showed a
+total real estate valuation in the entire island of only $323,641,895.
+These amazingly low figures were due, of course, to the depreciation of
+values through the ravages of war. But upon that valuation there was an
+aggregate mortgage indebtedness of no less than $247,915,494; or more
+than 76 per cent. Obviously, the borrowing capacity of Cuban real estate
+had been exhausted. During the war, with the impairment of industry
+which then prevailed, it was impossible for farmers to pay off their
+mortgages, and accordingly the Spanish government, in May, 1896, decreed
+that all mortgages then maturing should be extended for a year, during
+which time all legal steps for collection of them should be halted. In
+Oriente and Camaguey, however, the grace thus granted was for only a
+month. Successive extensions of the grace carried it to April, 1899,
+when the American administration was in control. A final extension was
+then granted, to April, 1901.
+
+Still another problem, and one which proved peculiarly embarrassing, was
+that of local or municipal government. The island was divided into six
+provinces, thirty-one judicial districts, and one hundred and thirty-two
+municipalities, and these last named were each divided into
+sub-districts and these again into wards. These all had their local
+officials and local systems of finance, and these latter were found by
+the Americans to be in serious confusion. It was necessary to reform
+them, but in the doing of this almost endless friction arose. Such
+matters so closely touched the Cuban people that they were naturally
+jealous and resentful of alien interference and dictation. At the same
+time the Americans considered it necessary to supervise the
+reorganization of local government as a basis for satisfactory general
+government. Each side became more or less irritated against the other,
+with unfortunate results.
+
+An interesting personal factor at this time, whose influence was on the
+whole helpful to the American government, was found in General Maximo
+Gomez. There is no question that he felt himself somewhat ill-treated by
+the Americans, as Calixto Garcia had felt at the surrender of Santiago.
+During the first month of the American rule at the capital he held
+aloof, remaining at his home at Remedios. But in February he came to
+Havana and had such a reception as probably no other man in Cuban
+history had ever enjoyed. From Remedios to Havana he proceeded through
+an almost unbroken series of popular demonstrations of the most
+enthusiastic kind, and at the capital he was greeted as a conquering
+hero and as the unrivalled idol of the people whose independence he had
+won. The only discordant note came from a small body of politicians
+identified with that Assembly which both Gomez and the American
+government had declined to recognize, and which Gomez had strongly
+antagonized in the matter of paying off and demobilizing the Cuban army.
+But that opposition to him did not lessen the affection and reverence
+with which the great mass of the Cuban people regarded the grim and grey
+old champion of their wars. It is to be recorded, too, that while he was
+thus being received by the people, his own attitude toward them was no
+less significant. At every place through which he passed on his journey
+to Havana, and at every gathering at which he was entertained in that
+city, he spoke to the people, tersely and vigorously, as became a
+soldier; exhorting them to forget the differences of the past, even
+their righteous wrath against the Spaniards, and to unite and work
+together harmoniously and efficiently to complete in peace the great
+task for Cuba's welfare which had so far been advanced in war.
+
+The result, at least for a time, was marvellous. Cuban and Spaniard,
+Revolutionist, Autonomist and Constitutionalist, for a time joined
+hands. At one of the chief public receptions given to Gomez in Havana,
+the flags of Cuba, of the United States, and of Spain were equally
+displayed, and were all three greeted with applause. That spirit did
+not, it is true, always thereafter prevail. But it was of incalculable
+profit to Cuba to have it so strongly aroused and manifested at that
+crucial period in her history.
+
+During the administration of General Brooke the police force of Havana
+was completely reorganized, with the assistance of John B. McCullagh,
+formerly Superintendent of Police in New York. This was done as promptly
+as possible after the installation of American rule, and by the
+beginning of March, 1899, the peace and security of the Cuban capital
+were safeguarded by an admirable uniformed force of about a thousand
+men. Under the command of General Mario G. Menocal as Chief this body of
+men rendered Havana as efficient service, probably, as that in any
+American city of similar size. Police work in Havana, it should be
+understood, differs considerably from that in cities of the United
+States, for the reason that drunkenness and its attendant disorder and
+petty brawls are substantially unknown in the Cuban metropolis, and
+therefore one of the most prolific causes of arrests in American cities
+is there non-existent.
+
+When the American administration took charge of Cuban affairs it found
+the insular treasury quite empty. The departing Spaniards had seen to
+that. But a careful, honest and thrifty management of finances soon
+provided the island with a good working income. By the first of
+September, 1899, fully $10,000,000 had been received in revenue from
+different sources. Major E. F. Ladd of the United States army was made
+Treasurer and Disbursing Officer of the customs service, and a little
+later he was appointed Auditor and then Treasurer of the island. In
+those capacities he showed admirable efficiency and greatly ingratiated
+himself with the people; ranking as one of the most successful members
+of the American governing staff. His administration was the more
+appreciated by Cubans because of the welcome reform of the taxation
+system which was at that time effected. The old Spanish tax system had
+been abominable, and that of the short-lived Autonomist regime of
+1897-1898 changed it chiefly with the result of adding to the confusion.
+Early in 1899, therefore, radical reforms were undertaken. An order was
+issued on February 10 remitting all taxes due under the old Spanish law
+which had remained unpaid on January 1, with the exception of taxes on
+passengers and freight which had according to custom been collected and
+were held by the railroad companies. All taxes on the principal articles
+of food and fuel were abolished, as were also all municipal taxes on
+imports and exports. These taxes had formerly been very burden-some and
+were a source of much grievance and irritation, and their abolition was
+very gratifying to the Cuban people, who began to appreciate what it
+meant to have a government whose prime object was to serve them and not
+to plunder them.
+
+One tax was greatly increased, namely, the excise tax upon all alcoholic
+liquors, and this was made a part of the revenue of the municipalities
+instead of the state, thus compensating the municipalities for the loss
+of the tax on merchandise. Despite the temperate habits of the Cuban
+people, the very general consumption of some form of alcoholic drink
+made this impost amount to a considerable sum.
+
+A matter which urgently needed reform, but which unfortunately was
+reformed with more zeal than diplomacy, caused much dissension in that
+first year of American administration. That was the marriage law. Under
+Spanish government marriage was held to be exclusively a function,
+indeed, a sacrament, of the Roman Catholic church, and could not legally
+be performed by any other authority; though in later years there had
+been made a provision for the civil marriage of non-Catholics. But since
+to resort to the latter meant to incur a certain social reproach, few
+couples ever availed themselves of it. Of course loyal members of the
+church could not do so, the religious ceremony being imperative for
+them.
+
+With the departure of the Spanish government from the island a complete
+separation of church and state occurred, and it was held imperative to
+provide a new law of marriage. The old system had become odious, it may
+be explained, because of the large fees which many ecclesiastics charged
+for performance of the ceremony, and because, on account of those fees,
+many couples among the poorer elements of the population, decided to
+dispense with the marriage ceremony altogether; a practice not conducive
+to social order, and frequently causing serious embarrassment and
+litigation over the inheritance of property. Unfortunately in trying to
+reform the system the new government went too far toward the opposite
+extreme. The author of the new law was Senor Jose Antonio Gonzalez
+Lanuza, the Secretary of Justice, and it made civil marriage
+compulsory, though it permitted a supplementary religious ceremony at
+the pleasure of the parties. "Hereafter," it said, "only civil marriages
+shall be legally valid." It fixed the legal fee for marriages at one
+dollar.
+
+The intention of the law was doubtless good, and it might be argued that
+it should not have caused offence, since it did not interfere with
+religious marriage ceremonies. There is no doubt that it was very
+strongly favored by a large part of the Cuban nation. When it was
+proposed to repeal or to modify it materially the vast majority of
+municipal governments in the island, all of the judges of the Supreme
+Court, a majority of the judges of first instance, and half of the
+Provincial Governors, urged its retention unchanged. The clergy of the
+Roman Catholic church, however, opposed it vigorously and persistently,
+and it was finally deemed desirable to modify it so as to make either
+civil or religious marriage valid. The objection to it had been, of
+course, that by invalidating religious marriages it cast a certain slur
+upon the church. It is interesting to recall, however, that the law in
+its objectionable form was the work of a Cuban jurist, while in its
+amended and acceptable form it was the work of an American and conformed
+with the law in the United States, where civil and religious marriage
+ceremonies are equally legal and valid.
+
+In order to protect the island against undue exploitation by American
+speculators and "promoters," a law of the American Congress in February,
+1899, forbade the granting of franchises or concessions of any kind
+during the period of American occupation and control. It was not
+pretended that there was no need of any such grants, but it was
+prudently contended that they should wait until the Cubans themselves
+had full control of the insular government. The wisdom of this was
+apparent, and the law was generally approved, even by those who most
+clearly saw the desirability of developing the resources and industries
+of the island by the building of railroads, tramways, telegraph lines,
+etc. It was better for these to wait for a year or two than to incur the
+suspicion that an American administration had granted Cuban franchises
+to American promoters on terms which a Cuban government would not have
+approved.
+
+A most important enterprise during the Brooke administration was the
+taking of a thorough census of the island. This was ordered by President
+McKinley on August 17, 1899, and was taken early in the ensuing fall.
+The island was divided into 1,607 enumeration districts, and the work of
+canvassing was given chiefly to Cubans. Among the canvassers were 142
+women; the first women ever employed in government work in Cuba. The
+census was not a mere enumeration, but comprised a multiplicity of
+details concerning the age, nativity, citizenship, conjugal condition,
+literacy, etc., of the people, and also concerning agriculture and the
+other occupations in which they were engaged. The populations of the
+provinces were as follows, compared with the figures of the census of
+1887:
+
+    Provinces                          1899     1887
+
+    Pinar del Rio                    173,082    225,891
+    Havana                           424,811    451,928
+    Matanzas                         202,462    259,578
+    Santa Clara                      356,537    354,122
+    Camaguey                          88,237     67,789
+    Oriente                          327,716    272,379
+                                    --------    -------
+    Totals                          1,572,845  1,631,687
+
+These figures are significant. There should, of course, have been a
+considerable increase in population in those twelve years. Instead,
+there was a considerable decrease. The entire number of normal
+increase, plus the 58,842 actual decrease, may be taken as representing
+the loss through the war. It will also be observed that the loss of
+population was in the three western provinces, where the Spanish most
+held sway during the war, and that there was no loss but a considerable
+increase in the three eastern provinces, which were largely controlled
+by the Cubans. The population by sexes and race was as follows:
+
+    Male                   815,205
+    Female                 757,592
+
+    Native white           910,299
+    Foreign white          142,098
+
+    Negro                  234,738
+    Mixed                  270,805
+
+    Chinese                 14,857
+
+The report of citizenship was:
+
+    Cuban                1,296,367
+    Spanish                 20,478
+    In suspense            175,811
+    Other aliens            79,525
+    Unknown                    616
+
+The total number of illegitimate children, of all ages, was 185,030; a
+discreditably high number, attributed largely to the former expensive
+marriage system. The statistics of education were distressing. The
+number of children under ten years of age who were attending or had
+attended school was only 40,559, and the number who had not attended was
+316,428. The number of persons ten years old and over who could read and
+write was only 443,670; those who could neither read nor write were
+690,565--an appalling proportion of illiteracy, reflecting most
+discreditably upon the Spanish government of the island. The number of
+persons of "superior education" in the whole island was only 19,158.
+
+Nor were the statistics of industry much more satisfactory. The
+following were the totals for the island:
+
+    Agriculture, fisheries and mining     299,197
+    Trade and transportation               79,427
+    Manufactures and mechanics             93,074
+    Professional                            8,736
+    Domestic and personal                 141,936
+    No gainful occupation                 950,467
+
+Another supremely important measure which was adopted during the closing
+weeks of General Brooke's administration, though its complete working
+out was reserved for his successor, was suggested by some of the census
+figures which we have just quoted. It was realized that the need of
+education was of all Cuban popular needs the most urgent. Accordingly on
+November 2, 1899, General Brooke ordered the organization of a new
+bureau in the Department of Justice and Public Instruction, at the head
+of which should be a Superintendent of Schools. The first incumbent of
+that office was Alexis E. Frye, who drafted another order, promulgated
+by General Brooke on December 6 and practically constituting a new
+school law for Cuba. It provided for the formation of Boards of
+Education and the opening of primary and grammar schools in all
+communities by December 11, 1899, or as soon thereafter as possible.
+That was the beginning of the popular education of the Cuban people.
+
+After these things, General Brooke was on December 20 relieved of his
+command in Cuba. He issued a brief farewell proclamation to the people,
+calling attention to the progress which had been made in good
+government, and toward complete self-government and independence; every
+word of which was amply justified by facts. He was a soldier rather than
+an administrator, and he was nearing the age of retirement from active
+service. His administration had been beset with difficulties; it had
+made some mistakes, and it had done much good work. He was charged by
+some with having entrusted the powers of government too largely to his
+Cuban Secretaries; while others commended him for that very
+circumstance. His inclination was toward a bureaucracy, but it was a
+Cuban and not an alien bureaucracy. It cannot be denied that he laid
+much of the foundation of subsequent achievements and of successful
+Cuban government. It was under his governorship that General Ludlow
+cleansed the city of Havana, that the Customs service and the treasury
+were reorganized, and that provision was made for a comprehensive system
+of public schools.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+
+General Brooke was succeeded by General Leonard Wood. He had also in a
+measure been preceded by him. General Wood had at Santiago been the real
+pioneer in American administration in Cuba. He laid the first
+foundations there. General Brooke at Havana enlarged upon those
+foundations. Then came General Wood to Havana to complete the structure.
+It was with the fame and prestige of his great victory over pestilence
+at Santiago, and of all his other achievements in Oriente, that he came
+to Havana on December 20, 1899, to be Military Governor of all Cuba. He
+was received not alone with the fullest measure of formal ceremony and
+official salutation, from both Cubans and Americans, but also with such
+an outpouring of popular welcome as few men have received anywhere and
+as nobody save perhaps Maximo Gomez had ever received at Havana. The
+attitude and sentiment of the people toward him were well expressed by
+an editorial writer in the Havana journal _La Lucha_, who said:
+
+"General Wood has shown great capacity for government and management
+while in command of the eastern end of the island. In that mountainous
+and rugged district, where passions and impulsive characters
+predominate, in that country where a strong rebellious spirit has been
+agitated for a long time, General Wood knew how to calm that spirit, how
+to establish moral peace and to cheer the hearts of all. He has been
+seen to practise a policy of harmony and ample liberty. We saw him,
+first of all, promulgate the habeas corpus in the province he
+commanded, and he decreed that constitutional measure when the embers of
+the fire of domestic and international war were still smoking. In
+material things, General Wood cleansed the eastern cities and
+embellished them.... His government will prepare us for a broader life
+and give us the blessings of peace and liberty. As a man of clear mind
+and solid education, he will know how to study and to solve skilfully
+the economic and political problems that circumstances may introduce
+into the country. As he is a man of energy, he will be able to withstand
+every unhealthy influence. His policy will be eminently liberal, but at
+the same time it will be a guarantee for all who labor and produce. He
+will not associate himself with agitators but with statesmen."
+
+[Illustration: LEONARD WOOD
+
+Soldier, scientist, statesman, administrator, it has been the fortune of
+Leonard Wood to render invaluable services to two nations. Born at
+Winchester, New Hampshire, on October 9, 1860, and educated in medicine
+at Harvard University, he became first a surgeon and then an officer of
+the United States army. After a brilliant career in Indian fighting in
+the Southwest he went to Cuba in 1898 as colonel of the cavalry regiment
+of "Rough Riders" and did notable work in the battles around Santiago.
+He was Military Governor of Santiago and Oriente, and later Military
+Governor of Cuba, in which places he transformed the sanitary, economic
+and political conditions of the island, and ushered it into its career
+of independent self-government. Since then he has served the United
+States with great distinction in the Philippines, and as the foremost
+officer of the army at home; not the least of his benefactions to the
+nation being his great campaign of education and awakening in
+preparation for what he saw to be America's inevitable participation in
+the World War.]
+
+Such was the just estimate which Cuba placed upon her new Governor. Of
+his actual reception the same journal that we have quoted said:
+"Although promising nothing, he speaks volumes by his quiet democratic
+manner of taking charge of affairs. He has captivated everyone."
+
+The new Governor was welcomed on his arrival at Havana by an
+extraordinary and quite unprecedented gathering of representative men
+from all parts of the island; such a gathering as Havana had never seen
+before. He promptly entered into the fullest possible conference with
+them, to learn their views and to impart his own to them, and as a
+result of his intercourse with them he was able, on January 1, 1900, to
+gather about himself a noteworthy Cabinet, commanding in an exceptional
+measure the confidence of the Cuban people. It was thus composed:
+
+    Secretary of State and Government, Diego Tamayo.
+    Secretary of the Treasury, Jose Enrique Varona.
+    Secretary of Justice, Louis Estevez.
+    Secretary of Public Works, Jose Ramon Villalon.
+    Secretary of Education, Juan Bautista Barreiro.
+    Secretary of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, Ruiz Rivera.
+
+The selection of these men commanded the cordial approval of the Cuban
+people. Said _La Lucha_: "The new Cabinet contains men whose honest
+names are guarantees that the moral and material interests of the
+country are to be conserved." To this _La Patria_ added: "General Wood
+is obviously imbued with the best intentions. Although the council of
+Cubans convened by him is not an elected body, it does represent the
+wishes of the Cuban people."
+
+It will of course be observed that not one of General Brooke's cabinet
+was retained by General Wood. All were new men. Moreover, he increased
+their number by two, making a separate department of Education instead
+of lumping it with Justice, and making another of Public Works, instead
+of leaving it grouped with Agriculture, Industry and Commerce. This
+latter change was significant of two things. One was the increasing
+amount of actual governmental work that was devolving upon the
+administration. The other was the increased importance which, in General
+Wood's mind, attached to Education and Public Works. He rightly
+conceived them to be the two prime needs of Cuba. The cabinet did not
+remain as thus organized, however, very long. On May 1 Ruiz Rivera
+resigned the Secretaryship of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, and
+was succeeded by Perfecto Lacoste; and Louis Estevez resigned the
+portfolio of Justice and was succeeded by Juan Bautista Barreiro, who in
+turn was succeeded in the Department of Education by Jose Enrique
+Varona, while the last named was succeeded as Secretary of the Treasury
+by Leopoldo Cancio. Finally on August 11 Senor Barreiro retired
+altogether and was succeeded in the Department of Justice by Miguel
+Gener y Rincon.
+
+We have said that General Brooke was charged with letting his
+administration be controlled by his Secretaries. There was an
+inclination in some quarters to charge General Wood with exactly the
+reverse. He was not autocratic nor domineering. But he was Governor. He
+was the actual as well as the nominal head of the government. Realizing
+that he would be held personally responsible for everything that was
+done,--as he was,--he rightly determined to exercise his authority in
+everything that was done. Then, if he was blamed, he would not be blamed
+for the fault of somebody else.
+
+The significance which we have attributed to his Cabinet enlargement was
+promptly demonstrated. Of the three subjects to which he most devoted
+his attention, public education came first. He had deemed it worthy of a
+Cabinet Department all for itself. He at once set about organizing that
+department _de novo_. Mr. Frye had done good work as Superintendent of
+Schools; but he had also done much of dubious merit. He had organized
+too many schools too rapidly, and with too little system. Perhaps that
+was partly the fault of the law, which bade him on December 6 to get
+them all going by December 11, if possible. But then, he was responsible
+for the law. He opened hundreds of schools. But most of them were pretty
+poor affairs, with no proper text-books, no desks, no equipment and
+supplies; they were not graded nor classified, and they were conducted
+without proper system or order.
+
+Such schools General Wood regarded as of little value, and he took
+prompt measures, though at the cost of a somewhat acrimonious
+controversy with Mr. Frye, to improve the system under which they were
+being created. On January 24 he issued an order creating a Board of
+Superintendents of Schools, instead of leaving the work to one man, and
+he appointed as its members Mr. Frye, Esteban Borrero Echeverria, and
+Lincoln de Zayas. The Board continued to act under the law of December
+6, but applied it in a somewhat different way, with impressive results.
+It opened a great many more schools than Mr. Frye had done, and saw to
+it that they were better equipped than his had been. Within six months
+the number of schools was increased from 635 to 3,313. Indeed, on March
+3 it was found necessary to put on brakes, by issuing an order that no
+more new schools should be opened for the present. That year more than
+$4,000,000, or nearly a fourth of the total revenue of Cuba, was spent
+on public schools.
+
+[Illustration: EVELIO RODRIGUEZ LENDIAN
+
+One of the foremost educators of Cuba, Dr. Evelio Rodriguez Lendian, was
+born at Guanabacoa in 1860, and was educated at the University of
+Havana, where he is Professor of History and Dean of the Faculty of
+Science and Letters. He is also President of the Academy of History, and
+Director of the Athenaeum. He has written a number of books and has
+great repute as a public speaker.]
+
+In addition to primary and grammar schools, which were made universal,
+trade schools of various kinds were established. In the principal
+cities, especially in Havana, there were free schools of stenography and
+type-writing. These latter were designed partly to supply a competent
+and up-to-date clerical force to the various government offices, and
+partly to promote modern business methods in private concerns. Of course
+they provided profitable occupation to a large number of persons who
+otherwise might have been out of employment. The creation of the public
+schools also provided employment for several thousand persons, as
+teachers. These were almost entirely Cubans and, as in the United
+States, were very largely young women. Considering the paucity of
+numbers of those reported by the census as possessing "superior
+education" it was extraordinary that a sufficient staff of teachers
+could be obtained. Normal schools for the training of teachers in modern
+methods of education were established, and were largely attended by
+young Cubans eager to participate in the work of advancing the
+intellectual interests and indeed also the social and industrial
+interests of their country.
+
+An admirable impetus, of inestimable value, was given to the work of
+Cuban education in 1900 when Harvard University, General Wood's alma
+mater, invited Cuban teachers to the number of a thousand to spend the
+summer at that institution, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where a great
+summer school in pedagogy and other sciences was conducted. Recognizing
+the immense value of such a visit from many points of view, the American
+administration in Cuba agreed to pay each teacher one month's salary for
+the purpose of the excursion, and to provide transportation from their
+homes to Havana or other convenient ports, whence their further travel
+was provided for by the Quartermaster's Department of the United States.
+On arriving at Cambridge they were received and entertained during their
+stay by a committee specially appointed by Harvard. They were thus
+enabled to have without cost an extended and singularly interesting and
+enjoyable excursion, such as many of them had never had before, to
+receive stimulus, suggestion and instruction in the most approved
+methods of education and school management, and--perhaps most important
+of all--to come into direct touch with the people and institutions of
+the great northern republic with which their own country had and was
+destined always to have the closest of relations.
+
+The school system of the island was strictly removed from politics, both
+local and general, and was taken from the control of the municipalities
+and placed directly and solely under that of the national government.
+Thus was assured a fine degree of uniformity in the quality and methods
+of teaching. Thus also the poorer districts, which could with difficulty
+have maintained any kind of schools at all, were enabled to have as good
+service as the richest communities. The salaries paid to teachers were
+good, comparing favorably with those paid in the United States.
+
+[Illustration: THE UNIVERSITY OF HAVANA
+
+Cuba is enviably distinguished for providing not only elementary but
+higher education, even of the best university grade, practically without
+cost to the children of her citizens. The University of Havana, which is
+the crown of the whole educational system of the country, was founded in
+1728, and formerly was housed in the old convent of Santo Domingo. But
+in 1900 under the American administration of General Leonard Wood, it
+was removed to the fine site of the former Pirotecnica Militar, near El
+Principe.]
+
+There was, it must be confessed, some criticism of this elaborate and
+expensive educational establishment. It was urged by some that
+approximately one-fourth was entirely too large a proportion of the
+national revenue to devote to this purpose, and that it would be to the
+greater benefit of the island to spend less money on schools and more on
+public works of various kinds. It was also pointed out that the average
+cost of educating each pupil in the Cuban schools was more than $26,
+while the average cost in the whole United States was less than $23, and
+in the Southern States, with which it was assumed that Cuba was properly
+to be compared, it was less than $9. Of course there was involved in
+these criticisms a triple fallacy. One was the notion that public works
+were neglected or sacrificed for the schools. That, as we shall see, was
+not so; a comparably great system of such works proceeding _pari passu_
+with the development of the school system. Another was, that the cost
+was too high. Naturally the cost was much higher in the first year
+than it would be after the system was well established. It was in fact
+much lower than in those parts of the United States where the schools
+were efficient and the educational system was creditable. The third
+fallacy was in thinking that Cuba was to be compared with the Southern
+States, the backward condition of whose school systems had long been
+regarded as a reproach and a disgrace. In endowing Cuba with a school
+system it would have been indecent for the United States to take for the
+standard its own poorest and most discreditable systems. It was
+necessary that it should take rather the best that it had as an example
+to be emulated. It may be added that these criticisms were made chiefly
+by General Wood's American critics, and by those who ignorantly and
+arrogantly regarded Cuba as an inferior country for which an inferior
+system was good enough. The Cubans themselves with practical unanimity
+gave to the work their hearty and grateful approval.
+
+[Illustration: ANTONIO SANCHEZ DE BUSTAMENTE
+
+One of the most eminent jurists and orators of Cuba, Dr. Antonio Sanchez
+de Bustamente, was born on April 13, 1865, and was educated at the
+University of Havana. He is a Senator, President of the Cuban Society of
+International Law; President of the National Academy of Arts and
+Letters; Dean of the Havana College of Lawyers, and Professor of
+International, Public and Private Law in the University of Havana.]
+
+There was other work to do for the children of Cuba beside that of the
+ordinary schools. The war had been disastrous to domesticity. Thousands
+of homes had been entirely destroyed, the parents slain, the houses
+burned, the children left to wander as waifs. In that genial clime,
+amid that profusion of the fruits of nature, these orphans did not
+necessarily starve or perish. Many of them lived practically as wild
+creatures of the woods. Many of them also were cared for in some fashion
+by the families whose homes had not been destroyed, for it was not in
+the Cuban heart, even the most poverty-stricken, to turn a suppliant
+from the door. But it was not fitting that these children should be left
+as waifs and charges upon the people. Under General Brooke's
+administration an excellent Department of Charities was organized, which
+gathered up and cared for thousands of them, and this work was continued
+during General Wood's administration. The children were partly placed in
+families which were willing to receive them, or in asylums and schools.
+Seeing that there was among them a certain proportion of defectives and
+delinquents, and that many were in need of useful training, correctional
+and industrial schools for both boys and girls were opened, and did
+admirable work.
+
+The second object of General Wood's special interest was that of public
+works. Concerning that, two salient facts must be borne in mind. One is,
+that the prohibition of franchises and concessions during the American
+occupation materially militated against the making of many improvements;
+although it was on the whole a desirable restriction. The other is that
+many of the most urgent public works during the first year or two were
+those connected with sanitation and the renovation of public buildings,
+prisons, etc. During the first year of the intervention, under General
+Brooke, heroic work was done by General Ludlow in removing from the
+streets of Havana the accumulated filth of years. But that was only a
+beginning. In the next two years the work had to be continued and
+extended to every city and town on the island. Water supplies had to be
+provided, and sewer systems. Above all, there had to be an extensive,
+persistent and, in the very nature of the case expensive campaign
+against yellow fever and malaria, the two traditional scourges of Cuba.
+To these works General Wood addressed himself with efficient energy, and
+to them he devoted an appropriate proportion of the public funds.
+
+[Illustration: ALMENDARES RIVER, HAVANA]
+
+We have seen that the total cost of the schools in 1900 was more than
+$4,000,000. But as a considerable part of this was non-recurring expense
+for buildings, etc., the actual cost of maintenance was much less. The
+following figures show the apportionment of expenditures:
+
+    For Education, non-recurring          $   337,460
+    For Education, maintenance              3,672,000
+                                           ----------
+         Total for school system           $4,009,460
+
+    For Public Works construction          $1,786,700
+    For Sanitation                          3,029,500
+                                           ----------
+    Total for Public Works                 $4,816,200
+
+Despite the complaints of American critics that too much money was spent
+on schools in proportion to other things, therefore, it appears that
+much less was spent on them than on public works. Perhaps such
+complaints would have been less numerous and less bitter if General Wood
+had been willing or able to give profitable contracts and franchises to
+American speculators.
+
+Much attention was paid to port improvements, naturally, in order to
+facilitate and promote the commerce which was essential to the
+prosperity of the island. The lighthouse service was placed under the
+most competent charge of General Mario G. Menocal, who conducted it with
+approved efficiency until the needs of his personal affairs compelled
+him to retire from public office. A thoroughly organized postal service
+was established throughout the island and was so well managed that by
+the end of the period of intervention it was within ten per cent. of
+being self supporting, or as near to self supporting as that of the
+United States had generally been. This was certainly a remarkable
+achievement in view of the fact that so large a proportion of Cubans
+were illiterate and therefore unable to make use of postal facilities.
+
+For general purposes of public works the island was divided into six
+districts. At the head of each district was a Chief Superintendent of
+Public Works, with a staff of assistants. The principal undertakings,
+apart from sanitation, were the construction of roads and the building
+of bridges and culverts, and these were judiciously planned so as to
+unite the various districts of the island with improved highways, and to
+open up rich agricultural regions with transportation facilities.
+
+[Illustration: OLD TIME WATER MILL, HAVANA PROVINCE]
+
+These undertakings involved General Wood in the disposition of an
+unpleasant controversy which had been left over from General Brooke's
+administration, which in turn had received it from the old Spanish
+government. In 1894 the Spanish authorities of Havana decided to have
+that city largely repaved and re-sewered, and asked an American firm
+somewhat noted for its political influence, that of Michael J. Dady &
+Co., of Brooklyn, New York, to submit plans. A year later it accepted
+some of this firm's proposals, payment for the work to be made in bonds
+of the City of Havana. But the oncoming of the war caused postponement
+of the project, and it was not until December, 1898, just before the
+Spanish evacuation, that the corporation of Havana finally accepted the
+proposals and authorized the issue of bonds. The American authorities,
+however, who were about to take over the control of the city, protested
+against being thus saddled with a scheme of Spanish making, and
+accordingly the last Spanish Governor, General Castellanos, very
+properly declined to approve and sign the ordinance; declaring that it
+and all similar projects, which would have to be executed under American
+control, should await American approval.
+
+A few days later the transfer of sovereignty occurred, and General
+Ludlow, as Governor of Havana, decided to set aside the Dady proposals
+altogether and to proceed with the work himself. This was doubtless an
+economical and logical course to pursue. But under the old Spanish law,
+which was still in force, Dady & Co. claimed to have certain rights in
+the matter. The matter remained in suspense for the whole of General
+Brooke's administration, with a succession of engineers from the United
+States making and remaking plans for the work and with Dady & Co.'s
+interests undecided. Apparently the United States government--for the
+whole matter was controlled by the Engineering Bureau of the War
+Department at Washington--was reluctant to challenge Dady & Co. to a
+trial of their claims in court, and was unwilling to seek a compromise
+with them, but was seeking by interminable postponements, changes of
+plan and delays to tire them out and induce them voluntarily to
+withdraw. But that was something which that astute and resolute
+corporation showed no inclination to do. Meanwhile very important
+public works were at a stand-still.
+
+This was an intolerable state of affairs, and General Wood in the spring
+of 1901 determined to end it after the manner of Alexander's disposition
+of the Gordian knot. He paid Dady & Co. $250,000 in satisfaction of
+their claims, which was possibly less than the courts would have awarded
+them if the case had been carried before them, and then ordered bids to
+be solicited for the doing of the work. The only bid received was from
+Dady & Co., and the Washington authorities refused to sanction
+acceptance of it on the ground that it was too high. The plans were
+altered and new bids solicited, and the Havana Ayuntamiento voted to
+award the contract to the lowest bidders, McGivney & Rokeby. But before
+the contract was closed Dady & Co. on a plea of having misunderstood the
+plans offered a reduction of their bid below that of their competitors;
+whereupon the Ayuntamiento reconsidered its vote and ordered the
+contract to be made with Dady & Co. But the Washington authorities
+refused to sanction this change, apparently being averse to letting Dady
+& Co. have the job at any figure, and the result was that the whole
+matter remained at a deadlock until after the end of the American
+occupation.
+
+From some points of view the greatest achievement of General Wood's
+administration was that of the conquest of disease, and it was one in
+which he as a physician and man of science took peculiar interest. When
+he fought and temporarily overcame yellow fever at Santiago, there was
+no application of the immortal theory of Dr. Finlay, but it was supposed
+that the pestilence spontaneously arose from filth. The same was true of
+General Ludlow's subsequent cleansing of Havana; he supposing that by
+the removal of filth the sources of infection would be removed. But when
+he observed that the dreaded disease occurred where there was no filth,
+General Wood concluded that it must have another source, and decided to
+give Dr. Finlay's theory a practical test. In 1900 therefore a medical
+commission was formed, composed of Drs. Walter Reed, U. S. A., James
+Carroll, Aristides Agramonte, and Jesse W. Lazear, who, with the heroic
+cooperation of soldiers of the United States army, who were willing to
+risk their lives in experiments for the welfare of humanity, undertook
+an elaborate series of demonstrations which were epochal in the history
+not alone of Cuba but also of the whole world.
+
+Reed took the initiative. He applied to General Wood for permission to
+undertake the work, including the conducting of experiments on persons
+who were not immune against the fever, which of course was a most
+perilous venture. He also asked for a considerable sum of money with
+which to reward volunteers who would thus submit themselves to deadly
+peril. General Wood did not hesitate for a moment. He granted the
+permission, appropriated the money, and entered into the momentous
+enterprise with helpful sympathy and untiring zeal.
+
+[Illustration: CARLOS J. FINLAY
+
+Born at Camaguey on December 3, 1833, of English parents, and dying on
+August 20, 1915, Dr. Carlos J. Finlay left a name which greatly adorns
+the science of Cuba and which occupied a conspicuous place on the roster
+of the benefactors of humanity. He was educated in France and at the
+Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia, and rose to eminence in his
+profession. He first of all men propounded the theory that _Stegomiya
+fasciata_ mosquito was the active and sole agent in the communication of
+yellow fever, and personally, under the Governorship of Leonard Wood,
+demonstrated the correctness of that theory and thus freed Cuba from its
+most dreaded pestilence and blazed the way for a like achievement in all
+other lands. For this epochal service to the world many foreign
+governments bestowed distinctions and decorations upon him. Though
+technically retaining the British citizenship with which his father
+endowed him, he devoted his life to Cuba and filled with high efficiency
+the place of chief of the Bureau of Sanitation.]
+
+The scene of the drama--for it was one of the most dramatic and heroic
+performances in human history--was Camp Lazear, fittingly named for the
+brave man who was a martyr to the cause of health, a few miles from
+Quemados, in the outskirts of Havana. Before the work at the camp was
+begun, however, two experiments were made by members of the commission,
+who thus demonstrated their personal readiness to incur any peril which
+might confront the volunteers for whom they were calling. Dr. Carroll
+was first. He deliberately caused himself to be bitten by a mosquito
+which twelve days before had gorged itself with the blood of a
+yellow fever patient. Note that he did this with the expectation, indeed
+with the hope, that he would thus be infected with one of the deadliest
+of diseases. He sought to prove not that there was no danger in a
+mosquito bite, but on the contrary that there was the greatest possible
+danger. And his anticipations were fully realized. In due time after the
+bite he was stricken with yellow fever in a particularly severe form;
+from which, however, he happily recovered.
+
+Dr. Lazear came next. At about the same time with Carroll he made a
+similar experiment upon himself. Apparently the insect by which he
+caused himself to be bitten had not itself been infected. At any rate
+Lazear did not develop the disease. At this he was disappointed, and he
+determined to expose himself again. Accordingly he was thoroughly bitten
+by another mosquito, in the yellow fever ward of the hospital. He noted
+the fact and all its results most carefully, as though he had been
+experimenting upon some inanimate object. In due time the disease
+manifested itself in its most malignant form. Everything possible was of
+course done for him, but in vain. He died of the disease which he had
+voluntarily contracted for the sake of saving others from it; one of the
+world's great martyrs to the cause not merely of science but of
+humanity.
+
+So Camp Lazear was founded and was named after this hero. There were
+erected two large frame buildings, one for infected mosquitoes and one
+for infected clothing. The mosquito building was divided into two parts
+by a permanent wirecloth partition, impervious to even the smallest
+mosquito, but of course permitting free circulation of air. All the
+windows and doors were securely screened in like manner, so that it was
+impossible for mosquitoes to pass in or out. This building was
+ventilated in the most thorough manner. Three men entered it and lived
+there for a fortnight. One of them entered the compartment which was
+infested with fever-infected mosquitoes, and was bitten by them. The
+others remained in the other compartment which was free from mosquitoes
+but through which the same air circulated and in which all other
+conditions were identical with those in the insect room. The result was
+that the man who was bitten developed the fever, while the others,
+though fully as susceptible to it as he, showed no signs of it. Such was
+the convincing demonstration of the mosquito house.
+
+The clothing building was kept free from mosquitoes, but was well
+stocked with the clothing and bedding of yellow fever patients. There
+were the beds in which men had died of the fever, soiled with their
+vomit and other excreta. The room was purposely deprived of ventilation,
+so that its air should constantly be heavy with the reek of disease and
+death. Into that indescribably loathsome place brave men entered, and
+there they lived for weeks, wearing the soiled clothing and sleeping in
+the soiled beds of those who had died of the pestilence. But not one of
+them contracted the fever. Not one sickened. All emerged from the
+noisome place at the end of the experiment in perfect health. Such was
+the convincing demonstration of the infected clothing house.
+
+One thing more remained. There was one remote possibility that the men
+who had remained free from the fever, in the noninfected room of the
+mosquito house and in the infected clothing house, were in some
+unsuspected way immune against the disease. To determine this, one of
+each of the companies permitted himself to be bitten by an infected
+mosquito, with the result that he promptly developed the disease. That
+was the final, complete and crowning demonstration which made Camp
+Lazear forever famous in the annals of humanity. At a single stroke the
+pestilence which had been the haunting horror of the tropics was
+potentially conquered. Dr. Reed proclaimed to the world that the
+specific agent in the causation of yellow fever was a germ or toxin in
+the blood of a patient during only the first three days of the attack,
+which must be transmitted by the bite of a mosquito inflicted upon its
+victim at least twelve days after taking it from the blood of the first
+patient. In no other way was it possible to convey the infection. The
+notion that it was conveyed through the air, in the breath of patients,
+in their soiled clothing or the discharges of their bodies, was
+baseless.
+
+That historic achievement was alone sufficient to make that first year
+of General Wood's administration in Cuba forever gratefully famous. Of
+course the lesson thus learned was at once put into effect with all
+possible thoroughness. War was declared upon the death-dealing mosquito.
+In February, 1901, the campaign was begun by Major William C. Gorgas, U.
+S. A., the chief sanitary officer of Havana. Every case of yellow fever
+was immediately reported, and the patient was rigidly isolated during
+the three days in which his blood was infective. All the rooms of his
+house and the adjacent houses were closed to prevent the escape of
+possible infected mosquitoes, and were then thoroughly fumigated so as
+to destroy every insect within them. In this way the spread of the
+disease was prevented. At the same time measures were taken to
+exterminate the mosquitoes altogether, by depriving them of breeding
+places. It was ascertained that the insect required for propagation a
+certain amount of stagnant water, in which its eggs might be deposited
+and hatched. Steps were therefore taken to drain or otherwise get rid of
+all pools, or to apply to them a film of oil which would prevent the
+insects from using them, and to screen carefully all vessels and other
+receptacles in which water was necessarily kept. These were the same
+methods which Major--since Major General--Gorgas a few years later
+applied with distinguished success for the elimination of yellow fever
+from the Isthmus of Panama and thus rendered possible the construction
+of the interoceanic canal.
+
+[Illustration: STREET IN VEDADO, SUBURB OF HAVANA]
+
+Begun in February, 1901, this work in Havana was so vigorously and
+skilfully prosecuted that before summer every case of yellow fever had
+disappeared from that city and its environs. During the summer a few
+cases occurred, but the last of them was disposed of early in September.
+That was the last case of yellow fever to originate in a city which for
+a century and a half had annually been scourged by that disease. Since
+that date the only cases that have been known there have been a few
+which were imported from less sanitary ports--at one time Havana had to
+establish a fever quarantine against United States ports! Thus the
+island which had long suffered reproach as the especial home of one of
+the deadliest of diseases, as a veritable plague-spot, which American
+life insurance companies forbade their policy holders to visit, became
+noted for its freedom from that scourge and for its general salubrity.
+
+A similar campaign was also conducted against another variety of
+mosquito which, by a like series of experiments, had been proved to be
+the propagating medium of so-called malarial fevers; with highly
+gratifying results.
+
+Among the important reforms effected by General Wood was that of the
+entire system of law and justice. It began with the penal institutions.
+When the Americans assumed control, they found the old Spanish prison
+system still in existence. Most of the prisons were antiquated,
+unsanitary and inhuman structures, to enter which was ominous for the
+body, the mind and the soul. There was no segregation of prisoners
+according to age or degree of criminality. Mere boys, sentenced for some
+slight misdemeanor, were herded in with adult felons of the most
+hardened and incorrigible type. Many had been confined for months, even
+years, awaiting trial. They had been arrested, locked up in default of
+bail, and then practically forgotten. Of these many were innocent of
+any wrong-doing; while some of those who were probably guilty were kept
+in confinement awaiting trial for a much longer term than they could
+have been sentenced for under the law if they had been tried and found
+guilty.
+
+This shocking state of affairs was vigorously attacked during the first
+year of the American occupation, and it was thoroughly reformed before
+that occupation ended. There was a prompt disposal of all untried cases.
+Where it was possible, the prisoners were at once brought to trial. But
+in many cases there was nobody to appear against them; perhaps through
+lapse of time all the witnesses were dead; and it was impossible to make
+even a show of prosecuting them. Such persons simply had to be set at
+liberty. The system of jurisprudence was so modified as to assure prompt
+trials thereafter. The management of the prisons was made to aim at the
+reformation of the prisoners and not simply at their vindictive
+punishment. In some prisons schools were opened, to give the inmates
+instruction which would conduce to their right living after their
+release. Of course the buildings were renovated as far as possible, so
+as to make them sanitary and as comfortable as prisoners have a right to
+expect their prisons to be.
+
+This led, under General Wood's administration, to a general revision of
+the system of courts, court procedure and jurisprudence. In the first
+year of intervention, indeed, General Ludlow established a Police Court
+in Havana. This was not authorized by Governor Brooke, and was regarded
+as of doubtful legality. Nevertheless it remained in operation and
+undoubtedly served a good purpose in disposing promptly of most of the
+petty cases of arrest for misdemeanor. So valuable was it that General
+Wood, on becoming Governor, determined to place its legal status on the
+surest foundation possible, by issuing an official order for its
+creation and recognition. In this he did not himself escape criticism,
+not from Cubans but from Americans. The same people, or the same kind of
+people, who had blamed him for paying so much attention to Cuban
+education now declared that he had no business to meddle in any way with
+the judicial system of Cuba. That was not what America had intervened
+for. To such objections little attention was paid. General Wood rightly
+regarded it to be his business to do anything in any department of
+government that would promote the ends of justice and good government
+and the welfare of the Cuban nation.
+
+Police courts were therefore established not only in Havana but also in
+the other cities. The Department of Justice was moved to examine into
+the conduct of all the courts. When judges were found to be unjust,
+corrupt, incompetent, or otherwise unfit to serve, they were removed.
+Competent clerks were appointed, and they and all other court employes
+were put on fair salaries, the fee system which formerly prevailed and
+which was so susceptible of abuse, being abolished. Competent and
+trustworthy lawyers were employed at state expense to serve as counsel
+for those who were too poor to hire them.
+
+It was under General Wood, in his first year of administration and the
+second year of American intervention, that Cuban civil government was
+elaborated, that an election system was devised and put into effect, and
+that political parties had their rise. The Civil Governors of the
+Provinces were now all Cubans: Of Pinar del Rio, Dr. J. M. Quilez; of
+Havana, General Emilio Nunez; of Matanzas, General Pedro Betancourt; of
+Santa Clara, General Jose Miguel Gomez; of Camaguey, General R. Lopez
+Recio; of Oriente, General Demetrio Castillo. It was General Wood's wise
+and just policy to fill Cuban offices with Cubans to the fullest
+possible extent.
+
+Therefore it was determined in the spring of 1900 to hold an election
+for municipal officers throughout the island. An order was issued on
+April 18, appointing the election for June 16, for officers to be
+installed on July 1 for a term of one year. The officers to be chosen
+were Mayors, or Alcaldes; members of City Councils or Ayuntamientos;
+municipal treasurers and judges, and judges of the police courts.
+
+The preparations for the election were made and a new electoral law was
+drafted by a commission of fifteen members, appointed by General Wood.
+Of the fifteen, thirteen were Cubans and two were Americans. The Cubans
+were representative of the various political parties into which the
+people of the island were beginning to divide themselves. It cannot be
+said that the meetings and deliberations of the commission were
+particularly harmonious. In the end two reports were submitted to the
+Governor, of which he selected for adoption that presented by the
+minority. It comprised the new elections law, which he promulgated on
+April 18 in the proclamation calling for the election. This law provided
+that a voter must be a male Cuban, native of Cuba or born of Cuban
+parents while they were temporarily visiting abroad, or a Spaniard
+included within the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, who had not
+elected to retain his Spanish allegiance; he must be twenty-one years
+old, and must have lived in his municipality for at least thirty days
+immediately preceding registration; and he must be able to read and
+write; or own property worth $250 in American gold; or have served in
+the Cuban army prior to July 18, 1898, and have been honorably
+discharged therefrom. The ten consecutive days from May 6 to May 16 were
+appointed as days of registration.
+
+The total number of voters registered was 150,648, which was a little
+more than fifty per cent, of the total number of men of voting age,
+which had been shown by the census of 1899 to be 297,765. However, there
+were some thousands of adult males in the island who had elected to
+retain their allegiance to Spain, and therefore could not vote, so that
+the number registered was considerably more than one half of the
+possible voters. At the election on June 16 the total vote cast was
+110,816. There were some protests and complaints of fraud and illegal
+voting, and it is not improbable that there were some such abuses; as
+there have been known to be in other lands, even in the United States of
+America. On the whole the elections were probably reasonably fair and
+honest; they were peacefully and quietly conducted; and they gave much
+encouragement to the expectation that the people of Cuba would prove
+themselves worthy of the opportunity of self-government which was being
+placed before them.
+
+At this election there were three parties. The Union Democratic was
+composed of the more conservative element, including many of the old
+Autonomist party, and it was largely inclined toward annexation to the
+United States, or toward a permanent and efficient protectorate by that
+country. Its numbers were few, and it took little part in the election.
+The Nationals and the Republicans ranged from liberal to radical, and
+between the two in principle there was no perceptible difference. These
+parties did not long survive, but were transformed and merged into the
+Conservative and Liberal parties of later years.
+
+Political parties in Cuba had their origin about the time of American
+intervention in the war. That was an assurance that Cuba was to have her
+independence and become self-governing, and that made it seem worth
+while to form into parties. The full development did not come, however,
+until it was seen that the United States intended to keep its word by
+leaving the government and control of Cuba to the people of the island,
+and that conviction did not come to the general Cuban mind until some
+time after the United States entered the war. It first began to arise in
+considerable strength when the United States government forbade the
+granting of any franchises or concessions during the American
+occupation. That certainly looked as though the Americans expected to
+get out of the island at an early date. As the administration of General
+Wood went on, constantly increasing the participation of Cubans in the
+government, the confidence in American good faith increased, and of
+course the organization of parties became more complete.
+
+There were then, however, as there are now, no such differences between
+the parties on matters of political economy or administrative and
+legislative policy, as exist in other lands. They are simply the "Ins"
+and the "Outs." One party is in office and wants to stay in. The other
+is out and wants to get in. In their methods, however, the two differ
+widely. The Conservatives have been consistently in favor of
+constitutional and lawful measures, the maintenance of peace and the
+safeguarding of life and property. They have always been willing to
+accept and abide by the result of an election, even though it were
+against them. The Liberals, on the other hand, as we shall more
+convincingly see in the course of this narrative, have been in favor of
+practically any means which would enable them to gain control of
+affairs. They have on several occasions not hesitated to involve the
+island in revolution, provided that they would be able to profit from it
+by gaining office.
+
+In this first election for municipal officers there was little partisan
+rivalry, and indeed that did not rise to any great pitch until the end
+of the first intervention and the establishment of a purely Cuban
+government. The chief partisanship was really personal. Each important
+military or political leader had his own following. Such rivalries were
+not yet, however, acrimonious or sufficient to have any material effect
+upon the progress of public affairs.
+
+Reference has been made to the reform of the taxation system which
+included the abolition of a number of annoying and oppressive imposts.
+There followed a revision of the tariff on imports, for the dual
+purposes of promoting commerce and industry and of providing a revenue
+for the insular government. In December, 1898, the United States had
+ordered maintenance of the old Spanish tariff, with certain
+modifications, chiefly dictated by the change of relations between Cuba
+and the United States. Subsequently other modifications were made from
+time to time as the need or desirability of them became apparent through
+experience. But on June 15, 1900, an entirely new tariff law went into
+effect, framed chiefly by American experts and following pretty closely
+the general lines of the American tariff system. Naturally it was
+calculated to encourage commerce between Cuba and the United States,
+particularly by the admission of products of the latter country into
+Cuban markets at a minimum of cost. In view of the scarcity of food in
+Cuba and the devastated condition of much of the agricultural lands,
+American food products, both meats and breadstuffs, thus gained easy
+access to the Cuban market. This seemed anomalous, since Cuba was an
+agricultural country capable of producing a large surplus of food for
+export instead of needing imports of food. It was obvious, however, that
+this feature of the tariff would be merely temporary, and in fact it was
+materially modified by the increase of rates on such imports very soon
+after the establishment of the Cuban government.
+
+Despite the fact that during the year about three million dollars' worth
+of food was imported, the total of Cuban imports was less than in the
+preceding year; a circumstance due to the change in tariff rates. At the
+same time there was a very considerable increase in exports. It was an
+interesting circumstance, also, that there was a decrease in trade with
+the United States; a pretty effective reply to the complaint which some
+made that the new tariff had been improperly framed so as to give the
+United States a monopoly of Cuban trade. It did give the United States
+some advantages which that country had not enjoyed before, but on the
+whole it was probably as fair and impartial as it could well have been
+made. Commercial reports showed that Cuban imports from the United
+States were $26,513,613 in 1900 and $25,964,801 in 1901; and that Cuban
+exports to the United States were $31,371,704 in 1900 and $43,428,088 in
+1901. Thus Cuban purchases from the United States were decreasing
+slightly, while Cuban sales to the United States were greatly
+increasing, and the balance of trade was growing more and more largely
+in Cuba's favor.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+
+The supreme work of the Government of Intervention, from the political
+point of view, was to prepare Cuba for complete self-government and then
+to relinquish the control of the island to its own people. It was with
+that end in view that General Wood filled all possible offices with
+Cubans. It was also to the same end that the municipal election was held
+in June, 1900, under a new election law. Soon after that election there
+came a call for another, of vastly greater importance. On July 25, 1900,
+the President of the United States authorized General Wood as Military
+Governor of Cuba to issue a call for the election of a Cuban
+Constitutional Convention, which should be representative of the Cuban
+people and which should prepare the fundamental law of the independent
+insular government which was about to be erected.
+
+General Wood issued the call, fixing September 15 as the date of the
+election. This call repeated and reaffirmed the Congressional
+declaration of April 20, 1898, concerning the purpose of the United
+States not to annex Cuba but to "leave the government and control of the
+island to its people." It also called upon the people of Cuba, through
+their Constitutional Convention, not only to frame and adopt a
+Constitution, but also, "as a part thereof, to provide for and agree
+with the Government of the United States upon the relations to exist
+between that government and the Government of Cuba." That was a most
+significant thing. It made it quite clear that the United States
+expected and intended that some special relations should exist between
+the two countries, apart from those ordinarily provided in treaties.
+
+Comment, criticism and protest were provoked; some temperate, some
+intemperate. Most of the unfavorable comments, and by far the most
+severe, came from the United States and were obviously animated by
+political hostility to the President. In Cuba the chief objection was
+based upon the ground that the island was thus required to do something
+through a Constitutional Convention which that body was not intended to
+do but which should be done by the diplomatic department of the
+government; and also to put into the Constitution something which did
+not belong there but which should be determined in a treaty. In this
+there was obviously much logical and moral force, and that fact was
+appreciated by General Wood, and by the government at Washington, with
+the result that assurances were presently given that the order would be
+satisfactorily modified. On the strength of this assurance, which was
+given in undoubted good faith, Cubans generally prepared for the coming
+election and for the great work which lay beyond it. They had been so
+disturbed by the original form of the order that many had declared that
+they would not participate in the election or serve as delegates to the
+Convention. The promise of modification mollified them, and thereafter
+all went smoothly and auspiciously.
+
+The call for the election was issued on August 11. The qualifications
+for suffrage which were prescribed were the same as those in the
+preceding municipal election, and were generally accepted as fair and
+just. The election was held on September 15, and it passed off in very
+much the same fashion as its predecessor. Only a moderate degree of
+popular interest was manifested in it, and the vote cast was not a
+large one. The candidates were divided among the three parties already
+mentioned, but all save one were elected from the two radical
+organizations, the Nationals and the Republicans. Just one, Senor Eliseo
+Giberga, of Matanzas province, was returned by the Conservative Union
+Democrats. There were a few charges of fraud, but they were vague and
+general in terms and were not formulated nor pressed, and in the main
+the result of the polling was accepted in good part. The number of
+delegates from each province had been prescribed in the call for the
+election. The roll of the convention comprised the names of many of the
+foremost members of the Cuban nation, distinguished in war, in
+statecraft and in science, and was well representative of all parts and
+parties of the island.
+
+The convention met for the first time on November 5, 1900, at two
+o'clock in the afternoon. All the delegates were present, and a great
+multitude of the people gathered in and about the palace to witness the
+spectacle and to pay honor to the occasion. They were not alone from the
+capital, but from all parts of Cuba. Every province and almost every
+important municipality was represented. Expectant optimism prevailed.
+There was only one note of uncertainty. That was concerning the promised
+modification of the order concerning relations with the United States.
+The modification had not yet been announced. There were a few who began
+to doubt whether it would ever be; but most put faith in the Military
+Governor and were sure that he would keep his word.
+
+He did. At the appointed moment, when all were assembled, General Wood
+called the Convention to order and addressed it briefly.
+
+"It will," he said, "be your duty, first, to frame and adopt a
+Constitution for Cuba, and when that has been done, to formulate what,
+in your opinion, ought to be the relations between Cuba and the United
+States. The Constitution must be adequate to secure a stable, orderly
+and free government. When you have formulated the relations which, in
+your opinion, ought to exist between Cuba and the United States, the
+Government of the United States will doubtless take such action on its
+part as shall lead to a final and authoritative agreement between the
+people of the two countries to the promotion of their common good." He
+also reminded the Convention that it had no authority to take any part
+in the existing government of the island, or to do anything more than
+was prescribed in the order for its assembling. In thus speaking he was
+in fact reading to the Convention official instructions from Washington;
+in which the order concerning Cuban and American relations was
+materially modified. There was nothing in the revised version about
+making the agreement a part of the Constitution. The Convention was
+merely to express its opinion on the subject, to serve as a basis for
+further negotiations. General Wood emphasized this point distinctly, and
+it was received with entire satisfaction by the Convention and by the
+public.
+
+Having thus delivered to the Convention its instructions and having
+expressed his personal good will and wishes for its success, General
+Wood retired and the Convention was left to its own counsels and
+devices. Thereupon Pedro Llorente, the oldest of the delegates, took the
+chair by common consent as temporary president, and Enrique Villuendas,
+the youngest delegate, similarly occupied the desk of the secretary. A
+fitting oath of office was administered to all by the Chief Justice of
+the Supreme Court of the island; containing a formal renunciation of
+all other citizenship and allegiance than Cuban, because several
+delegates had become naturalized citizens of the United States and it
+was necessary for them thus to resume their status as Cubans. On the
+principle that "What was good enough for us when we were struggling in
+the field is good enough for us here," the rules of the Cuban
+Revolutionary Congress were adopted to govern the Convention. Finally
+Domingo Mendez Capote was elected permanent President of the Convention,
+and Alfredo Zayas and Enrique Villuendas permanent Secretaries.
+
+There followed the usual experience of such bodies: Divided counsels,
+cross purposes, and what not; all gradually working together toward a
+common end. A few public sessions were held, at which there was more
+speechmaking than work, but after a few weeks private sessions and a
+great deal of committee work became the rule. There was no division on
+party lines, and there was a lack of dominant leadership; both favorable
+circumstances. Much attention was given to studying and analyzing the
+constitutions of all other republics in the world, in order to learn
+their good features and to avoid their errors and weaknesses. The
+constitution of the United States was of course among those studied, but
+rather less regard was paid to it than to others, for two reasons. One
+was, a desire to avoid even the appearance of making Cuba a mere
+appanage to or imitation of its northern neighbor, and the other was the
+very practical thought that the constitutions of Latin republics might
+be better suited to the Latin republic of Cuba than that of an
+Anglo-Saxon republic.
+
+By January 21 the Constitution was drafted in form sufficiently complete
+to permit it to be read to the whole convention in a public session,
+and thereafter there were daily discussions of its various provisions.
+Differences of opinion ranged from mere verbal form to the substance of
+the most momentous principles. There was a characteristic passage of
+verbal arms over a phrase in the preamble. That paragraph after stating
+the purpose of the Convention and of the Constitution, closed by
+"invoking the favor of God." When this was read the venerable Salvador
+Cisneros, formerly President of the Republic, moved that the phrase be
+stricken out. Manuel Sanguilly made a long and dramatic speech, arguing
+with much passion that it really did not matter whether the phrase were
+included or not, but that it would best be left in, because that might
+please some and could hurt nobody. Then the dean of the convention,
+Pedro Llorente, made an impassioned appeal for the retention of the
+words, to prove to the world that the Cubans were not a nation of
+infidels and atheists. In the end the phrase was retained.
+
+Another animated debate arose over the question of religious freedom and
+the relations of church and state, which was ended by the adoption of an
+article guaranteeing freedom and equality for all forms of religion that
+were in accord with "Christian morality and public order," and decreeing
+separation of church and state and forbidding the subsidizing of any
+church. The question of suffrage was intensely controversial. There were
+those who dreaded the result of giving the ballot to tens of thousands
+of ignorant and illiterate men. Yet to disfranchise them would mean thus
+to debar thousands who had fought for Cuban independence in the late
+war, and it was not unreasonably feared that it would also cause
+dissatisfaction and resentment which would culminate in disorder and
+insurrection. In the end universal equal suffrage was adopted.
+
+The most bitter debate of all, however, was over the qualifications of
+the President of the Republic. A strong and persistent effort was made
+to imitate the Constitution of the United States by requiring him to be
+a native citizen. But that would have debarred Maximo Gomez, who was
+born in Santo Domingo. For that reason the proposed restriction was
+passionately opposed by all the friends of Gomez, and also by many who
+were not his friends and who would have opposed his candidacy for the
+Presidency but who felt that it would be disgraceful to put such a
+slight upon the gallant old hero of the two wars. On the other hand, the
+restriction was urged chiefly for that very reason, that it would debar
+Gomez; for, idolized as he was by the great mass of the Cuban people, he
+had a number of unrelenting enemies, especially among these politicians
+whom he had opposed and overruled in the matter of the Cuban Assembly
+and the payment of soldiers at the end of the war. After several days of
+acrimonious discussion the friends of Gomez won by a narrow margin, and
+the offensive proposal was rejected.
+
+There were many other controversial points, less personal and more
+worthy of debate in such a gathering on bases not of personality but of
+principle. The governmental powers of the Provinces gave rise to debates
+resembling those over state rights in America. The recognition of Cuban
+debts was a momentous matter. The method of electing Senators was also
+much discussed, as was the principle which the Military Administration
+had adopted of having the state and not the provinces or municipalities
+control public education. The right of the government to expel
+objectionable aliens was the theme of a long and spirited discussion.
+With all the animation, sentiment and rhetoric in which Latin debaters
+and orators more freely indulge than do the more phlegmatic
+Anglo-Saxons, all of these questions were very seriously considered
+according to their merits, and were disposed of on that same basis.
+There was no haste, and there was no undue delay; while everything was
+done "decently and in order." It took the Federal Convention of the
+United States four months of secret sessions to frame its Constitution,
+and its career was marked with many violent scenes, including the
+withdrawal of the representatives of one of the chief states from the
+Convention. The Cuban Convention had no incidents so unpleasant as that,
+and it completed its work in three months and a half.
+
+[Illustration: AURELIA CASTILLO DE GONZALEZ
+
+Aurelia Castillo de Gonzalez, poet and essayist, was born in Camaguey in
+1842, spent much time in European travel, and then settled in Havana.
+She first attracted literary attention by her elegy on "El Lugareno" in
+1866, and since that time has been an incessant contributor to Cuban
+literature in verse and prose. She is the author of a fine study of the
+Life and Works of Gertrudis Gomez de Avellaneda, of a volume of fables,
+and a number of satires. Her complete works (to date) were published in
+five volumes in 1913.]
+
+February 21, 1901 was the crowning day. Ten days before the draft of the
+Constitution, as yet unsigned, had been published in pamphlet form. On
+the date named the Convention was to give it validity by signing it. The
+public was admitted to view the scene, the consuls of foreign powers
+were in attendance as specially invited guests, and a fine military band
+discoursed patriotic and classical music. The Constitution, finally
+engrossed, was read aloud, and then one by one the delegates marched up
+to the President's desk and affixed their signatures. When the last name
+was written, all stood while the band played the national anthem of
+Cuba. The President of the Convention, Mendez Capote, made a graceful
+address of congratulation and good wishes; and the Convention adjourned,
+its work well ended.
+
+We have said that at the opening session, immediately after his
+introductory address, the American Military Governor left the hall. He
+did not revisit it, and neither he nor any American officer was ever
+present at any meeting of the Convention; nor was any American
+representative present at the closing function of the signing of the
+Constitution. The purpose of that abstention was obvious. It was to
+avoid so much as the appearance or the suspicion of American meddling or
+dictation in the work of the Convention. General Wood had told the
+Convention that it had nothing to do with his government of the island.
+Conversely he wished to show that he and his government had nothing to
+do with the work of the Convention.
+
+The Constitution thus auspiciously brought into existence declares Cuba
+to be a sovereign republic. The powers of government are much more
+centralized than those in the United States. The six Provinces have no
+such rights as have the states of America, though they have a liberal
+measure of local governmental power. They are not states or provinces,
+however, but mere departments--fractions of the whole instead of
+integral units. Each has a Governor and an elected Assembly. So each
+city and town has a mayor and a council. Municipalities have the power
+to levy taxes for local needs. The control of railroads and telegraphs
+is a national function, and the judicial system is also national. There
+is freedom of speech, of press and of worship. No prisoner may be held
+longer than twenty-four hours without judicial process. Congress
+consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives. There are six
+Senators from each department, elected by the municipalities for six
+years, one third retiring every two years. Representatives are elected
+from districts by the people for four years, there being one member to
+every 25,000 inhabitants. Senators and Representatives must be
+twenty-five years old, and if not native citizens must have been
+naturalized eight years. The President and Vice-President are elected
+for four years by the people through electoral colleges, with a
+provision for minority representation, each citizen voting for only
+two-thirds of the number of electors to which his district is entitled.
+Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed for life by the President
+with the ratification of the Senate. The civil law and constitutional
+guarantees can be suspended in case of emergency only by Congress when
+it is in session, but by the President when Congress is not in session.
+The House of Representatives may impeach the President, when the Senate
+may suspend him from office, try him, and upon conviction remove him
+permanently. Amendments of the Constitution must be voted by two-thirds
+of both Houses and ratified by a popular convention specially called for
+the purpose.
+
+There can be no question that this was a highly creditable production,
+and one which amply merited the qualified approval which was given to it
+by Elihu Root, Secretary of War of the United States, when he said: "I
+do not fully agree with the wisdom of some of the provisions of this
+Constitution. But it provides for a republican form of government; it
+was adopted after long and patient consideration and discussion; it
+represents the views of the delegates elected by the people of Cuba;
+and it contains no features which would justify the assertion that a
+government organized under it will not be one to which the United States
+may properly transfer the obligations for the protection of life and
+property under international law, assumed in the Treaty of Paris."
+
+The first part of the Convention's work was thus done. There remained
+the second part, the expression of Cuban opinion as to what ought to be
+the relations between that island and the United States. Over this a
+most unfortunate controversy arose, chiefly provoked and fomented,
+however, not by Cubans but by the partisan enemies of the President of
+the United States and of his policy, who did not scruple to intrigue
+against him in the affairs of foreign lands. It will be recalled that
+this hatred of him, provoked largely because of his insistence on
+fulfilling the pledge of Cuban freedom instead of seeking to serve
+certain sordid interests by forcibly annexing the island, culminated in
+the assassination of President McKinley at the incitement of his
+political foes. The opposition to him and to his policy in Cuba was
+continued unabated against his successor, President Roosevelt; and it
+was most unfortunate for both countries that the establishment of Cuban
+self-government and the determination of her relations to her northern
+neighbor, had to be effected in such circumstances.
+
+The United States government had to deal on the one hand with those who
+insisted that it should have no more special relations with Cuba than
+any other country had; and on the other with those who demanded the
+repudiation of the Congressional pledge and the forcible annexation of
+the island. In those circumstances it was not strange that many Cubans
+were disinclined to make any such arrangement as had been required in
+the call for the Convention. They recalled that the United States had
+declared that "Cuba is of right and ought to be free and independent,"
+and they were not disposed to look beyond that declaration.
+
+Three considerations were too much overlooked on both sides, save by the
+thoughtful American and Cuban statesmen who finally solved the problem.
+One was that the United States had for nearly a century exercised a
+certain degree of protection or supervision over Cuba. It had repeatedly
+forbidden European powers to meddle with the island, and had for many
+years guaranteed and protected Spain in her possession of it. It was
+held to be only reasonable that a similar degree of interest should be
+maintained in the island in its independent status. The second point was
+that in the Treaty of Paris in 1898 the United States had incurred a
+certain moral if not a legal responsibility for the future of Cuba. The
+third was the much less specific yet by no means negligible
+consideration that the United States had intervened in Cuba to put an
+end to conditions which had become intolerably offensive to it, and it
+was therefore equitably entitled to take all proper precautions against
+a recurrence of such conditions.
+
+In pursuance of the requirements of the call for the Convention, then,
+immediately after the signing of the Constitution, a committee was
+appointed to draft a project concerning relations with the United
+States. It consisted of Diego Tamayo, Gonzalo de Quesada, Juan Gualberto
+Gomez, Enrique Villuendas, and Manuel Ramon Silva. These gentlemen
+conferred with General Wood, to learn the wishes of President McKinley,
+and then drafted a scheme which they presented to the Convention and
+which that body adopted on February 27. Unfortunately between the
+President's wishes and the committee's project there were radical
+differences. The President, through his Secretary of War, Elihu Root,
+had on February 9 expressed with much circumstance and detail and a
+wealth of argument the relationship which the United States government
+regarded as essential. It amounted to this: That the Cuban government
+should never make any treaty or engagement which would impair its
+independence, nor make any special agreement with any foreign power
+without the consent of the United States; that it should contract no
+public debt in excess of the capacity of the ordinary revenues of the
+island; that the United States should have the right of intervention for
+the preservation of Cuban independence and the maintenance of a stable
+government; that all the acts of the American Military Administration
+should be validated; and that the United States should be permitted to
+acquire and to hold naval stations in Cuba at certain points.
+
+The Committee of the Convention reported that in its judgment some of
+these conditions were unacceptable, inasmuch as they impaired the
+independence of Cuba. So it proposed and the Convention adopted
+proposals to this effect: That Cuba should never impair her independence
+by any agreement with any power, not excepting the United States; that
+she should never permit her territory to be used as a base or war
+against the United States; that she accepted the obligations expressed
+and implied in the Treaty of Paris; that she should validate the acts of
+the Military Government "for the good government of Cuba"; and that the
+United States and Cuba should regulate their commercial relations by
+means of a reciprocity treaty.
+
+Obviously, there was a wide divergence between the two schemes. It was
+unfortunate that the American Congress was about to adjourn, on March
+4, and was reluctant to reassemble in special session, and also that the
+political passions to which we have referred were raging at so high a
+pitch. In more favorable circumstances the matter would have been
+settled diplomatically without friction or ill-feeling. There was,
+indeed, a very considerable conservative party in Cuba, probably
+comprising a majority of the substantial, well informed and orderly
+inhabitants, who favored some such scheme of American supervision and
+control as that which had been proposed, and if there had been a little
+more time for calm deliberation they would probably have won the
+Convention and the whole island to their point of view. Unhappily the
+government at Washington determined to finish the matter up before
+Congress adjourned on March 4, and in the short time which intervened
+the passionate voice of faction was much more in evidence man the
+thoughtful and measured voice of patriotic counsel.
+
+Senator Orville H. Platt, of Connecticut, one of the ablest and
+fairest-minded men in that body, was the Chairman of the Committee on
+Relations with Cuba. It was probably he who suggested the modification
+which was made in the instructions to the Convention. He now declared
+that--which was perfectly true--the United States Congress had no power
+to approve, reject, or in any way amend or modify the Cuban
+Constitution. Cuba was entitled to establish her own government without
+let or hindrance. But he also held that by virtue of the grounds of its
+intervention in Cuban affairs the United States possessed certain rights
+and privileges in that island above those of other powers, and that it
+was in duty bound, for the sake of both Cuba and itself, to provide in
+some assured way for the permanent safe-guarding of those special
+interests. These views were approved by the best thought of both
+countries, and ultimately prevailed.
+
+In accordance with the views thus expressed, Senator Platt prepared as
+an addendum to the Army Appropriation bill, on February 25, the historic
+measure known as the Platt Amendment. This, consisting of eight brief
+paragraphs, embodied the very points which the President had already
+made on February 9, with the addition of three more. One of these was,
+that the Cuban government should maintain the work of sanitation already
+so auspiciously begun, for the protection of its own people and also the
+people of the United States from epidemic pestilence; a requirement
+which was probably quite superfluous, seeing that the Cubans were as
+intent as the Americans upon the elimination of yellow fever and
+malaria. The second was, that the Isle of Pines should be omitted from
+the proposed constitutional boundaries of Cuba, the title thereto being
+left for future adjustment by treaty. This extraordinary demand was a
+bad blot upon the measure, and it is difficult to understand how it ever
+was permitted to be inserted at the behest of some unscrupulous and
+sordid scheme of exploitation. Happily, subsequent treaty agreements and
+court decisions defeated its purpose and confirmed Cuba in her title to
+the Isle of Pines. The third was the requirement that Cuba should make
+this Platt Amendment either a part of her Constitution or an ordinance
+under it and appended to it, and should also embody it in a permanent
+treaty with the United States.
+
+At this the storm broke. The great mass of the conservative and
+thoughtful people of Cuba, while they regretted the need of it,
+recognized the necessity of such an arrangement, and earnestly favored
+the acceptance of the Platt Amendment, even with the one or two
+objectionable features. But the radicals vigorously opposed it, and in
+their opposition were greatly encouraged by the factional enemies of the
+President in the United States, who broke all bounds of decency, and not
+only raged against him there but organized a propaganda in Cuba itself,
+to incite Cubans to oppose and resist the United States. In this the
+foremost of such agitators were doubly false. They were not only
+stirring up a foreign people against their own country, but they were
+doing so with the deliberate and malignant hope of precipitating an
+armed conflict between the two countries which would result in the
+conquest and forcible annexation of Cuba. While pretending to sympathize
+with Cuba and to resent the alleged American impairment of her
+sovereignty, they were really scheming for the utter destruction of
+Cuban independence.
+
+Agitation, discussion, proposals and counter proposals, upon none of
+which could the Convention agree, continued week after week. At the end
+of March the question arose of sending a Commission to Washington to see
+the President. This was opposed violently, chiefly at the incitement of
+American emissaries, who busied themselves in Cuba in urging the
+rejection of everything that promised a settlement of the controversy.
+On April 1 some unscrupulous intriguer caused a message to be
+telegraphed from Washington to the effect that if a Commission came it
+would not be received; and this was received in Havana just as the
+Convention was about to vote to send such a Commission. Naturally, the
+Commission was not sent. On April 9, having learned that the message was
+unofficial and mischievous, the Convention reconsidered the matter and
+by an overwhelming majority voted to send a commission. Again
+mysterious dispatches came from Washington, saying that the President
+was resolute in refusing to recognize any Cuban envoys, and in
+consequence the sending of the Commission was delayed.
+
+Then the proposal was made that the Convention should reject the Platt
+Amendment outright, and afterward send a Commission to Washington; and
+this was actually carried, though by mistake, some members voting
+exactly contrary to the way they intended. Then it was voted to send a
+Commission, with special instructions to try to secure the inclusion of
+a commercial treaty in the Platt Amendment. With this in view the
+Convention on April 15 designated five members of such a Commission.
+They were Mendez Capote, the President of the Convention; Diego Tamayo,
+Leopoldo Berriel, Pedro Gonzales Llorente, and Rafael Portuondo; but as
+Dr. Berriel could not go, General Pedro Betancourt was named in his
+place. The Commission sailed for Washington on April 20. General Wood
+also sailed on the same day, though on another steamer. The Cubans
+reached Washington four days later, and the next day, in contradiction
+to the false dispatches which had been sent, they were courteously
+received by President McKinley. After a brief interview he introduced
+them to the Secretary of War, to whose department Cuban affairs, under a
+Military governor, belonged. He received them most cordially. Indeed, he
+had strongly wished them to come to Washington for a conference. He told
+them frankly that the Platt Amendment must stand, just as it was, and
+that it must be accepted and adopted by Cuba before any further steps
+could be taken for the establishment of a Cuban government. Then, at
+their request, he gave a detailed explanation of what the United States
+government conceived to be the meaning, the purpose and the effect of
+each of the provisions of that instrument. He especially showed that it
+was merely a logical continuation of long established American policy;
+that it was intended not for the gain of the United States but for the
+protection of Cuba; and that it would in no way interfere with the
+domestic self-sovereignty of the Cuban people, or with the rank of Cuba
+as an independent nation among the nations of the world.
+
+The Committee returned to Havana and reported to the Convention the
+results of its mission, and the Convention resumed consideration of the
+American demands in the new light of Mr. Root's exposition of them.
+Faction was still furious. Enemies of the President in the United States
+went to Cuba or sent word thither, urging the radical element to hold
+out to the bitter end against the Platt Amendment, saying that it would
+need only a little longer resistance to compel the American government
+to abandon it altogether. Counsels were divided in the Convention, and
+numerous proposals of substitutes for the Amendment or for parts of it
+were made, but upon none of them could the Convention agree. Some of the
+most radical members suggested that the Convention adjourn without day.
+But on the whole wiser counsels prevailed. The Commission had been much
+impressed by Mr. Root's candid and cogent presentation of the case. It
+had also become convinced that if the Amendment were adopted a liberal
+reciprocity measure would be granted which would be of vast value to
+Cuban commerce and industry. Consideration of the subject continued
+until the latter part of May. On May 28 the question of adoption of the
+Platt Amendment with certain qualifications was presented to the
+Convention for a final vote. The Convention divided equally. There were
+fourteen ayes and fourteen nays. Thereupon the President, Mendez Capote,
+cast the deciding ballot. He voted aye. This caused a renewal of the
+storm. Diego Tamayo and Juan Gualberto Gomez were especially outspoken
+in their denunciation of all who had voted for the measure, and some of
+the former's remarks were so severe that their retraction was required.
+The qualified acceptance of the Amendment was not, however, satisfactory
+to the Washington government, and the Convention was promptly informed
+of that fact. In consequence the matter was reopened, and on June 12,
+after a brief and temperate debate, a final vote was taken on
+unconditional acceptance and adoption of the Platt Amendment. The result
+was sixteen ayes to eleven nays.
+
+That ended the matter. The Amendment had become a permanent addendum to
+the Cuban Constitution, and the relations between the island's future
+government and the United States was irrevocably determined. There was
+little further criticism. The American agitators and speculators who had
+been inciting the Cubans to resistance, in order thus to make them
+compass their own ruin, abandoned their execrable intrigues for other
+ventures elsewhere, while the Cubans who had been their dupes, relieved
+of their pernicious influence, soon began to appreciate the
+reasonableness of most of the provisions of the Amendment and the very
+material benefits which it would bestow upon Cuba.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+
+The concretion of Cuban history is in the Constitution of the Cuban
+Republic. In that document are realized the hopes of a patient but
+resolute people. In it are embodied the ideals for which Lopez fought
+and died; for which Cespedes strove; for which Marti pleaded and taught
+and planned; for which Maximo Gomez and Antonio Maceo battled against
+desperate odds; for which Estrada Palma gave the ripe statesmanship of a
+devoted life. There were provisional constitutions before, drafted in
+mountain camps in the intervals between battles, but they represented
+aspirations rather than achievements. It was reserved for the time of
+triumph, when the Spaniard was forever driven from the Cuban shores, and
+the Pearl of the Antilles was no more made to adorn an alien diadem, for
+the statesmanship of the island in calm deliberation to frame the
+instrument which was to confirm and safeguard for all time that which
+had been won with the blood of innumerable martyrs, and which was to
+erect the Cuban people into the Cuban Nation.
+
+[Illustration: THE CAPITOL
+
+The Capitol, the new government building at Havana, is one of the great
+public works of the administration of President Menocal. It occupies a
+fine site in the heart of the city, and will architecturally rank among
+the noteworthy government buildings of the world. In the contrast
+between it and ancient La Fuerza, its original predecessor, is suggested
+the whole span of Cuban history.]
+
+We shall profitably pause for a space in our narrative, to note what
+manner of Constitution it was that was thus adopted:
+
+We, the delegates of the people of Cuba, in national convention
+assembled for the purpose of framing and adopting the Fundamental Law
+under which Cuba is to be organized as an independent and sovereign
+State, and be given a government capable of fulfilling its
+international obligations, preserving order, securing liberty and
+justice, and promoting the general welfare, do hereby ordain, adopt, and
+establish, invoking the favor of God, the following Constitution:
+
+
+TITLE I
+
+THE NATION, ITS FORM OF GOVERNMENT, AND THE
+NATIONAL TERRITORY
+
+ARTICLE 1. The people of Cuba constitute themselves into a sovereign,
+independent State and adopt a republican form of government.
+
+ART. 2. The island of Cuba and the islands and islets adjacent thereto,
+which up to the date of the ratification of the treaty of Paris, of
+December 10, 1898, were under the sovereignty of Spain, form the
+territory of the Republic.
+
+ART. 3. The territory of the Republic shall be divided into the six
+provinces which now exist, each of which shall retain its present
+boundaries. The determination of their names corresponds to the
+respective provincial councils.
+
+The provinces may by resolution of their respective provincial councils
+and the approval of Congress annex themselves to other provinces, or
+subdivide their territory and form new provinces.
+
+
+TITLE II
+
+CUBANS
+
+ART. 4. Cuban nationality is acquired by birth or by naturalization.
+
+ART. 5. Cubans by birth are:
+
+1. All persons born of Cuban parents whether within or without the
+territory of the Republic.
+
+2. All persons born of foreign parents within the territory of the
+Republic, provided that on becoming of age they apply for inscription,
+as Cubans, in the proper register.
+
+3. All persons born in foreign countries of parents natives of Cuba who
+have forfeited their Cuban nationality, provided that on becoming of age
+they apply for their inscription as Cubans in the register aforesaid.
+
+ART. 6. Cubans by naturalization are:
+
+1. Foreigners who having served in the liberating army claim Cuban
+nationality within six months following the promulgation of this
+constitution.
+
+2. Foreigners domiciled in Cuba prior to January 1, 1899, who have
+retained their domicile, provided that they claim Cuban nationality
+within six months following the promulgation of this constitution, or if
+they are minors within a like period following the date on which they
+reach full age.
+
+3. Foreigners who after five years' residence in the territory of the
+Republic, and not less than two years after the declaration of their
+intention to acquire Cuban nationality have obtained naturalization
+papers according to law.
+
+4. Spaniards residing in the territory of Cuba on the 11th day of April,
+1899, who failed to register themselves as such in the corresponding
+register within one year thereafter.
+
+5. Africans who were slaves in Cuba, and those "emancipated" referred to
+in article 13 of treaty of June 28, 1835, between Spain and England.
+
+ART. 7. Cuban nationality is lost:
+
+1. By the acquisition of foreign citizenship.
+
+2. By the acceptance of employment or honors from another government
+without permission of the Senate.
+
+3. By entering the military service of a foreign nation without the said
+permission.
+
+4. In cases of naturalized Cubans, by their residence for five years
+continuously in the country of origin, except when serving an office or
+fulfilling a commission of the Government of the Republic.
+
+ART. 8. Cuban nationality may be reacquired in the manner to be provided
+by law.
+
+ART. 9. Every Cuban shall be bound:
+
+1. To bear arms in defense of his country in such cases and in such
+manner as may be determined by the laws.
+
+2. To contribute to the payment of public expenses in such manner and
+proportion as the laws may prescribe.
+
+
+TITLE III
+
+FOREIGNERS
+
+ART. 10. Foreigners residing within the territory of the Republic shall
+be on the same footing as Cubans:
+
+1. In respect to protection of their persons and property.
+
+2. In respect to the enjoyment of the rights guaranteed by Section first
+of the following title, excepting those exclusively reserved to
+citizens.
+
+3. In respect to the enjoyment of civil rights under the conditions and
+limitations prescribed in the law of aliens.
+
+4. In respect to the obligation of obeying the laws, decrees,
+regulations, and all other statutes that may be in force in the
+Republic, and complying with their provisions.
+
+5. In respect to submission to the jurisdiction and decisions of the
+courts of justice and all other authorities of the Republic.
+
+6. In respect to the obligation of contributing to the public expenses
+of the State, province, and municipality.
+
+
+TITLE IV
+
+RIGHTS GUARANTEED BY THIS CONSTITUTION
+
+SECTION FIRST
+
+INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS
+
+ART. 11. All Cubans are equal before the law. The Republic does not
+recognize any personal prerogatives.
+
+ART. 12. No law shall have retroactive effect, except when penal and
+favorable to the defendant.
+
+ART. 13. Obligations of a civil nature arising out of contracts or other
+acts or omissions shall not be nullified by either the legislative or
+the executive power.
+
+ART. 14. The penalty of death shall in no case be imposed for offenses
+of political character, said offenses to be defined by law.
+
+ART. 15. No person shall be detained except in the cases and in the
+manner prescribed by law.
+
+ART. 16. Every arrested person shall be set at liberty or placed at the
+disposal of the competent judge or court within twenty-four hours
+immediately following the arrest.
+
+ART. 17. All arrests shall be terminated, or turned into formal
+imprisonments, within seventy-two hours, immediately after the delivery
+of the arrested person to the judge or court of competent jurisdiction.
+Within the same time notice shall be served upon the interested party of
+the action taken.
+
+ART. 18. No person shall be imprisoned except by order of a competent
+judge or court.
+
+The order directing the imprisonment shall be affirmed or reversed, upon
+the proper hearing of the prisoner, within seventy-two hours next
+following the committal.
+
+ART. 19. No person shall be prosecuted or sentenced except by a
+competent judge or court, by virtue of laws in force, prior to the
+commission of the offense, and in the manner and form prescribed by said
+laws.
+
+ART. 20. Every person arrested or imprisoned without the formalities of
+law, or outside of the cases foreseen in this constitution or the laws,
+shall be set at liberty at his own request or that of any citizen.
+
+The law shall determine the form of summary proceedings to be followed
+in this case.
+
+ART. 21. No one shall be bound to testify against himself, neither shall
+he be compelled to testify against his consort, nor against his
+relatives within the fourth degree of consanguinity or second of
+affinity.
+
+ART. 22. The secrecy of correspondence and other private documents is
+inviolable, and neither shall be seized or examined except by order of a
+competent authority and with the formalities prescribed by the laws. In
+all cases matters therein contained not relating to the subject under
+investigation shall be kept secret.
+
+ART. 23. Domicile is inviolable; and therefore no one shall enter at
+night the house of another except by permission of its occupant, unless
+it be for the purpose of giving aid and assistance to victims of crime
+or accident; or in the daytime, except in the cases and in the manner
+prescribed by law.
+
+ART. 24. No person shall be compelled to change his domicile or
+residence except by virtue of an order issued by a competent authority
+and in the cases prescribed by law.
+
+ART. 25. Every one may freely express his ideas either orally or in
+writing, through the press, or in any other manner, without subjection
+to previous censorship; but the responsibilities specified by law, when
+attacks are made upon the honor of individuals, the social order, or the
+public peace, shall be properly enforced.
+
+ART. 26. The profession of all religions, as well as the practice of all
+forms of worship, is free, without any other restriction than that
+demanded by the respect for Christian morality and public order. The
+church shall be separated from the state, which in no case shall
+subsidize any religion.
+
+ART. 27. All persons shall have the right to address petitions to the
+authorities, to have them duly acted upon, and to be informed of the
+action taken thereon.
+
+ART. 28. All the inhabitants of the Republic have the right to assemble
+peacefully, without arms, and to associate with others for all lawful
+pursuits of life.
+
+ART. 29. All persons shall have the right to enter or leave the
+territory of the Republic, to travel within its limits, and to change
+their residence, without necessity of safe conducts, passports, except
+when otherwise provided by the laws governing immigration, or by the
+authorities, in cases of criminal prosecution.
+
+ART. 30. No Cuban shall be banished from the territory of the Republic
+or prohibited from entering it.
+
+ART. 31. Primary instruction shall be compulsory and gratuitous. The
+teaching of arts and trades shall also be gratuitous. Both shall be
+supported by the State, as long as the municipalities and Provinces,
+respectively, may lack sufficient funds to defray their expenses.
+
+Secondary and superior education shall be controlled by the State. All
+persons however, may, without restriction, learn or teach any science,
+art, or profession, and found and maintain establishments of education
+and instruction, but it pertains to the State to determine what
+professions shall require special titles, what conditions shall be
+required for their practice and for the securing of diplomas, as well as
+for the issuing thereof as established by law.
+
+ART. 32. No one shall be deprived of his property, except by competent
+authority, upon proof that the condemnation is required by public
+utility, and previous indemnification. If the indemnification is not
+previously paid, the courts shall protect the owners and, if needed,
+restore to them the property.
+
+ART. 33. In no case shall the penalty of confiscation of property be
+imposed.
+
+ART. 34. No person is bound to pay any tax or impost not legally
+established and the collection of which is not carried out in the manner
+prescribed by the laws.
+
+ART. 35. Every author or inventor shall enjoy the exclusive ownership of
+his work or invention for the time and in the manner determined by law.
+
+ART. 36. The enumeration of the rights expressly guaranteed by this
+Constitution does not exclude other rights based upon the principle of
+the sovereignty of the people and the republican form of Government.
+
+ART. 37. The laws regulating the exercise of the rights which this
+Constitution guarantees shall be null and void if said rights are
+abridged, restricted, or adulterated by them.
+
+SECTION SECOND
+
+RIGHT OF SUFFRAGE
+
+ART. 38. All Cubans of the masculine sex, over twenty-one years of age,
+have the right of suffrage, except the following:
+
+1. Those who are inmates of asylums.
+
+2. Those judicially declared to be mentally incapacitated.
+
+3. Those judicially deprived of civil rights on account of crime.
+
+4. Those serving in the land or naval forces of the Republic when in
+active service.
+
+ART. 39. The laws shall establish rules and methods of procedure to
+guarantee the intervention of the minorities in the preparation of the
+census of electors, and in all other electoral matters, and its
+representation in the House of Representatives and in the provincial and
+municipal councils.
+
+SECTION THIRD
+
+SUSPENSION OF CONSTITUTIONAL GUARANTIES
+
+ART. 40. The guaranties established in articles 15, 16, 17, 19, 22, 23,
+24, and 27, section first of this title, shall not be suspended either
+in the whole Republic, or in any part thereof, except temporarily and
+when the safety of the state may require it, in cases of invasion of the
+territory or of serious disturbances that may threaten public peace.
+
+ART. 41. The territory in which the guaranties mentioned in the
+preceding article are suspended shall be ruled during the period of
+suspension according to the law of public order which may have been
+previously enacted. But neither the said law, nor any other, shall order
+the suspension of other guaranties not mentioned in the said article.
+
+Nor shall any new offenses be created, or new penalties not established
+by the law which was in force at the time of the suspension, be ordered
+to be inflicted during the same.
+
+The executive power is hereby forbidden to exile or expel from the
+country any citizen thereof, or compel him to reside at any other place
+farther than one hundred and twenty kilometers from his domicile. Nor
+shall it detain any citizen for more than ten days, without delivering
+him to the judicial authorities, or repeat the detention during the time
+of the suspension of guaranties. The detained individuals shall be kept
+in special departments in the public establishments destined for the
+detention of prisoners charged with common offenses.
+
+ART. 42. The suspension of the guaranties specified in article 40 shall
+be ordered only and exclusively by means of a law, but if Congress is
+not in session, it can be ordered by a decree of the President of the
+Republic. But the President shall have no power to suspend the
+guaranties more than once during the period intervening between two
+sessions of Congress, or for an indefinite period of time, or for a
+period longer than thirty days, without calling at the same time
+Congress to meet. In all cases the President shall report the facts to
+Congress, in order that it may act as deemed proper.
+
+TITLE V
+
+THE SOVEREIGNTY AND THE PUBLIC POWERS
+
+ART. 43. The sovereignty is vested in the people of Cuba, and from the
+said people all the public powers emanate.
+
+
+TITLE VI
+
+THE LEGISLATIVE POWER
+
+SECTION FIRST
+
+THE LEGISLATIVE BODIES
+
+ART. 44. The legislative power is vested in two elective bodies, to be
+known as the Chamber of Representatives and the Senate; the two together
+constituting the Congress.
+
+
+SECTION SECOND
+
+THE SENATE, ITS MEMBERSHIP AND ITS POWERS
+
+ART. 45. The Senate shall consist of four Senators for each Province, to
+be elected in each one for a period of eight years by the provincial
+councilors, and by double that number of electors forming with the
+councilors an electoral college.
+
+One-half of the electors shall consist of citizens paying the greatest
+amount of taxes, and the other half shall possess the qualifications
+required by law. But it is necessary for all of them to be of full age
+and residents of the Province.
+
+The election of electors shall be made by the provincial voters one
+hundred days before that of the senators.
+
+The Senate shall be renewed by halves every four years.
+
+ART. 46. No one shall be a senator who has not the following
+qualifications:
+
+1. To be a Cuban by birth.
+
+2. To be over thirty-five years of age.
+
+3. To be in the full enjoyment of civil and political rights.
+
+ART. 47. The Senate shall have the following exclusive powers:
+
+1. To try, sitting as a tribunal of justice, the impeachment of the
+President of the Republic, upon charges made against him by the Chamber
+of Representatives, for crimes against the external security of the
+State, against the free exercise of the legislative or judicial powers,
+or for violation of the constitutional provisions.
+
+2. To try, sitting as a tribunal of justice, the impeachment of the
+secretaries of state, upon charges made against them by the Chamber of
+Representatives, for crimes against the external security of the State,
+the free exercise of the legislative or judicial powers, violation of
+the constitutional provision, or any other crime of political character
+determined by law.
+
+3. To try, sitting as a tribunal of justice, the impeachment of the
+governors of Provinces, upon charges made against them by the provincial
+councils or by the President of the Republic for any of the crimes named
+in the foregoing paragraph.
+
+When the Senate sits as a tribunal of justice, it shall be presided over
+by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and shall not impose any other
+penalty than that of removal from office, or removal from office and
+disqualification from holding any public office; but the infliction of
+any other penalty upon the convicted official shall be left to the
+courts declared by law to be competent for the purpose.
+
+4. To confirm the nominations made by the President of the Republic for
+the positions of Chief Justice and Associate Justices of the Supreme
+Court, diplomatic representatives and consular agents of the nation, and
+all other public officers whose nominations require the approval of the
+Senate in accordance with the law.
+
+5. To authorize Cuban citizens to accept employment or honors from
+foreign governments or to serve in their armies.
+
+6. To approve the treaties entered into by the President of the Republic
+with other nations.
+
+SECTION THIRD
+
+THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, ITS MEMBERSHIP AND ITS POWERS
+
+ART. 48. The House of Representatives shall consist of one
+representative for each twenty-five thousand inhabitants or fraction
+thereof over twelve thousand five hundred, elected for the period of
+four years by the direct vote of the people and in the manner provided
+by law.
+
+The House of Representatives shall be renewed by halves every two years.
+
+ART. 49. No one shall be a Representative who has not the following
+qualifications:
+
+1. To be a Cuban citizen by birth or by naturalization, provided in the
+latter case that the candidate has resided eight years in the Republic,
+to be counted from the date of his naturalization.
+
+2. To have attained to the age of twenty-five years.
+
+3. To be in full possession of all civil and political rights.
+
+ART. 50. The power to impeach before the Senate the President of the
+Republic and the cabinet ministers, in the cases prescribed in
+paragraphs first and second of article 47 corresponds to the House of
+Representatives. But the concurrence of two-thirds of the total number
+of Representatives, in secret session, shall be required to exercise
+this right.
+
+
+SECTION FOURTH
+
+PROVISIONS COMMON TO BOTH HOUSES OF CONGRESS
+
+ART. 51. The positions of Senator and Representative are incompatible
+with the holding of any other paid position of Government appointment,
+except a professorship in a Government institution, obtained by
+competitive examination prior to the election.
+
+ART. 52. Senators and Representatives shall receive from the State a
+pecuniary remuneration, alike for both positions, the amount of which
+may be changed at any time; the change shall not take effect until after
+the renewal of the legislative bodies.
+
+ART. 53. Senators and Representatives shall be inviolable for their
+votes and opinions in the discharge of their duties. Senators and
+Representatives shall only be arrested or indicted upon permission of
+the body to which they belong, if Congress is then in Session, except in
+case of flagrante delicto. In this case, and in the case of the arrest
+or indictment being made when Congress is not in session, the fact shall
+be reported, as soon as practicable, to the respective House for proper
+action.
+
+ART. 54. Both Houses of Congress shall open and close their sessions on
+the same day; they shall meet in the same city, and neither shall move
+to any other place, or adjourn for more than three days, except by
+common consent. Nor shall they begin to do business without two-thirds
+of the total number of their members being present, or continue their
+sessions without the attendance of an absolute majority.
+
+ART. 55. Each House shall be the judge of the election of its respective
+members and shall also pass upon their resignations. No Senator or
+Representative shall be expelled from the House to which he belongs,
+except upon grounds previously determined, and to the concurrence of at
+least two-thirds of the total number of its members.
+
+ART. 56. Each House shall frame its respective rules and regulations,
+and elect from among its members its president, vice-presidents and
+secretaries. But the president of the Senate shall not discharge his
+duties as such, except in case the Vice-President of the Republic is
+absent or acting as President.
+
+
+SECTION FIFTH
+
+CONGRESS AND ITS POWERS
+
+ART. 57. Congress shall assemble, without necessity of previous call,
+twice in each year, each session to last not less than forty working
+days. The first session shall begin on the first Monday in April and the
+second on the first Monday in November.
+
+It shall meet in extra session in such cases and in such manner as may
+be provided by its rules and regulations and when called to convene by
+the President of the Republic in accordance with the provisions of this
+Constitution. In both cases it shall only consider the express object or
+objects for which it assembles.
+
+ART. 58. Congress shall meet in joint session to proclaim, after
+counting and verifying the electoral vote, the President and
+Vice-President of the Republic.
+
+In this case the president of the Senate, and in his absence the
+president of the House of Representatives, as vice-president of the
+Congress, shall preside over the joint meeting.
+
+If upon counting the votes for President it is found that none of the
+candidates has an absolute majority of votes, or if the votes are
+equally divided, Congress, by the same majority, shall elect as
+President one of the two candidates having obtained the greatest number
+of votes.
+
+Should more than two candidates receive the highest number of votes--no
+one obtaining an absolute majority--two or more having secured the same
+number, Congress shall elect from said candidates.
+
+The method established in the preceding paragraph shall be also employed
+in the election of Vice-President of the Republic.
+
+The counting of the electoral vote shall take place prior to the
+expiration of the Presidential term.
+
+ART. 59. Congress shall have the following powers:
+
+1. To enact the national codes and the laws of a general nature; to
+determine the rules that shall be observed in the general, provincial,
+and municipal elections; to issue orders for the regulation and
+organization of all services pertaining to the administration of
+national, provincial, and municipal government; and to pass all other
+laws and resolutions which it may deem proper relating to other matters
+of public interest.
+
+2. To discuss and approve the budgets of the revenues and expenses of
+the Government. The said revenues and expenses, except such as will be
+mentioned hereafter, shall be included in annual budgets which shall be
+available only during the year for which they shall have been approved.
+
+The expenses of Congress, those of the administration of justice, and
+those required to meet the interest and redemption of loans, shall have,
+the same as the revenues with which they have to be paid, the character
+of permanent and shall be included in a fixed budget which shall remain
+in force until changed by special laws.
+
+3. To contract loans, with the obligation, however, of providing
+permanent revenues for the payment of the interest and redemption
+thereof.
+
+All measures relating to loans shall require the vote of two-thirds of
+the total numbers of the members of each House.
+
+4. To coin money, fixing the standard, weight, value, and denomination
+thereof.
+
+5. To regulate the system of weights and measures.
+
+6. To make provisions for regulating and developing internal and foreign
+commerce.
+
+7. To regulate the services of communications and railroads, roads,
+canals, and harbors, creating those required by public convenience.
+
+8. To levy such taxes and imposts of national character as may be
+necessary for the needs of the government.
+
+9. To establish rules and proceedings for obtaining naturalization.
+
+10. To grant amnesties.
+
+11. To fix the strength of the land and naval forces and provide for
+their organization.
+
+12. To declare war and approve treaties of peace negotiated by the
+President of the Republic.
+
+13. To designate, by means of a special law, the official who shall act
+as President of the Republic in case of death, resignation, removal, or
+supervenient inability of the President and Vice-President.
+
+ART. 60. Congress shall not attach to appropriation bills any provision
+tending to make changes or reforms in the legislation or in the
+administration of the Government; nor shall it diminish or abolish
+revenues of permanent character without creating at the same time new
+revenues to take their place, except in case that the decrease or
+abolition depend upon the decrease or abolition of the equivalent
+permanent expenses. Nor shall Congress appropriate for any service to be
+provided for in the annual budget a larger sum of money than that
+recommended in the estimates submitted by the Government; but Congress
+may by means of special laws create new services and reform or give
+greater scope to those already existing.
+
+SECTION SIXTH
+
+INITIATIVE, PREPARATION, APPROVAL,
+AND PROMULGATION OF LAWS
+
+ART. 61. The right to initiate legislation is vested without distinction
+in both houses of Congress.
+
+ART. 62. Every bill passed by the two houses, and every resolution of
+the same which has to be executed by the President of the Republic,
+shall be submitted to him for approval. If they are approved, they shall
+be signed at once by the President. If they are not approved, they shall
+be returned by the President, with his objections, to the house in which
+they originated, which shall enter said objections upon its journal and
+engage again in the discussion of the subject.
+
+If after this new discussion two-thirds of the total number of the
+members of the house vote in favor of the bill or resolution as
+originally passed, the latter shall be referred with the objections of
+the President, to the other house, where it shall be also discussed, and
+if the measure is approved there by the same majority it shall become
+law. In all these cases the vote shall be by yeas and nays.
+
+If within ten working days immediately following the sending of the bill
+or resolution to the President, the latter fails to return it, it shall
+be considered approved and shall become law.
+
+If within the last ten days of a session of Congress a bill is sent to
+the President of the Republic, and he wishes to take advantage of the
+whole time granted him in the foregoing paragraph for the purposes of
+approval or disapproval, he shall acquaint the Congress with his desire,
+so as to cause it to remain in session, if it so wishes, until the end
+of the ten days. The failure by the President to do so shall cause the
+bill to be considered approved and become law.
+
+No bill totally rejected by one house shall be discussed again in the
+same session.
+
+ART. 63. Every law shall be promulgated within ten days next following
+its approval by either the President or the Congress, as the case may
+be, under the provisions of the preceding article.
+
+
+TITLE VII
+
+THE EXECUTIVE POWER
+
+SECTION FIRST
+
+THE EXERCISE OF THE EXECUTIVE POWER
+
+ART. 64. The executive power shall be vested in the President of the
+Republic.
+
+SECTION SECOND
+
+THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC, HIS POWERS
+AND DUTIES
+
+ART. 65. To be President of the Republic the following qualifications
+shall be required.
+
+1. To be a Cuban by birth or naturalization, and in the latter case to
+have served in the Cuban armies in the wars of independence for at least
+ten years.
+
+2. To be over forty years of age.
+
+3. To be in the full enjoyment of civil and political rights.
+
+ART. 66. The President of the Republic shall be elected by presidential
+electors on the same day, in the manner provided by law.
+
+The term of office shall be four years, and no one shall be President
+for three consecutive terms.
+
+ART. 67. The President, before entering on the discharge of the duties
+of his office, shall take oath or affirmation before the supreme court
+of justice to faithfully discharge his duties and comply and cause
+others to comply with the constitution and the laws.
+
+ART. 68. The President of the Republic shall have the following powers
+and duties:
+
+1. To approve and promulgate the laws, and obey and cause others to obey
+their provisions. To enact, if Congress has not done so, such rules and
+regulations as may be necessary for the proper execution of the laws;
+and to issue all orders or decrees which may be conducive to the same
+purpose or to any other purposes of government and the administration
+thereof in the Republic, provided that in no case the said orders or
+decrees are at variance with the provisions of the law.
+
+2. To call Congress, or the Senate alone, to meet in extra session in
+the cases set forth in the constitution, or when in his opinion the
+meeting may be necessary.
+
+3. He shall adjourn Congress when no agreement can be reached between
+the two houses on the question of adjournment.
+
+4. To transmit to Congress at the beginning of each session, and
+whenever he may deem it advisable, a message relating to the acts of his
+administration, showing the general condition of the affairs of the
+Republic, and recommending the adoption of such laws and measures as he
+may deem necessary or advisable.
+
+5. To submit to Congress through either one of the Houses, before the
+15th of November, a draft of the annual budget.
+
+6. To furnish Congress all the information desired by it on every matter
+of business which does not require secrecy.
+
+7. To conduct all diplomatic negotiations and conclude treaties with
+foreign nations, provided that these treaties be submitted for approval
+of the Senate, without which requisite they shall be neither valid nor
+binding upon the Republic.
+
+8. To freely appoint and remove the Secretaries of State, giving
+Congress information of his action.
+
+9. To appoint, with the approval of the Senate, the Chief Justice and
+the Associate Justices of the Supreme Court, and the diplomatic and
+consular agents of the Republic. If the vacancy occurs at a time in
+which the Senate is not in session, he shall have power to make the
+appointment of said functionaries ad interim.
+
+10. To appoint all other public officers recognized by law, whose
+appointment is not entrusted to some other authority.
+
+11. To suspend the exercise of the rights enumerated in article 40 of
+the constitution in the cases and in the manner set forth in articles 41
+and 42.
+
+12. To suspend the resolutions passed by the provincial and municipal
+councils in the cases and in the manner set forth in this constitution.
+
+13. To order the suspension of the governors of provinces in case they
+exceed their powers or violate the laws; but in these cases he shall
+report the fact to the Senate, in the manner and form determined by law,
+for such action as may be proper.
+
+14. To prefer charges against the governors of provinces in the cases
+set forth in paragraph 3 of article 47.
+
+15. To grant pardons according to the provisions of the law, except in
+the case of public functionaries convicted for wrongs done in the
+exercise of their functions.
+
+16. To receive diplomatic representatives and admit consular agents of
+other nations.
+
+17. To dispose of the land and sea forces of the Republic as chief
+commander of the same. To provide for the defense of the national
+territory, reporting to Congress what he may have done on the subject.
+To provide for the preservation of peace and public order in the
+interior of the country. If there is danger of invasion or of any
+rebellion breaking out and gravely threatening the public safety,
+Congress not being in session at the time, the President shall call it
+to convene without delay for such action as may be deemed proper.
+
+ART. 69. The President shall not leave the territory of the Republic
+without the permission of Congress.
+
+ART. 70. The President shall be responsible before the Supreme Court for
+the common offense he may commit during his term of office, but he shall
+not be prosecuted without previous permission of the Senate.
+
+ART. 71. The President shall receive from the State a salary which may
+be changed at any time, but the change shall not go into effect until
+the next following presidential term.
+
+TITLE VIII
+
+THE VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC
+
+ART. 72. There shall be a Vice-President of the Republic, who shall be
+elected in the same manner and for the same period of time as the
+President, and jointly with him. To be Vice-President the same
+qualifications set forth in this constitution to be President shall be
+required.
+
+ART. 73. The Vice-President of the Republic shall be the President of
+the Senate, but he shall vote only in case that the votes of the
+Senators are equally divided.
+
+ART. 74. In case of temporary or permanent absence of the President of
+the Republic, the Vice-President shall act in his place. If the absence
+is permanent, the Acting President shall continue in office until the
+end of the presidential term.
+
+ART. 75. The Vice-President shall receive from the State a salary which
+may be changed at any time, but the change shall not go into effect
+until the next following presidential term.
+
+TITLE IX
+
+THE SECRETARIES OF STATE
+
+ART. 76. For the transaction of the executive business the President of
+the Republic shall have as many Secretaries of State as the law may
+determine, and no one shall be a Secretary of State who is not a Cuban
+citizen in the full enjoyment of his civil and political rights.
+
+ART. 77. All decrees, orders and decisions of the President of the
+Republic shall be counter-signed by the secretary of State to whom the
+matter corresponds. Without this signature no decree, order or decision
+of the President shall have binding force nor shall it be obeyed.
+
+ART. 78. The secretaries of state shall be personally responsible for
+the measures signed by them, and jointly and severally for the measures
+agreed upon or authorized by them at a cabinet meeting. This
+responsibility does not exclude the personal and direct responsibility
+of the President of the Republic.
+
+ART. 79. The secretaries of state shall be impeachable before the Senate
+by the House of Representatives in the cases mentioned in the second
+paragraph of article 47.
+
+ART. 80. The secretaries of state shall receive from the State a salary,
+which may be changed at any time, but the change shall not go into
+effect until the next following presidential term.
+
+TITLE X
+
+THE JUDICIAL POWER
+
+SECTION FIRST
+
+THE EXERCISE OF THE JUDICIAL POWER
+
+ART. 81. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court of Justice and
+in all the other tribunals which may be established by law. The law
+shall regulate the respective organization and powers of these
+tribunals, the manner of exercising their powers, and the qualifications
+required of the judicial functionaries.
+
+SECTION SECOND
+
+THE SUPREME COURT OF JUSTICE
+
+ART. 82. To be Chief Justice or Associate Justice of the Supreme Court
+the following qualifications shall be required:
+
+1. To be a Cuban by birth.
+
+2. To be over thirty-five years of age.
+
+3. To be in the full enjoyment of civil and political rights and not to
+have been condemned to any corporal punishment for common offenses.
+
+4. To have in addition to the foregoing qualifications any one of the
+following:
+
+To have practiced in Cuba, during ten years at least, the profession of
+lawyer; or have discharged for the same length of time judicial
+functions, or have taught law for the same number of years in an
+official establishment.
+
+The following persons are also eligible for the positions of Chief
+Justice or Associate Justices of the Supreme Court, even if not having
+the qualifications set forth in clauses 1, 2, and 3 of this article:
+
+(a) Those who have served in the judiciary of the time determined by law
+in a position of equal or immediately inferior category.
+
+(b) Those who, previous to the promulgation of this constitution, served
+as justices of the supreme court of the island of Cuba.
+
+The time of service in the judiciary shall be computed as time of
+practice of law for the purpose of qualifying the lawyers to be
+appointed justices of the supreme court.
+
+ART. 83. The Supreme Court shall have the following powers, in addition
+to those already vested or hereafter to be vested in it:
+
+1. To take cognizance of cases on a writ of error.
+
+2. To decide conflicts of jurisdiction between courts immediately
+inferior to it, or not having a common superior.
+
+3. To take cognizance of the cases to which the State on the one side
+and the provinces or municipalities on the other, are parties.
+
+4. To decide as to the constitutionality of the laws, decrees, and
+regulations when a question of that effect is raised by any party.
+
+SECTION THIRD
+
+GENERAL RULES REGARDING THE ADMINISTRATION
+OF JUSTICE
+
+ART. 84. Justice shall be administered gratuitously throughout the
+entire territory of the Republic.
+
+ART. 85. The courts shall take cognizance of all cases, whether civil,
+criminal, or between the Government and private parties.
+
+ART. 86. No judicial commissions or extraordinary tribunals, no matter
+under what name, shall ever be created.
+
+ART. 87. No functionary of the judicial order shall be suspended or
+removed from his office except for crime or any other grave cause, fully
+proven, and always after being heard. Nor shall he be transferred
+without his consent to any other place, unless it is for the manifest
+benefit of the public service.
+
+ART. 88. All judicial functionaries shall be personally responsible, in
+the manner and form determined by law, for the violations of law which
+they may commit.
+
+ART. 89. The salaries of judicial functionaries shall not be changed
+except at the end of periods of more than five years, and by means of a
+law. The law, however, shall not give different salaries to positions
+whose rank, category, and functions are equal.
+
+ART. 90. The courts for the forces of land and sea shall be governed by
+a special organic law.
+
+TITLE XI
+
+THE PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT
+
+SECTION FIRST
+
+GENERAL PROVISIONS
+
+ART. 91. A province consists of the municipal districts established
+within its limits.
+
+ART. 92. Each province shall have a governor and a provincial council
+elected directly by the people, in the manner and form established by
+law.
+
+The number of councilors in each province shall not be less than eight
+nor more than twenty.
+
+SECTION SECOND
+
+THE PROVINCIAL COUNCILS AND THEIR POWERS
+
+ART. 93. The provincial councils shall have the following powers:
+
+1. To resolve upon matters concerning the provinces which, under the
+constitution, treaties or laws, are not within the general jurisdiction
+of the State or the exclusive jurisdiction of the municipal councils.
+
+2. To frame the budget of their expenses, providing at the same time for
+the necessary revenue to meet them, provided that this is done in a
+manner not inconsistent with the system adopted by the State.
+
+3. To contract loans for public works of provincial interest, provided
+that at the same time sufficient revenue is raised to meet the payment
+of interest and principal when due.
+
+Such loans shall not be carried into effect unless they are approved by
+two-thirds of the municipal councils of the province.
+
+4. To impeach before the Senate the governor of their respective
+province, in the case set forth in paragraph 3 of article 47, when
+two-thirds of the total number of provincial councilors decide in secret
+session that this should be done.
+
+5. To appoint and remove, according to law, the provincial employes.
+
+ART. 94. The provincial councils shall have no power to diminish or
+abolish revenue of permanent character without creating at the same time
+other revenue to take its place, except in case that the decrease or
+suppression is due to the decrease or suppression of equivalent
+permanent expenses.
+
+ART. 95. The resolutions of the provincial councils shall be sent to the
+governor of the province. If approved, they shall be signed by him; if
+not, they shall be returned with his objections to the council, wherein
+the subject shall be again discussed. If after the second discussion the
+resolution is approved by two-thirds of the total number of councilors
+it shall become a law.
+
+If the governor does not return the resolution within ten days from the
+date of reference it shall be considered approved and shall become a
+law.
+
+ART. 96. The resolutions of the provincial councils may be suspended by
+the governor of the province or by the President of the Republic,
+whenever, in their opinion, they are contrary to the constitution, the
+laws, or any resolutions passed by the municipal councils in due
+exercise of their functions; but the right to take cognizance of and
+pass upon the claims which may arise out of the said suspension shall be
+reserved to the courts of justice.
+
+ART. 97. Neither the provincial councils not any section or committees,
+selected from their members or from persons not members thereof, shall
+intervene in matters belonging to any class of elections.
+
+ART. 98. The provincial councilors shall be personally responsible
+before the courts in the manner determined by law for whatever may be
+done by them in the exercise of their functions.
+
+SECTION THIRD
+
+THE GOVERNORS OF PROVINCES AND THEIR POWERS
+
+ART. 99. The governors of provinces shall have the following powers:
+
+1. To comply and cause others to comply, as far as their provinces are
+concerned, with the laws, decrees, and general rules and regulations of
+the nation.
+
+2. To publish such resolutions of the provincial councils as have force
+of law, and comply and cause others to comply with them.
+
+3. To issue orders, instructions, and rules for the proper execution of
+the resolutions of the provincial council, if the latter has not done so
+already.
+
+4. To call the provincial councils to convene in extra session whenever
+in his own judgment the same may be necessary. The subjects to be
+discussed in this session shall be set forth in the call.
+
+5. To suspend the resolutions of the provincial and municipal councils
+in the cases set forth in this constitution.
+
+6. To order the suspension of mayors, in case they have exceeded their
+powers, violated the constitution or the laws, acted in contravention to
+the resolutions of the provincial councils, or failed to do their duty.
+The suspension shall be reported to the provincial council in the manner
+and form established by law.
+
+7. To appoint and remove the employes of their offices in the manner
+provided by law.
+
+ART. 100. The governors shall be responsible before the Senate in the
+cases set forth in this constitution, and before the courts of justice,
+according to the provisions of the law, in all other classes of
+offenses.
+
+ART. 101. The governors shall receive from the provincial treasury a
+salary, which may be changed at any time, but the change shall not take
+effect until after a new governor's election is held.
+
+ART. 102. In case of temporary or permanent vacancy of the position of
+governor of the province, the president of the provincial council shall
+act in his place. If the vacancy is permanent, the acting governor
+shall continue in the discharge of his duties as such until the end of
+the term.
+
+TITLE XII
+
+THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT
+
+SECTION FIRST
+
+GENERAL PROVISIONS
+
+ART. 103. The municipal districts shall be governed by municipal
+councils, consisting of aldermen or councilors directly elected by the
+people, in the number and in the manner provided by law.
+
+ART. 104. There shall be in each municipal district a mayor elected by
+the people by direct vote in the manner and form established by law.
+
+SECTION SECOND
+
+THE MUNICIPAL COUNCILS AND THEIR POWERS
+
+ART. 105. The municipal councils shall have the following powers:
+
+1. To resolve on all matters exclusively relating to their own municipal
+districts.
+
+2. To prepare the budget of their expenses, providing at the same time,
+on condition, however, that this is done in a manner consistent with the
+general system of taxation of the Republic.
+
+3. To resolve on the negotiation of loans, providing at the same time
+the permanent revenue necessary to meet the interest and principal when
+due.
+
+In order that these loans may be carried into effect, they shall have to
+be approved by two-thirds of the electors of the municipal district.
+
+4. To appoint and remove the municipal employes in the manner
+established by law.
+
+ART. 106. The municipal councils shall not decrease or suppress any
+revenues of permanent character without establishing at the same time
+some other revenues which may take their place, except in case the
+decrease or suppression is due to the decrease or suppression of the
+equivalent permanent expense.
+
+ART. 107. The resolutions of the municipal councils shall be referred to
+the mayor. If approved by him, they shall be authorized with his
+signature; if not, they shall be returned, with his objections, to the
+municipal council, wherein they shall be again discussed. If, after a
+second discussion, two-thirds of the total number of councilors vote in
+favor of the resolution it shall become a law.
+
+When the mayor does not return the resolution, within ten days after the
+date of reference, it shall be considered approved and become a law.
+
+ART. 108. The resolutions of the municipal councils may be suspended by
+the mayor, the governor of the province, or the President of the
+Republic, when in their opinion they are contrary to the constitution,
+the treaties, the laws, or the resolutions passed by the provincial
+councils within the sphere of their powers. But the right to take
+cognizance and pass upon the claims which may arise out of said
+suspension shall be reserved to the courts of justice.
+
+ART. 109. The members of the municipal councils shall be personally
+responsible before the courts of justice, in the manner and form
+established by law, for the acts done by them in the performance of
+their duties.
+
+SECTION THIRD
+
+THE MAYORS AND THEIR POWERS AND DUTIES
+
+ART. 110. Mayors shall have power:
+
+1. To publish such resolutions of the municipal councils as may have
+force of law, and execute and cause the same to be executed.
+
+2. To administer the municipal affairs, issuing orders and instructions
+as well as rules for the better execution of the resolutions of the
+municipal councils, whenever the latter may fail to do so.
+
+3. To appoint and remove the employes of their respective offices in the
+manner provided by law.
+
+ART. 111. The Mayors shall be personally responsible before the courts
+of justice, in the manner prescribed by law, for all acts performed by
+them in the discharge of their functions.
+
+ART. 112. Each Mayor shall receive a salary, to be paid by the municipal
+treasury, which may be changed at any time; but such change shall not
+take effect until after a new election for Mayor has been held.
+
+ART. 113. In case of vacancy, either temporary or permanent, of the
+office of Mayor, the president of the municipal council shall act as
+Mayor.
+
+Should the absence be permanent, the substitute shall act until the end
+of the term for which the Mayor was elected.
+
+TITLE XIII
+
+THE NATIONAL TREASURY
+
+ART. 114. All property existing within the territory of the Republic not
+belonging to provinces, municipalities or private individuals or
+corporations, shall belong to the State.
+
+TITLE XIV
+
+AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION
+
+ART. 115. The Constitution shall not be amended, in whole or in part,
+except by resolution passed by two-thirds of the total number of members
+of each House of Congress.
+
+Six months after the resolution to amend the Constitution has been
+passed, a constitutional convention shall be called to assemble for the
+exclusive and specific purpose of either approving or rejecting the
+amendment. Each House shall, in the meantime, continue to perform its
+duties with absolute independence of the convention.
+
+Delegates to the said convention shall be elected by each province at
+the rate of one for every fifty thousand inhabitants, in the manner that
+may be provided by law.
+
+
+TRANSIENT PROVISIONS
+
+First. The Republic of Cuba does not recognize any other debts or
+obligations than those legitimately contracted in favor of the
+revolution by commanders of bodies of the liberating army, subsequent to
+the twenty-fourth day of February, eighteen hundred and ninety-five, and
+prior to the nineteenth day of September of the same year, on which date
+the Jimaguayu Constitution was promulgated; and the debts and
+obligations contracted afterward, by the revolutionary government,
+either by itself or through its legitimate representatives in foreign
+countries. Congress shall examine said debts and obligations and decide
+upon the payment of those which are found legitimate.
+
+Second. Persons born in Cuba, or children of native-born Cubans, who, at
+the time of the promulgation of this Constitution, are citizens of any
+foreign nation shall not enjoy the rights of Cuban nationality without
+first renouncing expressly the foreign citizenship.
+
+Third. The time of service of foreigners in the wars of independence of
+Cuba shall be counted as time of naturalization and residence, for the
+acquisition of the right granted to naturalized citizens in article 49.
+
+Fourth. The basis of population established in relation to the election
+of representatives in Congress, and of delegates to the constitutional
+convention, in articles 48 and 115, may be changed by law whenever, in
+the judgment of Congress, the change becomes necessary through the
+increase in the number of inhabitants, shown by censuses to be
+periodically taken.
+
+Fifth. At the time of the first organization of the Senate, the Senators
+shall be divided into two groups for the purpose of their renewal.
+
+Those forming the first group shall cease in their duties at the
+expiration of the fourth year, and those forming the second group at the
+expiration of the eighth year. It shall be decided by lot which of the
+two Senators from each province shall belong to either group.
+
+The law shall provide the method to be followed in the formation of the
+two groups into which the House of Representatives shall be divided for
+the purpose of its partial renewal.
+
+Sixth. Ninety days after the promulgation of the electoral law, which
+shall be framed and adopted by the constitutional convention, an
+election shall be held of the public functionaries provided by the
+Constitution, to whom the transfer of the Government of Cuba, in
+conformity with the provisions of Order No. 301 of Headquarters Division
+of Cuba, dated July twenty-fifth, nineteen hundred, is to be made.
+
+Seventh. All laws, decrees, regulations, orders and other provisions
+which may be in force at the time of the promulgation of this
+Constitution shall continue to be observed, in so far as they do not
+conflict with the said Constitution, until legally revoked or amended.
+
+Hall of sessions of the Constitutional Convention, Havana, February
+twenty-first, nineteen hundred and one.
+
+The Constitutional Convention, acting in conformity with the order of
+the Military Governor of the island, of July 25, 1900, by which it was
+called to assemble, resolves to attach, and does hereby attach to the
+Constitution of the Republic of Cuba adopted on February twenty-first
+ultimo, the following.
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+ARTICLE I. The Government of Cuba shall never enter into any treaty or
+other compact with any foreign power or powers which will impair or tend
+to impair the independence of Cuba, nor in any way authorize or permit
+any foreign power or powers to obtain by colonization or for military or
+naval purposes, or otherwise, lodgment in or control over any portion of
+said island.
+
+ART. II. That said Government shall not assume or contract any public
+debt to pay the interest upon which, and to make reasonable sinking-fund
+provision for the ultimate discharge of which, the ordinary revenues of
+the island, after defraying the current expenses of Government, shall be
+inadequate.
+
+ART. III. That the Government of Cuba consents that the United States
+may exercise the right to intervene for the preservation of Cuban
+independence, the maintenance of a government adequate for the
+protection of life, property, and individual liberty, and for
+discharging the obligations with respect to Cuba imposed by the Treaty
+of Peace on the United States, now to be assumed and undertaken by the
+Government of Cuba.
+
+ART. IV. That all acts of the United States in Cuba during its military
+occupancy thereof are ratified and validated, and all lawful rights
+acquired thereunder shall be maintained and protected.
+
+ART. V. That the Government of Cuba will execute, and, as far as
+necessary, extend the plans already devised, or other plans to be
+mutually agreed upon, for the sanitation of the cities of the island, to
+the end that a recurrence of epidemic and infectious diseases may be
+prevented, thereby assuring protection to the people and commerce of
+Cuba, as well as to the commerce of the southern ports of the United
+States and the people residing therein.
+
+ART. VI. That the Isle of Pines shall be omitted from the proposed
+constitutional boundaries of Cuba, the title thereto being left to
+future adjustment by treaty.
+
+ART. VII. That to enable the United States to maintain the independence
+of Cuba, and to protect the people thereof, as well as for its own
+defence, the Government of Cuba will sell or lease to the United States
+lands necessary for coaling or naval stations, at certain specified
+points, to be agreed upon with the President of the United States.
+
+ART. VIII. That, by way of further assurance, the Government of Cuba
+will embody the foregoing provisions in a permanent treaty with the
+United States.
+
+Hall of sessions, June twelfth, nineteen hundred and one.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+
+After the Constitution, the Government. On October 14, 1901, General
+Wood as Military Governor of Cuba issued an order for the holding of a
+general election throughout the island on December 31, that day to be a
+legal holiday. At that election there were to be chosen Presidential and
+Senatorial Electors, Members of the House of Representatives, Governors
+of Provinces or Departments, and members of Provincial Assemblies or
+Councils. At the same time it was announced that the election of
+President, Vice-President and Senators, by the electoral colleges, would
+take place on February 24, 1902. A provisional election law was also
+promulgated at that time.
+
+This order brought acutely to the fore the question of Presidential
+candidates. There were several of them, but none of them could be
+regarded as a party candidate for the reason that there were then
+practically no parties. The three which had existed had gradually
+dissolved, merged into each other, and left the Cuban people free to
+follow purely individual leaders again.
+
+Maximo Gomez was naturally looked to as the foremost candidate for the
+Presidency, and despite the bitterness of some politicians against him
+there is little doubt that if he had consented to be a candidate he
+would have stood alone and been elected practically without opposition.
+No man deserved the honor more than he. But it was more than an honor.
+It was a tremendously serious responsibility. Now Gomez was not the man
+to shirk responsibility. But he was not a man, either, to accept it
+rashly. He knew his own limitations. He knew, too, the requirements of
+the place. There was needed a scholar and statesman, rather than a
+"rough and ready" bushwhacking soldier. So he would not even consider
+the offer of the nomination. "I was never intended," he said, "to become
+the President of any country. I think too much of Cuba to become her
+President."
+
+Calixto Garcia, who after the death of Antonio Maceo stood second to
+Gomez as a commander, and who was General-in-Chief of the eastern half
+of the island, had won a splendid reputation for efficient work in
+Oriente and Camaguey, and was a man of great force and ability, and of
+much popularity among the Cuban people. But he died at Washington of
+pneumonia soon after the close of the war.
+
+With these two great chieftains of Cuba's wars thus out of the running,
+the choice by common consent fell upon Tomas Estrada Palma; and a better
+choice could not have been made. We have already seen something of his
+work as the head of the Cuban Junta in New York. He was now past the
+prime of life, having been born at Bayamo in 1837, but he was in full
+mastery of his ripe intellectual and physical powers. The son of a rich
+and distinguished family, he was sent in his youth to Seville to study
+law, and for a time practised it with much success in Cuba. But he was a
+patriot, and when the Ten Years' War began he entered the Cuban ranks
+and had a distinguished career in the field, as also in the councils of
+the Republic in the field. Unfortunately he was captured by the enemy
+and was sent to Spain, where he was a prisoner until the end of the war.
+Then he went to Honduras, became Postmaster-General of that country, and
+married the accomplished daughter of President Guardiola. Thence he
+went to the United States and for some years was the head of an
+admirable private school for boys at Central Valley, New York; most of
+his pupils being from Cuba and other Latin-American countries.
+
+At the outbreak of the War of Independence in 1895 the veteran patriot
+promptly offered himself for any service that he could perform. Though
+nearing the age of three score, he would gladly have taken up his rifle
+again and gone into the field. But there was more important and more
+profitable work for Cuba to be done than that would have been, and he
+entered upon it with zeal, as the head of the Cuban Junta in New York.
+Especially after the death of Marti, he was the guiding spirit of that
+organization, and as such, at least in the eyes of America and of the
+world at large, he was the actual head of the Cuban revolution, even
+more than the President of the Provisional Government in the patriot
+stronghold in the mountains of Cubitas. He was not merely the very
+active head of the working organization of the Junta, which supplied the
+Cuban army with the sinews of war, but he was the diplomatic
+representative of Cuba, though only informally recognized, at
+Washington. He was at this time still in the United States, and was
+making no effort whatever to secure the Presidential nomination.
+Doubtless he would have been quite content not to receive it, and would
+have given his heartiest and most efficient support to any other man who
+might have been chosen. But there was a spontaneous turning of all Cuban
+eyes and minds and hearts toward him as the man of all best fitted to
+inaugurate the independent republican sovereignty of the insular state
+as its first President. He was the choice of no party--parties were yet
+inchoate--but of the Cuban people.
+
+In similar fashion General Bartolome Maso was put forward for
+Vice-President. Of him we have already heard much in these pages; a
+stern old warrior patriot of Oriente, who had done inestimable service
+in the field in the two wars, and who had been President of the
+Revolutionary Government--its last President, in the mountains of
+Cubitas, at the time of the American intervention. A man of fine
+education, of unblemished integrity, of sterling patriotism, he
+commanded the respect and affection of all who knew him; though it must
+be confessed that he was personally little known at the capital or in
+the western half of the island.
+
+For a time there seemed every prospect that these two men, so admirably
+chosen, would be elected without contest. But at the end of October
+there was a schism. Estrada Palma was favorably inclined toward the
+Platt Amendment, while Bartolome Maso remained outspoken against it. The
+sequel was that all the politicians of whatever factions who were
+opposed to that instrument joined in putting Maso forward as a candidate
+not for the Vice-Presidency but for the Presidency, in opposition to
+Palma. On October 31 Maso issued an address announcing his candidacy,
+which, he said, he had been induced to accept "in order to preserve the
+nationalism and patriotism of the country"; and he added that the
+American intervention had been "perverted into a military occupation
+approaching a conquest." This was exaggeration, though entirely sincere;
+Maso lacking the broad international vision necessary to appreciate the
+relationships with the United States and the rest of the world upon
+which Cuba was about to enter. But it made a strong appeal to a number
+of diverse and incongruous elements, including some of the former
+Autonomists, many of the Spaniards, and a number of Negroes who were
+inclined to form a race party of their own.
+
+There followed an animated but orderly and amicable campaign of mass
+meetings and stump speeches, quite after the American style. At one time
+the followers of Maso appeared to be numerous, and claimed that they
+were sixty per cent. of the citizens of Cuba. But such claims were
+illusory. Nearly all important leaders, from Maximo Gomez down, were on
+the side of Estrada Palma, and before the actual trial of strength at
+the polls Maso withdrew from the campaign, leaving Palma alone in the
+field. The supporters of Maso explained that his candidacy was withdrawn
+because there was no prospect of a fair election. They objected to some
+provisions of the election law, and complained that they were not fairly
+represented on the boards of registration and election. They even
+alleged that frauds were being committed in the registration, and they
+asked that the election be postponed in order that there might be
+another registration over which they should have a larger measure of
+supervision. This request was refused, whereupon they withdrew from all
+participation in the election. A manifesto was issued, denouncing the
+Central Board of Elections as "a coalition of partisans" and declaring
+that "neither in official circles in the United States nor in Cuba does
+the intention exist to see that the elections are carried out with
+sufficient legality to reflect the real wishes of the Cubans." These
+imputations were unwarranted, and most regrettable; and were rightly
+regarded by the great majority of Cubans as a practical confession of
+the weakness of the Maso faction.
+
+The elections were duly held on the day appointed, and were conducted
+with admirable quiet, order and dignity. The unfortunate feature of them
+was that only a very light vote was polled. Not only did the supporters
+of Maso pretty generally abstain from voting, but many of Palma's
+followers, knowing that there was no real contest, did not take the
+trouble to go to the polls. Commenting upon the circumstances, General
+Wood reported: "I regret to state that a large portion of the
+conservative element, composed of property owners, and business and
+professional men, did not take such an interest in the elections as
+proper regard for the welfare of their country required, and
+consequently the representation of this element among the officials
+elected has not been proportionately as large as the best interests of
+the island demand." Despite the abstention of Maso's followers from
+voting, eight members of that faction were elected in the sixty-three
+members of the Electoral College. On February 24 the Electoral College
+met and elected Tomas Estrada Palma to be President and Luis Estevez to
+be Vice-President of the Republic of Cuba.
+
+President Roosevelt, in a message to the Congress of the United States
+on March 27, reported the progress of Cuba toward self-government, and
+recommended that provision be made for sending diplomatic and consular
+representatives thither, and the Secretary of War began preparations for
+withdrawing the Military Governor and all American officials and forces,
+and permitting the installation of the native government. It was
+arranged that the last-named event should occur on May 20, 1902, four
+years and a month after the American act of intervention.
+
+The closing weeks of the American occupation were made busy with the
+closing up of affairs preparatory to departure. Two new laws relating to
+railroads were promulgated on February 7 and March 3; laws which the
+Cubans on assuming the government of the island found so beneficent that
+they retained them unchanged. Another law on January 24 rearranged the
+municipalities of the island and abolished a considerable number of
+them, and still another on March 5 was intended to facilitate the
+determination of boundaries of estates. Still another, on April 12, was
+so vigorously opposed by Cubans that it was presently revoked, to the
+great loss of the island. This was practically an application of the
+merit system to a part of the civil service, declaring that officials in
+the judicial and public prosecution services should not be removed from
+their places without proof of adequate cause. Its revocation left those
+and all branches of the civil service to be the prey of the spoils
+system.
+
+In April and May there were promulgated orders for systematizing
+municipal finances, a manual for military tribunals, quarantine
+regulations, rules for the revenue cutter service, immigration laws,
+sanitary regulations, and some modifications of the Code of Civil
+Procedure. These were all practical measures, of undoubted benefit to
+the island, and all dealt with matters in which American experience was
+reasonably supposed to be of advantage to Cuba.
+
+General Wood on May 5 called the elected members of the Cuban Congress
+together at the Palace, in the name of the President of the United
+States, to welcome them and to wish them success in their coming work,
+and to have them examine and pass upon their own credentials and count
+and rectify the vote of the Electoral College for President and
+Vice-President. He also announced to them that the formal transfer of
+government, from the United States military authorities to the Cuban
+President and Congress, would take place at noon of May 20. Mendez
+Capote made a graceful and appreciative reply on behalf of himself and
+his colleagues, and the two Houses took possession of their respective
+halls and busied themselves with their credentials and with
+preparations for the serious work which lay just a little distance
+before them.
+
+[Illustration: SCENE IN VILLALON PARK, HAVANA]
+
+Meantime Tomas Estrada Palma was closing up his affairs in the land of
+which he had been a guest for many years and was preparing to return to
+the land of his birth to be its chief magistrate. He did not leave the
+United States until late in April. Instead of going directly to Havana
+he landed at Gibara, on the northern coast of Oriente, whence he went to
+Holguin, to Santiago, and then to his old home, which also was destined
+to be his last, at Bayamo. After a few days' visit there he proceeded to
+Havana, and arrived in that city on May 11. All the way through the
+island he was greeted with unbounded enthusiasm, and at every stopping
+place he was received and entertained with all possible social
+attention.
+
+Havana itself for a week preceding the installation of the government
+gave itself up to one incessant fiesta. Arches spanned the principal
+streets, flowers and bunting made the day brilliant with color, and
+fireworks illumined the night. The night of May 19 was such as the
+ancient city had never before known. From evening to morning it was one
+glare of rockets and illuminations, one roar of anticipatory and
+jubilant cheers and music. If one single inhabitant of the city slept,
+his name is not recorded. The riot of joy continued unabated until just
+before noon, when it slackened for a time, only as a mark of respect for
+the epochal ceremony which was being performed in the great State Hall
+of the Palace.
+
+There, in the very place where less than four years before General
+Castellanos had abdicated the power of Spain over the last of her
+American colonies, were gathered the members of the American Government
+of Intervention, about to retire; the members of the Cuban Government,
+about to assume authority; the representatives of various foreign
+powers; and a few private guests of distinction. The central figures
+were Leonard Wood and Tomas Estrada Palma. The former read a brief note
+from President Roosevelt, announcing the transfer which was about to be
+made, and expressing to the Cuban government the sincere friendship and
+good wishes of the United States, the most earnest hopes for the
+stability and success of the Cuban government, for the blessings of
+peace, justice and prosperity and ordered freedom among the people of
+Cuba and for enduring friendship between the United States and that
+Republic.
+
+[Illustration: TOMAS ESTRADA PALMA
+
+"The Franklin of Cuba," Tomas Estrada Palma, was born at Bayamo on July
+9, 1835, was educated in Havana and at the University of Seville, Spain,
+and began the practice of law at his native place. But realizing that
+under Spanish rule there was little administration of real justice in
+Cuba, he abandoned his profession, devoted himself to the management of
+his plantation, and when the Ten Years' War was planned entered the
+patriotic conspiracy with zeal. He freed his slaves, gave his fortune to
+the cause, and entered the army. His mother accompanied him to the camp,
+and in his absence was captured by the Spaniards, who murdered her
+through starvation and ill-treatment. He became Secretary of the
+Republic and in March, 1876, was elected President. Betrayed to the
+enemy, he was imprisoned in Morro Castle, Havana, and afterward in
+Spain. At the end of the war he went to Honduras, taught school and
+served as Postmaster-General, and then went to New York State, where he
+established a school for boys. At the beginning of the War of
+Independence he again gave himself to the Cuban cause, succeeded Marti
+as head of the Junta in New York, became first President of the
+Republic, was forced to resign through a traitorous insurrection and
+ill-planned intervention, and died on November 4, 1908.]
+
+General Wood then addressed the Cuban President and Congress, declaring
+that he transferred to them the government and control of the island,
+and that the American military occupation was ended. He reported the
+amount of public funds which he turned over to the new officials, and
+called attention to various plans for sewering, paving and other
+sanitary works which were in course of execution. President Palma
+responded, accepting the transfer of sovereignty, and expressing his and
+his countrymen's appreciation of the course which the American
+government had pursued.
+
+Thus the transcendent consummation was achieved, for which during so
+many weary and tragic years so many Cuban patriots had longed and for
+which so much treasure had been spent, so much blood had been shed, and
+so many lives had been sacrificed. "Cuba Libre" was an accomplished fact
+among the nations of the world.
+
+Leaving that memorable scene, General Wood telegraphed to the President
+of the United States:
+
+"I have the honor to report that, in compliance with instructions
+received, I have this day, at 12 o'clock sharp, transferred to the
+President and Congress of the Republic of Cuba the government and
+control of the island, to be held and exercised by them under the
+provisions of the Constitution of the Republic of Cuba."
+
+One other incident remained. As soon as the brief ceremony with the
+palace was completed, the American flag was hauled down from that and
+all other public buildings and the Cuban flag was raised in its place.
+It is not known whether the American Senator who had predicted that
+"That Flag will never be hauled down!" was there to see the sight.
+Certain it is that the people of Cuba were almost--and most
+pardonably--wild with joy to see their own beautiful emblem at last
+float in token of sovereignty over their island's capital. The Cuban
+flag flying over the Palace and over the Morro Castle was the supreme
+consummation of their patriotic dreams and visions.
+
+[Illustration: FLAG OF CUBA]
+
+The red, white and blue flag of Cuba, though then first raised in
+unchallenged sovereignty, was then by no means a new thing. It was
+already more than half a century old, and had been the guidon of brave
+men in three bloody wars. It was designed by the first great Cuban
+revolutionist, Narciso Lopez, and by his comrade, Miguel Teurbe Tolon,
+of Matanzas, a gifted poet and ardent patriot, and it was first
+displayed by Lopez in his raid upon and capture of the city of Cardenas,
+on May 19, 1850. The five bars, alternately blue and white, represented
+the five provinces into which the island was at that time divided; the
+red triangle represented the blood of patriots which was being shed in
+the cause of liberty; and the white star was the star of Cuba's hope.
+After the death of Lopez the flag disappeared. But when the Ten Years'
+War began many flags of that same design were made, the workroom being
+in a house on Warren Street in the City of New York, and thereafter it
+remained familiar to every Cuban patriot.
+
+[Illustration: COAT OF ARMS OF CUBA]
+
+The coat of arms of the Republic of Cuba displays the colors of the
+flag, and by their side the Royal Palm, perhaps the most notable of the
+trees in Cuba. The tree springs from a grassy plain, at the back of
+which is a mountain range; agriculture and mining being thus typified.
+Across the top of the shield extends a landscape-seascape, representing
+the ocean, with Florida at one side and Yucatan at the other, while
+between them lies the Key, Cuba. From the far horizon rises the sun.
+Above all is the Cap of Liberty, while around the shield are twined
+branches of oak and laurel.
+
+No more just and fitting estimate of the great work of intervention
+which thus, on May 20, 1902, was consummated, has ever been made than
+that which was uttered only a few weeks later by President Roosevelt, in
+speaking before a distinguished audience at Harvard University. He said:
+
+"Four years ago Leonard Wood went down to Cuba, has served there ever
+since, has rendered her literally invaluable service; a man who through
+these four years thought of nothing else, did nothing else, save to try
+to bring up the standard of political and social life in that island, to
+clean it physically and morally, to make justice even and fair in it, to
+found a school system which should be akin to our own, to teach the
+people after four centuries of misrule that there were such things as
+government righteousness and honesty and fair play for all men on their
+merits as men."
+
+That was the work which Leonard Wood did in Cuba; that was the work
+which the United States government did by and through him; the
+consummation of which was denoted in that unique act of withdrawing the
+American flag and raising the Cuban flag in its place. Fortunate was it,
+however, that the results of that work, the teachings of the American
+occupation, the meaning of the American flag, were not and could not be
+withdrawn when the Stars and Stripes came down. Just as the colors and
+indeed the essential pattern of the flag remained, in different
+arrangement, so the essential spirit of American republicanism remained,
+to be manifested not any longer by American interveners but by the Cuban
+people themselves.
+
+It was a marvellous achievement, that of those four years. It was such
+as the world had not seen equalled, at any other time or in any other
+place. It was creditable in the highest degree to the Cuban people
+themselves. It was creditable to the United States, for its intervention
+at its own great cost and for its scrupulous keeping of its faith. It
+was creditable to many individual actors in the great drama, both
+insular and continental, who displayed unsurpassed fidelity,
+self-sacrifice and heroism in the cause of Cuban liberation. But the
+simple truth and justice of history would be impaired if the chief
+credit were not given, _primus inter pares_, to the great American
+administrator, conquering soldier and constructive statesman, who from
+first to last was the guiding genius of Cuban rehabilitation.
+
+The works of Durham in Canada, and of Cromer in Egypt, form splendid
+passages in the history of benevolent colonial administration. But there
+was a more difficult work performed not for a dependent colony which
+would return compensation to the Mother Country or to the suzerain power
+but for an alien land and people, presently to become entirely
+independent of their benefactor. He found the Pearl of the Antilles
+war-ravaged and faction-rent; her fields desolated, her industries
+destroyed; her women widowed and her children orphaned; her treasury
+empty and her debts heavy and pressing; her government abolished and her
+laws inadequate; with famine, pestilence and hopelessness stalking
+throughout the land. It was his work to heal the wounds of war and to
+unite the people of all classes and parties for the common good; to
+assist the revival of agriculture and the rebuilding of industry; to
+care for the widowed and the orphaned; to replenish the public treasury
+and to discharge the debt of honor to the veterans of the War of
+Independence; to organize efficient government and out of his own
+constructive genius to conceive and to promulgate needed and beneficent
+laws; to feed the hungry until they could feed themselves, to banish
+pestilence until a lazar-house became a health resort, and to inspire
+with hope and faith triumphant a people who for a generation had striven
+with the demons of despair.
+
+With such a labor successfully achieved, through the exercise of a tact,
+a perseverance, a resourcefulness and an administrative genius not
+surpassed in his day and generation, we may not wonder that he was
+universally beloved by all the Cuban people regardless of class, of
+previous condition or of political predilections; that the only cloud
+resting upon the brilliance of the consummation of Cuban independence
+proceeded from the fact of his departure from the island and the people
+he had so greatly served; and that, not waiting for the slow tributes of
+remote posterity, the Cuban people of his own day hold in their
+supremest confidence, gratitude, respect and enduring affection the
+name, the memory and the vital personality of Leonard Wood.
+
+President Palma had already selected the members of his Cabinet on May
+17, three days before the transfer. It contained six members, chosen
+without regard to party, for the President was not a partisan. As a
+matter of fact, however, it contained representatives of all three of
+the old parties, which were at this time in course of dissolution and
+reorganization into the two which have since divided the Cuban people
+between them. Diego Tamayo was the Secretary of Government, having
+charge of the postal service, the signal service, sanitation, and the
+Rural Guard. Carlos Zaldo was Secretary of State and of Justice. Emilio
+Terry was Secretary of Agriculture. Manual Luciano Diaz was Secretary of
+Public Works; Eduardo Yero was Secretary of Public Instruction; and
+Garcia Montes was Secretary of Finance.
+
+The President presented his first message to Congress on May 28. He
+spoke with gratitude of the disinterested intervention and services of
+the United States, and with confidence of Cuba's ability to fulfil her
+duties as a sovereign State. He recommended care in the preparation of
+the budget, and the formulation of measures for the encouragement of
+cattle-raising and the growing of sugar and tobacco. Just then, owing
+to the great increase of European beet sugar growing the Cuban sugar
+trade was in an unsatisfactory state, but he hoped to improve it by
+securing a reciprocity treaty with the United States which would admit
+Cuban sugar to the markets of that country free of tariff duty. He also
+promised to promote the building of much-needed railroads. He urged the
+cultivation of cordial relations and commercial intercourse with all
+nations, but especially with the United States. As a special act of
+grace, a number of Americans who had justly been sentenced to terms in
+Cuban prisons under the Government of Intervention received pardons.
+These included three men, Rathbone, Neely and Reeves, who had been
+sentenced for ten years for frauds in the Cuban postoffice, the only
+serious scandal of the American administration.
+
+Two of the items in the Platt Amendment were soon taken up by the United
+States government, and were settled in a way eminently satisfactory to
+Cuba. One was the disposition of the Isle of Pines. It was decided by
+the State Department at Washington that when the American government was
+withdrawn from Cuba, control of the Isle of Pines was transferred to the
+Cuban government, to be held and exercised by it unless and until some
+other disposition should subsequently be effected. In time Cuban
+ownership of the isle was definitively confirmed by the government of
+the United States.
+
+The other point was that of American naval stations. A report was made
+by Rear-Admiral Bradford of the United States Navy, recommending the
+establishment of naval stations at Triscornia, in Havana Harbor; and at
+Guantanamo, east of Santiago; and the establishment of coaling stations
+at Nipe Bay and Cienfuegos. The Cubans were not inclined to object to
+any of these excepting the first-named, to which their objection was
+reasonable and convincing. It would not be agreeable, they thought, to
+have the flag of a foreign power flying right in front of their own
+capital and at the very gate of the harbor of that capital, so that
+foreign vessels would pass by it and salute it equally with the Cuban
+flag. This objection was recognized and respected by the United States
+government, which waived all claim to Triscornia, and on July 2, 1903,
+contented itself with land for naval stations at Guantanamo, one of the
+finest harbors in the world, on the south coast of Oriente, and Bahia
+Honda, another superb harbor, on the north coast of Pinar del Rio. Of
+these only Guantanamo has actually been utilized.
+
+The matter of reciprocity between the United States and Cuba was taken
+up, but it was long before anything was effected. General Wood had urged
+that a reduction of at least 33-1/3 per cent. should be made in the
+sugar duty in favor of Cuba, as absolutely essential to the prosperity
+of the island, and President Roosevelt urged upon Congress in the
+strongest possible manner the desirability of some such action, partly
+for the sake of Cuban prosperity, and partly for the fulfilment of
+America's moral duty toward that island. Indeed, such commercial
+relations had been promised to Cuba, and it was bad faith to withhold
+them. Of course the commercial interests of Europe, both in sugar and
+all other wares, were earnestly opposed to any such arrangement, and
+they had their governments exert all possible influence to prevent its
+being made. There were also large beet sugar interests in the United
+States which strenuously opposed any reduction of the tariff on Cuban
+sugar. President Roosevelt had a long and desperate battle with
+Congress over the matter, before he finally prevailed upon it grudgingly
+and imperfectly to make a reciprocity agreement, from which the United
+States would profit much more than Cuba. This was on March 29, 1903.
+Meantime, because of the American refusal to grant reciprocity, Cuba
+suffered acute economic depression approximating disaster. The insular
+treasury had scarcely enough money with which to pay current expenses,
+and the government was driven to the imposition of burden-some taxes
+upon many articles to save itself from bankruptcy.
+
+The reciprocity treaty was finally ratified by the American Senate on
+March 29, 1903. But it did not at once go into effect. There was needed
+Congressional legislation to make it effective, and this was not
+supplied. After discreditable delay on the part of the lawmakers,
+President Roosevelt called Congress together in special session on
+November 10, 1903, for the express purpose of having it take the needed
+action for putting the treaty into operation. "I deem," he said, "such
+legislation demanded not only by our interest but by our honor.... When
+the acceptance of the Platt Amendment was required from Cuba by the
+action of the Congress of the United States, this government thereby
+definitely committed itself to the policy of treating Cuba as occupying
+a unique position as regards this country. It was provided that when the
+island became a free and independent republic she should stand in such
+close relations with us as in certain respects to come within our system
+of international policy; and it necessarily followed that she must also
+to a certain degree become included within the lines of our economic
+policy.... We gave her liberty. We are knit to her by the memories of
+the blood and courage of our soldiers who fought for her in war; by the
+memory of the wisdom and integrity of our administrators who served her
+in peace and who started so well on the difficult path of
+self-government. We must help her onward and upward; and in helping her
+we shall help ourselves.... A failure to enact such legislation would
+come perilously near a repudiation of the pledged faith of the nation."
+
+Thus at last through such gallant urging a measure of justice was
+secured for Cuba. The unwillingness and delay of Congress formed the
+most discreditable chapter of the history of America's dealings with
+Cuba. But the real attitude, the real purpose, the real spirit of the
+United States toward Cuba, were unmistakably set forth not in the
+paltering and tergiversation of a sordid Congress, but in the lofty and
+inspiring words of the great American President.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+
+The result of the earnest and efficient work of all departments of the
+Palma administration, in spite of the fact that the employes had much to
+learn, and that mistakes were unavoidably made, was that Cuba began
+almost immediately to establish herself as a nation worthy of
+consideration, and respected among the other nations of the world. Her
+commerce and industries were started for the first time on a stable
+basis, and the general feeling of confidence, not only in the natural
+resources of the island, but in the protection that had been promised
+Cuba by her sister republic on the north, all tended to start the new
+republic along the right lines. In a very short time after reciprocity
+with the United States was secured funds began to accumulate in the
+treasury, and by the end of the first Palma administration over
+$20,000,000 had accrued to the credit of the country, and a large amount
+of constructive work had been undertaken in various parts of the island.
+Yet more than $4,000,000 had been spent on public works, and every
+village with 25 children had a school.
+
+It was the accumulation of this money in the treasury, and the rapid
+success along commercial and other lines that seemed to attend the
+republic during President Palma's administration, that served to excite
+desire and envy among the more or less restless and unscrupulous
+elements, who did not form a part of the Palma government. Some of these
+outsiders were men of much ability, and many of them were excellent
+orators. All of them were familiar with the methods in Latin American
+republics of securing control of the government through revolution,
+force and violence. It was then that parties began to be formed,
+although these were divided into many groups, each surrounding its own
+political hero, who, in these days, was necessarily a man with a
+supposed military record. They eventually resolved themselves into two
+groups, the Moderado, who were in many respects the parents of the
+present Conservative party now in power under President Menocal, and the
+Liberal, under the leadership of Dr. Alfredo Zayas, an able lawyer and a
+shrewd political leader.
+
+During the Palma administration and especially at the beginning of the
+electoral campaign of 1905, another aspirant for presidential honors
+suddenly appeared in the person of General José Miguel Gomez, a man with
+no very brilliant record as a soldier, although he had taken part in the
+Ten Years' War, but who had a strong local following as Governor, under
+President Palma, of the Province of Santa Clara. General Gomez was an
+astute, clever, farseeing, active politician, with a considerable degree
+of originality and ability. Another man intimately connected with the
+history of Cuba was Gomez's chief clerk when Governor of the Province of
+Santa Clara, Orestes Ferrara, a gentleman of Italian birth, of somewhat
+reckless tendencies, who emerged from the War of Independence as a Cuban
+patriot, and was recognized as such by the Liberal party. Mr. Ferrara
+was a lawyer, a writer, a finely educated diplomat and an excellent
+speaker. All of these qualities succeeded in making him an important
+factor in influencing the destinies of the republic in its early days.
+
+During the first years of the Palma administration, the Moderado and
+Liberal parties gradually shaped themselves into the present
+Conservative and Liberal parties; organizations which differ in
+political methods rather than in principles; if by principles we mean
+fundamental doctrines of political economy or statecraft, such as form
+the issues of division between parties in most other countries. They
+also differ largely in personnel. Throughout the agricultural regions
+the Conservatives prevail. That is because farmers, large and small,
+care little for office holding but do care a great deal for that
+tranquillity of the country which is essential to progress and
+prosperity. They have a material stake in the country's welfare, which
+is conserved by constitutional order rather than by revolution. On the
+other hand, in the cities may be found the great strength of the Liberal
+party; composed of men who own no real estate, and many of whom have no
+business or steady occupation of any kind, who have nothing to lose from
+economic and social disturbance but on the contrary may gain something
+by getting into public employment through a change of government. Such
+men are numerous in all cities of all countries, and they become the
+facile followers of designing and unscrupulous politicians. In the
+United States such men are described as "feeding at the public crib." In
+Cuba the corresponding phrase, equally expressive, is "nursing at the
+public bottle"--epitomised in the one word, "botella."
+
+It is not to be inferred that all Cuban Liberals are of this class, or
+that Conservatives are universally men of substance; but the dominant
+elements of the two parties are such as we have described. The restless
+and irresponsible Liberal masses have for leaders men of unquestioned
+ability, but unfortunately too often of more personal ambition of a
+sordid kind than sense of moral responsibility or sincere devotion to
+their country's best interests. It will thus be seen that on more than
+one occasion men who were intellectually qualified to serve the Republic
+in the most efficient manner prostituted their talents to catering to
+the passions of the ignorant and idle, and made tools of them for their
+own selfish advancement, to the great detriment and greater menace of
+the Republic. In this deplorable state of affairs have been the main
+springs of most of the troubles which the young Republic has thus far
+suffered in its political and governmental affairs.
+
+The Conservative party is confined very largely to the owners of
+property, men of good reputation and business standing. In other words,
+it consists of men who have nothing to gain through a revolution, and
+everything to lose during a period of upheaval which means destruction,
+not alone of actual property, but of the assets of the country,
+especially its credit and standing in the markets of the world. Small
+holders of property in the country districts, farmers, merchants,
+planters and stock raisers, are naturally allied with the Conservative
+party, or the party of law and order, as are the owners of the big sugar
+estates and the mills in which the staples are produced, since the cane
+fields become an immediate prey of those elements who wish to depose the
+government or bring about an intervention, through which they sometimes
+gain in the confusion that follows a change of government. To this party
+belong the majority of the professional men, the old Autonomistas, and
+those men who have a genuine interest in the welfare of Cuba, not only
+in her present, but in her future, and who realize that uprisings,
+strikes and all allied movements tend naturally to discourage
+investments in property, and to destroy credit and the good name of the
+island.
+
+Such, then, in general terms, was the development of political parties
+in Cuba which occurred as soon as it was realized that it was worth
+while to have them. As long as Cuba was under Spanish domination, there
+was no use in parties. So long as there was doubt concerning the
+intentions of the United States in Cuba, there was little encouragement
+to their formation. But the moment the Stars and Stripes actually went
+down from the Palace and from the Morro, the great fact dawned upon the
+Cuban mind that what many had scarcely dared to expect or to hope for
+was actually achieved. Cuba was independent. For that reason her
+political controversies were thereafter to be domestic, and there was
+opportunity, even perhaps desirability, of division of the population
+into parties.
+
+This indeed was well, in principle. There is nothing more stimulating to
+citizenship or more conducive to good government in a republic than a
+healthful and amicable division of the citizens into parties, on grounds
+of principle. In a monarchy, the opposition party is one of protest and
+revolt. In a republic both parties are devoted to the governmental
+system, and differ only as to the principles of economics or what not on
+which it should be conducted. The lamentable feature of the Cuban case
+was that--chiefly, no doubt, because of antecedent conditions, because
+of centuries of ruthless repression of all national or civic
+aspirations--there had been no development of theories and principles of
+government to serve as bases for party division. It could not be said,
+for example, that this party was for a protective tariff and that one
+was for free trade, that one was for state rights and the other for
+national sovereignty. Such distinctions did not exist, and party
+divisions without them were therefore on less creditable lines. We have
+said that there were no questions of principle. But there was one
+supreme question of principle, on which after all the division was made.
+But that was a question to which there was only one side for a worthy
+political party to take.
+
+At the beginning of Estrada Palma's administration, as we have
+indicated, he was not identified with any political party. He was
+broad-minded, and conceived himself to be not the leader of a party but
+the chief executive of the whole Cuban nation. He selected for his
+Cabinet the men whom he thought best fitted for the places, regardless
+of their political affiliations. He would probably have been glad to go
+through his entire administration as a non-partisan President, occupying
+in that respect a position similar to that of a constitutional
+sovereign, who traditionally "has no politics." Indeed, he maintained
+this independent and impartial attitude until the spring of 1905. Then
+he found it impossible to get measures passed by Congress, which he
+wanted and which the country needed, unless he affiliated with party
+leaders. The result was that he practically associated himself with the
+Moderados, or Conservatives as they are now known. This of course gave
+great umbrage to the Liberals, which was greatly increased when some of
+that party were removed from office because of their unsatisfactory
+service and their places were filled with Conservatives. And this was
+the beginning of the Liberal insurrection which led to the resignation
+and death of Estrada Palma.
+
+In the last days of President Palma's first term of office it was
+discovered that José Miguel Gomez had Presidential aspirations. He not
+only stated to the Moderate or Conservative party that he wanted to be
+President of the Republic of Cuba, but he declared that he proposed to
+succeed President Palma as such. This privilege was refused him on the
+ground that the President, owing to his fair administration of the
+government during the four years of his service, was entitled to a
+second term. To this argument, General Gomez replied that if the
+Conservative party to which he had pretended to belong would not make
+him its Presidential nominee, he would go to the opposition and seek the
+nomination. This he at once proceeded to do, and with the assistance of
+Mr. Ferrara he persuaded the Liberals that, controlling the votes of the
+Province of Santa Clara, he held the balance of power. He also prevailed
+upon Dr. Alfredo Zayas to retire as a Presidential candidate, and to
+acquiesce in his running for election on the Liberal ticket; promising
+at the same time that, no matter what the result of the election might
+be, Dr. Zayas should have the nomination and his support four years
+afterward. It is interesting to observe that this promise was never
+fully kept, and that the two Liberal leaders have ever since been bitter
+enemies.
+
+The Presidential nominees of the two parties, in November, 1906, on the
+part of the Conservatives, were Estrada Palma, the President of Cuba,
+and on the part of the Liberals, José Miguel Gomez, ex-leader of the
+Moderados of the Province of Santa Clara. The Liberals, a few days
+before the election, feeling apparently that it would go against them,
+began the old tactics so prevalent in some South American republics, and
+practised by Maso's followers in 1901, of proclaiming proposed election
+frauds on the part of their opponents, then in control of the
+government, and predicting all manner of illegal practices and
+intimidation.
+
+At ten o'clock on the morning of election day, telegrams, announcements,
+and orders from Liberal leaders were posted at all voting places in the
+various cities and country districts, directing members of that party
+to keep away from the polls, on the ground that the election frauds
+which had been arranged by the Conservatives could not possibly be
+overcome, and that the correct thing to do was to refuse to vote, as a
+protest against the government in power. These were obviously issued
+with a view of discrediting in advance an election which the Liberals
+could not hope to win. The Conservatives, of course, voted, and, as
+might be expected under those circumstances, the Palma government
+succeeded itself, with a few changes in the Cabinet, and everything
+seemed to promise well for the future.
+
+Within a year, however, threats of coming trouble, whispers of
+discontent, and reports of incipient uprisings could be heard in the
+cafés and public resorts throughout the island, and the agents of the
+secret service warned President Palma that a serious crisis was
+impending. This the President refused to credit, staging that there
+could be no possible reason for a revolution. The island was prosperous,
+work was plentiful for all who cared to labor; there were no conditions
+present to justify a revolution or uprising, and suspicions of anything
+of the kind must therefore be unjustified. In spite of President Palma's
+confidence, however, the plotting went on almost openly. His confidence
+in the people was known to all the Liberals, and they took advantage of
+it. The first real outbreak occurred before the slightest preparation
+had been made to deal with it. One night in the month of July, 1905, a
+group of thirty armed men suddenly appeared at the barracks of the Rural
+Guards, shot a dozen of them to death as they lay sleeping on their
+cots, seized their arms, ammunition and horses, and fled into the
+country, shouting the cry of "Revolution against the Palma government!"
+General Alejandro Rodriguez, a tried veteran of the War of
+Independence, and chief of the Rural Guards, gave an immediate order
+that they should be captured, dead or alive, and before ten o'clock the
+next morning nearly all of them had been taken and confined in the jails
+of Havana, where afterwards they were tried and convicted. These men in
+their defense claimed that the president of the Senate, Señor Moru
+Delgado, a prominent Liberal leader, had promised to meet them at
+daylight, on the morning of the assassination, with a body of three
+hundred armed and mounted Liberals, who were to start a revolution
+against President Palma; but did not fulfill his promise. The men who
+had been convicted were permitted to remain in jail until, as is too
+often the custom in some Latin American countries, they were freed by a
+general amnesty bill which had been forced through Congress by the
+Liberal party. The tendency to revolt against the Palma government
+apparently subsided with the arrest of these first disturbers, but,
+during the following January, 1906, reports of trouble in the extreme
+western portion of the island came to the notice of the officials. The
+leader was Pino Guerra, who, through his popularity as an accordion
+player at country dances, had secured election to the House of
+Representatives; and who with his taste for games of chance, at which he
+was generally unlucky, had got into debt to the amount of $7,000. His
+creditors in these debts were persistent, and this fact was given by him
+in a letter to General Fernando Freyre de Andrade, President of the
+House of Representatives, as an excuse for the revolution which he
+started. Pino Guerra indeed intimated that if someone would extend to
+him a little personal loan of $7,000 he would refrain from causing any
+trouble to the government. General Freyre de Andrade, being a politician
+who believed in compromise and that even a poor end would justify the
+means, suggested to Guerra that he knew of $3,000 that had been
+appropriated for some purpose and not used, which might possibly be
+turned over, if his creditors would take it on account. "General"
+Guerra, as he called himself, consulted with his creditors, and they
+concluded to accept the offer, if they could get the cash. So the embryo
+revolutionist was conducted to the presence of the President, where the
+whole matter was explained by General Freyre de Andrade. To their
+surprise, President Palma promptly refused to have any of the treasury
+funds used to buy--or to pay blackmail to--a revolutionist. So "General"
+Guerra retired to nurse his resentment and to plan mischief; until some
+six weeks later when he started the uprising that was locally known as
+"Mr. Taft's picnic," because the leaders asserted that the capturing of
+the Palma government would be nothing more than a picnic, and assured
+Mr. Taft on his arrival to straighten out affairs that they really had
+not intended to assassinate President Palma, although three or four
+distinct plots had been made for that purpose; that they only meant to
+capture him, put him on the government yacht, and carry him to some
+remote part of the country and give him just a "pleasant picnic."
+
+[Illustration: THE PRESIDENT'S HOME
+
+The new Presidential Palace, which replaces in its functions the old
+home of the Spanish Governors, is of striking architecture and
+impressive size, affording ample room for many other functions than the
+mere housing of the President and his family; and in completeness of its
+appointments and beauty of its furnishings and internal decorations must
+rank among the finest official residences in the world.]
+
+President Palma was repeatedly warned by the secret service, of which
+Pepe Jerez Varona was the chief, that serious trouble was coming through
+the propaganda of the Liberal party whose leaders had taken the position
+that the late election had been fraudulent and that the Liberals had
+been prevented from casting their votes, which they said was sufficient
+excuse for the uprising that was imminent. Local bands of the so-called
+"Constitutional Army" soon began to make their appearance throughout the
+central districts of the island. Each of these was headed by some
+prominent Liberal chieftain; among others, those at Havana by General
+Loinaz Castillo, in Pinar del Rio by Pino Guerra, and in Santa Clara by
+Orestes Ferrara, afterward President of the House of Representatives.
+The real promoters, instigators, and chiefs of the movement were General
+José Miguel Gomez, afterward President of the Republic; Carlos Garcia,
+later Minister to England; and Juan Gualberto Gomez, the trusted agent
+of Alfredo Zayas and leader of the negro Liberals of the island.
+Convincing proofs, in the form of documents over the signatures of these
+men, were found showing their treason to the republic. They did not
+actually lead the insurgent bands, because they were arrested and
+imprisoned just as they were setting out to do so. President Palma was
+advised that they should be tried and executed, but he protested against
+the courts taking such action, on the ground that he could not bring
+himself to sanction the execution of men, some of whom had in former
+days been his companions in arms.
+
+In the meantime, the revolutionary force swept through various parts of
+the island, seizing horses, mules, beef cattle and produce, breaking
+open groceries and general stores, helping themselves to anything that
+suited their fancy, occasionally giving in exchange what was known as
+_vale_, or a receipt, to the owner, and if the owner happened to be an
+able bodied man, they usually compelled him to join the so-called
+"Constitutional Army." Congress at that time happened to have a Liberal
+majority, and it refused to consider or vote upon the budget of the
+coming year, thus practically compelling President Palma to use as the
+basis of expenditures the budget of the preceding year. The Liberals
+boasted that they had thus compelled the President technically to
+violate the Constitution, and that they were therefore justified in
+calling themselves the Constitutional Party and in forcing him out of
+the Presidency.
+
+The Cuban republic at this time had an armed force of about two thousand
+men, scattered throughout the island. These were the Rural Guards, and
+they were efficient, and as a rule loyal to the Palma government; but
+they were not sufficient in number to protect the sugar estates, and
+other properties. As before, President Palma refused, until the last
+moment, to believe that a serious uprising or revolution against his
+government was possible, on the ground that Cuba, although a young
+republic, had been very prosperous, that money was plentiful, that work
+was abundant for any man who cared to occupy himself, and that there was
+no real reason that would justify or cause a revolution. He cited the
+history and motives of previous revolutions in Cuba, and of those that
+had occurred in many other countries, insisting that this uprising could
+not be serious, and that the people of Cuba would not support it.
+Unfortunately he was not a politician. He had lived too many years in
+the safe and sane atmosphere of the United States, and did not realize
+the intense desire on the part of some of the people in Latin American
+countries to get into office, regardless of their qualifications or the
+means employed to accomplish their sordid purposes.
+
+All of this resulted in a sad lack of preparation. President Palma's
+Secretary of Finance, Colonel Ernesto Fonts-Sterling, and General Rafael
+Montalvo, Secretary of Public Works, realized the threatening dangers
+and urged immediate action; and finally against the President's will,
+twenty machine guns were ordered from the United States, and shipped to
+Cuba, together with 1,000,000 rounds of ammunition. A call for
+volunteers was then issued, and in response numerous Americans from
+various parts of the island, and others from Texas, New Mexico and
+Arizona, in company with patriots of Cuba, came immediately to the side
+of the government. But the masses of the Cubans were very tired of war,
+and manifested a peculiar reluctance to assume responsibility, and to
+act in line with their consciences and best judgment, wherefore the call
+was not highly successful. Fourteen hundred veterans of the War of
+Independence, under the command of General Pedro Betancourt, of
+Matanzas, made response, and presented themselves in Havana for orders.
+A machine gun corps was formed, the gunners composed largely of
+Americans who had seen service in the war on the Mexican border, and who
+soon became excellent marksmen. Many of President Palma's counsellors
+urged immediate action to suppress the revolution with a firm hand. But
+he hesitated too long, hoping that some other way out of the difficulty
+would be discovered.
+
+In this emergency the United States Consul General, Mr. Frank Steinhart,
+suggested to President Palma that he should request the assistance of
+the United States, and urged that a commission of military men be sent
+from Washington, backed by a certain display of naval or military force
+sufficient to discourage the revolution and to convince the Liberal
+leaders that further wanton destruction of property would not be
+tolerated. Mr. Steinhart also assured him that he would see to it that
+such a commission would come with a full understanding of the situation,
+and with the power and spirit to assist him in maintaining peace and
+order. President Palma made this request to which the United States
+promptly responded by sending the gunboat _Bancroft_, and a company of
+marines who immediately came ashore at Havana. Following the _Bancroft_
+came other steamers, one of which brought the Secretary of War, William
+H. Taft, Robert Bacon, Assistant Secretary of State, and Major-General
+Frederick Funston, with several of his aides.
+
+In fuller explanation of these circumstances some official
+correspondence may pertinently be cited. On September 8, 1906, Consul
+General Steinhart sent the following confidential telegram to the State
+Department:
+
+"Secretary of State, Cuba, has requested me, in name of President Palma,
+to ask President Roosevelt to send immediately two vessels; one to
+Havana and other to Cienfuegos; they must come at once. Government
+forces are unable to quell revolution. The government is unable to
+protect lives and property. President Palma will convene Congress next
+Friday, and Congress will ask for our forcible intervention. It must be
+kept secret and confidential that Palma asked for vessels. No one here
+except President, Secretary of State and myself know about it. Very
+anxiously awaiting reply."
+
+The State Department at Washington replied to this on September 10th:
+
+"Your cable received. Two ships have been sent, due to arrive Wednesday.
+The President directs me to state that perhaps you had not yourself
+appreciated the reluctance with which this country would intervene.
+President Palma should be informed that in the public opinion here it
+would have a most damaging effect for intervention to be undertaken
+until the Cuban government has exhausted every effort in a serious
+attempt to put down the insurrection and has made this fact evident to
+the world. At present the impression certainly would be that there was
+no real popular support of the Cuban government, or else that the
+government was hopelessly weak. As conditions are at this moment we are
+not prepared to say what shape the intervention should take. It is, of
+course, a very serious matter to undertake forcible intervention, and
+before going into it we should have to be absolutely certain of the
+equities of the case and of the needs of the situation. Meanwhile we
+assume that every effort is being made by the Government to come to a
+working agreement which will secure peace with the insurrectos, provided
+they are unable to hold their own with them in the field. Until such
+efforts have been made, we are not prepared to consider the question of
+intervention at all."
+
+On September 10, Consul-General Steinhart cabled again:
+
+"Your cable received and directly communicated to the President, who
+asks ships remain for a considerable time to give security to foreigners
+in the island of Cuba and says that he will do as much as possible with
+his forces to put down the insurrection, but if unable to conquer or
+compromise, Cuban Congress will indicate kind of intervention desirable.
+He appreciates reluctance on our part to intervene, especially in view
+of Secretary Root's recent statements. Few, however, understand Cuban
+situation, and a less number are able to appreciate same. This, of
+course, without any reference to superior authority. Palma applied
+public funds in public work and public education, and not in purchase of
+war materials. Insurrectionists for a considerable time prepared for
+present condition, hence government's apparent weakness at the
+commencement. Yesterday's defeat of rebels gives Government hope.
+Attempts useless from start."
+
+On September 12, Consul-General Steinhart again cabled.
+
+"Secretary of State the Republic of Cuba at 3:40 to-day delivered to me
+memorandum in his own handwriting, a translation of which follows, and
+is transmitted notwithstanding the previous secret instructions on the
+subject. The rebellion is increasing in Provinces of Santa Clara, Habana
+and Pinar del Rio, and Cuban Government has no elements to contend with
+it, to defend the towns and prevent the rebels from destroying property.
+President Estrada Palma asks for American intervention and begs
+President Roosevelt to send to Habana with the greatest secrecy and
+rapidity 2,000 or 3,000 men to avoid any catastrophe in the capital. The
+intervention asked for should not be made public until American troops
+are in Habana. The situation is grave and any delay may produce massacre
+of citizens in Habana."
+
+The next day, Mr. Steinhart again cabled:
+
+"President Palma, the Republic of Cuba, through me officially asked for
+American intervention because he can not prevent rebels from entering
+cities and burning property. It is doubtful whether quorum when Congress
+assembles next Friday, tomorrow. President Palma has irrevocably
+resolved to resign and to deliver the government of Cuba to the
+representative whom the President of the United States will designate,
+as soon as sufficient American troops are landed in Cuba. This act on
+the part of President Palma to save his country from complete anarchy
+and imperative intervention come immediately. It may be necessary to
+land force of _Denver_ to protect American property. About 8,000 rebels
+outside Habana. Cienfuegos also at mercy of rebels. Three sugar
+plantations destroyed. Foregoing all resolved in Palace."
+
+On September 14, Consul-General Steinhart finally cabled:
+
+"President Palma has resolved not to continue at head of the government,
+and is ready to present his resignation even though present disturbances
+should cease at once. The Vice President has resolved not to accept the
+office. Cabinet ministers have declared that they will previously
+resign. Under these conditions it is impossible that Congress will meet
+for the lack of a proper person to convoke same to designate new
+President. The consequences will be the absence of legal power, and
+therefore the prevailing state of anarchy will continue unless
+government of the United States will adopt measures necessary to avoid
+this danger."
+
+On that day President Roosevelt wrote to Robert Bacon, the Assistant
+Secretary of State, enclosing a letter to Senor Gonzalo de Quesada, the
+Cuban minister to the United States for publication in the public press,
+in which he begged the Cuban patriots to band together, to sink all
+differences and personal ambitions, and to rescue the island from the
+anarchy of civil war; closing the letter as follows:
+
+"I am sending to Habana the Secretary of War, Mr. Taft, and the
+Assistant Secretary of State, Mr. Bacon, as special representatives of
+this Government, who will render such aid as is possible toward these
+ends. I had hoped that Mr. Root, the Secretary of State, could have
+stopped in Habana on his return from South America, but the seeming
+imminence of the crisis forbids further delay."
+
+Messrs. Taft and Bacon reached Cuba on September 19, 1906. Before
+leaving the ship they were informed that the Secretary of State and
+Justice of President Palma's cabinet would call at their convenience.
+They invited him on board at once and had a short talk with him. They
+were informed that immediately on publication of the President's
+message, President Palma had directed a cessation of hostilities on the
+part of the government forces, and that the insurgents had done
+likewise. Messrs. Taft and Bacon then called upon President Palma. They
+told him that they regarded themselves as intermediaries and Peace
+Commissioners, and did not wish to negotiate with rebels in arms without
+his permission. He suggested that negotiations be conducted between the
+two political parties, rather than between himself and the insurgents,
+and suggested that the Vice-President, Mendez Capote, for the Moderate
+party, and Senator Alfredo Zayas, head of the Liberal party, be the
+negotiators. He added that General Menocal on behalf of the veterans of
+the War of Independence had previously attempted, on September 8, to
+bring about a compromise, but without avail.
+
+[Illustration: William H. Taft]
+
+President Palma told Mr. Taft very earnestly and somewhat pathetically
+of his efforts to teach his people the knowledge of good government
+gained from his twenty years of residence in the United States, and his
+association with the American people, and called attention to his
+successful handling of Cuban finances, to the economy of expenditures of
+his government, to the fact that he had at all times encouraged the
+investment of foreign capital, and to the prosperity of his four years
+as President. He deplored what he regarded as a lack of patriotism on
+the part of the leaders of the insurrection, and cited a number of
+instances to prove that they were actuated by motives of greed and
+desire for office. His demeanor was dignified and earnest, and what he
+said made a deep impression.
+
+The Americans then went to the home of the American Minister at
+Marianao, a suburb of Havana, where the insurgents had outposts just
+across the bridge, about 1,000 yards from the minister's house. There
+they conferred, as President Palma had suggested, with Señors Capote and
+Zayas, with the Secretary of Government, General Rafael Montalvo, who
+had charge of mobilizing the forces of the government; with General
+Rodriguez, and with the American Consul General, Mr. Steinhart, who had
+been eight years in the island, understood its conditions, and spoke its
+language.
+
+It was explained to Mr. Taft that some of the leaders of the revolution
+had been apprehended, and at present were incarcerated in the
+penitentiary, but that they could be summoned to the home of the
+American Minister, if he so desired. He did desire it, and the Liberal
+leaders were brought from their prison. They included Jose Miguel Gomez,
+Gualberto Gomez, Carlos Garcia, and others of the group. Senator Alfredo
+Zayas remained present, and when Mr. Taft asked for a statement from the
+prisoners regarding the causes of the revolution and their purposes and
+demands, he acted as counsel and spokesman. Dr. Zayas stated that the
+election of the President and his government had been absolutely
+fraudulent; that armed soldiers had prevented the approach of the
+Liberals to the polls; that they had absolute proof that the votes would
+never be counted but that the whole proceeding would be a farce, and
+that, as a protest against such frauds and miscarriage of justice, they
+had deliberately refrained from going to the polls after ten o'clock in
+the morning; that the results of the election had been absurd and
+ridiculous; that the Liberals were greatly in the majority in the
+island, "as every one knew," and that the government, as constituted,
+was an imposition on the people, weak, inefficient and corrupt. He added
+that he and his compatriots wanted nothing more than that which they
+were in a position to enforce, and which they would have enforced had it
+not been for the suspension of hostilities which had been acquiesced in
+by the Liberals only out of deference to Mr. Taft and his commission.
+
+In other words, Dr. Zayas stated that they wished the immediate
+resignation of President Palma, his cabinet, and all members of Congress
+who had secured their seats at the last election; and he intimated that
+the judges of the courts who had been appointed by the Conservative
+party were corrupt and incompetent, and should be replaced by better
+men. In fact, they demanded the removal of the entire administration,
+and the annulment of the results of the last election.
+
+Against this Mr. Taft protested, stating that Dr. Zayas's suggestions
+were decidedly radical; that so far as Estrada Palma was concerned, he
+had been elected with at least the moral support of the United States
+government; that Washington knew and trusted him and had every reason to
+believe him a thoroughly honest man; and that he could not consent to
+any move so sweeping as that which Dr. Zayas suggested. Dr. Zayas
+immediately withdrew his objection to President Palma, stating that, on
+second thought, his retention as President would preserve the republican
+form of government, and save the island from a political change that
+should be avoided if possible. Therefore, Mr. Palma was more than
+welcome to remain as President of the Republic; but every other
+condition expressed with reference to Congress, the cabinet and the
+courts, must be enforced, and at once. That was the ultimatum given to
+Mr. Taft by the leaders of the Liberals.
+
+This ultimatum was conveyed at once to President Palma, together with
+the intimation that it was a bad mess all around, and that, since a
+force variously estimated at between twelve and twenty thousand men
+surrounded the City of Havana, and property was in danger, and since
+Orestes Ferrara had already notified the commission that if the demands
+were not acquiesced in, three of the large sugar plantations in the
+neighborhood of Cienfuegos would be given over to the torch at daylight
+the next morning, it was probably best to yield to the demands of the
+Liberals, and practically to let them have their way, in the interest of
+peace, brotherhood and conservation of the rights of property.
+
+This astounding and unworthy attitude on the part of the Commission
+deeply hurt President Palma, who had with good cause expected not only
+its moral aid but probably also the military support of the armed force
+that came to Cuba, at least as long as the policy of his government
+could be justified. This mental attitude was not however indicated by
+any word that came from his lips. With unmoved dignity he bowed in
+uncomplaining acquiescence, and said that he entirely understood the
+situation; that Mr. Taft would receive his resignation as President, by
+word of mouth and in writing, as quickly as it could be dictated to his
+secretary; and that he would retire at once from the Presidency of Cuba.
+Against this action Mr. Taft protested, though he himself had obviously
+made it necessary, and explained that arrangements had been made, at his
+suggestion, in which Dr. Zayas as leader of the Liberals had acquiesced,
+to the effect that Mr. Palma should remain as President of the Republic,
+although the Liberals demanded the expulsion of all other members of
+the administration. President Palma thanked Mr. Taft for his expression
+of faith in him personally, but absolutely refused to consider the
+withdrawal of his resignation, stating with impregnable logic, which Mr.
+Taft could not refute, that if his cabinet, his Congress and his courts
+were fraudulent, or held their positions illegally, he himself, having
+been elected at the same time, and in the same manner, was not the real
+President of Cuba. Therefore, he refused to remain longer in office. He
+added with punctilious courtesy that he would take the liberty of eating
+his supper in the palace with his family, since it was prepared, but he
+would not remain within its walls another day.
+
+When this attitude of the President was communicated to the members of
+the Cuban Congress, a meeting was at once called, at which, after a
+great deal of animated discussion, a joint committee was appointed,
+consisting of twenty-four men, to wait upon and expostulate with
+President Palma, but after several hours of pleading, they were
+unsuccessful in persuading him to change his mind.
+
+So came the fall of the Palma government, whereupon Secretary Taft
+assumed complete charge and control of the affairs of the Cuban
+Republic. The insurgent leaders signed a formal agreement to surrender,
+in which they promised to restore to their owners the horses and other
+property which they had seized, though as a matter of fact none of them
+did so; since, for good measure, perhaps, Mr. Taft through military
+decree gave to the rebels an absolute deed of ownership of the horses
+they had stolen from the stables and fields of their rightful owners. It
+took them nearly two weeks to disarm and disperse. Then Mr. Taft issued
+a proclamation granting "a full and complete amnesty and pardon to all
+persons who have directly or indirectly participated in the recent
+insurrection in Cuba, or who have given aid or comfort to persons
+participating therein, for offenses political in their nature and
+committed in the course of the insurrection and prior to disbandment."
+This amnesty, he added, was to be "considered and construed as covering
+offenses of rebellion, sedition or conspiracy to commit the same, and
+other related offenses."
+
+Finally, Mr. Taft announced on October 13 the turning over of the
+government of the island, with the full power which he himself had
+exercised, to Mr. Charles E. Magoon, and on that same date Mr. Magoon
+accepted and was installed in the office, thus beginning the second
+Government of Intervention. The general feeling of Cubans at that time
+was divided. The pessimistic elements rather suspected that the United
+States, having been called there a second time, might never leave. On
+the other hand, the thinking class, and those who had experienced the
+United States government and its various administrations in Cuba,
+especially under General Leonard Wood, were confident that it was only a
+temporary régime that circumstances had made necessary, and they hoped
+that out of it much good would come.
+
+Thus ended the most pathetic and tragic incident in the history of the
+Cuban Republic, and the one which was on the whole most discreditable to
+the United States. Nothing could have been more deplorable than that a
+statesman of the great ability, the lofty ideals and especially the
+generally judicial mind of Mr. Taft should thus weakly and illogically
+have yielded to a vile conspiracy, manifested through lawless threats
+and unproved clamor, against a Chief of State who in validity of title,
+in purity of character, in unselfish devotion to the public good, and in
+potential efficiency of enlightened administrationship, was not
+unworthy to be ranked even in the same category with the great President
+under whom Mr. Taft himself held his commission.
+
+Estrada Palma, according to Mr. Taft's intimation, had erred. History
+will forever record that he erred chiefly if not solely in assuming, in
+his own transparent integrity, that other men were as honest as himself.
+He was, his enemies asserted, weak. But intelligence and justice must
+discern and declare that his only weakness was in an over-confidence in
+the people to whose service he had given all the best of his life and in
+whose loyalty and support he imagined that he could securely trust. He
+could not, in the greatness of his own soul, bring himself to believe it
+possible for men, for men calling themselves Cuban patriots, to do such
+things as those which Jose Miguel Gomez and Alfredo Zayas and Orestes
+Ferrara and their coparceners did. He was not moved by weakness, but by
+a desire to protect Cuba from the ravages of sordid revolution and from
+the unscrupulous exploitation of bushwhacking bandits, and to preserve
+for the Cuban people and their Republic the good name which had been so
+fairly and as he thought fully established during the years of his first
+administration. His place in the annals of Cuba is secure. His rank
+among the constitutional executives of the world is enviably high. There
+has been in Cuba or elsewhere no more honest administration than his,
+and none that more intelligently, unselfishly and untiringly strove to
+fulfil its every duty to the state. Its untimely fall is not to be
+charged against any subjective fault of its own, but to the unscrupulous
+malice of sordid foes, the apathy of the people in whom too great
+confidence had been reposed, and to the inexplicable betrayal by those
+who should have supported and protected it but who instead consented to
+its destruction.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+
+Mr. Magoon came to Cuba but little known to Cubans and unfamiliar with
+what was before him. During this second American intervention there were
+some radical changes in the administration, and more public works were
+undertaken than President Palma had ventured upon. The consensus of
+opinion among American officers, all the officers who had accompanied
+Mr. Magoon, was that the Palma administration had made a mistake in
+allowing so much money to accumulate in the treasury. It had become a
+temptation to those who were not in power, and it would have been better
+to have the money expended along lines that would tend to advance the
+republic rather than to permit it to accumulate. So it was realized that
+if it was not expended during Mr. Magoon's administration, it would be
+spent, and probably largely wasted, if not actually misappropriated, by
+the Liberals if they should secure control of the government.
+
+The most unfortunate thing in connection with the visit of Mr. Taft, and
+therefore with the administration of Mr. Magoon, was that the Liberals
+had apparently gained their ends. The majority of thoughtful and
+patriotic Cubans had expected the intervention of the United States to
+result in the upholding of law, order and justice in the support of
+President Palma and his administration. They had expected that Mr. Taft
+would take time to investigate the case thoroughly, and that he would
+insist at the outset, as an indispensable preliminary to his entering
+into conference with them, that the Liberal insurgents should surrender
+their arms and ammunition, return the property which they had stolen,
+and submit themselves loyally to the constitutional government of the
+island; and that after that, but only after it, he would see to it that
+justice was done to them as to all parties and all people. That course
+was unfortunately not taken. Mr. Taft entered into conference with
+unrepentant and defiant rebels whose followers were at the moment in
+arms, threatening and preparing to make further criminal assaults upon
+property and life. He regarded or at least treated them as no less
+worthy of a hearing and of being taken into conference than the
+President himself; and despite his protests he concluded the sorry
+performance by practically ousting President Palma and his cabinet at
+the behest of these lawless insurgents.
+
+The sequel was tragedy. Estrada Palma died, not of pneumonia but of a
+broken heart. Nor was that all. Encouragement was given to the lawless
+and criminal elements of the island, and to those who resort to
+violence, insurrection and revolution as the means of attaining their
+political ends, which has been felt ever since and which has repeatedly
+given rise to attempts to repeat the performance which then was so
+successful. Recognition was given to the Liberals, through what were
+doubtless good but certainly were mistaken motives, and the Liberals
+insisted upon maintaining that recognition and profiting from it. So
+when a Council, or Consulting Board, of eleven members was formed with
+General Enoch H. Crowder as chairman, it contained only two
+Conservatives and one man of doubtful affiliations. Three members,
+Senors Garcia Kohly, Viondi and Carrera, did not belong to the August
+revolutionists but were members of the Moderado party, which had
+supported Estrada Palma. They acted as "Independents" on the
+Commission, though they were intimately associated with the Liberals,
+and as "Independents" they participated in the municipal elections. But
+later they joined the Liberals outright. All the rest of the Commission,
+or Consulting Board, were Liberals who had actually taken part in the
+rebellion. No appointment to office could be made without the sanction
+of that Board, and the result was that the Second Government of
+Intervention was packed with Liberal placeholders. Competent men, who
+had served the State well under President Palma's administration, were
+dismissed and replaced by incompetents whose sole recommendation was
+that they were Liberals. Now the voters of Cuba are as a rule easily
+impressed, and do not always appreciate the possibility, through hard
+work, of transforming a minority into a majority. They delight in being
+at once on the winning side, and therefore pay much attention to
+determining not so much which of two rival and contending parties is
+really right and deserving of support, as which side is going to win.
+The fact that the Liberal leaders, who previously had had almost no
+recognition, social, political or official, suddenly came to the front,
+and with the apparent acquiescence of the United States, or of the
+commission appointed in Washington, were exerting great influence,
+seemed a pretty sure indication, or at least was so interpreted, that
+the United States had changed its ideas with regard to the government in
+Cuba, and was favoring, and probably would continue to favor and sustain
+the Liberal party. That was one of the reasons why the Liberals won
+their next election. In fact they pointed to it as evidence of America's
+moral support, and frequently referred to and displayed an order, said
+to have been issued through mistake, which provided that every man who
+had stolen a horse, and who confessed his theft frankly, should have
+full proprietary title to that horse and need not surrender it to the
+owner. The order is still on the statute books, a memento of the
+American intervention. That was resented by the better citizens; it
+discouraged many people who had had great confidence in the United
+States, and it illustrates not the general policy of the second
+government of intervention, but some of the unfortunate things that took
+place under that intervention, that seemed to the better class in Cuba,
+as mistaken.
+
+Mr. Magoon spent the larger part of the money found in the treasury on
+public works, the building of roads, and various enterprises for the
+best interests of the island. It is claimed that in some instances the
+contracts became a source of graft, and that the roads were not built
+according to specifications. At any rate, they were built, and were
+sorely needed, and the results on the whole were excellent. Of the
+$26,000,000 left by the Palma administration nearly every dollar was
+expended at that time.
+
+Although the second Government of Intervention was theoretically and
+nominally, and doubtless meant to be actually, quite non-political and
+impartial as between the Cuban parties, the very circumstances of its
+origin made it appear to favor the Liberals. It had come into power by
+accepting the resignation of the Palma administration, which was
+practically Conservative, at the demand of the Liberals. The Liberals
+thus enjoyed all through its duration the prestige of victory, without
+having to bear any of the responsibility of being in office, or
+incurring any of the odium which is almost inevitable to every human
+government which has not learned to achieve the impossible task of
+pleasing everybody. There was no such foundation work to do as had been
+done under the first Intervention, and the American government busied
+itself principally with routine matters, and with making it possible for
+the Cubans to resume control of their own affairs.
+
+One of the most important undertakings at this time from a non-political
+point of view was the taking of a new census. This was not done on so
+elaborate a scale as the preceding census of 1899, but was more strictly
+an enumeration of the people, for purposes of apportionment, etc. It was
+taken under the direction of the American Government of Intervention in
+1907, the actual work on it being done by a staff of Cuban canvassers
+and statisticians, and it was believed to have been accurately and
+comprehensively done.
+
+The work of compiling the new census of Cuba which was taken in 1907 was
+continued in the early part of 1908 and was completed and results were
+published at the end of March of that year. The total population of the
+island was reported to be 2,048,980, and out of this number 419,342 were
+citizens and entitled to vote. It was then arranged to hold municipal
+and provincial elections on August 1, and a national election on
+November 14. These elections would be essential parts of the processes
+by which the United States government would bring its second
+intervention to a close and restore the island to the control and
+government of its own people. The electoral law under which they were to
+be conducted was promulgated for the August election on April 1 and for
+the November election on September 11, 1908.
+
+This law had three salient and characterizing features. The first was
+that it established a system of permanent election boards which were
+charged with the work of conducting the elections. In each municipality
+there was to be a board of three members. In each department or
+province there was to be a board of five members of whom two were to be
+representatives of the two principal political parties of the island
+while the other three were to be non-political members, officials of the
+courts or representatives of the education department. The second
+salient feature of the law was a system of compulsory registration. This
+provided for the making and keeping by the election boards of lists of
+all persons in the island who were entitled to vote. The basis of these
+lists was the census of 1907, and it was provided that the lists should
+be revised, corrected and amplified by the election boards every year.
+
+The third and perhaps the most important feature of the law was its
+provision for proportional representation. This secured minority
+representation, giving each of the important political parties
+membership in legislative bodies and also in the Electoral College
+representation in proportion to the number of votes polled.
+
+Under the constitution of Cuba the right of suffrage is guaranteed to
+every adult male in full enjoyment of his ordinary civil rights. This of
+course bestows the franchise upon a great number of illiterate persons.
+The commission which revised the electoral law in 1908 carefully
+considered the question of undertaking in some way to deal with the
+illiterate vote so that it would not be, as it seemed on the face to be,
+a potential menace to the state. It was finally decided however, that it
+would be impracticable and inadvisable to attempt in any way to modify
+the constitution. Provisions were, however, adopted whereby alien
+residents of the island, although not permitted to vote, were made
+eligible for election as members of municipal councils and also as
+associate members of municipal commissions.
+
+[Illustration: THE ACADEMY OF ARTS AND CRAFTS
+
+The Academy of Arts and Crafts is one of the notable institutions which
+make Havana an important centre of culture, both theoretical and
+applied. This great school of technology was opened in 1882, and
+occupies a fine building of dignified and impressive academic
+architecture.]
+
+The provincial and municipal elections occurred on August 1. There were
+in the field three major political parties, namely, the Conservatives,
+the Liberals and the Historical Liberals. The latter two were formed by
+a split which had occurred in the Liberal party. The principal faction
+was led by Jose Miguel Gomez, who claimed to be representative of the
+original and only simon pure Liberals, and who regarded the other
+faction as an illegitimate schism. The followers of Gomez accordingly
+called themselves the Historical Liberal Party, but were popularly known
+as the Miguelistas. The other faction was led by Alfredo Zayas and
+called itself simply the Liberal Party, being popularly known as the
+Zayistas. There was another insignificant faction which had been known
+as the National Independent Party but which now merged itself with the
+Zayistas. The third party was of course the Conservative.
+
+The result of the elections of August 1 was the polling of 269,132 votes
+or about 60 per cent. of the registration. The Conservatives elected
+their candidates for Governor in the three provinces of Pinar del Rio,
+Matanzas and Santa Clara. In the municipalities of the island the
+Conservatives elected twenty-eight mayors, the Miguelistas thirty-five
+and the Zayistas eighteen. The elections were conducted quietly and
+legally, no serious charges of intimidation or fraud were made, and the
+results were loyally accepted by men of all parties.
+
+The campaign for the Presidential election was then continued with much
+zeal. The results of the election of August 1 were taken deeply to heart
+by the various Liberal leaders as demonstrating to them that the split
+in their party would be fatal to them in the national election unless it
+were healed or at least some sort of a modus vivendi were established.
+Accordingly Jose Miguel Gomez and Alfredo Zayas "got together" and
+agreed upon a compromise of their claims. It was altogether apparent
+that Gomez was on the whole the stronger of the two candidates. Also he
+was the older of the two men. Therefore it was agreed that he should
+have the first chance at the Presidency of Cuba. He should be the
+candidate at the coming election of 1908, but if he was successful in
+being elected he should not seek a second term but at the end of his
+first should step aside and give his support to Zayas as his successor.
+With this understanding the party was reunited for the purposes of the
+campaign. Gomez was made the candidate for the Presidency and Zayas was
+nominated for the Vice-Presidency. The Conservatives nominated for the
+Presidency General Mario G. Menocal and for the Vice-Presidency Doctor
+Rafael Montoro.
+
+The campaign was conducted with much spirit and earnestness but
+generally in a dignified and law abiding manner. The chief stock in
+trade of the Liberals was abuse of the former administration of Estrada
+Palma, and of General Menocal as the inheritor of its traditions and
+policies. There were also many intemperate attacks upon Doctor Montoro
+because of his former association with the Autonomist party and the
+brief Autonomist Government during the later part of the War of
+Independence. How insincere this criticism of Dr. Montoro was appeared a
+little later when that statesman was appointed to a very important
+office under the Gomez administration.
+
+The election occurred on November 14, under the general supervision of
+the American Government of Intervention, and was conducted in a peaceful
+and legal manner, giving no cause for serious complaints on either side.
+The result of the polling was a decisive victory for the Liberal party.
+Of the 331,455 votes the Liberals polled 201,199 and the Conservatives
+130,256, there being thus a Liberal majority of 70,943. The Liberals
+carried all six provinces of the island, obtaining their largest
+majorities in Havana, Santa Clara and Oriente. Gomez and Zayas were
+assured of the entire electoral vote, though under the law of
+proportional representation for minorities the Conservatives elected
+thirty-two members of Congress to the Liberals' fifty-one.
+
+Various reasons were assigned for this decisive defeat of General
+Menocal. One was, that the Liberals were in the public eye as coming
+men. It was said that as their leaders had never been tried as directors
+of the Republic, it was time to give them an opportunity to show what
+they could do. The policy which the Liberals had outlined in advance was
+very attractive to certain classes of the population. They promised to
+abolish the law which General Wood had made, prohibiting cock-fighting.
+They even harked back to "Jack" Cade for inspiration, and promised that
+when they came into power there should be no necessity for men to work
+as hard as they had been doing. In token of these two promises they
+adopted as their pictorial emblem in the campaign a plow standing idle
+in a weed-grown field without plowman or oxen, and with a fighting cock
+perched upon its beam. Their campaign cry might therefore appropriately
+have been "Cockfighting and Idleness!" It is not agreeable to recall
+that such issues appealed to so large a proportion of the citizens of
+Cuba that upon them the election of 1908 was won.
+
+Much of the stock in trade of the Liberal campaign consisted also in
+denunciation of General Menocal. The Liberals declared that he was
+representative of the class and the régime that had practically been
+dismissed by the United States government in the Second Intervention,
+namely, the "silk-stocking" or intellectual class, which did not
+sympathize with the people and with the real cause of popular liberty.
+It was also pointed out as though it were an opprobrious fact that
+General Menocal had associated with himself as Vice-Presidential
+candidate Dr. Rafael Montoro, to whose character and ability not even
+the Liberals ventured to take exception, but who had been an Autonomist.
+When this reputed reason for his defeat was mentioned to General Menocal
+he declared that he was willing to accept it, though he did not believe
+it to be the true one; adding that after having been associated with Dr.
+Montoro during the campaign and having intimately exchanged ideas with
+him, he regarded him, Autonomist though he had been, as one of the best
+men Cuba had ever produced, and would more gladly be defeated with him
+than be victorious with the companion of his opponent.
+
+The various provincial and municipal officers who had been elected on
+August 1 took office and the new provincial laws went into effect on
+October 1, 1908. Because of the persistent failure of the Cuban Congress
+hitherto to enact new municipal legislation these were the first local
+officials chosen by the people since the municipal elections which were
+held under the first American Government of Intervention of 1901. Since
+1901 all vacancies occurring in municipal offices had been filled either
+by the votes of the municipal councils themselves or by appointment of
+the national government. This was because no provision had been made for
+their election by the people. Naturally this state of affairs gave great
+dissatisfaction and repeated demands were made by the Liberals for the
+removal of the holdover officials. It was also contended by the Liberals
+that the election of members of the provincial councils in 1905 had
+been illegal. Under the old law provincial governors and councilmen
+were elected for four years and half of the council was renewed every
+two years. Thus half of the council was elected in 1903 and these
+members took their seats in 1904, and half were again elected in 1905
+and took their seats in 1906. The contention of the Liberals was that
+this latter half, of 1905-1906, were illegal. On April 6, 1908, the
+terms of councilmen elected in 1903 and seated in 1904 expired, leaving
+in office only those who had been elected in 1905 and seated in 1906,
+whom the Liberals affected to regard as having been illegally elected,
+and who in any case were not sufficient for a legal quorum. The Liberals
+demanded therefore that all seats be declared vacant and that the powers
+of the provincial assemblies be vested for the time in the Provisional
+Government of Intervention. This was done, and the provincial governors
+were also required to resign. These latter vacancies were filled
+temporarily by the appointment of United States army officers, who
+served until October 1, 1908, when they were succeeded by men elected by
+the Cuban people.
+
+There was undoubtedly great need for a thorough revision of the laws of
+Cuba. Those existing at this time were for the most part a legacy of the
+old Spanish government and it was quite obvious that laws which had been
+enacted by a despotic government for the control of a subject colony
+were not suited for a free and independent republic. They were certainly
+not in harmony with the constitution which had been adopted. It was an
+anomalous state of affairs that after the adoption of the constitution
+Cuban municipalities should continue to be governed under the Spanish
+provincial and municipal code of 1878. This code gave the Central
+Government not only intimate supervision over but practical control of
+all municipal affairs, even to the smallest details, and naturally was
+very unsatisfactory to the people who were desirous of local home rule
+as well as of national independence. In fact the efforts of the national
+authorities to enforce these laws were regarded with displeasure and
+actually caused strong local antagonism to the national government.
+
+Under the second government of intervention, therefore, a commission was
+organized in 1907 consisting of both Cubans and Americans, the former
+being the majority, for the purpose of drafting elaborate codes of
+electoral, municipal, provincial, judiciary and civil service laws. This
+commission completed its work but all its recommendations were not
+adopted. Its provincial and municipal codes were however put into effect
+on October 1, 1908.
+
+The general condition of the island during the second American
+intervention was excellent so far as the maintenance of law and order
+was concerned. This was largely due to the efficient work of the Rural
+Guard, the operations of which were directed by a number of American
+officers detailed for that purpose. While brigandage was not wholly
+suppressed, it was much diminished and held in check.
+
+One of the chief controversies with which the government of intervention
+had to deal was that with the Roman Catholic church over various
+properties formerly belonging to it which had been confiscated by the
+Spanish government. There was some such property in the province of
+Oriente, a part of extensive estates once held by certain monastic
+orders. It had been taken by the Spanish government during the Ten
+Years' War, and at the end of that conflict the government refused to
+return it, but instead of doing so agreed to make an annual
+appropriation for the benefit of the church. Upon the separation of
+State and Church under American intervention in 1899 these
+appropriations were discontinued, whereupon the church claimed that the
+property should be restored to it. The validity of this claim was
+recognized by the American government, but instead of complying with it
+by actual restoration of the property that government purchased a part
+of the property from the church at a price mutually agreed upon as
+satisfactory. It was over the remainder of this property that the
+controversy was renewed, and it was settled by a similar purchase in
+1908. Another such controversy arose over valuable property in Havana,
+which had been taken from the church by the government for the custom
+house and other public offices; and it also was settled by fair purchase
+on July 12, 1907.
+
+After the installation of provincial and municipal officers on October
+1, 1908, and after the successful conduct of the national election on
+November 14 following, the American Government of Intervention busied
+itself chiefly with preparations for withdrawing from the island and
+returning the control and government to the representative of the Cuban
+people. This was finally effected on January 28, 1909, when Governor
+Magoon retired and Jose Miguel Gomez became President of Cuba. The total
+cost to Cuba of the second American intervention was estimated at about
+$6,000,000.
+
+The general feeling of the responsible people of Cuba concerning the
+second American intervention was one of extreme disappointment, owing to
+the fact that they compared it with the intervention under General Wood,
+or rather with the conduct of affairs under him. That first intervention
+was under the control of military officers, and when they made up their
+mind that a thing should be done, it was done, and as a rule well done,
+and the example which was set in directing affairs of the government,
+organizing public works, schools, in sanitation, and in auditing, made
+the second intervention suffer by comparison.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+
+Jose Miguel Gomez became President and Alfredo Zayas became
+Vice-President of the Republic of Cuba on January 28, 1909. With a
+substantial majority in Congress ready to do his will, and with the
+immeasurable prestige of success, first over the Palma Administration
+and later in the contest at the polls, the President was almost
+all-powerful to adopt and to execute whatever designs he had, either for
+the assumed welfare of Cuba or for the strengthening of his own
+political position. He selected a Cabinet of his own supporters, as
+follows:
+
+    Secretary of State, Senor Garcia Velez.
+    Secretary of Justice, Senor Divino.
+    Secretary of Government, Senor Lopez Leiva.
+    Secretary of the Treasury, Senor Diaz de Villegas.
+    Secretary of Public Works, Senor Chalons.
+    Secretary of Agriculture, Commerce and Labor, Senor Foyo.
+    Secretary of Public Instruction and Arts, Senor Meza.
+    Secretary of Sanitation and Charity, Senor Duque.
+    Secretary to the President, Senor Damaso Pasalodos.
+
+Not many of these men had hitherto been conspicuous in the affairs of
+the island, in either peace or war, and their capacity for service was
+untried. It cannot be said that they were regarded with any large degree
+of enthusiastic confidence by the nation at large. Yet there was
+indubitably a general purpose, even among the most resolute
+Conservatives, to give them a fair trial and to wish them success. Men
+who had the welfare of Cuba at heart cherished that welfare far above
+any mere personal or partisan ambitions.
+
+[Illustration: JOSE MIGUEL GOMEZ]
+
+It would not be easy to imagine a man much more different from the first
+President of Cuba than his successor, the second President; though
+indeed the latter was a man of no mean record, especially in war. Jose
+Miguel Gomez was born in Sancti Spiritus on July 6, 1858. He there
+obtained his earlier education, which he continued at the Institute of
+Havana, taking his degree of Bachelor of Arts and Sciences in 1875. He
+joined the revolutionary forces shortly before the end of the Ten Years'
+War. When, after the Zanjon Peace, the struggle broke out afresh, in the
+Little War, Gomez took once more to the field and attained the rank of
+Lieutenant Colonel. This outbreak having failed, he returned to his home
+and devoted himself to managing his father's estate in Sancti Spiritus.
+When once more the Cuban patriots resumed their struggle for the cause
+of independence in 1895, he again answered the call to arms. The action
+of Manajato won for him the rank of Colonel and the command of the
+Sancti Spiritus brigade. He was subsequently promoted to Brigadier
+General and then to the rank of Division General, after the battle of
+Santa Teresa where he was wounded. By the year 1898 he was at the head
+of the first division of the Fourth Army Corps which operated in Santa
+Clara Province. In this command he figured in most of the battles fought
+in that section at the time. The capture of the supposedly impregnable
+ingenio Canambo in the Trinidad Valley was one of the feats of this
+campaign. Also the attack and capture of Jibaro, a town defended by a
+strong contingent, and the operation of strategical importance conducted
+against Arroyo Blanco, are to the General's credit in this campaign, in
+which he was effectively assisted by a remarkable staff of young men,
+who won a reputation for their capability and courage. When the Santa
+Cruz del Sur Assembly met, at the close of the war against Spain,
+General Gomez was elected to represent Santa Clara. Shortly after, he
+formed part of a delegation which was sent to Washington on a diplomatic
+mission. On his return to Cuba he was appointed Civil Governor of the
+Province of Santa Clara on March 14, 1899; which position he held until
+September 27, 1905, when he resigned, having been nominated as the
+candidate of the Liberal party for the Presidency. His years of office
+as Governor of Santa Clara were interrupted by his attending the
+sessions of the Constitutional Convention at Havana, as a delegate from
+Santa Clara. When General Gomez was defeated by President Estrada Palma,
+who ran for re-election, conspiracies and agitations were organized
+which culminated in the revolt of August, 1906, against Estrada Palma's
+administration. Of this conspiracy and agitation Gomez was the organizer
+and leader. The Palma Government having proved its inability to quench
+the uprising, the American authorities intervened, and at the close of
+that intervention, on January 28, 1909, Gomez was installed as President
+of Cuba.
+
+Of different type entirely, yet not unsuited to work with Jose Miguel
+Gomez whenever their mutual interests made cooperation desirable, was
+the new Vice-President, Dr. Alfredo Zayas. He too was a man of
+conspicuous record, in the War of Independence and afterward, though it
+had not been made on the field of battle.
+
+Alfredo Zayas was born on February 21, 1861, and took his degree of
+licentiate in administrative law in 1882 at the University of Havana,
+and the following year in civil and canonic law. He soon acquired a
+reputation as a lawyer and in the world of letters. During the War of
+Independence he was the delegate in Havana of the revolutionary party.
+His activities in this connection having been discovered, he was
+imprisoned in September, 1896, and was sent to Spain and incarcerated at
+several of the prisons of the Spanish Government in Africa. After the
+War of Independence, Dr. Zayas led an active political life. He was the
+founder and Secretary of the Patriotic Committee, was a prominent member
+of the Constituent Convention, of which he acted as Secretary, and was
+foremost in organizing and leading the activities of the National,
+Liberal-National and Liberal parties. He served as Senator from the
+Province of Havana. He was one of the jurists who formed the
+Consultative Committee, appointed to draw up the organic laws of the
+executive and judicial powers, as well as the laws relating to the
+provincial and municipal institutions. At different times he occupied
+the posts of prosecuting attorney, municipal judge, and sub-secretary of
+Justice. During the revolutionary movement which took place in 1906
+against the Estrada Palma administration, Dr. Zayas was president of the
+revolutionary committee. After the provisional administration which
+followed the fall of President Palma, he was elected to the
+Vice-Presidency of the Republic.
+
+[Illustration: DR. ALFREDO ZAYAS]
+
+Dr. Zayas's life in the world of letters is no less interesting. From
+1890-93 he published various periodicals and collaborated in others. He
+has written several books on Cuban history and studies on the language
+of the primitive inhabitants of the Island, on bibliography, on
+questions relating to law and political economy, etc. He is a member of
+the Academy of History and for eleven years was President of the
+Sociedad Economica.
+
+The armed forces of the American government were of course withdrawn
+from Cuba on January 28, 1909, at the same time with the retirement of
+Governor Magoon and the second Government of Intervention, and the
+maintenance of order was left for a time entirely with the Rural Guard.
+That body of men had been very efficient during the American
+intervention and was considered by many to be quite ample for all the
+military purposes of the island. During 1909, however, President Gomez
+decided to organize a permanent Cuban army. To the chief command of this
+he appointed his friend Pino Guerra. The organization consisted of a
+general staff, a brigade of two regiments of infantry of three
+battalions each, amounting to about 2,500 officers and men; two
+batteries of light field artillery and four batteries of mounted
+artillery, amounting to about 800 officers and men; a machine gun corps
+of four companies comprising 500 officers and men; and a corps of coast
+artillery comprising 1,000 officers and men. This force was trained and
+equipped under the direction of officers of the United States army who
+were borrowed for the purpose by the Cuban government.
+
+The administration of President Gomez was marked with the enactment of
+many new laws, and of the undertaking of a number of enterprises. One
+law granted amnesty to all persons excepting those who had been
+convicted of certain peculiarly odious offenses. Another suspended the
+duty on the export of sugar, tobacco and liquors which had been imposed
+by the former Palma administration. On the other hand an additional tax
+was imposed upon all imports. Early in the administration a perpetual
+franchise was granted for telephone service throughout the entire
+Island, an act which was severely criticized on the ground that the
+President himself was believed to derive pecuniary profit from it. Laws
+were also enacted in 1909, legalizing cock fighting and establishing the
+national lottery.
+
+In 1910, the second year of this administration, President Gomez began
+to manifest marked sensitiveness toward the criticisms which were made
+of his administration, and on February 3, two editors were convicted of
+libelling him, because they had accused him of deriving profit from
+governmental activities, and they were sentenced to terms of
+imprisonment. In April, he appointed to a place in his cabinet Senor
+Morua, a negro, and the first member of that race to hold cabinet office
+in Cuba. In July an insurrection occurred in Oriente near the town of El
+Caney, which was suppressed by the Rural Guards with little difficulty.
+
+The active participation of government officers in party politics led to
+a disturbing incident at the beginning of August. At that time the
+Secretary of the Treasury, Senor Villegas, attended a convention of the
+Liberal party where he became involved in a violent quarrel. In
+consequence, the president ordered that thereafter no member of the
+Cabinet should be permitted to attend political meetings, or engage in
+active political work; whereupon Villegas resigned his place in the
+Cabinet.
+
+In November, congressional elections were held to elect half of the
+members of the House of Representatives. During the campaign the former
+quarrel in the Liberal party became acute. One faction started a violent
+agitation for the suppression of all religious orders in the Island, for
+the abolition of trusts in business, and for the prohibition of the
+holding of property in Cuba by foreign corporations. The other faction
+took for the chief plank in its platform the repudiation of the Platt
+Amendment. An attempt was also made by the negro members of the party to
+organize a third faction, comprising exclusively the members of their
+race. Because of these dissensions in the Liberal party the
+Conservatives made a somewhat better showing at the election than they
+had done in 1908, but the Liberals were generally successful and secured
+a majority in Congress.
+
+At the opening of the session, President Gomez urged revision of the
+tariff in order to provide fuller protection for certain manufacturing
+industries; the building of a new Palace of Justice; and the
+establishment at state expense of public libraries in the chief cities.
+During this year an attempt was made to assassinate General Pino Guerra,
+but it was unsuccessful. The would-be assassin was arrested and Guerra
+professed to recognize in him an officer of the police who had had some
+grudge against him. Alfredo Zayas and Frank Steinhart, the former United
+States Consul General, also made public complaints of attempts to
+assassinate them, and reported the matter to the Supreme Court, but that
+tribunal declined to investigate their charges. An attempt was made to
+connect the attempted assassination of General Guerra with a bill
+pending before Congress, which provided that the head of the army should
+not be removed excepting for cause. It was said that this bill was
+strongly opposed by the Commander of the Rural Guards, and that he had
+in consequence incited the attempt to assassinate Guerra. There was
+much public discussion and agitation of this matter, but nothing
+practical resulted from it.
+
+Charges continued to be made increasingly of the profligacy and
+corruption of the Gomez administration. It was charged, doubtless with
+much truth, that the number of public offices and office holders had
+been unnecessarily multiplied to a scandalous extent for the sake of
+giving profitable jobs to the friends of Liberal leaders. It was also
+intimated that the Government had subsidized the press to suppress the
+truth concerning these and other charges, and thus to avoid an open
+scandal which might result in a third American intervention. Taxation
+was declared to be excessive and oppressive, amounting in some cases to
+as much as 30 per cent. of the value of the property. Other charges were
+that public offices, executive, legislative and even judicial, were
+practically sold to the highest bidder for cash; that concessions for
+public utilities were similarly disposed of for the profit not of the
+public but of members of the Government, and that then extortionate
+prices were charged to the public for the service rendered; that the
+natural resources of Cuba were thus being parceled out to speculators
+for cash; that a bill purporting to be for the improvement of the ports
+had increased four-fold the expenses of those ports, for the enrichment
+of a speculative company, and that in general the functions of the
+government were being perverted to the uses and the personal enrichment
+of a ring of Liberal politicians.
+
+As the date of the electoral campaign of 1912 drew near, the conduct of
+the administration became such as to incur the menace of another
+intervention. In January of that year an arbitrary attempt was made by
+President Gomez to thwart the activities and impair the influence of the
+Veterans' Association, by forbidding army officers and members of the
+Rural Guard to attend any of its meetings, on the pretended ground that
+they were engaged in factional political agitation. As the organization
+was in no sense a partisan affair, but was composed of men of varying
+shades of political opinion who had the good of Cuba at heart, and who
+strove to avert the danger of further intervention by making and keeping
+the Cuban government above reproach, this decree of the President's was
+sharply resented and was openly disobeyed by many army officers. When on
+the evening of Sunday, January 14, 1912, many officers and Rural Guards
+attended a meeting of the National Council of the Veterans' Association,
+and were received with much enthusiasm, the situation caused so much
+disquiet that the United States government felt constrained to send a
+note of warning to President Gomez, stating that it was much concerned
+over the state of affairs in Cuba; that the laws must be enforced and
+order maintained; and that the President of the United States looked to
+the President and government of Cuba to see to it that there was no need
+of a third intervention.
+
+This note evoked from President Gomez the declaration that matters in
+Cuba were not in as bad a state as had been reported, and that he had
+the whole situation well in hand. General Emilio Nunez, the head of the
+Veterans' Association, declared that that organization would remain firm
+in its object to guarantee peace, to moralize the Administration, and to
+spread patriotism in the hearts of the people; and that it protested
+against that which might be a menace to the freedom and independence of
+Cuba, with confidence that the people of the United States would never
+regard its unselfish and patriotic campaign as an excuse for unwarranted
+intervention. He added that the Association had not sought to annul the
+law against participation in politics by the army, but resented the
+charge in the Presidents' decree that it was "playing politics."
+"Patriotically we shall make every sacrifice, but we shall never resign
+ourselves to be miserable slaves dominated by irresponsible power
+untrammelled by laws or principles."
+
+The leaders of the Liberal party were by no means a unit in attitude
+toward the crisis, the antagonism already mentioned between President
+Gomez and Vice-President Zayas flaming up anew. The newspaper organ of
+the Zayista faction openly declared: "We are on the brink of an abyss,
+whither we have been brought by the stubborn stupidity of a portion of
+the administration and by flagrant contempt for Congress and its
+enactments. These things have brought on all our existing ills." Orestes
+Ferrara, Speaker of the House of Representatives, much alarmed at the
+menace of intervention which might on this occasion have been as
+disastrous to the Liberals as the former intervention had been to the
+administration of Estrada Palma, declared that party differences must be
+dropped and that "We must resign our passions and ambitions to save Cuba
+from another shameful foreign domination."
+
+Meantime the masses of thoughtful, patriotic citizens, disgusted with
+what they regarded as governmental extravagance and corruption, held
+themselves in admirable restraint, hoping that the peril of intervention
+would be in some way avoided until they could have an opportunity of
+permanently averting it through the election of a government which would
+give the United States no further cause for anxiety or for even a
+thought of resuming control of Cuban affairs. The crisis was thus
+fortunately passed, and the settlement of the Cuban people with the
+administration of Jose Miguel Gomez was postponed, as was fitting, until
+the fall elections.
+
+There followed a little later another ominous incident, for which
+President Gomez was largely responsible, but which he repudiated and
+dealt with in an energetic and efficient manner. The attempt, already
+referred to, at the organization of a negro party in the election
+campaign of 1910 was followed in May, 1912, by the outbreak of what
+seemed to be a formidable negro revolt. The leaders of this movement
+were two negro friends of Gomez, General Estenoz and General Ivonnet.
+They had been officers in the War of Independence, and it was said that
+Gomez had promised them and their negro followers great rewards if they
+would support him in his campaign for the presidency. When these
+promises were unfulfilled, these two men went through the Island urging
+the negroes to organize a political party of their own, which would
+probably hold the balance of power between the Conservatives and
+Liberals. Because of their violent agitation to this end they were
+arrested and imprisoned for a time. Then they were released and treated
+with much consideration. Indeed, they were offered appointment to
+offices, which, however, they declined. Instead, they renewed their
+agitation, and on May 22 an open revolt under their leadership occurred.
+So serious did the situation appear that an appeal was made to the
+United States Government, and preparations were actually made to send a
+naval and military expedition to protect the lives and property of
+Americans in the Island. President Gomez, however, rallied his military
+forces with much energy, and on June 14 completely routed the main body
+of the insurgents, capturing all their supplies of ammunition and
+provisions. This practically ended the trouble. Estenoz was killed in
+the fighting, and Ivonnet was captured and then killed; "in an attempt
+to escape."
+
+Another embarrassment for the passing administration occurred in August,
+1912, when the United States government called upon President Gomez to
+make prompt settlement of certain claims which had been pending for two
+years, amounting to more than $500,000, and growing out of contracts for
+the waterworks and sanitation of the city of Cienfuegos. President Gomez
+protested that the Cuban treasury was without funds for the purpose, and
+that it would be necessary to wait until Congress could make a special
+appropriation. This reply was not convincing, seeing that payment of
+these identical claims had been made in a loan of $10,000,000 which the
+Cuban government had made in New York with the approval of the United
+States; and it was naturally assumed at Washington either that the money
+had been spent for other purposes or that it was being purposely
+withheld by President Gomez on some technicality or for some ulterior
+motive.
+
+As an incident of this controversy, in the closing days of August, the
+Liberal press of Havana conducted a campaign of vilification against
+Hugh S. Gibson, the American Chargé d'Affaires in Cuba, which culminated
+in a personal assault upon that gentleman by Enrique Maza, a member of
+the staff of one of the papers. This outrage provoked a sharp protest
+from the Washington government, in terms which implied a menace of
+action if reparation were not made. This alarmed President Gomez, and
+caused him to make at least a show of punishing the offender, and to
+write a long message of apology and pleading to President Taft, in which
+he promised to deal with Maza and with the newspapers which had been
+slandering Mr. Gibson, to the full extent of the law, and begged for a
+reassuring statement of friendship from the United States government.
+Ultimately Maza was punished by imprisonment, and the penalty of the law
+was also applied to Senor Soto, the responsible editor of one of the
+papers which had most libelled the American Charge d'Affaires. The
+Cienfuegos claim was also paid; but because of it an attempt was made to
+enact a law excluding all foreign contractors from participation in
+Cuban public works!
+
+The Presidential election occurred on November 1, and resulted, as we
+shall hereafter see, in assurance that the Liberal party would be
+retired from power in May of the following year, and that the government
+of the island would be confided to the hands of those who had striven to
+uphold the wise and patriotic administration of Estrada Palma. In the
+few remaining months of his administration President Gomez pursued
+substantially the same policy that had marked the preceding years. In
+March, 1913, Congress enacted an Amnesty bill which would have meant a
+general jail delivery throughout the Island, and which President Gomez
+was strongly inclined to sign. He was restrained at the last moment from
+doing so, however, by the energetic protests of the United States
+government, which indeed were tantamount to an ultimatum; and instead
+returned the measure to Congress with his veto, and with a
+recommendation that it be revised so as to avoid the objections of the
+United States--though he did not directly mention the United States--and
+then repassed. This was done and the modified bill became a law at the
+middle of April.
+
+In addition to the general extravagance of the Gomez administration, the
+overcrowding of all government offices with superfluous and incompetent
+placeholders, and the expenditure of more than $140,000,000 within two
+and a half years, there were several specific performances which
+provoked severe censure. One of these was the installation of the
+National Lottery, which was done by vote of Congress at the dictation of
+the President. The pretext given for this was that Cubans loved to
+gamble, and that if they had no lottery of their own they would send
+their money to Madrid, for chances in the lottery there; and it was
+better to keep their money in Cuba than to have it sent to Spain.
+
+Another act of the administration which incurred strong censure and
+which was ultimately repealed by the government of President Menocal,
+with the approval of the courts, was what was commonly known as the
+"Dragado deal." This was the granting to a speculative corporation
+composed chiefly of Liberal politicians and called the Ports Improvement
+Company of Cuba, of an omnibus concession for the dredging of harbors,
+reclaiming of coastal swamp lands, and similar works; for which the
+corporation was authorized to collect port fees, including a heavy
+surtax on imported merchandise, of which a small proportion would go to
+the government and the remainder to the coffers of the corporation. This
+concession was granted by President Gomez in 1911, against the advice of
+the United States government, and against strong and widespread protests
+from the people and press of Cuba, by whom it was regarded as a
+monstrous piece of corrupt jobbery. While it was in force, this
+concession paid millions of dollars a year to its holders, with an
+almost undiscernible minimum of advantage to the nation.
+
+Following this came a bargain with the railroads centering in Havana, by
+which the arsenal grounds belonging to the Republic and comprising a
+large and valuable tract lying immediately on the Bay of Havana were
+given to those companies in exchange for two comparatively small plots
+which had been occupied by them as a terminal station and warehouse. In
+addition the railroad companies agreed to build, or to provide the money
+for building, a new Presidential Palace, which President Gomez hoped to
+have finished in time for his own occupancy. This exchange was, in
+itself, undoubtedly a good thing. It gave the railroads an admirable
+site for the great terminal which they needed and which is now one of
+the valuable assets of Havana and indeed of Cuba. But the manner in
+which the bargain was made, the exercise of political influence, and the
+strong and unrefuted suspicion of the corrupt employment of pecuniary
+considerations, brought upon the transaction strong reprobation. An
+ironic sequel was that the work which was done on the proposed new
+palace was so bad that it presently had all to be torn down.
+
+Fortunately there was no relaxation in the maintenance of sanitary
+measures for the prevention of epidemics, and while there was little or
+no road building or other such public works those already constructed
+were generally well maintained. The judgment of thoughtful and impartial
+men upon the administration of José Miguel Gomez was therefore that it
+had contained some good and much evil, and that even the good had been
+done too often in an unworthy if not an actually evil way. It had been
+the administration of an astute and not over-scrupulous politician, who
+sought to serve first his own interests, next those of his party and
+friends, and last those of the nation, and not that of an enlightened
+and patriotic statesman, seeking solely to promote the welfare of the
+people who had chosen him to be their chief executive.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+
+The fourth Presidential campaign in Cuba began in the spring of 1912.
+The Liberal administration had given the nation a thorough taste of its
+quality, with the result that there was a strong reaction against it on
+the part of many who had been its zealous upholders. The compact between
+José Miguel Gomez and Alfredo Zayas was, however, carried out, the
+former not seeking re-election but standing aside in favor of the
+latter, who accordingly received the Presidential nomination at the
+convention which was held on April 15. Before this, on April 7, the
+Conservative convention by unanimous vote and with great enthusiasm
+nominated General Mario G. Menocal for President, and Enrique José
+Varona for President. The campaign was conducted with much determination
+on both sides, but in a generally orderly fashion, and the election,
+which occurred on November 1, was also conducted in a creditable manner.
+Although the Liberals had made extravagant claims in advance, the result
+of the polling was a decisive victory for General Menocal, who easily
+carried every one of the six provinces. This result was due in part to
+the popular revulsion against the corruption of the Liberal
+administration, and partly to the immense popularity of the Conservative
+candidate and his admirable record as a useful public servant in various
+capacities.
+
+[Illustration: MARIO G. MENOCAL
+
+The third President of the Republic of Cuba, General Mario G. Menocal,
+comes of one of the most distinguished families in Latin America. He was
+born at Jaguey Grande, Cuba, on December 17, 1866, was educated at
+Cornell University, New York, and became associated in professional and
+business work with his uncle, Aniceto G. Menocal, the distinguished
+canal and railroad engineer. He entered the War of Independence at the
+beginning and served to the end with distinction. He was defeated for
+the Presidency in 1908, but was elected in 1912 and reelected in 1916.
+His history is the history of Cuba for the last seven years.]
+
+Mario G. Menocal, who was thus chosen to be the head of the Cuban
+Republic, came of an old Havana family, traditionally revolutionary, and
+was born in Jaguey Grande, Matanzas, in December, 1866. When his family
+emigrated, as a consequence of his father having taken part in the Ten
+Years' War, Mario Menocal began his education in the United States. He
+was graduated at Cornell University with the Class of 1888 and took his
+degree as Civil Engineer. No sooner was he graduated than his uncle,
+Aniceto G. Menocal, the distinguished engineer of the Isthmian Canals,
+summoned him to his side to work with him at Nicaragua. In 1893 he went
+to Cuba as engineer of a French Company to exploit a salt mine at Cayo
+Romano. He was working on the construction of the Santa Cruz railway in
+Camaguey when the War of Independence broke out in 1895. On June 5 of
+that year he joined the forces of Commander Alejandro Rodriguez as a
+private. At the attack on Fort Ramblazo he was promoted to sergeant, and
+it was not long before his military talents had won for him the rank of
+Lieutenant Colonel.
+
+[Illustration: BIRTHPLACE AND BOYHOOD HOME OF PRESIDENT MARIO G.
+MENOCAL, JAGUEY GRANDE, MATANZAS]
+
+When the Revolutionary Government was constituted on September 15, 1895,
+Colonel Menocal was appointed Assistant Secretary of War, and in that
+capacity assisted Generals Gomez and Maceo in organizing the "invasion"
+contingent. He later joined the Third Army Corps under Mayia Rodriguez,
+and remained with it until the beginning of 1896 when he was called by
+General Calixto Garcia, who had just reached the Island and who made
+Menocal his Chief of Staff. Thereafter his name was associated with
+Garcia's brilliant campaign in Oriente.
+
+Among the many battles in which Colonel Menocal took part were the
+hard-fought engagements of La Gloria, Bellezas, Moscones, Hierba de
+Guinea, and the great struggle at Guantanamo, in July, 1896, against two
+Spanish columns which were cut apart and were obliged to abandon the
+Ramon de las Yaguas zone. In August the agricultural regions of Holguin
+were invaded and the Loma de Heirro fort seized, artillery being used
+for the first time in the war. This feat caused his promotion to the
+rank of Colonel. He then was active in the Sierra Maestra Mountains to
+meet Mendez's expedition. In October, Menocal seized Guaimaro,
+conducting personally the assault on Fort Gonfan, having captured which,
+he was made Brigadier General.
+
+In November, 1896, he took part in the battles of Alta Conchita and
+Lugones against Gen. Pando. Later he was present at the siege of Jiguani
+(April 13, 1897) and at Tuaheque, Jacaibama and Jucaibanita against Vara
+del Rey and Nicolas Rey, and at Baire he fought at the battle of
+Ratonera. It was at this time that Gen. Calixto Garcia made him Chief of
+the 3rd Division of the 2nd Corps, which included the western part of
+Holguin and Tunas. At the head of these forces he organized the attack
+and capture of Tunas, which was achieved by Gen. Calixto Garcia, August
+30, 1897, Menocal having been wounded in a trench assault.
+
+This strategic success won for him an immediate promotion to Division
+General. In November, 1897, he attacked Fort Guamo on the Cauto River,
+one of the bloodiest events of the war, and took part in the battles of
+Cayamos, Monte Oscuro, Nabraga and Aguacatones, succeeding in this
+latter in seizing Tejeda's supply train.
+
+In March, 1898, he was appointed Chief of the 5th Army Corps, to join
+which he marched at the head of 200 select men, among whom were many
+prominent figures of the war--many still alive--as General Sartorius,
+Colonels Aurelio Hevea, Enrique Nunez, Federico Mendizabal, Pablo,
+Gustavo and Tomas Menocal, Rafael Pena, Carlos Manuel de Cespedes,
+Commander Manuel Secades, Miguel Coyula, Ignacio Weber, Alberto de
+Cardenas, Antonio Calzades and Domingo Herrera. With this brave
+contingent, and assisted by the forces of Gen. Agramonte, Gen. Menocal
+passed the Trocha at its most dangerous point between Ciego de Avila and
+Jucaro. After a fifty days' march from Holguin, they reached Havana,
+relieving Gen. Alejandro Rodriguez of his command as Chief of the 5th
+Army Corps.
+
+Gen. Menocal was in this command when the American Intervention came,
+and cooperated with the American authorities in maintaining public order
+in Havana while the evacuation of the Spanish troops took place. Then
+General Ludlow appointed him Chief of the Havana Police, which body he
+organized, giving posts under him to the most distinguished chiefs of
+the Province of Havana. In 1899 he was appointed Inspector of Light
+Houses and subsequently Inspector of Public Works, which offices he
+resigned to manage Central Chaparra, in June, 1899.
+
+It is difficult to speak without danger of apparent exaggeration of the
+incommensurable work of General Menocal at Chaparra, as a true "captain
+of industry." There what were formerly barren fields have been
+transformed by something more than the touch of a magician's wand into
+the greatest sugar-producing establishment in the world. Nor does it
+consist merely of the gigantic mills. Houses for homes, schools, stores,
+churches, surround it, forming a city of no fewer than 30,000 prosperous
+inhabitants, devoted to the manufacture of sugar. Of this unique
+community, General Menocal was the chief creator and for years the
+responsible head. Even it, however, did not monopolize his attention,
+for he organized and managed also great sugar mills at San Manuel, Las
+Delicias, and elsewhere.
+
+In 1903 General Menocal was appointed by President Palma to be one of a
+Commission for the negotiation of a loan for the payment of the soldiers
+of the army in the War of Independence, together with Gonzalo de Quesada
+and D. Mendez Capote. Three years later he was conspicuous and active in
+the Veteran movement which strove to avert the necessity of the second
+American intervention. In 1908, as we have seen, he was nominated for
+the Presidency, with Dr. Montoro for the Vice-Presidency, but was
+defeated. Again he was nominated for the Presidency, with Enrique José
+Varona as candidate for the Vice-Presidency, and was elected for the
+term of 1913-1917; at the expiration of which he was reelected, with
+General Emilio Nunez as Vice-President.
+
+[Illustration: ENRIQUE JOSÉ VARONA
+
+Poet, philosopher and statesman, Enrique José Varona y Pera was born in
+Camaguey in 1849. Before attaining his majority he had published a
+volume of poems. Later he was the author of "Philosophical Lectures,"
+"Commentaries on Spanish Grammar and Literature," "The Intellectual
+Movement in America," "Cain in Modern Literature," "Idealism" and
+"Naturalism." He was a Deputy from Cuba to the Spanish Cortes; editor of
+_The Cuban Review_ and _Patria_, the latter the organ of the
+patriots--in New York--in the War of Independence; Secretary of Finance
+and Public Instruction during the Governorship of Leonard Wood; and
+Vice-President of the Republic during the first administration of
+President Menocal, in 1913-1917. For many years he has been Professor of
+Philosophy in the University of Havana.]
+
+Enrique José Varona, who thus became Vice-President of Cuba in 1913,
+ranked as one of the foremost scholars and writers of the nation. He was
+born in Camaguey on April 13, 1849, and in early life adopted the career
+of a man of letters in addition to serving the public in political
+matters. He was at once an orator of rare eloquence, a philosopher of
+profound learning, and a poet of exceptional charm. He served,
+before the War of Independence, as a Deputy in the Spanish Cortes from
+Cuba; he wrote the famous plea for Cuban independence entitled "Cuba
+contra España," which was translated into a number of languages; and
+under the administration of General Wood was Secretary of Public
+Instruction and of the Treasury. He was once President of the
+Anthropological Society of Cuba, and was a Member of the Academy of
+History. He has written numerous books, comprising philosophical
+disquisitions, essays on nature and art, and lyrical poetry.
+
+Dr. Rafael Montoro, who was refused election to the Vice-Presidency in
+1908, has since that date been kept in the service of his country in
+highly important capacities, and now, as Secretary to the Presidency, is
+most intimately associated with President Menocal, and exerts an
+exceptional degree of usefulness in many directions to the national
+welfare of the Cuban Republic.
+
+Rafael Montoro was born in Havana on October 24, 1852. He received his
+primary education in Havana and in his tenth year was taken to Europe
+and to the United States. He was a pupil of the Charlier Institute in
+New York until 1865. Having returned to Havana he took up his
+preparatory studies at the school of San Francisco de Asis. In 1867 he
+returned to Europe with his family, which settled in Madrid. Here he
+spent his youth until 1878, devoting himself to literary and
+intellectual activities; he contributed to various periodicals, was
+editor of the "Revista Contemporanea"; second secretary of the Ateneo de
+Madrid; vice president of the Moral and Political Sciences Section of
+that institution; second secretary of the Spanish Writers' and Artists'
+Association, etc. On his return to Cuba he took an active part in
+constituting and organizing the Liberal Party, which seized the first
+opportunity to uphold the cause of Colonial Autonomy, calling itself the
+Autonomist Liberal Party. In 1879 he was elected a member of the Central
+Junta of the party and in the first elections after Cuba had been
+granted the right of representation at the Cortes took place, he was
+elected a Deputy from the province of Havana. Later he continued working
+for his party as editor of its organ _El Triunfo_, which became _El
+Pais_, and as an orator in meetings and assemblies. In 1886 he was
+reelected Deputy to the Cortes from the province of Camaguey and yearly
+went to Spain during the period of the Legislature, being a member of
+the Autonomist minority headed by Rafael Maria de Labra. The Sociedad
+Economica de Amigo del Pais appointed Dr. Montoro a Special Delegate to
+the Junta de Information which met at Madrid in 1890, the principal
+economic institutions of Cuba having been previously invited by the
+Spanish Colonial Department. The purpose of this Junta was to report on
+the tariff regime of the Island and on the proposed commercial treaty
+with the United States, as suggested by the famous McKinley Bill of
+1890. Towards the middle of 1895 he returned to his activities in Havana
+as editorial writer of _El Pais_ and member of the Central Junta of the
+Party.
+
+When autonomy was granted in 1898, he formed part, as Secretary of the
+Treasury, of the Cabinet organized by José Maria Galvez, the head of the
+party since its foundation in 1878. When Spanish rule came to an end, as
+a consequence of the war and of the American intervention, and the
+Autonomist Government ceased, Dr. Montoro retired to private life. In
+1900 and 1901 he was appointed to but did not accept the professorship
+of philosophy and history in the University of Havana. He was a member
+of the Committee which was to undertake the reform of the Municipal
+suffrage legislation under Governor Brooke and of the Committee charged
+by General Wood with the revision of the legislation on the importation
+tariff.
+
+In 1902 Dr. Montoro was appointed by the Palma administration as Envoy
+Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the Court of St. James. In
+1904 he was appointed also Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
+Plenipotentiary in Germany, which caused him to reside alternately in
+both countries until 1906 when he was appointed with Gonzalo de Quesada
+and Gonzales Lanuza a delegate of the Republic to the Third Pan-American
+International Conference held at Rio de Janeiro. In the same year he was
+confirmed in both his posts, at London and Berlin, by Governor Magoon,
+as were the other members of the diplomatic and consular corps, but
+later he was appointed a member of the Consultive Committee on Laws. In
+1907 he was one of the founders of the National Conservative Party, of
+which he was appointed second vice-president, and was nominated as the
+Party's candidate for the Vice-Presidency of the Republic, with General
+Menocal as Presidential Candidate.
+
+When General Jose M. Gomez took possession of the Government as
+President, Dr. Montoro was confirmed in his posts as Minister at Berlin
+and London, returning to Europe to remain there until 1910, in which
+year he was appointed by President Gomez a delegate to the Fourth
+Pan-American International Conference, which took place at Buenos Aires.
+At this Conference he was elected to preside over the seventh section of
+Consular documents, Tariff regulations, Census and Commercial
+Statistics.
+
+In 1910 and 1911, respectively, he ceased his posts as Minister at
+Berlin and London to become Diplomatic Advisor of the State Department.
+In 1913 he was appointed Secretary of the Presidency under General
+Menocal to which post he gave an importance which it had lacked
+theretofore. In this capacity he still is an assiduous and valuable
+collaborator of the Menocal Administration.
+
+Of Dr. Montoro's writings the following have been collected in book
+form: "Political and Parliamentary Speeches; Reports and Dissertations"
+(1878-1893), Philadelphia, 1894. "Elements of Moral and Civic
+Instruction" (1903).
+
+Dr. Montoro is a member of the National Academy of Arts and Letters of
+which he was elected Director in 1812. He was President of the Executive
+Committee at Havana of the 2nd Pan-American Scientific Congress (1915)
+and was a member of the High Committee for Cuba of the Pan-American
+Financial Congress (1917) and of the American Institute of International
+Law (1916).
+
+President Menocal gathered about himself a Cabinet of representative
+Cubans, selected for their ability rather than on grounds of personal
+favor or political advantage; two of them, the Secretaries of Justice
+and Education, being members of the Liberal party. The places were
+filled as follows:
+
+    Secretary of Government, Cosimo de la Torriente.
+    Secretary of the Interior, Aurelio Hevea.
+    Secretary of the Treasury, Leopoldo Cancio.
+    Secretary of Health and Charities, Enrique Nuñez.
+    Secretary of Justice, Cristobal de la Guardia.
+    Secretary of Agriculture, Emilio Nuñez.
+    Secretary of Public Works, José Villalon.
+    Secretary of Education, Ezequiel Garcia.
+
+[Illustration: RAFAEL MONTORO
+
+Called by Cabrera "Our Great Montoro" and by others the "Cuban
+Castelar," Dr. Rafael Montoro has long been eminent in the public life
+of Cuba as a scholar, writer, orator, statesman, diplomat,
+administrator, and unwavering and resolute patriot The record of his
+services to Cuba, as Ambassador to the foremost courts of Europe, as
+Secretary to the Presidency, and in other distinguished capacities at
+home and abroad, forms a brilliant passage elsewhere in this History of
+Cuba.]
+
+The spirit in which the new President began his work, and the spirit
+which animated his associates in the government, was admirably expressed
+by him soon after his election and before his inauguration, in a frank,
+informal but very serious personal conversation. "What," he was asked,
+"does Cuba need? And what do you expect to accomplish as her President?"
+
+"Cuba," replied General Menocal, "needs an honest administration of its
+governmental affairs; and that is what I can give it and will give it.
+But more than that, Cuba needs more citizens anxious to develop its
+marvellous resources and fewer citizens anxious to hold office. I was
+not elected as a politician, and I have no ambition to succeed as a
+politician."
+
+[Illustration: DR. JUAN GUITERAS
+
+One of the foremost physicians and scientists of Cuba, Dr. Juan Guiteras
+is the son of the distinguished educator Eusebio Guiteras, and was born
+at Matanzas on January 4, 1852. He collaborated with Dr. Carlos J.
+Finlay in the discovery and demonstration of the transmission of yellow
+fever by mosquitoes, and contributed much to the eradication of that and
+other pestilences from Cuba. Under President Menocal's administration he
+was made Director of Sanitation. He was a delegate to the second
+Pan-American Scientific Congress at Washington in 1916.]
+
+Reference being made to the menace of revolution, President Menocal
+said, with emphasis:
+
+"There will be no revolution under my administration. There may be
+outbreaks headed by disappointed politicians or military adventurers,
+but they will be crushed and their leaders will be punished. The day is
+past when men of this class can arrest the orderly processes of
+government. I shall have back of me not only a loyal army, but also a
+loyal people who are determined to show to the United States and to the
+world that Cuba realizes her responsibilities and is capable of
+self-government. I shall appoint honest men, and will guarantee that
+they honestly administer their duties. I shall urge the passage of
+honest taxation laws, and have faith that the people will respond by
+electing men who will assist me to make Cuba worthy of the favors which
+God has lavished upon her."
+
+With such purposes and with such expectations he entered upon his great
+work. Unfortunately there was not a majority upon which he could depend
+in Congress to enact the measures which were needed for the welfare of
+Cuba. Indeed, there was a hostile majority, as we shall see, which
+deliberately set itself to embarrass and thwart him in his undertakings.
+But that had merely the effect which obstacles usually have upon men who
+are really brave and strong. It indeed made his work more difficult, but
+it did not turn him from his purpose nor defeat his efforts. Rather did
+it give him all the greater credit and honor, to have achieved so much
+in the face of so much opposition.
+
+General Mario G. Menocal became President and Senor Enrique Jose Varona
+became Vice-President of Cuba on May 20, 1913, the tenth anniversary of
+the establishment of the independent Cuban Government. The President
+delivered his first message to Congress on the following day. It was an
+eminently practical, statesman-like and businesslike document, in which
+he modestly promised a wise and prudent administration of his office,
+and especially an immediate reform of the finances of the Government,
+which was notoriously much needed. As a small beginning of this reform,
+he offered to do away with the usual appropriation of $25,000 for
+Presidential secret service. Many debts had been left over by the former
+administration and he purposed to address himself to the liquidation of
+these, so far as they had been honestly contracted. The notorious
+Dragado concession was repealed on August 4, and a commission was
+appointed to investigate the methods of the company. As a result of this
+and other investigations, the former Secretary of Public Works, and
+Auditor were indicted for misappropriation of public funds, and various
+other officers were prosecuted.
+
+The President desired to obtain a loan of $15,000,000 with which to pay
+off the debts which had been left to him by his predecessor, and also
+for urgent road work, and the paving and sewering of the streets of
+Havana. This was, however, refused him by Congress, and that body, under
+the domination of the Liberals, refused to pass any budget whatever.
+President Menocal was therefore compelled to declare the budget of the
+preceding year still in force, pending the adoption of new financial
+provisions. Hoping to persuade or to compel Congress to perform its
+constitutional duty, he called that body together in special session in
+July and again in October, but on both occasions the Liberals all
+absented themselves and thus prevented the securing of a quorum. These,
+it will be observed, were similar to the tactics which the same party in
+Congress had employed against President Palma in their malignant
+campaign for the overthrow of his administration. But President Menocal
+was not thus to be overthrown. When the Liberals in October, a second
+time, refused to perform their duty he issued a manifesto in which he
+seriously criticized them and made it plain that no such methods would
+be permitted to interfere with the legitimate work of Government. Rumors
+were indeed current that he would resort to compulsion if persuasion
+failed. The Liberals attempted to reply with a countermanifesto
+protesting against his action as a usurpation of congressional
+authority, declaring their opposition to the making of the proposed
+loan, and pretending that it would be illegal to hold the special
+session which he had called for October.
+
+The President exercised patience and waited until November 2, when the
+regular session of Congress opened, and the Liberals took their seats.
+At this time the Liberals practically stultified themselves by agreeing
+to discuss and finally to approve the loan project which they had
+formerly opposed. After transacting this and some other business,
+Congress adjourned in December.
+
+Among the reforms which President Menocal promptly undertook to effect
+was the abolition of the national lottery which had been established
+during the Gomez administration. In his messages and through the
+influence of all legitimate presidential influence he strove to abolish
+this form of legalized gambling. His arguments were that the low price
+of the tickets, only 25¢, and the appeal which was thus made to the poor
+and ignorant, to servants and working women as well as to men, had
+caused great injury and had brought about a certain degree of moral
+decline among the masses of the people. It had induced many individuals
+to borrow money and even to steal in order to purchase lottery tickets,
+in the delusive hope of winning one of the large prizes, which ran up to
+$100,000, and thus exempting themselves from the necessity of work for
+the rest of their lives. The lottery, it is true, yielded a considerable
+revenue each year for the government, but General Menocal regarded this
+as far more than counter-balanced by the social and moral evil which it
+wrought, and by the reproach which it brought upon the good name of the
+Republic. He was unable, however, to persuade Congress to abolish it,
+partly because of the popular love of gambling which so largely pervades
+Latin American countries, and partly--perhaps chiefly--because the
+privilege of selling tickets at wholesale, at a handsome profit, was
+farmed out to many members of Congress.
+
+At the beginning of his administration, President Menocal found all the
+Government offices crowded with the appointees of the former
+administration. A great many of them were entirely superfluous and a
+great many of them were also entirely incompetent to fill their places.
+There was, therefore, a considerable clearing out of placeholders. There
+might have been, of course, what is known in America as a "clean sweep,"
+and this was urged by a few of the President's friends. But General
+Menocal would listen to no such proposition. A Civil Service law had
+indeed been formulated by the Consulting Commission presided over by
+General Crowder, and had been in force since 1907, and while an
+unscrupulous executive might have evaded its provisions, General Menocal
+was a believer in the merit system, and in secure tenure of office for
+men who were doing their duty. He therefore refused positively to remove
+a single man merely because of his political affiliations. So far as
+placeholders were dismissed, they were dismissed because of incompetence
+or dishonesty, or because their services were superfluous. As a result
+of this enlightened policy, it is true, President Menocal was compelled
+to conduct his administration through the agency of a staff, the
+majority of which was composed of his political opponents. He even
+appointed two Liberals to his cabinet, while nearly all the foreign
+ministers and consuls and important officers of the various departments
+were members of that party, holding over from the Gomez administration.
+It cannot be said that this policy was in all cases appreciated by those
+who personally profited from it, for some of these officeholders did not
+scruple to engage in intrigues against the President whose generosity
+retained them in their places.
+
+The United States Government retained a certain supervision over some of
+the acts of the Cuban Government. Thus, as hitherto stated, in March,
+1913, an amnesty bill had been passed at the instance of the Gomez
+administration, which would have set at liberty several hundred
+political and other prisoners, but it was objected to by Mr. Bryan, the
+Secretary of State of the United States, and was accordingly vetoed. It
+was again posed in a modified form on April 25, and was again similarly
+vetoed. In November, 1913, it was once more taken up and revised so as
+to extend the pardon to those who had participated in the negro
+insurrection, and to some former officeholders of the Gomez
+administration who had been indicted. It was also intended that it
+should extend amnesty to General Ernesto Asbert, Governor of the
+Province of Havana, to Senator Vidal Morales, and to Representative
+Arias, who had been indicted for the murder of the Chief of Police of
+Havana, General Armando Riva; a tragedy which occurred during a police
+raid on a club, on the evening of July 7. This attempt to extend amnesty
+to these men caused an acute and prolonged controversy. But on December
+9, 1914, the bill was finally passed in a form which granted amnesty to
+General Asbert, but not to Senator Arias. In this form the United States
+Government sanctioned its enactment because of the belief that the real
+burden of guilt rested upon the latter rather than upon the former.
+
+This controversy over amnesty to General Asbert meanwhile had serious
+political effects in Cuba. For a time the so-called Asbert faction of
+the Liberal party allied itself with the Conservatives in Congress in
+support of President Menocal and thus gave him a majority in that body.
+But in the summer of 1914 this faction became reunited with the rest of
+the Liberal party, and Conservative control of Congress was lost. The
+Speaker of the House of Representatives, Senor Gonzales Lanuza, a
+Conservative, resigned and was succeeded by Senor Urquiaga, a Liberal,
+on August 31. When at last in February, 1915, the act of amnesty for
+General Asbert was completed, and he was released and fully
+rehabilitated, there was a great popular celebration of the event in the
+City of Havana.
+
+The first attempt at insurrection in President Menocal's administration
+occurred on November 9, 1913, when Crecencio Garcia, a mulatto,
+undertook to lead a revolt in the province of Santa Clara. It was
+promptly suppressed by the Rural Guard in a manner which augured well
+for the promise which the President had made, that there would be no
+revolutions during his administration; and there were no more such
+attempts until the great treason of ex-President Gomez.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+
+The fifth Presidential campaign of the Republic of Cuba occurred in
+1916. The Conservative candidate for President was General Mario G.
+Menocal, who was thus seeking reelection, and the candidate for
+Vice-President was General Emilio Nuñez, of whom we have already heard
+as the leader of the Veterans' Association in its legitimate and orderly
+resistance to the corruption and despotism of the Gomez administration,
+who had had a distinguished career in the Liberating Army in the War of
+Independence, and who was at this time serving as Secretary of
+Agriculture, Industry and Commerce in the cabinet of President Menocal.
+
+[Illustration: GEN. D. EMILIO NUÑEZ]
+
+On the Liberal side, in accordance with the compact formerly made
+between him and José Miguel Gomez, the Presidential candidate was Dr.
+Alfredo Zayas, and the Vice-Presidential candidate was Carlos Mendieta,
+a journalist and Representative in Congress, who had long been
+conspicuous in the practical management of the Liberal Party.
+
+The general prosperity which Cuba had been enjoying under the
+administration of President Menocal excited the envy and cupidity of the
+Liberal place-seekers and roused them to extraordinary efforts to regain
+possession of the government. A shameless attempt was made to force a
+bill through Congress disqualifying a President for reelection unless he
+resigned his office at least sixty days before the election; but it
+failed of success. Long in advance of the actual contest a vigorous
+propaganda was started all over the island on lines similar to those
+which had been successful in causing the overthrow of Estrada Palma.
+While few ventured to asperse the character of President Menocal
+himself, his administration was vilified as corrupt and inefficient. It
+was charged that he did not, like Gomez, "divide the spoils" with his
+party followers, that he was both selfish and weak, and that his fatal
+weakness in office had been more than amply demonstrated, and would
+justify them in overthrowing his government. The Liberal newspapers
+asserted that at least three quarters of the inhabitants of the island
+were not in sympathy with the Conservative position and with the
+President, but had been deluded into voting for him; that they did not
+approve of his persistent acquiescence in every little hint and
+suggestion that might come from the United States; and that having been
+graduated from an American University, he was more American in his ideas
+and ideals than he was true Cuban, and deserved defeat at the next
+election.
+
+This was largely for the purpose of preparing the public for the claim,
+which was made before the polls had been open two hours, that the
+Liberals were sweeping the country, and that the Conservatives could
+make no possible or effective showing in the election. In pursuance of
+this propaganda, it was so arranged that the local boards of the larger
+towns and cities, where there was an excess of the rank and file of the
+Liberal party, should rush in their returns. These records were sent in
+immediately and seemed to indicate a sweeping victory for the Liberal
+party. The country districts, where were registered the votes of the
+farmers, the sugar planters, and the people of property who believed in
+work and the maintenance of law and order, being remote from the
+capital, came in much later, and in many instances, owing to distance
+and the uncertainty of travel, reliable returns from these districts
+were delayed until the next day, so that at midnight it looked as though
+the election had been carried by the Liberal party. On the following
+day, however, as the returns began to arrive from the remote districts,
+a decided change in the aspect of the situation became apparent, and by
+that night it was seen that a very closely contested election had taken
+place, and that the result would probably be in doubt, as it was in the
+United States, for several days.
+
+This delay gave occasion for charges and accusations of fraud on both
+sides, and each prepared itself for a hard struggle. It was discovered
+that the matter would have to be settled by electoral boards and courts
+established for that purpose. In the meantime, the Liberals demanded
+that General Menocal acknowledge his defeat and proclaimed the election
+of Dr. Zayas on all sides, and openly demanded to have the government
+immediately turned over to them, or there would be serious trouble in
+store for the Conservatives and the country. In the meantime, pressure
+was brought to bear on the United States government, and protection was
+asked by the Liberals against the manifest danger that they would be
+cheated of their success at the polls. Threats were also heard that a
+revolution would undoubtedly follow as a protest against the usurpation,
+as it was termed, of their legitimate right to take control of the
+government, and Dr. Alfredo Zayas, in a private conversation with the
+American minister, hinted at this, and predicted that if a revolution
+should become necessary, it would undoubtedly be successful, since he
+knew that two-thirds of the army was with him in sympathy, and would
+follow the Liberal command to overthrow the Menocal government if he
+should see fit to give such a command.
+
+General Menocal stated very frankly that the determination of the
+contest must be left to the local boards and to the courts for decision,
+and whatever that might be, regardless of any injustice that might be
+imposed upon him and his party, he would acquiesce, and would be the
+first man to shake the hand of the successful candidate. A similar
+statement was never made by the Liberals. They continued the cry of
+fraud, and openly stated that if they did not succeed a revolution would
+follow. The judges of the courts, excepting the chief justice of the
+Supreme Court, Senor Pichardo, had been appointed by Gomez, and
+naturally great pressure was brought to bear on them to "save the
+constitution," as it was called, for the Liberals. In the decisions that
+followed, the Conservatives stated frankly that they believed this
+pressure was producing manifestly unfair decisions, but made at no time
+any attempt to ignore them or set them aside.
+
+The court decided that in two districts, Victoria de las Tunas, in the
+province of Oriente, and another town in Santa Clara, new elections must
+be held. In the first one the Liberals had, at four o'clock in the
+morning previous to the day of election, set fire to the town hall,
+burning all of the electoral lists, so that an election was absolutely
+impossible. This was probably due to the fact that Victoria de las Tunas
+held General Menocal in great esteem, since, owing to his personal valor
+in leading the charges against the Spanish army, when in command of that
+town, the Cubans had been victorious. In the city of Santa Clara
+province, the frauds claimed by both sides rendered it so impossible to
+determine the true result of the election that a second election was
+deemed necessary. According to the records of the Liberal party, the
+vote of these two towns, or possibly either one of them, would determine
+the election, and Dr. Alfredo Zayas felt quite confident that he would
+be the successor of General Menocal, and openly so stated.
+
+The Conservatives, on the other hand, said, "We can only await and abide
+by the decisions of the courts, and will surrender nothing until such
+decisions are handed down." The supporters of Dr. Zayas stated that the
+soldiers, who had been sent there to maintain order, had been sent there
+for the sole purpose of preventing the Liberals from approaching the
+polls. At this General Nuñez, the Vice Presidential candidate, invited
+Dr. Zayas, the Liberal leader, to accompany him thither and to point out
+any Liberal in that district who wished to vote, promising that he would
+furnish a machine and any protection that might be necessary to see that
+he and every Liberal in the district deposited his vote, and that they
+together would witness the count.
+
+Dr. Zayas never had an opportunity to bring this matter to a decision,
+owing to the fact that General Gomez, who hated Dr. Zayas bitterly, and
+who had opposed him in public print more strongly than any other man,
+saw immediately the possibility of riding into power as the man of the
+hour, as the real, dominating force of the republic, and as the only
+man, as he expressed it, able to save the electoral campaign from
+becoming one of protracted discord and dispute. So he forbade Dr. Zayas
+to go to the town where the election was to be held, or to accept
+General Nuñez's invitation, and stated that he was himself tired of the
+whole thing, and that he was going to take his yacht and go on a fishing
+trip, which he did, leaving at midnight with about thirty trusted
+friends, including all of the prominent Liberal leaders. Passing around
+Cape San Antonio, the yacht anchored off the coast near Tunas de Zaza,
+and there met a group of men by previous arrangement, and started a
+revolution or a "popular uprising," as he termed it, against the Menocal
+government.
+
+In the meantime, a carefully laid plot, that had been planned months
+before, for seizing control of the armed forces of the island was put
+into execution. On Saturday night, February 14, 1917, without warning,
+two companies of men stationed at the Columbia barracks, at a previously
+arranged signal of two shots, jumped from their beds, grabbed their arms
+and ammunition, and started across the parade ground for the open
+country, of the west. Although the details of this plot were known,
+other loyal companies at the command of their officers were called into
+immediate action, charged the Liberals and captured more than half of
+them and killed a few of the remainder, who at first had succeeded in
+escaping. This was the only apparent disloyalty in the western end of
+the island. Matanzas, Pinar del Rio and Havana remained loyal to the
+government. Among the forces stationed at the City of Santiago, far
+removed from the immediate control of the commanding generals of the
+army, seeds of sedition, which consisted largely of promises of
+immediate promotion of all officers, were planted. Every sergeant was to
+be made a captain, every captain a colonel, every lieutenant a major,
+with promises of increased pay, and the incidental rewards that come to
+the successful revolutionist. This was also true of the Province of
+Camaguey, where, at almost the same hour that the uprising took place in
+Camp Columbia barracks, several companies of men seized control, made
+prisoners of their comrades who were loyal to the government or shot
+them dead, captured and imprisoned the civil governors, intimidated the
+police, or made them prisoners, and took charge of the customhouse and
+the accumulated funds, and all moneys deposited in banks, belonging to
+either the state or the federal government. Incidentally all moneys that
+were accessible were seized at the same time, which belonged to said
+banks, on the ground that there was no time to discriminate. In the City
+of Santiago several millions of dollars were thus seized by the three or
+four Liberal leaders in command. These men, when the failure of the
+revolution became apparent, escaped from the island, carrying some two
+or three millions in United States currency and Cuban gold with them,
+and landed in Santo Domingo, where some of them were afterward captured,
+while the others escaped to the United States.
+
+Securing control of Santiago de Cuba, and having access to the cables,
+the rebels immediately wired to the revolutionary headquarters in New
+York, which had been established by Dr. Orestes Ferrara, one of the
+moving figures in the previous uprising of 1906, in company with Dr.
+Raimundo Cabrera, for the dissemination of news favorable to the Liberal
+side. Matter was issued, to be used in the American papers, for the
+purpose of preparing the United States for the usurpation of the
+government of Cuba by General Gomez, and defending such action on the
+ground that it was the only solution of a bad electoral muddle, and that
+the real choice of the people was General Gomez, who should have been,
+and was ultimately, the leader of their party. It was said that Dr.
+Zayas, without justification, had usurped and endeavored to maintain the
+permanent control of the Liberal party, and that his lack of popularity
+had been indicated by his defeat four years before. The entire island
+was represented, and especially the army, as having voluntarily gone
+over to the side of the Liberals. General Gomez was pictured as having
+landed and by previous arrangement placed himself at the head of 12,000
+men, who were marching upon the City of Havana; while the President of
+the republic was variously reported as having been shot, and afterward
+as having fled in abject fear from the palace, and as having at last
+found shelter in the home of the American minister, Mr. William E.
+Gonzales. It was added that Havana was under the control of the
+Liberals, as was the remainder of the island, and that all that was
+necessary was the triumphant march of General Gomez into the capital,
+where he would assume authority as Liberal Dictator until the island
+should assume its normal and peaceful condition, when another election
+would be called, in which the people would have an opportunity to choose
+and place the power in the hands of the only real man of destiny,
+General Gomez.
+
+In the Province of Camaguey, the insurgents followed the same program as
+did those in Oriente, intimidating the police, by firing two volleys
+into police headquarters and assassinating those men who were forming a
+council, the civil government and various other officers having been
+imprisoned. They took immediate control of the railroads, and the
+rolling stock, placed Liberal or disloyal troops on trains, and started
+them across the border to Santa Clara, where they joined General Gomez,
+who, with his men, was marching north to the railroad.
+
+In the meantime, General Menocal and the loyal troops of the island, in
+the west, started a vigorous campaign to prevent the island from falling
+into the hands of the rebels. Officers whose loyalty was beyond question
+were placed in command of troops, and sent at once into Santa Clara,
+Camaguey and Oriente, and one of Cuba's gunboats, with a company of 300
+men, was dispatched to the City of Santiago de Cuba, to drive the
+disloyal element from that place. Colonel Pujol was sent to take
+measures to restore order in Camaguey. Colonel Collazo and Lieutenant
+Colonel Lozama and other officials known for their courage, efficiency
+and valor were placed in command of three separate bodies of troops,
+with orders to surround Gomez, and give him and his supporters immediate
+battle, and capture or annihilate them. These men were equipped with
+machine guns, well armed and prepared for a campaign of extermination,
+if necessary. In the meantime, the Secretary of Government, Colonel
+Hevea, who, according to the Cuban law has control over and is
+responsible for order in the interior districts, traveled by locomotive
+and automobile, day and night, reporting to the President all that
+occurred, and giving those orders which seemed wise for suppressing the
+uprising. The American Minister, representing the sentiment of the
+United States, which seriously deprecated Cuba's falling into the
+revolutionary habit, visited the palace every day, with his military
+aide, then Major Wittemeyer, kept in close touch with Washington, and
+reported every change in the drama that was being presented in Cuba. In
+the meantime, one of the Cuban officials had effectively thwarted
+General Gomez in his proposed triumphant march into Havana, by blowing
+up the large bridge over the Zaza river, thus preventing the
+insurrectionists from gaining control of the railroads in the western
+half of the island.
+
+Realizing the grave danger that threatened Cuba in the destruction of
+the cane through fire, which had already begun on a large scale, and in
+the stealing, and killing of both cattle and horses on the part of the
+insurrectionists, Major Wittemeyer, with the authority of the War
+Department in Washington, communicated to President Menocal the fact
+that the United States government would gladly land whatever force was
+deemed necessary to assist in the maintenance of order and the
+protection of property. This offer the President refused, stating that
+he believed that there was a sufficient force absolutely loyal to his
+government to control the situation, adding that he was thoroughly aware
+of the plans of the Liberals, that he was in close touch with his own
+command and was confident that his officers would succeed in quelling
+the insurrection in a comparatively short time. He added that he thought
+it wise for the government of Cuba to demonstrate its ability to
+maintain itself, and to suppress any uprising that might occur of that
+nature, and thus avoid the rather unpleasant task, on the part of the
+United States, of being compelled to interfere with the personal and
+political affairs of their sister republic.
+
+That General Menocal's prediction was based on sound logic was
+demonstrated by the fact that within twenty-three days the forces of
+ex-President Gomez were surrounded, defeated and captured. The General,
+his son, his aides and his entire staff were taken prisoners and brought
+to Havana and placed in the penitentiary on Principe Hill. In General
+Gomez's saddle bags were found military orders instructing his chiefs to
+burn every sugar plantation on the Island not known to be the property
+of Liberals, and tear up every mile of railroad, together with
+information demonstrating that he was preparing to blow up every bridge
+through the island, thus attempting to prevent the government from
+sending forces against him. This work of destruction, in so far as
+possible before the capture, had been carried out to the letter. The
+railroads along which the revolutionists had control were out of
+commission for several months, and much valuable property was
+destroyed.
+
+The disappointment in the Liberal ranks consequent upon the capture of
+General Gomez and his staff, and the inevitable failure of the movement,
+was general and profound, but the last desperate hope seemed to inspire
+them to continue the struggle under the leadership of Carlos Mendieta,
+who had been their candidate for Vice-President. The plan adopted by
+them was to revert to the desperate methods of some former wars. In
+brief, it was to divide into small bands, who were to carry on a reign
+of terror and destruction throughout the island, the purpose of which
+was solely to bring about another American intervention; the argument
+was used that they had succeeded in doing this in 1906, and thus had
+secured a tacit recognition of the Liberal party, and their ultimate
+control of the government. "We were successful," they argued, "and since
+the commercial, industrial and political relations between the two
+republics are so intimate and the Platt Amendment authorizes the United
+States to enter Cuba at any time when, in their estimation, the
+circumstances justify such action, if we continue long enough, burn
+enough, destroy enough, and succeed in keeping up this state of turmoil
+long enough, the American authorities will, sooner or later, be
+compelled to come here, and put an end to affairs that will undoubtedly
+bring about the resignation of Menocal. His life will be made
+intolerable and our several plans for his assassination, that have
+heretofore met with misfortune, if followed, will later bear fruit."
+
+At the middle of March, Carlos Mendieta, as leader of this bushranging
+rebellion, issued a manifesto threatening the destruction of foreign
+property and declaring that there would be no guarantee for the safety
+of American lives unless the United States undertook the supervision of
+the elections in Santa Clara and Oriente provinces.
+
+In their manifesto the rebels promised to lay down their arms if the
+government would hold new elections in Santa Clara Province. If the
+government refused to hold such elections the rebels threatened to
+continue the revolution and to proclaim Mendieta Provisional President.
+
+The activities of the revolutionary conspirators and propagandists in
+the United States, under the direction of Orestes Ferrara in New York,
+meanwhile became so offensive that the United States government felt
+compelled to take action. Accordingly on March 25, the State Department
+at Washington warned Dr. Ferrara that unless he ceased his pernicious
+operations he and his associate, Raimundo Cabrera, would be placed under
+arrest. This had the result of tempering somewhat the zeal of the
+conspirators, though their propaganda was still furtively maintained.
+
+In passing, it may be stated that a part of the general plan--indeed the
+first step in the proposed uprising--was to assassinate General Menocal,
+while on his way from the palace to his estate, eight miles distant,
+known as El Chico. The mayor of the suburb of Marianao, together with
+the chief of police of that village, and four soldiers, who had agreed
+for a consideration to take part in the assassination, were stationed at
+a point carefully selected, with orders to fire a charge of buckshot
+into the President's back from the step of his automobile, and then
+behind the screen of trees and underbrush which lined the roadside to
+make their escape. It was proposed to assassinate the chauffeurs and all
+others who might be in the car in order to prevent immediate pursuit.
+Since General Menocal was in the habit of going to his country home
+every afternoon between five and six, the plan probably would have
+succeeded, had it not been for an attack of conscience on the part of
+one of the soldiers, who, after agreeing, lost heart, and a few hours
+before the departure of the machine hastened to the palace and insisted
+upon seeing the President, to whom he gave all the details of the plot.
+The betrayal of the plot by the soldier, who was suspected when he did
+not make his appearance in company with the others, and the machine not
+leaving the palace at the usual hour, which was to have been telephoned
+to the plotters, convinced them that discovery was more than probable.
+The mayor, with the chief of police, and the others, immediately fled
+from Marianao. Pursuit was given, in spite of which they resisted
+capture for several days. Exhausted and wounded, they were finally taken
+in an old sugar mill near Bahia Honda, in the Province of Pinar del Rio.
+
+Not discouraged by this failure, numerous other plans for the
+assassination of the President were arranged, among others the
+manufacture of a highly explosive bomb, and an arrangement by which four
+Liberals agreed to attempt to place or throw it under the President's
+desk. In order to make this plan work, it was necessary to have some man
+who could gain access to the palace, and to the office of the President,
+and this could be done through the assistance of some one of the
+soldiers who had been stationed on guard duty on the upper floor of the
+executive mansion. After several months of careful study, one of these
+soldiers was selected, and after another conference, the matter was
+settled, and the man was intrusted with the bomb, which was delivered to
+him at the appointed hour, and with which he ascended the palace stairs
+and eventually succeeded in reaching the President, to whom he delivered
+the bomb, with his evidence and the whole story. Of course, this second
+betrayal of the plans of the conspirators brought about their capture,
+and they were tried and condemned to various terms in prison. Various
+other plots were formed, none of which was successful.
+
+[Illustration: JOSÉ LUIS AZCARATA SECRETARY OF JUSTICE]
+
+As a natural result of the revolution started a few days before, the two
+additional elections ordered by the Supreme Court, were necessarily
+postponed, since the island had been thrown into a turmoil by the action
+of General Gomez. They were, however, afterwards held, and resulted in
+decided Conservative majorities, which were carried by the electoral
+boards to the Central Electoral Junta, presided over by the Chief
+Justice of the Supreme Court, Señor Pichardo, and justified that body in
+announcing the election of General Menocal to a second term as
+President. In spite of this decision of the courts, which General
+Menocal had previously agreed to abide by, the insurrectionary elements
+of the Liberal party still insisted that General Menocal's second term
+was secured through deliberate and carefully planned frauds and
+intimidation of the voters at the polls. The fact is that the election
+laws of Cuba forbid and prevent any soldier from standing even in the
+doorway of a polling place. He cannot approach nearer than the corner of
+the building in which the votes are being deposited, nor can he leave
+his post and come closer to the polls, unless some serious disturbance,
+where lives are threatened, occurs, with which the police of the
+district cannot cope. Since the minority is represented during the time
+of voting, and during the count by a man selected for that purpose, no
+fraud could well be perpetrated without the consent of someone
+responsible to the opposition.
+
+The army officers who had been led by José Miguel Gomez to revolt, had
+been captured with arms in their hands, fighting to overthrow the
+constitutional government of the island; a purpose of which they had
+made no secret. They were therefore guilty of sedition and treason, and
+were subject to trial by court martial and to capital punishment upon
+conviction of their crime. They were thus tried, and some were condemned
+to death and others to long terms of imprisonment; but the extreme
+sentence was never executed upon one of them, while many of the prison
+sentences were shortened and some of the men were pardoned outright.
+This generous action of President Menocal's was performed through the
+same spirit of magnanimity that moved Estrada Palma to like clemency,
+years before; and it was as ill requited. Some of the men whom he had
+thus saved from the gallows or the firing squad promptly resumed
+criminal conspiracies against him; while the Liberal party as a whole
+demanded that the pardoned officers should be at once reinstated in the
+army with full rank and back pay for the time which they had spent in
+insurrection and in prison, and railed against President Menocal for not
+granting that additional act of grace!
+
+The government of the United States is naturally always on the side of
+law and order among its neighbors, and while it of course scrupulously
+refrains from meddling in their affairs unless under intolerable
+provocation, as in the case of Cuba in 1898, it has always given and
+doubtless will always give its sympathy and moral support to those who
+are striving for peace and progress and the security of life and
+property. Toward Cuba its attitude is more marked than toward other
+states, because of the special relations which exist between the two
+countries. We have seen how it intervened in Cuban affairs for what it
+supposed to be the restoration of tranquillity in 1906. While
+unfortunately its influence was on that occasion made to appear as
+though given to the revolutionary rather than the legitimate side, its
+intent was unmistakable. In spite of the advantage which they took of
+its intervention at that time, the Liberal leaders in Cuba have since
+felt much aggrieved at it for standing in the way of their designs on
+more than one occasion when they wished to revolt against constitutional
+order.
+
+The United States did not intervene in 1917. It was not, as President
+Menocal confidently assured it, necessary for it to do so. But it is
+pleasant to recall that it stood ready to do so, and there is of course
+no possible doubt as to what the purport of its intervention would have
+been. During that episode no fewer than five messages were addressed to
+the people of Cuba by the government of the United States, warning them
+against any attempt at forcible revolution. They breathed the spirit of
+the epigram of John Hay in 1903: "Revolutions have gone out of fashion
+in our neighborhood." Thus on February 19, 1917, the United States made
+it known to the Cuban government and through it to the Cuban people
+that--
+
+"The American Government has in previous declarations defined its
+attitude respecting the confidence and support it gives the
+constitutional governments and the policy it has adopted toward any
+disturbers of the peace through revolutionary ventures. The American
+government again wishes to inform the Cuban people of the attitude it
+has assumed in view of the present events:
+
+"First--The government of the United States gives its support to and
+stands by the Constitutional Government of the Republic of Cuba.
+
+"Second--The present insurrection against the Constitutional Government
+of Cuba is regarded by the American Government in the light of an
+anti-constitutional and illegal act, which it will not tolerate.
+
+"Third--The leaders of the revolt will be held responsible for the
+damages which foreigners may suffer in their persons or their property.
+
+"Fourth--The government of the United States will examine attentively
+what attitude it will adopt respecting those concerned in the present
+disturbance of the peace in Cuba, or those who are actually
+participating in it."
+
+At the beginning of March American Marines and Bluejackets were landed
+at Santiago, Guantanamo, Manzanillo, Nuevitas, and El Cobre, for patrol
+duty for the protection of American interests.
+
+Again, on March 24 the American government sent a note saying:
+
+"It has come to the knowledge of the United States Government that in
+Cuba propaganda persists that in response to efforts of agents against
+the constitutional government the United States is studying the adoption
+of measures in their favor."
+
+It was quite true. The remaining insurgents--Gomez and the other
+principal leaders had already been captured--were declaring that just as
+in 1906 American intervention had meant the success of the revolution,
+so now the United States was about to intervene again to the same
+effect. Wherefore this American note continued:
+
+"The constitutional government of Cuba has been and will continue to be
+sustained and backed by the government of the United States in its
+efforts to reestablish order throughout the territory of the republic.
+
+"The United States government, emphasizing its condemnation of the
+reprehensible conduct of those rising against the constitutional
+government in an effort to settle by force of arms controversies for
+which existing laws establish adequate legal remedies, desires to make
+known that until those in rebellion recognize their duties as Cuban
+citizens, lay down their arms and return to legality, the United States
+can hold no communication whatever with any of them and will be forced
+to regard them as outside the law and unworthy of its consideration."
+
+That was plain talk, and it had its effect. But the climax was yet to
+come in a final message which stated that if destruction of property,
+disturbance of public order and deliberate attempts to overthrow the
+established government were continued, Cuba being an ally of the United
+States, the United States would be compelled to regard the doers of such
+deeds as enemies and to proceed against them as such. At that time both
+the United States and Cuba were at war with Germany, and were therefore
+allies in offense and defense, and it was quite logical for one ally to
+regard as its enemy any enemy of the other ally. In brief, any one
+waging war against the Cuban government was in effect waging war against
+the government of the United States. That stern logic put a quietus upon
+the attempted insurrection. "Our last recourse," said one of the rebel
+leaders, "has been taken from us. There is no use in starting a
+revolution if it is to be doomed to failure before it begins."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+
+Cuba entered the Great War. That fact was the supreme seal to her
+title-deeds to a place as peer among the nations; placing her in
+blood-brotherhood with her neighbors. She entered the war almost
+simultaneously with the United States, though with less delay than that
+country. At Washington the President addressed Congress on April 2,
+advising a declaration of war against Germany, and the declaration was
+made on April 6. At Havana the President delivered his war message on
+April 6, and on April 7 war was declared. In that impressive and epochal
+message, the most momentous and solemn that any chief of state can ever
+utter, President Menocal reviewed in dispassionate detail the criminal
+record of Germany in her unrestricted submarine warfare, and then
+continued:
+
+"The government of the United States, to which country we are bound by
+the closest ties, had during the last two years incessantly formulated
+energetic protests and claims based on the most elemental principles of
+justice in defence of its citizens who were victims on many occasions of
+attacks by German submarines; of the liberty of the seas and the respect
+due the lives and property of neutrals; and revindicating the right to
+navigate and engage in commerce freely, without restrictions save those
+sanctioned by international law, by treaties, and by the universal
+practise of civilized nations.
+
+"Since February 1 submarines have attacked and sunk without mercy. Such
+acts of war without quarter, directed against all nations, to close
+down the world's commerce under terrible penalties, cannot be tolerated
+without accepting them as legitimate to-day and always.
+
+"Cuba cannot appear indifferent to such violations, which at any moment
+may be carried out at the cost of the lives and interests of its own
+citizens. Nor can it, without loss of dignity and decorum, show
+indifference to the noble attitude assumed by the United States, to
+which we are bound by ties of gratitude and by treaties. Cuba cannot
+remain neutral in this supreme conflict, because a declaration of
+neutrality would compel it to treat alike all belligerents, denying them
+with equal vigor entrance to our ports and imposing other restrictions
+which are contrary to the sentiment of the Cuban people and which
+inevitably in the end would result in conflict with our friend and ally.
+
+"In full and firm consciousness that I am fulfilling one of my most
+sacred duties, although with profound sentiment, because I am about to
+propose a resolution which will plunge our country into the dangers of
+the greatest conflagration in history, but without casting odium upon,
+or without animosity toward, the German people, but convinced that we
+are compelled to take this step by our international obligations and the
+principles of justice and liberty, I appeal to the honorable Congress in
+the use of its executive faculties, with full knowledge of all the
+antecedents in the case and with the mature deliberation of its
+important claim, to resolve, as a result of these unjustifiable and
+repeated acts of aggression by submarines, notwithstanding the protests
+of neutral governments, among them Cuba, that there has been created and
+exists a state of war between Cuba and the imperial German government,
+and adopt all measures necessary, which I reserve to myself the right to
+recommend at the proper moment, for the maintenance of our rights; to
+defend our territory; to provide for our security, and to cooperate
+decidedly to these ends with the United States government, lending it
+what assistance may be in our power for the defence of the liberty of
+the seas, of the rights of neutrals, and of international justice."
+
+The next day the Cuban Congress adopted the declaration of war, in the
+exact words of the President's message. A resolution was at the same
+time introduced and adopted, authorizing the President to organize and
+to place at the disposal of the President of the United States a
+contingent of 10,000 men, for military service in Europe.
+
+It would be superfluous to dwell upon the causes which led Cuba thus
+promptly and heartily to commit herself to the side of the Allies in the
+war. They were largely identical with those which impelled other nations
+to the same course. There was a resolution to vindicate the sanctity of
+treaties and the majesty of international law. There was an abhorrence
+of the infamous practices of the German government and the German army.
+There was resentment against the gross violation of neutral rights of
+which Germany had been guilty. There was recognition of the grave menace
+to popular governments the world over which was presented by the
+voracious and unscrupulous ambitions of Prussian militarism. There was a
+feeling that as the war had first been directed against two small
+nations, on the principle that small states had no rights that large
+ones were bound to respect, it was incumbent upon other small states to
+protest against that arrogant attitude. There was a desire to show that
+Cuba, youngest and one of the smallest of the nations, was ready to take
+her full part as a nation among nations, in war as well as in peace.
+There was, also, no doubt a legitimate feeling that in this matter it
+would be appropriate for Cuba--though of course under no compulsion--to
+align herself with the great northern neighbor with whom she sustained
+such close relations.
+
+At the same time, backed undoubtedly by German money, and as a part of
+the German propaganda, financial interests, banks and houses of long
+standing in Cuba, all of which were eventually placed on a black list,
+exerted a very strong influence among their customers and through their
+connections, commercial, social and political, in favor of Germany. They
+did succeed in influencing and directing the editorial policy of some
+prominent newspapers, but the chief result of their pernicious
+activities was to get themselves and their sympathizers into trouble.
+One of the foremost bankers of Havana, where he had lived for many years
+and was personally much liked and esteemed in society, while not openly
+espousing the cause of Germany, after Cuba had declared war, was known
+to be thoroughly in sympathy with Germany. He with over a hundred other
+Germans was interned, or kept _incommunicado_, and in his house
+documents were found demonstrating that he was not only an agent in
+distributing German propaganda, but also a distributor of funds intended
+to promote the cause of Germany in Cuba and the West Indies.
+
+Another very strong influence that was exerted in Cuba against the
+attitude of President Menocal and his government was that of many of the
+clergy of the Roman Catholic church, who openly spoke to their
+congregations in favor of Germany and against the cause of the Allies.
+Nor was the Liberal party by any means as loyal to the Allies as the
+unanimous vote in Congress might seem to suggest. Many of its members
+either openly or secretly gave their sympathy and influence to the
+German side. This was partly because of their inveterate opposition to
+anything advocated by the Conservative government; and partly because of
+the aid which German interests in Cuba had given, morally, politically
+and pecuniarily, to the insurrection of José Miguel Gomez in 1917. It
+was proved in trials in the courts of Cuba, which were held in
+consequence of the damages wrought by that uprising, that Germans and
+men of German parentage had conspired to give information to the rebels
+and to supply them with munitions, and in other ways strove to aid that
+movement in overthrowing the government. But these seditious and
+disloyal elements in Cuba were probably no stronger in Cuba than in the
+United States or other countries.
+
+Cuba did not suffer from incendiarism and similar German outrages as did
+the United States. On the other hand, the Cuban government was fully as
+strict as that of the United States in taking possession of German
+property, and in blacklisting all firms and individuals known to be in
+sympathy with Germany. All trading of any kind with such parties was
+forbidden; an arrangement being made by which open accounts with them
+could be closed. A Custodian of Alien Property was also appointed.
+
+Even before the declaration of war the Cuban government took strenuous
+means to prevent violations of neutrality. A few weeks before the
+declaration of war German agents fitted up a steamer in Havana harbor as
+a commerce-destroying cruiser, and watched for an opportunity to take
+her out to the high seas. Learning of these plans, the Cuban government
+stationed a cruiser alongside that vessel, with guns trained upon her,
+to prevent the purposed escape. Immediately upon the declaration of war
+the four German ships which were lying interned in Havana harbor were
+seized by the Cuban government. It was found that the German crews had
+seriously damaged the machinery of the vessels, as they did at New York
+and elsewhere; but the Cuban government had repairs made and then turned
+the vessels over to the United States.
+
+In what we may call the non-military activities of the war, Cuba was
+notably energetic and efficient. There was close cooperation with the
+United States government in the matter of food conservation and supply.
+Cuba was naturally looked to for an increased supply of sugar, for which
+there was great need; and as a result of inquiries by Mr. Hoover, the
+United States Food Commissioner, as to what the island could do in that
+respect, the Cuban Department of Agriculture sent the chief of its
+Bureau of Information, Captain George Reno, to Washington to confer with
+Mr. Hoover and to formulate plans for the exercise of the most efficient
+cooperation possible between Cuba and the United States. Recognizing the
+desirability if not the necessity that Cuba should not only be able to
+feed herself during the war but should also export as much food as
+possible, the insular government took steps at once for the increase of
+food production to the highest attainable degree, and also for the
+practice of thrift and economy. In consequence Cuba endured cheerfully
+the same system of wheatless days and meatless days and rationing in
+various articles of food that prevailed in the United States; with
+excellent results.
+
+President Menocal also made preparations, at the suggestion of and in
+conjunction with the United States War Department, for the provision of
+a detachment of troops for service either in Europe or in any part of
+the world that the Department at Washington might deem expedient. The
+best officers of the Cuban army accepted an invitation from the
+military authorities of the United States to receive instruction in
+modern military tactics, which had been brought out by the war, and
+Senator Manuel Coronado patriotically gave a sum sufficient for the
+building of a number of airplanes, to be used by Cuban aviators.
+Volunteers for this division were easily secured and the instruction
+began under the direction of Cuban aviators who had been in the service
+of France. The War Department of the United States notified the Republic
+of Cuba that owing to the severe exposure of the men to the freezing
+water and mud of the trenches of Belgium and France, it was doubtful
+whether soldiers of tropical countries could withstand the strain upon
+their health necessarily endured during the winter campaign in Europe,
+intimating that their services would be far more useful in taking the
+place of other troops stationed in warmer climates, as the Porto Ricans
+were taking the place of the marines that were stationed in the Panama
+Canal Zone. This was a rather severe disappointment to General Pujol and
+the other officers, who were very anxious to take their places in the
+line of fire.
+
+Noteworthy and most admirable were the achievements of Cuba in the
+financial operations of the war. Subscriptions were eagerly made to
+every one of the Liberty Loans, and to the final Victory Loan, with the
+result that in every case the amount allotted to Cuba was far exceeded.
+The quota for the third loan was subscribed twice over within five days.
+In this work not only did banks and commercial houses take part, as a
+matter of business, but also many private citizens volunteered as
+canvassers; though indeed the eagerness of people to subscribe made
+canvassing perfunctory and urging superfluous.
+
+[Illustration: SEÑORA MENOCAL
+
+It is not alone through the felicitous circumstance of her being the
+wife of President Mario G. Menocal that Señora Marienita Seva de Menocal
+is entitled to the distinction--never more appropriate than in her
+case--of being the "first lady of the land." Her title rests equally
+upon personal charm, the graces of social hospitality, and womanly
+leadership of the most efficient kind in philanthropic and patriotic
+endeavor for the advancement of the public welfare and the confirmation
+of the integrity and promotion of the prosperity of the Republic; while
+her indefatigable labors in the great war invested her name with
+affectionate and grateful distinction in the camps and among the peoples
+of the Allied nations.]
+
+A similar interest was manifested in Red Cross contributions and Red
+Cross work, with equally gratifying results. In both of these activities
+a leading and most efficient part was taken by the women of Cuba. In
+subscribing to the loans they were most generous; in canvassing for
+subscriptions from others and in collecting and working for the Red
+Cross they were indefatigable and irresistible. They made it a point of
+patriotic honor, and almost a condition of social acceptability, to
+respond in the fullest possible manner to every such call of the war. In
+Cuba's domestic struggles, the women had suffered cruelly, and their
+sympathies sprang spontaneously and generously toward the lands of
+Europe where womanhood was suffering a thousand martyrdoms. Thus as the
+manhood of Cuba with a unanimity which the few exceptions only
+emphasized rallied to the call of the President to throw the material
+and militant might of the Republic on the side of law, of civilization
+and of democracy, the womanhood of Cuba, with no less unanimity and
+zeal, followed Señora Menocal in the equally necessary and grateful
+tasks of the campaign which women even better than men could perform.
+
+No tribute could be too high to render to these devoted women, who were
+always ready to make personal sacrifices of time, of strength, of money,
+of work, for the cause of humanity. Amid all its historic fiestas and
+pageants, Havana has seen no fairer or more inspiring spectacle than
+that of the Red Cross women, Senora Menocal at their head, marching in
+stately procession through her streets to manifest their devotion to the
+cause and to arouse others to equal earnestness. The magnitude of the
+sums raised by the women of Cuba for the war loans and for the Red
+Cross, and for Cuban hospital units at the front, and the amount of
+bandages and other hospital supplies and clothing prepared by them for
+the armies "over there," made proud items in Cuban statistics of the
+Great War.
+
+Thitherto Cuba had often been engaged in war, but it was always in what
+may be termed selfish war, for her own defence against an alien enemy or
+for her own liberation from oppressors who, at first kin, had become
+alien. Now for the first time it was her privilege to engage in a
+greater struggle than any before, and one which was for her own
+interests only to the extent to which those interests were involved with
+and were practically identical with the interests of all civilized
+nations and of world-wide humanity. Said Thomas Jefferson on a memorable
+occasion, referring to the relations between America and Great Britain:
+
+"Nothing would more tend to knit our affections than to be fighting once
+more, side by side, in the same cause."
+
+Thus we must reckon that affection and confidence between Cuba and the
+United States were greatly strengthened and confirmed by the fact that
+they were at least potentially and indeed to some degree actually
+fighting side by side in the same cause, and that cause not exclusively
+their own but that of the whole world. Nor was the event without a
+comparable effect upon Cuba's relations to the world at large. Her
+sympathies were broadened; her recognition by other powers was extended;
+and as once she had been a mere pawn in the international game, now she
+became a vital and potent factor in international affairs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+
+"A revolution which comprehends the responsibilities incumbent upon the
+founders of nations." Those were almost the last words of José Marti,
+epigrammatically expressive of his purpose in fomenting the ultimate and
+triumphant revolution of 1895-1898, and of the purpose of those devoted
+men who caught the standard of liberty from his dying hand and through
+labors and perils and tragedies incommensurable bore it on to victory.
+How well that purpose has been served in these scarcely twenty years of
+the independent Republic of Cuba, how true to Marti's transcendent ideal
+his successors in Cuban leadership have been, the record which we have
+briefly rehearsed must tell. On the whole, the answer to the implied
+interrogatory is gratifying and reassuring.
+
+The real leaders of the Cuban nation have comprehended the
+responsibilities, unspeakably profound and weighty, that rest upon the
+founders of a nation, and no less upon those who direct the affairs of a
+nation after its foundation, to the last chapter in its age-long annals.
+We should go far, very far, before we could find a statesman more
+appreciative of that responsibility than Tomas Estrada Palma, or one who
+more manfully strove to discharge its every duty with scrupulous
+fidelity and with all the discretion and wisdom with which he had
+himself been plenteously endowed and which he could summon to his
+council board from among his loyal compatriots.
+
+We must regard it as the supreme reproach of José Miguel Gomez that,
+with all his ability and energy, he lacked that supreme quality, the
+sense of civic responsibility, which Marti prescribed for Cuba and for
+Cubans. His shameful and unpardonable treason--a double treason, to his
+own party partner as well as to the government of his country--was not
+inspired by the genius of Marti. It did not comprehend the gigantic
+responsibilities which it so lightly sought to assume, but was marked
+with the irresponsibility which has characterized so many revolutions in
+other Latin American countries, and which has brought upon those lands
+disaster and measureless reproach.
+
+Under the third Presidency which Cuba has enjoyed that responsibility is
+happily comprehended in complete degree. Not even Estrada Palma
+possessed a higher sense of duty to the state and to the world than
+Mario G. Menocal, nor gave to it more tangible and efficient exposition.
+Nor shall we incur reproach of lack of reverence for a great name if we
+perceive that in certain essential and potent particulars Cuba's third
+President is even more capable of discharging that responsibility than
+was the first. The younger, alert, practical man of affairs, expert in
+the duties of both peace and war, has the advantage over the elder sage
+whose life for many years had been cloistered in academic calm.
+
+We might not inappropriately gauge the extent of Cuba's discharge of her
+responsibilities as a sovereign nation by the measure of her progress in
+various paths of human welfare. This is not the place for a
+comprehensive census of the island, or for a conspectus of its
+statistics. _Ex pede Herculem._ From a few items we may estimate the
+whole. In the days of unembarrassed Spanish rule, before that
+sovereignty was challenged by revolutions, the island had a population
+of a million souls. It had between two hundred and three hundred
+teachers, and--in 1841--9,082 children enrolled in schools. That was one
+schoolchild in every 110 of the population. To-day the island has a
+population of 2,700,000, and it has 350,000 children enrolled in its
+schools. That is one child in every eight of the population. The
+contrast between one-eighth and one-one hundred and tenth is one valid
+and expressive measure of Cuba's discharge of her responsibility.
+
+Under the administration of President Menocal the annual appropriation
+for public education is more than $10,000,000. There are six great
+normal schools to train the 5,500 teachers who are needed to care for
+the 350,000 pupils; and as the national government conducts all the
+schools there is no discrimination between poor places and wealthy
+communities, but an equal grade of teaching is maintained in all. Nor
+does the state stop with primary education, but provides practically
+free secondary and university education for all who desire it.
+
+[Illustration: FRANCISCO DOMINGUEZ ROLDÁN SECRETARY OF PUBLIC
+INSTRUCTION]
+
+Shall we take public health as another measure of progress? In the half
+dozen years just before the War of Independence the death rate in Havana
+was 33 to the 1,000. By 1902 it was reduced to 22, or only a little more
+than in New York. To-day, under President Menocal, the death rate for
+all Cuba is only 11.2. In the registration area of the United States it
+is 14. In the United Kingdom it is 14.2, and Britain vaunts herself
+upon its lowness. In France it is 19.6; in Argentina it is 21.6; in
+Chili it is 31.1. There are only three countries in the world with lower
+rates of mortality than Cuba; and they are New Zealand, with 9.5,
+Newfoundland with 10.5, and Australia with 10.6.
+
+Again, consider what is still the chief industry of Cuba. Before the
+administration of President Menocal, these were the yearly sugar crops,
+in tons:
+
+    1908      961,958
+    1909    1,513,582
+    1910    1,804,349
+    1911    1,480,217
+    1912    1,893,687
+
+Compare or contrast those figures with these, under the administration
+of a President who comprehends his responsibilities:
+
+    1913    2,429,240
+    1914    2,596,567
+    1915    2,583,845
+    1916    3,006,624
+    1917    3,019,936
+    1918    3,444,605
+    1919    4,000,000
+
+No less impressive and significant are the figures which indicate the
+volume of trade between Cuba and the United States. The imports of
+American goods into Cuba in 1903 were only $23,000,000; in 1908 they
+were $48,577,000; in 1917 they were $189,875,000. The exports of Cuban
+goods to the United States were in 1908 only $78,869,000, and in 1917
+they were $225,275,000, and in 1919 more than $500,000,000. The balance
+of trade is thus heavily in Cuba's favor. Small as Cuba is in
+comparison with some of her neighbors, her commerce with the United
+States far exceeds theirs. Thus in 1917 the commerce, in both
+directions, of Brazil with the United States was $180,000,000; of Chili,
+$205,000,000; of Argentina, $305,000,000; of Mexico, $248,000,000; and
+of Cuba, $415,150,000.
+
+[Illustration: BONEATO ROAD, ORIENTE
+
+No country in the world, probably, is more amply equipped with good
+road--for both industrial and pleasure purposes, than Cuba. Radiating
+from the capital and other important cities splendid automobile highways
+give access to all parts of the island, leading not only to cities and
+ports but also for hundreds of miles through enchanting scenery. Of such
+highways the Boneato Road, winding through the mountains of Santiago, in
+the Province of Oriente, is a superb example.]
+
+Financially, the administration of President Menocal is to be credited
+with the cancellation of the heavy and largely unnecessary debts which
+were left to it by the preceding administration; an achievement which
+contributed greatly to the improvement of Cuba's international credit.
+The foreign claims of Great Britain, France and Germany, which had been
+an embarrassing problem for several years, have been so satisfactorily
+adjusted that their complete settlement will be effected at a time
+convenient to all parties concerned. The grave fiscal and economic
+crisis which followed the beginning of the war of 1914, in practically
+all the markets of the world was avoided in Cuba by the Economic Defense
+Bill, and the establishment of a Cuban national monetary system has
+facilitated exchange and all manner of transactions in Cuba, and has
+redeemed the country from the reproach of being ridden by and dependent
+upon foreign coin as its medium of exchange.
+
+[Illustration: JOSÉ A. DEL CUETO PRESIDENT OF SUPREME COURT]
+
+The sanitary redemption of Cuba was indeed effected under the
+administration of Leonard Wood in the first American Government of
+Intervention. But the fortunate condition then attained has been not
+only fully maintained but constantly and materially bettered through
+the activity of the public health department of the Menocal
+administration. New problems in sanitation have arisen, only to be met
+with promptness, thoroughness and success. One of the most severe tests
+of the efficiency of the organization against disease occurred when the
+dreaded bubonic plague was imported; and that efficiency was amply
+vindicated by the complete eradication of that pestilence within a few
+weeks.
+
+[Illustration: DR. FERNANDO MÉNDEZ-CAPOTE, SECRETARY OF SANITATION]
+
+[Illustration: GEN. JOSÉ MARTI, SECRETARY OF WAR]
+
+Shortly after his accession to the Presidency, General Menocal effected
+a complete reorganization of the military system. It was not his purpose
+to burden the country with unnecessary armaments, but he realized the
+necessity of a certain degree of militant preparation for emergencies
+and therefore provided it with a small but efficient army and navy,
+commensurate with the necessities of the country, and entirely subject,
+of course, to the control and direction of the people through their
+civil government. The efficiency of this arm of the Government was well
+demonstrated at the time already described in these pages when, early in
+1917, a widespread revolution was attempted for the purpose of
+overthrowing the constitutional and legal government of the country. At
+that time the President showed the same triumphant ability as a military
+strategist that he had displayed as a civil administrator, in directing
+the movements of the Government troops from the Palace in Havana. It was
+due to his vigilance and energy in directing the campaign, as well, of
+course, as to the able assistance of his staff, that the rebel forces
+were promptly surrounded and captured and thus a death blow was struck
+at what we may hope will prove to have been the last attempt at
+revolution in Cuba.
+
+No less remarkable than his energy in war was the President's
+magnanimity in dealing with his vanquished enemies when peace had been
+restored, though sometimes against the will of many of his foremost
+advisers. He led the movement of opinion favorable to harmony and
+reconciliation, which was finally confirmed by a law of congress
+granting full amnesty to all civilians who participated in that ill
+advised insurrection. Instead of using persecution, bitterness and
+vindictive oppression against his enemies, President Menocal restored
+good will through the Island by his magnanimous generosity and abundant
+acts of grace.
+
+We have already spoken of President Menocal's admirable course in
+pointing out where the duty of his country lay in the great crisis of
+the European war, and in confirming the traditional friendship between
+Cuba and the United States by making the insular republic an ally of its
+great northern neighbor in that world-wide conflict. His recommendation
+of a declaration of war was immediately and unanimously adopted by the
+Cuban Congress, and thereafter the policy of the republic, under his
+direction, was one of close cooperation with the United States, and of
+placing all the resources and energies of the Island at the disposal of
+the Allied cause. It is worthy of record that the French Government
+showed its appreciation, not only of his spirit and purpose but of his
+actual achievements in the war, by conferring upon him the Grand Cross
+of the Legion of Honor.
+
+During these last few years the agricultural, industrial and economical
+resources of Cuba have been developed to an extent hitherto unknown and
+undreamed of in the history of the country. Industries have been
+immensely stimulated, great new enterprises have been created, and an
+expansion of foreign trade has been attained which makes Cuba in
+proportion to its size the foremost commercial country of the world.
+
+[Illustration: EUGENIO SANCHEZ AGRAMONTE
+
+Bearing a name which has been identified with many high achievements in
+medical and other science, Dr. Eugenio Sanchez Agramonte has added new
+lustre to it by his own achievements for the health of humanity and for
+the welfare of his fatherland. He was born in Camaguey on April 17,
+1865, and had already attained enviable rank as a physician and
+sanitarian when, still a young man, he entered the War of Independence.
+His chief services were rendered as Director of the Sanitary Department
+of the Army of Liberation, in which place he had the rank of General. He
+was also Director of the great Casa de Beneficia. After the war he took
+an active interest in civic affairs, and became the president of the
+Conservative party. With the election of General Menocal to the
+Presidency of the Cuban Republic, General Agramonte was elected
+president of the Senate, which position he held until 1917, when
+President Menocal appointed him Secretary of Agriculture, Commerce and
+Labor.]
+
+According to recent data the foreign trade of Cuba is $800,000,000.
+Reckoning the population of the Island at about 2,700,000, that means a
+foreign trade of more than $296 per capita. In the year immediately
+preceding the outbreak of the European war, and before the great
+disturbance of commerce caused by that conflict, the foreign trade of
+the United States of America amounted to only $39 per capita, and even
+that of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland to only $170.
+
+Before the enraptured vision of Columbus, Cuba baffled appreciation. To
+the more discriminating vision of to-day, her future equally baffles
+while it piques imagination. Louis Napoleon, meditating upon the
+possibilities of an American Isthmian canal, once said:
+
+"The geographical position of Constantinople rendered her the Queen of
+the ancient world. Occupying, as she does, the central point between
+Europe, Asia and Africa, she could become the entreport of the commerce
+of all those countries, and obtain over them immense preponderance; for
+in politics, as in strategy, a central position always commands the
+circumference."
+
+Then he pointed out the similarity of position of Nicaragua, where he
+hoped to construct a canal, and argued that it similarly might obtain a
+like status in the Western World. It needs little suggestion to point
+out that Cuba fulfils those conditions in a supreme degree. It was not
+vainly that Spaniards centuries ago called Havana the Key of the Gulf,
+of the Caribbean, of the Indies, of the Western World. The position of
+Cuba is unique and incomparable, with relation to the United States,
+Mexico, Central America and South America, and the two enclosed seas
+which form the Mediterranean of the American Continents. Of old the
+treasure fleets of Spain passed by her coasts, and visited her harbors.
+To-day she is similarly visited by the fleets which ply between North
+America and South America, and between the Atlantic and the Pacific
+oceans. Reckoned by routes of traffic on the charted seas, she is the
+commercial centre of the world.
+
+[Illustration: ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, HAVANA]
+
+It is not with ambition for conquest or for political ascendancy that
+Cuba exults in that proud position, but merely that she may in the
+words of her President "show herself worthy of the favors which God has
+lavished upon her," and make herself a joy unto herself and a
+convenience and a benefaction to the peaceful world. It is into such an
+estate that she has now found the sure way to enter, and is indeed
+confidently and triumphantly entering, through achievements which,
+though embraced in only half a dozen years, are worthy of a generation
+of progress and are auspicious of immeasurable generations of progress
+yet to come; achievements toward which her present Chief of State has
+greatly and indispensably contributed.
+
+The story of Cuba is from Velasquez to Menocal. That is the story which
+we have tried to tell. But that is by no means the whole history of
+Cuba. Even of that portion of it we have been able here to give only an
+outline of the essential facts. But surely the span of four hundred and
+seven years must not be reckoned as a finality. It is only the beginning
+of the annals of a land and a people whose place among the nations of
+the world in honorable perpetuity is now assured as far as it can be
+assured by human purpose and achievement.
+
+These pages are, then, in fact, merely the prologue to records of
+progress and attainment which shall honor the name of Cuba and adorn the
+story of the world, "far on, in summers that we shall not see."
+
+From Velasquez to Menocal. The span is tremendous, in character as well
+as in lapse of time. It is a span from the fanatical and ruthless
+conqueror seeking only his own and his country's advantage, selfish and
+sordid, to the broad-minded and altruistic statesman and philanthropist,
+seeking the advantage and the advancement of his fellow men. It is a
+span, in brief, from the Sixteenth Century age of force to the Twentieth
+Century age of law.
+
+Nevertheless, the span and the contrast involve a certain analogy. It
+was the work of Velasquez, masterful man of vision that he was, to begin
+the transformation of a land of aboriginal barbarians into at least a
+semblance of civilization; the transformation from the primitive,
+scarcely more than animal, existence of the Cuban autochthones, to the
+strenuous if sophisticated life of Spain. It has been and is the work of
+President Menocal and his accomplished and patriotic colleagues to
+induct the land and people from the discredited remnants of a false
+colonial system into the clearer light, the fuller life and the
+immeasurably more spacious and elevated opportunities of a free and
+independent people who "comprehend the responsibilities incumbent upon
+the founders of nations."
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+    Abarzuza, Sr. proposes reforms for Cuba, IV, 6.
+
+    Abreu. Marta and Rosalie, patriotism of, IV, 25.
+
+    Academy of Sciences, Havana, picture of, IV, 364.
+
+    Adams, John Quincy, enunciates American policy toward Cuba, II, 258;
+      portrait, 259;
+      on Cuban annexation, 327.
+
+    Aglona, Prince de. Governor, II, 363.
+
+    Agramonte, Aristide, in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172.
+
+    Agramonte, Enrique, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12.
+
+    Agramonte, Eugenio Sanchez, sketch and portrait, IV, 362.
+
+    Agramonte, Francisco, IV, 41.
+
+    Agramonte, Ignacio, portrait, facing. III, 258.
+
+    Agriculture, early attention to, I, 173, 224;
+      progress, 234;
+      II, 213;
+      absentee landlords, 214;
+      statistics, 223;
+      discussed in periodicals, 250;
+      rehabilitation of after War of Independence, IV, 147.
+
+    Aguayo, Geronimo de, I, 161.
+
+    Aguero, Joaquin de, organizes revolution, III, 72;
+      final defeat, 87.
+
+    Aguiar, Luis de, II, 60.
+
+    Aguiera, Jose, I, 295.
+
+    Aguila, Negra, II, 346.
+
+    Aguilera, Francisco V., sketch and portrait, III, 173.
+
+    Aguirre, Jose Maria, filibuster, IV, 55;
+      death, 85.
+
+    Albemarle, Earl of, expedition against Havana, II, 46;
+      occupies Havana, 78;
+      controversy with Bishop Morell, 83.
+
+    Alcala, Marcos, I, 310.
+
+    Aldama, Miguel de, sketch and portrait, III, 204.
+
+    Aleman, Manuel, French emissary, II, 305.
+
+    Algonquins, I, 7.
+
+    Allen, Robert, on "Importance of Havana," II, 81.
+
+    Almendares River, tapped for water supply, I, 266;
+      view on, IV, 167.
+
+    Almendariz, Alfonso Enrique, Bishop, I, 277.
+
+    Alquiza, Sancho de, Governor, I, 277.
+
+    Altamarino, Governor, I, 105;
+      post mortem trial of Velasquez, 107;
+      attacked by the Guzmans, 109;
+      removed, 110.
+
+    Altamirano, Juan C., Bishop, I, 273;
+      seized by brigands, 274.
+
+    Alvarado, Luis de, I, 147.
+
+    Alvarado, Pedro de, in Mexico, I, 86.
+
+    Amadeus, King of Spain, III, 260.
+
+    America, relation of Cuba to, I, 1;
+      II, 254. See UNITED STATES.
+
+    American Revolution, effect of upon Spain and her colonies, II, 138.
+
+    American Treaty, between Great Britain and Spain, I, 303.
+
+    Andrea, Juan de, II, 9.
+
+    Angulo, Francisco de, exiled, I, 193.
+
+    Angulo, Gonzales Perez de, Governor, I, 161;
+      emancipation proclamation, 163;
+      quarrel with Havana Council, 181;
+      flight from Sores, 186;
+      end of administration, 192.
+
+    Anners, Jean de Laet de, quoted, I, 353.
+
+    Annexation of Cuba to United States, first suggested, II, 257, 326;
+      campaign for, 380;
+      sought by United States, III, 132, 135;
+      Marcy's policy, 141;
+      Ostend Manifesto, 142;
+      Buchanan's efforts, 143;
+      not considered in War of Independence, IV, 19.
+
+    Antonelli, Juan Bautista, engineering works in Cuba, I, 261;
+      creates water supply for Havana, 266.
+
+    Apezteguia. Marquis de, Autonomist leader, IV, 94.
+
+    Apodaca, Juan Ruiz, Governor, II, 311.
+
+    Arana, Martin de, warns Prado of British approach, II, 53.
+
+    Arana, Melchior Sarto de, commander of La Fuerza, I, 237.
+
+    Arana, Pedro de, royal accountant, I, 238.
+
+    Aranda, Esquival, I, 279.
+
+    Arango, Augustin, murder of, III, 188.
+
+    Arango, Napoleon, treason of, III, 226.
+
+    Arango y Pareño, Francisco, portrait, frontispiece, Vol. II;
+      organizes Society of Progress, II, 178;
+      leadership in Cuba, 191;
+      attitude toward slavery, 208;
+      his illustrious career, 305 et seq.
+
+    Aranguren, Nestor, revolutionist, IV, 85;
+      death, 92.
+
+    Araoz, Juan, II, 181.
+
+    Arias, A. R., Governor, III, 314.
+
+    Arias, Gomez, I, 145.
+
+    Arignon, Villiet, quoted, II, 26, 94.
+
+    Armona, José de, II, 108.
+
+    Army, Cuban, organization of, III, 178;
+      reorganized, 263;
+      under Jose Miguel Gomez, IV, 301.
+
+    Army, Spanish, in Cuba, III, 181, 295.
+
+    Aroztegui, Martin de, II, 20.
+
+    Arrate, José Martin Felix, historian, II, 17, 179.
+
+    Arredondo, Nicolas, Governor at Santiago, II, 165.
+
+    Asbert, Gen. Ernesto, amnesty case, IV, 326.
+
+    "Assiento" compact on slavery, II, 2.
+
+    Assumption, Our Lady of the, I, 61.
+
+    Astor, John Jacob, aids War of Independence, IV, 14.
+
+    Asylums for Insane, II, 317.
+
+    Atares fortress, picture, II, 103.
+
+    Atkins, John, book on West Indies, II, 36.
+
+    Atrocities, committed by Spanish, III, 250;
+      Cespedes's protest against, 254;
+      "Book of Blood," 284;
+      Spanish confession of, 286;
+      war of destruction,
+      295;
+      Weyler's "concentration" policy, IV, 85.
+
+    Attwood's Cay. See GUANAHANI.
+
+    Autonomist party, III, 305;
+      IV, 34;
+      attitude toward Campos in War of Independence, 59;
+      Cabinet under Blanco, 94;
+      earnest efforts for peace, 101;
+      record of its government, 102.
+
+    Avellanda, Gertrudis Gomez de, III, 331;
+      portrait, facing, 332.
+
+    Avila, Alfonso de, I, 154.
+
+    Avila, Juan de, Governor, I, 151;
+      marries rich widow, 154;
+      charges against him, 157;
+      convicted and imprisoned, 158.
+
+    Avila. See DAVILA.
+
+    Aviles, Pedro Menendez de, See MENENDEZ.
+
+    Ayala, Francisco P. de, I, 291.
+
+    Ayilon, Lucas V. de, strives to make peace between Velasquez
+      and Cortez, I, 98.
+
+    Azcarata, José Luis, Secretary of Justice, sketch and portrait,
+      IV, 341.
+
+    Azcarate, Nicolas, sketch and portrait, III, 251, 332.
+
+    Azcarraga, Gen., Spanish Premier, IV, 88.
+
+
+    "Barbeque" sought by Columbus, I, 18.
+
+    Bachiller, Antonio, sketch and portrait, III, 317.
+
+    Bacon, Robert, Assistant Secretary of State of U. S., intervenes
+      in revolution, IV, 272.
+
+    Bahia Honda, selected as U. S. naval station, IV, 256.
+
+    Balboa, Vasco Nuñez de, I, 55, 91.
+
+    Bancroft, George, quoted, I, 269;
+      II, 1, 24, 41, 117, 120, 159.
+
+    Banderas, Quintin, revolutionist, IV, 34;
+      raid, 57;
+      death, 84.
+
+    Baracoa, Columbus at, I, 18;
+      Velasquez at, 60;
+      picture, 60;
+      first capital of Cuba, 61, 168.
+
+    Barreda, Baltazar, I, 201.
+
+    Barreiro, Juan Bautista, Secretary of Education, IV, 160.
+
+    Barrieres, Manuel Garcia, II, 165.
+
+    Barrionuevo, Juan Maldonado, Governor, I, 263.
+
+    Barsicourt, Juan Procopio. See SANTA CLARA, Conde.
+
+    Bayamo, founded by Velasquez, I, 68, 168;
+      Cuban Republic organized there, III, 157.
+
+    Bayoa, Pedro de, I, 300.
+
+    Bay of Cortez, reached by Columbus, I, 25.
+
+    Bees, introduced by Bishop Morell, II, 104;
+      increase of industry, 132.
+
+    "Beggars of the Sea," raid Cuban coasts, I, 208.
+
+    Bells, church, controversy over, II, 82.
+
+    Bembrilla, Alonzo, I, 111.
+
+    Benavides, Juan de, I, 280.
+
+    Berrea, Esteban S. de, II, 6.
+
+    Betancourt, Pedro, Civil Governor of Matanzas, IV, 179;
+      loyal to Palma, 271.
+
+    Betancourt. See CISNEROS.
+
+    "Bimini," Island of, I, 139.
+
+    Bishops of Roman Catholic Church in Cuba, I, 122.
+
+    "Black Eagle," II, 346.
+
+    _Black Warrior_ affair, III, 138.
+
+    Blanchet, Emilio, historian, quoted, II, 9, 15, 24;
+      on siege of Havana, 57, 87.
+
+    Blanco, Ramon, Governor, IV, 88;
+      undertakes reforms, 89;
+      plans Cuban autonomy, 93;
+      on destruction of _Maine_, 99;
+      resigns, 121.
+
+    Blue, Victor, observations at Santiago, IV, 110.
+
+    Bobadilla, F. de, I, 54.
+
+    Boca de la Yana, I, 18.
+
+    "Bohio" sought by Columbus, I, 18.
+
+    Bolivar, Simon, II, 333;
+      portrait, 334;
+      "Liberator," 334 et seq.;
+      influence on Cuba, 341;
+      "Soles de Bolivar," 341.
+
+    Bonel, Juan Bautista, II, 133.
+
+    "Book of Blood," III, 284.
+
+    Bourne, Edward Gaylord, quoted, on slavery, II, 209;
+      on Spanish in America, 226.
+
+    Brinas, Felipe, III, 330.
+
+    British policy toward Spain and Cuba, I, 270;
+      aggressions in West Indies, 293;
+      slave trade, II, 2;
+      war of 1639, 22;
+      designs upon Cuba, 41;
+      expedition against Havana, 1762, 46;
+      conquest of Cuba, 78;
+      relinquishment to Spain, 92. See GREAT BRITAIN.
+
+    Broa Bay, I, 22.
+
+    Brooke, Gen. John R., receives Spanish surrender of Cuba, IV, 122;
+      proclamation to Cuban people, 145;
+      retired, 157.
+
+    Brooks, Henry, revolutionist, IV, 30.
+
+    Buccaneers, origin of, I, 269.
+
+    Buccarelli, Antonio Maria, Governor, II, 110;
+      retires, 115.
+
+    Buchanan, James, on U. S. relations to Cuba, II, 263;
+      III, 135;
+      Minister to Great Britain, 142;
+      as President seeks annexation of Cuba to U. S., 143.
+
+    Bull-fighting, II, 233.
+
+    Burgos, Juan de, Bishop, I, 225.
+
+    Burtnett, Spanish spy against Lopez, III, 65.
+
+    Bustamente, Antonio Sanchez de, jurist, sketch and portrait, IV, 165.
+
+
+    Caballero, José Agustin, sketch and portrait, III, 321.
+
+    Caballo, Domingo, II, 173.
+
+    Cabanas, defences constructed, II, 58;
+      Laurel Ditch, view, facing, 58.
+
+    Caballero, Diego de, I, 111.
+
+    Cabezas, Bishop, I, 277.
+
+    Cabrera, Diego de, I, 206.
+
+    Cabrera, Luis, I, 198.
+
+    Cabrera, Lorenzo de, Governor, I, 279;
+      removed, 282.
+
+    Cabrera, Rafael, filibuster, IV, 70.
+
+    Cabrera, Raimundo, conspirator in New York, IV, 334;
+      warned, 339.
+
+    Cadreyta, Marquis de, I, 279.
+
+    Cagigal, Juan Manuel de, Governor, II, 154;
+      defence of Havana, 155;
+      removed and imprisoned, 157.
+
+    Cagigal, Juan Manuel, Governor, II, 313;
+      successful administration, 315.
+
+    Cagigal de la Vega, Francisco, defends Santiago, II, 29;
+      Governor, 32;
+      Viceroy of Mexico, 34.
+
+    Caguax, Cuban chief, I, 63.
+
+    Calderon, Gabriel, Bishop, I, 315.
+
+    Calderon, Garcia, quoted, II, 164, 172.
+
+    Calderon de la Barca, Spanish Minister,
+      on _La Verdad_, III, 19;
+      on colonial status, 21;
+      negotiations with Soulé, 140.
+
+    Calhoun, John C., on Cuba, III, 132.
+
+    Calleja y Isisi, Emilio, Governor, III, 313;
+      proclaims martial law, IV, 30;
+      resigns, 35.
+
+    Camaguey. See PUERTO PRINCIPE, I, 168.
+
+    Campbell, John, description of Havana, II, 14.
+
+    Campillo, Jose de, II, 19.
+
+    Campos, Martinez de, Governor, III, 296;
+      proclamations to Cuba, 297, 299;
+      makes Treaty of Zanjon and ends Ten Years War, 299;
+      in Spanish crisis, IV, 36;
+      Governor again, 37;
+      establishes Trocha, 44;
+      defeated by Maceo, 46;
+      conferences with party leaders, 59, 63;
+      removed, 63.
+
+    Cancio, Leopoldo, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 161, 320.
+
+    Canizares, Santiago J., Minister of Interior, IV, 48.
+
+    Canning, George, policy toward Cuba, II, 257;
+      portrait, 258.
+
+    Canoe, of Cuban origin, I, 10.
+
+    Canon, Rodrigo, I, 111.
+
+    Canovas del Castillo, Spanish Premier, IV, 36;
+      assassinated, 88.
+
+    Cape Cruz, Columbus at, I, 20.
+
+    Cape Maysi, I, 4.
+
+    Cape of Palms, I, 17.
+
+    Capote, Domingo Menendez. Vice-President, IV, 90;
+      Secretary of State, 146;
+      President of Constitutional Convention. 189.
+
+    Carajaval, Lucas, defies Dutch, I, 290.
+
+    Cardenas, Lopez lands at, III, 49.
+
+    Caribs, I, 8.
+
+    Carillo, Francisco, filibuster, IV, 55.
+
+    Carleton, Sir Guy, at Havana, II, 47.
+
+    Carranza, Domingo Gonzales, book on West Indies, II, 37.
+
+    Carrascesa, Alfonso, II, 6.
+
+    Carreño, Francisco, Governor, I, 219;
+      conditions at his accession, 228;
+      dies in office, 229;
+      work in rebuilding Havana, 231.
+
+    Carroll, James, in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172.
+
+    Casa de Beneficienca, founded, I, 335;
+      II, 177.
+
+    Casa de Resorgiamento, founded, II, 31.
+
+    Casares, Alfonso, codifies municipal ordinances, I, 207.
+
+    Castellanos, Jovellar, last Spanish Governor of Cuba, IV, 121;
+      surrenders Spanish sovereignty, 123.
+
+    Castillo, Demetrio, Civil Governor of Oriente, IV, 180.
+
+    Castillo, Ignacio Maria del, Governor, III, 314.
+
+    Castillo, Loinaz, revolutionist. IV, 269.
+
+    Castillo, Pedro del, Bishop, I, 226.
+
+    Castro, Hernando de, royal treasurer, I, 115.
+
+    Cathcart Lord, expedition to West Indies, II, 28.
+
+    Cathedral of Havana, picture, facing I, 36;
+      begun, I, 310.
+
+    Cat Island. See GUANAHANI.
+
+    Cayo, San Juan de los Remedios del, removal of, I, 319.
+
+    Cazones, Gulf of, I, 21.
+
+    Cemi, Cuban worship of, I, 55.
+
+    Census, of Cuba, first taken, by Torre, II, 131;
+      by Las Casas, 176;
+      of slaves, 205;
+      of 1775, 276;
+      of 1791, 277;
+      Humboldt on, 277;
+      of 1811, 280;
+      of 1817, 281;
+      of 1827, 283;
+      of 1846, 283;
+      of 1899, IV, 154;
+      of 1907, 287.
+
+    Cespedes, Carlos Manuel, III, 157;
+      portrait, facing 158;
+      in Spain, 158;
+      leads Cuban revolution, 158;
+      President of Republic, 158;
+      proclamation, 168;
+      negotiations with Spain, 187;
+      removed from office, 275.
+
+    Cespedes, Carlos Manuel, filibuster, IV, 55.
+
+    Cespedes, Enrique, revolutionist, IV, 30.
+
+    Cervera, Admiral, brings Spanish fleet to Cuba, IV, 110;
+      portrait, 110;
+      surrenders, 114.
+
+    Chacon, José Bayoma, II, 13.
+
+    Chacon, Luis, I, 331, 333.
+
+    Chalons, Sr., Secretary of Public Works, IV, 297.
+
+    Chamber of Commerce founded, II, 307.
+
+    Charles I, King, I, 74;
+      denounces oppression of Indians, 128.
+
+    Chaves, Antonio, Governor, I, 157;
+      prosecutes Avila, 157;
+      ruthless policy toward natives, 159;
+      controversy with King, 160;
+      dismissed from office, 161.
+
+    Chaves, Juan Baton de, I, 331.
+
+    Chilton, John, describes Havana, I, 349.
+
+    Chinchilla, José, Governor, III, 314.
+
+    Chinese, colonies in America, I, 7;
+      laborers imported into Cuba, II, 295.
+
+    Chorrera, expected to be Drake's landing place, I, 248.
+
+    Chorrera River, dam built by Antonelli, I, 262.
+
+    Christianity, introduced into Cuba by Ojeda, I, 55;
+      urged by King Ferdinand, 73.
+
+    Church, Roman Catholic, organized and influential in Cuba, I, 122;
+      cathedral removed from Baracoa to Santiago, 123;
+      conflict with civil power, 227;
+      controversy with British during British occupation, II, 84;
+      division of island into two dioceses, 173;
+      attitude toward War of Independence, IV, 26;
+      controversy over property, 294.
+
+    Cienfuegos, José, Governor, II, 311.
+
+    Cimmarones, "wild Indians," I, 126;
+      revolt against De Soto, 148.
+
+    Cipango, Cuba identified with, by Columbus, I, 5.
+
+    Cisneros, Gaspar Betancourt, sketch and portrait, II, 379.
+
+    Cisneros, Pascal Jiminez de, II, 110, 127.
+
+    Cisneros, Salvador, III, 167;
+      sketch and portrait, 276;
+      President of Cuban Republic, 277;
+      President of Council of Ministers, IV, 48;
+      in Constitutional Convention, 190.
+
+    Civil Service, law, IV, 325;
+      respected by President Menocal, 325.
+
+    Clay, Henry, policy toward Cuba, II, 261.
+
+    Clayton, John M., U. S. Secretary of State, issues proclamation
+      against filibustering, III, 42.
+
+    Cleaveland, Samuel, controversy over church bells, II, 83.
+
+    Cleveland, Grover. President of United States, issues warning against
+      breaches of neutrality, IV, 70;
+      reference to Cuba
+      in message of 1896, 79;
+      its significance, 80.
+
+    Coat of Arms of Cuba, picture, IV, 251;
+      significance, 251.
+
+    Cobre, copper mines, I, 173, 259.
+
+    "Cockfighting and Idleness" campaign, IV, 291.
+
+    Coffee, cultivation begun, II, 33, 113.
+
+    Coinage, reformed, II, 142;
+      statistics of, 158.
+
+    Collazo, Enrique, filibuster, IV, 55.
+
+    Coloma, Antonio Lopez, revolutionist, IV, 30.
+
+    Colombia, designs upon Cuba, II, 262;
+      III, 134;
+      attitude toward Cuban revolution, 223.
+
+    Columbus, Bartholomew, recalled to Spain, I, 57.
+
+    Columbus, Christopher, portrait, frontispiece, Vol. I;
+      discoverer of America, I;
+      i;
+      first landing in America, 2;
+      monument on Watling's Island, picture, 3;
+      arrival in Cuba, 11;
+      question as to first landing place, 12;
+      first impressions of Cuba and intercourse with natives, 14;
+      exploration of north coast, 16;
+      end of first visit, 18;
+      second visit, 19;
+      exploration of south coast, 21;
+      at Bay of Cortez, 25;
+      turns back from circumnavigation, 26;
+      at Isle of Pines, 26;
+      final departure from Cuba, 27;
+      diary and narrative, 28 et seq.;
+      death and burial, 33;
+      tomb in Havana cathedral, 34;
+      removal to Seville, 36;
+      removal from Santo Domingo to Havana, II, 181;
+      epitaph, 182.
+
+    Columbus, Diego, plans exploration and colonization of Cuba, I, 57;
+      attempts mediation between Velasquez and Cortez, 97;
+      replaces Velasquez with Zuazo, 100;
+      rebuked by King, 100.
+
+    Comendador, Cacique, I, 55.
+
+    Commerce, begun by Velasquez, I, 68;
+      rise of corporations, II, 19;
+      after British occupation, 98;
+      under Torre, 132;
+      reduction of duties, 141;
+      extension of trade, 163;
+      Tribunal of Commerce founded, 177;
+      Real Compania de Havana, 199;
+      restrictive measures, 200;
+      Chamber of Commerce founded, 307;
+      commerce with United States, III, 2;
+      during American occupation, IV, 184;
+      present, 358.
+
+    Compostela, Diego E. de, Bishop, I, 318;
+      death, 332.
+
+    Concepcion, Columbus's landing place, I, 3.
+
+    Concessions, forbidden under American occupation, IV, 153.
+
+    Concha, José Gutierrez de la, Governor, III, 62, 290.
+
+    Conchillos, royal secretary, I, 59.
+
+    Congress, Cuban, welcomed by Gen. Wood, IV, 246;
+      turns against Palma, 269;
+      friendly to Gomez, 303;
+      hostile to Menocal, 323;
+      protects the lottery, 324.
+
+    Constitution: Cuban Republic of 1868, III, 157;
+      of 1895, IV, 47;
+      call for Constitutional Convention, 185;
+      meeting of Convention, 187;
+      draft completed, 192;
+      salient provisions, 193;
+      Elihu Root's comments, 194;
+      Convention discusses relations with United States, 197;
+      Platt
+      Amendment, 199;
+      amendment adopted, 203;
+      text of Constitution, 304 et seq.;
+      The Nation, 205;
+      Cubans, 205;
+      Foreigners, 207;
+      Individual Rights, 208;
+      Suffrage, 211;
+      Suspension of Guarantees, 212;
+      Sovereignty, 213;
+      Legislative Bodies, 214;
+      Senate, 214;
+      House of Representatives, 216;
+      Congress, 218;
+      Legislation, 221;
+      Executive, 222;
+      President, 222;
+      Vice-President, 225;
+      Secretaries of State, 226;
+      Judiciary, 227;
+      Supreme Court, 227;
+      Administration of Justice, 228;
+      Provincial Governments, 229;
+      Provincial Councils, 230;
+      Provincial Governors, 231;
+      Municipal Government, 233;
+      Municipal Councils, 233;
+      Mayors, 235;
+      National Treasury, 235;
+      Amendments, 236;
+      Transient Provisions, 237;
+      Appendix (Platt Amendment), 238.
+
+    "Constitutional Army," IV, 268.
+
+    Contreras, Andres Manso de, I, 288.
+
+    Contreras, Damien, I, 278.
+
+    Convents, founded, I, 276;
+      Nuns of Santa Clara, 286.
+
+    Conyedo, Juan de, Bishop, II, 35.
+
+    Copper, discovered near Santiago, I, 173;
+      wealth of mines, 259;
+      reopened, II, 13;
+      exports, III, 3.
+
+    Corbalon, Francisco R., I, 286.
+
+    Cordova de Vega, Diego de, Governor, I, 239.
+
+    Cordova, Francisco H., expedition to Yucatan, I, 84.
+
+    Cordova Ponce de Leon, José Fernandez, Governor, I, 316.
+
+    Coreal, Francois, account of West Indies, quoted, I, 355.
+
+    Coronado, Manuel, gift for air planes, IV, 352.
+
+    Cortes, Spanish, Cuban representation in, II, 308;
+      excluded, 351;
+      lack of representation, III, 3;
+      after Ten Years' War, 307.
+
+    Cortez, Hernando, Alcalde of Santiago de Cuba, I, 72;
+      sent to Mexico by King, 74;
+      agent of Velasquez, 86;
+      early career, 90;
+      portrait, 90;
+      quarrel with Velasquez, 91;
+      marriage, 92;
+      commissioned by Velasquez to explore Mexico, 92;
+      sails for Mexico, 94;
+      final breach with Velasquez, 96;
+      denounced as rebel, 97;
+      escapes murder, 99.
+
+    Cosa, Juan de la, geographer, I, 6, 53.
+
+    Councillors, appointed for life, I, 111;
+      conflict with Procurators, 113.
+
+    Creoles, origin of name, II, 204.
+
+    Crittenden, J. J., protests against European intervention in Cuba,
+      III, 129.
+
+    Crittenden, William S., with Lopez, III, 96;
+      captured, 101;
+      death, 105.
+
+    Crombet, Flor, revolutionist, IV, 41, 42.
+
+    Crooked Island. See ISABELLA.
+
+    Crowder, Gen. Enoch H., head of Consulting Board, IV, 284.
+
+    Cuba: Relation to America, I, 1;
+      Columbus's first landing, 3;
+      identified with Mangi or Cathay, 4;
+      with Cipango, 5;
+      earliest maps, 6;
+      physical history, 7, 37 et seq.;
+      Columbus's discovery, 11 et seq.;
+      named Juana, 13;
+      other names, 14;
+      Columbus's account of, 28;
+      geological history, 37-42;
+      topography, 42-51;
+      climate, 51-52;
+      first circumnavigation, 54;
+      colonization, 54;
+      Velasquez at Baracoa, 60;
+      commerce begun, 68;
+      government organized, 69;
+      named Ferdinandina, 73;
+      policy of Spain toward, 175;
+      slow economic progress, 215;
+      land legislation, 232;
+      Spanish discrimination against, 266;
+      divided into two districts, 275;
+      British description in 1665, 306;
+      various accounts, 346;
+      turning point in history, 363;
+      close of first era, 366;
+      British conquest, II, 78;
+      relinquished to Spain, 92;
+      great changes effected, 94;
+      economic condition, 98;
+      reoccupied by Spain, 102;
+      untouched by early revolutions, 165;
+      effect of revolution in Santo Domingo, 190;
+      first suggestion of annexation to United States, 257;
+      "Ever Faithful Isle," 268;
+      rise of independence, 268;
+      censuses, 276 et seq.;
+      representation in Cortes, 308;
+      "Soles de Bolivar," 341;
+      representatives rejected from Cortes, 351;
+      transformation of popular spirit, 383;
+      independence proclaimed, III, 145;
+      Republic organized, 157;
+      War of Independence, IV, 15;
+      Spanish elections held during war, 67;
+      Blanco's plan of autonomy, 93;
+      sovereignty surrendered by Spain, 123;
+      list of Spanish Governors, 123. See REPUBLIC OF CUBA.
+
+    Cuban Aborigines;
+      I, 8;
+      manners, customs and religion, 8 et seq.;
+      Columbus's first intercourse, 15, 24;
+      priest's address to Columbus, 26;
+      Columbus's observations of them, 29;
+      hostilities begun by Velasquez, 61;
+      subjected to Repartimiento system, 70;
+      practical slavery, 71;
+      Key Indians, 125;
+      Cimmarones, 126;
+      new laws in their favor, 129;
+      Rojas's endeavor to save them, 130;
+      final doom, 133;
+      efforts at reform, 153;
+      oppression by Chaves, 159;
+      Angulo's emancipation proclamation, 163.
+
+    "Cuba-nacan," I, 5.
+
+    "Cuba and the Cubans," quoted, II, 313.
+
+    "Cuba y Su Gobierno," quoted, II, 354.
+
+    Cuellar, Cristobal de, royal accountant, I, 59.
+
+    Cushing, Caleb, Minister to Spain, III, 291.
+
+    Custom House, first at Havana, I, 231.
+
+
+    Dady, Michael J., & Co., contract dispute, IV, 169.
+
+    Davila, Pedrarias, I, 140.
+
+    Davis, Jefferson, declines to join Lopez, III, 38.
+
+    Del Casal, Julian, sketch and portrait, IV, 6.
+
+    Del Cueta, José A., President of Supreme Court, portrait, IV, 359.
+
+    Delgado, Moru, Liberal leader, IV, 267.
+
+    Del Monte, Domingo, sketch, portrait, and work, II, 323.
+
+    Del Monte, Ricardo, sketch and portrait, IV, 2.
+
+    Demobilization of Cuban army, IV, 135.
+
+    Desvernine, Pablo, Secretary of Finance, IV, 146.
+
+    Diaz, Bernal, at Sancti Spiritus, I, 72;
+      in Mexico, 86.
+
+    Diaz, Manuel, I, 239.
+
+    Diaz, Manuel Luciano, Secretary of Public Works, IV, 254.
+
+    Diaz, Modeste, III, 263.
+
+    Divino, Sr., Secretary of Justice, IV, 297.
+
+    Dockyard at Havana, established, II, 8.
+
+    Dolz, Eduardo, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 96.
+
+    Dominguez, Fermin V., Assistant Secretary of Foreign Affairs, IV, 50.
+
+    Dorst, J. H., mission to Pinar del Rio, IV, 107.
+
+    "Dragado" deal, IV, 310.
+
+    Drake, Sir Francis, menaces Havana, I, 243;
+      in Hispaniola, 246;
+      leaves Havana unassailed, 252;
+      departs for Virginia, 255.
+
+    Duany, Joaquin Castillo, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12;
+      Assistant Secretary of Treasury, 50;
+      filibuster, 70.
+
+    Dubois, Carlos, Assistant Secretary of Interior, IV, 50.
+
+    Duero, Andres de, I, 93, 115.
+
+    Dulce y Garay, Domingo, Governor, III, 190, 194;
+      decree of confiscation, 209;
+      recalled, 213.
+
+    Dupuy de Lome, Sr., Spanish Minister at Washington, IV, 40;
+      writes offensive letter, 98;
+      recalled, 98.
+
+    Duque, Sr., Secretary of Sanitation and Charity, IV, 297.
+
+    Durango, Bishop, I, 225.
+
+    Dutch hostilities, I, 208, 279;
+      activities in West Indies, 283 et seq.
+
+
+    Earthquakes, in 1765, I, 315;
+      II, 114.
+
+    Echeverria, Esteban B., Superintendent of Schools, IV, 162.
+
+    Echeverria, José, Bishop, II, 113.
+
+    Echeverria, José Antonio, III, 324.
+
+    Echeverria, Juan Maria, Governor, II, 312.
+
+    Education, backward state of, II, 244;
+      progress under American occupation, IV, 156;
+      A. E. Frye, Superintendent, 156;
+      reorganization of system, 162;
+      Harvard University's entertainment of teachers, 163;
+      achievements under President Menocal, 357.
+
+    Elections: for municipal officers under American occupation, IV, 180;
+      law for regulation of, 180;
+      result, 181;
+      for Constitutional Convention, 186;
+      for general officers, 240;
+      result, 244;
+      Presidential, 1906, 265;
+      new law, 287;
+      local elections under Second Intervention, 289;
+      Presidential, 290;
+      for Congress in 1908, 303;
+      Presidential, 1912, 309;
+      Presidential, 1916, disputed, 330, result confirmed, 341.
+
+    Enciso, Martin F. de, first Spanish writer about America, I, 54.
+
+    Epidemics: putrid fever, 1649, I, 290;
+      vaccination introduced, II, 192;
+      small pox and yellow fever, III, 313;
+      at Santiago, IV, 142;
+      Gen. Wood applies Dr. Finlay's theory of yellow fever, 171;
+      success, 176;
+      malaria, 177.
+
+    Escudero, Antonio, de, II, 10.
+
+    Espada, Juan José Diaz, portrait, facing II, 272.
+
+    Espagnola. See HISPANIOLA.
+
+    Espeleta, Joaquin de, Governor, II, 362.
+
+    Espinosa, Alonzo de Campos, Governor, I, 316.
+
+    Espoleto, José de, Governor, II, 169.
+
+    Estenoz, Negro insurgent, IV, 307.
+
+    Estevez, Luis, Secretary of Justice, IV, 160;
+      Vice-President, 245.
+
+    Evangelista. See ISLE OF PINES.
+
+    Everett, Edward, policy toward Cuba, III, 130.
+
+    "Ever Faithful Isle," II, 268, 304.
+
+    Exquemeling, Alexander, author and pirate, I, 302.
+
+
+    "Family Pact," of Bourbons, effect upon Cuba, II, 42.
+
+    Felin, Antonio, Bishop, II, 172.
+
+    Fels, Cornelius, defeated by Spanish, I, 288.
+
+    Ferdinand, King, policy toward Cuba, I, 56;
+      esteem for Velasquez, 73.
+
+    Ferdinandina, Columbus's landing place, I, 3;
+      name for Cuba, 73.
+
+    Ferrara, Orestes, Liberal leader, IV, 260;
+      revolutionist, 269;
+      deprecates factional strife, 306;
+      revolutionary conspirator in New York, 334;
+      warned by U. S. Government, I, 239.
+
+    Ferrer, Juan de, commander of La Fuerza, I, 239.
+
+    Figueroa, Vasco Porcallo de, I, 72;
+      De Soto's lieutenant, 142;
+      returns from Florida in disgust, 145.
+
+    Figuerosa, Rojas de, captures Tortuga, I, 292.
+
+    Filarmonia, riot at ball, III, 119.
+
+    Filibustering, proclamation of United States against, III, 42;
+      after Ten Years' War, 311, in War of Independence, IV, 20;
+      expeditions intercepted, 52;
+      many successful expeditions, 69;
+      warnings, 70.
+
+    Fine Arts, II, 240.
+
+    Finlay, Carlos G., theory of yellow fever successfully applied
+      under General Wood, IV, 171;
+      portrait, facing, 172.
+
+    Fish, Hamilton, U. S. Secretary of State, prevents premature
+      recognition of Cuban Republic, III, 203;
+      protests against Rodas's decree, 216;
+      on losses in Ten Years' War, 290;
+      seeks British support, 292;
+      states terms of proposed mediation, 293.
+
+    Fish market at Havana, founder for pirate, II, 357.
+
+    Fiske, John, historian, quoted, I, 270.
+
+    Flag, Cuban, first raised, III, 31;
+      replaces American, IV, 249;
+      picture, 250;
+      history and significance, 250.
+
+    Flores y Aldama, Rodrigo de, Governor, I, 301.
+
+    Florida, attempted colonization by Ponce de Leon, I, 139;
+      De Soto's expedition, 145. See MENENDEZ.
+
+    Fonseca, Juan Rodriguez de, Bishop of Seville, I, 59.
+
+    Fonts-Sterling, Ernesto, Secretary of Finance, IV, 90;
+      urges resistance to revolution, 270.
+
+    Fornaris, José, III, 230.
+
+    Forestry, attention paid by Montalvo, I, 223;
+      efforts to check waste, II, 166.
+
+    Foyo, Sr., Secretary of Agriculture, Commerce and Labor, IV, 297.
+
+    France, first foe of Spanish in Cuba, I, 177;
+      "Family Pact," II, 42;
+      interest in Cuban revolution, III, 126.
+
+    Franquinay, pirate, at Santiago, I, 310.
+
+    French refugees, in Cuba, II, 189;
+      expelled, 302.
+
+    French Revolution, effects of, II, 184.
+
+    Freyre y Andrade, Fernando, filibuster,
+      IV, 70;
+      negotiations with Pino Guerra, 267.
+
+    Frye, Alexis, Superintendent of Schools, IV, 156;
+      controversy with General Wood, 162.
+
+    Fuerza, La: picture, facing I, 146;
+      building begun by De Soto, I, 147;
+      scene of Lady Isabel's tragic vigil, 147, 179;
+      planned and built by Sanchez, 194;
+      work by Menendez, and Ribera, 209;
+      slave labor sought, 211;
+      bad construction, 222;
+      Montalvo's recommendations, 223;
+      Luzan-Arana quarrel, 237;
+      practical completion, 240;
+      decorated by Cagigal, II, 33.
+
+
+    Galvano, Antony, historian, quoted, I, 4.
+
+    Galvez, Bernardo, seeks Cuban aid for Pensacola, II, 146;
+      Governor, 168;
+      death, 170.
+
+    Galvez, José Maria, head of Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95.
+
+    Garaondo, José, I, 317.
+
+    Garay, Francisco de, Governor of Jamaica, I, 102.
+
+    Garcia, Calixto, portrait, facing III, 268;
+      President of Cuban Republic, III, 301;
+      joins War of Independence, IV, 69;
+      his notable career, 76 et seq.;
+      joins with Shafter at Santiago, 111;
+      death, 241.
+
+    Garcia, Carlos, revolutionist, IV, 269.
+
+    Garcia, Esequiel, Secretary of Education, IV, 320.
+
+    Garcia, Marcos, IV, 44.
+
+    Garcia, Quintiliano, III, 329.
+
+    Garvey, José N. P., II, 222.
+
+    Gastaneta, Antonio, II, 9.
+
+    Gelder, Francisco, Governor, I, 292.
+
+    Gener y Rincon, Miguel, Secretary of Justice, IV, 161.
+
+    Geraldini, Felipe, I, 310.
+
+    Germany, malicious course of in 1898, IV, 104;
+      Cuba declares war against, 348;
+      property in Cuba seized, 349;
+      aid to Gomez, 350.
+
+    Gibson. Hugh S., U. S. Chargé d'Affaires, assaulted, IV, 308.
+
+    Giron. Garcia, Governor, I, 279.
+
+    Godoy, Captain, arrested at Santiago, and put to death, I, 203.
+
+    Godoy, Manuel, II, 172.
+
+    Goicouria, Domingo, sketch and portrait, III, 234.
+
+    Gold, Columbus's quest for, I, 19;
+      Velasquez's search, 61;
+      the "Spaniards' God," 62;
+      early mining, 81;
+      value of mines, 173.
+
+    Gomez, José Antonio, II, 18.
+
+    Gomez, José Miguel, Civil Governor of Santa Clara, IV, 179;
+      aspires to Presidency, 260, 264;
+      turns from Conservative to Liberal party, 265;
+      compact with Zayas, 265;
+      starts revolution, 269;
+      elected President, 290;
+      becomes President, 297;
+      Cabinet, 297;
+      sketch and portrait, 298;
+      acts of his administration, 301;
+      charged with corruption, 304;
+      conflict with Veterans' Association, 304;
+      quarrel with Zayas, 306;
+      suppresses Negro revolt, 307;
+      amnesty bill, 309;
+      National Lottery, 310;
+      "Dragado" deal, 310;
+      railroad deal, 310;
+      estimate of his administration, 311;
+      double treason in 1916, 332;
+      defeated and captured, 337;
+      his orders for devastation, 337;
+      aided by Germany, 350.
+
+    Gomez, Juan Gualberto, revolutionist, IV, 30;
+      captured and imprisoned, 52;
+      insurgent, 269.
+
+    Gomez, Maximo, III, 264;
+      succeeds Gen. Agramonte, 275;
+      makes Treaty of Zanjon with Campos, 299;
+      in War of Independence, IV, 15;
+      commander in chief, 16, 43;
+      portrait, facing 44;
+      plans great campaign of war, 53;
+      controversy with Lacret, 84;
+      opposed to American invasion, 109;
+      appeals to Cubans to accept American occupation, 136;
+      impeachment by National Assembly ignored, 137;
+      influence during Government of Intervention, 149;
+      considered by Constitutional Convention, 191;
+      proposed for Presidency, 240;
+      declines, 241.
+
+    Gonzalez, Aurelia Castillo de, author, sketch and portrait, IV, 192.
+
+    Gonzales, William E., U. S. Minister to Cuba, IV, 335;
+      watches Gomez's insurrection, 336.
+
+    Gorgas, William C., work for sanitation, IV, 175.
+
+    Government of Cuba: organized by Velasquez, I, 69;
+      developed at Santiago, 81;
+      radical changes made, 111;
+      revolution in political status of island, 138;
+      codification of ordinances, 207;
+      Ordinances of 1542, 317;
+      land tenure, II, 12;
+      reforms by Governor Guemez, 17;
+      reorganization after British occupation, 104;
+      great reforms by Torre, 132;
+      budget and tax reforms, 197;
+      authority of Captain-General, III, 11;
+      administrative and judicial functions, 13 et seq.;
+      military and naval command, 16;
+      attempted reforms, 63;
+      concessions after Ten Years' War, 310.
+
+    Governors of Cuba, Spanish, list of, IV, 123.
+
+    Govin, Antonio, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95;
+      sketch and portrait, 95.
+
+    Grammont, buccaneer, I, 311.
+
+    Gran Caico, I, 4.
+
+    Grand Turk Island. See GUANAHANI.
+
+    Grant, U. S., President of United States, III, 200;
+      inclined to recognize Cuban Republic, 202;
+      prevented by his Secretary of State, 203;
+      comments in messages, 205, 292.
+
+    Great Britain, interest in Cuban revolution, III, 125;
+      protection sought by Spain, 129;
+      declines cooperation with United States, 294;
+      requires return of fugitives, 310.
+
+    Great Exuma. See FERDINANDINA.
+
+    Great Inagua, I, 4.
+
+    Great War, Cuba enters, IV, 348;
+      offers 10,000 troops, 348;
+      German intrigues and propaganda, 349;
+      attitude of Roman Catholic clergy, 349;
+      ships seized, 350;
+      cooperation with Food Commission, 351;
+      military activities, 352;
+      liberal subscriptions to loans, 352;
+      Red Cross work, 352;
+      Señora Menocal's inspiring leadership, 353.
+
+    Grijalva, Juan de, I, 65;
+      expedition to Mexico, 66;
+      names Mexico New Spain, 97;
+      unjustly recalled and discredited, 88.
+
+    Guajaba Island, I, 18.
+
+    Guama, Cimmarron chief, I, 127.
+
+    Guanabacoa founded, II, 21.
+
+    Guanahani, Columbus's landing place, I, 2.
+
+    Guanajes Islands, source of slave trade, I, 83.
+
+    Guantanamo, Columbus at, I, 19;
+      U. S. Naval Station, IV, 256.
+
+    Guardia, Cristobal de la, Secretary of Justice, IV, 320.
+
+    Guazo, Gregorio, de la Vega, Governor, I, 340;
+      stops tobacco war, 341;
+      warnings to Great Britain and France, 342;
+      military activity and efficiency, II, 5.
+
+    Guemez y Horcasitas, Juan F., Governor, II, 17;
+      reforms, 17;
+      close of administration, 26.
+
+    Guerra, Amador, revolutionist, IV, 30.
+
+    Guerra, Benjamin, treasurer of Junta, IV, 3.
+
+    Guerro, Pino, starts insurrection, IV, 267, 269;
+      commander of Cuban army, 301;
+      attempt to assassinate him, 303.
+
+    Guevara, Francisco, III, 265.
+
+    Guiteras, Juan, physician and scientist, sketch and portrait, IV, 321.
+
+    Guiteras, Pedro J., quoted, I, 269;
+      II, 6;
+      42;
+      207.
+
+    Guzman, Gonzalez de, mission from Velasquez to King Charles I, I, 85;
+      vindicates Velasquez, 108;
+      Governor of Cuba, 110;
+      marries rich sister-in-law, 116;
+      litigation over estate, 117;
+      tremendous indictment by Vadillo, 120;
+      appeals to King and Council for Indies, 120;
+      seeks to oppress natives, 128;
+      second time Governor, 137;
+      makes more trouble, 148;
+      trouble with French privateers, 178.
+
+    Guzman, Nuñez de, royal treasurer, I, 109;
+      death and fortune, 115.
+
+    Guzman, Santos, spokesman of Constitutionalists, IV, 59.
+
+
+    Hammock, of Cuban origin, I, 10.
+
+    Hanebanilla, falls of, view, facing III, 110.
+
+    Harponville, Viscount Gustave, quoted, II, 189.
+
+    Harvard University, entertains Cuban teachers, IV, 163.
+
+    Hatuey, Cuban chief, leader against Spaniards, I, 62;
+      death, 63.
+
+    Havana: founded by Narvaez, I, 69;
+      De Soto's home and capital, 144;
+      rise in importance, 166;
+      Governor's permanent residence, 180;
+      inadequate defences, 183;
+      captured by Sores, 186;
+      protected by Mazariegos, 194;
+      sea wall proposed by Osorio, 202;
+      fortified by Menendez, 209;
+      "Key of the New World," 210;
+      commercial metropolis of West Indies, 216;
+      first hospital founded, 226;
+      San Francisco church, picture, facing 226;
+      building in Carreño's time, 231;
+      custom house, 231;
+      threatened by Drake, 243;
+      preparations for defence, 250;
+      officially called "city," 262;
+      coat of arms, 202;
+      primitive conditions, 264;
+      first theatrical performance, 264;
+      capital of western district, 275;
+      great fire, 277;
+      attacked by Pit Hein, 280;
+      described by John Chilton, 349;
+      first dockyard established, II, 8;
+      attacked by British under Admiral
+      Hosier, 9;
+      University founded, 11;
+      described by John Campbell, 14;
+      British expedition against in 1762, 46;
+      journal of siege, 54;
+      American troops engaged, 66;
+      surrender, 69;
+      terms, 71;
+      British occupation, 78;
+      great changes, 94;
+      description, 94;
+      view from Cabanas, facing, 96;
+      reoccupied by Spanish, 102;
+      hurricane, 115;
+      improvements in streets and buildings, 129;
+      view in Old Havana, facing 130;
+      street cleaning, and market, 169;
+      slaughter house removed, 194;
+      shopping, 242;
+      cafés, 243;
+      Tacon's public works, 365;
+      view of old Presidential Palace, facing III, 14;
+      view of the Prado, facing IV, 16;
+      besieged in War of Independence, 62;
+      view of bay and harbor, facing, 98;
+      old City Wall, picture, 122;
+      view of old and new buildings, facing 134;
+      General Ludlow's administration, 146;
+      Police reorganized, 150;
+      view of University, facing 164;
+      view of the new capitol, facing 204;
+      view of the President's home, facing 268;
+      view of the Academy of Arts and Crafts, facing 288;
+      new railroad terminal, 311.
+
+    Hay, John, epigram on revolutions, IV, 343
+
+    Hayti. See HISPANIOLA.
+
+    Hein, Pit, Dutch raider, I, 279.
+
+    Henderson, John, on Lopez's expedition, III, 64.
+
+    _Herald_, New York, on Cuban revolution, III, 89.
+
+    Heredia, José Maria. II, 274;
+      exiled, 344;
+      life and works, III, 318;
+      portrait, facing 318.
+
+    Hernani, Domingo, II, 170.
+
+    Herrera, historian, on Columbus's first landing, I, 12;
+      on Hatuey, 62;
+      description of West Indies, 345.
+
+    Herrera, Geronimo Bustamente de, I, 194.
+
+    Hevea, Aurelio, Secretary of Interior, IV, 320.
+
+    Hispaniola, Columbus at, I, 19;
+      revolution in, II, 173;
+      186;
+      effect upon Cuba, 189.
+
+    Hobson, Richmond P., exploit at Santiago, IV, 110.
+
+    Holleben, Dr. von, German Ambassador at Washington, intrigues of,
+      IV, 104.
+
+    Home Rule, proposed by Spain, IV, 6;
+      adopted, 8.
+
+    Horses introduced into Cuba, I, 63.
+
+    Hosier, Admiral, attacks Havana, I, 312;
+      II, 9.
+
+    Hospital, first in Havana, I, 226;
+      Belen founded, 318;
+      San Paula and San Francisco, 195.
+
+    "House of Fear," Governor's home, I, 156.
+
+    Humboldt, Alexander von, on slavery, II, 206;
+      on census, 277;
+      282;
+      on slave trade, 288.
+
+    Hurricanes, II, 115, 176, 310.
+
+    Hurtado, Lopez, royal treasurer, I, 116;
+      has Chaves removed, 162.
+
+
+    Ibarra, Carlos, defeats Dutch raiders, I, 288.
+
+    Incas, I, 7.
+
+    Independence, first conceived, II, 268;
+      326;
+      first revolts for, 343;
+      sentiment fostered by slave trade, 377;
+      proclaimed by Aguero, III, 72;
+      proclaimed by Cespedes at Yara, 155;
+      proposed by United States to Spain, 217;
+      War of Independence, IV, 1;
+      recognized by Spain, 119. See WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.
+
+    Intellectual life of Cuba, I, 360;
+      lack of productiveness in Sixteenth Century, 362;
+      Cuban backwardness, II, 235;
+      first important progress, 273;
+      great arising and splendid achievements, III, 317.
+
+    Insurrections. See REVOLUTIONS, and SLAVERY.
+
+    Intervention, Government of: First, established, IV, 132;
+      organized, 145;
+      Cuban Cabinet, 145;
+      saves island from famine, 146;
+      works of rehabilitation and reform, 148;
+      marriage law, 152;
+      concessions forbidden, 153;
+      census, 154;
+      civil governments of provinces, 179;
+      municipal elections ordered, 180;
+      electoral law 180;
+      final transactions, 246;
+      Second Government of Intervention, 281;
+      C. E. Magoon, Governor, 281;
+      Consulting Board, 284;
+      elections held, 289, 290;
+      commission for revising laws, 294;
+      controversy over church property, 294.
+
+    Intervention sought by Great Britain and France, III, 128;
+      by United States, IV, 106.
+
+    Iroquois, I, 7.
+
+    Irving, Washington, on Columbus's landing place, I, 12.
+
+    Isabella, Columbus's landing place, I, 3.
+
+    Isabella, Queen, portrait, I, 13.
+
+    Isidore of Seville, quoted, I, 4.
+
+    Islas de Arena, I, 11.
+
+    Isle of Pines, I, 26;
+      recognized as part of Cuba, 224;
+      status under Platt Amendment, IV, 255.
+
+    Italian settlers in Cuba, I, 169.
+
+    Ivonnet, Negro insurgent, IV, 307.
+
+
+    Jamaica, Columbus at, I, 20.
+
+    Japan. See CIPANGO.
+
+    Jaruco, founded, II, 131.
+
+    Jefferson, Thomas, on Cuban annexation, II, 260;
+      III, 132.
+
+    Jeronimite Order, made guardian of Indians, I, 78;
+      becomes their oppressor, 127.
+
+    Jesuits, controversy over, II, 86;
+      expulsion of, 111.
+
+    Jordan, Thomas, joins Cuban revolution, III, 211.
+
+    Jorrin, José Silverio, portrait, facing III, 308.
+
+    Jovellar, Joachim, Governor, III, 273;
+      proclaims state of siege, 289;
+      resigns, 290.
+
+    Juana, Columbus's first name for Cuba, I, 13.
+
+    Juan Luis Keys, I, 21.
+
+    Judiciary, reforms in, II, 110;
+      under Navarro, 142;
+      under Unzaga, 165;
+      under Leonard Wood, IV, 177.
+
+    Junta, Cuban, in United States, III, 91;
+      New York, IV, 2;
+      branches elsewhere, 3;
+      policy in enlisting men, 19.
+
+    Junta de Fomento, II, 178.
+
+    Juntas of the Laborers, III, 174.
+
+
+    Keppel, Gen. See ALBEMARLE.
+
+    Key Indians, I, 125;
+      expedition against, 126.
+
+    "Key of the New World and Bulwark of the Indies," I, 210.
+
+    Kindelan, Sebastian de, II, 197, 315.
+
+
+    Lacoste, Perfecto, Secretary of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce,
+      IV, 160.
+
+    Land tenure, II, 12;
+      absentee landlords, 214.
+
+    Lanuza, Gonzalez, Secretary of Justice, IV, 146;
+      portrait, 146.
+
+    Lares, Amador de, I, 93.
+
+    La Salle, in Cuba, I, 73.
+
+    Las Casas, Bartholomew, Apostle to the Indies, arrival in Cuba, I, 63;
+      portrait, 64;
+      denounces Narvaez, 66;
+      begins campaign against slavery, 75;
+      mission to Spain, 77;
+      before Ximenes, 77.
+
+    Las Casas, Luis de, Governor, II, 175;
+      portrait, 175;
+      death, 182.
+
+    Lasso de la Vega, Juan, Bishop, II, 17.
+
+    Lawton, Gen. Henry W., leads advance against Spanish, IV, 112;
+      Military Governor of Oriente, 139.
+
+    Lazear, Camp, established, IV, 172.
+
+    Lazear, Jesse W., hero and martyr in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172.
+
+    Ledesma, Francisco Rodriguez, Governor, I, 310.
+
+    Lee, Fitzhugh, Consul General at Havana, IV, 72;
+      reports on "concentration" policy of Weyler, 86;
+      asks for warship to protect Americans at Havana, 97;
+      _Maine_ sent, 98;
+      commands troops at Havana, 121.
+
+    Lee, Robert Edward, declines to join Lopez, III, 39.
+
+    Legrand, Pedro, invades Cuba, I, 302.
+
+    Leiva, Lopez, Secretary of Government, IV, 297.
+
+    Lemus, Jose Morales, III, 333.
+
+    Lendian, Evelio Rodriguez, educator, sketch and portrait, IV, 162.
+
+    Liberal Party, III, 306;
+      triumphant through revolution, IV, 285;
+      dissensions, 303;
+      conspiracy against election, 329.
+
+    Liberty Loans, Cuban subscriptions to, IV, 352.
+
+    Lighthouse service, under Mario G. Menocal, IV, 168.
+
+    Linares, Tomas de, first Rector of University of Havana, II, 11.
+
+    Lindsay, Forbes, quoted, II, 217.
+
+    Linschoten, Jan H. van, historian, quoted, I, 351.
+
+    Liquor, intoxicating, prohibited in 1780, II, 150.
+
+    Literary periodicals: _El Habanero_, III, 321;
+      _El Plantel_, 324;
+      _Cuban Review_, 325;
+      _Havana Review_, 329.
+
+    Literature, II, 245;
+      early works, 252;
+      poets, 274;
+      great development of activity, III, 315 et seq.
+
+    Little Inagua, I, 4.
+
+    Llorente, Pedro, in Constitutional Convention, IV, 188, 190.
+
+    Lobera, Juan de, commander of La Fuerza, I, 182;
+      desperate defence against Sores, 185.
+
+    Lolonois, pirate, I, 296.
+
+    Long Island. See FERDINANDINA.
+
+    Lopez, Narciso, sketch and portrait, III, 23;
+      in Venezuela, 24;
+      joins the Spanish
+      army, 26;
+      marries and settles in Cuba, 30;
+      against the Carlists in Spain, 31;
+      friend of Valdez, 31;
+      offices and honors, 33;
+      plans Cuban revolution, 36;
+      betrayed and fugitive, 37;
+      consults Jefferson Davis and Robert E. Lee, 38;
+      first American expedition, 39;
+      members of the party, 40;
+      activity in Southern States, 43;
+      expedition starts, 45;
+      proclamation to his men, 46;
+      lands at Cardenas, 49;
+      lack of Cuban support, 54;
+      reembarks, 56;
+      lands at Key West, 58;
+      arrested and tried, 60;
+      second expedition organized, 65;
+      betrayed, 67;
+      third expedition, 70;
+      final expedition organized, 91;
+      lands in Cuba, 98;
+      defeated and captured, 112;
+      death, 114;
+      results of his works, 116.
+
+    Lorenzo, Gen., Governor at Santiago, II, 347.
+
+    Lorraine, Sir Lambton, III, 280.
+
+    Los Rios, J. B. A. de, I, 310.
+
+    Lottery, National, established by José Miguel Gomez, IV, 310.
+
+    Louisiana, Franco-Spanish contest over, II, 117;
+      Ulloa sent from Cuba to take possession, 118;
+      O'Reilly sent, 123;
+      Uznaga sent, 126.
+
+    Louverture, Toussaint, II, 186.
+
+    Luaces, Joaquin Lorenzo, sketch and portrait, III, 330.
+
+    Ludlow, Gen. William, command and work at Havana, IV, 144.
+
+    Lugo, Pedro Benitez de, Governor, I, 331.
+
+    Luna y Sarmiento, Alvaro de, Governor, I, 290.
+
+    Luz y Caballero, José de la, "Father of the Cuban Revolution,"
+      III, 322;
+      great work for patriotic education, 323;
+      Portrait, frontispiece, Vol III.
+
+    Luzan, Gabriel de, Governor, I, 236;
+      controversy over La Fuerza, 237;
+      feud with Quiñones, 241;
+      unites with Quiñones to resist Drake, 243;
+      energetic action, 246;
+      tenure of office prolonged, 250;
+      end of term, 260.
+
+
+    Macaca, province of, I, 20.
+
+    Maceo, José Antonio, proclaims Provisional Government, IV, 15;
+      leader in War of Independence, 41;
+      commands Division of Oriente, 43;
+      defeats Campos, 46;
+      plans great campaign, 53;
+      invades Pinar del Rio, 61;
+      successful campaign, 73;
+      death, 74;
+      portrait, facing 74.
+
+    Maceo, José, IV, 41;
+      marches through Cuba, 76.
+
+    Machado, Eduard, treason of, III, 258.
+
+    Machete, used in battle, IV, 57.
+
+    Madison, James, on status of Cuba, III, 132.
+
+    Madriaga, Juan Ignacio, II, 59.
+
+    Magoon, Charles E., Provisional Governor, IV, 281;
+      his administration, 283;
+      promotes public works, 286;
+      takes census, 287;
+      election law, 287;
+      retires, 295.
+
+    Mahy, Nicolas, Governor, II, 315.
+
+    Mail service established, II, 107;
+      under American occupation, IV, 168.
+
+    Maine sent to Havana, IV, 98;
+      destruction of, 98;
+      investigation, 100.
+
+    Maldonado, Diego, I, 146.
+
+    Mandeville, Sir John, I, 20.
+
+    Mangon, identified with Mangi, I, 20.
+
+    Manners and Customs, II, 229 et seq.;
+      balls, 239;
+      shopping, 242;
+      relations of black and white races, 242;
+      cafés, 243;
+      early society, 248.
+
+    Monosca, Juan Saenz, Bishop, I, 301.
+
+    Manrique, Diego, Governor, II, 109.
+
+    Manzaneda y Salines, Severino de, Governor, I, 320.
+
+    Manzanillo, Declaration of Independence issued, III, 155.
+
+    Maraveo Ponce de Leon, Gomez de, I, 339.
+
+    Marco Polo, I, 4, 20.
+
+    Marcy, William L., policy toward Cuba, III, 136.
+
+    Mar de la Nuestra Señora, I, 18.
+
+    Mariguana. See GUANAHANI.
+
+    Marin, Sabas, succeeds Campos in command, IV, 63.
+
+    Markham, Sir Clements, on Columbus's first landing, I, 12.
+
+    Marmol, Donato, III, 173, 184.
+
+    Marquez, Pedro Menendez, I, 206.
+
+    Marriage law, reformed under American occupation, IV, 152;
+      controversy over, 153.
+
+    Marti, José, portrait, frontispiece, Vol IV;
+      leader of War of Independence, IV, 2;
+      his career, 9;
+      in New York, 11;
+      organizes Junta, 11;
+      goes to Cuba, 15;
+      death, 16;
+      his war manifesto, 17;
+      fulfilment of his ideals, 355.
+
+    Marti, José, secretary of War, portrait, IV, 360.
+
+    Marti, the pirate, II, 357.
+
+    Martinez Campos. See Campos.
+
+    Martinez, Dionisio de la Vega, Governor, II, 8;
+      inscription on La Punta, 14.
+
+    Martinez, Juan, I, 192.
+
+    Martyr, Peter, I, 53.
+
+    Maso, Bartolome, revolutionist, IV, 34;
+      rebukes Spotorno, 35;
+      President of Cuban Republic, 43;
+      Vice President of Council, 48;
+      President of Republic, 90;
+      candidate for Vice President, 242;
+      seeks Presidency, 243.
+
+    Mason, James M., U. S. Minister to France, III, 141.
+
+    Masse, E. M., describes slave trade, II, 202;
+      rural life, 216;
+      on Spanish policy toward Cuba, 227;
+      social morals, 230.
+
+    Matanzas, founded, I, 321;
+      meaning of name, 321.
+
+    Maura, Sr., proposes Cuban reforms, IV, 5.
+
+    McCullagh, John B., reorganizes Havana Police, IV, 150.
+
+    McKinley, William, President of United States, message of 1897
+      on Cuba, IV, 87;
+      declines European mediation, 103;
+      message for war, 104.
+
+    Maza, Enrique, assaults Hugh S. Gibson, IV, 308.
+
+    Mazariegos, Diego de, Governor, I, 191;
+      a scandalous moralist, 193;
+      defences against privateering, 193;
+      takes charge of La Fuerza, 195;
+      controversy with Governor of Florida, 196;
+      replaced by Sandoval, 197.
+
+    Medina, Fernando de, I, 111.
+
+    Mendez-Capote, Fernando, Secretary of Sanitation, portrait, IV, 360.
+
+    Mendieta, Carlos, candidate for Vice President, IV, 328;
+      rebels, 338.
+
+    Mendive, Rafael Maria de, III, 328.
+
+    Mendoza, Martin de, I, 204.
+
+    Menendez, Pedro de Aviles, I, 199;
+      commander of Spanish fleet, 200;
+      clash with Osorio, 201;
+      Governor of Cuba, 205;
+      dealing with increasing enemies, 208;
+      fortifies Havana, 209;
+      recalled to Spain, 213;
+      conflict with Bishop Castillo, 226.
+
+    Menocal, Aniceto G., portrait, IV, 50.
+
+    Menocal, Mario G., Assistant Secretary of War, IV, 49;
+      Chief of Police at Havana, 144, 150;
+      in charge of Lighthouse Service, 168;
+      candidate for President, 290;
+      slandered by Liberals, 291;
+      elected President, 312;
+      biography, 312;
+      portrait, facing 312;
+      view of birthplace, 313;
+      Cabinet, 320;
+      opinion of Cuba's needs, 321;
+      first message, 322;
+      conflict with Congress, 323;
+      important reforms, 324;
+      suppresses rebellion, 327;
+      candidate for reelection, 328;
+      vigorous action against Gomez's rebellion, 335;
+      declines American aid, 337;
+      escapes assassination, 339;
+      reelection confirmed, 341;
+      clemency to traitors, 342;
+      message on entering Great War, 346;
+      fulfilment of Marti's ideals, 355;
+      estimate of his administration, 356;
+      achievements for education, 357;
+      health, 357;
+      industry and commerce, 358;
+      finance, 359;
+      "from Velasquez to Menocal," 365.
+
+    Menocal, Señora, leadership of Cuban womanhood in Red Cross and
+      other work, IV, 354;
+      portrait, facing 352.
+
+    Mercedes, Maria de las, quoted, II, 174;
+      on slave insurrection, 368.
+
+    Merchan, Rafael, III, 174;
+      patriotic works, 335.
+
+    Merlin, Countess de. See MERCEDES.
+
+    _Merrimac_, sunk at Santiago, IV, 111.
+
+    Mesa, Hernando de, first Bishop, I, 122.
+
+    Mestre, José Manuel, sketch and portrait, III, 326.
+
+    Meza, Sr., Secretary of Public Instruction and Arts, IV, 297.
+
+    Mexico, discovered and explored from Cuba, I, 87;
+      designs upon Cuba, II, 262;
+      Cuban expedition against, 346;
+      warned off by United States, III, 134;
+      fall of Maximilian, 150.
+
+    Milanes, José Jacinto, sketch, portrait and works, III, 324.
+
+    Miles, Gen. Nelson A., prepares for invasion of Cuba, IV, 111.
+
+    Miranda, Francisco, II, 156;
+      with Bolivar, 335.
+
+    Miscegenation, II, 204.
+
+    Molina, Francisco, I, 290.
+
+    Monastic orders, I, 276.
+
+    Monroe Doctrine, foreshadowed, II, 256;
+      promulgated, 328.
+
+    Monroe, James, interest in Cuba, II, 257;
+      promulgates Doctrine, 328;
+      portrait, 329.
+
+    Monserrate Gate, Havana, picture, II, 241.
+
+    Montalvo, Gabriel, Governor, I, 215;
+      feud with Rojas family, 218;
+      investigated and retired, 219;
+      pleads for naval protection for Cuba, 220.
+
+    Montalvo, Lorenzo, II, 89.
+
+    Montalvo, Rafael, Secretary of Public Works, urges resistance
+      to revolutionists, IV, 270.
+
+    Montanes, Pedro Garcia, I, 292.
+
+    Montano See VELASQUEZ, J. M.
+
+    Montes, Garcia, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 254.
+
+    Montesino, Antonio, I, 78.
+
+    Montiel, Vasquez de, naval commander, I, 278.
+
+    Montoro, Rafael, Representative in Cortes, III, 308;
+      spokesman of Autonomists, IV, 59;
+      in Autonomist Cabinet, 95;
+      candidate for Vice President, 290;
+      attacked by Liberals, 291;
+      biography, 317;
+      portrait, facing 320.
+
+    Morales case, IV, 92.
+
+    Morales. Pedro de, commands at Santiago, I, 299.
+
+    Morals, strangely mixed with piety and vice, II, 229.
+
+    Morell, Pedro Augustino, Bishop, II, 53;
+      controversy with Albemarle, 83;
+      exiled, 87;
+      death, 113.
+
+    Moreno, Andres, Secretary of Foreign Affairs, IV, 90.
+
+    Moret law, abolishing slavery, III, 243.
+
+    Morgan, Henry, plans raid on Havana, I, 297;
+      later career, 303.
+
+    Morro Castle, Havana, picture, facing I, 180;
+      site of battery, 180;
+      tower built by Mazariegos, 196;
+      fortified against Drake, 249;
+      planned by Antonelli, 261;
+      besieged by British, II, 55.
+
+    Morro Castle, Santiago, built, I, 289;
+      picture, facing 298.
+
+    Mucaras, I, 11.
+
+    Muenster, geographer, I, 6.
+
+    Mugeres Islands, I, 84.
+
+    Munive, Andres de, I, 317.
+
+    Murgina y Mena, A. M., I, 317.
+
+    Music, early concerts at Havana, II, 239.
+
+
+    Nabia, Juan Alfonso de, I, 207.
+
+    Nancy Globe, I. 6.
+
+    Napoleon's designs upon Cuba, II, 203.
+
+    Naranjo, probable landing place of Columbus, I, 12.
+
+    Narvaez, Panfilo de, portrait, I, 63;
+      arrival in Cuba, 63;
+      campaign against natives, 65;
+      explores the island, 67;
+      errand to Spain, 77;
+      sent to Mexico to oppose Cortez, 98;
+      secures appointment of Councillors for life, 111.
+
+    Naval stations, U. S., in Cuba, IV, 255.
+
+    Navarrete, quoted, I, 3, 12.
+
+    Navarro, Diego Jose, Governor, II, 141, 150.
+
+    Navy, Spanish, in Cuban waters, III, 182, 225.
+
+    Negroes, imported as slaves, I, 170;
+      treatment of, 171;
+      slaves and free, increasing numbers of, 229. See SLAVERY.
+
+    New Orleans, anti-Spanish outbreak, III, 126.
+
+    New Spain. See MEXICO.
+
+    Newspapers: _Gazeta_, 1780, II, 157;
+      _Papel Periodico_, 179;
+      246;
+      publications in Paris, Madrid and New York, 354;
+      El Faro Industrial, III, 18;
+      Diario de la Marina, 18;
+      La Verdad, 18;
+      La Vos de Cuba, 260;
+      La Vos del Siglo, 232;
+      La Revolucion, 333;
+      El Siglo, 334;
+      El Laborante, 335.
+
+    Norsemen, American colonists, I, 7.
+
+    Nougaret, Jean Baptiste, quoted, II, 26.
+
+    Nuñez, Emilio, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12;
+      in war, 57;
+      Civil Governor of Havana, 179;
+      head of Veterans' Association, 305;
+      Secretary of Agriculture, 320;
+      candidate for Vice President, 328;
+      election confirmed, 341.
+
+    Nuñez, Enrique, Secretary of Health and Charities, IV, 320.
+
+
+    Ocampo, Sebastian de, circumnavigates Cuba, I, 54.
+
+    O'Donnell, George Leopold, Governor, II, 365;
+      his wife's sordid intrigues, 365.
+
+    Oglethorpe, Governor of Georgia, hostile to Spain, II, 24, 30.
+
+    O'Hara, Theodore, with Lopez, III, 46.
+
+    Ojeda, Alonzo de, I, 54;
+      introduces Christianity to Cuba, 55.
+
+    Olid, Christopher de, sent to Mexico, I, 88.
+
+    Olney, Richard. U. S. Secretary of State, attitude toward War
+      of Independence, IV, 71.
+
+    Oquendo, Antonio de, I, 281.
+
+    Orejon y Gaston, Francisco Davila de, Governor, I, 301, 310.
+
+    O'Reilly, Alexandre, sent to occupy Louisiana, II, 123;
+      ruthless rule, 125.
+
+    Orellano, Diego de, I, 86.
+
+    Ornofay, province of, I, 20.
+
+    Ortiz, Bartholomew, alcalde mayor, I, 146;
+      retires, 151.
+
+    Osorio, Garcia de Sandoval, Governor, I, 197;
+      conflict with Menendez, 199, 201;
+      retired, 205;
+      tried, 206.
+
+    Osorio, Sancho Pardo, I, 207.
+
+    Ostend Manifesto, III, 142.
+
+    Ovando, Alfonso de Caceres, I, 214;
+      revises law system, 233.
+
+    Ovando, Nicolas de, I, 54.
+
+
+    Palma, Tomas Estrada, head of Cuban Junta in New York, IV, 3;
+      Provisional President of Cuban Republic, 15;
+      Delegate at Large, 43;
+      rejects anything short of independence, 71;
+      candidate for Presidency, 241;
+      his career, 241;
+      elected President, 245;
+      arrival in Cuba, 247;
+      portrait, facing 248;
+      receives transfer of government from General Wood, 248;
+      Cabinet, 254;
+      first message, 254;
+      prosperous administration, 259;
+      non-partisan at first, 264;
+      forced toward Conservative party, 264;
+      reelected, 266;
+      refuses to believe insurrection impending, 266;
+      refuses to submit to blackmail, 268;
+      betrayed by Congress, 269;
+      acts too late, 270;
+      seeks American aid, 271;
+      interview with W. H. Taft, 276;
+      resigns Presidency, 280;
+      estimate of character and work, 282;
+      death, 284.
+
+    Palma y Romay, Ramon, III, 327.
+
+    Parra, Antonio, scientist, II, 252.
+
+    Parra, Maso, revolutionist, IV, 30.
+
+    Parties, political, in Cuba, IV, 59;
+      origin and characteristics of Conservative and Liberal, 181, 261.
+
+    Pasalodos, Damaso, Secretary to President, IV, 297
+
+    Pasamonte, Miguel, intrigues against Columbus, I, 58.
+
+    Paz, Doña de, marries Juan de Avila, I, 154.
+
+    Paz, Pedro de, I, 109.
+
+    Penalosa, Diego de, Governor, II, 31.
+
+    Penalver. See PENALOSA.
+
+    Penalver, Luis, Bishop of New Orleans, II, 179.
+
+    "Peninsulars," III, 152.
+
+    Pensacola, settlement of, I, 328;
+      seized by French, 342;
+      recovered by Spanish, II, 7;
+      defended by Galvez, 146.
+
+    Pereda, Gaspar Luis, Governor, I, 276.
+
+    Perez, Diego, repels privateers, I, 179.
+
+    Perez, Perico, revolutionist, IV, 15, 30, 78.
+
+    Perez de Zambrana, Luisa, sketch and portrait, III, 328.
+
+    Personal liberty restricted, III, 8.
+
+    Peru, good wishes for Cuban revolution, III, 223.
+
+    Philip II, King, appreciation of Cuba, I, 260.
+
+    Pieltain, Candido, Governor, III, 275.
+
+    Pierce, Franklin, President of United States, policy toward
+      Cuba, III, 136.
+
+    Pina, Severo, Secretary of Finance, IV, 48.
+
+    Pinar del Rio, city founded, II, 131;
+      Maceo invades province, IV, 61;
+      war in, 73.
+
+    Pineyro, Enrique, III, 333;
+      sketch and portrait, 334.
+
+    Pinto, Ramon, sketch and portrait, III, 62.
+
+    "Pirates of America," I, 296.
+
+    Pizarro, Francisco de, I, 54, 91.
+
+    Platt, Orville H., Senator, on relations of United States
+      and Cuba, IV, 198;
+      Amendment to Cuban Constitution, 199;
+      Amendment adopted, 203;
+      text of Amendment, 238.
+
+    Pococke, Sir George, expedition against Havana, II, 46.
+
+    Poey, Felipe, sketch and portrait, III, 315.
+
+    Point Lucrecia, I, 18.
+
+    Polavieja, Gen., Governor, III, 314.
+
+    Police, reorganized, II, 312;
+      under American occupation, IV, 150;
+      police courts established, 171.
+
+    Polk, James K., President of the United States, policy toward
+      Cuba, III, 135.
+
+    Polo y Bernabe, Spanish Minister at Washington, IV, 98.
+
+    Ponce de Leon, in Cuba, I, 73;
+      death, 139.
+
+    Ponce de Leon, of New York, in Cuban Junta, IV, 13.
+
+    Pope, efforts to maintain peace, between United States and
+      Spain, IV, 104.
+
+    Porro, Cornelio, treason of, III, 257.
+
+    Port Banes, I, 18.
+
+    Port Nipe, I, 18.
+
+    Port Nuevitas, I, 3.
+
+    Portuguese settlers, I, 168.
+
+    Portuondo, Rafael, Secretary for Foreign Affairs, IV, 48;
+      filibuster, 70.
+
+    Prado y Portocasso, Juan, Governor, II, 49;
+      neglect of duty, 52;
+      sentenced to degradation, 108.
+
+    Praga, Francisco de, I, 282.
+
+    Presidency, first candidates for, IV, 240;
+      Tomas Estrada Palma elected, 245;
+      José Miguel Gomez aspires to, 260;
+      candidates in 1906, 265;
+      Palma's resignation, 280;
+      Jose Miguel Gomez elected, 290;
+      fourth campaign, 312;
+      Mario G. Menocal elected, 312;
+      fifth campaign, 328;
+      General Menocal reelected, 341.
+
+    Prim, Gen., Spanish revolutionist, III, 145.
+
+    Printing, first press in Cuba, II, 245.
+
+    Privateers, French ravage Cuba, I, 177;
+      Havana and Santiago attacked, 178;
+      Havana looted, 179;
+      Jacques Sores, 183;
+      Havana captured, 186;
+      Santiago looted, 193;
+      French raids, 220, et seq.
+
+    Proctor, Redfield, Senator, investigates and reports on condition
+      of Cuba in War of Independence, IV, 87.
+
+    Procurators, appointment of, I, 112.
+
+    Protectorate, tripartite, refused by United States, II, 261;
+      III, 130, 133.
+
+    Provincial governments organized, IV, 179, confusion in, 292.
+
+    Public Works, promoted by General Wood, IV, 166;
+      by Magoon, 286.
+
+    Puerto Grande. See GUANTANAMO.
+
+    Puerto Principe, I, 18, 167.
+
+    Punta, La, first fortification, I, 203;
+      strengthened against Drake, 249;
+      fortress planned by Antonelli, 261;
+      picture, IV, 33.
+
+    Punta Lucrecia, I, 3.
+
+    Punta Serafina, I, 22.
+
+
+    Queen's Gardens, I, 20.
+
+    Quero, Geronimo, I, 277.
+
+    Quesada, Gonzalo de, Secretary of Cuban Junta, IV, 3;
+      Minister to United States, 275.
+
+    Quesada, Manuel, sketch and portrait, III, 167;
+      proclamation, 169;
+      death, 262.
+
+    Quezo, Juan de, I, 113.
+
+    Quilez, J. M., Civil Governor of Pinar del Rio, IV, 179.
+
+    Quiñones, Diego Hernandez de, commander of fortifications at
+      Havana, I, 240;
+      feud with Luzan, 241;
+      unites with Luzan to resist Drake, 243.
+
+    Quiñones, Doña Leonora de, I, 117.
+
+
+    Rabi, Jesus, revolutionist, IV, 34, 42.
+
+    Railroads, first in Cuba, II, 343.
+
+    Raja, Vicente, Governor, I, 337.
+
+    Ramirez, Alejandro, sketch and portrait, II, 311.
+
+    Ramirez, Miguel, Bishop, partisan of Guzman, I, 120;
+      political activities and greed, 124.
+
+    Ramos, Gregorio, I, 274.
+
+    Ranzel, Diego, I, 295.
+
+    Recio, R. Lopez, Civil Governor of Camaguey, IV, 180.
+
+    Recio, Serafin, III, 86.
+
+    Reciprocity, secured by Roosevelt for Cuba, IV, 256.
+
+    "Reconcentrados," mortality among, IV, 86.
+
+    Red Cross, Cuban activities, IV, 353.
+
+    Redroban, Pedro de, I, 201.
+
+    Reed, Walter, in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172.
+
+    Reformists, Spanish, support Blanco's Autonomist policy, IV, 97.
+
+    Reggio, Andreas, II, 32.
+
+    Reno, George, in War of Independence, IV, 12;
+      running blockade, 21;
+      portrait, 21;
+      services in Great War, 351.
+
+    Renteria, Pedro de, partner of Las Casas, I, 75;
+      opposes slavery, 76.
+
+    Repartimiento, I, 70.
+
+    Republic of Cuba: proclaimed and organized, III, 157;
+      first representative Assembly, 161;
+      Constitution of 1868, 164;
+      first House of Representatives, 176;
+      Judiciary, 177;
+      legislation, 177;
+      army, 178;
+      fails to secure recognition, 203;
+      Government reorganized, 275;
+      after Treaty of Zanjon, 301;
+      reorganized in War of Independence, IV, 15;
+      Maso chosen President, 43;
+      Conventions of Yara and Najasa, 47;
+      Constitution adopted, 47;
+      Government reorganized, Cisneros President, 48;
+      capital at Las Tunas, 56;
+      removes to Cubitas, 72;
+      exercises functions of government, 72;
+      reorganized in 1897, 90;
+      after Spanish evacuation of island, 134;
+      disbanded, 135;
+      Constitutional Convention called, 185;
+      Constitution completed, 192;
+      relations with United States, 195;
+      Platt Amendment, 203;
+      enters Great War, 346.
+
+    Revolutions: Rise of spirit, II, 268;
+      in South America, 333;
+      "Soles de Bolivar," 341;
+      attempts to revolt, 344;
+      "Black Eagle," 346;
+      plans of Lopez, III, 36;
+      Lopez's first invasion, 49;
+      Aguero's insurrection, 72;
+      comments of New York _Herald_, 89;
+      Lopez's last expedition, 91;
+      results of his work, 116;
+      European interest, 125;
+      beginning of Ten Years' War. 155;
+      end of Ten Years' War, 299;
+      insurrection renewed, 308, 318;
+      War of Independence, IV, 1;
+      Sartorius Brothers, 4;
+      end of War of Independence, 116;
+      revolt against President Palma, 266;
+      ultimatum, 278;
+      government overthrown, 280;
+      Negro insurrection, 307;
+      conspiracy against President Menocal, 327;
+      great treason of José Miguel Gomez, 332;
+      Gomez captured, 337;
+      warnings from United States Government, 338;
+      revolutions denounced by United States, 343.
+
+    Revolutionary party, Cuban, IV, 1, 11.
+
+    Rey, Juan F. G., III, 40.
+
+    Riano y Gamboa, Francisco, Governor, I, 287.
+
+    Ribera, Diego de, I, 206;
+      work on La Fuerza, 209.
+
+    Ricafort, Mariano, Governor, II, 347.
+
+    Ricla, Conde de, Governor, II, 102;
+      retires, 109.
+
+    Rio de la Luna, I, 16.
+
+    Rio de Mares, I, 16.
+
+    Riva-Martiz, I, 279.
+
+    Rivera, Juan Ruiz, filibuster, IV, 70;
+      succeeds Maceo, 79.
+
+    Rivera, Ruiz, Secretary of Agriculture, Commerce and Industry, IV, 160.
+
+    Roa, feud with Villalobos, I, 323.
+
+    Rodas, Caballero de, Governor, III, 213;
+      emancipation decree, 242.
+
+    Rodney, Sir George, expedition to West Indies, II, 153.
+
+    Rodriguez, Alejandro, suppresses revolt, IV, 266.
+
+    Rodriguez, Laureano, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95.
+
+    Rojas, Alfonso de, I, 181.
+
+    Rojas, Gomez de, banished, I, 193;
+      Governor of La Fuerza, 217;
+      rebuilds Santiago, 258.
+
+    Rojas, Hernando de, expedition to Florida, I, 196.
+
+    Rojas, Juan Bautista de, royal treasurer, I, 218.
+
+    Rojas, Juan de, aid to Lady Isabel de Soto, I, 145;
+      commander at Havana, 183.
+
+    Rojas, Manuel de, Governor, I, 105;
+      adopts policy of "Cuba for the Cubans," 106;
+      second Governorship, 121;
+      dealings with Indians, 126;
+      noble endeavors frustrated, 130;
+      resigns, 135;
+      the King's unique tribute to him, 135.
+
+    Roldan, Francisco Dominguez, Secretary of Public Instruction,
+      sketch and portrait, IV, 357.
+
+    Roldan, José Gonzalo, III, 328.
+
+    Roloff, Carlos, revolutionist, IV, 45;
+      Secretary of War, 48;
+      filibuster, 70.
+
+    Romano Key, I, 18.
+
+    Romay, Tomas, introduces vaccination, II, 192;
+      portrait, facing 192.
+
+    Roncali, Federico, Governor, II, 366;
+      on Spanish interests in Cuba, 381.
+
+    Roosevelt, Theodore, at San Juan Hill, IV, 113;
+      portrait, 113;
+      President of United States, on relations with Cuba, 245;
+      estimate of General Wood's work in Cuba, 251;
+      fight with Congress for Cuban reciprocity, 256;
+      seeks to aid President Palma against revolutionists, 275;
+      letter to Quesada, 275.
+
+    Root, Elihu, Secretary of War, on Cuban Constitution, IV, 194;
+      on Cuban relations with United States, 197;
+      explains Platt Amendment, 201.
+
+    Rowan, A. S., messenger to Oriente, IV. 107.
+
+    Rubalcava, Manuel Justo, II, 274.
+
+    Rubens, Horatio, Counsel of Cuban Junta, IV, 3.
+
+    Rubios, Palacios, I, 78.
+
+    Ruiz, Joaquin, spy, IV, 91;
+      death, 92. See ARANGUREN.
+
+    Ruiz, Juan Fernandez, filibuster, IV, 70.
+
+    Rum Cay. See CONCEPTION.
+
+    Rural Guards, organized by General Wood, IV, 144;
+      efficiency of, 301.
+
+    Ruysch, geographer, I, 6.
+
+
+    Saavedra, Juan Esquiro, I, 278.
+
+    Sabinal Key, I, 18.
+
+    Saco, José Antonio, pioneer of Independence, II, 378;
+      portrait, facing 378;
+      literary and patriotic work, III, 325, 327.
+
+    Sagasta, Praxedes, Spanish Premier, proposes Cuban reforms, IV, 6;
+      resigns, 36.
+
+    Saint Augustine, expedition against, I, 332.
+
+    Saint Mery, M. de, search for tomb of Columbus, I, 34.
+
+    Salamanca, Juan de, Governor, I, 295;
+      promotes industries, 300.
+
+    Salamanca y Negrete, Manuel, Governor, III, 314.
+
+    Salaries, some early, I, 263.
+
+    Salas, Indalacio, IV, 21.
+
+    Salazar. See SOMERUELOS.
+
+    Salcedo, Bishop, controversy with Governor Tejada, I, 262.
+
+    Sama Point, I, 4.
+
+    Samana. See GUANAHANI.
+
+    Sampson, William T., Admiral, in Spanish-American War, IV, 110;
+      at Santiago, 114;
+      portrait, 115.
+
+    Sanchez, Bartolome, makes plans for La
+      Fuerza, I, 194;
+      begins building, 195;
+      feud with Mazariegos, 197.
+
+    Sanchez, Bernabe, II, 345.
+
+    Sancti Spiritus, founded by Velasquez, I, 68, 168.
+
+    Sandoval, Garcia Osorio, Governor, I, 197. See OSARIO.
+
+    Sanitation, undertaken by Guemez, II, 18;
+      vaccination introduced by Dr. Romay. 192;
+      bad conditions, III, 313;
+      General Wood at Santiago, IV, 142;
+      achievements under President Menocal, 357.
+
+    Sanguilly, Julio, falls in leading revolution, IV, 29, 55.
+
+    Sanguilly, Manuel, in Constitutional Convention, IV, 190.
+
+    San Lazaro watchtower, picture, I, 155;
+      fortified against Drake, 248.
+
+    San Salvador. See GUANAHANI.
+
+    Santa Clara, Conde de, Governor, II, 194, 300.
+
+    Santa Crux del Sur, I, 20.
+
+    Santa Cruz, Francisco, I, 111.
+
+    Santiago de Cuba, Columbus at, I, 19;
+      founded by Velasquez, 68;
+      second capital of island, 69;
+      seat of gold refining, 80;
+      site of cathedral, 123;
+      condition in Angulo's time, 166;
+      looted by privateers, 193;
+      fortified by Menendez, 203;
+      raided and destroyed by French, 256;
+      rebuilt by Gomez de Rojas, 258;
+      capital of Eastern District, 275;
+      Morro Castle built, 289;
+      captured by British, 299;
+      attacked by Franquinay, 310;
+      attacked by Admiral Vernon, II, 29;
+      literary activities, 169;
+      great improvements made, 180;
+      battles near in War of Independence, IV, 112;
+      naval battle, 114;
+      General Wood's administration, 135;
+      great work for sanitation, 142.
+
+    Santiago, battle of, IV, 114.
+
+    Santiago, sunset scene, facing III, 280.
+
+    Santillan, Diego, Governor, I, 205.
+
+    Santo Domingo See HISPANIOLA.
+
+    Sanudo, Luis, Governor, I, 336.
+
+    Sarmiento. Diego de, Bishop, makes trouble, I, 149, 152.
+
+    Saunders, Romulus M., sounds Spain on purchase of Cuba, III, 135.
+
+    Sartorius, Manuel and Ricardo, revolutionists, IV, 4.
+
+    Savine, Albert, on British designs on Cuba, II, 40.
+
+    Schley, Winfield S., Admiral, in Spanish-American War, IV, 110;
+      portrait, 110;
+      at Santiago, 114.
+
+    Schoener's globe, I, 5.
+
+    Schools, backward condition of, II, 174, 244, 312. See EDUCATION.
+
+    Shafter, W. R., General, leads American army into Cuba, IV, 111.
+
+    Shipbuilding at Havana, II, 8, 33, 113, 300.
+
+    Sickles, Daniel E., Minister to Spain, offers mediation, III, 217.
+
+    Silva, Manuel, Secretary of Interior, IV, 90.
+
+    Slave Insurrection, II, 13;
+      III, 367, et seq.
+
+    Slavery, begun in Repartimiento system, I, 70;
+      not sanctioned by King, 82;
+      slave trading begun, 83;
+      growth and regulation, 170;
+      oppressive policy of Spain, 266;
+      the "Assiento," II, 2;
+      great growth
+      of trade, 22;
+      gross abuses, 202;
+      described by Masse, 202;
+      census of slaves, 204;
+      rise of emancipation movement, 206;
+      rights of slaves defined by King, 210;
+      African trade forbidden, 285;
+      Negro census, 286;
+      early records of trade, 288;
+      Humboldt on, 288;
+      statistics of trade, 289 et seq.;
+      domestic relations of slaves, 292;
+      dangers of system denounced, 320;
+      official complicity in illegal trade, 366;
+      slave insurrection, 367;
+      inhuman suppression by government, 374 et seq.;
+      emancipation by revolution of 1868, 159;
+      United States urges Spain to abolish slavery, 242;
+      Rodas's decrees, 242;
+      Moret law, 243.
+
+    Smith, Caleb. publishes book on West Indies, II, 37.
+
+    Smuggling, II, 133.
+
+    "Sociedad de Amigos," II, 169.
+
+    "Sociedad Patriotica," II, 166.
+
+    "Sociedad Patriotica y Economica," II, 178.
+
+    Society of Progress, II, 78.
+
+    Solano, José de, naval commander, II, 147.
+
+    "Soles de Bolivar," II, 341;
+      attempts to suppress, 343.
+
+    Solorzano, Juan del Hoya, I, 337;
+      II, 10.
+
+    Someruelos, Marquis of, Governor, II, 196, 301.
+
+    Sores, Jacques, French raider, II, 183;
+      attacks Havana, 184;
+      captures city, 186.
+
+    Soto, Antonio de, I, 292.
+
+    Soto, Diego de, I, 109, 217.
+
+    Soto, Hernando de, Governor and Adelantado, I, 140;
+      portrait, 140;
+      arrival in Cuba, 141;
+      tour of island, 142;
+      makes Havana his home, 144;
+      chiefly interested in Florida, 144;
+      sails for Florida, 145;
+      his fate in Mississippi, 147;
+      trouble with Indians, 148.
+
+    Soto, Lady Isabel de, I, 141;
+      her vigil at La Fuerza, 147;
+      death, 149.
+
+    Soto, Luis de, I, 141.
+
+    Soulé, Pierre, Minister to Spain, III, 137;
+      Indiscretions, 138;
+      Ostend Manifesto, 142.
+
+    South Sea Company, II, 21, 201.
+
+    Spain: Fiscal policy toward Cuba, I, 175;
+      wars with France, 177;
+      discriminations against Cuba, 266, 267;
+      protests against South Sea Company, II, 22;
+      course in American Revolution, 143;
+      war with Great Britain, 151;
+      attitude toward America, 159;
+      peace with Great Britain, 162;
+      restrictive laws, 224;
+      policy under Godoy, 265;
+      decline of power, 273;
+      seeks to pawn Cuba to Great Britain for loan, 330;
+      protests to United States against Lopez's expedition, III, 59;
+      seeks British protection, 129;
+      refuses to sell Cuba, 135;
+      revolution against Bourbon dynasty, 145 et seq.;
+      rejects suggestion of American mediation in Cuba, 219;
+      seeks American mediation, 293;
+      strives to placate Cuba, IV, 5;
+      crisis over Cuban affairs, 35;
+      attitude toward War of Independence, 40;
+      considers Autonomy, 71;
+      Cabinet crisis of 1897, 88;
+      proposes joint investigation of Maine disaster, 100;
+      at war with United States, 106;
+      makes Treaty of Paris, relinquishing Cuba, 118.
+
+    Spanish-American War: causes of, IV, 105;
+      declared, 106;
+      blockade of Cuban coast, 110;
+      landing of American army in Cuba, 111;
+      fighting near Santiago, 112;
+      fort at El Caney, picture, 112;
+      San Juan Hill, battle, 113;
+      San Juan Hill, picture of monument, 114;
+      naval battle of Santiago, 115;
+      peace negotiations, 116;
+      "Peace Tree," picture, 116;
+      treaty of peace, 118.
+
+    Spanish literature in XVI century, I, 360.
+
+    Spotorno, Juan Bautista, seeks peace, rebuked by Maso, IV, 35.
+
+    Steinhart, Frank, American consul, advises President Palma to
+      ask for American aid, IV, 271;
+      correspondence with State Department, 272.
+
+    Stock raising, early attention to, I, 173, 224;
+      development of, 220.
+
+    Stokes, W. E. D., aids War of Independence, IV, 14.
+
+    Students, murder of by Volunteers, III, 260.
+
+    Suarez y Romero, Anselmo, III, 326.
+
+    Sugar, Industry begun under Velasquez, I, 175, 224;
+      growth of industry, 265;
+      primitive methods, II, 222;
+      growth, III, 3;
+      great development under President Menocal, IV, 358.
+
+    "Suma de Geografia," of Enciso, I, 54.
+
+    Sumana, Diego de, I, 111.
+
+
+    Tacon, Miguel, Governor, II, 347;
+      despotic fury, 348;
+      conflict with Lorenzo, 349;
+      public works, 355;
+      fish market, 357;
+      melodramatic administration of justice, 359.
+
+    Taft, William H., Secretary of War of United States, intervenes
+      in revolution, IV, 272;
+      arrives at Havana, 275;
+      negotiates with President Palma and the revolutionists, 276;
+      portrait, 276;
+      conveys ultimatum of revolutionists to President Palma, 279;
+      accepts President Palma's resignation, 280;
+      pardons revolutionists, 280;
+      unfortunate policy, 283.
+
+    Tainan, Antillan stock, I, 8.
+
+    Tamayo, Diego, Secretary of State, IV, 159;
+      Secretary of Government, 254.
+
+    Tamayo, Rodrigo de, I, 126.
+
+    Tariff, after British occupation, II, 106;
+      reduction, 141;
+      oppressive duties. III, 5;
+      under American occupation, IV, 183.
+
+    Taxation, revolt against, II, 197;
+      "reforms," 342;
+      oppressive burdens, III, 6;
+      increase in Ten Years' War, 207;
+      evasion of, 312;
+      under American intervention, IV, 151.
+
+    Taylor, Hannis, American Minister at Madrid, IV, 33.
+
+    Tejada, Juan de, Governor, I, 261;
+      great works for Cuba, 262;
+      resigns, 263.
+
+    Teneza, Dr. Francisco, Protomedico, I, 336.
+
+    Ten Years' War, III, 155 et seq.;
+      first battles, 184;
+      aid from United States, 211;
+      offers of American mediation, 217;
+      rejected, 219;
+      campaigns of destruction, 222;
+      losses reported, 290;
+      end in Treaty of Zanjon, 299;
+      losses, 304.
+
+    Terry, Emilio, Secretary of Agriculture, IV, 254.
+
+    Theatres, first performance in Cuba, I, 264;
+      first theatre built, II, 130, 236.
+
+    Thrasher, J. S., on census, II, 283.
+
+    Tines y Fuertes, Juan Antonio, Governor, II, 31.
+
+    Tobacco, early use, I, 9;
+      culture promoted, 300;
+      monopoly, 334;
+      "Tobacco War," 338;
+      effects of monopoly, II, 221.
+
+    Tobar, Nuñez, I, 141, 143.
+
+    Tolon, Miguel de, III, 330.
+
+    Toltecs, I, 7.
+
+    Tomayo, Esteban, revolutionist, IV, 34.
+
+    Torquemada, Garcia de, I, 239;
+      investigates Luzan, 241.
+
+    Torre, Marquis de la, Governor, II, 127;
+      work for Havana, 129;
+      death, 133.
+
+    Torres Ayala, Laureano de, Governor, I, 334;
+      reappointed, 337.
+
+    Torres, Gaspar de, Governor, I, 234;
+      conflict with Rojas family, 235;
+      absconds, 235.
+
+    Torres, Rodrigo de, naval commander, II, 34.
+
+    Torriente, Cosimo de la, Secretary of Government, IV, 320.
+
+    Toscanelli, I, 4.
+
+    Treaty of Paris, IV, 118.
+
+    Tres Palacios, Felipe Jose de, Bishop, II, 174.
+
+    Tribune, New York, describes revolutionary leaders, III, 173.
+
+    Trinidad, founded by Velasquez, I, 68, 168;
+      great fire, II, 177.
+
+    Trocha, begun by Campos, IV, 44;
+      Weyler's, 73.
+
+    Troncoso, Bernardo, Governor, II, 168.
+
+    Turnbull, David, British consul, II, 364;
+      complicity in slave insurrection, 372.
+
+
+    Ubite, Juan de, Bishop, I, 123.
+
+    Ulloa, Antonio de, sent to take possession of Louisiana, II, 118;
+      arbitrary conduct, 120.
+
+    Union Constitutionalists, III, 306.
+
+    United States, early relations with Cuba, II, 254;
+      first suggestion of annexation, 257;
+      John Quincy Adams's policy, 258;
+      Jefferson's policy, 260;
+      Clay's policy, 261;
+      representations to Colombia and Mexico, 262;
+      Buchanan's policy, 263;
+      Monroe Doctrine, 328;
+      consuls not admitted to Cuba, 330;
+      Van Buren's policy, 331;
+      growth of commerce with Cuba, III, 22;
+      President Taylor's proclamation against filibustering, 41;
+      course toward Lopez, 60;
+      attitude toward Cuban revolutionists, 123;
+      division of sentiment between North and South, 124;
+      policy of Edward Everett, 130;
+      overtures for purchase of Cuba, 135;
+      end of Civil War, 151;
+      new policy toward Cuba, 151;
+      recognition denied to revolution, 172;
+      aid and sympathy given secretly, 195;
+      Cuban appeals for recognition, 200;
+      recognition denied, 203;
+      protests against Rodas's decrees, 216;
+      offers of mediation, 217;
+      rejected by Spain, 219;
+      increasing interest and sympathy with revolutionists, 273;
+      warning to Spanish Government, 291;
+      effect of reciprocity upon Cuba, 313;
+      attitude toward War of Independence, IV, 27, 70;
+      Congress favors recognition, 70;
+      tender of good
+      offices, 71;
+      President Cleveland's message of 1896, 79;
+      appropriation for relief of victims of "concentration" policy, 86;
+      President McKinley's message of 1897, 87;
+      sensation at destruction of _Maine_, 99;
+      declaration of war against Spain, 106;
+      Treaty of Paris, 118;
+      establishment of first Government of Intervention, 132;
+      relations with Republic of Cuba, 195;
+      protectorate to be retained, 196;
+      Platt Amendment, 199;
+      mischief-making intrigues, 200;
+      naval stations in Cuba, 255;
+      reciprocity, 256;
+      second Intervention, 281;
+      warning to José Miguel Gomez, 305;
+      asks settlement of claims, 308;
+      Chargé d'Affaires assaulted, 308;
+      supervision of Cuban legislation, 326;
+      warning to revolutionists, 339;
+      attitude toward Gomez revolution, 343.
+
+    University of Havana, founded, II, 11.
+
+    Unzaga, Luis de, Governor, II, 157.
+
+    Urrutia, historian, quoted, I, 300.
+
+    Urrutia, Sancho de, I, 111.
+
+    Utrecht, Treaty of, I, 326;
+      begins new era, II, 1.
+
+    Uznaga, Luis de, sent to rule Louisiana, II, 126;
+      reforms, 165.
+
+
+    Vaca, Cabeza de, I, 140.
+
+    Vadillo, Juan, declines to investigate Guzman, I, 118;
+      temporary Governor, 119;
+      tremendous indictment of Guzman, 120;
+      retires after good work, 121;
+      clash with Bishop Ramirez, 124.
+
+    Valdes, historian, quoted, II, 175.
+
+    Valdes, Gabriel de la Conception, III, 325.
+
+    Valdes, Jeronimo, Bishop, I, 335.
+
+    Valdes, Pedro de, Governor, I, 202, 272;
+      retires, 276.
+
+    Valdes, Geronimo, Governor, II, 364.
+
+    Valdueza, Marquis de, I, 281.
+
+    Valiente, José Pablo, II, 170, 180.
+
+    Valiente, Juan Bautista, Governor of Santiago, II, 180.
+
+    Vallizo, Diego, I, 277.
+
+    Valmaseda, Count, Governor, proclamation against revolution, III,
+      171, 270;
+      recalled for barbarities, 273.
+
+    Van Buren, Martin, on United States and Cuba, II, 331.
+
+    Vandeval, Nicolas C., I, 331, 333.
+
+    Varela, Felix, sketch and portrait, III, 320;
+      works, 321.
+
+    Varnhagen, F. A. de, quoted, I, 2.
+
+    Varona, Bernabe de, sketch and portrait, III, 178.
+
+    Varona, José Enrique, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 159;
+      Vice President, 312;
+      biography, 316;
+      portrait, facing 316.
+
+    Varona, Pepe Jerez, chief of secret service, IV, 268.
+
+    Vasquez, Juan, I, 330.
+
+    Vedado, view in, IV, 176.
+
+    Vega, Pedro Guerra de la, I, 243;
+      asks fugitives to aid in defence against Drake, 248.
+
+    Velasco, Francisco de Aguero, II, 345.
+
+    Velasco, Luis Vicente, defender of Morro against British, II, 58;
+      signal valor, 61;
+      death, 67.
+
+    Velasquez, Antonio, errand to Spain, I, 77
+
+    Velasquez, Bernardino, I, 115.
+
+    Velasquez, Diego, first Governor of Cuba, I, 59;
+      portrait, 59;
+      colonizes Cuba, 60;
+      hostilities with natives, 61, explores the island, 67;
+      marriage and bereavement, 68;
+      founds various towns, 68;
+      begins Cuban commerce, 68;
+      organizes government, 69;
+      favored by King Ferdinand, 73;
+      appointed Adelantado, 74;
+      seeks to rule Yucatan and Mexico, 85;
+      recalls Grijalva, 88;
+      quarrels with Cortez, 91;
+      sends Cortez to explore Mexico, 92, 94;
+      seeks to intercept and recall Cortez, 97;
+      sends Narvaez to Mexico, 98;
+      removed from office by Diego Columbus, 100;
+      restored by King, 102;
+      death and epitaph, 103;
+      posthumous arraignment by Altamarino, 107;
+      convicted and condemned, 108.
+
+    Velasquez, Juan Montano, Governor, I, 293.
+
+    Velez Garcia, Secretary of State, IV, 297.
+
+    Velez y Herrera, Ramon, III, 324.
+
+    Venegas, Francisco, Governor, I, 278.
+
+    Vernon, Edward, Admiral, expedition to Darien, II 27;
+      Invasion of Cuba, 29.
+
+    Viamonte, Bitrian, Governor, I, 286.
+
+    Viana y Hinojosa, Diego de, Governor, I, 317.
+
+    Victory loan, Cuban subscriptions to, IV, 353.
+
+    Villa Clara, founded, I, 321.
+
+    Villafana, attempts to assassinate Cortez, I, 99.
+
+    Villafana, Angelo de, Governor of Florida, controversy with
+      Mazariegos, I, 196.
+
+    Villalba y Toledo, Diego de, Governor, I, 290.
+
+    Villalobos, Governor, feud with Roa, I, 323.
+
+    Villalon, José Ramon, in Cuban Junta, IV, 13;
+      Secretary of Public Works, 160, 330.
+
+    Villalon Park, scene in, IV, 247.
+
+    Villanueva, Count de, II, 342.
+
+    Villapando, Bernardino de, Bishop, I, 225.
+
+    Villarin, Pedro Alvarez de, Governor, I, 333.
+
+    Villaverde, Cirillo, III, 327.
+
+    Villaverde, Juan de, Governor of Santiago, I, 276.
+
+    Villegas, Diaz de, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 297;
+      resigns, 302.
+
+    Villuendas, Enrique, in Constitutional Convention, IV, 188;
+      secretary, 189.
+
+    Virginius, capture of, III, 277;
+      butchery of officers and crew, 278 et seq.;
+      British intervention, 280;
+      list of passengers, 281;
+      diplomatic negotiations over, 283.
+
+    Vives, Francisco, Governor, II, 317;
+      despotism, 317;
+      expedition against Mexico, 346.
+
+    Viyuri, Luis, II, 197.
+
+    Volunteers, organized, III, 152;
+      murder Arango, 188;
+      have Dulce recalled, 213;
+      cause murder of Zenea, 252;
+      increased activities, 260;
+      murder of students, 261.
+
+
+    War of Independence, IV, i, 8;
+      circumstances of beginning, 9;
+      finances, 14;
+      Republic of Cuba proclaimed, 15;
+      attitude of Cuban people, 22;
+      actual outbreak, 29;
+      martial law proclaimed, 30;
+      Spanish forces in Cuba, 31;
+      arrival and policy of Martinez Campos, 38;
+      Gomez and Maceo begin great campaign, 53;
+      Spanish defeated, and reenforced, 55;
+      campaign of devastation, 60;
+      entire island involved, 61;
+      fall of Campos, 63;
+      Weyler in command, 66;
+      destruction by both sides, 68;
+      losses, 90;
+      entry of United States, 107;
+      attitude of Cubans toward American intervention, 108;
+      end of war, 116.
+
+    Watling's Island. See GUANAHANI.
+
+    Wax, development of Industry, II, 132.
+
+    Webster, Daniel, negotiations with Spain, III, 126.
+
+    Weyler y Nicolau, Valeriano, Governor, IV, 65;
+      portrait, 66;
+      harsh decree, 66;
+      conquers Pinar del Rio. 83;
+      "concentration" policy, 85;
+      recalled, 88.
+
+    Wheeler, Gen. Joseph, at Santiago, IV, 113, 115.
+
+    White, Col. G. W., with Lopez, III, 40.
+
+    Whitney, Henry, messenger to Gomez, IV, 107.
+
+    Williams, Ramon O., United States consul at Havana, IV, 32;
+      acts in behalf of Americans in Cuba, 72;
+      opposes sending _Maine_ to Havana, 100.
+
+    Wittemeyer, Major, reports on Gomez revolution to Washington
+      government, IV, 336;
+      offers President Menocal aid of United States, 337.
+
+    Wood, General Leonard, at San Juan Hill, IV, 113;
+      Military Governor of Santiago, 135;
+      his previous career, 140;
+      unique responsibility and power, 141;
+      dealing with pestilence, 142;
+      organizes Rural Guards, 144;
+      portrait, facing 158;
+      Military Governor of Cuba, 158;
+      well received by Cubans, 158;
+      estimate of _La Lucha_, 158;
+      his Cabinet, 159;
+      comments on his appointments, 160;
+      reorganization of school system, 161;
+      promotes public works, 166;
+      Dady contract dispute, 171;
+      applies Finlay's yellow fever theory with great success, 171;
+      reform of jurisprudence, 177;
+      organizes Provincial governments, 179;
+      holds municipal elections, 180;
+      promulgates election law, 181;
+      calls Constitutional Convention, 185;
+      calls for general election, 240;
+      his comments on election, 245;
+      announces end of American occupation, 246;
+      surrenders government of Cuba to
+      Cubans, 249;
+      President Roosevelt's estimate of his work, 251;
+      view of one of his mountain roads, facing 358.
+
+    Woodford, Stewart L., United States Minister to Spain, IV, 103;
+      presents ultimatum and departs, 106.
+
+
+    Xagua, Gulf of, I, 21.
+
+    Ximenes, Cardinal and Regent, gives Las Casas hearing on Cuba, I, 77.
+
+
+    Yanez, Adolfo Saenz, Secretary of Agriculture and Public Works,
+      IV, 146.
+
+    Yellow Fever, first invasion, II, 51;
+      Dr. Finlay's theory applied by General Wood, IV, 171;
+      disease eliminated from island, 176.
+
+    Yero, Eduardo, Secretary of Public Instruction, IV, 254.
+
+    Ynestrosa, Juan de, I, 207.
+
+    Yniguez, Bernardino, I, 111.
+
+    Yucatan, islands source of slave trade, I, 83;
+      explored by Cordova, 84.
+
+    Yznaga, Jose Sanchez, III, 37.
+
+
+    Zaldo, Carlos, Secretary of State, IV, 254.
+
+    Zambrana, Ramon, III, 328.
+
+    Zanjon, Treaty of, III, 299.
+
+    Zapata, Peninsula of, visited by Columbus, I, 22.
+
+    Zarraga, Julian, filibuster, IV, 70.
+
+    Zayas, Alfredo, secretary of Constitutional Convention, IV, 189;
+      compact with José Miguel Gomez, 265;
+      spokesman of revolutionists against President Palma, 277;
+      elected Vice President, 290;
+      becomes Vice President, 297;
+      sketch and portrait, 300;
+      quarrel with Gomez, 306;
+      candidate for President, 328;
+      hints at revolution, 330.
+
+    Zayas, Francisco, Lieutenant Governor, I, 205;
+      resigns, 206.
+
+    Zayas, Francisco, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95.
+
+    Zayas, Juan B., killed in battle, IV, 78.
+
+    Zayas, Lincoln de, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12;
+      Superintendent of Schools, 162.
+
+    Zenea, Juan Clemente, sketch and portrait, III, 252;
+      murdered, 253;
+      his works, 332.
+
+    Zequiera y Arango, Manuel, II, 274.
+
+    Zipangu. See CIPANOO.
+
+    Zuazo, Alfonso de, appointed second Governor of Cuba, I, 100;
+      dismissed by King, 102.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Cuba, vol. 4, by 
+Willis Fletcher Johnson
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF CUBA, VOL. 4 ***
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+"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en" xml:lang="en">
+  <head>
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+<title>
+  The Project Gutenberg eBook of
+The History of Cuba, vol. 4, by Willis Fletcher Johnson.
+</title>
+<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" />
+<style type="text/css">
+ p {margin-top:.75em;text-align:justify;margin-bottom:.75em;text-indent:2%;}
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+.c {text-align:center;text-indent:0%;}
+
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+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's The History of Cuba, vol. 4, by Willis Fletcher Johnson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The History of Cuba, vol. 4
+
+Author: Willis Fletcher Johnson
+
+Release Date: October 8, 2010 [EBook #33848]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF CUBA, VOL. 4 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="note"
+style="background-color:#DEE6C9" class="sml">
+<tr><td>Etext transcriber's note:
+<p class="nind">Any of the images may be seen at an enlarged size by clicking on them.</p>
+
+<p class="nind">The use of
+Spanish accents in this text varies and has not been altered (ie. both
+Senor and Señor [tilde n], Senora and Señora [tilde n], José [acute
+accented letter e] and Jose appear; both Nunez and Nuñez [tilde n], Marti
+and Martí [acute accented i], Carreno and Carreño appear [tilde n].)</p>
+
+<p class="nind">Several typographical errors have been
+corrected (Almandares=>Almendares, Donate=>Donato, etc.).</p></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 367px;">
+<a href="images/i001.png">
+<img src="images/i001_sml.png" width="367" height="550" alt="JOSÉ MARTÍ
+
+The first great apostle and martyr of the Cuban War of Independence,
+José Martí, was born in Havana on January 28, 1853, and fell in battle
+at Dos Rios on May 19, 1895. He was a Professor of Literature, Doctor of
+Laws, economist, philosopher, essayist, journalist, poet, historian,
+statesman, tribune of the people, organizer of the final and triumphant
+cause of Cuban freedom. He suffered imprisonment in Spain and exile in
+Mexico, Guatemala, and the United States, doing his crowning work in the
+last-named country as the vitalizing and energizing head of the Cuban
+Junta in New York. His fame must be lasting as the nation which he
+founded, wide as the world which he adorned." title="" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">JOSÉ MARTÍ</span></div>
+
+<p class="caption">The first great apostle and martyr of the Cuban War of Independence,
+José Martí, was born in Havana on January 28, 1853, and fell in battle
+at Dos Rios on May 19, 1895. He was a Professor of Literature, Doctor of
+Laws, economist, philosopher, essayist, journalist, poet, historian,
+statesman, tribune of the people, organizer of the final and triumphant
+cause of Cuban freedom. He suffered imprisonment in Spain and exile in
+Mexico, Guatemala, and the United States, doing his crowning work in the
+last-named country as the vitalizing and energizing head of the Cuban
+Junta in New York. His fame must be lasting as the nation which he
+founded, wide as the world which he adorned.</p>
+
+<h1 class="red">THE<br />
+HISTORY OF CUBA</h1>
+
+<p class="cb top5">BY<br />
+WILLIS FLETCHER JOHNSON<br />
+A.M., L.H.D.<br />
+<small>Author of "A Century of Expansion," "Four Centuries of<br />
+the Panama Canal," "America's Foreign Relations"<br />
+Honorary Professor of the History of American Foreign<br />
+Relations in New York University</small><br />
+<br /><br />
+<i>WITH ILLUSTRATIONS</i><br /><br /><br />
+V<small>OLUME</small> F<small>OUR</small></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a href="images/ill_frontpage.png">
+<img src="images/ill_frontpage_sml.png" width="200" height="117" alt="colophon" title="colophon" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p class="cb"><small>NEW YORK</small><br />
+<span class="red">B. F. BUCK &amp; COMPANY, INC.</span><br />
+<small>156 F<small>IFTH</small> A<small>VENUE</small><br />
+1920</small></p>
+
+<p class="cb"><small>Copyright, 1920,<br />BY CENTURY HISTORY CO.<br />
+<i>All rights reserved</i></small></p>
+
+<p class="cb"><small>ENTERED AT STATIONERS HALL<br />LONDON, ENGLAND.</small></p>
+
+<p class="cb"><small>PRINTED IN U. S. A.</small></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="iii" id="iii">{iii}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h3>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="CONTENTS"
+style="width:80%;">
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+
+<tr class="sml90"><td><a href="#CHAPTER_I">C<small>HAPTER</small>&nbsp;I&mdash;</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_001">1</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="sml">Cuba for the Cubans&mdash;Era of the War of Independence&mdash;Organization of the
+Cuban Revolutionary Party&mdash;Vigilance of the Spanish Government&mdash;The
+Sartorius Uprising&mdash;The Abarzuza "Home Rule" Measure&mdash;Beginning of the
+War of Independence&mdash;José Marti, His Genius and His Work&mdash;Members of the
+Junta in New York&mdash;Independence the Aim&mdash;Marti's Departure for
+Cuba&mdash;Association with Maximo Gomez&mdash;Death of Marti&mdash;His Legacy of
+Ideals to Cuba.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="sml90"><td><a href="#CHAPTER_II">C<small>HAPTER</small>&nbsp;II&mdash;</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_019">19</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="sml">Aims and Methods of the Junta&mdash;Efforts to Avoid American
+Complications&mdash;Filibustering Expeditions&mdash;Contraband Messenger
+Service&mdash;Attitude of the Various Classes of the Cuban People Toward the
+Revolution&mdash;No Racial nor Partisan Differences&mdash;The Spanish Element&mdash;The
+Mass of the Cuban People United for National Independence.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="sml90"><td><a href="#CHAPTER_III">C<small>HAPTER</small>&nbsp;III&mdash;</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_029">29</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="sml">The First Uprising&mdash;Failure in Havana&mdash;Success in Oriente&mdash;Response of
+the Spanish Authorities&mdash;Superior Numbers of the Spanish Forces&mdash;Early
+Complications with the United States-Seeking Terms with the
+Patriots&mdash;Grim Reception of an Envoy&mdash;Ministerial Crisis at Madrid over
+Cuban Affairs&mdash;Martinez Campos, "Spain's Greatest Soldier," Sent to
+Cuba&mdash;His Conciliatory Policy&mdash;His Military Preparations&mdash;Antonio
+Maceo&mdash;Uprisings in Many Places&mdash;Provisional Government of the
+Patriots&mdash;Campos's Barricades&mdash;Campos Beaten by Maceo.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="sml90"><td><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">C<small>HAPTER</small>&nbsp;IV&mdash;</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_047">47</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="sml">Declaration of Cuban Independence&mdash;First Constitutional Convention&mdash;The
+First Government of Ministers&mdash;Founders of the Cuban
+Government&mdash;Desperate Efforts of Campos&mdash;Disadvantages of the
+Cubans&mdash;Plantation Work Forbidden&mdash;Campaigns by Maceo and Gomez&mdash;Losses
+of the Spaniards at Sea&mdash;Reenforcements from Spain Welcomed&mdash;Cuban
+Headquarters at Las Tunas&mdash;Invasion of Matanzas&mdash;Defeat and Narrow
+Escape of Campos&mdash;Action of the Autonomists&mdash;Loyalty Pledged to
+Campos&mdash;State of Siege in Havana&mdash;Campos Recalled to Spain.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="sml90"><td><a href="#CHAPTER_V">C<small>HAPTER</small>&nbsp;V&mdash;</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_065">65</a><span class="pagenumber"><a name="iv" id="iv">{iv}</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="sml">General Marin&mdash;General Weyler the New Captain-General&mdash;His Arrival and
+Remorseless Policy&mdash;Cuban Elections a Farce&mdash;The Trocha&mdash;A War of
+Ruthless Destruction&mdash;Many Filibustering Expeditions&mdash;Interest of the
+United States Government&mdash;Diplomatic Controversies&mdash;Efficiency of the
+Provisional Government&mdash;Strengthening the Trocha&mdash;Activity of Maceo&mdash;His
+Betrayal and Death&mdash;Campaigns of Gomez and Others&mdash;Calixto Garcia&mdash;The
+Great Advance Westward&mdash;President Cleveland's Significant Message to the
+United States Congress.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="sml90"><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">C<small>HAPTER</small>&nbsp;VI&mdash;</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_082">82</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="sml">Bad Effects of Maceo's Death&mdash;Weyler in the Field Against Gomez&mdash;Daring
+and Death of Bandera&mdash;Dissensions in the Camp of Gomez&mdash;Weyler's
+Concentration Policy&mdash;A Practical Attempt at Extermination&mdash;Senator
+Proctor's Observations&mdash;President McKinley's Message&mdash;Crisis in
+Spain&mdash;Weyler Recalled and Succeeded by Ramon Blanco&mdash;Further Attempts
+at Reform and Conciliation&mdash;Condition of Cuba&mdash;The Revolutionists
+Uncompromising&mdash;The Ruiz-Aranguren Tragedy&mdash;Organization of the
+Autonomist Government&mdash;Attitude of the Spaniards&mdash;Visit of the Maine to
+Havana&mdash;Destruction of the Vessel&mdash;The Investigations&mdash;Futile Efforts of
+the Autonomist Government</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="sml90"><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">C<small>HAPTER</small>&nbsp;VII&mdash;</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="sml">The Destruction of the Maine not the Cause of American
+Intervention&mdash;Causes Which Led to the War&mdash;Diplomatic
+Negotiations&mdash;German Intrigue&mdash;President McKinley's War Message&mdash;His
+Attitude Toward the Cuban People&mdash;Spanish Resentment&mdash;Declaration of
+War&mdash;American Agents Sent to Cuba&mdash;Attitude of Maximo Gomez&mdash;Supplies,
+not Troops, Wanted&mdash;Blockade of the Cuban Coast&mdash;Spanish Fleet at
+Santiago&mdash;Landing of the American Army&mdash;Operations at Santiago&mdash;Services
+of the "Rough Riders"&mdash;Naval Battle of Santiago&mdash;Surrender of the
+Spanish Army&mdash;The Armistice.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="sml90"><td><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">C<small>HAPTER</small>&nbsp;VIII&mdash;</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_118">118</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="sml">Departure of the Spanish Forces from Cuba&mdash;Treaty of Peace Between the
+United States and Spain&mdash;Cuba to be Made Independent&mdash;The Cuban
+Debt&mdash;First American Government of Intervention&mdash;The Roll of Spanish
+Rulers from Velasquez in 1512 to Castellanos in 1899&mdash;Relations between
+Americans and Cubans&mdash;Disbandment of the Provisional Government and
+Demobilization of the Cuban Army&mdash;A Mutinous Demonstration&mdash;Paying Off
+the Cuban Soldiers.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="sml90"><td><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">C<small>HAPTER</small>&nbsp;IX&mdash;</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_139">139</a><span class="pagenumber"><a name="v" id="v">{v}</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="sml">American Occupation of Cuba&mdash;General Wood's Administration at
+Santiago&mdash;His Antecedents and Preparation for His Great Work&mdash;A
+Formidable Undertaking&mdash;Conquering Pestilence&mdash;Organization of the Rural
+Guards&mdash;American Administration at Havana and Throughout the
+Island&mdash;Grave Problems Confronting General Brooke&mdash;Agricultural and
+Industrial Rehabilitation&mdash;Reorganizing Local Government&mdash;Triumphal
+Progress of Maximo Gomez&mdash;Unification of Sentiment Among the
+People&mdash;Finances of the Island&mdash;Church and State&mdash;Marriage
+Reform&mdash;Franchises Refused&mdash;The Census&mdash;Improving the School System.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="sml90"><td><a href="#CHAPTER_X">C<small>HAPTER</small>&nbsp;X&mdash;</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="sml">General Brooke Succeeded by General Leonard Wood&mdash;Favorable Reception of
+the Soldier-Statesman&mdash;A Cabinet of Cubans&mdash;Efficient Attention Paid to
+Public Education&mdash;Cuban Teachers at Harvard&mdash;Caring for Derelict
+Children&mdash;Public Works&mdash;Sanitation&mdash;Port
+Improvements&mdash;Roads&mdash;Paving&mdash;The Heroic Drama of the Conquest of Yellow
+Fever&mdash;Work of General Gorgas&mdash;A Home of Pestilence Transformed into a
+Sanitarium&mdash;Reforms in Court Procedure&mdash;Cleaning Up the Prisons&mdash;The
+First Election in Free Cuba&mdash;Rise of Political Parties&mdash;Taxation and the
+Tariff&mdash;Increase of Commerce.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="sml90"><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">C<small>HAPTER</small>&nbsp;XI&mdash;</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_185">185</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="sml">Preparations for Self-Government&mdash;Call for a Constitutional
+Convention&mdash;The Election&mdash;Meeting of the Convention&mdash;General Wood's
+Address&mdash;Organization of the Convention&mdash;Framing the
+Constitution&mdash;Debates over Church and State, and Presidential
+Qualifications&mdash;Signing of the Constitution&mdash;No Americans Present at the
+Convention&mdash;General Provisions of the Constitution&mdash;Relations between
+Cuba and the United States&mdash;Controversy between the Two
+Governments&mdash;Origin of the "Platt Amendment"&mdash;Attitude of the Cubans
+Toward It&mdash;Malign Agitation and Misrepresentation&mdash;A Mission to
+Washington&mdash;Final Adoption of the Amendment.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="sml90"><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">C<small>HAPTER</small>&nbsp;XII&mdash;</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_204">204</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="sml">Text of the Constitution of the Cuban Republic&mdash;The Nation, Its Form of
+Government, and the National Territory&mdash;Cubans and Foreigners&mdash;Bill of
+Rights&mdash;Sovereignty and Public Powers&mdash;The Legislature&mdash;The
+President&mdash;The Vice-President&mdash;The Secretaries of State&mdash;The Judicial
+Power&mdash;Provincial and Municipal Governments&mdash;Amendments.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="sml90"><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">C<small>HAPTER</small>&nbsp;XIII&mdash;</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_240">240</a><span class="pagenumber"><a name="vi" id="vi">{vi}</a></span>
+</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="sml">Election of the First Cuban Government&mdash;Candidates for the
+Presidency&mdash;Tomas Estrada Palma Chosen by Common Consent&mdash;General Maso's
+Candidacy&mdash;The Election&mdash;Close of the American Occupation&mdash;A Festal Week
+in Havana&mdash;Transfer of Authority to the Cuban Government&mdash;The Cuban Flag
+at Last Raised in Sovereignty of the Island&mdash;President Roosevelt's
+Estimate of General Wood's Work in Cuba&mdash;President Palma's Cabinet&mdash;His
+First Message&mdash;The United States Naval Station&mdash;Reciprocity Secured
+after Discreditable Delay at Washington.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="sml90"><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">C<small>HAPTER</small>&nbsp;XIV&mdash;</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_259">259</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="sml">Admirable Work of the Palma Administration&mdash;Rise of Sordid
+Factionalism&mdash;José Miguel Gomez, Alfredo Zayas and Orestes
+Ferrara&mdash;Character of the Liberal Party, and of the Conservative
+Party&mdash;Conspiracy to Discredit an Election&mdash;An Abortive
+Insurrection&mdash;Pino Guerra's Intrigues&mdash;The Rebellion of José Miguel
+Gomez&mdash;President Palma's Unpreparedness and Incredulity&mdash;His Faith in
+the People&mdash;The Crisis&mdash;Suggestions of the American
+Consul-General&mdash;American Intervention sought&mdash;Ships and Troops
+Sent&mdash;Arrival of Mr. Taft&mdash;His Negotiations with the Rebels&mdash;His
+Yielding to Their Threats&mdash;Resignation of Estrada Palma&mdash;Mr. Taft's
+Pardon to the Rebels&mdash;Charles E. Magoon Made Provisional
+Governor&mdash;Estimate of President Palma and His Administration.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="sml90"><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">C<small>HAPTER</small>&nbsp;XV&mdash;</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_283">283</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="sml">Mr. Magoon's Administration&mdash;Recognition of the Liberals&mdash;The Offices
+Filled with Liberal Placeholders&mdash;Execution of Many Public Works&mdash;A New
+Census Taken&mdash;New Electoral Law&mdash;Proportional Representation&mdash;New
+Elections Held&mdash;Split in the Liberal Party&mdash;The Presidential
+Campaign&mdash;Bargain between José Miguel Gomez and Alfredo Zayas&mdash;General
+Menocal and Dr. Montoro&mdash;The Victory of the Liberals&mdash;Changes in
+Provincial and Municipal Administrations&mdash;Revision of Laws&mdash;Settling
+Church Claims&mdash;End of the Second Intervention.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="sml90"><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">C<small>HAPTER</small>&nbsp;XVI&mdash;</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_297">297</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="sml">Administration of President José Miguel Gomez&mdash;His Cabinet Sketch of His
+Career&mdash;Sketch of Vice-President Zayas&mdash;Army Reorganization&mdash;New
+Laws&mdash;The President's Sensitiveness to Criticism&mdash;Officials in
+Politics&mdash;Charges of Profligacy and Corruption&mdash;Clash with the Veterans'
+Association&mdash;The United States Interested&mdash;Quarrels between Gomez and
+Zayas&mdash;Formidable Negro Revolt Suppressed&mdash;Reluctance to Settle
+Claims&mdash;Outrage Upon an American Diplomat&mdash;Amnesty Bill&mdash;The Lottery
+Established&mdash;The "Dragado" Scandal&mdash;The Railroad Terminal.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="sml90"><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">C<small>HAPTER</small>&nbsp;XVII&mdash;</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_312">312</a><span class="pagenumber"><a name="vii" id="vii">{vii}</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="sml">The Fourth Presidential Campaign&mdash;Candidacy and Career of Mario G.
+Menocal&mdash;His Brilliant Work in the War of Independence and in the Sugar
+Industry&mdash;Sketch of Enrique José Varona&mdash;Dr. Rafael Montoro's
+Distinguished Career&mdash;His Diplomatic Services and Literary
+Achievements&mdash;President Menocal's Cabinet&mdash;His Aims and Plans for His
+Administration&mdash;First Message to Congress&mdash;Factional Obstruction&mdash;Paying
+Off Old Debts&mdash;Trying to Abolish Gambling&mdash;The Civil
+Service&mdash;Controversy Over the Asbert Amnesty Bill&mdash;A Small Insurrection.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="sml90"><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">C<small>HAPTER</small>&nbsp;XVIII&mdash;</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_328">328</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="sml">Reelection of President Menocal&mdash;Features of the Campaign&mdash;Liberal
+Conspiracy to Invalidate the Election by Revolutionary Means&mdash;Disputed
+Elections&mdash;The Double Treason of José Miguel Gomez&mdash;Outbreak of a
+Carefully Planned Insurrection&mdash;Intrigues of Orestes Ferrara in the
+United States&mdash;Vigorous Military Action of President Menocal&mdash;American
+Assistance Wisely Declined&mdash;Capture of the Rebel Chieftain&mdash;Efforts of
+the Insurgents at Devastation&mdash;Continuance of the Rebellion by Carlos
+Mendieta&mdash;Dr. Ferrara Warned by the American Government&mdash;Attempts to
+Assassinate President Menocal&mdash;Clemency Shown to Criminals&mdash;Attitude of
+the United States Government&mdash;Some Plain Talk from Washington.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="sml90"><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">C<small>HAPTER</small>&nbsp;XIX&mdash;</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_346">346</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="sml">Cuba's Entry into the War of the Nations&mdash;President Menocal's War
+Message&mdash;Prompt Response of Congress&mdash;Sentiments of the Cuban
+People&mdash;German Propaganda&mdash;Attitude of the Church&mdash;Liberal Intrigues
+with Germans&mdash;Seizure of German Ships&mdash;Conservation and Increased
+Production of Food&mdash;Military Services&mdash;Generous Subscriptions to Liberty
+Loans&mdash;Mrs. Menocal's Leadership in Red Cross Work&mdash;Noble Activities of
+the Women of Cuba&mdash;Moral and Spiritual Effect of Cuba's Participation in
+the War.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr class="sml90"><td><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">C<small>HAPTER</small>&nbsp;XX&mdash;</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_355">355</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="sml">Marti's Epigram on the Revolution&mdash;How It has been Fulfilled by the
+Cuban Republic&mdash;The Sense of Responsibility&mdash;Progress in Popular
+Education as a Criterion&mdash;Great Gain in Health&mdash;Enormous Growth of the
+Sugar Industry&mdash;Commerce of the Island&mdash;Stable Finances&mdash;Sanitary
+Efficiency&mdash;Military Reorganization&mdash;Statesmanship of President
+Menocal&mdash;Cuba's Unique Situation Among the Countries of the
+Globe&mdash;Significance of the Record Which She has Made from Velasquez to
+Menocal.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="sml90" colspan="2" align="left"><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></td><td align="right">&mdash;<a href="#page_367">367</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="viii" id="viii">{viii}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="ix" id="ix">{ix}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>ILLUSTRATIONS</h3>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align="center" colspan="2">FULL PAGE PLATES</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>José Marti</td><td align="right"><i>Frontispiece</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="right" class="sml"><small>FACING<br />PAGE</small></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>The Prado</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_016">16</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Maximo Gomez</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_044">44</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>José Antonio Maceo</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_074">74</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Bay and Harbor of Havana</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_098">98</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Old and New in Havana</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_134">134</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Leonard Wood</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>University of Havana</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_164">164</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Carlos J. Finlay</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_172">172</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>The Capitol</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_204">204</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Tomas Estrada Palma</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_248">248</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>The President's Home</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_268">268</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>The Academy of Arts and Crafts</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_288">288</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Mario G. Menocal</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_312">312</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Enrique José Varona</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_316">316</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Rafael Montoro</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_320">320</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Senora Menocal</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_352">352</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Boneato Road, Oriente</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_358">358</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th align="center" colspan="2">TEXT EMBELLISHMENTS</th></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Ricardo del Monte</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_002">2</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Julian del Casal</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_006">6</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>José Ramon Villalon</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_013">13</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>George Reno</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_021">21</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>La Punta Fortress, Havana</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_033">33</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Aniceto G. Menocal</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_050">50</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>General Weyler</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_066">66</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>William McKinley</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_087">87</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Antonio Govin</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_095">95</a><span class="pagenumber"><a name="x" id="x">{x}</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Admiral Cervera</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Admiral Schley</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Old Fort at El Caney</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_112">112</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Theodore Roosevelt</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_113">113</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Monuments on San Juan Hill</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_114">114</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Admiral Sampson</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Peace Tree near Santiago</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_116">116</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Part of Old City Wall of Havana</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_122">122</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Gonzalez Lanuza</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_146">146</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Evelio Rodriguez Lendian</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_162">162</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Antonio Sanchez de Bustamente</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_165">165</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Almendares River, Havana</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_167">167</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Old Time Water Mill, Havana Province</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_169">169</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Street in Vedado, Suburb of Havana</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_176">176</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Aurelia Castillo de Gonzalez</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_192">192</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Scene in Villalon Park, Havana</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_247">247</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Flag of Cuba</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_250">250</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Coat of Arms of Cuba</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_251">251</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>William H. Taft</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_276">276</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>José Miguel Gomez</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_298">298</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Dr. Alfredo Zayas</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_300">300</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Birthplace of Mario G. Menocal</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_313">313</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Dr. Juan Guiteras</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_321">321</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>General D. Emilio Nuñez</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_328">328</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>José Luis Azcarata</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_341">341</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Francisco Dominguez Roldan</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_357">357</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>José A. del Cueto</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_359">359</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Dr. Fernandez Mendez-Capote</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_360">360</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>General José Marti</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_360">360</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Eugenio Sanchez Agramonte</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_362">362</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Academy of Sciences, Havana</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_364">364</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_001" id="page_001">{Page 1}</a></span></p>
+
+<h1>THE HISTORY OF CUBA</h1>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h3>
+
+<p>Cuba for Cuba must be the grateful theme of the present volume. We have
+seen the identification of the Queen of the Antilles with the Spanish
+discovery and conquest of America. We have traced the development of
+widespread international interests in that island, especially
+implicating the vital attention of at least four great powers. We have
+reviewed the origin and development of a peculiar relationship,
+frequently troubled but ultimately beneficent to both, between Cuba and
+the United States of America. Now, in the briefest of the four major
+epochs into which Cuban history is naturally divided, we shall have the
+welcome record of the achievement of Cuba's secure establishment among
+the sovereign nations of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The time for the War of Independence was well chosen. That conflict was,
+indeed, a necessary and inevitable sequel to the Ten Years' War and its
+appendix, the Little War; under the same flag, with the same principles
+and issues, and with some of the same leaders. Indeed we may rightly
+claim that the organization of the Cuban Republic remained continuous
+and unbroken, if not in Cuba itself, at least in the United States,
+where, in New York, the Cuban Junta was ever active and resolute. The
+Treaty of Zanjon ended field operations for the time. It did not for one
+moment or in the least degree quench or diminish the impassioned and
+resolute determination of the Cuban people to become a nation.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_002" id="page_002">{2}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We have said that the War of Independence was inevitable. That was
+manifestly so because of the determination of the Cubans to become
+independent. It was also because of the failure of the Spanish
+government to fulfil the terms and stipulations of the Treaty of Zanjon,
+concerning which we have hitherto spoken. It must remain a matter of
+speculation whether that government ever intended to fulfil them. It is
+certain that few thoughtful Cubans, capable of judging the probabilities
+of the future by the actualities of the past, expected that it would do
+so. We may also regard it as certain that even a scrupulous fulfilment
+of those terms, while it might have postponed it, would not and could
+not permanently have defeated the assertion of Cuban independence.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 167px;">
+<a href="images/i002.png">
+<img src="images/i002_sml.png" width="167" height="206" alt="RICARDO DEL MONTE
+Journalist, critic, poet and patriot, Ricardo del Monte was born at
+Cimorrones in 1830, and was educated in the United States and Europe. In
+Rome he was attached to the Spanish embassy. In Spain he was a
+journalist with liberal and democratic tendencies. He returned to Cuba
+in 1847 and edited several papers in Havana, including, after the Ten
+Years War, El Triunfo and El Pais, the organ of the Autonomists. He
+was a writer in prose and verse of singular power and grace, his works
+ranking in style with the best of modern Spanish literature. He died in
+1908." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p class="c caption">RICARDO DEL MONTE</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Journalist, critic, poet and patriot, Ricardo del Monte was born at
+Cimorrones in 1830, and was educated in the United States and Europe. In
+Rome he was attached to the Spanish embassy. In Spain he was a
+journalist with liberal and democratic tendencies. He returned to Cuba
+in 1847 and edited several papers in Havana, including, after the Ten
+Years War, El Triunfo and El Pais, the organ of the Autonomists. He
+was a writer in prose and verse of singular power and grace, his works
+ranking in style with the best of modern Spanish literature. He died in
+1908.</p>
+
+<p>The Cuban Revolutionary Party, which as we have said never went out of
+existence, was reorganized for renewed activity in New York in April,
+1892; from which time we may properly date the beginning of the War of
+Independence. Its leader was Jose Marti, of whom we shall have much more
+to say hereafter; but he did not accept the official headship of the
+Junta.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_003" id="page_003">{3}</a></span> That place was taken by Tomas Estrada Palma, the honored veteran
+of the Ten Years' War, who at this time was the principal of an
+excellent boys' school at Central Valley, New York. He was the President
+of the Junta. The Secretary was Gonzalo de Quesada, worthy bearer of an
+honored name; a fervent patriot and an eloquent orator. The Treasurer
+was Benjamin Guerra, an approved patriot, and the General Counsel was
+Horatio Rubens. This New York Junta, meeting at No. 56 New Street, New
+York City, was the real head of the whole movement. But it was
+supplemented by many other Cuban clubs elsewhere. There were ten in New
+York, 61 at Key West, Florida; 15 at Tampa, two at Ocala, two in
+Philadelphia, and one each at New Orleans, Jacksonville, Brooklyn,
+Boston, Chicago, Atlanta, and St. Augustine. There were also six in the
+island of Jamaica, two in Mexico, and one in Hayti.</p>
+
+<p>The multiplication of these organizations and their increasing activity
+did not escape the observation of the Spanish government, which realized
+that revolution was in the air, and that it behooved it to do something
+to counteract it if it was to avoid losing the last remains of its once
+vast American empire. Accordingly early in 1893 the Cortes at Madrid
+enacted a bill extending the electoral franchise in Cuba to all men
+paying each as much as five pesos tax yearly. The Autonomist party at
+first regarded this concession with doubt and suspicion, but finally
+decided to give it a trial and participated in the elections held under
+the new law. But the result was unsatisfactory; owing, it was openly
+charged, to gross intimidation and frauds by the Government. The sequel
+was increased activity of the revolutionary organizations.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish government was vigilant and strenuous.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_004" id="page_004">{4}</a></span> It sent more troops
+to Cuba, and it sent a large part of its navy to American waters, to
+patrol the Cuban coast, to cruise off the Florida coast, and to guard
+the waters between the two, in order to prevent the sending of
+filibustering expeditions or cargoes of supplies from the United States
+to Cuba. These efforts were so efficient that no important expeditions
+got through. But in spite of that fact an insurrection was started in
+Cuba in the spring of 1893.</p>
+
+<p>The leaders were two brothers, Manuel and Ricardo Sartorius, of Santiago
+de Cuba. On April 24 they put themselves at the head of a band of twenty
+men and, at Puernio, near Holguin, they proclaimed a revolution. The
+next day they were joined by eighteen more, and by the time they had
+marched to Milas, on the north coast, the band was increased to 300,
+while other bands, in sympathy with them, were formed at Holguin,
+Manzanillo, Guantanamo, and Las Tunas. This movement, however, was
+purely a private enterprise of the Sartorius Brothers; in which they
+presumably expected to be supported by a general uprising of the Cuban
+people. As a matter of fact there was no such uprising. The people
+seemed indifferent to it. The juntas and clubs in New York and elsewhere
+knew nothing about it. The Executive Committee of the Autonomist Party
+in Cuba adopted resolutions condemning it and giving moral support to
+the Spanish government, and the Cuban Senators and Deputies in the
+Cortes at Madrid took like action.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime the Spanish authorities in the island acted promptly and with
+vigor. The Captain-General summoned a council of war on April 27, and
+sent troops to the scene of revolt, and directed the fleet to exercise
+renewed vigilance to prevent aid from reaching the insurgents from the
+United States. The next day martial<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_005" id="page_005">{5}</a></span> law was proclaimed throughout the
+province of Santiago de Cuba, and four thousand troops, divided into
+seven columns, were in hot pursuit of the revolutionists. The numbers of
+the latter rapidly dwindled through desertions and in a couple of days
+all had vanished save the two brothers and 29 of their followers. On May
+2 these all surrendered, on promise of complete pardon, a promise which
+was fulfilled, and on May 9 martial law was withdrawn and the abortive
+revolt was ended.</p>
+
+<p>This occurrence moved the Spanish government, however, to further
+efforts to placate the Cubans, and in 1894 the Minister for the
+Colonies, Senor Maura, proposed a bill for the reorganization of the
+insular government. The six provincial councils were to be merged into a
+single legislature. With this was to be combined an Executive Council,
+or Board of Administration, to administer the laws; consisting of the
+Governor-General as President, various high civil and military
+functionaries, and nine additional members named by Royal decree. This
+arrangement was strongly opposed and finally defeated, whereupon Senor
+Maura resigned. Later in the same year the Cabinet was reorganized with
+him as Minister of Justice and with Senor Abarzuza, a follower of Emilio
+Castelar, the Spanish Republican leader, as Minister for the Colonies.
+The Prime Minister was Praxedes Sagasta, the leader of the Spanish
+Liberals, and a statesman of consummate ability. There was much
+complaint by Conservatives that the Captain-General in Cuba, Emilio
+Calleja, favored the native Autonomists over the Loyalists or Spanish
+party. Despite this, Senor Abarzuza, after taking much counsel with the
+Prime Minister and others, planned radical action in behalf of Cuban
+autonomy, hoping to establish a new regime which, he fondly hoped, would
+allay discontent, abate<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_006" id="page_006">{6}</a></span> disaffection, and confirm Cuba in her
+traditional status of the "Ever Faithful Isle." Accordingly he entered
+into long and earnest consultation with the leaders of the various
+political parties in Spain, including the Carlists and Radical
+Republicans, and also with representative Loyalists and Home
+Rulers&mdash;otherwise Spaniards and Autonomists&mdash;of Cuba. Never, indeed, was
+a more thorough attempt made to secure the judgment of all parties and
+thus to frame a measure that would be satisfactory to all. Moreover, an
+exceptionally reasonable and conciliatory spirit was shown by all the
+leading politicians, of all shades of opinion, so that it seemed for a
+time that the resulting bill, framed by Senors Sagasta and Abarzuza,
+would be accepted with scarcely a word of criticism and would mark the
+opening of a new era in colonial affairs.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 160px;">
+<a href="images/i003.png">
+<img src="images/i003_sml.png" width="160" height="208" alt="JULIAN DEL CASAL
+
+During his brief life, from 1863 to October 21, 1891, Julian del Casal,
+invalid and misanthrope though he was, made a brilliant record in the
+world of letters, and gave to Cuban poetry its greatest modern impulse.
+Most of his life was spent in penury, on the meagre earnings of a hack
+journalist, but his memory is cherished as that of one of the foremost
+men of letters of his time." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p class="c caption">JULIAN DEL CASAL</p>
+
+<p class="caption">During his brief life, from 1863 to October 21, 1891, Julian del Casal,
+invalid and misanthrope though he was, made a brilliant record in the
+world of letters, and gave to Cuban poetry its greatest modern impulse.
+Most of his life was spent in penury, on the meagre earnings of a hack
+journalist, but his memory is cherished as that of one of the foremost
+men of letters of his time.</p>
+
+<p>The bill was drafted. It was in purport a West Indies Home Rule bill.
+Its salient feature was the establishment in Cuba of an Insular Council,
+which would be the local governing body of the colony. Of it the Spanish
+Viceroy, or Captain General, would be the President; and of course he
+would continue to be appointed by the Crown. Of the members of the
+Council, one half would be appointed by the Crown, from among certain<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_007" id="page_007">{7}</a></span>
+specified classes of the inhabitants of Cuba; and the other half would
+be elected by the suffrages of the Cuban people. This body would have,
+subject only to the veto of the Captain-General, control of all insular
+affairs, including supervision of provincial and municipal councils. It
+would also, subject to the approval of the Madrid government, legislate
+for the regulation of immigration, commerce, posts and telegraphs,
+revenue, and similar matters. On the face of it the measure promised
+great improvement in the government of the island, and the investing of
+the people of Cuba with a very large measure of self-government, both
+legislative and executive. It was the last and probably the best
+voluntary attempt ever made by Spain to give Cuba self-government.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately for Spain there were two fatal flaws in the scheme; one
+subjective, one objective. The former was the fact that the appointment
+of half the members of the Council by the Crown would assure in that
+body a constant majority devoted to and subservient to the Crown, and
+that circumstance, together with the veto power, would prevent the
+possibility of any legislation not entirely pleasing to Madrid. That
+made the thing quite unacceptable to all Cubans whose aim was the
+independence of the island or even genuine autonomy and home rule. The
+other flaw was the fact that while Cuban Loyalists and Autonomists were
+called into consultation over the bill, and gave it their approval,
+Cuban advocates of Independence were not called; they would not have
+entered into conference; and they were irrevocably committed against any
+scheme that did not provide for the complete separation of the island
+from Spain and the creation of an entirely independent government. The
+bill was adopted by the Spanish Chamber of Deputies by a practically
+unanimous vote, on February 14, 1895, and<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_008" id="page_008">{8}</a></span> was likewise adopted by the
+Senate. In Cuba it was regarded by the Autonomists as not satisfactory,
+in that it retained too much power for the Crown. As for the party of
+Cuban Independence, it looked upon it as unworthy of serious
+consideration. Ten days after its passage by the Chamber of Deputies,
+the Cuban Revolution was proclaimed.</p>
+
+<p>The reproachful comment has been made by some writers that the Cuban
+leaders started the revolution at that date, February 24, 1895, in order
+to defeat the beneficent designs of Spain in granting autonomy to the
+island, and that if they had not done so, the Abarzuza law would have
+been generally accepted and successfully applied, and Cuba would have
+remained a colony of Spain, contented, loyal and prosperous. For this
+strange theory there is no good foundation. It had been made perfectly
+clear for more than two years preceding that no such
+arrangement&mdash;indeed, that nothing short of complete separation from
+Spain&mdash;would satisfy the Cuban people. Moreover, preparations had been
+copiously made for the revolution, long before the passage of this
+measure. Cubans in the United States, of whom there were many, had
+contributed freely of their means for the purchase of arms and
+ammunition. There were considerable stocks of arms in Cuba which had
+remained concealed since the Ten Years' War, and these had been added to
+by surreptitious shipments from the United States. It is a matter of
+record that considerable quantities of first rate Mauser rifles were
+obtained from the arsenals of the Spanish government, being secretly
+purchased from custodians who were either corrupt or in sympathy with
+the revolutionists. Efforts were also made to land expeditions from the
+United States. One<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_009" id="page_009">{9}</a></span> formidable party was to have sailed from Fernandina,
+Florida, a month before the passage of the Abarzuza law, but it was
+checked and disbanded by the United States authorities.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1895 was not inappropriate for the beginning of a war which
+should annihilate the Spanish colonial empire and should add a new
+member to the world's community of sovereign nations. In almost every
+quarter of the globe great things were happening. At the antipodes Japan
+was completing her crushing defeat of China and was thus bringing
+herself forward as one of the great military and naval powers. The
+ancient empire of Siam was establishing an enlightened constitutional
+and parliamentary system of government. In Africa the epochal conflict
+between Boer and Briton was developing inexorably, and France was about
+to achieve the conquest of Madagascar. In Europe, Nicholas II was newly
+seated upon the throne of the Czars, and the strange resignation of the
+Presidency by Casimir-Perier threw France into such a crisis as she had
+scarcely known before since the foundation of the Republic. Nearer home,
+Peru and Ecuador were convulsed with revolution, and the controversy
+between Venezuela and British Guiana began to loom acute and ominous. In
+such a setting was the War of Cuban Independence staged.</p>
+
+<p>The foremost director of that war, its organizer and inspirer, was José
+Marti; one of those rare geniuses who have appeared occasionally in the
+history of the world to be the incarnation of great ideals of justice
+and human right. He was indeed many times a genius: Organizer,
+economist, historian, poet, statesman, tribune of the people, apostle of
+freedom, above all, Man. In himself he united the virtues, the
+enthusiasm and the energising vitality<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_010" id="page_010">{10}</a></span> which his countrymen needed to
+have aroused in themselves. To his disorganized and disheartened country
+he brought a magic personality which won all hearts and inspired them
+all with his own irrepressible and indestructible ideal, National
+Independence.</p>
+
+<p>Marti was a native Cuban, born in Havana on January 28, 1853. In his
+mere boyhood he became an eloquent and inspiring advocate of the ideal
+to which he devoted his life and which he did so much to realize; and at
+the outbreak of the Ten Years' War, when he was scarcely yet sixteen
+years old, the Spanish government recognized in him one of its most
+formidable foes and one of the most efficient propagandists of Cuban
+independence. For that reason, before he had a chance to enter the ranks
+of the patriot army, he was deported from the island and doomed to
+exile. He made his way to Mexico, thence to Guatemala, and there, a lad
+still in his teens, became Professor of Literature in the National
+University of that country&mdash;a striking testimonial to his erudition and
+culture. After the Treaty of Zanjon he was permitted to return to Cuba,
+but he was one of those whom the Spanish government most feared, and he
+was therefore kept under the closest of surveillance by the police. It
+was not in his nature to dissemble, or to be afraid. He quickly came
+before the public in a series of memorable orations, memorable alike for
+their sonorous eloquence, their cultured erudition, and their intense
+patriotism; in which he set forth the deplorable state in which Cuba
+still lay, after her ten years' struggle for better things, and the need
+that the work which had been so bravely undertaken by Cespedes and his
+associates should be again undertaken and pressed to a successful
+conclusion. His orations seemed to have the effect attributed to
+Demosthenes in his Philippics: They made<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_011" id="page_011">{11}</a></span> his hearers want to take up
+arms and fight against their oppressors.</p>
+
+<p>This of course brought upon him the wrath of Spain. He was arrested, and
+since he was altogether too dangerous a person to be set free in exile,
+he was carried a close prisoner to Spain. But he quickly made his escape
+and found asylum in the United States of America; and there his greatest
+work for Cuba was achieved. Porfirio Diaz had invited him to make his
+home in Mexico, where he might have risen to almost any eminence in the
+state, but he declined. "I must go," he said, "to the country where I
+can accomplish most for the freedom of Cuba from Spain. I am going to
+the United States." In New York City, where he made his home, he engaged
+in literary work, and was for some time a member of the staff of the New
+York <i>Sun</i>. But above all he devoted his time, thought, strength and
+means to organizing the Cuban revolution.</p>
+
+<p>He gathered together in the Cuban Revolutionary Party all the surviving
+veterans of the Ten Years' War, Cuban political exiles&mdash;like
+himself&mdash;the remnants of Merchan's old "Laborers' Associations," and
+welded them into a harmonious and resolute whole. He also traveled about
+the United States, in Mexico and Central America, and in Jamaica and
+Santo Domingo, wherever Cubans were to be found, rousing them to
+patriotic zeal and organizing them into clubs tributary to the central
+Junta in New York. In Cuba itself many such clubs were organized, in
+secret, which maintained surreptitious correspondence with the New York
+headquarters.</p>
+
+<p>We have already mentioned some of those with whom he surrounded himself:
+Tomas Estrada Palma, the President of the Junta; Gonzalo de Quesada, its
+Secretary, who lived to see the Republic established and to become<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_012" id="page_012">{12}</a></span> its
+Minister to Germany, where he died; Benjamin F. Guerra, its Treasurer;
+and Horatio Rubens, its Counsel, who had been trained in the law office
+of Elihu Root. Others of that memorable and devoted company were General
+Emilio Nunez, afterward Vice-President of the Cuban Republic; and Dr.
+Joaquin Castillo Duany, formerly an eminent physician in the United
+States Navy, who had distinguished himself in the relief of the famous
+Jeannette Arctic expedition. These two had charge of the filibustering
+or supply expeditions which were surreptitiously dispatched from the
+United States to Cuba. At first General Nunez had charge of all, but
+when Dr. Duany came from Cuba the work was divided, and the former
+devoted himself to the coast from Norfolk to the Rio Grande, while the
+latter supervised that from Norfolk to Eastport, Maine. Dr. Duany and
+his brother had been prominent citizens and officials in Santiago de
+Cuba. As soon as the War of Independence began they joined the patriot
+forces, and Dr. Duany was made Assistant Secretary of War in the
+Provisional Government. As such, he ran the Spanish blockade of the
+island, in company with Mr. George Reno, another ardent patriot, and
+bore to New York authority from the Provisional Government for the
+issuing of $3,000,000 of Cuban bonds. He also carried with him in a
+little satchel $90,000 in cash, which had been contributed by various
+patriotic residents of Cuba.</p>
+
+<p>Another of Marti's associates in New York was Dr. Lincoln de Zayas, a
+brilliant orator, afterward Secretary of Public Instruction of the Cuban
+Republic; a man greatly loved by all who knew him. Dr. Enrique
+Agramonte, brother of that gallant Ignacio Agramonte who was a leader in
+the Ten Years' War and was killed in that conflict, was a member of the
+Junta in New York,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_013" id="page_013">{13}</a></span> who inspected and selected all the men who were to
+go on filibustering expeditions; a keen judge of the physical, mental
+and moral fitness of all the candidates who presented themselves before
+him. Colonel José Ramon Villalon was also active in the Junta; and he
+has since been Secretary of Public Works at Havana under President Mario
+G. Menocal. Nor must Ponce de Leon, a publisher and bookseller, of No.
+32 Broadway, New York, be forgotten. His office was frequently the
+meeting place of the conspirators, if so we may call the patriots, and
+he and his two sons&mdash;one a physician, the other in charge of the
+archives of the Cuban government&mdash;were among the most earnest and
+efficient workers for the cause of independence.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 138px;">
+<a href="images/i004.png">
+<img src="images/i004_sml.png" width="138" height="203" alt="JOSE RAMON VILLALON
+
+José Ramon Villalon, Secretary of Public Works, was born at Santiago in
+1864. He was sent to Barcelona to be educated and later studied at the
+Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa., where he graduated as civil engineer
+in 1899. On the outbreak of the war he accompanied General Antonio Maceo
+on his famous raid in Pinar del Rio province, and was present at the
+engagements of Artemisa, Ceja del Negro, Montezuelo, attaining the rank
+of lieutenant-colonel of engineers. While serving under Maceo he
+designed and constructed the first field dynamite gun, now in the
+National Museum in Havana. After the war he was made Secretary of Public
+Works under the military government of General Leonard Wood. Col.
+Villalon is a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, the
+American Institute of Mining Engineers, the Academy of Sciences
+(Havana), and the Cuban Society of Engineers." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p class="c caption">JOSE RAMON VILLALON</p>
+
+<p class="caption">José Ramon Villalon, Secretary of Public Works, was born at Santiago in
+1864. He was sent to Barcelona to be educated and later studied at the
+Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa., where he graduated as civil engineer
+in 1899. On the outbreak of the war he accompanied General Antonio Maceo
+on his famous raid in Pinar del Rio province, and was present at the
+engagements of Artemisa, Ceja del Negro, Montezuelo, attaining the rank
+of lieutenant-colonel of engineers. While serving under Maceo he
+designed and constructed the first field dynamite gun, now in the
+National Museum in Havana. After the war he was made Secretary of Public
+Works under the military government of General Leonard Wood. Col.
+Villalon is a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, the
+American Institute of Mining Engineers, the Academy of Sciences
+(Havana), and the Cuban Society of Engineers.</p>
+
+<p>The ideal of Marti and these associates was unequivocally that of Cuban
+independence. They had no thought of accepting or even considering mere
+autonomy under Spanish sovereignty, or any promises of reforms in the
+insular government. They might not have been inexorably opposed to
+annexation to the United States, had opportunity for that been offered.
+They might have accepted<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_014" id="page_014">{14}</a></span> it, in fact, for the sake of getting entirely
+away from Spain; for that would at least have meant independence from
+Spain. But as a matter of fact, annexation was not considered. It was
+never discussed. It formed no part of the programme, not even as an
+alternative.</p>
+
+<p>Although a poet and a seer, Marti was one of the most practical of men.
+He realized with Cicero that "endless money forms the sinews of war."
+One of his first cares, therefore, was to finance the revolution. To
+that end he made a direct appeal to Cuban workmen&mdash;and women,
+too&mdash;wherever he could get into contact with them, to give one tenth of
+their weekly wages to the cause of Cuban independence. Probably never
+before or since in the world's wars has such a system of voluntary
+tithing been so successfully conducted. It seemed as though every Cuban
+in the United States responded. Wealthy men gave one tenth of their
+large incomes, and Cuban girls in cigar factories gave one tenth of
+their small wages. In many cases they did more, giving one day's wages
+each week. Indeed, this is said to have been the general rule in the
+cigar and cigarette factories of the United States. Next to Marti
+himself, Lincoln de Zayas was perhaps the most successful money raiser.
+Numerous speakers and canvassers went to all parts of the country where
+Cubans might be found, soliciting funds. Appeal was also made to
+Americans, but not so much for pecuniary aid as for sympathy and moral
+aid. But in fact much money was given by liberty loving Americans. John
+Jacob Astor, afterward a Colonel in the United States army in the war of
+intervention, gave $10,000. William E. D. Stokes, of New York, was also
+a large contributor and manifested much interest in the cause,
+presumably in part because his wife was a Cuban.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_015" id="page_015">{15}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Most of this work of Marti's was done in 1893 and 1894. His original
+plan was to launch a vast plan of numerous invasions of the island and
+simultaneous uprisings in all the provinces in 1894. He purchased and
+equipped three vessels, the <i>Amadis</i>, the <i>Baracoa</i> and the <i>Lagonda</i>,
+only to suffer the mortification and very heavy loss of having them
+seized by the American authorities for violation of the neutrality law.
+Undaunted and undismayed, he renewed his efforts, and at last had the
+satisfaction of seeing the revolution openly begun at Baire, near
+Santiago, on February 24, 1895. And then occurred one of the most
+lamentable and needless tragedies of the whole war&mdash;indeed, of all the
+history of Cuba.</p>
+
+<p>It was not in Marti's generous and valiant spirit to remain at the rear
+and send others forward to face the fire of the foe. Accordingly, as
+soon as the revolution was started, he went from New York to Santo
+Domingo to confer with the old war horse of the Ten Years' conflict,
+Maximo Gomez, and from that island he issued his manifesto concerning
+the purposes and programme of the revolution. Well would it have been
+for him and for Cuba had he remained there, or had he returned to New
+York, to continue the work which he had been so successfully doing. But
+because of a thoughtless clamor in the press and on the part of the
+public he was moved to proceed to Cuba with Gomez. They landed in a
+frail craft at Playitas on April 11, with about 80 companions, many of
+them veterans of the Ten Years' War. They at once joined the cavalry
+forces of Perico Perez, and plunged into the thick of the fighting;
+Marti showing himself as brave in battle as he had been wise in council.
+Meantime a Provisional Government had been formed, by the proclamation
+of Antonio Maceo, with Tomas Estrada Palma as Provisional President of
+the Cuban Republic,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_016" id="page_016">{16}</a></span> Maximo Gomez as Commander in Chief of the Army, and
+José Marti as Secretary General and Diplomatic Agent Abroad. This
+appointment was agreeable to Marti, and would have meant the most
+advantageous utilization of his masterful talents for the good of Cuba.
+But it was not possible for him immediately to begin such duties. He was
+with the army in the interior of the island, and his approach to the
+coast whence he was to sail on his mission must be effected with
+caution.</p>
+
+<p>While Gomez set out for Camaguey, Marti turned toward the southern
+coast, intending to go first to Jamaica, whence he could take an English
+steamer for New York or any other destination he might select. Marti had
+with him an escort of only fifty men, and soon after parting company
+with Gomez he was led by a treacherous guide into a ravine where he was
+trapped by a Spanish force outnumbering the Cubans twenty to one. The
+Cubans fought with desperate valor, Marti himself leading a charge which
+nearly succeeded in cutting a way through the Spanish lines. But the
+odds were too heavy against them, and without even the satisfaction of
+taking two or three Spanish lives for every life they gave, the Cubans
+were all slain, Marti himself being among the last to fall. Word of the
+conflict reached Gomez, and he came hastening back, just too late to
+save his comrade, and was himself wounded in the furious attack which he
+made upon the Spaniards in an attempt at least to recover Marti's body.
+But his vengeful valor was ineffectual. Marti's body was taken
+possession of by the Spaniards, who demonstrated their appreciation of
+his greatness, though he was their most formidable foe, by bearing it
+reverently to Santiago and there interring it with all the honors of
+war.</p>
+
+<p class="c caption">THE PRADO</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Havana&#39;s most fashionable residence street and driving thoroughfare
+extends from the gloomy Punta fortress along the line of the ancient
+city wall, past the Central Park to Colon Park, shaded with laurels and
+lined with handsome homes and clubs. In 1907 a hurricane wrecked many of
+the great laurels, as well as the royal palms of Colon Park, but in the
+genial climate of Cuba the ravages of the elements were rapidly
+repaired. The Prado was officially renamed by the Cuban Republic the
+Paseo de Marti, in honor of José Marti, but the old name still clings
+inseparably to it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 574px;">
+<a href="images/i005.png">
+<img src="images/i005_sml.png" width="574" height="371" alt="THE PRADO
+
+Havana&#39;s most fashionable residence street and driving thoroughfare
+extends from the gloomy Punta fortress along the line of the ancient
+city wall, past the Central Park to Colon Park, shaded with laurels and
+lined with handsome homes and clubs. In 1907 a hurricane wrecked many of
+the great laurels, as well as the royal palms of Colon Park, but in the
+genial climate of Cuba the ravages of the elements were rapidly
+repaired. The Prado was officially renamed by the Cuban Republic the
+Paseo de Marti, in honor of José Marti, but the old name still clings
+inseparably to it." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_017" id="page_017">{17}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Thus untimely perished the man who should have lived to be known as the
+Father of His Country. But he left a name crowned with imperishable
+fame. A Spanish American author has said that the Spanish race in
+America has produced only two geniuses, Bolivar and Marti. If that
+judgment be too severe in its restriction, at least it is not an
+over-estimate of those two transcendent patriots. Marti left, moreover,
+an example and an inspiration which never failed his countrymen during
+the subsequent years of war. Their loss in his death was irreparable,
+but they were not inconsolable; for while he perished, his cause
+survived. That cause was well set forth by him in the manifesto which he
+issued at Monte Cristi, Hayti, on March 25, 1895, and which read as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p>"The war is not against the Spaniard, who, secured by his children and
+by loyalty to the country which the latter will establish, shall be able
+to enjoy, respected and even loved, that liberty which will sweep away
+only the thoughtless who block its path. Nor will the war be the cradle
+of disturbances which are alien to the tried moderation of the Cuban
+character, nor of tyranny. Those who have fomented it and are still its
+sponsors declare in its name to the country its freedom from all hatred,
+its fraternal indulgence to the timid Cuban, and its radical respect for
+the dignity of man, which constitutes the sinews of battle and the
+foundation of the Republic. And they affirm that it will be magnanimous
+with the penitent, and inflexible only with vice and inhumanity.</p>
+
+<p>"In the war which has been recommenced in Cuba you will not find a
+revolution beside itself with the joy of rash heroism, but a revolution
+which comprehends the responsibilities incumbent upon the founders of
+nations. Cowardice might seek to profit by another fear under the
+pretext of prudence&mdash;the senseless fear which has never<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_018" id="page_018">{18}</a></span> been justified
+in Cuba&mdash;the fear of the negro race. The past revolution, with its
+generous though subordinate soldiers, indignantly denies, as does the
+long trial of exile as well as of the respite in the island, the menace
+of a race war, with which our Spanish beneficiaries would like to
+inspire a fear of the revolution. The war of emancipation and their
+common labor have obliterated the hatred which slavery might have
+inspired. The novelty and crudity of social relations consequent to the
+sudden change of a man who belonged to another into a man who belonged
+to himself, are overshadowed by the sincere esteem of the white Cuban
+for the equal soul, and the desire for education, the fervor of a free
+man, and the amiable character of his negro compatriot.</p>
+
+<p>"In the Spanish inhabitants of Cuba, instead of the hateful spite of the
+first war, the revolution, which does not flatter nor fear, expects to
+find such affectionate neutrality or material aid that through them the
+war will be shorter, its disasters less, and more easy and friendly the
+subsequent peace in which father and son are to live. We Cubans
+commenced the war; the Cubans and Spaniards together will terminate it.
+If they do not ill treat us, we will not ill treat them. Let them
+respect us and we will respect them. Steel will answer to steel, and
+friendship to friendship."</p>
+
+<p>It may be that not all the generous and altruistic anticipations of this
+exalted utterance were fully realized. It may be confidently declared
+that all were sincerely meant by their author; and the world will
+testify that seldom if ever was a war begun with nobler ideals than
+those thus set forth by Jose Marti.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_019" id="page_019">{19}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h3>
+
+<p>We have said that there was no consideration of annexation to the United
+States, on the part of the organizers and directors of the Cuban War of
+Independence. Neither was there much if any thought of intervention by
+the United States in Cuba's behalf; though that was what ultimately
+occurred. No doubt, if ever a fleeting thought of that passed through a
+Cuban patriot's mind, he esteemed it "a consummation devoutly to be
+wished." But it was not reckoned to be within the limits of reasonable
+possibility. Certainly it was never discussed, and it may be said with
+even more positiveness that there was never any attempt to bring it
+about by surreptitious means. The charge was occasionally made, in
+quarters unfriendly to the Cuban cause, that the Junta was endeavoring
+to embroil the United States in a war with Spain. That was absolutely
+untrue. No such effort was ever made by any responsible or authoritative
+Cuban.</p>
+
+<p>It might rather be said that the Junta was solicitous to avoid so far as
+possible danger of complications between the United States and Spain.
+For example, it did not encourage Americans to enter the Cuban army, but
+discouraged them from so doing and often rejected them outright. An
+expert ex-Pinkerton detective was employed by the Junta to serve
+constantly in its New York office. His duties were in part to detect if
+possible any spies or Spanish agents who might come in and want to
+enlist with, of course, the intention of betraying the cause. But he
+also did his best to dissuade all but Cubans from enlisting.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_020" id="page_020">{20}</a></span> He was
+under directions from the Junta to warn all American applicants, of whom
+there were many, that they had better not enter the Cuban service:
+First, because they did not realize the formidable and desperate
+character of the undertaking in which they were seeking to participate;
+second, because the Junta could give them no assurance of pay, or even
+of food; and third, because they were sure soon to grow tired of the
+arduous discouraging, up-hill campaign which was before them. The only
+men who were wanted, and the only men who were generally accepted were
+Cubans, whose patriotic interest in the island would enable them to
+endure cheerfully what would be intolerable to an alien. They were
+believed by the Junta to be the only men who would permanently stand the
+test.</p>
+
+<p>As a matter of fact only a very few Americans were accepted; probably
+not more than forty or fifty all told. They were accepted partly because
+they were so insistent and persistent in their desires and demands, and
+partly because of some qualifications which made them of special value.
+They were chiefly sharpshooters who had formerly served in the United
+States army. When they were accepted they were reminded that they were
+forfeiting all claim upon the United States government for protection or
+rescue, no matter what might befall them. Thus if they were killed or
+captured and ill treated in any way by the Spanish they would be
+debarred from appealing to the United States, and there would be no
+danger of any friction between the United States and Spain on their
+account.</p>
+
+<p>The only way in which the Junta deliberately incurred the risk of
+causing international trouble was in the organization and dispatching of
+filibustering and supply expeditions from the United States to Cuba. Of
+course,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_021" id="page_021">{21}</a></span> all such performances were illegal. Spain protested and raged
+against them, and the United States government sincerely and
+indefatigably strove to prevent them. But it was to no avail. The
+expeditions kept going. For two years there was an average of one a
+month, carrying men, arms and ammunition, and other supplies.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 152px;">
+<a href="images/i007.png">
+<img src="images/i007_sml.png" width="152" height="216" alt="GEORGE RENO" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another important traffic between Cuba and the United States was that in
+information between the patriots in the island and the Junta in New
+York. The chief agent in this perilous but essential work was Mr. George
+Reno, who has since served in important capacities under the civil
+government of the Cuban Republic. It was his duty periodically to run
+the blockade between the little town of Guanaja and Nassau. The former
+was a little place of a few hundred inhabitants on the Bay of Sabinal,
+on the northern coast of Camaguey; and the latter was the capital of New
+Providence Island in the British Bahamas, the favorite resort of
+blockade runners during the Civil War in the United States, and since
+then the terminus of a cable line running to Jupiter, on the Florida
+coast. At Nassau Dr. Indalacio Salas, a Cuban physician, who had lived
+there many years, represented the Junta and acted as a sort of Cuban
+postmaster; receiving letters and messages from Cuba and forwarding them
+to the United States, and vice versa.</p>
+
+<p>This contraband messenger service between Cuba and Nassau was one of the
+romantic features of the campaign of which the public knew nothing. The
+trips were made<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_022" id="page_022">{22}</a></span> in a little sloop-rigged yacht, carrying three or four
+men, and while they afforded no spectacle to the public eye and did not
+figure in the news as did various filibustering expeditions, they were
+often of vital importance to the patriot cause, and they were fraught
+with much peril. The passage of several hundred miles was made across
+the Great Bahama Bank and the Tongue of Ocean; perilous waters dotted
+with reefs and rocks and subject to violent storms, and closely watched
+at the south by Spanish cruisers. The portion of the trip nearest the
+Cuban coast was generally made at night, to avoid the Spaniards, but the
+darkness added to the peril in other respects.</p>
+
+<p>This service was the chief though not the sole means of communication
+between the Cuban patriots and the rest of the world. Some
+correspondence was smuggled out of Havana on American steamers, but that
+was perilous work and was seldom attempted. Some was carried by a Cuban
+sailor in a little cat-rigged boat, with which he made trips when
+occasion offered between some point on the southern coast of Oriente and
+the island of Jamaica. On these trips, both from Nassau and Jamaica,
+were carried not only letters and communications of all sorts but also
+important supplies of medicines, surgical instruments, and other small
+articles which were often of indispensable value. The service was
+therefore of the greatest possible value to the Cubans, and it was
+arduous and perilous to those who rendered it. It was performed,
+however, without remuneration or compensation of any kind, save the
+satisfaction of aiding the patriot cause. The Cuban revolution had no
+money with which to pay salaries, but all men served for the sake of
+Cuba Libre.</p>
+
+<p>The attitude of the people of Cuba toward the revolution, so far as at
+this early date they knew what was going on, was varied according to
+their occupations, interests<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_023" id="page_023">{23}</a></span> and relationships. The professional
+classes, the lawyers, physicians, educators, men of letters and others,
+for the most part wished for complete separation from Spain, and aided
+the cause of independence with their money and their influence. There
+were, however, some of them, including not a few of the most estimable
+and most patriotic men on the island, whose faith was not able to
+forecast victory. They saw on the side of the Cubans lack of money, lack
+of arms and ammunition, and lack of that direct connection with the
+outer world which was indispensable for support; and on the side of
+Spain plenty of money, equipment and communications, and an army of
+200,000 trained soldiers thrown into a territory about the size of the
+State of Pennsylvania, together with an inflexible resolution never to
+surrender the island but to suppress every insurrection at no matter
+what cost. It was surely not strange that they regarded such odds as too
+formidable to be overcome, by even the most ardent and self-sacrificing
+patriotism, and therefore thought that the course of greater wisdom
+would be to persuade, compel or otherwise prevail upon Spain to bestow
+upon the island a genuine and satisfactory measure of autonomy.</p>
+
+<p>The merchants and commercial classes very largely consisted of
+Spaniards, a fact which sufficiently indicates their attitude. They were
+not only resolutely committed against the revolution, and indeed against
+autonomy, but they were almost incredibly bitter against the Cuban
+Independence party. It was from those classes that the notorious "Cuban
+Volunteers" had been recruited in the Ten Years' war, men who, though
+living in Cuba and enriching themselves from her resources, were "more
+Spanish than Spain." They corresponded with the Tories of the American
+Revolution, and not merely the Tories who sat in their chairs and railed
+against the Revolution,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_024" id="page_024">{24}</a></span> but rather those who took up arms in the
+British cause, and who allied themselves with the Red Indians with
+tomahawk and scalping knife. The animus of these Spaniards in Cuba was
+not, generally speaking, love of Spain, nor yet hatred of the Cubans,
+but rather greed of gain. They were not patriotic, but simply sordid.
+With Cuba under Spanish domination, they were enabled to amass great
+wealth, and they wanted such conditions and such opportunities of
+enrichment continued. That was not an exalted attitude, and it was
+naturally odious to the Cuban patriots who were serving without pay and
+sacrificing their all for the independence of the island and for the
+attainment of a degree of material prosperity as well as of civic and
+spiritual enfranchisement immeasurably beyond the sordid conceptions of
+these selfish time-servers.</p>
+
+<p>The attitude of another important though less numerous and less
+demonstrative class, the manufacturers of sugar and tobacco, varied
+greatly according to the individual. Some were Spaniards; and they, like
+the merchants, were inflexibly opposed to the revolution, for similar
+reasons. Some were Autonomists, and they inclined toward compromise.
+They did not want their lands to be ravaged and their cane fields and
+buildings to be burned in war; not because they would hesitate at any
+necessary sacrifice for the welfare of Cuba but because they regarded
+such sacrifices as unnecessary. Some were members of the Cuban
+Independence party, and they cordially and eagerly supported the
+revolution; saying: "Let our fields and buildings be burned. If it is
+necessary in order to free the island that our property shall be ruined,
+let it be ruined!"</p>
+
+<p>This patriotic attitude of some of the great property-owners, who had
+most to lose through the ravages of war<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_025" id="page_025">{25}</a></span> but who were ready to risk all,
+was finely displayed in the very midst of the conflict. There were in
+the Province of Santa Clara two very wealthy Cuban women, sisters. They
+were Marta Abreu, who became the wife of the Vice-President of the Cuban
+Republic, and who died in France, and Rosalie Abreu, whose home is
+preeminently the "show place" of Cuba and is perhaps the most beautiful
+residence in all the tropical regions of the world. These women gave
+large sums of money for the revolution and made many sacrifices for it,
+beside running great risks of utter disaster to their fortunes. They
+were both in Paris when news came of the death of Antonio Maceo, the
+brilliant and daring commander who had carried the war westward into
+Havana and Pinar del Rio and who fell in battle in the former province.
+His death was a disaster well calculated to shake the fortitude of the
+patriots, if not to strike them with despair. But immediately upon
+hearing the news Marta Abreu sent a cable dispatch to Benjamin Guerra,
+the Treasurer of the Junta, urging him not to be discouraged but to
+"keep the good work going," and adding that she and her sister were each
+mailing him a check for $50,000. Such a spirit was indomitable.</p>
+
+<p>The small farmers of the island, or "guajiros," the peasantry and rural
+workingmen, were strongly in favor of the revolution, although it meant
+unspeakable hardships to them. They sent their families up into the
+mountains, where they would be comparatively safe from the actual
+fighting, and where the old men, the women and the children could
+cultivate little patches of ground, planted with sweet potatoes, yucca
+and other food plants, which would supply them with nourishment and also
+contribute to the feeding of the patriot army. Then the men joined the
+ranks of the revolutionary army. It should<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_026" id="page_026">{26}</a></span> be added that among the most
+eager recruits were many sons of Autonomists. Their fathers deprecated
+the war, but the sons realized its necessity. There were even some sons
+of Spanish Loyalists in the patriot army, who fought faithfully for the
+Cuban cause against their own fathers.</p>
+
+<p>The priesthood of the island was absolutely against the revolution and
+in favor of maintaining the sovereignty of the Spanish crown in Cuba.
+There may have been a few exceptions, of priests who not only favored
+independence but who actually went into the field with the patriot army
+and fought for it. But apart from them the Church was solidly for Spain.
+The great majority of the priests had come from Spain, and remained
+Spaniards at heart and in political sympathy. They preached from their
+pulpits against the revolution, and undoubtedly exerted considerable
+influence in that direction. That fact was not forgotten after the war,
+and it explained the very general antipathy toward or at least lack of
+sympathy with the Church which then and thereafter prevailed among the
+men of Cuba. The women, even the most patriotic, largely remained
+faithful to the Church and subject to its spiritual influence, but the
+men renounced it because of what they regarded as its unfaithfulness to
+the cause of Free Cuba.</p>
+
+<p>There were at this time happily no racial nor partisan differences among
+the patriots of Cuba. There were white men, there were negroes, and
+there were those of mixed blood. But the same spirit of independence
+animated them all, and they fought side by side in the field, and sat
+side by side in council, with never a thought of prejudice. Antonio
+Maceo, one of the most honored and trusted patriot generals, was a
+mulatto, but he was regarded as the peer of any of the white commanders,
+white men gladly served under him, and we have already seen<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_027" id="page_027">{27}</a></span> how his
+death was regarded by the Abreu sisters, who were aristocrats of the
+purest Creole blood. It was only in later years, after Cuban
+independence had been attained, that so much as an attempt was made at
+the raising of race issues in Cuba, and then only through the exercise
+of the most sinister and unworthy influences for sordid ends.</p>
+
+<p>Nor were there partisan differences. Indeed at this time the Cuban
+Independence Party was a harmonious unity. There were no symptoms of any
+factional division. The rise of partisanship did not occur until after
+the war of independence had been won and, if we may for a moment
+anticipate the course of events, until it was realized that the United
+States really meant to keep its word and make Cuba an independent
+Republic. For, truth to tell, when the United States intervened in the
+conflict between Cuba and Spain, in the spring of 1898, while there was
+assured confidence throughout the island that the end of Spanish rule
+was at hand, there was also a general belief that annexation to the
+United States was inevitable. The great majority of the Cuban people
+probably did not know of the pledge which was appended to the
+Declaration of War, that the United States would withdraw and leave Cuba
+to self-government, and they assumed that American intervention meant
+American conquest and annexation. The comparatively few who did know
+about it had little expectation that it would ever be fulfilled. Even if
+the United States made the promise in good faith, something would happen
+to prevent its being carried out. When at last it was found that the
+United States was in earnest, and that Cuba was indeed to have
+independence, just as though she had won it without aid, there was
+surprise amounting almost to stupefaction, there was unbounded
+exultation, and there was,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_028" id="page_028">{28}</a></span> unhappily, division of the people into
+antagonistic parties. Of these we shall hear more hereafter.</p>
+
+<p>Thus was the issue joined. The great mass of the Cuban people was united
+and harmonious in its determination at last to achieve that independence
+of the island for which so many men during so many years had wished and
+worked and suffered. The Spanish party was implacable; and the
+Autonomists were largely unsympathetic&mdash;not all, for some in time joined
+the revolution; but the Cuban Independence party, comprising the large
+majority of the population, was resolute and irrepressible in its
+course.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_029" id="page_029">{29}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h3>
+
+<p>The war was on. Marti and his comrades had planned to have a
+simultaneous uprising in all six provinces on February 24. In each a
+leader was appointed, an organization was formed, and such supplies as
+could be obtained were provided. But in only three provinces did an
+actual insurrection occur. These were Oriente, or Santiago as it was
+then called, Santa Clara, and Matanzas; the extreme eastern and the two
+central provinces. In Oriente uprisings occurred at two points, under
+Henry Brooks at Guantanamo, and at Los Negros under Guillermon Moncada.
+In Matanzas there were also two uprisings; one at Aguacate, on the
+Havana borderline, under Manuel Garcia, and one at Ybarra. In Santa
+Clara the chief demonstration was near Cienfuegos, under General
+Matagas. The uprising in Havana was to have been under the leadership of
+Julio Sanguilly, but in some way never satisfactorily explained he was
+betrayed and arrested and the outbreak did not occur. There were not a
+few who at first suspected and even charged that Sanguilly himself had
+betrayed the cause, for Spanish money, but his sentence to life
+imprisonment by the Spanish authorities seemed abundantly to disprove
+this charge.</p>
+
+<p>The insurgents naturally made most headway at first in Oriente. There
+were fewer Spanish troops in that province and there were more mountain
+fastnesses for refuge in case of enforced retreat, than in the more
+densely settled and populated central provinces. We have already seen
+that a numerous company of patriots marched from Baire to Santiago to
+present to the Spanish commander<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_030" id="page_030">{30}</a></span> there, General Jose Lachambre, their
+demands for the independence of Cuba. That officer of course rejected
+their demands, and on their retirement sent Colonel Perico Perez after
+them with 500 troops, to capture or disperse them. But Perez and his men
+did neither. Instead, they joined the insurgents under Henry Brooks, and
+were among the foremost to do effective work against the Spaniards. Maso
+Parra recruited a strong band near Manzanillo, but instead of fighting
+there proceeded to Havana Province, accompanied by Enrique Cespedes and
+Amador Guerra, in hope of raising the standard of revolution where
+Sanguilly had failed. The Spanish forces were so strong there, however,
+as to overawe most of the Cubans, or at any rate to make it seem more
+expedient to put forward their chief efforts in other places. In
+Matanzas the earliest engagements were fought by troops under Antonio
+Lopez Coloma and Juan Gualberto Gomez, with indifferent results. Another
+sharp conflict occurred at Jaguey Grande, and there were yet others at
+Vequita; at Sevilla, where the patriots defeated 1,500 Spanish regulars
+commanded by General Lachambre; at Ulloa, at Baire, and at Los Negros. A
+belated uprising in Pinar del Rio under General Azcuy came speedily to
+grief, as did another near Holguin. By the early days of March the
+entire movement seemed to have subsided save in the southern parts of
+Oriente.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish authorities had acted promptly and vigorously. The
+revolution began on February 24. The very next day a special meeting of
+the Spanish Cabinet was held at Madrid, as a result of which the
+Minister for the Colonies, Senor Abarzuza, authorized Captain-General
+Callejas to proclaim martial law throughout Cuba. This was in fact done
+by Callejas before Abarzuza's order reached him, and he also put into
+operation the "Public<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_031" id="page_031">{31}</a></span> Order law" which provided for the immediate
+punishment of anyone taken in the performance or attempt of a seditious
+act. The Captain-General had at his disposal at this time nominally six
+regiments of infantry and three of cavalry, two battalions of garrison
+artillery and one mountain battery, aggregating about 19,000 men, and
+nearly 14,000 local militia, remains of the notorious Volunteers of the
+Ten Years' War; a total of nearly 33,000 men. But these figures were
+delusive. Callejas himself reported, on his return to Spain two or three
+months later, that half of the regular forces existed only on paper, and
+that the militia was altogether untrustworthy. He had learned the latter
+fact by bitter experience when at the very beginning Perico Perez and
+his 500 men had deserted to the Cuban cause. The fact is that the leaven
+of patriotism had begun to work even among the old Volunteers and still
+more among their sons, and many of them came frankly over to the cause
+which they or their fathers had formerly so savagely opposed. Callejas's
+forces were very weak in artillery, but that did not greatly matter,
+since the revolutionists at this time had none at all. He enjoyed the
+great advantage of having possession of all the large towns and cities
+along the coast with their fortifications both inland and seaward;
+fortifications which were somewhat antiquated but still sufficiently
+effective against ill-armed insurgents without artillery. The Spanish
+navy in Cuban waters comprised five small cruisers and six gunboats; not
+a formidable force, but infinitely superior to that of the
+revolutionists, which consisted of nothing at all. It assisted in
+protecting the coast towns, and served for the transportation of troops
+and supplies, but its chief function was to guard the coast against
+filibustering and supply expeditions.</p>
+
+<p>Although the Spanish forces were very considerably<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_032" id="page_032">{32}</a></span> superior to the
+revolutionists numerically as well as in equipment and abundance of
+supplies, Calleja realized that they would not be sufficient to cope
+with the patriots on their own ground and in the increasing numbers
+which he prudently anticipated would rally to their standard.
+Accordingly early in March he sent to Spain an urgent call for large
+reenforcements for both army and navy, declaring that he could not hold
+his own, much less suppress the revolt, without them, and giving warning
+that unless he received them promptly he would not be responsible for
+the consequences. In response a battalion of regulars was immediately
+transferred to Cuba from Porto Rico, and 7,000 more were sent from
+Spain. All the civil prefects throughout the island were replaced with
+military officers. In Havana and elsewhere all prominent Cubans
+suspected of complicity or even sympathy with the revolution were
+arrested and imprisoned. The Morro Castle at Havana was crowded with the
+best citizens of the metropolitan province. But this attempt at
+repression only added fuel to the flame. The revolution burst out anew
+in the Province of Oriente, and when Callejas ordered the local troops
+of Havana to proceed thither, they mutinied and refused to go. In such
+circumstances Callejas, who at first had affected to regard the outbreak
+as mere sporadic brigandage, now openly confessed that it was an
+island-wide revolution.</p>
+
+<p>Complications with the United States also speedily arose. The arrest of
+Julio Sanguilly and others at Havana has been mentioned. These men had
+been in the United States for years, and had become naturalized citizens
+of that country, wherefore the United States consul-general at Havana,
+Ramon O. Williams, made formal demand that they should be tried before a
+civil court and should have the benefit of counsel, instead of being
+summarily<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_033" id="page_033">{33}</a></span> disposed of by court martial. This was a legitimate demand,
+which had to be granted, but it incensed Callejas so much that he asked
+the Spanish government to demand Williams's recall; which that
+government very prudently did not do. At Santiago, also, two American
+sailors, who had landed there in a small boat, and had been arrested as
+filibusters, made appeal to the American consul there, who also insisted
+that they should have a civil trial; as a result of which they were
+acquitted.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 383px;">
+<a href="images/i008.png">
+<img src="images/i008_sml.png" width="383" height="184" alt="LA PUNTA FORTRESS, HAVANA" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>While thus careful to protect the rights of its citizens, native or
+naturalized, the United States government was equally energetic in its
+endeavors to prevent violations of the neutrality law by filibustering
+expeditions, and went to great expense and pains therein. It watched and
+guarded all Atlantic and Gulf ports to prevent the departure of such
+expeditions, and gave hospitality to a Spanish cruiser which lay at Key
+West to watch for and intercept them. Hannis Taylor, the American
+Minister at Madrid, assured the Spanish government that the United
+States would do all that was in its power to prevent such expeditions
+from departing from its shores, and that promise was fulfilled with
+exceptional efficiency. Indeed, the United States administration
+incurred much popular censure for its energy in stopping the sailing of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_034" id="page_034">{34}</a></span>
+vessels which were suspected of carrying supplies to Cuba; for it did
+stop a number of them, to the very heavy pecuniary loss of the patriots.
+Nevertheless some vessels were successful in eluding the vigilance of
+the federal guards, and that fact gave umbrage in Spain; so that while
+at home the American government was charged with hostility to the Cuban
+cause, in Spain it was charged with too greatly favoring it.</p>
+
+<p>With the receipt of reenforcements, Callejas made renewed efforts to
+suppress the revolution; though he had little heart in the matter and
+seemed to realize the hopelessness of the task. Practically all the
+fighting was in Oriente. Colonel Santocildes made an unsuccessful attack
+upon the patriots near Guantanamo on March 10, and a week later Colonel
+Bosch had an equally unsatisfactory meeting with them under Brooks and
+Perez near Ulloa. So strong were the insurgents becoming in that
+province that they began to exercise the functions of civil government,
+in the carrying of mails and the collection of taxes. Beside Henry
+Brooks and Perico Perez, under whom were the largest forces, Bartolome
+Maso, who had returned from Havana, held Manzanillo with a thousand
+troops, Jesus Rabi occupied Baire and Jiguani with 1,500, and Quintin
+Banderas, Amador Guerra and Esteban Tomayo had among them 2,000 more.
+After his repulse at Guantanamo the Spanish Colonel Santocildes went to
+Bayamo, where he was attacked and routed with heavy loss. A few days
+later, on March 24, a battle was fought at Jaraguana between Amador
+Guerra, with 900 Cubans, and Colonel Araoz, with 1,000 Spanish regulars,
+in which the latter suffered the heavier losses, though they finally
+compelled the Cubans to retire from the field.</p>
+
+<p>At this time an effort was made by both the Captain-General and some
+leaders of the Cuban Autonomists to<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_035" id="page_035">{35}</a></span> make terms with the revolutionists.
+With the assent and cooperation of Callejas a commission of Autonomists,
+headed by Juan Bautista Spotorno,&mdash;who had once been for a time
+President of the Cuban Republic, shortly after the Ten Years'
+War,&mdash;proceeded to Oriente and sought a conference with Bartolome Maso
+at Manzanillo. That sturdy patriot received them grimly. He listened to
+their proposals in ominous silence. Then, in a voice all the more
+menacing for its repression of passion, he addressed Spotorno:</p>
+
+<p>"You were once President of the Cuban Republic in the Field?"</p>
+
+<p>"Yes, Bartolome; you know that."</p>
+
+<p>"You then as President issued a decree of death against anyone who
+should seek to persuade the Cuban government to accept any terms short
+of independence?"</p>
+
+<p>"Yes, but...."</p>
+
+<p>"Then, Bautista Spotorno, for this once, go in peace; but go very
+quickly, lest I change my mind as you have changed yours. And be assured
+that if you or any of your kind ever come hither with such proposals
+again, I shall execute upon you or upon them your own decree!"</p>
+
+<p>The next day Jose Marti and Maximo Gomez issued in Hayti the manifesto
+which we have already cited, which had the result of assuring all
+wavering or doubtful Cubans that the most authoritative leaders of their
+nation were directing the revolution, and that it was to be indeed a
+struggle to a finish. There was another result. The Spanish
+Captain-General, Emilio Callejas, despaired of coping with the steadily
+rising storm, and on March 27 he placed his resignation in the hands of
+the Queen Regent of Spain. That sovereign immediately summoned a Cabinet
+council, herself presiding. It was no longer the Liberal Cabinet of
+Praxedes Sagasta. That<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_036" id="page_036">{36}</a></span> body had fallen a few days before, in a
+political crisis which had arisen in Madrid over a newspaper controversy
+about Cuban affairs. An advanced Liberal paper, <i>El Resúmen</i>, had
+imputed cowardice to army officers who, it said, were always eager to
+serve in Cuba in time of peace, but shunned that island whenever there
+was fighting going on. At this a mob of officers attacked and wrecked
+the offices of the paper, and the next evening attacked the offices of
+<i>El Heraldo</i> and <i>El Globo</i>, which had denounced their doings. The next
+day all the papers of Madrid notified the government that they would
+suspend publication unless assured of protection against such outrages.
+General Lopez Dominguez approved the conduct of the riotous officers and
+demanded that the editors of the papers be delivered to him for trial by
+court martial. The Prime Minister, Sagasta, replied that that would not
+be legal, since all press offences against the army short of treason
+must be tried before civil juries. Then Marshal Martinez Campos, who as
+Captain-General had ended the Ten Years' War in Cuba, led a deputation
+of army officers to demand of Sagasta that he should suppress <i>El
+Resúmen</i> and have more strict press laws enacted. Sagasta refused and,
+finding his support in the Cortes untrustworthy in the face of military
+bullying, offered the resignation of the Ministry, on March 17. The
+Queen Regent invited Campos to form a Ministry, but he declined; though
+he announced that all newspaper men attacking the army would be shot,
+and he arbitrarily haled before military tribunals a number of editors,
+while other journalists fled the country.</p>
+
+<p>The Queen Regent then called upon Canovas del Castillo, the Conservative
+leader, to form a cabinet, and on March 25 he did so, despite the fact
+that his party was in a minority in the Cortes, and it was this
+Conservative<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_037" id="page_037">{37}</a></span> cabinet which the sovereign consulted four days later
+concerning the resignation of Callejas and affairs in Cuba in general.
+It was decided to accept Callejas's resignation, with special thanks for
+his loyal services, to appoint Martinez Campos to succeed him, to ask
+fresh credits of $120,000,000 for the expenses of the war, to send large
+reenforcements to Cuba, and to increase the peace footing of the Spanish
+army from 71,000 to 82,000 men. The troops in Cuba were at once to be
+increased to 40,000 men, and 40,000 more were to be added, if needed, in
+four months. Thus did Spain rouse herself to fight her last fight for
+the retention of her last American possession.</p>
+
+<p>It was not, however, until April 15 that Callejas received a message
+from the Queen Regent, formally accepting his resignation, thanking him
+for "the activity, zeal and ability" with which he had conducted the
+military operations against the revolutionists, complimenting all the
+forces under his command for their valor, and directing him to return to
+Spain by the next steamer that sailed from Havana after the arrival of
+his successor. And his successor landed the very next day, at
+Guantanamo. There was much adverse comment among Spaniards in Cuba upon
+this summary recall of Callejas. The explanation of it was that the
+government regarded him as culpable for letting the revolution gain so
+great headway, but it did not deem it politic to censure him publicly,
+or at all until he was back at Madrid. As for Martinez Campos, he
+promised on his acceptance of the appointment that he would quickly
+suppress the revolt, as he had done the Ten Years' War; and doubtless he
+expected that he would be able to do so.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, in sending Martinez Campos to Cuba, Spain "played her strongest
+card." He had long been known as "Spain's greatest General," and also as
+the "King-<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_038" id="page_038">{38}</a></span>Maker," since it was he who had restored the Bourbon dynasty
+to the throne. He was undoubtedly a soldier of great valor, skill and
+resource. He was also a statesman of more than ordinary ability, and had
+been for a time Prime Minister of Spain, and for fifteen years had been
+making and unmaking ministries at will. Now, at the age of sixty-four he
+was still in the prime of his powers and at the height of his popularity
+and influence. His departure from Madrid for Cuba was attended with
+demonstrations, both official and popular, which could scarcely have
+been exceeded for royalty itself. He reached Guantanamo on April 16, and
+on the following day assumed his office. It was not until a week later
+that he reached Havana. There he was received with unbounded rejoicings
+by the Spanish party, and with sincere satisfaction by the Autonomists,
+while it must be confessed that many Cuban patriots regarded his coming
+with dismay. There could be no doubt that it portended the putting forth
+of all the might of Spain against the revolution, under the command of a
+great soldier-statesman who had never yet failed in an undertaking.</p>
+
+<p>On the very day after his arrival at Guantanamo the new Captain-General
+issued a proclamation to the people of Cuba. In it he pledged himself to
+fulfil in good faith all the reforms which had been promised in his own
+Treaty of Zanjon and in subsequent legislation by the Spanish Cortes,
+provided the loyal parties in Cuba would give him their support; this
+admission of dependence upon the people being obviously a bid for
+popularity. The parties in question were, of course, the Spaniards, who
+were divided into Conservatives and Reformists, and the Autonomists, or
+Cuban Home Rulers. They or their leaders at once pledged him their
+support, and the Spaniards gave it, for a time. But a number of the
+Autonomists<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_039" id="page_039">{39}</a></span> were dissatisfied because he would promise nothing more
+than the fulfilment of reforms which had never been regarded as
+sufficient, and on that account refused him their support. Instead, they
+gave it to the revolutionists, and many of them, especially the younger
+men, actually joined the revolutionary army, or went to Jamaica or the
+United States to assist in the raising of funds and the equipping of
+expeditions. It was thus at this time that the disintegration of the
+once influential Autonomist party began.</p>
+
+<p>To the revolutionists he tried to be conciliatory. He offered full and
+free pardon to all who would lay down their arms, excepting a few of the
+leaders, and he doubtless expected that there would be a numerous
+response. It does not appear that there was any favorable response
+whatever. If any insurgents did surrender themselves&mdash;of whom there is
+no record&mdash;they were outnumbered a hundred to one by the Autonomists who
+at that time were transformed into revolutionists.</p>
+
+<p>Campos did not rely, however, upon his proclamation for the suppression
+of the insurrection. He set to work at once with all his consummate
+military skill and his knowledge of the island and of Cuban methods of
+warfare, to organize a military campaign of victory. He made General
+Garrich governor of the Province of Oriente, with General Salcedo in
+command of the First Division, at Santiago, and General Lachambre of the
+Second Division, at Bayamo. He undertook the organization of numerous
+bodies of irregular troops, to wage a guerrilla warfare against the
+Cubans similar to that which the Cubans themselves waged successfully
+against Spanish regulars. When he found his troops from Spain
+disinclined toward such work, or unsuited to it, he sought the services
+of young Spaniards who had for some years<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_040" id="page_040">{40}</a></span> been settled in Cuba, such as
+had been so ready to serve in the former war. They generally declined,
+whereupon he sought to draft them into the service, and at that they
+threatened mutiny. As a last resort he sent for Lolo Benitez, a life
+prisoner at Ceuta. This man had been a guerrilla leader, on the Cuban
+side, in the Ten Years' War, but had been guilty of cruelties which
+caused the Cubans to repudiate him. He had been captured by the
+Spaniards and sent to the penal colony in Africa for life. But Campos
+brought him back and gave him a free pardon and commission as lieutenant
+colonel in the Spanish army, on condition that he would conduct a
+guerrilla warfare against his own countrymen. When this was done, and
+when under this man were placed numerous criminals released from Cuban
+jails, there were vigorous protests from Spanish officers against such
+degradation of the Spanish army, and warnings that such unworthy tactics
+would surely react against their author.</p>
+
+<p>The official attitude of the Spanish government was at this time set
+forth by the Spanish Minister to the United States, Senor Dupuy de Lome.
+He belittled the reports of Spanish oppressions and of Cuban uprisings.
+"There is very little interest," he said, "being taken in the revolt by
+the people of Havana. I think the uprising will speedily be put down.
+The arrival of General Martinez Campos has brought order out of chaos.
+He has shown clearly to the people that their interests will be
+protected, and as a result has caused a feeling of security. He is every
+inch a soldier, not a toy fighter. He is loyal to his country, but he is
+humane, and as far as possible he will treat his enemies leniently. In
+the case of the leaders of the revolt, however, severe justice will be
+meted out."</p>
+
+<p>Meantime the revolution was proceeding. The most<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_041" id="page_041">{41}</a></span> formidable figure in
+its ranks in Cuba was that of Antonio Maceo, the mulatto general who
+above most of his colleagues possessed a veritable genius for war, both
+in strategy and in direct fighting. He had come of a family of fighters,
+and had been born in Santiago in 1849, and had fought in the Ten Years'
+War. He was highly gifted with the qualities of leadership among men,
+with valor and resolution, with keen foresight and great intelligence.
+He was probably the ablest strategist in the War of Independence, and
+personally the most popular commander. At the end of March he arrived in
+Cuba from Costa Rica with an expedition well equipped with rifles and
+small field pieces. With him were his brother Jose Maceo, Flor Crombet,
+Dr. Francisco Agramonte, and several other officers. The landing was
+made at Baracoa, the Spanish gunboats which were watching the coast
+being successfully eluded. Soon after landing the patriots were attacked
+by General Lachambre's troops at Duaba, but the latter were repulsed
+with considerable loss. A part of the expedition was then sent around by
+sea to Manzanillo, on a British schooner. That vessel was wrecked and in
+consequence its captain and crew were captured by the Spaniards, who put
+the captain to death. Dr. Agramonte was one of several members of the
+expedition who were also taken, but he, being an American citizen,
+escaped court martial and was more leniently dealt with by a civil
+court, on the demand of the American consul at Santiago.</p>
+
+<p>In a short time this masterful leader, Antonio Maceo, had control of
+practically all of the Province of Oriente outside of a few fortified
+coast cities and camps. The Captain-General, vainly imagining that the
+insurrection would be confined to that province, sent thither all
+available troops, leaving Havana, Matanzas and the others<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_042" id="page_042">{42}</a></span> with scarcely
+more than police guard. Thus greatly outnumbered, Maceo wisely resorted
+not so much to guerrilla warfare as to what may be called Fabian
+tactics. He maintained his army in complete organization and observed
+all the rules of civilized warfare. But he also maintained a high degree
+of mobility, avoiding any general engagement, and wearing out the morale
+of the Spaniards with forced marches, surprise attacks, and all the
+bewildering and baffling tactics of which so resourceful and alert a
+commander was capable. Early in April he was indeed in much peril, being
+almost completely surrounded by superior forces near Guantanamo, and
+actually suffering severe losses at Palmerito; but he cut his way out by
+desperate fighting in which he also showed himself a master hand. The
+most serious loss at that time was the death of the brave revolutionist
+Flor Crombet. He was killed not by Spaniards but by a traitor in his own
+command, whom Maceo presently detected and hanged. Soon after the affair
+at Palmerito, however, Maceo captured El Caney, in the very suburbs of
+Santiago, and seized the rich supplies in the Spanish arsenal at that
+place.</p>
+
+<p>The sending of so many troops from the other provinces to Oriente
+emboldened the patriots of Havana and Matanzas to take up arms, and
+uprisings occurred at various places, particularly at Cardenas and the
+city of Matanzas. In the city of Havana itself a daring attempt was made
+to seize Cabanas and El Morro, liberate the political prisoners, and
+destroy the magazines if they could not be held. To encourage these
+movements Maceo sent detachments of his forces from Oriente westward,
+into Camaguey, then still known as the Province of Puerto Principe.
+Jesus Rabi occupied Victoria las Tunas, near the boundary of the latter
+province, and soon had bands<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_043" id="page_043">{43}</a></span> operating beyond the border. There was an
+Autonomist organization at Camaguey, which at first disavowed the
+revolution and gave its adherence to the Captain-General, but it became
+demoralized upon the approach of the revolutionary forces, and many of
+its members were soon serving zealously in Maceo's ranks.</p>
+
+<p>The arrival of Jose Marti and Maximo Gomez in Cuba at the middle of
+April, as already related, almost simultaneously with the arrival of
+Martinez Campos, was promptly followed by increased activity on the part
+of the Cubans. Floriano Gascon organized a force of negro miners at
+Juragua, and inflicted a crushing defeat upon a Spanish garrison at
+Ramon de las Jaguas; the Spanish commander being afterward tried by
+Spanish court martial and condemned to death for inefficiency. At the
+end of the month a Spanish force was entrapped and almost destroyed by
+Jose Maceo, near Guantanamo. The first half of May was also marked with
+much fighting in the southern part of Oriente, in which the
+revolutionists were generally successful. Railroads were destroyed to
+break Spanish lines of communication, valuable supplies were captured,
+and Martinez Campos was made to realize the formidable character of the
+insurrection which he had so confidently promised to suppress.</p>
+
+<p>Mention has already been made of the Provisional Government which was
+proclaimed by Maceo early in April. On May 18 this was succeeded by
+another organization elected by a convention of delegates consisting of
+one representative of each 100 revolutionists actually in the field.
+Bartolome Maso, who had been in control of the district of Bayamo since
+early in March, was unanimously chosen President; Maximo Gomez was
+designated as Commander in Chief of the army; and Antonio Maceo was made
+Commander of the Division of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_044" id="page_044">{44}</a></span> Oriente. The next day occurred the tragedy
+of Marti's death, whereupon Tomas Estrada Palma, who had formerly been
+Provisional President, was named to succeed him as the delegate at large
+of the Cuban Republic to the United States and other countries; Manuel
+Sanguilly being later associated with him at Washington.</p>
+
+<p>All through that summer the strife continued, steadily extending its
+area westward into Camaguey and Santa Clara. Campos endeavored to
+confine the war to Oriente, by stretching a line of 4,000 Spanish troops
+across the island at the western boundary of that province, but on June
+2 Maximo Gomez broke through that line, crossed the Jobabo River, and
+entered Camaguey. There he was joined by a nephew of Salvador Cisneros,
+Marquis of Santa Lucia, with a large force, and by Marcos Garcia, mayor
+of Sancti Spiritus, who came across from the Province of Santa Clara.
+With these reenforcements Gomez soon had control of all the southern
+part of Camaguey, and on June 18 the Captain-General was compelled to
+declare that province in a state of siege.</p>
+
+<p class="c caption">MAXIMO GOMEZ</p>
+
+<p class="caption">The foremost military chieftain of the War of Independence, Maximo Gomez
+y Baez, was a Cuban by adoption rather than birth, having been born at
+Bani, Santo Domingo, in 1838. He was an officer in the last Spanish army
+in that island, and went with it thence to Cuba. There he became
+disgusted with the brutality of the Spanish officers toward the Cubans,
+personally assaulted his superior, General Villar, and quit the Spanish
+service, returning to Santo Domingo, where he engaged in business as a
+planter. At the beginning of the Ten Years&#39; War he returned to Cuba,
+joined the patriots, and did efficient service, rising to the chief
+command. After that war he returned to his plantation in Santo Domingo,
+but in 1895 joined José Marti in leading the Cuban War of Independence.
+Thereafter his story was the story of the Cuban cause. Declining to be
+considered a candidate for the Presidency of the Republic, he retired to
+private life after the establishment of independence, and died in 1905,
+full of years and honor.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 375px;">
+<a href="images/i009.png">
+<img src="images/i009_sml.png" width="375" height="572" alt="MAXIMO GOMEZ
+
+The foremost military chieftain of the War of Independence, Maximo Gomez
+y Baez, was a Cuban by adoption rather than birth, having been born at
+Bani, Santo Domingo, in 1838. He was an officer in the last Spanish army
+in that island, and went with it thence to Cuba. There he became
+disgusted with the brutality of the Spanish officers toward the Cubans,
+personally assaulted his superior, General Villar, and quit the Spanish
+service, returning to Santo Domingo, where he engaged in business as a
+planter. At the beginning of the Ten Years&#39; War he returned to Cuba,
+joined the patriots, and did efficient service, rising to the chief
+command. After that war he returned to his plantation in Santo Domingo,
+but in 1895 joined José Marti in leading the Cuban War of Independence.
+Thereafter his story was the story of the Cuban cause. Declining to be
+considered a candidate for the Presidency of the Republic, he retired to
+private life after the establishment of independence, and died in 1905,
+full of years and honor." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p>Then Campos attempted a second barricade. He placed a line of troops
+across the island from Moron to Jucaro, near the western boundary of
+Camaguey, to prevent Gomez from going on into Santa Clara province. This
+was the line along which was afterward built a military railroad, and on
+which was constructed the famous "Trocha" or barrier of ditches, wire
+fences and block houses. It almost coincided with the line of
+demarcation between the two ecclesiastical dioceses into which the
+island was divided. But this attempt to confine the insurrection was no
+more successful than the other. Indeed it was folly to try to shut the
+revolution out of Santa Clara when it was already there. Marcos Garcia
+had left behind him many fervent patriots at<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_045" id="page_045">{45}</a></span> Sancti Spiritus, and
+these soon organized a formidable force under the competent lead of
+Carlos Ruloff, and took the field, advancing northward and westward as
+far as Vega Alta. General Zayas and other patriotic leaders operated in
+the southern part of Santa Clara, and soon that province was almost as
+fully aflame with revolution as Oriente itself. This was the more
+significant, because it was a populous and opulent province, where the
+inhabitants had much to lose through the ravages of war. But like the
+Romans in the "brave days of old," the Cubans of the revolution "spared
+neither lands nor gold, nor limb nor life," for the achievement of their
+national independence.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime in Oriente the Cubans were more than holding their own. They
+suffered a sore loss in the death of the dashing champion Amador Guerra,
+who was treacherously slain in the moment of victory at Palmas Altas,
+near Manzanillo. But Henry Brooks landed supplies of artillery and
+ammunition at Portillo; Jesus Rabi almost annihilated a strong Spanish
+force in a defile near Jiguani and thus frustrated General Salcedo's
+plans to surround Maceo's camp at San Jorge; and on July 5 Quintin
+Bandera and Victoriano Garzon attacked and dispersed a newly landed
+Spanish army and captured its stores of arms and ammunition. These
+reverses for his arms exasperated Campos into the issuing of a
+proclamation on July 7, in which, while still offering pardon to all who
+voluntarily surrendered, he threatened death to all who were captured
+under arms, and exile to African prisons to all who were convicted of
+conspiring against the sovereignty of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Following this, Campos, "Spain's greatest soldier," took the field in
+person. Of this there was need, for Maceo was besieging Bayamo,
+capturing all supplies<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_046" id="page_046">{46}</a></span> which were sent thither, and threatening the
+Spanish garrison with starvation. Campos hastened to the relief of that
+place with General Santocildes and a strong force. But Maceo did not
+hesitate to measure strength with Campos. He attacked him openly at
+Peralejo, out-man&oelig;uvered him and out-fought him and came very near to
+capturing him with his whole headquarters staff. Campos was indeed saved
+from capture only by the desperate valor of Santocildes, who lost his
+life in defending him: but he did lose his entire ammunition train and
+was compelled to retreat with the remnant of his shattered forces into
+Bayamo and there undergo the humiliation of being besieged by the
+"rebels" whom he had affected to despise. There he remained for a week,
+until General Suarez Valdez could come with an army, not to defeat the
+Cubans but to help Campos to flee in safety over the road by which he
+had come. Then, when the Spaniards had concentrated more than 10,000
+troops at Bayamo for a supreme struggle the wily Maceo quietly and
+swiftly removed his forces to another scene of action.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime in the far east of the province the patriots besieged the fort
+in Sabana and would have forced its surrender had not Spanish
+reenforcements arrived from Baracoa for its relief. The fort was
+destroyed, however, and the place had to be abandoned by the Spanish.
+Also at Baire, where the revolution began, Jesus Rabi captured a Spanish
+fort and its garrison. Everywhere throughout Oriente the Spaniards were
+on the defensive, while in every other province, even in Pinar del Rio,
+the revolution was ominously gaining strength.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_047" id="page_047">{47}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h3>
+
+<p>It now seemed opportune to effect a more complete organization of the
+civil government of the Cuban Republic, and for that purpose a
+convention was held in the Valley of the Yara, at which on July 15 a
+Declaration of Cuban Independence was proclaimed, and on August 7, near
+Camaguey the action of May 18 was confirmed and amplified, Bartolome
+Maso being retained as President; Maximo Gomez as Vice-President and
+Minister of War; Salvador Cisneros as Minister of the Interior; Gonzalo
+Quesada as Secretary for Foreign Affairs, with residence in the United
+States; Antonio Maceo as General in Chief of the Army; and Jose Maceo as
+Commander of the Army of Oriente.</p>
+
+<p>This was not, however, a finality. A national Constitutional Convention
+was called, at Najasa, near Guiamaro, in the Province of Camaguey, at
+which were present regularly elected representatives from all six
+provinces of the island. It afterward removed to Anton, in the same
+province, where it completed its labors on September 23, when the
+Constitution of the Republic of Cuba was completed and promulgated.
+Salvador Cisneros y Betancourt, Marquis of Santa Lucia, was chosen by
+acclamation to preside over the deliberations of this important body,
+and associated with him were the ablest and best minds of the Cuban
+nation.</p>
+
+<p>This Constitution provided for the government of Cuba by a Council of
+Ministers, until such time as the achievement of independence and the
+signing of a treaty of peace with Spain should make it practicable for a
+Legislative<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_048" id="page_048">{48}</a></span> Assembly to be convoked and to meet for the performance of
+its functions. The Council of Ministers was to consist of six members: a
+President, Vice-President, and Secretaries of War, Foreign Affairs,
+Interior, and Treasury. This Council was to have full governmental
+powers, both legislative and administrative, civil and military; to levy
+taxes, contract loans, raise and equip armies, declare reprisals against
+the enemy when necessary, and in the last resort to control the military
+operations of the Commander in Chief. Treaties were to be made by the
+President and ratified by the Council. It was provided, however, that
+the treaty of peace with Spain, when made, must be ratified not only by
+the Council but also by the National Legislative Assembly which was then
+to be organized. No decree of the Council was valid unless approved by
+four of the six members, including the President. The President had
+power to dissolve the Council, in which case a new Council had to be
+formed within ten days. It was required that all Cubans should be
+obliged to serve the republic personally or with their property, as they
+might be able. But all property of foreigners was to be exempt from
+taxation or other levy, provided that their governments recognized the
+belligerency of Cuba. It was provided that there should be a national
+judiciary entirely independent of the legislature and executive.</p>
+
+<p>Under this system the Council was organized as follows: President,
+Salvador Cisneros y Betancourt, of Camaguey; Vice-President, Bartolome
+Maso, of Manzanillo, Oriente; Secretaries&mdash;of War, Carlos Roloff, of
+Santa Clara; of Foreign Affairs, Rafael Portuondo, of Santiago; of the
+Treasury, Severa Pina, of Sancti Spiritus; of the Interior, Santiago J.
+Canizares, of Los Remedios. Each Secretary appointed his own Deputy, who
+should have full power when taking his chief's place, as<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_049" id="page_049">{49}</a></span> follows: War,
+Mario G. Menocal, of Matanzas; Foreign Affairs, Fermin G. Dominguez;
+Treasury, Joaquin Castillo Duany, of Santiago; Interior, Carlos Dubois,
+of Baracoa. The Commander in Chief was Maximo Gomez; the
+Lieutenant-General, or Vice-Commander in Chief was Antonio Maceo, and
+the Major Generals were Jose Maceo, Maso Capote, Serafin Sanchez, and
+Fuerto Rodriguez. Tomas Estrada Palma was minister plenipotentiary and
+diplomatic agent abroad. Later Bartolome Maso and General de Castillo
+were made special envoys to the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Salvador Cisneros, the President, has already been frequently mentioned
+in this history. He came of distinguished ancestry, the names of
+Cisneros and Betancourt frequently occupying honorable places in the
+annals of Cuba. Born in 1832, he was by this time past the prime of
+life, but he was just as zealous and efficient in the cause of Cuban
+freedom as he was when he sacrificed his title of Marquis of Santa
+Lucia, and sacrificed his estates, too, which were confiscated by the
+Spanish government, when he joined the Ten Years' War, later to succeed
+the martyred Cespedes as President. Of Bartolome Maso, too, we have
+spoken much. He also was advanced in years, having been born in 1831,
+and he, too, had served through the Ten Years' War and had in
+consequence of his patriotism lost all his estates.</p>
+
+<p>Carlos Roloff, the Secretary of War, was a Pole, who had come to Cuba in
+his youth and settled at Cienfuegos; bringing with him the passionate
+love of freedom which had long been characteristic of the Poles. He
+fought through the Ten Years' War and gained distinction therein, by his
+valor and military skill.</p>
+
+<p>Mario G. Menocal, the Assistant Secretary of War, was a native of Jaguey
+Grande, Matanzas, at this time only<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_050" id="page_050">{50}</a></span> twenty-nine years old. He came of a
+family eminent in Cuban history, and indeed in the history of North
+America, since he was a nephew of that A. G. Menocal who was perhaps the
+most distinguished and efficient of all the engineers and surveyors for
+the Isthmian Canal schemes, both at Nicaragua and Panama. He himself
+was, even thus early in life, one of the foremost engineers of Cuba.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 158px;">
+<a href="images/i010.png">
+<img src="images/i010_sml.png" width="158" height="200" alt="ANICETO G. MENOCAL" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Rafael Portuondo y Tamayo, Secretary of Foreign Affairs, was another
+young man&mdash;born at Santiago in 1867&mdash;of distinguished family and high
+ability. His Assistant Secretary, Fermin Valdes Dominguez, was one of
+the most eminent physicians of Havana, and was one of those students
+who, as hitherto related, were falsely accused by the Volunteers of
+desecrating an officer's grave. He escaped the fate of shooting, which
+was meted out to one in every five of his comrades, but was sent to
+life-long penal servitude at Ceuta. After the Treaty of Zanjon he was
+released and returned to Havana, where he attained great distinction in
+his profession.</p>
+
+<p>Severa Pina, Secretary of the Treasury, belonged to one of the oldest
+families of Sancti Spiritus. His Assistant, Dr. Joaquin Castillo Duany,
+has already been mentioned as one of the organizers of the Cuban Junta
+in New York. He had served on the United States Naval relief expedition
+which went to the Arctic regions in quest of the survivors of the
+<i>Jeannette</i> exploring expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Santiago J. Canizares, Secretary of the Interior, was one of the
+foremost citizens of Los Remedios, and his<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_051" id="page_051">{51}</a></span> Assistant, Carlos Dubois,
+enjoyed similar rank at Baracoa.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime Martinez Campos was straining every effort to fulfil his
+promise of victory. At the middle of July he had nearly 40,000 regular
+infantry, more than 2,500 cavalry, more than 1,000 artillery and
+engineers, 4,400 civil guards, 2,700 marines, and nearly 1,200
+guerrillas. His navy comprised 15 vessels, to which were to be added six
+which were approaching completion in Spain and 19 which were being
+purchased of other European nations. Thus his troops outnumbered the
+Cubans by just about two to one. For the latter aggregated only 24,000,
+of whom 12,000 were under Maceo in Oriente, 9,000 in Camaguey under
+Gomez, and 3,000 under Roloff and Sanchez in Santa Clara. In August
+large reenforcements for Campos arrived from Spain, and they were no
+longer, as before, half trained boys, but were the very flower of the
+Spanish army. They brought the total that had been sent to Cuba up to
+80,000, of whom 60,000 were regular infantry. However, probably between
+18,000 and 20,000 must be subtracted from those figures, for killed,
+deserted, and died of yellow fever and other diseases. But even if thus
+reduced to 60,000, the Spanish were still twice as many as the Cubans,
+who had increased their forces to not more than 30,000.</p>
+
+<p>The plans of campaign gave the Cubans, however, a great advantage. Fully
+half of the Spaniards had to remain on garrison duty in the cities and
+towns, especially along the coast, so that the number free to take the
+field against the Cubans was no greater than that of the latter. With
+numbers anywhere near equal, the Cubans were almost sure to win, because
+of their superior morale and their better knowledge of the country.</p>
+
+<p>The Cubans suffered much, it is true, from lack of supplies,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_052" id="page_052">{52}</a></span> and this
+lack became the more marked and grievous as the Spaniards increased
+their naval forces and drew tighter and tighter their double cordon of
+vessels around the island. Several costly expeditions which were fitted
+out in the United States during the year came to grief, being either
+restrained from sailing by the United States authorities or intercepted
+and captured by the Spanish. One such vessel, fully laden with valuable
+supplies, was seized at the mouth of the Delaware River, as it was
+setting out for Cuba, and the cargo was confiscated. The company of
+Cubans in command of the vessel were arrested and brought to trial, but
+were acquitted since the mere exportation of arms and ammunition in an
+unarmed merchant vessel was no violation of law. Far different was the
+fate of any such who were captured by the Spanish at the other end of
+the voyage, as they were approaching the Cuban coast. The mildest fate
+they could expect was a term of many years of penal servitude at Ceuta.
+Such was the sentence imposed upon sailors who were guilty of nothing
+more than smuggling the contraband goods into Cuba. As for Juan
+Gualberto Gomez and his comrades in an expedition which presumptively
+was intended for fighting as well as smuggling, twenty years at Ceuta
+was their sentence.</p>
+
+<p>During the summer of 1895 a severe but necessary order was issued by the
+Cuban commander in chief. This, addressed to the people of Camaguey
+Province, directed the cessation of all plantation work, save such as
+was necessary for the food supply of the families there resident; and
+also strictly forbade the supplying of any food to the Spanish garrisons
+in the towns and cities. Disobedience to these orders, it was plainly
+stated, would mean the destruction of the offending plantation. It was
+the purpose of General Gomez to deprive the Spaniards<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_053" id="page_053">{53}</a></span> of all local
+supplies and make them dependent upon shipments of food, even, from
+Spain. This meant, no doubt, much hardship to the Cuban people. But
+there was little complaint, and it was seldom that the rule was
+violated. Whenever a flagrant violation was detected, the torch was
+applied, and canefield and buildings were reduced to ashes. There was
+also much destruction of railroads, bridges, telegraph lines and what
+not, to deprive the Spanish of means of transport and communication. It
+was a fine demonstration of the patriotism of the Cuban people that they
+almost universally acquiesced in this plan of campaign, without demur
+and without repining, although it of course meant heavy loss and untold
+inconvenience and often severe suffering, to them. They realized that
+they were at war, and that war was not to be waged with lace fans and
+rosewater.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of September, after the close of the Constitutional
+Convention, preparations were made for renewing the military campaign
+with more aggressive vigor. Jose Maceo was assigned to the command of
+the eastern part of Oriente, General Capote and General Sanchez took
+respectively the northern and southern parts of the western half, and
+General Rodriguez led the advance into Camaguey. Maximo Gomez himself
+accompanied Rodriguez's army, and was presently joined by Antonio Maceo,
+and together they planned the great campaign of the war, which was
+conceived by Gomez and executed by Maceo. This was nothing less than the
+extension of the war into every province and indeed every district and
+village of the island, by marching westward from Oriente to the further
+end of Pinar del Rio.</p>
+
+<p>Early in October Antonio Maceo set out to join Gomez in Camaguey, taking
+with him 4,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry. At San Nicolas he suffered a
+setback at the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_054" id="page_054">{54}</a></span> hands of General Aldave and a superior force of
+Spaniards, but resolutely continued his progress. Gomez meanwhile pushed
+on into Santa Clara, established headquarters near Las Tunas, where he
+could be in touch with expeditions from Jamaica, and began the
+aggressive against the Spaniards around Sancti Spiritus. Roloff,
+meanwhile, was operating at the northern part of the province, at
+Vueltas. Martinez Campos himself was in the field near Sancti Spiritus,
+but failed to check the Cuban advance. In fact, at almost every point
+the campaign was going steadily against the Spanish; so much against
+them that Campos feared to let the truth be known to the world.
+Accordingly he issued a decree forbidding the publication of any news
+concerning the war save that which was officially given out at his
+headquarters or by his chief of staff at Havana. Only Spanish and
+foreign&mdash;no Cuban&mdash;correspondents were permitted to accompany the army,
+and they only on their compliance with the rules.</p>
+
+<p>Still Campos appeared to cherish the thought that he could end the war
+by compromise, through pursuing a policy of leniency toward at least the
+rank and file of the insurgents; and in this he had the support of the
+Madrid government. That government had staked its all upon him, and was
+naturally disposed to give him a free hand and to approve everything
+that he did. However, it insisted that the rebellion must be crushed and
+that no further reforms for Cuba could be considered until that was
+done. It was feeling the strain of the war severely, especially since
+its last loan for war funds had to be placed at more than fifty per cent
+discount.</p>
+
+<p>October was a disastrous month for the Spanish at sea. One of their
+gunboats was wrecked on a key, and another, which had just been
+purchased in the United States, was<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_055" id="page_055">{55}</a></span> boarded and seized by a party of
+revolutionists in the Cauto River, stripped of all its guns and
+ammunition, and disabled and scuttled. General Enrique Collazo, who
+earlier in the season had several times been baffled in such attempts,
+at last got away from Florida with a strong party of Cubans and
+Americans and effected a safe landing in Cuba. A little later Carlos
+Manuel de Cespedes did the same, bringing a large cargo of arms. Two
+expeditions also came from Canada, under General Francisco Carillo and
+Colonel Jose Maria Aguirre. The latter, by the way, was an American
+citizen who had been arrested in Havana at the very beginning of the
+war, along with Julio Sanguilly, but was released at the very urgent
+insistence of the United States government. Sanguilly, who was suspected
+by some Cubans of having betrayed their cause, was held, tried, and
+condemned to life imprisonment; a fact which cleared him of suspicion of
+complicity with the Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>Maceo advanced through Camaguey and on November 12 reached Las Villas
+with an army of 8,000 men. Gomez had meanwhile moved northward almost to
+the Gulf coast, and was operating with 5,000 men between Los Remedios
+and Sagua la Grande, where he joined forces with Sanchez, who had
+marched westward, and with Roloff, Suarez, Cespedes and Collazo. He
+established headquarters near the Matanzas border, where he was in touch
+with Lacret, Matagas and other guerrilla leaders who were actively
+engaged in the latter province. In that same month Maceo fought a
+pitched battle with General Navarro, near Santa Clara, and a few days
+later Gomez similarly fought General Suarez Valdes in the same region.
+These were two of the greatest battles of the war, in point of numbers
+engaged and losses suffered, and were both handsomely won by the
+Cubans.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_056" id="page_056">{56}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In view of these losses, Campos welcomed the arrival of 30,000
+additional troops from Spain, under General Pando and General Marin. He
+also resorted to recruiting troops in some of the South American
+countries, particularly in Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay, thinking to
+find them hardier and better able to endure the climate and the
+hardships of Cuba than men from the Peninsula. Such recruiting was not
+regarded with favor in those countries, where sympathy was generally on
+the side of the Cubans; but a considerable number of adventurers were
+found who were willing to serve for good pay as soldiers of fortune.
+More and more, too, the Spanish soldiery indulged in excesses against
+the inhabitants of Cuba as well as against the revolutionists in the
+field, and the conflict showed symptoms of degenerating into the
+savagery which marked it at a later date. It is to be recalled to the
+credit of Campos that he resisted all such tendencies, and that he
+indeed sent back to Spain two prominent Generals, Bazan and Salcedo,
+because of their barbarous methods and their criticisms of his humanity.
+General Pando, on arriving with the fresh troops from Spain, was placed
+in command at Santiago; General Marin was assigned to Santa Clara;
+General Mella operated in Camaguey; and General Arderius was charged
+with the hopeless task of guarding Matanzas, Havana and Pinar del Rio
+from invasion by the revolutionists.</p>
+
+<p>The Cuban government, of President Cisneros and his colleagues,
+established its headquarters at Las Tunas, and there approved another
+military proclamation by the Commander in Chief, ordering the burning of
+all cane fields and the laying waste of all plantations which were
+providing or were likely to provide supplies to the Spaniards, and
+threatening with death all persons found giving the Spaniards aid or
+comfort. One notable blow was<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_057" id="page_057">{57}</a></span> struck at the south, before the final
+advance was made toward Havana and the west. This was at the middle of
+December. Campos himself was at Cienfuegos, with 20,000 troops, and
+Gomez and Maceo decided to give him battle. The redoubtable negro
+farmer, Quintin Bandera, from Oriente, who at the age of sixty-three
+years had become one of the most agile, daring and successful guerrilla
+leaders, raided the Spanish lines and drew out a considerable force,
+upon which the Cubans fell at Mal Tiempo, thirty miles north of
+Cienfuegos. Only a couple of thousand men were engaged on each side, but
+it was one of the most significant battles of the war, because it was
+the first in which the Cubans relied upon the machete, and the result of
+the experiment made that fearful weapon thereafter their favorite arm,
+particularly in cavalry charges, and it struck a terror into the hearts
+of the Spanish soldiers such as nothing else could do. The machete was
+an enormous knife, as long as a cavalry sabre or longer, with a single
+edge as sharp as a razor on a blade almost as heavy as the head of a
+woodsman's axe. It had been used on sugar plantations, for cutting cane,
+and was so heavy that a single stroke was sufficient to cut through half
+a dozen of the thickest canes. Swung by the expert and sinewy arm of a
+Cuban soldier, it would sever a man's head from his body, or cut off an
+arm or leg, as surely as the blade of a guillotine. At Mal Tiempo a
+whole company of Spanish regulars was set upon by Cuban horsemen armed
+with nothing but machetes, and every one of them was killed.</p>
+
+<p>Turning swiftly away from Mal Tiempo, where they had both been present,
+Gomez and Maceo led their troops swiftly to the northwest and before
+Campos realized what their objective was they were raiding and defeating
+Spanish troops around Colon, in the east central part of the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_058" id="page_058">{58}</a></span> Province
+of Matanzas, between Campos and Havana. The distracted Captain-General
+hastened thither and, learning that they were retiring eastward toward
+the town of Santo Domingo, in Santa Clara, directed his course thither;
+only to find himself outwitted by the Cubans who had really moved
+further toward Colon. At last he came into contact with them, and with
+Emilio Nunez who had joined them, near the little village of Coliseo,
+and there he was badly worsted in the fight, and came near to losing his
+life, his adjutant being shot and killed at his side. The coming of
+night saved him from further losses. But then the Cubans, pursuing
+Fabian tactics, withdrew to Jaguey Grande, in Santa Clara, well content
+with their achievement, where they took counsel over plans for the great
+drive which was to carry them through Matanzas and Havana clear into
+Pinar del Rio.</p>
+
+<p>Campos made the best of his way hastily back to Havana, in a far
+different frame of mind from that in which he had come to Cuba eight
+months before. He had at that time in the island more than 100,000
+troops in active service. Since his appointment as Captain-General
+nearly 80,000 men had been sent thither from Spain. In addition there
+were the Volunteers, or what was left of them. According to Spanish
+authorities at Havana at that time the Volunteers numbered 63,000. True,
+they would not take the field. But they were serviceable for police and
+garrison duty in cities and towns, thus permitting all the regular army
+to be put into the field. The same authorities declared that with the
+Volunteers, marines and all other branches, Campos had at his disposal
+189,000 men. It is probable that the entire force under Gomez and Maceo
+in that first invasion of Matanzas did not exceed 10,000 men. These
+things gave<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_059" id="page_059">{59}</a></span> "Spain's greatest General" much food for thought; not of
+the most agreeable kind.</p>
+
+<p>It gave others food for thought; the Spanish Loyalists of both
+Constitutionalist and Reformist predilections, and the dwindling but
+still resolute body of Cuban Autonomists. The last-named were at this
+desperate conjuncture of affairs Campos's best friends. The
+Constitutionalists were hostile to him. They had from the first
+disapproved his moderate and humane methods, wishing to return to the
+savagery of Valmaseda in the Ten Years' War. The Reformists were
+hesitant; they had little faith in Campos, yet they doubted the
+expedience of openly repudiating him. The Autonomists, having faith in
+his sincerity, respecting his humanity, and deploring the devastation
+and ruin which was befalling Cuba, urged that he should be supported
+loyally in at least one last effort to pacify the island and abate the
+horrors of civil war.</p>
+
+<p>The intellectual and moral power of the Autonomists carried the day. The
+Reformists first and then the Constitutionalists agreed to join them in
+making a demonstration of loyalty and confidence to the Captain-General,
+to cheer and sustain him in the depression&mdash;almost despair&mdash;which he was
+certainly suffering. So the representatives of all three factions
+appeared publicly before Campos. For the Constitutionalists, Santos
+Guzman spoke; an intense reactionary, who could not altogether conceal
+his feelings of disapproval of Campos's liberal course, or his
+realization of the desperate plight in which the country was at that
+time. But he made an impassioned pledge of the loyalty of his party to
+the Captain-General. For the Autonomists, Dr. Rafael Montoro was the
+spokesman, one of the foremost orators and scholars<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_060" id="page_060">{60}</a></span> of the
+Spanish-speaking world. He had been a Cuban Senator in the Spanish
+Cortes, and perhaps more than any other man in Cuba commanded the
+respect and confidence of all parties, Spanish and Cuban alike. He also
+pledged to Campos the unwavering support of the Autonomists in what he
+believed sincerely to be the best policy for both Cuba and Spain. A
+representative of the Reformists spoke to the same effect. Then Campos
+responded with a frank confession that he had meditated resignation,
+fearing that he had lost the united confidence of the various parties;
+but that after this demonstration of loyalty, he would continue his
+military and civil administration with restored hope of success in
+pacifying the island.</p>
+
+<p>We have called the Autonomists at this time the best friends of Campos.
+It might be possible, however, to argue successfully that they were his
+worst friends, or at least badly mistaken friends. It might have been
+better, that is to say, for him to have persisted in retirement at that
+time, instead of merely postponing the day of wrath. For his renewed
+efforts either to crush or to pacify the revolutionists were vain. At
+the very moment when he was gratefully listening to those pledges of
+loyal support, Gomez and Maceo were pushing unrelentingly forward, not
+merely through Matanzas but far into Havana province itself. And like
+Israel of old, they were guided or accompanied by a pillar of fire by
+night and a pillar of cloud by day. The plantations near the capital
+were sources of supply for the Spanish, and they must be destroyed. It
+seemed savage to doom canefields and factories to the torch. But it was
+more humane to do that and thus make the island uninhabitable for the
+Spaniards, than to lose myriads of lives in battle. Moreover, the
+destruction of the sugar crop, then ripe for harvest,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_061" id="page_061">{61}</a></span> would do more
+than anything else to cripple the financial resources of Spain in the
+island. All Spain wanted of Cuba, said Gomez, grimly but truly, was what
+she could get out of it. Therefore if she was prevented from getting
+anything out of it she would no longer desire it but would let it go.</p>
+
+<p>So night after night "the midnight sky was red" with the glow of blazing
+canefields and factories, and day after day the tropic sun was half
+obscured by rolling clouds of smoke from the same conflagrations; while
+behind them the advancing armies left a broad swath of blackened
+desolation, above which gaunt, tall chimneys towered solitary, above
+twisted and ruined machinery, grim monuments of the passing of the
+destroyer. Day after day the inexorable terror rolled toward the
+capital. On the last day of the year the vanguard of the patriot army
+was at Marianao, only ten miles from Havana, and every railroad leading
+out of the city was either cut or had suspended operations. Two days
+later Campos proclaimed martial law and a state of siege in the
+Provinces of Havana and Pinar del Rio. Thus the new year opened with the
+entire island involved in the War of Independence. Nor was it merely a
+nominal state of war. Already Pinar del Rio was overrun by bands of
+Cuban irregulars, who destroyed the cane fields of Spanish Loyalists and
+ravaged the tobacco plantations of the famous Vuelta Abajo. But this was
+not enough. On January 5, 1896, Gomez, leaving Maceo and Quintin Bandera
+to hold Campos in check at Havana, drove straight at the centre of the
+Spanish line which strove to bar his progress westward, broke through
+it, and marched his whole army into Pinar del Rio.</p>
+
+<p>That was the beginning of the end for Campos. In desperation he flung
+all available troops in a line across<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_062" id="page_062">{62}</a></span> the western part of Havana
+Province vainly hoping, since he had not been able thus to keep him out
+of Pinar del Rio, that thus he could keep Gomez shut up in that
+province, deprived of supplies or succor. Meantime he sent three of his
+ablest generals, Luque, Navarro and Valdez, into the western province,
+in hope of capturing Gomez. But the wily Cuban chieftain played with
+them, marching and countermarching at will and wearing them out, until
+he had completed his work there. Then as if to show his scorn at
+Campos's military barriers, he burst out of Pinar del Rio and reentered
+Havana, sweeping like a besom of wrath through the southern part of that
+province, and defeating the army of Suarez Valdez near Batabano. Then,
+while all the Spanish columns were in full cry after Gomez, Maceo
+crossed the border into Pinar del Rio at the north, and marched along
+the coast as far as Cabanas, destroying several towns on his way.</p>
+
+<p>From Batabano the Cubans under Gomez and Angel Guerra turned northward
+again, and by January 12 were at Managuas, in the outskirts of Havana,
+from which the sound of firing could be heard in the capital itself. The
+railroads had been stopped before, and now all telegraph communication
+with Havana was cut, save that by submarine cable. The city was not
+merely in a technical state of siege but was actually besieged, and if
+Jose Maceo and Jesus Rabi, who were on the eastern border of the
+province, had been able promptly to join Gomez and Bandera, Havana would
+probably have been captured. In this state of affairs the Spanish
+inhabitants of the city were frantic with fear, and with faultfinding
+against Campos for his inability to protect them from the
+revolutionists. The Volunteers mutinied outright refusing to serve
+longer under his orders unless he would<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_063" id="page_063">{63}</a></span> alter his policy to one of
+extreme severity. The Spanish political leaders openly inveighed against
+him.</p>
+
+<p>In these circumstances Campos invited the leaders of the various
+parties, the very men who shortly before had pledged their support to
+him, to meet him again for a conference. They came, but in a different
+spirit from before. Santos Guzman was first to speak. He declared that
+the Constitutionalists had lost confidence in the Captain-General and
+did not approve his policy, and that they could no longer support him.
+The spokesman of the Reformists was less violent of phrase but no less
+hostile in intent and purport. From neither of the factions of the
+Spanish party could Campos hope for further support. There remained the
+Cuban Autonomists, and with a constancy which would have been sublime if
+only it had been exercised in a better cause, they reaffirmed their
+loyalty to Campos and to his policy and renewed their pledges of
+support. But this was in vain. Campos realized that a Spanish
+Captain-General who had not the support and confidence of the Spanish
+party would be an impossible anomaly. He would not resign, but he
+reported to Madrid the state of affairs, and placed himself, like a good
+soldier, at the commands of the government; excepting that he would not
+change his policy for one of ruthless severity. If he was to remain in
+Cuba, his policy of conciliation, in cooperation with the Autonomists,
+must be maintained.</p>
+
+<p>The answer was not delayed. On January 17 a message came from Madrid,
+directing Campos to turn over his authority to General Sabas Marin, who
+would exercise it until a permanent successor could be appointed and
+could arrive; and to return forthwith to Spain. Of course there was
+nothing for him to do but to obey. In relinquishing his office to his
+temporary successor he<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_064" id="page_064">{64}</a></span> spoke strongly in defence of the policy which he
+had pursued. Later, out of office, he talked with much bitterness of the
+political conspiracies which had been formed against him by the
+Spaniards of Cuba, of their moral treason to the cause of Spain, and of
+the sordid tyranny which they exercised. He declared that Spain herself
+was at fault for the Cuban revolution, which never would have occurred
+if the island had been treated as an integral province of Spain and not
+as a subject and enslaved country; and he prophesied that the verdict of
+history would be, as it had been in the case of Central and South
+America, that Spain had lost her American empire through the perverse
+faults of the Spaniards themselves. "My successor," he added, "will
+fail." Three days later he sailed for Spain.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_065" id="page_065">{65}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h3>
+
+<p>The administration of General Marin lasted only a few weeks, but it was
+marked with strenuous doings. His first effort was to do what Campos had
+failed to do, namely, to maintain an impassable barrier between Pinar
+del Rio and Havana. He massed troops on the line between Havana and
+Batabano, and took command himself at the centre, hoping to draw Maceo
+into a general engagement. But Maceo sent Perico Diaz with 1,400 men
+from Artemisia to create a diversion just north of the centre, which was
+done very effectively, Diaz and General Jil drawing a large Spanish
+force into a trap and inflicting terrible slaughter with a cavalry
+machete charge. Taking advantage of this, Maceo with a small detachment
+easily crossed the trocha at the south. At once the Spanish forces all
+rushed in that direction, to head off Maceo and to prevent him from
+joining Gomez, whereupon the remainder of Maceo's troops crossed the
+trocha at the centre and north. After raiding Havana Province at will,
+and capturing fresh supplies, Maceo returned to Pinar del Rio, fought
+and won a pitched battle at Paso Real, won another at Candelaria, where
+the Spanish General Cornell was killed, and captured the city of Jaruco
+and its forts with 80 guns.</p>
+
+<p>By this time the new Captain-General had arrived. This was General
+Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau; the man most of all desired&mdash;and indeed
+earnestly asked for&mdash;by the Volunteers and other extremists among the
+Spanish party in Cuba, the man most undesired by the Autonomists,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_066" id="page_066">{66}</a></span> and
+the man most hated by the Cuban revolutionists. He had made himself
+unspeakably odious in the Ten Years' War as the chief aid of Valmaseda
+in his savage outrages, and he was confidently expected to renew in Cuba
+the horrors of that campaign; as he did. Upon the announcement of his
+appointment the Autonomists largely abandoned hope of any amicable
+arrangement, and those of them who were mayors or other officers
+promptly resigned their places, being unwilling to serve under him. Many
+of them left Cuba altogether, dreading the horrors which they knew were
+impending. As for the masses of the Cuban people, they flocked to the
+standard of the revolution in greater numbers than before. Within a
+month after Weyler's arrival at Havana, more than 15,000 fresh recruits
+were following the banners of Gomez and Maceo.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 161px;">
+<a href="images/i011.png">
+<img src="images/i011_sml.png" width="161" height="198" alt="GENERAL WEYLER" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was on February 10 that Weyler landed in Cuba. He promptly issued a
+number of decrees addressed to both the Spanish Loyalists and the Cuban
+Revolutionists. He chided the former for their indifference and fears,
+warned them that they must expect to make sacrifices and endure
+sufferings, and demanded of them that they should themselves undertake
+the guardianship of their cities and towns so as to release all his
+troops for service in the field. The latter he threatened with all
+possible pains and penalties if they persisted in their contumacy. Death
+or life imprisonment was to be the fate of all who circulated news
+unfavorable to the government, who interfered with the operation of
+railroads, telegraphs or<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_067" id="page_067">{67}</a></span> telephones, who by word of mouth disparaged
+Spain or Spanish soldiers or praised the enemy, who aided the enemy in
+any way, or who failed to help the government and to injure the
+revolutionists at every opportunity. All inhabitants of Oriente,
+Camaguey and the district of Sancti Spiritus in Santa Clara were
+required to register at military headquarters and receive permits to go
+about their business. Later he ordered all persons living in rural
+districts to move into fortified towns, and confiscated the property of
+all who were absent from their homes without leave. It should be added
+that at the beginning of his administration he sought to curb and even
+reproved and punished the cruelties of his subordinates.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the repudiation of Campos and his policy of pacification,
+and the accession of Weyler and his policy of severity, the Spanish
+Prime Minister, Canovas del Castillo, determined to make another attempt
+at amicable settlement. Elections for a new Cortes were to be held, and
+he directed that they should be held in Cuba as well as in the
+Peninsula. To that end it was desirable to raise the state of siege in
+at least the three western provinces, and on March 8 Weyler issued an
+order which he hoped would conduce to that end. The civil guard, or
+rural military police, was to be restored to duty, amnesty was offered
+to all insurgents who surrendered within fifteen days and who had not
+been guilty of burning or confiscating property, and all others were to
+be treated as bandits, to be put summarily to death. All loyal
+inhabitants were required actively to assist in repairing railroads,
+telegraph lines, etc. A similar proclamation was issued for the other
+provinces.</p>
+
+<p>The elections were set for April 12, and were then held. The Reformist
+faction of Spaniards refused to<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_068" id="page_068">{68}</a></span> take part in them, not approving the
+policy of Weyler. The Cuban Autonomists also refused to vote, or to
+nominate candidates, excepting for Deputies from the University of
+Havana and the Economical Society of Havana. They did this at great risk
+to themselves, because Weyler after trying persuasions resorted to the
+most ominous threats against them if they would not take part in the
+elections, and there really was much danger that at least their leaders
+would be arrested and imprisoned for treason. The outcome was that only
+Constitutionalists voted, and only their candidates were elected;
+representing an insignificant fraction of the Cuban people.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime the war raged unceasingly. Having failed to keep the Cubans
+from invading Pinar del Rio, and then from emerging from that province,
+Weyler again formed a trocha from Havana to Batabano to prevent them
+from moving further east. But both Gomez and Maceo broke through, the
+former marching into the heart of Matanzas and playing havoc with the
+sugar plantations, and the latter going southward to the Cienaga de
+Zapata and thence into Santa Clara, where he received strong
+reenforcements from Oriente and Camaguey. Then, when Weyler was massing
+his troops in Santa Clara, Maceo with 10,000 men swept back to the very
+gates of Havana. With the adoption of Weyler's policy as announced in
+his proclamations, the war became a campaign of destruction on both
+sides, each burning towns in order that they might not be occupied by
+the other. In this fashion in a few weeks there were burned or laid in
+ruins in Pinar del Rio the towns of Cabanaz, Cayajabos, Vinales,
+Palacios, San Juan Martinez, Montezuelo, Los Arroyos, Cuano, San Diego,
+Nunez, Bahia Honda, Hacha and Quiobra; in Havana there perished<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_069" id="page_069">{69}</a></span> La
+Catalina, San Nicolas, Nueva Paz, Bejucal, Jaruco, Wajay, Melena and
+Bainoa; in Matanzas, Los Ramos, Macagua, Roque, San Jose and Torriente;
+and in Santa Clara, Amaro, Flora, Mata, Maltiempo, Ranchuelo, Salamanca
+and San Juan. Many other towns were partially destroyed. On March 13
+Maceo attacked Batabano, one of the most strongly defended Spanish coast
+towns, took 50 guns and much ammunition, and destroyed the town. Nine
+days later Gomez sent troops into the city of Santa Clara, and captured
+240,000 rounds of ammunition. He established his headquarters so near
+Las Cruces that General Pando fled from that place to Cienfuegos; for
+which cowardice he was recalled to Spain, as were several other
+generals. Maceo, after his exploit at Batabano, returned to Pinar del
+Rio, routed General Linares at Candelaria and another Spanish army at
+Cayajibaos, and destroyed part of the town of Pinar del Rio.</p>
+
+<p>Filibustering was now rife. In spite of the vigilance of the United
+States government and of the Spanish navy, numerous expeditions carried
+men and arms to the Cuban patriots. Those which were successful were
+little heard of by the public, while those which failed often attracted
+much attention. General Calixto Garcia, one of the most resolute and
+daring veterans of the Ten Years' War, sent one on the steamer
+<i>Hawkins</i>, which was lost at sea. He organized another on the British
+steamer <i>Bermuda</i>, which was detained by the United States authorities
+on February 24, and he was arrested and tried for "organizing a military
+expedition," but was acquitted. A little later he reorganized the
+expedition and reached Cuba with it in safety. Enrique Collazo and
+others sent an expedition from Cedar Keys on the <i>Stephen R. Mallory</i>,
+which was detained, for a time, but finally got off and landed most of
+the cargo in Matanzas. The<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_070" id="page_070">{70}</a></span> Danish steamer <i>Horsa</i> was seized by the
+United States authorities for carrying a military expedition. The
+<i>Commodore</i> carried a cargo of arms safely from Charleston, S. C. The
+<i>Bermuda</i> took another expedition from Jacksonville under Col. Vidal and
+Col. Torres, but was attacked by a Spanish gunboat before all the cargo
+was landed, and took to flight, throwing the rest of the cargo
+overboard. Other successful expeditions in the early part of 1896 were
+five on the steamer <i>Three Friends</i>, one of which was led by Julian
+Zarraga and one by Dr. Joaquin Castillo Duany; three on the <i>Laurada</i>,
+of which one was led by Juan Fernandez Ruiz and one by Rafael Portuondo;
+several led by Rafael Cabrera, one by General Carlos Roloff, and one by
+Juan Ruiz Rivera. One came from France, under Fernando Freyre y Andrade,
+bringing 5,000 rifles and 1,000,000 cartridges. President Cleveland
+issued a warning, that all violators of the United States neutrality
+laws would be prosecuted and severely punished, and General Weyler
+offered large rewards for information leading to the capture of such
+expeditions, but the chief effect was to stimulate Cuban patriots to
+greater efforts, if also to increased precautions.</p>
+
+<p>Much attention was meanwhile paid to Cuban affairs by the United States
+government, not only in trying to check filibustering but also in
+looking after the rights&mdash;and wrongs&mdash;of American citizens, and also in
+seeking an ending of a war which was commercially ruinous and humanely
+most distressing. Several joint resolutions were introduced in the
+Congress at Washington, for recognizing the Cubans as belligerents, for
+inquiry into the state and conditions of the war, for intervention, and
+for recognizing the independence of the Cuban Republic. There were
+finally adopted on April 6 resolutions favoring<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_071" id="page_071">{71}</a></span> recognition of Cuban
+belligerency and the tender of good offices for the settlement of the
+war on the basis of Cuban independence. It was of course necessarily
+left to the discretion of the President to execute these designs. He did
+not deem it expedient to recognize Cuban belligerence, but he did
+promptly, on April 9, direct the American Minister at Madrid to make the
+tender of good offices for ending the war on the basis of reforms which
+would be satisfactory to the Cuban people. True, it had been made clear
+that the great mass of the Cuban people would accept nothing short of
+independence; but the American Secretary of State, Mr. Olney, believed
+that if a genuine measure of Home Rule were granted and put into effect,
+the Cubans and their friends in the United States would withdraw their
+support from the revolution and thus constrain the revolutionists to
+yield and accept the compromise. To this overture of the United States
+government Spain made no reply; nor did it to a similar suggestion
+offered by the Pope. But Tomas Estrada Palma, speaking for the Cuban
+Junta in New York and for Cubans and Cuban sympathizers throughout the
+United States, declared that they were not at all interested in any such
+scheme, and that they would consider nothing short of absolute
+independence.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish government did, indeed, consider a scheme of so-called
+autonomy, somewhat resembling that of Senor Abarzuza at the beginning of
+the war; but in the speech from the throne at the opening of the Cortes
+on May 11 it was frankly recognized that the revolutionists would accept
+nothing short of independence, and that therefore it would be expedient
+to attempt any such reforms until the insurrection had been subdued by
+force of arms; which was, of course, General Weyler's policy.</p>
+
+<p>There were numerous diplomatic controversies between<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_072" id="page_072">{72}</a></span> Spain and the
+United States over Cuban affairs. The American Consul-General at Havana,
+Ramon O. Williams, intervened in behalf of numerous American citizens
+who had been arrested for complicity in the revolution, insisting upon
+their trial by civil and not by military courts. In the case of five
+American sailors taken on a filibustering expedition, death by shooting
+was ordered by Weyler, but the Spanish government quashed the sentence
+and ordered a civil trial on Mr. Williams's threat to close the
+Consulate and thus suspend relations. Antagonism between the consul and
+the Captain-General became so intense that Mr. Williams offered to
+resign his office, but the President requested him to remain. However he
+finally retired, at his own volition, and was succeeded on June 3 by
+Fitzhugh Lee; who proved equally resolute in his protection of American
+interests.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime, what of the revolutionary civil government of the Republic of
+Cuba? At the beginning it was a fugitive in the mountain fastnesses of
+the Sierra Maestra, in the southern part of Oriente, between Santiago
+and Manzanillo. Thence it removed to Las Tunas, in the same province.
+But after the great eastward drive by Gomez and Maceo it established
+itself permanently in the Sierra de Cubitas, in the Province of
+Camaguey, midway between the city of Camaguey and the north coast of
+Cuba. There it remained, in a practically impregnable stronghold, and
+there it surrounded itself with such military industries as it was
+capable of conducting&mdash;largely the manufacture of dynamite, machetes,
+and of clothing. From that capital it directed an efficient
+administration of the major part of the island. It levied and collected
+taxes, and gave to about two-thirds of the island a mail service at
+least as efficient as that of the Spanish government had ever been. A
+complete judicial<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_073" id="page_073">{73}</a></span> and police system was maintained, and was more
+respected by the people than that of Spain. In brief it was
+substantially true, as President Cisneros declared, that the island was
+peaceful, law-abiding and well-governed, excepting in those places where
+the Spanish invaders were making trouble!</p>
+
+<p>But the Spanish did make trouble. Weyler once more strove to place an
+impassable barrier between Pinar del Rio and Havana, to keep Maceo shut
+up in the former province. He constructed it so strongly, with ditches,
+block houses, barbed wire fences, artillery and what not as to make it
+almost impossible of passage. Then he put 10,000 of his best troops west
+of it, to fight Maceo, and distributed 28,000 more along the trocha to
+keep Maceo from breaking out. The result was most unfortunate for the
+Spanish troops west of the trocha. They were there to hunt down Maceo.
+Instead, Maceo hunted them. If they ventured to attack him, he repulsed
+them. More often he attacked them, and almost invariably routed them. At
+Lechuza he cut to pieces Colonel Debos's column and drove its survivors
+to the shelter of a gunboat at the shore. At Bahia Honda and Punta Brava
+the Spanish were badly beaten. In the Rubi Hills a Spanish force was all
+but annihilated, and the commanders began to clamor for reenforcements;
+though Maceo had only 11,000 men, and the Spanish had 50,000 along the
+trocha to keep him from crossing it. During the summer the campaign
+slackened a little, though Maceo won several spirited engagements and
+maintained his control of practically all the province excepting parts
+of the coast. In the early fall, with his army increased to 20,000 he
+resumed the aggressive; using for the first time a dynamite gun which
+thoroughly demoralized the Spaniards. Near Pinar del Rio city,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_074" id="page_074">{74}</a></span> at Las
+Tumbas Torino, at San Francisco, at Guayabitos and at Vinales, he
+defeated the enemy and inflicted heavy losses. The same record was made
+early in October at San Felipe, at Tunibar del Torillo, at Manaja, at
+Ceja del Negro, and Guamo. A solitary Spanish victory was won at
+Guayabitos.</p>
+
+<p>Like the general government at Cubitas, Maceo had headquarters in the
+mountains, and there guarded effectively a large and fertile region,
+where supplies ample for feeding his army could be produced. He also
+conducted workshops for the manufacture of arms and ammunition. Against
+this position, in his rage and desperation, Weyler himself in November
+led an army of 36,000 picked troops, with six Generals. For several days
+attack after attack was made, every one being repulsed by Maceo with
+heavy loss to the Spaniards, until at last, with a third of his army
+destroyed, Weyler abandoned the attempt and retreated. Unfortunately, on
+December 4 Maceo with his staff and a small force decided to undertake a
+secret expedition to seek a conference with leaders in Havana Province.
+They accordingly crossed the Bay of Mariel in a small boat and thus
+reached the eastern side of the trocha. Messages were sent to
+revolutionary chiefs in Havana and Matanzas, asking them to come to a
+council of war at a designated point near Punta Brava, familiar to them
+all as secure rendezvous. A few came promptly, but in some way the
+secret of the meeting became known to the Spanish. In consequence, on
+December 7, while he was expecting the arrival of more of his friends,
+Maceo heard the sound of firing at the outposts of his camp. Riding to
+the scene, he found Spanish troops attacking him. He rallied his troops
+and under his directions they were soon mastering the enemy, when a shot
+struck Maceo and he fell mortally wounded; his last words, referring to
+the progress of the skirmish, being, "It goes well."</p>
+
+<p class="c caption">JOSÉ ANTONIO MACEO</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Born at Santiago de Cuba in 1849, of a family of patriots and brave
+fighters, and dying in battle at Punta Brava, near Havana, on December
+7, 1896, José Antonio Maceo was one of the most gallant soldiers in the
+Ten Years&#39; War and one of the very foremost chieftains of the War of
+Independence. Gifted with military genius and with leadership of men, he
+was the greatest strategist and the most popular commander in the
+Liberating Army, and the greatest terror to the foe. Partly of Negro
+blood, he was an equal honor to both races, and finely typified in
+himself their union in the cause of Cuban independence. A monument to
+his imperishable memory crowns Cacagual Hill, where his remains were
+buried.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 378px;">
+<a href="images/i012.png">
+<img src="images/i012_sml.png" width="378" height="573" alt="JOSÉ ANTONIO MACEO
+
+Born at Santiago de Cuba in 1849, of a family of patriots and brave
+fighters, and dying in battle at Punta Brava, near Havana, on December
+7, 1896, José Antonio Maceo was one of the most gallant soldiers in the
+Ten Years&#39; War and one of the very foremost chieftains of the War of
+Independence. Gifted with military genius and with leadership of men, he
+was the greatest strategist and the most popular commander in the
+Liberating Army, and the greatest terror to the foe. Partly of Negro
+blood, he was an equal honor to both races, and finely typified in
+himself their union in the cause of Cuban independence. A monument to
+his imperishable memory crowns Cacagual Hill, where his remains were
+buried." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_075" id="page_075">{75}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At his fall his troops were panic stricken and gave way, so that the
+Spaniards occupied the field and plundered and stripped the dead. It was
+said that they did not know that it was Maceo whom they had killed until
+a native guide who was with them recognized his body. While they were
+still plundering the dead Cuban reenforcements under Pedro Diaz came up,
+furious at the loss of their peerless chief, and a desperate fight
+ensued, which ended in the rout of the Spaniards and the recovery of
+Maceo's body by the Cubans. When the defeated Spaniards got back to
+headquarters and reported that they had slain Maceo, they were not
+believed. It was not considered possible that he had crossed the trocha.
+But a little later convincing confirmation came to them from a Cuban
+source. This was furnished when Dr. Maximo Zertucha, who had been
+Maceo's surgeon-general and who was the only member of his staff who had
+survived the disastrous fight at Punta Brava, came to Spanish
+headquarters and surrendered himself. He explained that he did so
+because he had seen Maceo killed, and he regarded the loss of that
+leader as certainly fatal to the cause of the Cuban revolution. The
+Spanish authorities accepted his surrender and granted him full amnesty,
+a circumstance which caused many Cubans to suspect that he had betrayed
+his chief, by sending word of his whereabouts to the Spanish commander.
+Of this there appears, however, to have been no proof. Thus perished
+Antonio Maceo, who would have been the generalissimo of the Cuban forces
+but for the prudent fear that maligners might then have spread
+successfully the damaging libel that the revolution was nothing but a
+negro insurrection; a fear which he himself felt, and on<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_076" id="page_076">{76}</a></span> account of
+which he insisted that Maximo Gomez should be the Commander in Chief of
+the Cuban Revolutionary armies. Thus perished Antonio Maceo, a soldier
+and a man without a superior in either of the contending armies, and a
+commander, indeed, who, in personal valor, in strategic skill, in
+resource, in resolution, in knowledge of the art of war, and in all the
+elements of military greatness, was worthy to be ranked among the great
+captains of all lands and of all time. The loss of him was irreparable.
+But it was not fatal to the Cuban cause. Thereafter the effort of every
+Cuban soldier and patriot was to increase his own efficiency to some
+degree, so that the aggregate would atone for the loss that had been
+sustained.</p>
+
+<p>While Maceo was thus baffling the Spanish in the far west of the island,
+Gomez and his lieutenants were more than holding their own in the other
+five provinces. Jose Maceo in April marched from Oriente all the way to
+the western side of Havana, where he was joined by Serafin Sanchez,
+Rodriguez, Lacret, Maso, Aguirre and others, until nearly 20,000 Cubans
+were gathered there. Gomez remained in Santa Clara, where the Spaniards
+had a precarious foothold at Cienfuegos, protected by their fleet.
+Colonel Gonzalez, commanding in the district of Remedios, routed the
+forces of General Oliver. Then, the Spanish power in the three great
+eastern provinces having been rendered negligible, a general movement
+westward was undertaken, following in the trail of the two Maceos. Gomez
+himself took supreme command, and Collazo, Calixto Garcia and others
+marched their forces to join him. Calixto Garcia, after only Maximo
+Gomez and Antonio Maceo, was the foremost chieftain of the patriots, and
+not unworthy to rank with them in a trinity of military prowess. He was
+now advanced in<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_077" id="page_077">{77}</a></span> years, having been born in 1839, at Holguin, Oriente.
+From childhood a fervent patriot, at the outbreak of the Ten Years' War
+he took the field under Donato Marmol. His native bent for military
+achievement assured him advancement, and at Santa Rita and Baire he was
+a Brigadier General under Gomez. In 1871 he besieged Guisa and Holguin,
+and then, when Gomez marched westward into Camaguey, thence to force
+passage of the trocha between Jucaro and Moron, Garcia was left in
+supreme command in Oriente. In that capacity he was active, triumphing
+at Santa Maria, Holguin, Chaparra, the siege and capture of Manzanillo,
+and at Ojo de Agua de los Melones. Then came the incident which for the
+time ended his military career and which gave him that scar in the
+centre of his forehead which was ever after so conspicuous a feature. At
+San Antonio de Baja he and only twenty of his men were surprised and
+surrounded by a large force of Spaniards. Seeing that escape was
+impossible, and having vowed never to fall alive into the hands of
+Spain, he put the muzzle of a pistol beneath his chin and fired. The
+bullet passed through the tongue, the roof of his mouth, behind his
+nose, and out at the centre of his forehead. But not thus was he to die.
+The Spaniards took him to a hospital at Santiago, where he recovered,
+and then sent him to prison in Spain; whence he returned to Cuba after
+the Treaty of Zanjon. He was a leader in the "Little War"; then,
+enjoying the respect and friendship of Martinez Campos, he went back to
+Spain and for a time was a bank clerk at Madrid. Thus he was engaged
+when the War of Independence began. Suspected and watched, he was not
+able to escape until a year later. But on March 24, 1896, he landed at
+Baracoa with an important expedition, and thereafter he was a raging and
+consuming flame of war.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_078" id="page_078">{78}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The westward march was marked with victory. On May 14 Colonel Segura's
+whole battalion was captured. On June 9 and 10 near Najasa General
+Jiminez Castellanos was soundly beaten and forced to retreat to
+Camaguey. Then, hoping to bar the Cubans from Santa Clara, the Spanish
+reconstructed the eastern trocha, from Jucaro to Moron, and sent forces
+inland from Santiago and other coast towns to create a back fire in
+Oriente. Calixto Garcia turned upon these latter, and routed them on the
+Cauto River, at Venta de Casanova, and near Bayamo, and captured great
+stores of supplies. At Santa Ana several stubbornly contested battles
+occurred between Garcia and General Linares, in which the latter was
+finally worsted. At Loma del Gato on July 5 the Cubans under Jose Maceo
+and Perequito Perez defeated the forces of General Albert and Colonel
+Vara del Rey, but at the heavy cost of Maceo's death. Meanwhile Juan B.
+Zayas, Lacret and others penetrated Havana Province at will, in
+guerrilla warfare; but Zayas was finally killed in an engagement near
+Gabriel.</p>
+
+<p>During the rainy season there was comparatively little activity, but in
+the fall the advance westward began in earnest. Garcia captured
+Guaimaro, and Gomez pushed on to Camaguey, but left the place to be
+dealt with by Garcia and hastened on, with Rodriguez, Rabi, Bandera and
+Carrillo. He crossed the trocha with ease, penetrated Santa Clara, and
+was soon in Matanzas, where Aguirre joined them with 3,200 men. He put
+an end to sugar making throughout most of the province, and then
+encamped in the Cienaga de Zapata, leaving a number of active guerrilla
+bands to harass and menace Havana. In the latter province at the
+beginning of December Raoul Arango and Nicolas Valencia attacked the
+town of Guanabacoa, only five miles from Havana, and<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_079" id="page_079">{79}</a></span> seized great
+stores of supplies. Beyond the western trocha Ruiz Rivera succeeded
+Antonio Maceo in command, and carried on his work with much success.
+Thus the second year of the war drew to a close with the patriots
+despite some heavy losses decidedly in the ascendant, and the Spanish
+campaign of ruthless severity no more successful than that of moderation
+and conciliation had been.</p>
+
+<p>One other incident of the year 1896 was highly significant. At the
+beginning of December the President of the United States, Mr. Cleveland,
+in his annual message to Congress, discussed the Cuban problem very
+fully and frankly. He practically reasserted the historic policy toward
+that island first enunciated by John Quincy Adams, as quoted in a
+preceding volume of this history. He reasserted the Monroe Doctrine. He
+made it clear that the United States had special interests in Cuba,
+which not only all other nations but also Spain herself must recognize
+and acknowledge. Concerning the war he said, most justly:</p>
+
+<p>"The spectacle of the utter ruin of an adjoining country, by nature one
+of the most fertile and charming on the globe, would engage the serious
+attention of the government and people of the United States in any
+circumstances. In point of fact, they have a concern with it which is by
+no means of a wholly sentimental or philanthropic character. It lies so
+near us as to be hardly separated from our territory. Our actual
+pecuniary interest in it is second only to that of the people and
+government of Spain. It is reasonably estimated that at least from
+$30,000,000 to $50,000,000 of American capital are invested in
+plantations and in railroad, mining and other business enterprises on
+the island. The volume of trade between the United States and Cuba,
+which<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_080" id="page_080">{80}</a></span> in 1889 amounted to about $64,000,000, rose in 1893 to about
+$103,000,000, and in 1894, the year before the present insurrection
+broke out, amounted to nearly $96,000,000. Beside this large pecuniary
+stake in the fortunes of Cuba, the United States, finds itself
+inextricably involved in the present contest in other ways both
+vexatious and costly."</p>
+
+<p>Then he added, in words the purport of which was unmistakable:</p>
+
+<p>"When the inability of Spain to deal successfully with the insurrection
+has become manifest, and it is demonstrated that her sovereignty is
+extinct in Cuba for all purposes of its rightful existence, and when a
+hopeless struggle for its reestablishment has degenerated into a strife
+which means nothing more than the useless sacrifice of human life and
+the utter destruction of the very subject-matter of the conflict, a
+situation will be presented in which our obligations to the sovereignty
+of Spain will be superseded by higher obligations, which we can hardly
+hesitate to recognize and discharge."</p>
+
+<p>To those who knew Mr. Cleveland, and who appreciated the care with which
+he selected every word in all important addresses, this could have but
+one meaning. It meant that American intervention was inevitable. Note
+that he did not say "<i>If</i> the inability of Spain <i>should</i> ... a
+situation <i>would</i> ..." as though the thing were still problematic. No;
+but he said plumply "When the inability of Spain <i>has</i> become manifest
+... a situation <i>will</i> be presented...." In his mind the thing was
+certain to come. It had already come, and only awaited disclosure and
+recognition. Remember, too, that of all men of his time Mr. Cleveland
+was one of the most opposed to "jingoism," and meddling with the affairs
+of other lands; while to any suggestion of conquest and<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_081" id="page_081">{81}</a></span> annexation of
+Cuba to the United States he would have offered the most resolute
+opposition of which he was capable. In view of those facts, that
+utterance in his message was of epochal import. It foreshadowed
+precisely what did occur less than a year and a half later. It was in
+effect a declaration of intervention and of war with Spain in behalf of
+Cuban independence, made more than a year before the steamer <i>Maine</i>
+entered Havana harbor.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_082" id="page_082">{82}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h3>
+
+<p>We have said that the death of Antonio Maceo moved Cuban patriots to
+redouble their efforts to atone for the grievous loss which their cause
+had thus suffered. Unfortunately not all of them were capable of so
+doing, while those who did so were unable to make devotion and zeal take
+the place of consummate military genius. In consequence, despite the
+utmost efforts of Gomez and his colleagues matters went badly for the
+revolution through most of the following year. Gomez himself indeed felt
+that he had lost his right arm. He was at La Reforma, near Sancti
+Spiritus, at the beginning of 1897, and he summoned the other
+revolutionary leaders to meet him there, to concentrate their forces,
+and to plan a new campaign. They came promptly and eagerly, some of them
+unfortunately thus leaving without protection important strategic points
+and centers of revolutionist industry, which were pounced upon and
+captured by the Spanish. When the patriot forces were thus gathered it
+was expected that there would be immediately undertaken a general
+advance westward, into Matanzas and Havana; for which it was believed
+the Cuban army was strong enough, and which the Spanish were not
+believed to be able to resist.</p>
+
+<p>Instead, Gomez decided first to effect the reduction of Arroyo Blanco.
+This was a small and unimportant town in the Province of Camaguey, near
+the Santa Clara border; containing a Spanish garrison under Captain
+Escobar. Gomez first summoned Escobar to surrender,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_083" id="page_083">{83}</a></span> in order to avoid
+the destruction which would be caused by the bombardment of the place
+with a dynamite gun, which he threatened to begin forthwith. Escobar
+defied him, and the bombardment was undertaken, but proved ineffective,
+and before Gomez could capture the place strong Spanish reenforcements
+arrived and the attempt had to be abandoned. Thereafter Gomez contented
+himself with sending several strong bands westward, to conduct guerrilla
+warfare against the Spaniards wherever they could, while he himself
+remained near Sancti Spiritus, also engaging in irregular operations.</p>
+
+<p>There he was presently menaced by Weyler himself. That formidable foe
+had practically achieved the conquest of Pinar del Rio. After Maceo's
+death the Cuban forces in that province had largely dispersed, some
+abandoning the struggle altogether as hopeless, and others going to the
+east, to join themselves with Gomez, Garcia or other surviving leaders.
+Only a few roving bands remained. Accordingly Weyler announced that the
+western province was pacified. That was sufficiently true; but it was
+conspicuously true in the sense expressed by Tacitus, and Byron. They
+had made a solitude, and called it peace. Seldom had any comparable
+region been so thoroughly devastated and desolated. Then Weyler felt
+himself free to lead his army elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>He set out from Havana with an imposing array of troops, and marched
+through the heart of the province and of Matanzas, into Santa Clara. On
+the way there was little fighting to do, not even to beat off guerrilla
+bands. His attention was given, therefore, to devastating the country,
+and to driving the inhabitants into "concentration camps," where they
+were doomed to starve to death by thousands. By the end of February he
+was triumphantly encamped at the foot of the Guamuhaya<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_084" id="page_084">{84}</a></span> Mountains,
+between Santa Clara and Trinidad, and had the satisfaction of having
+wrought vast destruction upon the property of Cubans and upon the
+essential supplies of the Cuban army.</p>
+
+<p>A few weeks later Quintin Bandera with a small force came from Camaguey
+and, by wading through the shallow water of the Bay of Sabanabamar, got
+around the trocha and joined Gomez. The latter directed him to continue
+westward, and to harass the Spaniards with guerrilla attacks. This was
+done, and Bandera proceeded as far as Trinidad. Then failing to receive
+necessary support he turned back, and on July 4 was killed in a skirmish
+at Pelayo. East of the trocha Calixto Garcia continued his formidable
+career against such Spanish forces as remained in that region. He
+captured Las Tunas after forty-eight hours of almost incessant fighting.
+In Matanzas and Havana the revolutionary bands were badly broken up by
+the Spaniards, and they seemed to lack efficient leadership. Their
+leader, General Lacret, fell into an unfortunate controversy with Gomez
+over his treatment of Cubans who disregarded government orders,
+especially in their attitude toward the Spaniards. Gomez, remorseless,
+would have had them shot as traitors, but Lacret insisted upon more
+lenient treatment of them, realizing that they were almost literally
+"between the devil and the deep sea" and were therefore entitled to
+sympathetic consideration. The outcome was that Gomez relieved Lacret of
+his command and appointed Alexander Rodriguez in his place, in Matanzas.
+That officer failed to command the loyalty of his troops, and the result
+was that the latter generally deserted and dispersed. Mayia Rodriguez
+was then ordered to the scene, but was unable to collect a sufficient
+force, and remained in Santa Clara, hemmed in by the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_085" id="page_085">{85}</a></span> Spanish. General
+Jose Maria Aguirre, who died in December, 1896, was succeeded in command
+in the Province of Havana by Nestor Aranguren, who performed some
+creditable minor operations, particularly against Spanish railroad
+communications, but achieved nothing of real importance. His lieutenant,
+General Adolfo Castillo, in the southern part of the province, was
+killed in battle, in September, and was succeeded by Juan Delgado. The
+Spanish General Parrado in October marched without opposition as far as
+Los Palos, and there received the surrender of a small Cuban band; and
+in November General Pando with a powerful army made his way without
+serious opposition from Havana to the western part of Oriente.</p>
+
+<p>It was during this year that Weyler's ever infamous "concentration"
+policy, which was really a policy of extermination, reached its infernal
+climax and was then repudiated and abandoned. This system, as already
+related, was decreed on October 21, 1896. It required all Cubans, men,
+women and children, to leave their homes in the rural regions and enter
+concentration camps. These were simply huge pens, enclosed with fences
+and barbed wire and guarded by Spanish soldiers. There the hapless
+prisoners were huddled together, without shelter from the elements, and
+with little or no food save such as could be procured by stealth. There
+was none to be had within the enclosures, of course, and the prisoners
+could not go out to get any, even if any was to be found in the
+devastated country around them. Their friends outside seldom dared
+approach the camps to bring them food, because as they had not
+themselves surrendered as commanded by Weyler, they were liable to be
+shot at sight.</p>
+
+<p>Elsewhere Cubans by thousands were driven into towns<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_086" id="page_086">{86}</a></span> and cities which
+were still under Spanish control, and were there kept prisoners within
+the Spanish lines. They were not quite so badly off as those in the
+concentration camps, though the difference was not great. They had no
+means of obtaining food, save as the municipal authorities, more
+merciful than Weyler, opened "soup kitchens" and thus in charity kept
+some of them from starvation. As it was the mortality from starvation,
+disease and exposure was appalling. As it was reported that many of
+these sufferers were American citizens, the President of the United
+States asked Congress to appropriate $50,000 for their relief. This was
+done, and the sum was sent to the Consul-General at Havana. He was,
+however, able to reach only a small proportion of the sufferers, and
+thus was presently compelled to report that he had been unable to expend
+more than a fraction of the sum at his disposal. This monstrous policy
+of waging war against non-combatants, including women and children, did
+more perhaps than anything else to crystallize public opinion throughout
+the United States against Weyler and against the Spanish government
+which he represented and which was responsible for him, and to
+strengthen the demand that was being made for intervention in behalf of
+humanity.</p>
+
+<p>This demand was made not merely by the "yellow press," which was
+inspired by sordid and sinister motives, but also by the most
+thoughtful, disinterested and upright men of America. Fitzhugh Lee, the
+highly competent and trustworthy consul-general at Havana, officially
+reported in December, 1897, that in the Province of Havana alone there
+had been 101,000 of the "reconcentrados," of which more than half had
+died. About 400,000 innocent and unoffending persons, chiefly women and
+children, had been transformed into imprisoned<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_087" id="page_087">{87}</a></span> paupers, to be sustained
+by charity or to die of disease and famine. Senator Proctor, of Vermont,
+one of the foremost members of the United States Senate, made a personal
+tour of investigation in such parts of the island as were accessible,
+and reported to his colleagues that "It is not peace, nor is it war; it
+is desolation and distress, misery and starvation." The people of the
+United States thus came to the conclusion that the Spanish were unable
+to subdue the Cubans, and that the Cubans were unable to expel the
+Spanish, and that the war was therefore nothing but a campaign of
+destruction and extermination, which would end only when one side was
+exhausted or extirpated. It was impossible that a civilized and humane
+nation should regard such a spectacle at its very doors with
+indifference. We have hitherto quoted the significant remarks of
+President Cleveland on the subject in his message of December, 1896,
+clearly foreshadowing intervention. His successor, President McKinley,
+in his message of just a year later, in December, 1897, expressed in
+slightly different language the identical convictions and purposes. He
+said:</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 153px;">
+<a href="images/i013.png">
+<img src="images/i013_sml.png" width="153" height="180" alt="WILLIAM MCKINLEY" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>"The near future will demonstrate whether the indispensable conditions
+of a righteous peace, just alike to the Cubans and to Spain, as well as
+equitable to all our interests so intimately involved in the welfare of
+Cuba, is likely to be attained. If not, the exigency of further and
+other action by the United States will remain to be taken. When that
+time comes, that action will be determined in the line of indisputable
+right and duty....<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_088" id="page_088">{88}</a></span> If it shall hereafter appear to be a duty imposed by
+our obligations to ourselves, to civilization, and to humanity, to
+intervene with force, it shall be without fault on our part, and only
+because the necessity for such action will be so clear as to command the
+support and approval of the civilized world."</p>
+
+<p>If McKinley, a less aggressive and more conciliatory man than Cleveland,
+spoke a little less positively than his predecessor, in that he employed
+the hypothetical form, the purport of his words was the same. The one a
+Democratic President, the other a Republican President, long before that
+incident of the <i>Maine</i> which has incorrectly been regarded by some as
+the cause of the American war with Spain, openly and in the most
+explicit manner contemplated the prospect of forcible intervention in
+Cuba and of consequent war.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime Spain herself passed through a political crisis, which made a
+change in her Cuban administration. Loud protests were made there
+against the ruthless and inhuman policy of Weyler, but the Prime
+Minister, Canovas del Castillo, was deaf to them and persisted in
+retaining Weyler in command. But on August 8 Canovas was assassinated by
+an Anarchist, and was succeeded by General Azcarraga, Minister of War,
+who continued his policy unchanged. But on September 29 the whole
+Cabinet resigned, and on October 4 Sagasta, the Liberal leader, became
+Prime Minister. He promptly recalled Weyler and appointed General Ramon
+Blanco to be Captain-General of Cuba in his stead. Weyler departed,
+breathing wrath and hatred against Cuba and against America, and
+predicting failure for his successor, even as Campos had predicted it
+for Weyler himself.</p>
+
+<p>Blanco arrived at Havana on November 1, 1897, with<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_089" id="page_089">{89}</a></span> the purpose, as he
+had announced before sailing, of putting sincerely into effect the
+reforms which Sagasta had outlined, reforms which would, he believed, be
+acceptable to the Cuban people. He found the condition of affairs in the
+island to be far worse than it had been reported, or than he had
+expected. The "reconcentrados" had been dying and were still dying by
+tens of thousands. The soldiers had not been paid for months and in
+consequence were disaffected and mutinous, and were looting to obtain
+food which they had no money to buy. Both the Spanish and the Cuban
+Autonomists were profoundly dissatisfied; while the Revolutionists,
+though making no progress, were as implacable as ever. He at once
+ordered the concentration camps to be abolished, saying that he would
+not make war upon women and children, and he secured a credit of
+$100,000 from the Spanish government to assist the Cuban peasantry in
+the rehabilitation of their ruined farms. All American citizens were
+released from prison, as were also many Cubans who were under sentence
+of death. Cuban refugees and exiles were invited to return home, and
+every facility possible was afforded for the resumption of sugar making
+and agriculture. He then undertook to put into effect a system of home
+rule which he fondly hoped would satisfy the Autonomists and would bring
+the masses of the Cuban people over to the side of that party.</p>
+
+<p>Let us review briefly the state of Cuba at this epochal time, the ending
+of 1897 and the beginning of 1898, the ultimate climax of four centuries
+of Cuban history. The War of Independence had been in progress less than
+three years. Five successively unsuccessful Captains-General had striven
+to conquer a brave people resolved to be free. No fewer than 52,000
+Spanish soldiers<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_090" id="page_090">{90}</a></span> had lost their lives in battle or from disease, 47,000
+had been returned to Spain disabled, 42,000 were in hospitals unfit for
+duty, and 70,000 regulars and 16,000 irregulars still kept up the
+fatuous struggle. The infamies of Weyler had destroyed by starvation and
+disease 250,000 Cubans, the majority of them women and children,
+reducing the population of the island to 1,100,000 Cubans intent on
+independence and 150,000 Spaniards opposed to their having it. The Cuban
+army consisted of 25,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry, fairly well armed,
+with some artillery. Maximo Gomez was Commander in Chief. Major-General
+Calixto Garcia commanded in Camaguey and Oriente, with Pedro Perez,
+Jesus Rabi and Mario G. Menocal as his lieutenants. Major-General
+Francisco Carrillo commanded in Santa Clara, aided by Jose Rodriguez,
+Hijino Esquerra, Jose Miguel Gomez and Jose Gonzales. In the western
+three provinces Major-General Jose Maria Rodriguez commanded, with Pedro
+Betancourt, Alexandra Rodriguez, Pedro Vias and Juan Lorente as his
+chief aids. The civil government of the Republic had been changed
+somewhat, Bartolome Maso being President, Domingo Mendez Capote
+Vice-President and Secretary of War, Andreas Moreno Secretary of Foreign
+Affairs, Ernesto Fonts-Sterling Secretary of Finance, and Manuel Silva
+Secretary of the Interior. This organization, with its provincial and
+municipal subordinates, was performing the functions of government under
+great difficulties, yet much more efficiently and to a much wider extent
+throughout the island, than the Spanish administration.</p>
+
+<p>The uncompromising attitude of the Revolutionists, and the hopelessness
+of any attempt at amicable adjustment of affairs, was at this time
+strikingly shown in a tragic incident. It was in December, 1897. There
+was<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_091" id="page_091">{91}</a></span> in Havana a young Spanish officer named Joaquin Ruiz, who had
+formerly served as a civil engineer, and had been intimately associated
+with Nestor Aranguren, another young engineer who had become a leader of
+the Revolutionists and had made himself particularly active and annoying
+to the Spanish in the Province of Havana. The two were close friends,
+and were both men of charming personality. The Spanish authorities in
+Havana determined to use this friendship in an attempt to seduce
+Aranguren into betraying or at least deserting the patriot cause. So
+Ruiz was directed to open a correspondence with Aranguren, with a view
+to securing a personal interview with him. Aranguren wrote to Ruiz that
+he would be glad to meet him personally, but could not do so if he came
+on any political errand; and he warned him that for him to come to the
+Cuban camp with any proposal of Cuban surrender or acceptance of
+autonomy would subject him to the penalty of death, which would
+infallibly be carried out. Despite this warning, and presumably against
+his own better judgment, Ruiz obeyed the orders of his superiors, and
+undertook the errand. He had no safe conduct. He bore no flag of truce.
+He went through no agreement between the commanding officers of the
+respective sides. He went in the circumstances and manner of a spy; and
+his purpose was to persuade, if possible, a Cuban officer to betray his
+trust and become a traitor to his own cause.</p>
+
+<p>When in these circumstances Ruiz reached Aranguren, the latter was so
+distressed that it is said he burst into tears and, embracing his old
+friend, exclaimed, "Why have you come? It will mean your certain death!
+I cannot save you!" And such indeed was the case. Aranguren was devoted
+to his friend, but still more to Cuba. Ruiz was taken before a court
+martial. He<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_092" id="page_092">{92}</a></span> made no defence. He admitted the character and purpose of
+his errand. And he received the sentence of death with the fortitude of
+a brave man. An attempt was made by the Spanish authorities to exploit
+Ruiz as a martyr to Cuban savagery, but it recoiled upon their own
+heads. It was shown that they had unworthily employed a brave and
+devoted soldier in a discreditable errand, and that he had been dealt
+with according to the stern but just rules of war. It was also
+demonstrated that Cuban patriots were not thus to be corrupted. By a
+strange turn of fate, only a few weeks later Nestor Aranguren was killed
+by the Spanish during one of his daring raids against Havana. It was
+said that he was betrayed by a Spaniard who had become one of his
+followers for the purpose of avenging Ruiz. His body fell into the hands
+of the Spanish, and, despite their former assumed wrath over the
+execution of Ruiz, they treated it with all respect and interred it in
+the Columbus Cemetery at Havana, close to the grave of Ruiz.</p>
+
+<p>This was not the only incident of the sort. Only a few weeks after the
+death of Ruiz a civilian named Morales went to the camp of Pedro Ruiz,
+in the Province of Pinar del Rio, with proposals for compromise on the
+basis of autonomy. He was promptly taken before a court martial, tried,
+condemned, and put to death. Whether Blanco himself was responsible for
+this policy of sending emissaries to the Cuban camp with proposals which
+he would not venture to make openly in an accredited manner to the Cuban
+government, did not appear. The presumption, because of his known
+character, is that he was not, and indeed that he was not aware that
+they were being made. There is even reason for thinking that after the
+Morales case was brought to<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_093" id="page_093">{93}</a></span> his attention, he prohibited any more such
+clandestine and illegal enterprises. Tragic as the incidents were, and
+especially regrettable as was the sacrifice of such a man as Ruiz, it
+was well to have it made unmistakably clear that the Cubans were not
+inclined to end the war by surrender or by compromise, but were intent
+upon fighting it out to the end.</p>
+
+<p>In such circumstances Blanco strove for the last time to defeat the
+Cuban national desire for independence. He probably realized in advance
+the certainty of failure. He had been Captain-General before, succeeding
+Campos after the Ten Years' War and during the Little War, and he must
+have known the temper of the Cuban people and the unwillingness of the
+great majority of them to accept the delusive scheme of autonomy which
+Spain was fitfully offering, and in which he himself never had any real
+faith and which, indeed, he had never favored. But he was a loyal
+Spanish soldier, of the better type, and he was personally as little
+odious to the Cubans as any Spanish Captain General could be, for he had
+never been notably tyrannical or cruel. The decree of autonomy was
+adopted by the Spanish government on November 25, 1897, largely because
+of the urgings&mdash;to use no stronger term&mdash;of the United States, and was
+promulgated by Blanco in Cuba early in December. The scheme provided for
+universal suffrage; a bi-cameral Legislature consisting of a Council of
+eighteen elected members and seventeen appointed by the crown, and a
+House containing one elected member for each 25,000 inhabitants. To this
+Legislature were nominally committed most of the functions of
+government. But it was provided that "The supreme government of the
+colony shall be exercised by a Governor-General." That was<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_094" id="page_094">{94}</a></span> the crux of
+the whole matter. That made the Captain-General, or Governor-General as
+he was thereafter to be called, the practical dictator of the island.</p>
+
+<p>To this entirely illusive and delusive scheme, the remnant of the
+Autonomist party gave adherence with a devotion worthy of a better
+cause. The Reformist faction of the Spanish party also, though not so
+readily, approved it. The intransigent Constitutionalists would have
+none of it. Tenuous and futile as were its apparent concessions to the
+Cubans, they were far too much for these insular Bourbons to be willing
+to grant. They socially ostracised Blanco, and before the system was to
+go into effect they called a convention at Havana to protest and to
+foment against it. The president of the party, the Cuban-born Marquis de
+Apezteguia, was indeed in favor of giving autonomy a trial. But he could
+not control the party whose other members were almost unanimously
+against it. They had defeated and expelled Campos. Now they resolved to
+do the same with Blanco. At the convention Apezteguia was rebuked and
+repudiated, though left in office. A telegram of sympathy was sent to
+Weyler. Speeches were made denouncing the United States, its President
+and its Congress. A resolution was adopted condemning and opposing
+autonomy, and another declaring that Constitutionalists would not vote
+nor take any part in public affairs.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 194px;">
+<a href="images/i014.png">
+<img src="images/i014_sml.png" width="194" height="203" alt="ANTONIO GOVIN
+
+Antonio Govin, born at Matanzas in 1849 and deceased in Havana in 1914,
+was a jurist, publicist, orator and patriot of distinction. He was
+Professor of Administrative Law at the University of Havana, and was the
+author of a number of volumes on law and on Colonial history. He was one
+of the founders and strong advocates of the Autonomist party and a
+member of the Autonomist cabinet." title="" /></a></div>
+<p class="c caption">ANTONIO GOVIN</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Antonio Govin, born at Matanzas in 1849 and deceased in Havana in 1914,
+was a jurist, publicist, orator and patriot of distinction. He was
+Professor of Administrative Law at the University of Havana, and was the
+author of a number of volumes on law and on Colonial history. He was one
+of the founders and strong advocates of the Autonomist party and a
+member of the Autonomist cabinet.</p>
+
+<p>In the face of these circumstances, Blanco organized his Autonomist
+Cabinet. The date was January 1, 1898. The place was the historic throne
+room of the Captain-General's palace. There were present beside the
+Cabinet the various foreign consuls and the dignitaries of the Roman
+Catholic Church. A small crowd of the people gathered outside, but the
+public in general paid little attention to the event. Yet the Cabinet
+which then came<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_095" id="page_095">{95}</a></span> into brief existence was a body of men that in other
+circumstances would have commanded most favorable attention. The nominal
+head, President of the Cabinet without portfolio, was José Maria Galvez,
+a lawyer and orator, the author of the Autonomist manifestoes of 1879
+and 1895. The real head, the most forceful and influential member, not
+only, indeed, of the Cabinet but of the whole Autonomist party, was Dr.
+Rafael Montoro, the "Cuban Castelar" as his friends used to call him. He
+had long been an advocate of real autonomy, he had been the chief
+founder of the Autonomist party, he had been a Cuban Deputy to the
+Spanish Cortes, he had signed the Autonomist manifestoes of 1879 and
+1895, and he had approved the insular reforms proposed by Canovas del
+Castillo. As lawyer, orator, scholar, writer, he had no superior if
+indeed a peer in Cuba. It was the inscrutable tragedy of a great career
+that he identified himself with the Autonomist movement. He was Minister
+of Finance. The Minister of Justice was Antonio Govin, also one of the
+original Autonomists, a man of great courage and ability, who on the
+failure of the Autonomist regime left Cuba and settled in the United
+States. Francisco Zayas, an accomplished educator, was made Minister<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_096" id="page_096">{96}</a></span> of
+Instruction. Laureano Rodriguez, a Peninsular Spaniard, was Minister of
+Agriculture, Labor and Commerce. Eduardo Dolz, a Reformist, was also a
+member, who was supposed to be the special representative of the Spanish
+crown. Two other men, not Ministers but high in Autonomist councils,
+Senors Amblard and Giberga, were regarded by the Spanish party as
+traitors who were really in league with the Revolutionists. Blanco swore
+in these Ministers, addressed them with an exhortation to support
+autonomy and to suppress the revolution, and gave them as the watchword
+of their administration "Long live Cuba, forever Spanish!"</p>
+
+<p>For a few days the glamor and the illusion lasted. Some inconspicuous
+revolutionists yielded to Spanish blandishments and surrendered; to whom
+the honest and chivalrous Blanco granted in good faith the amnesty which
+he had promised. Some Cuban refugees returned from the United States.
+The Autonomists&mdash;the few who still remained; for the majority had by
+this time joined the Revolutionists, gone into exile, or been
+imprisoned&mdash;declared their adherence to the new order of affairs and
+professed satisfaction with it. Apparently they accepted at face value
+the explanations which were voluminously put forth by the government, to
+the effect that the system was practically identical with that of
+Canada, under which that country had long been contented, loyal and
+prosperous. Technically, no doubt, there was a tolerably close analogy
+between the two. It was quite true that the powers reserved to the
+Spanish crown in Cuba through the Governor-General were similar to those
+reserved to the British crown in Canada through the Viceroy. But the
+decisive factor in the case, which the Autonomists apparently ignored,
+was this, that while in Canada it was an unwritten but unbroken law<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_097" id="page_097">{97}</a></span>
+that the crown did not exercise its powers save in accordance with the
+will of the people, it was morally certain that in Cuba the Spanish
+crown would exercise its powers to the full, whether the people liked it
+or not. The Cuban Autonomists in the United States, where many of them
+deemed it prudent to remain, did not suffer from the illusions of their
+compatriots in Cuba, and generally expressed dissatisfaction with the
+scheme, or at least reserved their judgment upon it.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish Reformists in Cuba also approved the scheme. They had
+deserted and betrayed Campos, and had been ignored by Weyler. Now they
+struggled to return to public recognition and influence. True, they had
+never before wanted or approved autonomy. But they saw that now they
+must do so or remain in retirement. So they joined hands with the Cuban
+Autonomists, congratulated the Spanish government, and pledged their
+loyalty to Blanco. This gave the Spanish government ground for its
+exultant belief that these two parties had united in its support, and
+would probably control the island in behalf of autonomy.</p>
+
+<p>But there were still the Constitutionalists to be reckoned with. They
+were implacable. They had shown in their convention a few weeks before
+their hostility to autonomy. They had ostracised Blanco. Now they
+proceeded to further extremes. They organized riotous disturbances in
+Havana, and made violent demonstrations against Blanco and, which was in
+some respects more serious, against the American government and the
+American citizens in Cuba. So ominous did these disturbances become at
+the middle of January that the Consul-General, Fitzhugh Lee, was driven
+to request the sending of a war ship to Havana harbor for the protection
+of American citizens. In consequence, on January<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_098" id="page_098">{98}</a></span> 24 the cruiser <i>Maine</i>
+was sent to Havana. This action was taken after consultation with the
+Spanish government, in which that government expressed great pleasure at
+the prospect of thus having a friendly visit of the American vessel to
+Cuban waters, and arranged to have its own cruiser the <i>Vizcaya</i> make a
+return visit to New York.</p>
+
+<p>This was not satisfactory, however, to the Spanish Minister at
+Washington, Senor Dupuy de Lome, who having failed to bring President
+McKinley to his own point of view of Cuban affairs, showed plainly his
+animosity against that gentleman, and wrote a letter to a personal
+friend characterizing the President as a vacillating and time-serving
+politician. This letter through some clandestine means was placed in the
+hands of the United States Secretary of State, who at once sent for the
+Minister and asked him plumply if he had written it. The latter of
+course acknowledged that he had. Thereupon the Secretary cabled to the
+American Minister at Madrid to request the Spanish government to recall
+the offending envoy. This the Spanish government would doubtless have
+done, but for the fact that De Lome forestalled such action by cabling
+his resignation an hour before the dispatch of the Secretary of State
+reached Madrid. The Spanish government then sent Senor Polo y Bernabe to
+be its Minister at Washington.</p>
+
+<p class="c caption">THE BAY AND HARBOR OF HAVANA</p>
+
+<p class="caption">The capital of Cuba is seated upon the shore of a spacious and beautiful
+bay, the entrance to which is between the two bold headlines crowned
+respectively by the Morro Castle and La Punta fortress, while the domes
+and spires of the great city have for a background the central mountain
+range of the island. The harbor of Havana is one of the most secure and
+commodious in the world, and in commercial importance, measured by
+tonnage of shipping, ranks among the foremost in the Western
+Hemisphere.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<a href="images/i015.png">
+<img src="images/i015_sml.png" width="550" height="356" alt="THE BAY AND HARBOR OF HAVANA
+
+The capital of Cuba is seated upon the shore of a spacious and beautiful
+bay, the entrance to which is between the two bold headlines crowned
+respectively by the Morro Castle and La Punta fortress, while the domes
+and spires of the great city have for a background the central mountain
+range of the island. The harbor of Havana is one of the most secure and
+commodious in the world, and in commercial importance, measured by
+tonnage of shipping, ranks among the foremost in the Western
+Hemisphere." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p>There next occurred the greatest and most mysterious tragedy of the
+entire revolutionary period. On the evening of February 15, at twenty
+minutes before ten o'clock, a violent explosion occurred under or in the
+forward portion of the <i>Maine</i> as she lay in Havana harbor, sufficient
+to lift the hull some distance above its normal level. A few seconds
+later another and more violent explosion followed, which so completely
+destroyed the forward part<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_099" id="page_099">{99}</a></span> of the ship that most of it could never
+be found. The remainder of the vessel almost immediately sank, in about
+six fathoms of water. Of the complement of 360, two officers and 264 men
+were killed, and of the remainder 60 were wounded. Captain Sigsbee,
+commander of the <i>Maine</i>, telegraphed to Washington that all judgment
+upon the matter should be suspended until after full investigation.
+Blanco telegraphed to Madrid that the catastrophe was doubtless due to
+an accident within the ship, and the Madrid government promptly
+expressed regret and sympathy.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States there was a great outburst of grief and rage. Even
+the most restrained and conservative could not help a degree of
+suspicion of foul play, though of course not on the part of the Spanish
+government. A semi-criminal faction, in the "yellow" press, clamored
+furiously for war, charging Spaniards, even the Spanish government, with
+direct and malicious responsibility for the tragedy, and even publishing
+the grossest of falsehoods for the sake of inflaming popular sentiment.
+Too large a proportion of the nation was swayed by these latter sordid
+and sinister influences. But at least the government kept its head, and
+acted with admirable discretion; though for so doing the President
+incurred the virulent animosity of the chief clamorer for war, an
+animosity which was persistently maintained until it culminated in the
+incitement of a criminal Anarchist to assassinate the President.</p>
+
+<p>When the explosion occurred, and Blanco learned what it was, it is said
+that he shed tears and exclaimed, "This is the beginning of the end!"
+Despite his message to his government, he probably feared that there had
+been foul play, and he realized what effect, in any case, the incident
+would have upon Spanish-American<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_100" id="page_100">{100}</a></span> relations. As for the Cuban
+revolutionists, both in Cuba and in the United States, they were almost
+stunned by two emotions. The hideous atrocity of the thing was
+overwhelming, and they grieved at the loss of the American sailors as
+though they themselves had been Americans. At the same time they could
+not be blind nor insensible to the almost certain sequel. They felt
+that, as Blanco said, it was the beginning of the end, and that now
+American intervention was practically assured.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish government proposed a joint investigation into the disaster,
+but the United States government declined and conducted a thorough
+investigation of its own, through a board of eminent official experts.
+The report was that the loss of the ship was not due to any accident or
+to any negligence on the part of the officers and crew. The first
+explosion was external to the hull, as if caused by a torpedo or mine,
+and it caused the second explosion, which was that of the ship's
+magazines. The Spanish government then conducted an investigation of its
+own, resulting in a report that both explosions were within the ship and
+were presumably purely accidental. It may be added that a final
+examination in after years, when a cofferdam was built about the hulk
+and it was floated and then taken out to sea and sunk in deep water,
+fully confirmed the report of the American investigating board.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be recalled that Ramon O. Williams, who had only a little while
+before retired from the office of American Consul-General at Havana, and
+was particularly well informed and judicious, earnestly warned the
+United States government against sending a ship to Havana, because the
+harbor was very elaborately mined, and there was a bitter and truculent
+feeling among the Spaniards against the United States; wherefore the
+danger of some<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_101" id="page_101">{101}</a></span> untoward occurrence was too great to be incurred without
+a more pressing necessity than was then apparent. But despite his
+warning the <i>Maine</i> was sent. She was conducted by a Spanish official
+pilot to her anchorage at a buoy between Regla and the old custom house.
+Whether a mine was attached to that buoy or not is unknown, though Mr.
+Williams was confident that one was. His theory was that some malignant
+Spanish officer, who had access to the keyboard of the mines, perhaps
+through connivance with some other fanatic, watched to see the tide
+swing the ship directly over the mine and then touched the key and
+caused the explosion. That would account for the enormous hole which was
+blown in the side of the ship, and which could not have been caused by
+any little mine or torpedo which might have been floated to the side of
+the ship, but must have been produced by a very large mine planted deep
+beneath the hull.</p>
+
+<p>The findings of the American board of investigation were reported
+officially to the Spanish government, and the President in a message to
+Congress expressed confidence that Spain would act in the matter
+according to the dictates of justice, honor and friendship. The Spanish
+government replied that it would certainly do so, and it presently
+proposed to submit the whole subject to investigation by impartial
+experts, and to determination by arbitration. But this proposal was not
+made until April 10, when so much else had occurred to strain relations
+between the two countries that it could not be entertained by the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime the Autonomist government in Cuba, with a devotion that was
+pathetic to behold, persisted in its efforts to justify its existence.
+An electoral census was taken, though of course it could not cover more
+than a<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_102" id="page_102">{102}</a></span> small fraction of the island, and on March 27 an "election" of
+Cuban Deputies to the Cortes was held. In fact there was no popular
+voting at all. A list was prepared of eligible candidates, twenty of
+them being Autonomists and Reformists, or supporters of the government,
+and ten representing the Constitutionalist opposition. The list was
+submitted to the Governor-General and approved by him, and the
+candidates were declared to have been duly elected. Jose Maria Galvez,
+the president of the Autonomist cabinet, reported to the President of
+the United States that the new government was satisfactorily performing
+its functions, and entreated him to give no encouragement to the
+revolutionists which would militate against its success. In April there
+was another "election" for members of the two houses of the Insular
+Legislature. On May 4 that Legislature met, chose Fernando del Casco as
+President of the Assembly, and confirmed the Autonomist cabinet in its
+place; and it continued patiently and valiantly to hold sessions, make
+laws, and act as though it were a real government, exercising real
+authority over the island, all through the period of the American war
+with Spain and the practical siege of the island by the American navy.
+When the Spanish forces yielded and a protocol for peace was signed, on
+August 12, the Legislature held its last meeting, and was declared
+dissolved by Blanco in October. The Autonomist Cabinet continued to
+exercise its functions, at least nominally, until the end of Spanish
+sovereignty in Cuba.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_103" id="page_103">{103}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h3>
+
+<p>There could be no greater mistake than that which has been too often and
+too persistently made, in regarding the destruction of the <i>Maine</i> as
+the cause of American, intervention in Cuba. The declarations of policy
+which we have already quoted from the messages of President Cleveland
+and President McKinley, the former fourteen months and the latter two
+months before that vessel went to Havana, are ample indications of the
+purpose of the American government to intervene unless there were a
+satisfactory amelioration of Cuban affairs. But there was no such
+amelioration, and therefore war was declared. It unquestionably would
+have been declared just the same, perhaps at a later and perhaps at an
+earlier date, if there had been no <i>Maine</i> at all.</p>
+
+<p>Beginning before the destruction of the <i>Maine</i>, and accelerated after
+that event, both sides were preparing for war. Nevertheless diplomatic
+negotiations continued, chiefly conducted by the American Minister,
+Stewart L. Woodford, at Madrid. In order to facilitate such
+negotiations, President McKinley withheld the report on the <i>Maine</i> from
+Congress for a time. Spain asked that the pacification of Cuba, which
+the United States was urging, be left to the Autonomist Legislature,
+which was to meet on May 4. The United States, declaring that it did not
+want Cuba but did want peace in Cuba, proposed an armistice to begin at
+once and to last until October 1, itself meantime to act as mediator
+between the Cubans and Spain. Spain replied that an<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_104" id="page_104">{104}</a></span> armistice would be
+granted, to last at the pleasure of the Spanish commander, if the Cubans
+would ask for it themselves; and that already General Blanco had
+abandoned the "concentration" system. This was of course regarded as
+entirely unsatisfactory to the United States, but the peace-loving
+President McKinley hesitated to report to Congress his dissatisfaction
+with it.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime the Pope semi-officially expressed to both governments his
+earnest desire for the maintenance of peace; but to no effect. The
+German government, strongly sympathizing with Spain and seeking to
+foment ill-feeling between the United States and Great Britain, had its
+Ambassador at Washington, Dr. Von Holleben, form a cabal of the chief
+members of the Diplomatic Corps, to call on the President with what
+amounted to a suggestion of mediation, maliciously persuading the
+British Ambassador to act as spokesman of the delegation, in order that
+any resentment or odium should fall upon him and his country; but the
+President with admirable temper and resolution declined with thanks all
+foreign meddling in a controversy which concerned only the United States
+and Spain. The Spanish government proclaimed on April 10 a suspension of
+hostilities, in deference to the wishes of the Pope and of the great
+European powers. It was reported officially to the United States
+government that this armistice was granted without conditions, though
+General Blanco's proclamation declared that it was to continue only at
+the pleasure of the Spanish commanders. The Cuban government, through
+Maximo Gomez, replied that it had not sought the armistice and would not
+accept it unless Spain agreed to evacuate Cuba.</p>
+
+<p>The President of the United States at last, on April 11, laid the whole
+matter before Congress in a message<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_105" id="page_105">{105}</a></span> which for calm moderation in the
+presence of unspeakable provocation, for convincing logic, for lofty and
+unselfish benevolence, for keen and just perception of existing
+conditions, and for valorous resolution to deal with them in the only
+satisfactory way, must take high rank among the great historic state
+documents of the world. After reviewing the story of the Cuban
+revolution and the condition into which it had plunged the island, he
+said: "The war in Cuba is of such a nature that, short of subjugation or
+extermination, a military victory for either side seems impracticable."
+Then, recounting the efforts of the United States to effect a just
+settlement by negotiation, he added: "The only hope of relief and repose
+from a condition which can no longer be endured is the enforced
+pacification of Cuba. In the name of humanity, in the name of
+civilization, in behalf of endangered American interests which give us
+the right and duty to speak and to act, the war in Cuba must stop. In
+view of these facts and these considerations I ask the Congress to
+authorize and empower the President to take measures to secure a full
+and final termination of hostilities between the government of Spain and
+the people of Cuba, and to secure in the island the establishment of a
+stable government capable of maintaining order and observing its
+international obligations, insuring peace and tranquillity and the
+security of its citizens as well as our own, and to use the military and
+naval forces of the United States as may be necessary for these
+purposes."</p>
+
+<p>It is to be observed that the President spoke of the war "between the
+government of Spain and the Cuban people"&mdash;the Cuban people, not the
+Cuban government. There had as yet been no official recognition of the
+Cuban government, either as independent or as belligerent, and the
+President could therefore not properly refer<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_106" id="page_106">{106}</a></span> to it. At the same time he
+spoke of "the Cuban people" and not of merely a part of them,
+recognizing by inference that fact that the Cuban people were
+substantially a unit in revolting against Spain and in demanding
+independence.</p>
+
+<p>Spain made it dear that she bitterly resented what she regarded as the
+unwarrantable meddling of the United States in Cuban affairs, and that
+she would prefer war to yielding to that meddling. France and Austria,
+at German suggestion, made one more effort at mediation by the great
+powers, but abandoned it when Great Britain refused to have anything to
+do with it and indicated clearly her sympathy with the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, on April 20 President McKinley signed the act of Congress which
+was made in response to his message of April 11. That memorable act, the
+Magna Charta of the Cuban Republic, declared that the people of Cuba
+were and of right ought to be free and independent; that it was the duty
+of the United States to demand, and it accordingly did demand, that
+Spain should immediately relinquish her authority and government in Cuba
+and withdraw her military and naval forces from that island and its
+waters; that the President be authorized to employ the army and navy of
+the United States as might be necessary to carry these resolutions into
+effect; and that the United States disclaimed any disposition or
+intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction or control over Cuba,
+except for the pacification thereof, and asserted its determination,
+when that was accomplished, to leave the government and control of the
+island to its people.</p>
+
+<p>Before signing this act the President cabled its substance to General
+Woodford at Madrid, in an ultimatum to the Spanish government, giving
+Spain three days in<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_107" id="page_107">{107}</a></span> which to comply with the demands. Before the three
+days expired the Spanish Minister at Washington asked for his passports
+and departed, and the Spanish government notified General Woodford that
+diplomatic relations between the two countries were at an end. He
+thereupon took his passports and departed. It should be added that on
+April 21 the Autonomist government of Cuba issued a proclamation to the
+people of the island, urging them to unite in support of the Spanish
+government in its resistance to the war of conquest which the United
+States was about to wage for the seizure and annexation of the island.
+The success of the United States, it added, would mean that Cuba would
+be subjugated, dominated and absorbed by an alien race, opposed to
+Cubans in temperament, traditions, language, religion and customs.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the War of Independence entered a new and final phase, with the
+armed might of the United States assisting that Cuban cause the success
+of which had already become practically certain. The Cuban army rapidly
+grew in numbers and improved in morale, and was of course abundantly
+supplied with arms and ammunition, while the sending of reenforcements
+and supplies to the Spaniards was interfered with by the United States
+navy. As soon as the state of war began three United States agents were
+sent to Cuba, to investigate the condition and strength of the
+revolutionary army, and to arrange for its reenforcement and for
+cooperation between it and the American troops. Lieutenant Henry Whitney
+was thus sent to visit Maximo Gomez in the centre of the island;
+Lieutenant A. S. Rowan was sent to Oriente, and Lieutenant-Colonel J. H.
+Dorst was sent to Pinar del Rio.</p>
+
+<p>Lieutenant Whitney reached the camp of Gomez in Santa Clara Province on
+April 28, found affairs in a most promising state, and arranged for the
+prompt forwarding<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_108" id="page_108">{108}</a></span> of supplies and of a considerable company of Cubans
+who had been enlisted in the United States for the revolutionary army.
+Gomez had an effective force of 3,000 men, and reenforcements of 750
+under General Lacret, with supplies of food and munitions, were promised
+him. But the expeditions, in two steamers, failed to reach him, and
+after waiting for them on the coast for two weeks, until his supplies of
+food were exhausted, he was compelled to disband his army. Domingo
+Mendez Capote, Vice-President of the Cuban Republic, hastened to
+Washington, to explain to the government the urgent need of sending
+supplies, and as a result renewed efforts were made to land expeditions,
+but with little success.</p>
+
+<p>The mission of Lieutenant-Colonel Dorst to Pinar del Rio was similarly
+unsuccessful. A few United States troops were landed under protection of
+the fire of gunboats, on May 12, but an attempt to deliver a great cargo
+of rifles and cartridges to the Cubans was defeated by the Spaniards,
+and the American troops were compelled to return to their ship and
+depart.</p>
+
+<p>In Oriente Lieutenant Rowan was more successful, owing to the fact that
+few Spanish forces remained in that province. He found the Spanish,
+indeed, in possession of only the three towns of Santiago, Bayamo and
+Manzanillo, and the forts along the railroad; and on April 29 they
+evacuated Manzanillo, which was thereupon occupied by Calixto Garcia.
+Lieutenant Rowan reported to Washington that Garcia was able to put
+8,000 efficient troops in the field, and presently considerable supplies
+were sent to him with little difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most significant information obtained by these American
+envoys, and particularly by Lieutenant Whitney in his visit to the Cuban
+Commander in Chief, was that the Cubans, while exulting in American
+intervention,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_109" id="page_109">{109}</a></span> did not welcome but rather deprecated American invasion
+of the island. Maximo Gomez said frankly that he would prefer that not a
+single American soldier should set foot on the island, unless it were a
+force of artillery, which was an arm in which the Cubans were sorely
+lacking. All he asked was that the United States should supply the
+Cubans with arms and ammunition, and prevent supplies from reaching the
+Spaniards. If that were done, the Cubans would do the rest, and would
+expel the Spanish from the island without the loss of a single drop of
+American blood.</p>
+
+<p>The reasons for this reluctance to have American troops invade the
+island were chiefly two. One was a certain praiseworthy pride in Cuban
+achievements and a desire to retain for Cubans the credit of winning
+their own independence. Gomez and his comrades had been fighting to that
+end for years, and they wanted the satisfaction of completing the job
+and of gaining for Cuba herself the glory of victory. The other reason
+was the very natural fear that American invasion and occupation of the
+island would mean American annexation, or at least perpetual American
+domination of Cuban affairs. It seemed contrary to human nature,
+contrary to all the experience and examples of the past, that it should
+not be so. Of course, there was the promise in the act of intervention,
+that the United States would leave the government of the island to its
+own people. But it is probable that only a very small percentage of
+Cubans ever so much as heard of it, while it would be surprising if more
+than a small minority of those who did know of it had any real
+confidence that it would be fulfilled. It will be recalled that a very
+considerable proportion of the people of the United States regarded that
+pledge as mere "buncombe" and declared unhesitatingly that it would not
+be permitted<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_110" id="page_110">{110}</a></span> for one moment to stand in the way of the annexation of
+Cuba. Truly, it would have been miraculous if Cubans had esteemed the
+integrity of an American promise more highly than Americans themselves.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 176px;">
+<a href="images/i016a.png">
+<img src="images/i016a_sml.png" width="176" height="193" alt="ADMIRAL CERVERA" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 155px;">
+<a href="images/i016b.png">
+<img src="images/i016b_sml.png" width="155" height="193" alt="ADMIRAL SCHLEY" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first weeks of the war were confined chiefly to naval operations. A
+blockade of Cuban ports was established and pretty well maintained,
+beginning along the central and western part of the north coast on April
+22. A number of small Spanish vessels were captured, and there were some
+bombardments of shore towns and exchanges of shots with Spanish
+gunboats. Despite the vigilance of the American scouts and blockading
+squadrons, Admiral Cervera with several powerful Spanish warships,
+sailing from Cadiz on April 8 and touching at Martinique on May 11,
+succeeded in entering the harbor of Santiago on May 19. There he was
+soon besieged by a more powerful American fleet under the command of
+Commodore, afterward Admiral, Schley; who on June 1 was joined by
+Admiral Sampson, who thereafter took command. Lieutenant Victor Blue was
+sent ashore on June 11, to make a long detour to the hills back of the
+city, from which he was able to see and identify the Spanish ships.
+Meantime Lieutenant Richmond P. Hobson with seven picked men in the
+early morning of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_111" id="page_111">{111}</a></span> June 3 took the big coal hulk <i>Merrimac</i> in to the
+narrowest part of the harbor entrance and there sunk it with a torpedo,
+hoping thus to block the passage and prevent Cervera's ships from coming
+out. The exploit was not entirely successful, the vessel not being sunk
+at quite the right point, though it did make exit much more difficult.
+Hobson and his comrades were taken prisoners by the Spaniards, but were
+treated with distinguished courtesy and consideration in recognition of
+their daring exploit. Thereafter the blockading fleet kept close watch
+day and night upon the harbor mouth, brilliantly illuminating it with
+searchlights all night, to prevent the escape of the Spanish fleet.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile General Nelson A. Miles, commander of the United States army,
+was preparing for an invasion of the island. The Fifth Army Corps was
+organized at Tampa, Florida, under the command of Major-General William
+R. Shafter, and on June 14 was embarked on a fleet of 37 transports.
+This fleet sailed around Cape Maysi to the southern coast of Cuba, and
+on June 21 was off Santiago. General Shafter and Admiral Sampson went
+ashore to confer with General Calixto Garcia at his camp at Acerradero,
+and found the situation by no means as encouraging as they had hoped.
+Garcia had only about 3,500 Cubans in his force, and they were not all
+well armed, and there were 1,000 more at Guantanamo. General Shafter's
+army numbered fewer than 16,000 men. Against these the Spaniards under
+General Linares numbered about 40,000.</p>
+
+<p>Averse as the Cubans had been to the landing of American troops, General
+Garcia accepted the inevitable, and promptly offered to place all his
+men under General Shafter's command. General Shafter accepted the offer,
+though he reminded General Garcia that he could exercise<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_112" id="page_112">{112}</a></span> no control
+over the troops beyond what he, Garcia, authorized. He of course saw to
+it that they were abundantly supplied with arms and ammunition, Garcia's
+troops were then employed very effectively in protecting the landing of
+the American troops, at Daiquiri; 6,000 of them being put ashore on June
+22 and the remainder in the next two days. General Henry W. Lawton
+promptly led the advance to Siboney, from which the Spaniards were
+driven, being pursued after their evacuation by the Cubans under General
+Castillo.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 367px;">
+<a href="images/i017.png">
+<img src="images/i017_sml.png" width="367" height="256" alt="OLD FORT AT EL CANEY, WRECKED BY FIGHTING OF JULY, 1898" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">OLD FORT AT EL CANEY, WRECKED BY FIGHTING OF JULY, 1898</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The next attack was made upon the Spaniards at Las Guasimas, an action
+in which material aid was rendered by Cubans, and which resulted in the
+Spaniards being driven back a mile or more. By June 25 the Americans
+were on the Ridge of Sevilla, looking down upon Santiago, only six miles
+away, and two days later their outposts were within three miles of the
+city. There followed on July 1 a desperate contest at the fortified
+village of El<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_113" id="page_113">{113}</a></span> Caney, resulting in the capture of that place by storm,
+with great slaughter of the Spanish, who held their ground with stubborn
+valor. Simultaneously an attack was made by another part of the American
+forces upon Kettle Hill and San Juan Hill, where heavy losses were
+sustained on both sides. The climax of this engagement was a charge of
+Wheeler's division, the Tenth Cavalry, against the Spanish entrenched
+lines. The van of this division was occupied by the "Rough Riders"
+regiment, an organization recruited chiefly among western plainsmen and
+"cowboys" by Theodore Roosevelt, who had resigned the Assistant
+Secretaryship of the Navy thus to engage in active service. The charge
+was led by Colonel Roosevelt in person, though he was in fact second in
+command of the regiment, the chief command of which he had declined in
+favor of his friend Leonard Wood, who was destined to play one of the
+greatest parts in the establishment of Cuban independence. In this hot
+engagement the Americans were also completely victorious.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 148px;">
+<a href="images/i018.png">
+<img src="images/i018_sml.png" width="148" height="192" alt="THEODORE ROOSEVELT" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>General Pando was now rushing 8,000 Spanish troops from the west to
+reinforce General Linares at Santiago, and Calixto Garcia with his Cuban
+forces undertook to hold him in check, though he was greatly outnumbered
+by the Spanish. On July 2 fighting was resumed, the Spanish assuming the
+aggressive, and before the day was done the Americans, greatly
+outnumbered and exhausted by the incessant fighting and the heat of the
+weather, began seriously considering withdrawal from positions which
+they feared they would not be able to hold. General Shafter<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_114" id="page_114">{114}</a></span> urged
+Admiral Sampson to aid him by making an attack upon the city with his
+fleet, but the latter demurred on account of the danger of entering a
+mined harbor. It was arranged that the two commanders should meet again
+for another council of war on the morning of July 3, and Admiral Sampson
+actually started up the coast toward Siboney for that purpose, when a
+dramatic event in a twinkling transformed the whole situation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 386px;">
+<a href="images/i019.png">
+<img src="images/i019_sml.png" width="386" height="320" alt="MONUMENTS ON SAN JUAN HILL, NEAR SANTIAGO" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">MONUMENTS ON SAN JUAN HILL, NEAR SANTIAGO</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This was the unexpected emergence of the Spanish fleet from the Santiago
+harbor, on the morning of July 3, in a desperate attempt to break
+through the American blockade and fight their way around to Havana. In
+Admiral Sampson's temporary absence the command devolved upon Admiral
+Schley, and orders instantly were given to close in and engage the
+Spanish ships. The latter<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_115" id="page_115">{115}</a></span> were four in number, the <i>Maria Teresa</i>, the
+<i>Vizcaya</i>, the <i>Colon</i> and the <i>Oquendo</i>, with two torpedo boats,
+<i>Pluton</i> and <i>Terror</i>. Admiral Sampson quickly retraced his course but
+did not arrive until the close of the fight, which raged for hours,
+along the coast for fifty miles westward from Santiago. The result was
+the destruction of every one of the Spanish ships and the killing of
+one-third of their crews. Admiral Cervera with 1,200 men surrendered. On
+the American side only one man was killed and three were wounded, and
+not one of the ships was seriously damaged.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 179px;">
+<a href="images/i020.png">
+<img src="images/i020_sml.png" width="179" height="198" alt="ADMIRAL SAMPSON" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Spaniards now knew that Santiago was doomed, though they continued
+to hold out with stubborn valor. On the night of July 4 they sank a
+vessel in the harbor mouth, in emulation of Hobson's deed, to shut the
+American fleet out, but failed to get it in the right place.
+Preparations were made for a joint attack by army and fleet on July 9, a
+truce being arranged until that date, and thereafter more or less
+continuous fighting prevailed, without important results, for three
+days. On July 12 General Toral, who had taken the Spanish command in
+place of General Linares, who was wounded at San Juan Hill, entered into
+negotiations with General Miles and General Wheeler, and on July 17
+terms of surrender were adopted. All the Spanish troops in Oriente save
+10,000 at Holguin, were surrendered, about 22,000 in all. Some minor
+naval operations followed at Manzanillo and Nipe, but there was no more
+serious fighting. For all practical purposes the war was ended.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_116" id="page_116">{116}</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;">
+<a href="images/i021.png">
+<img src="images/i021_sml.png" width="305" height="288" alt="PEACE TREE NEAR SANTIAGO, UNDER WHICH SPANISH COMMANDER
+OF SANTIAGO CAPITULATED JULY 16, 1898" title="" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">PEACE TREE NEAR SANTIAGO, UNDER WHICH SPANISH COMMANDER
+OF<br />SANTIAGO CAPITULATED JULY 16, 1898</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The next step was taken in behalf of Spain by the French Ambassador at
+Washington, Spain having committed to the French government the care of
+her diplomatic interests in America. M. Cambon on July 26 inquired of
+President McKinley if he would consider negotiations for peace. The
+President replied on July 30 that he was willing to discuss peace on the
+basis of certain conditions, the first of which was that Spain should
+relinquish all claim of sovereignty over or title to the island of Cuba,
+and should immediately evacuate that island. That was significant. It
+indicated that the United States purposed to fulfil its pledge
+concerning the independence of Cuba. The next condition was that Spain
+should cede to the United States the island of Porto Rico. But there was
+no hint at her cession of Cuba to the United States. She was merely to
+renounce her own sovereignty. These<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_117" id="page_117">{117}</a></span> conditions were accepted by the
+Spanish government through M. Cambon on August 12; the naval and
+military commanders on both sides were ordered to cease hostilities, the
+blockade of Cuba was discontinued; and the War of Independence was at a
+triumphant end.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_118" id="page_118">{118}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h3>
+
+<p>Following the protocol and the cessation of hostilities, two major tasks
+were to be performed. One was to remove the Spanish forces from the
+island and to establish permanent terms of peace, and the other was to
+organize and establish a permanent Cuban government.</p>
+
+<p>The former of these was promptly undertaken, by the governments of the
+United States and Spain. A joint commission arranged the details of
+evacuation, which was a formidable undertaking because of the number of
+persons to be transported and the paucity of shipping facilities at the
+command of the Peninsular government. The city of Havana was not
+evacuated until January 1, 1899, and the last Spanish troops were not
+removed from the island until the middle of February following. There
+were about 130,000 officers and soldiers transported, together with some
+15,000 military and civilian employes and their families.</p>
+
+<p>Simultaneously the task of treaty-making proceeded. President McKinley
+on August 26 appointed five Commissioners to conduct the negotiations.
+They were William R. Day, Secretary of State, Chairman; Cushman K.
+Davis, Senator; William P. Frye, Senator; Whitelaw Reid, Ambassador; and
+Edward D. White, Justice of the Supreme Court. Mr. White found himself
+unable to serve, and on September 9 George Gray, Senator, was appointed
+in his place. The Spanish government named as Commissioners five of
+Spain's foremost statesmen: Eugenio Montero Rios, Buenaventura
+d'Abarzuza, Jose de Garnica, Wenceslao Ramirez de Villa Urrutia, and<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_119" id="page_119">{119}</a></span>
+Rafael Cerero. The Commissioners began their deliberations in Paris on
+October 1.</p>
+
+<p>The first question discussed was the disposition of Cuba, and over it
+strong disagreement arose on two major points. The Spanish Commissioners
+declined to recognize the existence of any Cuban government, and argued
+that as there was no such government, and as Spain in relinquishing
+sovereignty over the island could not let that sovereignty lapse but
+must transfer it to some other responsible and competent power, the
+United States should accept cession of Cuba to it; which Spain was
+willing to grant. The American Commissioners replied that the United
+States was pledged not to annex the island, and as a matter of fact did
+not intend to do so and therefore could not and would not accept cession
+of the island to itself. Spain in the protocol had agreed to renounce
+her sovereignty without any stipulations further, and by that
+arrangement she must abide. The United States would, however, make
+itself responsible for the due observance of international law in Cuba
+so long as its occupation of the island lasted. The Spaniards were
+reluctant to yield, as a matter of pride and sentiment preferring to
+give Cuba to the United States rather than to surrender it to the
+insurgent Cubans. But the American Commissioners were resolute, and on
+October 27 the first article of the treaty was adopted; to wit:</p>
+
+<p>"Spain relinquishes all claim of sovereignty over and title to Cuba.</p>
+
+<p>"And as the island is, on its evacuation by Spain, to be occupied by the
+United States, the United States will, so long as such occupation shall
+last, assume and discharge the obligations that may under international
+law result from the fact of its occupation for the protection of life
+and property."<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_120" id="page_120">{120}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This was clear and unmistakable notice to the world that the American
+government intended to fulfil its pledge, not to annex Cuba but to
+render that island to the control and government of its own people.
+True, not yet were all convinced that this would be done. The Spaniards
+were courteously skeptical. A considerable faction in the United States,
+half "Jingo" and half sordid, insisted that the island must be annexed.
+The majority of Cubans, inclined to judge all governments by their
+bitter experiences with that of Spain, were frankly incredulous, not
+understanding how any government could be thus altruistic and
+self-denying.</p>
+
+<p>The second point of dispute was that of the Cuban debt. The Spanish
+government for years had been charging against Cuba the cost of
+maintaining an army for its subjugation and the costs of suppressing the
+various insurrections that had occurred, and the Commissioners proposed
+that all that enormous debt should be saddled upon the island and made a
+first charge upon its customs revenues. To this the American
+Commissioners demurred. Cuba had for centuries been "the milch cow of
+Spain," and had given to Spain far more than she had ever received in
+return. It would be monstrous injustice to burden a people with the cost
+of subjugating them and keeping them in slavery. In the end the Spanish
+Commissioners yielded, and no mention was made in the treaty of any debt
+resting upon Cuba.</p>
+
+<p>It was further agreed that both parties should release and repatriate
+all prisoners of war, and that the United States would undertake to
+obtain such release of all Spanish prisoners held by the Cubans. Each
+party relinquished all claims for indemnity of any and every kind which
+had arisen since the beginning of the Cuban war. Spain relinquished in
+Cuba all immovable property belonging<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_121" id="page_121">{121}</a></span> to the public domain and to the
+crown of Spain; such relinquishment not impairing lawful property rights
+of municipalities, corporations or individuals. Spanish subjects were to
+be free to remain in Cuba or to remove therefrom, in either event
+retaining full property rights; and in the former case being free to
+become Cuban citizens or to retain their allegiance to Spain; and they
+were to be secured in the free exercise of their religion. There were
+various other stipulations, such as are customary in treaties, intended
+to assure Spain and Spaniards of equitable treatment and relationships
+in Cuba. It was added that the obligations of the United States in Cuba
+were to be limited to the period of its occupation of that island; but
+upon the termination of that occupation the United States promised to
+advise the succeeding Cuban government to assume the same obligations.
+The treaty was finally agreed to and signed on December 10, 1898, and it
+was ratified by the United States Senate on February 6, 1899.</p>
+
+<p>General Ramon Blanco meanwhile, on November 26, 1898, resigned the
+Governor-Generalship of Cuba and returned to Spain. To General Jiminez
+Castellanos was left the unwelcome duty of holding nominal sway for a
+few weeks and then surrendering the sovereignty of four centuries to an
+alien power. Already American troops were in actual occupation and
+control of nearly all the island. In the latter part of December, 1898,
+the Seventh Army Corps, commanded by Major-General Fitzhugh Lee, was
+brought into the outskirts of Havana in readiness for the final function
+which was to be performed on the first day of the new year.</p>
+
+<p>The end came. It was on January 1, 1899. Four hundred and six years, two
+months and three days before, the first Spaniard had landed upon Cuban
+soil and had<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_122" id="page_122">{122}</a></span> planted there the quartered flag of Leon and Castile in
+token of sovereignty. Now, after all that lapse of time, largely, it
+must be confessed, ill spent and ill-improved, the Spanish flag was
+finally to be lowered and withdrawn, in token of the passing away of
+Spanish sovereignty forever from the soil of Cuba.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 289px;">
+<a href="images/i022.png">
+<img src="images/i022_sml.png" width="289" height="289" alt="PART OF OLD CITY WALL OF HAVANA, STILL STANDING" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">PART OF OLD CITY WALL OF HAVANA, STILL STANDING</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ceremonies were brief and simple; far more brief and simple, we may
+well believe, than were those with which the imaginative and exuberant
+Admiral proclaimed possession of the island centuries before. The
+official representatives of Spain and the United States met at noon in
+the Hall of State in the Governor's Palace, the scene of so many proud
+and imperious events in Spanish colonial history. On the one side the
+chief was General Jiminez Castellanos, the last successor of Velasquez.
+On the other, Major-General John R. Brooke. The one was the last of a
+long, long line of Spanish Governors-General;<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_123" id="page_123">{123}</a></span> the other was the first
+of a brief succession of American Military Governors who were soon to
+give way to an unending line of native Cuban Republican Presidents and
+Congresses. With a sad heart, with tear-suffused eyes, and with a hand
+that trembled to hold a pen far more than ever it had to wield a sword,
+General Jiminez Castellanos signed the document which abdicated and
+relinquished Spanish sovereignty in that Pearl of the Antilles which was
+nevermore to be known as the "Ever Faithful Isle." The crimson and gold
+barred banner of Spain descended. The Stars and Stripes rose in its
+place. The deed was done. The final settlement was made with Spain.</p>
+
+<p>For three hundred and eighty-seven years Spain had been the sovereign of
+Cuba, exercising her power through one hundred and thirty-six
+administrations, of which the first was one of the longest and the last
+was one of the shortest. It will be worth our while to recall the roll,
+which bears some of the noblest and some of the vilest names in Spanish
+history:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="SPANISH"
+class="sml">
+
+<tr><th align="right"><i>No.</i> </th><th align="center"><i>Date</i></th><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">1</td><td align="center">1512</td><td valign="bottom"> Diego Velasquez, Lieutenant-Governor</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">2</td><td align="center">1524</td><td valign="bottom"> Manuel de Rojas, Lieutenant-Governor, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">3</td><td align="center">1525</td><td valign="bottom"> Juan de Altamirano, Lieutenant-Governor</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">4</td><td align="center">1526</td><td valign="bottom"> Gonzalo de Guzman, Lieutenant-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">5</td><td align="center">1532</td><td valign="bottom"> Manuel de Rojas, Lieutenant-Governor, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">6</td><td align="center">1535</td><td valign="bottom">Gonzalo de Guzman, Lieutenant-Governor</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">7</td><td align="center">1538</td><td valign="bottom">Hernando de Soto, Governor-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">8</td><td align="center">1544</td><td valign="bottom">Juan de Avila, Governor-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">9</td><td align="center">1546</td><td valign="bottom">Antonio Chavez, Governor-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">10</td><td align="center">1550</td><td valign="bottom">Gonzalo Perez de Angulo, Governor-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">11</td><td align="center">1556</td><td valign="bottom">Diego de Mazariegos, Governor-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">12</td><td align="center">1565</td><td valign="bottom">Francisco Garcia Osorio, Governor-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">13</td><td align="center">1568</td><td valign="bottom">Pedro Menendez de Avilas, Governor-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">14</td><td align="center">1573</td><td valign="bottom">Gabriel Montalvo, Governor-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">15</td><td align="center">1577</td><td valign="bottom">Francisco Carreno, Governor-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">16</td><td align="center">1579</td><td valign="bottom">Gaspar de Torres, Governor-General, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">17</td><td align="center">1581</td><td valign="bottom">Gabriel de Lujan, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">18</td><td align="center">1589</td><td valign="bottom">Juan de Tejada, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">19</td><td align="center">1594</td><td valign="bottom">Juan Maldonado Balnuevo, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">20</td><td align="center">1602</td><td valign="bottom">Pedro Valdes Balnuevo, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">21</td><td align="center">1608</td><td valign="bottom">Gaspar Ruiz de Pereda, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">22</td><td align="center">1616</td><td valign="bottom"> Sancho de Alguizaz, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">23</td><td align="center">1620</td><td valign="bottom"> Geronimo de Quero, Captain-General, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">24</td><td align="center">1620</td><td valign="bottom"> Diego Vallejo, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">25</td><td align="center">Aug. 14, 1620</td><td valign="bottom"> Francisco de Venegas, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">26</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td valign="bottom"> Juan Esquivil, Captain-General, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">27</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td valign="bottom"> Juan Riva Martin, Captain-General, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">28</td><td align="center">1624</td><td valign="bottom"> Garcia Giron de Loaysa, Captain-General, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">29</td><td align="center">1624</td><td valign="bottom"> Cristobal de Aranda, Captain-General, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">30</td><td align="center">1625</td><td valign="bottom"> Lorenzo de Cabrera, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">31</td><td align="center">1630</td><td valign="bottom"> Juan Bitrian de Viamontes, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">32</td><td align="center">1634</td><td valign="bottom"> Francisco Riano de Gamboa, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">33</td><td align="center">1639</td><td valign="bottom"> Alvaro de Luna, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">34</td><td align="center">1647</td><td valign="bottom"> Diego de Villalba, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">35</td><td align="center">1653</td><td valign="bottom"> Francisco Xeldes, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">36</td><td align="center">1655</td><td valign="bottom"> Juan Montano, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">37</td><td align="center">1658</td><td valign="bottom"> Juan de Salamanca, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">38</td><td align="center">1663</td><td valign="bottom"> Rodrigo de Flores, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">39</td><td align="center">1664</td><td valign="bottom"> Francisco Dairle, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">40</td><td align="center">1670</td><td valign="bottom"> Francisco de Ledesma, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">41</td><td align="center">1680</td><td valign="bottom"> Jose Fernandez de Cordoba, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">42</td><td align="center">1685</td><td valign="bottom"> Andres Munibe, Captain-General, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">43</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td valign="bottom"> Manuel Murguia, Captain-General, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">44</td><td align="center">1687</td><td valign="bottom"> Diego de Viana, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">45</td><td align="center">1689</td><td valign="bottom"> Severino de Manraneda, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">46</td><td align="center">1695</td><td valign="bottom"> Diego de Cordoba, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">47</td><td align="center">1702</td><td valign="bottom"> Pedro Benites de Lugo, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">48</td><td align="center">1705</td><td valign="bottom"> Nicolas Chirino, Captain-General, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">49</td><td align="center">....</td><td valign="bottom"> Luis Chacon, Captain-General, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">50</td><td align="center">1706</td><td valign="bottom"> Pedro Alvares Villarin, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">51</td><td align="center">1708</td><td valign="bottom"> Laureano de Torres, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">52</td><td align="center">1711</td><td valign="bottom"> Luis Chacon, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">53</td><td align="center">1713</td><td valign="bottom"> Laureano de Torres, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">54</td><td align="center">1716</td><td valign="bottom"> Vicente Baja, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">55</td><td align="center">1717</td><td valign="bottom"> Gomez de Alvarez, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">56</td><td align="center">1717</td><td valign="bottom"> Gregorio Guazo, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">57</td><td align="center">1724</td><td valign="bottom"> Dionisio Martinez, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">58</td><td align="center">1734</td><td valign="bottom"> Juan F. Guemes, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">59</td><td align="center">1745</td><td valign="bottom"> Juan A. Tineo, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">60</td><td align="center">1745</td><td valign="bottom"> Diego Pinalosa, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">61</td><td align="center">1747</td><td valign="bottom"> Francisco Cagigal, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">62</td><td align="center">1760</td><td valign="bottom"> Pedro Alonso, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">63</td><td align="center">1761</td><td valign="bottom"> Juan de Prado Portocarrero, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">64</td><td align="center">July 1, 1762</td><td valign="bottom"> Ambrosio Villapando, Count of Riela, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">65</td><td align="center">June, 1765</td><td valign="bottom"> Diego Manrique, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">66</td><td align="center">July, 1765</td><td valign="bottom"> Pasual Jimenez de Cisners, Captain-General, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">67</td><td align="center">March 19, 1766</td><td valign="bottom"> Antonio M. Bucarely, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">68</td><td align="center">1771</td><td valign="bottom"> Marques de la Torre, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">69</td><td align="center">June, 1777</td><td valign="bottom"> Diego J. Navarro, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">70</td><td align="center">May, 1781</td><td valign="bottom"> Juan M. Cagigal, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">71</td><td align="center">1782</td><td valign="bottom"> Luis de Unzaga, Captain-General, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">72</td><td align="center">1785</td><td valign="bottom"> Bernardo Troncoso, Captain-General, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">73</td><td align="center">....</td><td valign="bottom"> Jose Espeleta, Captain-General, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">74</td><td align="center">....</td><td valign="bottom"> Domingo Cabello, Captain-General, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">75</td><td align="center">Dec. 28, 1785</td><td valign="bottom"> Jose Espeleta, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">76</td><td align="center">Apr. 20, 1789</td><td valign="bottom"> Domingo Cabello, Captain-General, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">77</td><td align="center">July 8, 1790</td><td valign="bottom"> Luis de las Casas, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">78</td><td align="center">Dec. 6, 1796</td><td valign="bottom"> Juan Bassecourt, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">79</td><td align="center">May 13, 1799</td><td valign="bottom"> Salvador de Muro, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">80</td><td align="center">Apr. 14, 1812</td><td valign="bottom"> Juan Ruiz de Apodaca, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">81</td><td align="center">July 2, 1816</td><td valign="bottom"> Jose Cienfuegos, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">82</td><td align="center">Apr. 20, 1819</td><td valign="bottom"> Juan M. Cagigal, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">83</td><td align="center">Mar. 3, 1821</td><td valign="bottom"> Nicolas de Mahy, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">84</td><td align="center">July 2, 1823</td><td valign="bottom"> Sebastian Kindelan, Captain-General, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">85</td><td align="center">May 2, 1823</td><td valign="bottom"> Dionisio Vives. Given absolute authority by royal decree, 1821</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">86</td><td align="center">May 2, 1832</td><td valign="bottom"> Mariano Rocafort. Given absolute authority by royal decree, 1825</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">87</td><td align="center">June 1, 1834</td><td valign="bottom"> Miguel Tacon. Given absolute authority by royal decree of 1825</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">88</td><td align="center">From June 1, 1834,<br />to Apr. 16, 1838</td><td valign="bottom">Lt.-Gen. Miguel Tacon y Rosique, Captain-General</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">89</td><td align="center">From April 16, 1838<br />to Feb., 1840</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Joaquin Espeleta y Enrille</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">90</td><td align="center">Feb., 1840,<br />to May 10, 1841</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Pedro Tellez de Gironm, Prince of Anglona</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">91</td><td align="center">From May 10, 1841,<br />to Sept. 15, 1843</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Geronimo Valdes y Sierra</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">92</td><td align="center">From Sept. 15,<br />to Oct. 26, 1843</td><td valign="bottom">Lieut. Gen. of the Royal Navy, Francis Xavier de Ulloa, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">93</td><td align="center">From Oct. 26, 1843,<br />to Mar. 20, 1848</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Leopoldo O'Donnell y Joris, Count of Lucena.</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">94</td><td align="center">From Mar. 20, 1848,<br />to Nov. 13, 1850</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Federico Roncali, Count of Alcoy</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">95</td><td align="center">From Nov. 13, 1850,<br />to Apr. 22, 1852</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Jose Gutierrez de la Concha</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">96</td><td align="center">From Apr. 22, 1852,<br />to Dec. 3, 1853 </td><td valign="bottom">Lieut. Gen. Valentin Canedo Miranda</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">97</td><td align="center">From Dec. 3, 1853,<br />to Sept. 21, 1854 </td><td valign="bottom">Lieut. Gen. Juan de la Pezuela, Marquis of de la Pezuela</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">98</td><td align="center">From Sept. 14, 1854,<br />to Nov. 24, 1859</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Jose Gutierrez de la Concha, Marquis of Habana, second time</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">99</td><td align="center">From Nov. 14, 1859,<br />to Dec. 10, 1862</td><td valign="bottom">Lieut. Gen. Francisco Serrano, Duke de la Torre</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">100</td><td align="center">From Dec. 10, 1862,<br />to May 30, 1866</td><td valign="bottom">Lieut. Gen. Domingo Dulce y Garay</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">101</td><td align="center">From May 20, 1866,<br />to Nov. 3, 1866</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Francisco Lersundi</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">102</td><td align="center">From Nov. 3, 1866,<br />to Sept. 24, 1867<br />on which date he died</td><td valign="bottom">Lieut. Gen. Joaquin del Manzano y Manzano</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">103</td><td align="center">From Sept. 24, 1867,<br />to Nov. 3, 1866</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Blas Villate, Count of Valmaseda</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">104</td><td align="center">From Dec. 13, 1867,<br />to Jan. 4, 1869</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Francisco Lersundi</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">105</td><td align="center">From Jan. 4, 1869,<br />to June 2, 1869</td><td valign="bottom">Lieut. Gen. Domingo Dulce y Garay, second time</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">106</td><td align="center">From June 2, 1869,<br />to June 28, 1869</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Felipe Ginoves del Espinar, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">107</td><td align="center">From June 28, 1869,<br />to Dec. 15, 1870</td><td valign="bottom">Lieut. Gen. Antonio Fernandez y Caballero de Rodas</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">108</td><td align="center">From Dec. 15, 1870,<br />to July 11, 1872</td><td valign="bottom">Lieut. Gen. Blas Villate, Count of Valmaseda</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">109</td><td align="center">From July 11, 1872,<br />to Apr. 18, 1873</td><td valign="bottom">Lieut. Gen. Francisco Ceballos y Vargas</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">110</td><td align="center">From Apr. 18, 1873,<br />to Nov. 4, 1873</td><td valign="bottom">Lieut. Gen. Candido Pieltain y Jove-Huelgo</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">111</td><td align="center">From Nov. 4, 1873,<br />to Apr. 7, 1874 </td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Joaquin Jovellar y Soler</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">112</td><td align="center">From Apr. 7, 1874,<br />to May 8, 1875</td><td valign="bottom">Lieut. Gen. José Gutierrez de la Concha, Marquis of Habana</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">113</td><td align="center">From May 8, 1875,<br />to June 8, 1875</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Buenaventura Carbo, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">114</td><td align="center">From June 8, 1875,<br />to Jan. 18, 1876</td><td valign="bottom">Lieut. Gen. Blas Villate, Count of Valmaseda, third time</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">115</td><td align="center">From Jan. 18, 1876,<br />to June 18, 1878</td><td valign="bottom">Lieut. Gen. Joaquin Jovellar y Soler. He was under Martinez Campos, who was the general in chief</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">116</td><td align="center">From Oct. 8, 1876,<br />to Feb. 5, 1879</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Arsenio Martinez Campos</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">117</td><td align="center">From Feb. 5, 1879,<br />to Apr. 17, 1879</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Cayetano Figueroa y Garaondo, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">118</td><td align="center">From Apr. 17, 1879,<br />to Nov. 28, 1881</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Ramon Blanco y Erenas</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">119</td><td align="center">From Nov. 28, 1881,<br />to Aug. 5, 1883</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Luis Prendergast y Gordon, Marquis of Victoria de las Tunas</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">120</td><td align="center">From. Aug. 5, 1883,<br />to Sept. 28, 1883</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. of Division Tomas de Reyan y Reyna, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">121</td><td align="center">From Sept. 28, 1883,<br />to Nov. 8, 1884</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Ignacio Maria del Castillo</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">122</td><td align="center">From Nov. 8, 1884,<br />to Mar. 25, 1886</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Ramon Fajardo e Izquierdo</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">123</td><td align="center">From Mar. 25, 1886,<br />to July 15, 1887</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Emilio Calleja e Isasi</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">124</td><td align="center">From July 15, 1887,<br />died Feb. 6, 1890</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Saba Marin y Gonzalez</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">125</td><td align="center">From Mar. 13, 1889,<br />died Feb. 6, 1890</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Manuel Salamanca y Begrete</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">126</td><td align="center">From Mar. 13, 1889,<br />to Apr. 4, 1890</td><td valign="bottom"> General of Division Jose Sanchez Gomez, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">127</td><td align="center">From Apr. 4, 1890,<br />to Aug. 20, 1890</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Jose Chinchilla y Diez de Onate</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">128</td><td align="center">From Aug. 20, 1890,<br />to June 20, 1892 </td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Camilo Polavieja y del Castillo</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">129</td><td align="center">From June 20, 1892;<br />died July 15, 1893 </td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Alejandro Rodriguez Arias</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">130</td><td align="center">From July 15, 1893,<br />to Sept. 5, 1893</td><td valign="bottom"> General of Division Jose Arderius y Garcia, provisional</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">131</td><td align="center">From Sept. 5, 1893,<br />to Apr. 16, 1895</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Emilio Calleja e Isasi</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">132</td><td align="center">From Apr. 16, 1895,<br />to Jan. 20, 1896 </td><td valign="bottom">Captain Gen. Arsenio Martinez Campos</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">133</td><td align="center">From Jan. 20, 1896,<br />to Feb. 11, 1896</td><td valign="bottom"> Lieut. Gen. Savas Marin y Gonzalez</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">134</td><td align="center">From Feb. 11, 1896,<br />to Oct. 31, 1897</td><td valign="bottom">Lieut. Gen. Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">135</td><td align="center">From Oct. 31, 1897,<br />to Nov. 30, 1898</td><td valign="bottom"> Capt. Gen. Ramon Blanco y Erenas</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">136</td><td align="center"> Nov. 30, 1898,<br />to Jan. 1, 1899,<br />at 12 noon.</td><td valign="bottom">Lieut. Gen. Adolfo Jimines Castellanos</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>There must be added an unwelcome note. The Spaniards&mdash;not their high
+officials&mdash;left most ungraciously. It is not to be wondered at that they
+were sad, that they were sullen, that they were resentful; that they
+were fearful lest the Cubans should rise against them at the last moment
+and inflict upon them vengeance for the treasured wrongs of many years.
+But there was of course no<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_133" id="page_133">{133}</a></span> such uprising. The Cubans wished to make the
+day an occasion of great public celebration, but the authorities&mdash;Cuban
+and American as well as Spanish&mdash;would not permit it. It was not
+courteous to exult over a beaten foe. Besides, any such celebration
+would have caused great danger of trouble. What was inexcusable,
+however, was the condition in which the Spanish left all public
+buildings. They looted and gutted them of everything that could be
+removed. They destroyed the plumbing and lighting fixtures. They broke
+or choked up the drains. They left every place in an indescribably
+filthy condition. There was nothing in all their record in Cuba more
+unbecoming than their manner of leaving it. Such was the last detail of
+the settlement with Spain.</p>
+
+<p>The settlement with Cuba came next. Indeed, it was concurrently
+undertaken. And it was by far the more formidable task of the two. It
+was necessary to arrange for the transfer of the temporary trust of the
+United States to a permanent Cuban authority, and to do so in
+circumstances and conditions which would afford the largest possible
+degree of assurance of success. It is said that when the American flag
+was raised at Havana in token of temporary sovereignty, on January 1,
+1899, an American Senator among the spectators exclaimed, "That flag
+will never come down!" There were also, doubtless, those among the Cuban
+spectators who thought and said that it should never have been raised,
+but that sovereignty should have been transferred directly from Spain to
+Cuba.</p>
+
+<p>Both were wrong; as both in time came to realize. It was necessary for
+the sake of good faith and justice that the American flag should in time
+come down and give place to the flag of Cuba. It was equally necessary
+for the sake of the welfare of Cuba and of its future prosperity and
+tranquillity that there should be a period of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_134" id="page_134">{134}</a></span> American stewardship
+preparatory to full independence.</p>
+
+<p>There was, as we have already indicated, some friction between Cubans
+and Americans at the time of intervention in the Spring of 1898. The
+Cubans thought that the American army should not enter Cuba at all, save
+with an artillery force to serve as an adjunct to the Cuban army. On the
+other hand, Americans were too much inclined to disregard the Cuban army
+and Provisional Government, to forget what the Cubans had already
+achieved, and to act as though the war were solely between the United
+States and Spain. When the actual landing of Shafter's army was made,
+however, the Cubans accepted the fact loyally and gracefully, and gave
+the fullest possible measure of helpful cooperation.</p>
+
+<p>The Provisional Government of the Cuban Republic, as soon as hostilities
+were ended and negotiations for peace had begun, decided to summon
+another National Assembly to determine what should be done during the
+interval which should elapse before the United States placed the
+destinies of Cuba in the hands of Cubans. This decision was made at a
+meeting at Santa Cruz on September 1, at which were present the
+President, Bartolome Maso; the Vice-President, Mendez Capote; and the
+three Secretaries, Aleman, Fonts-Sterling and Moreno de la Torre. It was
+felt, and not without reason, that the Insular government and its forces
+had not received the recognition which was their due. Calixto Garcia and
+Francisco Estrada had given valuable participation in the siege and
+capture of Santiago, yet they were not permitted by General Shafter to
+participate in the ceremony of the surrender of the Spanish forces, or
+even to be present on that exultant occasion. When the Americans thus
+took possession of Santiago and Oriente, the Cuban government, military
+and civil, was ignored, and General Leonard Wood was made Military
+Governor just as though there was no Cuban government in existence.</p>
+
+<p class="c caption">OLD AND NEW IN HAVANA</p>
+
+<p class="caption">The architecture of Havana ranges from the sixteenth century to the
+twentieth, and specimens of all five centuries may in some places be
+found grouped within a single scene; with electric lights and telephones
+in buildings which were standing when Francis Drake threatened the city
+with conquest.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 357px;">
+<a href="images/i023.png">
+<img src="images/i023_sml.png" width="357" height="550" alt="OLD AND NEW IN HAVANA
+
+The architecture of Havana ranges from the sixteenth century to the
+twentieth, and specimens of all five centuries may in some places be
+found grouped within a single scene; with electric lights and telephones
+in buildings which were standing when Francis Drake threatened the city
+with conquest." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_135" id="page_135">{135}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>During the months of the American blockade of the island, moreover, the
+Cubans had suffered perhaps even more than the Spanish from lack of
+supplies. It was felt that while it was well thus to deprive the Spanish
+army of supplies, the Cuban people ought not to have been left to
+suffer. After the armistice affairs remained in a distressing condition.
+The Cuban army was without food and without pay with which to purchase
+food; and the Provisional Government was powerless to help it or to help
+the starving civilian population. It had no funds, and of course could
+not now raise any either by taxation or by loans. Late in November some
+relief was afforded by the sending of food from the United States, but
+on the whole the conditions were unsatisfactory, and did not conduce to
+cordial confidence between the Cubans and the Americans.</p>
+
+<p>The National Assembly which had been called on September 1 met at Santa
+Cruz on November 7, and resolved upon the disbandment of the Provisional
+Government, and the appointment of a special Commission to look after
+Cuban interests during the period of American occupation. This
+Commission consisted of Domingo Mendez Capote, President; Ferdinand
+Freyre de Andrade, Vice-President; and Manuel M. Coronado and Dr.
+Porfirio Caliente, Secretaries. The army organization was to be
+retained, for the present, with General Maximo Gomez as
+Commander-in-Chief.</p>
+
+<p>The real crux of the situation, at the moment, was the demobilization of
+the Cuban army. This could not be done&mdash;Gomez would not consider
+it&mdash;until the men could be paid, and there was no money with which to
+pay them.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_136" id="page_136">{136}</a></span> Among the 36,000 men on the rosters, there were said to be
+20,000 who had served two years or more, and who were entitled to pay.
+Gomez issued an appeal to the army and to the Cuban people generally to
+accept loyally the temporary American occupation and to cooperate with
+the Americans in the reestablishment of order and the development of
+governmental institutions, in order that at the earliest possible moment
+Cuba might be able to assume the whole task of self government. At the
+same time he urgently requested the United States government to advance
+money with which to pay off the soldiers, in order that the army might
+be disbanded and the men might return to their homes and their work, and
+thus restore the industrial prosperity of the island. For this purpose
+he suggested the sum of $60,000,000, not only for actual pay but also
+for compensation for the losses which the officers and men had suffered
+during the war. He was inclined to keep his men under arms until the
+United States should relinquish control of Cuba to the Cubans, or should
+fix a date for so doing; and toward the end of January, 1899, he
+mustered all his forces in the Province of Havana, and made his staff
+headquarters in the former palace of the Captain-General. Meantime the
+Commission of the Cuban National Assembly recommended that the men be
+granted furloughs, to enable them to go to work in response to the great
+demand for labor that was arising throughout the island. This course was
+pursued to a considerable extent.</p>
+
+<p>Ultimately the United States government granted the sum of $3,000,000
+for the purpose of paying off the soldiers. This was not a loan, to be
+repaid, but was an outright gift, being the remainder of the sum of
+$50,000,000 which had been voted to the President at the beginning of
+the war to use at his discretion. It was given on the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_137" id="page_137">{137}</a></span> conditions that
+every recipient should prove his service in the army and should
+surrender a rifle. To this latter requirement, which meant the disarming
+of the Cubans, General Gomez strongly objected, but in the end he
+acquiesced and agreed to carry out the plan as soon as the money was at
+hand. Thereupon some other Cuban officers disputed his right to commit
+the Cuban army to any such arrangement. They were dissatisfied with the
+small amount, and they insisted that only the Cuban Assembly had power
+to act upon the American offer. They added that they would refuse to
+obey the orders of General Gomez, and would look to the Assembly for
+justice. It should be added that these officers were not those who had
+been most active and efficient in the field.</p>
+
+<p>General Gomez ignored this mutinous demonstration, and proceeded with
+arrangements to receive and distribute the $3,000,000; whereupon the
+Assembly came together and on March 12 impeached General Gomez and
+removed him from office as Commander-in-Chief, the charge being that he
+had failed in his military duties and had disobeyed the orders of the
+Assembly. This scandalous performance was ignored by Gomez, and was
+condemned by the great majority of the Cuban people. It was also ignored
+by the American authorities. General Brooke continued his negotiations
+with Gomez, and finally reached an agreement. The terms were as follows:
+Every Cuban soldier who had been in service since before July 17, 1898,
+and who was not in receipt of salary from any public office, upon
+delivery of his arms and equipments was to receive $75 in United States
+gold. The arms and equipments were to be surrendered to municipal
+authorities, and to be placed and kept in armories, under the charge of
+armorers appointed by General Gomez, as memorials of the War of
+Independence.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_138" id="page_138">{138}</a></span> The Cuban Commissioners protested against and resisted
+this settlement, but finally yielded when they saw all the soldiers
+accepting it. They continued for some time, however, to manifest
+disaffection and distrust toward the United States, and to propagate
+doubt whether that country would ever fulfill its promise to make Cuba
+independent. Some agitators went so far as to try to provoke
+insurrections against the American administration. But all such things
+met with no encouragement from General Gomez or from any of the real
+leaders of the Cuban people, who expressed the fullest confidence in the
+good faith of the United States and did their utmost to lead the nation
+to take advantage of the unparalleled opportunity which had been placed
+before it. Day by day the magnitude of that opportunity became more
+apparent, as did the practical beneficence of the American
+administration.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_139" id="page_139">{139}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h3>
+
+<p>American occupation of Cuba, formal and complete, did not begin, as we
+have seen, until January 1, 1899, when the ceremonial transfer of
+sovereignty was effected at Havana. But nearly six months before that
+epochal date actual occupation and administration was begun on an
+extensive scale and in a most auspicious manner. With singular
+appropriateness this was effected at that city which nearly four
+centuries before had been the first capital and metropolis of the
+island, and in that Province which had been the scene of the first
+Spanish settlements in Cuba and which had been more perhaps than all the
+rest of the island the scene and the base of operations of the
+revolution for independence.</p>
+
+<p>The surrender of Santiago by General Toral on July 17, 1898, made the
+American army master of that city and practically of the Province of
+Oriente. Having the power and authority of government, the Americans had
+necessarily to assume the full responsibility of it; and this was
+promptly done. Even in advance of the date named, on July 13, the day
+after negotiations for the capitulation began, in anticipation of what
+was to occur President McKinley decreed that, pending further orders,
+existing Spanish laws should be maintained in the occupied territory. As
+soon as the protocol was signed on August 12, General Henry W. Lawton
+was appointed Military Governor of the Province of Oriente and commander
+in chief of the American forces. This was an honor due to that gallant
+officer, because of his leadership in the act of invasion<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_140" id="page_140">{140}</a></span> and conquest.
+But Lawton was a soldier rather than an administrator, and his services
+were indispensable in the field. Accordingly, after brief but most
+honorable occupancy of the governorship, he was succeeded on September
+24 by a man who combined the qualities of soldier and administrator in a
+uniquely successful and triumphant degree, and whose advent in Cuba was
+auspicious of inestimable advantage to that country and to its relations
+with the United States and with the world. Indeed, though the fact was
+unrecognized at the time, it is not too much to say that Leonard Wood
+bore in his hand and mind and heart the destinies of Cuba. There might,
+it is true, have been found some other man who as a soldier would have
+pacified the island and would have held it firmly in the grasp of peace.
+There might have been found a sanitarian and physician who would free
+the island of pestilence. There were financiers who might have placed
+its fiscal interests upon a sound basis. There were jurists who could
+have revised its laws. There were statesmen who could have supervised
+and directed its general governmental affairs, both domestic and
+foreign. But there was need that all these qualities should be combined
+in and all these activities should be performed by one man.</p>
+
+<p>Leonard Wood was at this time still a young man, scarcely thirty-eight
+years of age. Born at Winchester, New Hampshire, the son of an eminent
+physician and a descendant of a Mayflower Pilgrim, he had in boyhood
+engaged in seafaring pursuits, and then had been thoroughly trained for
+the medical profession at Harvard University. Obeying the promptings of
+patriotism, perhaps with some unrecognized pre-intimation of the vast
+services which he was destined to render to his country and to the
+world, he turned away from prospects of professional<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_141" id="page_141">{141}</a></span> preferment and
+profit to undertake the arduous and often thankless tasks of an army
+surgeon. He was appointed to that duty from the state of Massachusetts
+on January 5, 1886, as an Assistant Surgeon, and five years later was
+promoted to the rank of Captain. The nominal rank is, however, a slight
+indication of the merit of his services, for in the very first year of
+his army life he was credited with "distinguished conduct in campaign
+against Apache Indians while serving as medical and line officer of
+Captain Lawton's expedition"; for which he was later awarded the
+Congressional Medal of Honor.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of American intervention in the Cuban War of
+Independence, Theodore Roosevelt resigned the office of Assistant
+Secretary of the Navy, which he had filled with distinction and to the
+great profit of the country, in order to organize from among the cowboys
+and frontiersmen of the West his famous regiment of "Rough Riders." But
+he would not himself accept the supreme command of it. His unerring
+judgment of men led him to select Leonard Wood for the Colonelcy, under
+whom he was himself glad to serve as Lieutenant-Colonel. So it was that
+Wood first went to Cuba, as Colonel of the First Regiment of United
+States Cavalry Volunteers. There soon followed the achievements at
+Guasimas and at San Juan Hill, to which reference has already been made,
+in recognition of his services in which on July 8, 1898, he was promoted
+to be Brigadier General, and on December 7 following to be Major General
+of Volunteers. It may be added that he was promoted to these same ranks
+in the regular army respectively on February 4, 1901 and August 8, 1903.</p>
+
+<p>With these antecedents, on September 24 he entered upon the task of
+governing Santiago and the Province of Oriente. It was a position of
+unique responsibility and<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_142" id="page_142">{142}</a></span> power. The President's order made it
+incumbent upon him to administer the existing municipal laws so far as
+in his own judgment they were properly applicable to the new state of
+affairs. That was all. Otherwise he was thrown absolutely upon his own
+resources, with no treaty obligations or government promises to bind
+him. He was simply a "benevolent despot," intent upon tranquillizing and
+rehabilitating that vast eastern province of Cuba by methods of his own
+devising. It was a region at once the most unruly and the most
+impoverished in Cuba, and it had for its capital a plague-smitten city.
+For six months he labored there, and in that short period he so far
+advanced the work of reconstruction that thereafter Oriente served as an
+example and a model for all the other provinces of Cuba. Sympathetic,
+alert, untiring, frank, without vanity or ostentation, resolute,
+diplomatic, and always supremely just, General Wood's personality stood
+to the people of Cuba for qualities seldom if ever before associated
+with the occupant of the governor's palace, while his energy in fighting
+disease, relieving distress, reviving industry and maintaining order
+revealed to them as the Spanish régime never had done the beneficence of
+enlightened government. It would be impossible to estimate too highly
+the value of his services during those few months at Santiago, in
+commending to Cubans the benevolent purposes and attitude of the
+Americans toward them and in disclosing to them the vast material and
+moral benefits which would accrue to them through self-government wisely
+administered.</p>
+
+<p>He began his work at Santiago in gruesome circumstances. An epidemic of
+smallpox and yellow fever was raging, and clouds of smoke hung over the
+city from the funeral pyres where were being burned many of the bodies
+for which burial was impossible. The city was reeking<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_143" id="page_143">{143}</a></span> with filth. Half
+the people were threatened with starvation. Lawlessness and complaints
+of grievances were rife. He had to be at once sanitarian, steward and
+judge. He labored heroically at all three tasks, and performed them so
+well that in a few weeks Santiago seemed like a new city. Of course
+there was much to do in other places in the province. In Holguin there
+were three thousand cases of smallpox, of which he treated 1,200 in
+hospitals. He sent thither as nurses 600 thoroughly vaccinated immunes,
+not one of whom contracted the disease. Hundreds of infected buildings,
+of flimsy construction, were burned, while all others were thoroughly
+disinfected, and the epidemic was conquered.</p>
+
+<p>Early the next year General Wood sought a well earned rest in a brief
+visit to his former home in Boston, leaving, as he thought, affairs in
+Santiago in a securely satisfactory condition. But he was compelled to
+hasten back in July, 1899, to deal with another outbreak of disease. On
+his arrival he found both the city and his own army camp in the grip of
+malignant yellow fever. It was a time for heroic action, and that was
+what he performed. In a day he removed his troops to healthful places on
+the adjacent hills, and then subjected the city to such a cleansing and
+scientific sanitation as neither it nor any other Cuban city had ever
+known. The island and the world looked on with interest, to see if thus
+he could cope with and suppress the epidemic.</p>
+
+<p>He succeeded. Not yet had the theory of Dr. Carlos J. Finlay, that
+mosquitoes were the sole propagators of the disease, been practically
+tested and applied, though it had been propounded by that eminent Cuban
+physician many years before. That immortal achievement was postponed for
+Messrs. Reed, Carroll, Agramonte and Lazear to effect, under General
+Wood's subsequent administration<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_144" id="page_144">{144}</a></span> at Havana. But even without it, by
+means of strenuous sanitation, the epidemic of July, 1899, was
+conquered, and Santiago was made clean and sound.</p>
+
+<p>Another achievement of General Wood's at Santiago in the latter part of
+1898 proved highly successful and was soon afterward extended to the
+other provinces of the island. This was the organization of the Rural
+Guards, a force which became invaluable for the policing of the rural
+portions of the island; just as Pennsylvania and some others of the
+United States are cared for by State Police. General Wood selected for
+this service officers and soldiers of the Cuban Army in the War of
+Independence who were recommended for their good character and
+efficiency. By the end of the year 1898 he had about 300 of these
+troopers patrolling the roads of Oriente, in the districts where such
+guardianship was most needed, with admirable results. The value of this
+service was observed and appreciated by the officers of the other
+provinces, and at the beginning of 1899 the system was introduced into
+all the provinces excepting Matanzas, where the same purpose was served
+by a mounted police force maintained by the larger municipalities. In
+the city of Havana the Military Governor, General Ludlow, held a
+conference with General Mario G. Menocal, of the Cuban Army, who had
+been invited to become Chief of Police in that city under the American
+administration, and with him worked out the details of the organization
+of Rural Guards in the suburbs of the capital and the rural portions of
+Havana Province. They formed a force of 350 men for service there, and
+thus quickly made all that region, even in the more or less disturbed
+period immediately following the war, noteworthy for its security and
+orderliness. When at the end of the American occupation the Rural Guards
+were transferred to the Cuban<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_145" id="page_145">{145}</a></span> Government, they comprised 15 bodies,
+numbering 1,605 officers and men, stationed at 247 different posts.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime American occupation and administration were established
+throughout the island. Immediately upon the transfer of sovereignty on
+January 1, 1899, John R. Brooke, Major General commanding the Division
+of Cuba, and Military Governor, issued a proclamation to the people of
+the island. He told them that he came as the representative of the
+President, to give protection to the people and security to persons and
+property, to restore confidence, to build up waste plantations, to
+resume commercial traffic, and to afford full protection in the exercise
+of all civil and religious rights. To the attainment of those ends, all
+the efforts of the United States would be directed, in the interest and
+for the benefit of all the people of Cuba. The legal codes of the
+Spanish sovereignty were to be retained in force, with such changes and
+modifications as might from time to time be found necessary in the
+interest of good government. The people of Cuba, without regard to
+previous affiliations, were invited and urged to cooperate in these
+objects by the exercise of moderation, conciliation and good-will toward
+one another.</p>
+
+<p>The island was divided for administrative purposes into seven
+departments, corresponding with the provinces and with the city of
+Havana forming the seventh. The commanders of these departments, under
+General Brooke, were: Havana City, Gen. William Ludlow; Havana Province,
+Gen. Fitzhugh Lee; Pinar del Rio, Gen. George W. Davis; Matanzas, Gen.
+James H. Wilson; Santa Clara, Gen. John C. Bates; Camaguey, Gen. L. H.
+Carpenter; Oriente, Gen. Leonard Wood. A civil government was organized
+on January 12, by the appointment of the following Cubans as Ministers
+of State: Secretary<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_146" id="page_146">{146}</a></span> of the Department of State and Government, Domingo
+Mendez Capote; Secretary of Finance, Pablo Desvernine; Secretary of
+Justice and Public Instruction, Jose Antonio Gonzalez Lanuza; Secretary
+of Agriculture, Commerce, Industries and Public Works, Adolfo Saenz
+Yanez. Later in the spring of that year the provinces of Havana and
+Pinar del Rio were united in one department, as were Matanzas and Santa
+Clara, and Camaguey and Oriente.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 173px;">
+<a href="images/i024.png">
+<img src="images/i024_sml.png" width="173" height="194" alt="GONZALEZ LANUZA
+
+A distinguished jurist, penologist, and man of letters, Gonzalez Lanuza,
+was born in Havana on July 17, 1865. He rose to eminence at the bar and
+on the bench, became professor of penal law in the University of Havana,
+and was the author of several important works on jurisprudence. He was
+an agent of the revolution in Havana in 1895, and Secretary of the Cuban
+Delegation in New York. During General Brooke&#39;s Governorship he was
+Secretary of Justice and Public Instruction, and during President
+Menocal&#39;s first term was Speaker of the House of Representatives. He was
+a delegate to the Pan-American Congress at Rio de Janeiro in 1906." title="" /></a></div>
+<p class="c caption">GONZALEZ LANUZA</p>
+
+<p class="caption">A distinguished jurist, penologist, and man of letters, Gonzalez Lanuza,
+was born in Havana on July 17, 1865. He rose to eminence at the bar and
+on the bench, became professor of penal law in the University of Havana,
+and was the author of several important works on jurisprudence. He was
+an agent of the revolution in Havana in 1895, and Secretary of the Cuban
+Delegation in New York. During General Brooke&#39;s Governorship he was
+Secretary of Justice and Public Instruction, and during President
+Menocal&#39;s first term was Speaker of the House of Representatives. He was
+a delegate to the Pan-American Congress at Rio de Janeiro in 1906.</p>
+
+<p>The problems which confronted the American military administrators and
+their Cuban colleagues of the civil government were manifold and grave.
+There was the work of sanitation, which was undertaken on lines similar
+to those which General Wood had pursued in Santiago. The city of Havana
+had the advantage of the services of General Ludlow, an expert engineer
+and sanitarian. Then there was the work of feeding a starving
+population. So vast had been the ravages of war, so great had been the
+destruction of resources, that one of the most fertile and productive
+countries in the world was unable for a time to provide food for its own
+inhabitants, although their numbers had been diminished<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_147" id="page_147">{147}</a></span> by one-fourth
+by the horrors of war. In these circumstances the American government
+was compelled to establish a system of food distribution, on very
+liberal lines. In Havana alone more than 20,000 persons were dependent
+upon it to save them from actual starvation. So well was the system
+administered, however, and so vigorously did the Cubans themselves apply
+themselves to self-help that within five months it was found possible to
+abolish the general system of food supply, and to restrict such work to
+such cases of special need as are liable to occur in any community.</p>
+
+<p>In thus redeeming the island from threatened if not actual famine, the
+American government undoubtedly did much, but the Cuban people
+themselves did far more. Self-help and mutual aid were the order of the
+day. All who could do so hastened to secure employment, either upon
+their own property or on the land or in the establishments of others.
+Planters whose fields had been ravaged and whose buildings had been
+destroyed borrowed money wherever they could, when necessary, for
+rehabilitation. If they could not raise money to pay their employes,
+they pledged them an interest in the proceeds of the coming harvest. The
+small farmers, who had lost all their implements and had no money to buy
+others to replace them, worked almost without tools, or borrowed and
+loaned among themselves so that a single plow would serve for half a
+dozen, and even hoes and spades were similarly passed from garden to
+garden. In the absence of horses and mules, plows were actually drawn by
+teams of four or six men, in such cases doing, perhaps, little more than
+to scratch the surface of the soil, though even this was sufficient to
+enable the planting of seed.</p>
+
+<p>Reference has been made to the borrowing of money by the planters for
+the rehabilitation of their estates. This<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_148" id="page_148">{148}</a></span> was no easy task, because of
+the extent to which they were already overburdened with debts. Nearly
+all the land in Cuba was mortgaged, for a large percentage of its value.
+The census which was taken by the American authorities in 1899 showed a
+total real estate valuation in the entire island of only $323,641,895.
+These amazingly low figures were due, of course, to the depreciation of
+values through the ravages of war. But upon that valuation there was an
+47,915,494; or more
+than 76 per cent. Obviously, the borrowing capacity of Cuban real estate
+had been exhausted. During the war, with the impairment of industry
+which then prevailed, it was impossible for farmers to pay off their
+mortgages, and accordingly the Spanish government, in May, 1896, decreed
+that all mortgages then maturing should be extended for a year, during
+which time all legal steps for collection of them should be halted. In
+Oriente and Camaguey, however, the grace thus granted was for only a
+month. Successive extensions of the grace carried it to April, 1899,
+when the American administration was in control. A final extension was
+then granted, to April, 1901.</p>
+
+<p>Still another problem, and one which proved peculiarly embarrassing, was
+that of local or municipal government. The island was divided into six
+provinces, thirty-one judicial districts, and one hundred and thirty-two
+municipalities, and these last named were each divided into
+sub-districts and these again into wards. These all had their local
+officials and local systems of finance, and these latter were found by
+the Americans to be in serious confusion. It was necessary to reform
+them, but in the doing of this almost endless friction arose. Such
+matters so closely touched the Cuban people that they were naturally
+jealous and resentful of alien interference and dictation.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_149" id="page_149">{149}</a></span> At the same
+time the Americans considered it necessary to supervise the
+reorganization of local government as a basis for satisfactory general
+government. Each side became more or less irritated against the other,
+with unfortunate results.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting personal factor at this time, whose influence was on the
+whole helpful to the American government, was found in General Maximo
+Gomez. There is no question that he felt himself somewhat ill-treated by
+the Americans, as Calixto Garcia had felt at the surrender of Santiago.
+During the first month of the American rule at the capital he held
+aloof, remaining at his home at Remedios. But in February he came to
+Havana and had such a reception as probably no other man in Cuban
+history had ever enjoyed. From Remedios to Havana he proceeded through
+an almost unbroken series of popular demonstrations of the most
+enthusiastic kind, and at the capital he was greeted as a conquering
+hero and as the unrivalled idol of the people whose independence he had
+won. The only discordant note came from a small body of politicians
+identified with that Assembly which both Gomez and the American
+government had declined to recognize, and which Gomez had strongly
+antagonized in the matter of paying off and demobilizing the Cuban army.
+But that opposition to him did not lessen the affection and reverence
+with which the great mass of the Cuban people regarded the grim and grey
+old champion of their wars. It is to be recorded, too, that while he was
+thus being received by the people, his own attitude toward them was no
+less significant. At every place through which he passed on his journey
+to Havana, and at every gathering at which he was entertained in that
+city, he spoke to the people, tersely and vigorously, as became a
+soldier; exhorting them to forget<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_150" id="page_150">{150}</a></span> the differences of the past, even
+their righteous wrath against the Spaniards, and to unite and work
+together harmoniously and efficiently to complete in peace the great
+task for Cuba's welfare which had so far been advanced in war.</p>
+
+<p>The result, at least for a time, was marvellous. Cuban and Spaniard,
+Revolutionist, Autonomist and Constitutionalist, for a time joined
+hands. At one of the chief public receptions given to Gomez in Havana,
+the flags of Cuba, of the United States, and of Spain were equally
+displayed, and were all three greeted with applause. That spirit did
+not, it is true, always thereafter prevail. But it was of incalculable
+profit to Cuba to have it so strongly aroused and manifested at that
+crucial period in her history.</p>
+
+<p>During the administration of General Brooke the police force of Havana
+was completely reorganized, with the assistance of John B. McCullagh,
+formerly Superintendent of Police in New York. This was done as promptly
+as possible after the installation of American rule, and by the
+beginning of March, 1899, the peace and security of the Cuban capital
+were safeguarded by an admirable uniformed force of about a thousand
+men. Under the command of General Mario G. Menocal as Chief this body of
+men rendered Havana as efficient service, probably, as that in any
+American city of similar size. Police work in Havana, it should be
+understood, differs considerably from that in cities of the United
+States, for the reason that drunkenness and its attendant disorder and
+petty brawls are substantially unknown in the Cuban metropolis, and
+therefore one of the most prolific causes of arrests in American cities
+is there non-existent.</p>
+
+<p>When the American administration took charge of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_151" id="page_151">{151}</a></span> Cuban affairs it found
+the insular treasury quite empty. The departing Spaniards had seen to
+that. But a careful, honest and thrifty management of finances soon
+provided the island with a good working income. By the first of
+September, 1899, fully $10,000,000 had been received in revenue from
+different sources. Major E. F. Ladd of the United States army was made
+Treasurer and Disbursing Officer of the customs service, and a little
+later he was appointed Auditor and then Treasurer of the island. In
+those capacities he showed admirable efficiency and greatly ingratiated
+himself with the people; ranking as one of the most successful members
+of the American governing staff. His administration was the more
+appreciated by Cubans because of the welcome reform of the taxation
+system which was at that time effected. The old Spanish tax system had
+been abominable, and that of the short-lived Autonomist regime of
+1897-1898 changed it chiefly with the result of adding to the confusion.
+Early in 1899, therefore, radical reforms were undertaken. An order was
+issued on February 10 remitting all taxes due under the old Spanish law
+which had remained unpaid on January 1, with the exception of taxes on
+passengers and freight which had according to custom been collected and
+were held by the railroad companies. All taxes on the principal articles
+of food and fuel were abolished, as were also all municipal taxes on
+imports and exports. These taxes had formerly been very burden-some and
+were a source of much grievance and irritation, and their abolition was
+very gratifying to the Cuban people, who began to appreciate what it
+meant to have a government whose prime object was to serve them and not
+to plunder them.</p>
+
+<p>One tax was greatly increased, namely, the excise tax upon all alcoholic
+liquors, and this was made a part of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_152" id="page_152">{152}</a></span> the revenue of the municipalities
+instead of the state, thus compensating the municipalities for the loss
+of the tax on merchandise. Despite the temperate habits of the Cuban
+people, the very general consumption of some form of alcoholic drink
+made this impost amount to a considerable sum.</p>
+
+<p>A matter which urgently needed reform, but which unfortunately was
+reformed with more zeal than diplomacy, caused much dissension in that
+first year of American administration. That was the marriage law. Under
+Spanish government marriage was held to be exclusively a function,
+indeed, a sacrament, of the Roman Catholic church, and could not legally
+be performed by any other authority; though in later years there had
+been made a provision for the civil marriage of non-Catholics. But since
+to resort to the latter meant to incur a certain social reproach, few
+couples ever availed themselves of it. Of course loyal members of the
+church could not do so, the religious ceremony being imperative for
+them.</p>
+
+<p>With the departure of the Spanish government from the island a complete
+separation of church and state occurred, and it was held imperative to
+provide a new law of marriage. The old system had become odious, it may
+be explained, because of the large fees which many ecclesiastics charged
+for performance of the ceremony, and because, on account of those fees,
+many couples among the poorer elements of the population, decided to
+dispense with the marriage ceremony altogether; a practice not conducive
+to social order, and frequently causing serious embarrassment and
+litigation over the inheritance of property. Unfortunately in trying to
+reform the system the new government went too far toward the opposite
+extreme. The author of the new law was Senor Jose Antonio Gonzalez
+Lanuza, the Secretary of Justice, and it<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_153" id="page_153">{153}</a></span> made civil marriage
+compulsory, though it permitted a supplementary religious ceremony at
+the pleasure of the parties. "Hereafter," it said, "only civil marriages
+shall be legally valid." It fixed the legal fee for marriages at one
+dollar.</p>
+
+<p>The intention of the law was doubtless good, and it might be argued that
+it should not have caused offence, since it did not interfere with
+religious marriage ceremonies. There is no doubt that it was very
+strongly favored by a large part of the Cuban nation. When it was
+proposed to repeal or to modify it materially the vast majority of
+municipal governments in the island, all of the judges of the Supreme
+Court, a majority of the judges of first instance, and half of the
+Provincial Governors, urged its retention unchanged. The clergy of the
+Roman Catholic church, however, opposed it vigorously and persistently,
+and it was finally deemed desirable to modify it so as to make either
+civil or religious marriage valid. The objection to it had been, of
+course, that by invalidating religious marriages it cast a certain slur
+upon the church. It is interesting to recall, however, that the law in
+its objectionable form was the work of a Cuban jurist, while in its
+amended and acceptable form it was the work of an American and conformed
+with the law in the United States, where civil and religious marriage
+ceremonies are equally legal and valid.</p>
+
+<p>In order to protect the island against undue exploitation by American
+speculators and "promoters," a law of the American Congress in February,
+1899, forbade the granting of franchises or concessions of any kind
+during the period of American occupation and control. It was not
+pretended that there was no need of any such grants, but it was
+prudently contended that they should wait until the Cubans themselves
+had full control of the insular<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_154" id="page_154">{154}</a></span> government. The wisdom of this was
+apparent, and the law was generally approved, even by those who most
+clearly saw the desirability of developing the resources and industries
+of the island by the building of railroads, tramways, telegraph lines,
+etc. It was better for these to wait for a year or two than to incur the
+suspicion that an American administration had granted Cuban franchises
+to American promoters on terms which a Cuban government would not have
+approved.</p>
+
+<p>A most important enterprise during the Brooke administration was the
+taking of a thorough census of the island. This was ordered by President
+McKinley on August 17, 1899, and was taken early in the ensuing fall.
+The island was divided into 1,607 enumeration districts, and the work of
+canvassing was given chiefly to Cubans. Among the canvassers were 142
+women; the first women ever employed in government work in Cuba. The
+census was not a mere enumeration, but comprised a multiplicity of
+details concerning the age, nativity, citizenship, conjugal condition,
+literacy, etc., of the people, and also concerning agriculture and the
+other occupations in which they were engaged. The populations of the
+provinces were as follows, compared with the figures of the census of
+1887:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="2" summary=""
+class="sml">
+<tr><th align="center">Provinces</th><th align="center">1899</th><th align="center">1887</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pinar del Rio</td><td align="right">173,082</td><td align="right">225,891</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Havana</td><td align="right">424,811</td><td align="right">451,928</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Matanzas</td><td align="right">202,462</td><td align="right">259,578</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Santa Clara</td><td align="right">356,537</td><td align="right">354,122</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Camaguey</td><td align="right">88,237</td><td align="right">67,789</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Oriente</td><td align="right">327,716</td><td align="right">272,379</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Totals</td><td align="right" class="tp">1,572,845</td><td align="right" class="tp">1,631,687</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>These figures are significant. There should, of course, have been a
+considerable increase in population in those twelve years. Instead,
+there was a considerable decrease.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_155" id="page_155">{155}</a></span> The entire number of normal
+increase, plus the 58,842 actual decrease, may be taken as representing
+the loss through the war. It will also be observed that the loss of
+population was in the three western provinces, where the Spanish most
+held sway during the war, and that there was no loss but a considerable
+increase in the three eastern provinces, which were largely controlled
+by the Cubans. The population by sexes and race was as follows:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="2" summary="SEX-RACE"
+class="sml">
+<tr><td align="left">Male</td><td align="right">815,205</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Female</td><td align="right">757,592</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Native white</td><td align="right">910,299</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Foreign white &nbsp;</td><td align="right">142,098</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Negro</td><td align="right">234,738</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mixed</td><td align="right">270,805</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chinese</td><td align="right">14,857</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The report of citizenship was:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="2" summary="CITIZENSHIP"
+class="sml">
+<tr><td align="left">Cuban</td><td align="right">1,296,367</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Spanish</td><td align="right">20,478</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">In suspense &nbsp;</td><td align="right">175,811</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Other aliens</td><td align="right">79,525</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Unknown</td><td align="right">616</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The total number of illegitimate children, of all ages, was 185,030; a
+discreditably high number, attributed largely to the former expensive
+marriage system. The statistics of education were distressing. The
+number of children under ten years of age who were attending or had
+attended school was only 40,559, and the number who had not attended was
+316,428. The number of persons ten years old and over who could read and
+write<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_156" id="page_156">{156}</a></span> was only 443,670; those who could neither read nor write were
+690,565&mdash;an appalling proportion of illiteracy, reflecting most
+discreditably upon the Spanish government of the island. The number of
+persons of "superior education" in the whole island was only 19,158.</p>
+
+<p>Nor were the statistics of industry much more satisfactory. The
+following were the totals for the island:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="2" summary="INDUSTRY"
+class="sml">
+<tr><td align="left">Agriculture, fisheries and mining &nbsp;</td><td align="right">299,197</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Trade and transportation</td><td align="right">79,427</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Manufactures and mechanics</td><td align="right">93,074</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Professional</td><td align="right">8,736</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Domestic and personal</td><td align="right">141,936</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">No gainful occupation</td><td align="right">950,467</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Another supremely important measure which was adopted during the closing
+weeks of General Brooke's administration, though its complete working
+out was reserved for his successor, was suggested by some of the census
+figures which we have just quoted. It was realized that the need of
+education was of all Cuban popular needs the most urgent. Accordingly on
+November 2, 1899, General Brooke ordered the organization of a new
+bureau in the Department of Justice and Public Instruction, at the head
+of which should be a Superintendent of Schools. The first incumbent of
+that office was Alexis E. Frye, who drafted another order, promulgated
+by General Brooke on December 6 and practically constituting a new
+school law for Cuba. It provided for the formation of Boards of
+Education and the opening of primary and grammar schools in all
+communities by December 11, 1899, or as soon thereafter as possible.
+That was the beginning of the popular education of the Cuban people.</p>
+
+<p>After these things, General Brooke was on December<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_157" id="page_157">{157}</a></span> 20 relieved of his
+command in Cuba. He issued a brief farewell proclamation to the people,
+calling attention to the progress which had been made in good
+government, and toward complete self-government and independence; every
+word of which was amply justified by facts. He was a soldier rather than
+an administrator, and he was nearing the age of retirement from active
+service. His administration had been beset with difficulties; it had
+made some mistakes, and it had done much good work. He was charged by
+some with having entrusted the powers of government too largely to his
+Cuban Secretaries; while others commended him for that very
+circumstance. His inclination was toward a bureaucracy, but it was a
+Cuban and not an alien bureaucracy. It cannot be denied that he laid
+much of the foundation of subsequent achievements and of successful
+Cuban government. It was under his governorship that General Ludlow
+cleansed the city of Havana, that the Customs service and the treasury
+were reorganized, and that provision was made for a comprehensive system
+of public schools.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_158" id="page_158">{158}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h3>
+
+<p>General Brooke was succeeded by General Leonard Wood. He had also in a
+measure been preceded by him. General Wood had at Santiago been the real
+pioneer in American administration in Cuba. He laid the first
+foundations there. General Brooke at Havana enlarged upon those
+foundations. Then came General Wood to Havana to complete the structure.
+It was with the fame and prestige of his great victory over pestilence
+at Santiago, and of all his other achievements in Oriente, that he came
+to Havana on December 20, 1899, to be Military Governor of all Cuba. He
+was received not alone with the fullest measure of formal ceremony and
+official salutation, from both Cubans and Americans, but also with such
+an outpouring of popular welcome as few men have received anywhere and
+as nobody save perhaps Maximo Gomez had ever received at Havana. The
+attitude and sentiment of the people toward him were well expressed by
+an editorial writer in the Havana journal <i>La Lucha</i>, who said:</p>
+
+<p class="c caption">LEONARD WOOD</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Soldier, scientist, statesman, administrator, it has been the fortune of
+Leonard Wood to render invaluable services to two nations. Born at
+Winchester, New Hampshire, on October 9, 1860, and educated in medicine
+at Harvard University, he became first a surgeon and then an officer of
+the United States army. After a brilliant career in Indian fighting in
+the Southwest he went to Cuba in 1898 as colonel of the cavalry regiment
+of &quot;Rough Riders&quot; and did notable work in the battles around Santiago.
+He was Military Governor of Santiago and Oriente, and later Military
+Governor of Cuba, in which places he transformed the sanitary, economic
+and political conditions of the island, and ushered it into its career
+of independent self-government. Since then he has served the United
+States with great distinction in the Philippines, and as the foremost
+officer of the army at home; not the least of his benefactions to the
+nation being his great campaign of education and awakening in
+preparation for what he saw to be America&#39;s inevitable participation in
+the World War.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 369px;">
+<a href="images/i025.png">
+<img src="images/i025_sml.png" width="369" height="573" alt="LEONARD WOOD
+
+Soldier, scientist, statesman, administrator, it has been the fortune of
+Leonard Wood to render invaluable services to two nations. Born at
+Winchester, New Hampshire, on October 9, 1860, and educated in medicine
+at Harvard University, he became first a surgeon and then an officer of
+the United States army. After a brilliant career in Indian fighting in
+the Southwest he went to Cuba in 1898 as colonel of the cavalry regiment
+of &quot;Rough Riders&quot; and did notable work in the battles around Santiago.
+He was Military Governor of Santiago and Oriente, and later Military
+Governor of Cuba, in which places he transformed the sanitary, economic
+and political conditions of the island, and ushered it into its career
+of independent self-government. Since then he has served the United
+States with great distinction in the Philippines, and as the foremost
+officer of the army at home; not the least of his benefactions to the
+nation being his great campaign of education and awakening in
+preparation for what he saw to be America&#39;s inevitable participation in
+the World War." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p>"General Wood has shown great capacity for government and management
+while in command of the eastern end of the island. In that mountainous
+and rugged district, where passions and impulsive characters
+predominate, in that country where a strong rebellious spirit has been
+agitated for a long time, General Wood knew how to calm that spirit, how
+to establish moral peace and to cheer the hearts of all. He has been
+seen to practise a policy of harmony and ample liberty. We saw him,
+first<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_159" id="page_159">{159}</a></span> of all, promulgate the habeas corpus in the province he
+commanded, and he decreed that constitutional measure when the embers of
+the fire of domestic and international war were still smoking. In
+material things, General Wood cleansed the eastern cities and
+embellished them.... His government will prepare us for a broader life
+and give us the blessings of peace and liberty. As a man of clear mind
+and solid education, he will know how to study and to solve skilfully
+the economic and political problems that circumstances may introduce
+into the country. As he is a man of energy, he will be able to withstand
+every unhealthy influence. His policy will be eminently liberal, but at
+the same time it will be a guarantee for all who labor and produce. He
+will not associate himself with agitators but with statesmen."</p>
+
+<p>Such was the just estimate which Cuba placed upon her new Governor. Of
+his actual reception the same journal that we have quoted said:
+"Although promising nothing, he speaks volumes by his quiet democratic
+manner of taking charge of affairs. He has captivated everyone."</p>
+
+<p>The new Governor was welcomed on his arrival at Havana by an
+extraordinary and quite unprecedented gathering of representative men
+from all parts of the island; such a gathering as Havana had never seen
+before. He promptly entered into the fullest possible conference with
+them, to learn their views and to impart his own to them, and as a
+result of his intercourse with them he was able, on January 1, 1900, to
+gather about himself a noteworthy Cabinet, commanding in an exceptional
+measure the confidence of the Cuban people. It was thus composed:</p>
+
+<p class="scrt">
+Secretary of State and Government, Diego Tamayo.<br />
+Secretary of the Treasury, Jose Enrique Varona.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_160" id="page_160">{160}</a></span><br />
+Secretary of Justice, Louis Estevez.<br />
+Secretary of Public Works, Jose Ramon Villalon.<br />
+Secretary of Education, Juan Bautista Barreiro.<br />
+Secretary of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, Ruiz Rivera.</p>
+
+<p>The selection of these men commanded the cordial approval of the Cuban
+people. Said <i>La Lucha</i>: "The new Cabinet contains men whose honest
+names are guarantees that the moral and material interests of the
+country are to be conserved." To this <i>La Patria</i> added: "General Wood
+is obviously imbued with the best intentions. Although the council of
+Cubans convened by him is not an elected body, it does represent the
+wishes of the Cuban people."</p>
+
+<p>It will of course be observed that not one of General Brooke's cabinet
+was retained by General Wood. All were new men. Moreover, he increased
+their number by two, making a separate department of Education instead
+of lumping it with Justice, and making another of Public Works, instead
+of leaving it grouped with Agriculture, Industry and Commerce. This
+latter change was significant of two things. One was the increasing
+amount of actual governmental work that was devolving upon the
+administration. The other was the increased importance which, in General
+Wood's mind, attached to Education and Public Works. He rightly
+conceived them to be the two prime needs of Cuba. The cabinet did not
+remain as thus organized, however, very long. On May 1 Ruiz Rivera
+resigned the Secretaryship of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, and
+was succeeded by Perfecto Lacoste; and Louis Estevez resigned the
+portfolio of Justice and was succeeded by Juan Bautista Barreiro, who in
+turn was succeeded in the Department of Education by Jose Enrique
+Varona, while the last named was succeeded<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_161" id="page_161">{161}</a></span> as Secretary of the Treasury
+by Leopoldo Cancio. Finally on August 11 Senor Barreiro retired
+altogether and was succeeded in the Department of Justice by Miguel
+Gener y Rincon.</p>
+
+<p>We have said that General Brooke was charged with letting his
+administration be controlled by his Secretaries. There was an
+inclination in some quarters to charge General Wood with exactly the
+reverse. He was not autocratic nor domineering. But he was Governor. He
+was the actual as well as the nominal head of the government. Realizing
+that he would be held personally responsible for everything that was
+done,&mdash;as he was,&mdash;he rightly determined to exercise his authority in
+everything that was done. Then, if he was blamed, he would not be blamed
+for the fault of somebody else.</p>
+
+<p>The significance which we have attributed to his Cabinet enlargement was
+promptly demonstrated. Of the three subjects to which he most devoted
+his attention, public education came first. He had deemed it worthy of a
+Cabinet Department all for itself. He at once set about organizing that
+department <i>de novo</i>. Mr. Frye had done good work as Superintendent of
+Schools; but he had also done much of dubious merit. He had organized
+too many schools too rapidly, and with too little system. Perhaps that
+was partly the fault of the law, which bade him on December 6 to get
+them all going by December 11, if possible. But then, he was responsible
+for the law. He opened hundreds of schools. But most of them were pretty
+poor affairs, with no proper text-books, no desks, no equipment and
+supplies; they were not graded nor classified, and they were conducted
+without proper system or order.</p>
+
+<p>Such schools General Wood regarded as of little value, and he took
+prompt measures, though at the cost of a<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_162" id="page_162">{162}</a></span> somewhat acrimonious
+controversy with Mr. Frye, to improve the system under which they were
+being created. On January 24 he issued an order creating a Board of
+Superintendents of Schools, instead of leaving the work to one man, and
+he appointed as its members Mr. Frye, Esteban Borrero Echeverria, and
+Lincoln de Zayas. The Board continued to act under the law of December
+6, but applied it in a somewhat different way, with impressive results.
+It opened a great many more schools than Mr. Frye had done, and saw to
+it that they were better equipped than his had been. Within six months
+the number of schools was increased from 635 to 3,313. Indeed, on March
+3 it was found necessary to put on brakes, by issuing an order that no
+more new schools should be opened for the present. That year more than
+$4,000,000, or nearly a fourth of the total revenue of Cuba, was spent
+on public schools.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 147px;">
+<a href="images/i026.png">
+<img src="images/i026_sml.png" width="147" height="180" alt="EVELIO RODRIGUEZ LENDIAN
+
+One of the foremost educators of Cuba, Dr. Evelio Rodriguez Lendian, was
+born at Guanabacoa in 1860, and was educated at the University of
+Havana, where he is Professor of History and Dean of the Faculty of
+Science and Letters. He is also President of the Academy of History, and
+Director of the Athenaeum. He has written a number of books and has
+great repute as a public speaker." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p class="c caption">EVELIO RODRIGUEZ LENDIAN</p>
+
+<p class="caption">One of the foremost educators of Cuba, Dr. Evelio Rodriguez Lendian, was
+born at Guanabacoa in 1860, and was educated at the University of
+Havana, where he is Professor of History and Dean of the Faculty of
+Science and Letters. He is also President of the Academy of History, and
+Director of the Athenaeum. He has written a number of books and has
+great repute as a public speaker.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to primary and grammar schools, which were made universal,
+trade schools of various kinds were established. In the principal
+cities, especially in Havana, there were free schools of stenography and
+type-writing. These latter were designed partly to supply a competent
+and up-to-date clerical force to the various government offices, and
+partly to promote modern business methods in private concerns. Of course
+they provided<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_163" id="page_163">{163}</a></span> profitable occupation to a large number of persons who
+otherwise might have been out of employment. The creation of the public
+schools also provided employment for several thousand persons, as
+teachers. These were almost entirely Cubans and, as in the United
+States, were very largely young women. Considering the paucity of
+numbers of those reported by the census as possessing "superior
+education" it was extraordinary that a sufficient staff of teachers
+could be obtained. Normal schools for the training of teachers in modern
+methods of education were established, and were largely attended by
+young Cubans eager to participate in the work of advancing the
+intellectual interests and indeed also the social and industrial
+interests of their country.</p>
+
+<p>An admirable impetus, of inestimable value, was given to the work of
+Cuban education in 1900 when Harvard University, General Wood's alma
+mater, invited Cuban teachers to the number of a thousand to spend the
+summer at that institution, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where a great
+summer school in pedagogy and other sciences was conducted. Recognizing
+the immense value of such a visit from many points of view, the American
+administration in Cuba agreed to pay each teacher one month's salary for
+the purpose of the excursion, and to provide transportation from their
+homes to Havana or other convenient ports, whence their further travel
+was provided for by the Quartermaster's Department of the United States.
+On arriving at Cambridge they were received and entertained during their
+stay by a committee specially appointed by Harvard. They were thus
+enabled to have without cost an extended and singularly interesting and
+enjoyable excursion, such as many of them had never had before, to
+receive stimulus, suggestion and instruction in the most approved
+methods of education<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_164" id="page_164">{164}</a></span> and school management, and&mdash;perhaps most important
+of all&mdash;to come into direct touch with the people and institutions of
+the great northern republic with which their own country had and was
+destined always to have the closest of relations.</p>
+
+<p>The school system of the island was strictly removed from politics, both
+local and general, and was taken from the control of the municipalities
+and placed directly and solely under that of the national government.
+Thus was assured a fine degree of uniformity in the quality and methods
+of teaching. Thus also the poorer districts, which could with difficulty
+have maintained any kind of schools at all, were enabled to have as good
+service as the richest communities. The salaries paid to teachers were
+good, comparing favorably with those paid in the United States.</p>
+
+<p class="c caption">THE UNIVERSITY OF HAVANA</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Cuba is enviably distinguished for providing not only elementary but
+higher education, even of the best university grade, practically without
+cost to the children of her citizens. The University of Havana, which is
+the crown of the whole educational system of the country, was founded in
+1728, and formerly was housed in the old convent of Santo Domingo. But
+in 1900 under the American administration of General Leonard Wood, it
+was removed to the fine site of the former Pirotecnica Militar, near El
+Principe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 614px;">
+<a href="images/i027.png">
+<img src="images/i027_sml.png" width="614" height="368" alt="THE UNIVERSITY OF HAVANA
+
+Cuba is enviably distinguished for providing not only elementary but
+higher education, even of the best university grade, practically without
+cost to the children of her citizens. The University of Havana, which is
+the crown of the whole educational system of the country, was founded in
+1728, and formerly was housed in the old convent of Santo Domingo. But
+in 1900 under the American administration of General Leonard Wood, it
+was removed to the fine site of the former Pirotecnica Militar, near El
+Principe." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p>There was, it must be confessed, some criticism of this elaborate and
+expensive educational establishment. It was urged by some that
+approximately one-fourth was entirely too large a proportion of the
+national revenue to devote to this purpose, and that it would be to the
+greater benefit of the island to spend less money on schools and more on
+public works of various kinds. It was also pointed out that the average
+6,
+3, and
+in the Southern States, with which it was assumed that Cuba was properly
+to be compared, it was less than $9. Of course there was involved in
+these criticisms a triple fallacy. One was the notion that public works
+were neglected or sacrificed for the schools. That, as we shall see, was
+not so; a comparably great system of such works proceeding <i>pari passu</i>
+with the development of the school system. Another was, that the cost
+was too high. Naturally<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_165" id="page_165">{165}</a></span> the cost was much higher in the first year
+than it would be after the system was well established. It was in fact
+much lower than in those parts of the United States where the schools
+were efficient and the educational system was creditable. The third
+fallacy was in thinking that Cuba was to be compared with the Southern
+States, the backward condition of whose school systems had long been
+regarded as a reproach and a disgrace. In endowing Cuba with a school
+system it would have been indecent for the United States to take for the
+standard its own poorest and most discreditable systems. It was
+necessary that it should take rather the best that it had as an example
+to be emulated. It may be added that these criticisms were made chiefly
+by General Wood's American critics, and by those who ignorantly and
+arrogantly regarded Cuba as an inferior country for which an inferior
+system was good enough. The Cubans themselves with practical unanimity
+gave to the work their hearty and grateful approval.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 157px;">
+<a href="images/i028.png">
+<img src="images/i028_sml.png" width="157" height="213" alt="ANTONIO SANCHEZ DE BUSTAMENTE
+
+One of the most eminent jurists and orators of Cuba, Dr. Antonio Sanchez
+de Bustamente, was born on April 13, 1865, and was educated at the
+University of Havana. He is a Senator, President of the Cuban Society of
+International Law; President of the National Academy of Arts and
+Letters; Dean of the Havana College of Lawyers, and Professor of
+International, Public and Private Law in the University of Havana." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p class="c caption">ANTONIO SANCHEZ DE BUSTAMENTE</p>
+
+<p class="caption">
+
+One of the most eminent jurists and orators of Cuba, Dr. Antonio Sanchez
+de Bustamente, was born on April 13, 1865, and was educated at the
+University of Havana. He is a Senator, President of the Cuban Society of
+International Law; President of the National Academy of Arts and
+Letters; Dean of the Havana College of Lawyers, and Professor of
+International, Public and Private Law in the University of Havana.</p>
+
+<p>There was other work to do for the children of Cuba beside that of the
+ordinary schools. The war had been disastrous to domesticity. Thousands
+of homes had been entirely destroyed, the parents slain, the houses
+burned, the children left to wander as waifs. In that<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_166" id="page_166">{166}</a></span> genial clime,
+amid that profusion of the fruits of nature, these orphans did not
+necessarily starve or perish. Many of them lived practically as wild
+creatures of the woods. Many of them also were cared for in some fashion
+by the families whose homes had not been destroyed, for it was not in
+the Cuban heart, even the most poverty-stricken, to turn a suppliant
+from the door. But it was not fitting that these children should be left
+as waifs and charges upon the people. Under General Brooke's
+administration an excellent Department of Charities was organized, which
+gathered up and cared for thousands of them, and this work was continued
+during General Wood's administration. The children were partly placed in
+families which were willing to receive them, or in asylums and schools.
+Seeing that there was among them a certain proportion of defectives and
+delinquents, and that many were in need of useful training, correctional
+and industrial schools for both boys and girls were opened, and did
+admirable work.</p>
+
+<p>The second object of General Wood's special interest was that of public
+works. Concerning that, two salient facts must be borne in mind. One is,
+that the prohibition of franchises and concessions during the American
+occupation materially militated against the making of many improvements;
+although it was on the whole a desirable restriction. The other is that
+many of the most urgent public works during the first year or two were
+those connected with sanitation and the renovation of public buildings,
+prisons, etc. During the first year of the intervention, under General
+Brooke, heroic work was done by General Ludlow in removing from the
+streets of Havana the accumulated filth of years. But that was only a
+beginning. In the next two years the work had to be continued and
+extended to every city and town on<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_167" id="page_167">{167}</a></span> the island. Water supplies had to be
+provided, and sewer systems. Above all, there had to be an extensive,
+persistent and, in the very nature of the case expensive campaign
+against yellow fever and malaria, the two traditional scourges of Cuba.
+To these works General Wood addressed himself with efficient energy, and
+to them he devoted an appropriate proportion of the public funds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 402px;">
+<a href="images/i029.png">
+<img src="images/i029_sml.png" width="402" height="348" alt="ALMENDARES RIVER, HAVANA" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">ALMENDARES RIVER, HAVANA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We have seen that the total cost of the schools in 1900 was more than
+$4,000,000. But as a considerable part of this was non-recurring expense
+for buildings, etc., the actual cost of maintenance was much less. The
+following figures show the apportionment of expenditures:<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_168" id="page_168">{168}</a></span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="2" summary="APPORTIONMENT"
+class="sml">
+<tr><td align="left">For Education, non-recurring</td><td align="right">$337,460</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">For Education, maintenance</td><td align="right">3,672,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">Total for school system</td><td align="right" class="tp">$4,009,460</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">For Public Works construction &nbsp; &nbsp;</td><td align="right">$1,786,700</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">For Sanitation</td><td align="right">3,029,500</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">Total for Public Works</td><td align="right" class="tp">$4,816,200</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Despite the complaints of American critics that too much money was spent
+on schools in proportion to other things, therefore, it appears that
+much less was spent on them than on public works. Perhaps such
+complaints would have been less numerous and less bitter if General Wood
+had been willing or able to give profitable contracts and franchises to
+American speculators.</p>
+
+<p>Much attention was paid to port improvements, naturally, in order to
+facilitate and promote the commerce which was essential to the
+prosperity of the island. The lighthouse service was placed under the
+most competent charge of General Mario G. Menocal, who conducted it with
+approved efficiency until the needs of his personal affairs compelled
+him to retire from public office. A thoroughly organized postal service
+was established throughout the island and was so well managed that by
+the end of the period of intervention it was within ten per cent. of
+being self supporting, or as near to self supporting as that of the
+United States had generally been. This was certainly a remarkable
+achievement in view of the fact that so large a proportion of Cubans
+were illiterate and therefore unable to make use of postal facilities.</p>
+
+<p>For general purposes of public works the island was divided into six
+districts. At the head of each district<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_169" id="page_169">{169}</a></span> was a Chief Superintendent of
+Public Works, with a staff of assistants. The principal undertakings,
+apart from sanitation, were the construction of roads and the building
+of bridges and culverts, and these were judiciously planned so as to
+unite the various districts of the island with improved highways, and to
+open up rich agricultural regions with transportation facilities.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 374px;">
+<a href="images/i031.png">
+<img src="images/i031_sml.png" width="374" height="307" alt="OLD TIME WATER MILL, HAVANA PROVINCE" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">OLD TIME WATER MILL, HAVANA PROVINCE</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>These undertakings involved General Wood in the disposition of an
+unpleasant controversy which had been left over from General Brooke's
+administration, which in turn had received it from the old Spanish
+government. In 1894 the Spanish authorities of Havana decided to have
+that city largely repaved and re-sewered, and asked an American firm
+somewhat noted for its political influence, that of Michael J. Dady &amp;
+Co., of Brooklyn, New York, to submit plans. A year later it<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_170" id="page_170">{170}</a></span> accepted
+some of this firm's proposals, payment for the work to be made in bonds
+of the City of Havana. But the oncoming of the war caused postponement
+of the project, and it was not until December, 1898, just before the
+Spanish evacuation, that the corporation of Havana finally accepted the
+proposals and authorized the issue of bonds. The American authorities,
+however, who were about to take over the control of the city, protested
+against being thus saddled with a scheme of Spanish making, and
+accordingly the last Spanish Governor, General Castellanos, very
+properly declined to approve and sign the ordinance; declaring that it
+and all similar projects, which would have to be executed under American
+control, should await American approval.</p>
+
+<p>A few days later the transfer of sovereignty occurred, and General
+Ludlow, as Governor of Havana, decided to set aside the Dady proposals
+altogether and to proceed with the work himself. This was doubtless an
+economical and logical course to pursue. But under the old Spanish law,
+which was still in force, Dady &amp; Co. claimed to have certain rights in
+the matter. The matter remained in suspense for the whole of General
+Brooke's administration, with a succession of engineers from the United
+States making and remaking plans for the work and with Dady &amp; Co.'s
+interests undecided. Apparently the United States government&mdash;for the
+whole matter was controlled by the Engineering Bureau of the War
+Department at Washington&mdash;was reluctant to challenge Dady &amp; Co. to a
+trial of their claims in court, and was unwilling to seek a compromise
+with them, but was seeking by interminable postponements, changes of
+plan and delays to tire them out and induce them voluntarily to
+withdraw. But that was something which that astute and resolute
+corporation showed no inclination to do.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_171" id="page_171">{171}</a></span> Meanwhile very important
+public works were at a stand-still.</p>
+
+<p>This was an intolerable state of affairs, and General Wood in the spring
+of 1901 determined to end it after the manner of Alexander's disposition
+50,000 in satisfaction of
+their claims, which was possibly less than the courts would have awarded
+them if the case had been carried before them, and then ordered bids to
+be solicited for the doing of the work. The only bid received was from
+Dady &amp; Co., and the Washington authorities refused to sanction
+acceptance of it on the ground that it was too high. The plans were
+altered and new bids solicited, and the Havana Ayuntamiento voted to
+award the contract to the lowest bidders, McGivney &amp; Rokeby. But before
+the contract was closed Dady &amp; Co. on a plea of having misunderstood the
+plans offered a reduction of their bid below that of their competitors;
+whereupon the Ayuntamiento reconsidered its vote and ordered the
+contract to be made with Dady &amp; Co. But the Washington authorities
+refused to sanction this change, apparently being averse to letting Dady
+&amp; Co. have the job at any figure, and the result was that the whole
+matter remained at a deadlock until after the end of the American
+occupation.</p>
+
+<p>From some points of view the greatest achievement of General Wood's
+administration was that of the conquest of disease, and it was one in
+which he as a physician and man of science took peculiar interest. When
+he fought and temporarily overcame yellow fever at Santiago, there was
+no application of the immortal theory of Dr. Finlay, but it was supposed
+that the pestilence spontaneously arose from filth. The same was true of
+General Ludlow's subsequent cleansing of Havana; he supposing that<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_172" id="page_172">{172}</a></span> by
+the removal of filth the sources of infection would be removed. But when
+he observed that the dreaded disease occurred where there was no filth,
+General Wood concluded that it must have another source, and decided to
+give Dr. Finlay's theory a practical test. In 1900 therefore a medical
+commission was formed, composed of Drs. Walter Reed, U. S. A., James
+Carroll, Aristides Agramonte, and Jesse W. Lazear, who, with the heroic
+cooperation of soldiers of the United States army, who were willing to
+risk their lives in experiments for the welfare of humanity, undertook
+an elaborate series of demonstrations which were epochal in the history
+not alone of Cuba but also of the whole world.</p>
+
+<p>Reed took the initiative. He applied to General Wood for permission to
+undertake the work, including the conducting of experiments on persons
+who were not immune against the fever, which of course was a most
+perilous venture. He also asked for a considerable sum of money with
+which to reward volunteers who would thus submit themselves to deadly
+peril. General Wood did not hesitate for a moment. He granted the
+permission, appropriated the money, and entered into the momentous
+enterprise with helpful sympathy and untiring zeal.</p>
+
+<p class="c caption">CARLOS J. FINLAY</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Born at Camaguey on December 3, 1833, of English parents, and dying on
+August 20, 1915, Dr. Carlos J. Finlay left a name which greatly adorns
+the science of Cuba and which occupied a conspicuous place on the roster
+of the benefactors of humanity. He was educated in France and at the
+Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia, and rose to eminence in his
+profession. He first of all men propounded the theory that Stegomiya
+fasciata mosquito was the active and sole agent in the communication of
+yellow fever, and personally, under the Governorship of Leonard Wood,
+demonstrated the correctness of that theory and thus freed Cuba from its
+most dreaded pestilence and blazed the way for a like achievement in all
+other lands. For this epochal service to the world many foreign
+governments bestowed distinctions and decorations upon him. Though
+technically retaining the British citizenship with which his father
+endowed him, he devoted his life to Cuba and filled with high efficiency
+the place of chief of the Bureau of Sanitation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
+<a href="images/i032.png">
+<img src="images/i032_sml.png" width="360" height="550" alt="CARLOS J. FINLAY
+
+Born at Camaguey on December 3, 1833, of English parents, and dying on
+August 20, 1915, Dr. Carlos J. Finlay left a name which greatly adorns
+the science of Cuba and which occupied a conspicuous place on the roster
+of the benefactors of humanity. He was educated in France and at the
+Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia, and rose to eminence in his
+profession. He first of all men propounded the theory that Stegomiya
+fasciata mosquito was the active and sole agent in the communication of
+yellow fever, and personally, under the Governorship of Leonard Wood,
+demonstrated the correctness of that theory and thus freed Cuba from its
+most dreaded pestilence and blazed the way for a like achievement in all
+other lands. For this epochal service to the world many foreign
+governments bestowed distinctions and decorations upon him. Though
+technically retaining the British citizenship with which his father
+endowed him, he devoted his life to Cuba and filled with high efficiency
+the place of chief of the Bureau of Sanitation." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p>The scene of the drama&mdash;for it was one of the most dramatic and heroic
+performances in human history&mdash;was Camp Lazear, fittingly named for the
+brave man who was a martyr to the cause of health, a few miles from
+Quemados, in the outskirts of Havana. Before the work at the camp was
+begun, however, two experiments were made by members of the commission,
+who thus demonstrated their personal readiness to incur any peril which
+might confront the volunteers for whom they were calling. Dr. Carroll
+was first. He deliberately caused himself to be bitten by a mosquito
+which twelve days before had<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_173" id="page_173">{173}</a></span> gorged itself with the blood of a
+yellow fever patient. Note that he did this with the expectation, indeed
+with the hope, that he would thus be infected with one of the deadliest
+of diseases. He sought to prove not that there was no danger in a
+mosquito bite, but on the contrary that there was the greatest possible
+danger. And his anticipations were fully realized. In due time after the
+bite he was stricken with yellow fever in a particularly severe form;
+from which, however, he happily recovered.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Lazear came next. At about the same time with Carroll he made a
+similar experiment upon himself. Apparently the insect by which he
+caused himself to be bitten had not itself been infected. At any rate
+Lazear did not develop the disease. At this he was disappointed, and he
+determined to expose himself again. Accordingly he was thoroughly bitten
+by another mosquito, in the yellow fever ward of the hospital. He noted
+the fact and all its results most carefully, as though he had been
+experimenting upon some inanimate object. In due time the disease
+manifested itself in its most malignant form. Everything possible was of
+course done for him, but in vain. He died of the disease which he had
+voluntarily contracted for the sake of saving others from it; one of the
+world's great martyrs to the cause not merely of science but of
+humanity.</p>
+
+<p>So Camp Lazear was founded and was named after this hero. There were
+erected two large frame buildings, one for infected mosquitoes and one
+for infected clothing. The mosquito building was divided into two parts
+by a permanent wirecloth partition, impervious to even the smallest
+mosquito, but of course permitting free circulation of air. All the
+windows and doors were securely screened in like manner, so that it was
+impossible<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_174" id="page_174">{174}</a></span> for mosquitoes to pass in or out. This building was
+ventilated in the most thorough manner. Three men entered it and lived
+there for a fortnight. One of them entered the compartment which was
+infested with fever-infected mosquitoes, and was bitten by them. The
+others remained in the other compartment which was free from mosquitoes
+but through which the same air circulated and in which all other
+conditions were identical with those in the insect room. The result was
+that the man who was bitten developed the fever, while the others,
+though fully as susceptible to it as he, showed no signs of it. Such was
+the convincing demonstration of the mosquito house.</p>
+
+<p>The clothing building was kept free from mosquitoes, but was well
+stocked with the clothing and bedding of yellow fever patients. There
+were the beds in which men had died of the fever, soiled with their
+vomit and other excreta. The room was purposely deprived of ventilation,
+so that its air should constantly be heavy with the reek of disease and
+death. Into that indescribably loathsome place brave men entered, and
+there they lived for weeks, wearing the soiled clothing and sleeping in
+the soiled beds of those who had died of the pestilence. But not one of
+them contracted the fever. Not one sickened. All emerged from the
+noisome place at the end of the experiment in perfect health. Such was
+the convincing demonstration of the infected clothing house.</p>
+
+<p>One thing more remained. There was one remote possibility that the men
+who had remained free from the fever, in the noninfected room of the
+mosquito house and in the infected clothing house, were in some
+unsuspected way immune against the disease. To determine this, one of
+each of the companies permitted himself to<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_175" id="page_175">{175}</a></span> be bitten by an infected
+mosquito, with the result that he promptly developed the disease. That
+was the final, complete and crowning demonstration which made Camp
+Lazear forever famous in the annals of humanity. At a single stroke the
+pestilence which had been the haunting horror of the tropics was
+potentially conquered. Dr. Reed proclaimed to the world that the
+specific agent in the causation of yellow fever was a germ or toxin in
+the blood of a patient during only the first three days of the attack,
+which must be transmitted by the bite of a mosquito inflicted upon its
+victim at least twelve days after taking it from the blood of the first
+patient. In no other way was it possible to convey the infection. The
+notion that it was conveyed through the air, in the breath of patients,
+in their soiled clothing or the discharges of their bodies, was
+baseless.</p>
+
+<p>That historic achievement was alone sufficient to make that first year
+of General Wood's administration in Cuba forever gratefully famous. Of
+course the lesson thus learned was at once put into effect with all
+possible thoroughness. War was declared upon the death-dealing mosquito.
+In February, 1901, the campaign was begun by Major William C. Gorgas, U.
+S. A., the chief sanitary officer of Havana. Every case of yellow fever
+was immediately reported, and the patient was rigidly isolated during
+the three days in which his blood was infective. All the rooms of his
+house and the adjacent houses were closed to prevent the escape of
+possible infected mosquitoes, and were then thoroughly fumigated so as
+to destroy every insect within them. In this way the spread of the
+disease was prevented. At the same time measures were taken to
+exterminate the mosquitoes altogether, by depriving them of breeding
+places. It was ascertained that the insect required for propagation<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_176" id="page_176">{176}</a></span> a
+certain amount of stagnant water, in which its eggs might be deposited
+and hatched. Steps were therefore taken to drain or otherwise get rid of
+all pools, or to apply to them a film of oil which would prevent the
+insects from using them, and to screen carefully all vessels and other
+receptacles in which water was necessarily kept. These were the same
+methods which Major&mdash;since Major General&mdash;Gorgas a few years later
+applied with distinguished success for the elimination of yellow fever
+from the Isthmus of Panama and thus rendered possible the construction
+of the interoceanic canal.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 378px;">
+<a href="images/i033.png">
+<img src="images/i033_sml.png" width="378" height="340" alt="STREET IN VEDADO, SUBURB OF HAVANA" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">STREET IN VEDADO, SUBURB OF HAVANA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Begun in February, 1901, this work in Havana was so vigorously and
+skilfully prosecuted that before summer<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_177" id="page_177">{177}</a></span> every case of yellow fever had
+disappeared from that city and its environs. During the summer a few
+cases occurred, but the last of them was disposed of early in September.
+That was the last case of yellow fever to originate in a city which for
+a century and a half had annually been scourged by that disease. Since
+that date the only cases that have been known there have been a few
+which were imported from less sanitary ports&mdash;at one time Havana had to
+establish a fever quarantine against United States ports! Thus the
+island which had long suffered reproach as the especial home of one of
+the deadliest of diseases, as a veritable plague-spot, which American
+life insurance companies forbade their policy holders to visit, became
+noted for its freedom from that scourge and for its general salubrity.</p>
+
+<p>A similar campaign was also conducted against another variety of
+mosquito which, by a like series of experiments, had been proved to be
+the propagating medium of so-called malarial fevers; with highly
+gratifying results.</p>
+
+<p>Among the important reforms effected by General Wood was that of the
+entire system of law and justice. It began with the penal institutions.
+When the Americans assumed control, they found the old Spanish prison
+system still in existence. Most of the prisons were antiquated,
+unsanitary and inhuman structures, to enter which was ominous for the
+body, the mind and the soul. There was no segregation of prisoners
+according to age or degree of criminality. Mere boys, sentenced for some
+slight misdemeanor, were herded in with adult felons of the most
+hardened and incorrigible type. Many had been confined for months, even
+years, awaiting trial. They had been arrested, locked up in default of
+bail, and then practically forgotten. Of these many were<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_178" id="page_178">{178}</a></span> innocent of
+any wrong-doing; while some of those who were probably guilty were kept
+in confinement awaiting trial for a much longer term than they could
+have been sentenced for under the law if they had been tried and found
+guilty.</p>
+
+<p>This shocking state of affairs was vigorously attacked during the first
+year of the American occupation, and it was thoroughly reformed before
+that occupation ended. There was a prompt disposal of all untried cases.
+Where it was possible, the prisoners were at once brought to trial. But
+in many cases there was nobody to appear against them; perhaps through
+lapse of time all the witnesses were dead; and it was impossible to make
+even a show of prosecuting them. Such persons simply had to be set at
+liberty. The system of jurisprudence was so modified as to assure prompt
+trials thereafter. The management of the prisons was made to aim at the
+reformation of the prisoners and not simply at their vindictive
+punishment. In some prisons schools were opened, to give the inmates
+instruction which would conduce to their right living after their
+release. Of course the buildings were renovated as far as possible, so
+as to make them sanitary and as comfortable as prisoners have a right to
+expect their prisons to be.</p>
+
+<p>This led, under General Wood's administration, to a general revision of
+the system of courts, court procedure and jurisprudence. In the first
+year of intervention, indeed, General Ludlow established a Police Court
+in Havana. This was not authorized by Governor Brooke, and was regarded
+as of doubtful legality. Nevertheless it remained in operation and
+undoubtedly served a good purpose in disposing promptly of most of the
+petty cases of arrest for misdemeanor. So valuable was it that General
+Wood, on becoming Governor, determined to<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_179" id="page_179">{179}</a></span> place its legal status on the
+surest foundation possible, by issuing an official order for its
+creation and recognition. In this he did not himself escape criticism,
+not from Cubans but from Americans. The same people, or the same kind of
+people, who had blamed him for paying so much attention to Cuban
+education now declared that he had no business to meddle in any way with
+the judicial system of Cuba. That was not what America had intervened
+for. To such objections little attention was paid. General Wood rightly
+regarded it to be his business to do anything in any department of
+government that would promote the ends of justice and good government
+and the welfare of the Cuban nation.</p>
+
+<p>Police courts were therefore established not only in Havana but also in
+the other cities. The Department of Justice was moved to examine into
+the conduct of all the courts. When judges were found to be unjust,
+corrupt, incompetent, or otherwise unfit to serve, they were removed.
+Competent clerks were appointed, and they and all other court employes
+were put on fair salaries, the fee system which formerly prevailed and
+which was so susceptible of abuse, being abolished. Competent and
+trustworthy lawyers were employed at state expense to serve as counsel
+for those who were too poor to hire them.</p>
+
+<p>It was under General Wood, in his first year of administration and the
+second year of American intervention, that Cuban civil government was
+elaborated, that an election system was devised and put into effect, and
+that political parties had their rise. The Civil Governors of the
+Provinces were now all Cubans: Of Pinar del Rio, Dr. J. M. Quilez; of
+Havana, General Emilio Nunez; of Matanzas, General Pedro Betancourt; of
+Santa Clara, General Jose Miguel Gomez; of Camaguey,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_180" id="page_180">{180}</a></span> General R. Lopez
+Recio; of Oriente, General Demetrio Castillo. It was General Wood's wise
+and just policy to fill Cuban offices with Cubans to the fullest
+possible extent.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore it was determined in the spring of 1900 to hold an election
+for municipal officers throughout the island. An order was issued on
+April 18, appointing the election for June 16, for officers to be
+installed on July 1 for a term of one year. The officers to be chosen
+were Mayors, or Alcaldes; members of City Councils or Ayuntamientos;
+municipal treasurers and judges, and judges of the police courts.</p>
+
+<p>The preparations for the election were made and a new electoral law was
+drafted by a commission of fifteen members, appointed by General Wood.
+Of the fifteen, thirteen were Cubans and two were Americans. The Cubans
+were representative of the various political parties into which the
+people of the island were beginning to divide themselves. It cannot be
+said that the meetings and deliberations of the commission were
+particularly harmonious. In the end two reports were submitted to the
+Governor, of which he selected for adoption that presented by the
+minority. It comprised the new elections law, which he promulgated on
+April 18 in the proclamation calling for the election. This law provided
+that a voter must be a male Cuban, native of Cuba or born of Cuban
+parents while they were temporarily visiting abroad, or a Spaniard
+included within the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, who had not
+elected to retain his Spanish allegiance; he must be twenty-one years
+old, and must have lived in his municipality for at least thirty days
+immediately preceding registration; and he must be able to read and
+50 in American gold; or have served in
+the Cuban army prior to July 18, 1898, and have been honorably
+discharged therefrom. The ten consecutive days from May 6 to May 16 were
+appointed as days of registration.</p>
+
+<p>The total number of voters registered was 150,648, which was a little
+more than fifty per cent, of the total number of men of voting age,
+which had been shown by the census of 1899 to be 297,765. However, there
+were some thousands of adult males in the island who had elected to
+retain their allegiance to Spain, and therefore could not vote, so that
+the number registered was considerably more than one half of the
+possible voters. At the election on June 16 the total vote cast was
+110,816. There were some protests and complaints of fraud and illegal
+voting, and it is not improbable that there were some such abuses; as
+there have been known to be in other lands, even in the United States of
+America. On the whole the elections were probably reasonably fair and
+honest; they were peacefully and quietly conducted; and they gave much
+encouragement to the expectation that the people of Cuba would prove
+themselves worthy of the opportunity of self-government which was being
+placed before them.</p>
+
+<p>At this election there were three parties. The Union Democratic was
+composed of the more conservative element, including many of the old
+Autonomist party, and it was largely inclined toward annexation to the
+United States, or toward a permanent and efficient protectorate by that
+country. Its numbers were few, and it took little part in the election.
+The Nationals and the Republicans ranged from liberal to radical, and
+between the two in principle there was no perceptible difference.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_182" id="page_182">{182}</a></span> These
+parties did not long survive, but were transformed and merged into the
+Conservative and Liberal parties of later years.</p>
+
+<p>Political parties in Cuba had their origin about the time of American
+intervention in the war. That was an assurance that Cuba was to have her
+independence and become self-governing, and that made it seem worth
+while to form into parties. The full development did not come, however,
+until it was seen that the United States intended to keep its word by
+leaving the government and control of Cuba to the people of the island,
+and that conviction did not come to the general Cuban mind until some
+time after the United States entered the war. It first began to arise in
+considerable strength when the United States government forbade the
+granting of any franchises or concessions during the American
+occupation. That certainly looked as though the Americans expected to
+get out of the island at an early date. As the administration of General
+Wood went on, constantly increasing the participation of Cubans in the
+government, the confidence in American good faith increased, and of
+course the organization of parties became more complete.</p>
+
+<p>There were then, however, as there are now, no such differences between
+the parties on matters of political economy or administrative and
+legislative policy, as exist in other lands. They are simply the "Ins"
+and the "Outs." One party is in office and wants to stay in. The other
+is out and wants to get in. In their methods, however, the two differ
+widely. The Conservatives have been consistently in favor of
+constitutional and lawful measures, the maintenance of peace and the
+safeguarding of life and property. They have always been willing to
+accept and abide by the result of an election, even<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_183" id="page_183">{183}</a></span> though it were
+against them. The Liberals, on the other hand, as we shall more
+convincingly see in the course of this narrative, have been in favor of
+practically any means which would enable them to gain control of
+affairs. They have on several occasions not hesitated to involve the
+island in revolution, provided that they would be able to profit from it
+by gaining office.</p>
+
+<p>In this first election for municipal officers there was little partisan
+rivalry, and indeed that did not rise to any great pitch until the end
+of the first intervention and the establishment of a purely Cuban
+government. The chief partisanship was really personal. Each important
+military or political leader had his own following. Such rivalries were
+not yet, however, acrimonious or sufficient to have any material effect
+upon the progress of public affairs.</p>
+
+<p>Reference has been made to the reform of the taxation system which
+included the abolition of a number of annoying and oppressive imposts.
+There followed a revision of the tariff on imports, for the dual
+purposes of promoting commerce and industry and of providing a revenue
+for the insular government. In December, 1898, the United States had
+ordered maintenance of the old Spanish tariff, with certain
+modifications, chiefly dictated by the change of relations between Cuba
+and the United States. Subsequently other modifications were made from
+time to time as the need or desirability of them became apparent through
+experience. But on June 15, 1900, an entirely new tariff law went into
+effect, framed chiefly by American experts and following pretty closely
+the general lines of the American tariff system. Naturally it was
+calculated to encourage commerce between Cuba and the United States,
+particularly by the admission of products of the latter country into<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_184" id="page_184">{184}</a></span>
+Cuban markets at a minimum of cost. In view of the scarcity of food in
+Cuba and the devastated condition of much of the agricultural lands,
+American food products, both meats and breadstuffs, thus gained easy
+access to the Cuban market. This seemed anomalous, since Cuba was an
+agricultural country capable of producing a large surplus of food for
+export instead of needing imports of food. It was obvious, however, that
+this feature of the tariff would be merely temporary, and in fact it was
+materially modified by the increase of rates on such imports very soon
+after the establishment of the Cuban government.</p>
+
+<p>Despite the fact that during the year about three million dollars' worth
+of food was imported, the total of Cuban imports was less than in the
+preceding year; a circumstance due to the change in tariff rates. At the
+same time there was a very considerable increase in exports. It was an
+interesting circumstance, also, that there was a decrease in trade with
+the United States; a pretty effective reply to the complaint which some
+made that the new tariff had been improperly framed so as to give the
+United States a monopoly of Cuban trade. It did give the United States
+some advantages which that country had not enjoyed before, but on the
+whole it was probably as fair and impartial as it could well have been
+made. Commercial reports showed that Cuban imports from the United
+65,964,801 in 1901; and that Cuban
+exports to the United States were $31,371,704 in 1900 and $43,428,088 in
+1901. Thus Cuban purchases from the United States were decreasing
+slightly, while Cuban sales to the United States were greatly
+increasing, and the balance of trade was growing more and more largely
+in Cuba's favor.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_185" id="page_185">{185}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h3>
+
+<p>The supreme work of the Government of Intervention, from the political
+point of view, was to prepare Cuba for complete self-government and then
+to relinquish the control of the island to its own people. It was with
+that end in view that General Wood filled all possible offices with
+Cubans. It was also to the same end that the municipal election was held
+in June, 1900, under a new election law. Soon after that election there
+came a call for another, of vastly greater importance. On July 25, 1900,
+the President of the United States authorized General Wood as Military
+Governor of Cuba to issue a call for the election of a Cuban
+Constitutional Convention, which should be representative of the Cuban
+people and which should prepare the fundamental law of the independent
+insular government which was about to be erected.</p>
+
+<p>General Wood issued the call, fixing September 15 as the date of the
+election. This call repeated and reaffirmed the Congressional
+declaration of April 20, 1898, concerning the purpose of the United
+States not to annex Cuba but to "leave the government and control of the
+island to its people." It also called upon the people of Cuba, through
+their Constitutional Convention, not only to frame and adopt a
+Constitution, but also, "as a part thereof, to provide for and agree
+with the Government of the United States upon the relations to exist
+between that government and the Government of Cuba." That was a most
+significant thing. It made it quite clear that<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_186" id="page_186">{186}</a></span> the United States
+expected and intended that some special relations should exist between
+the two countries, apart from those ordinarily provided in treaties.</p>
+
+<p>Comment, criticism and protest were provoked; some temperate, some
+intemperate. Most of the unfavorable comments, and by far the most
+severe, came from the United States and were obviously animated by
+political hostility to the President. In Cuba the chief objection was
+based upon the ground that the island was thus required to do something
+through a Constitutional Convention which that body was not intended to
+do but which should be done by the diplomatic department of the
+government; and also to put into the Constitution something which did
+not belong there but which should be determined in a treaty. In this
+there was obviously much logical and moral force, and that fact was
+appreciated by General Wood, and by the government at Washington, with
+the result that assurances were presently given that the order would be
+satisfactorily modified. On the strength of this assurance, which was
+given in undoubted good faith, Cubans generally prepared for the coming
+election and for the great work which lay beyond it. They had been so
+disturbed by the original form of the order that many had declared that
+they would not participate in the election or serve as delegates to the
+Convention. The promise of modification mollified them, and thereafter
+all went smoothly and auspiciously.</p>
+
+<p>The call for the election was issued on August 11. The qualifications
+for suffrage which were prescribed were the same as those in the
+preceding municipal election, and were generally accepted as fair and
+just. The election was held on September 15, and it passed off in very
+much the same fashion as its predecessor. Only a moderate degree of
+popular interest was manifested<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_187" id="page_187">{187}</a></span> in it, and the vote cast was not a
+large one. The candidates were divided among the three parties already
+mentioned, but all save one were elected from the two radical
+organizations, the Nationals and the Republicans. Just one, Senor Eliseo
+Giberga, of Matanzas province, was returned by the Conservative Union
+Democrats. There were a few charges of fraud, but they were vague and
+general in terms and were not formulated nor pressed, and in the main
+the result of the polling was accepted in good part. The number of
+delegates from each province had been prescribed in the call for the
+election. The roll of the convention comprised the names of many of the
+foremost members of the Cuban nation, distinguished in war, in
+statecraft and in science, and was well representative of all parts and
+parties of the island.</p>
+
+<p>The convention met for the first time on November 5, 1900, at two
+o'clock in the afternoon. All the delegates were present, and a great
+multitude of the people gathered in and about the palace to witness the
+spectacle and to pay honor to the occasion. They were not alone from the
+capital, but from all parts of Cuba. Every province and almost every
+important municipality was represented. Expectant optimism prevailed.
+There was only one note of uncertainty. That was concerning the promised
+modification of the order concerning relations with the United States.
+The modification had not yet been announced. There were a few who began
+to doubt whether it would ever be; but most put faith in the Military
+Governor and were sure that he would keep his word.</p>
+
+<p>He did. At the appointed moment, when all were assembled, General Wood
+called the Convention to order and addressed it briefly.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_188" id="page_188">{188}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"It will," he said, "be your duty, first, to frame and adopt a
+Constitution for Cuba, and when that has been done, to formulate what,
+in your opinion, ought to be the relations between Cuba and the United
+States. The Constitution must be adequate to secure a stable, orderly
+and free government. When you have formulated the relations which, in
+your opinion, ought to exist between Cuba and the United States, the
+Government of the United States will doubtless take such action on its
+part as shall lead to a final and authoritative agreement between the
+people of the two countries to the promotion of their common good." He
+also reminded the Convention that it had no authority to take any part
+in the existing government of the island, or to do anything more than
+was prescribed in the order for its assembling. In thus speaking he was
+in fact reading to the Convention official instructions from Washington;
+in which the order concerning Cuban and American relations was
+materially modified. There was nothing in the revised version about
+making the agreement a part of the Constitution. The Convention was
+merely to express its opinion on the subject, to serve as a basis for
+further negotiations. General Wood emphasized this point distinctly, and
+it was received with entire satisfaction by the Convention and by the
+public.</p>
+
+<p>Having thus delivered to the Convention its instructions and having
+expressed his personal good will and wishes for its success, General
+Wood retired and the Convention was left to its own counsels and
+devices. Thereupon Pedro Llorente, the oldest of the delegates, took the
+chair by common consent as temporary president, and Enrique Villuendas,
+the youngest delegate, similarly occupied the desk of the secretary. A
+fitting oath of office was administered to all by the Chief Justice of
+the Supreme<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_189" id="page_189">{189}</a></span> Court of the island; containing a formal renunciation of
+all other citizenship and allegiance than Cuban, because several
+delegates had become naturalized citizens of the United States and it
+was necessary for them thus to resume their status as Cubans. On the
+principle that "What was good enough for us when we were struggling in
+the field is good enough for us here," the rules of the Cuban
+Revolutionary Congress were adopted to govern the Convention. Finally
+Domingo Mendez Capote was elected permanent President of the Convention,
+and Alfredo Zayas and Enrique Villuendas permanent Secretaries.</p>
+
+<p>There followed the usual experience of such bodies: Divided counsels,
+cross purposes, and what not; all gradually working together toward a
+common end. A few public sessions were held, at which there was more
+speechmaking than work, but after a few weeks private sessions and a
+great deal of committee work became the rule. There was no division on
+party lines, and there was a lack of dominant leadership; both favorable
+circumstances. Much attention was given to studying and analyzing the
+constitutions of all other republics in the world, in order to learn
+their good features and to avoid their errors and weaknesses. The
+constitution of the United States was of course among those studied, but
+rather less regard was paid to it than to others, for two reasons. One
+was, a desire to avoid even the appearance of making Cuba a mere
+appanage to or imitation of its northern neighbor, and the other was the
+very practical thought that the constitutions of Latin republics might
+be better suited to the Latin republic of Cuba than that of an
+Anglo-Saxon republic.</p>
+
+<p>By January 21 the Constitution was drafted in form sufficiently complete
+to permit it to be read to the whole<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_190" id="page_190">{190}</a></span> convention in a public session,
+and thereafter there were daily discussions of its various provisions.
+Differences of opinion ranged from mere verbal form to the substance of
+the most momentous principles. There was a characteristic passage of
+verbal arms over a phrase in the preamble. That paragraph after stating
+the purpose of the Convention and of the Constitution, closed by
+"invoking the favor of God." When this was read the venerable Salvador
+Cisneros, formerly President of the Republic, moved that the phrase be
+stricken out. Manuel Sanguilly made a long and dramatic speech, arguing
+with much passion that it really did not matter whether the phrase were
+included or not, but that it would best be left in, because that might
+please some and could hurt nobody. Then the dean of the convention,
+Pedro Llorente, made an impassioned appeal for the retention of the
+words, to prove to the world that the Cubans were not a nation of
+infidels and atheists. In the end the phrase was retained.</p>
+
+<p>Another animated debate arose over the question of religious freedom and
+the relations of church and state, which was ended by the adoption of an
+article guaranteeing freedom and equality for all forms of religion that
+were in accord with "Christian morality and public order," and decreeing
+separation of church and state and forbidding the subsidizing of any
+church. The question of suffrage was intensely controversial. There were
+those who dreaded the result of giving the ballot to tens of thousands
+of ignorant and illiterate men. Yet to disfranchise them would mean thus
+to debar thousands who had fought for Cuban independence in the late
+war, and it was not unreasonably feared that it would also cause
+dissatisfaction and resentment which<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_191" id="page_191">{191}</a></span> would culminate in disorder and
+insurrection. In the end universal equal suffrage was adopted.</p>
+
+<p>The most bitter debate of all, however, was over the qualifications of
+the President of the Republic. A strong and persistent effort was made
+to imitate the Constitution of the United States by requiring him to be
+a native citizen. But that would have debarred Maximo Gomez, who was
+born in Santo Domingo. For that reason the proposed restriction was
+passionately opposed by all the friends of Gomez, and also by many who
+were not his friends and who would have opposed his candidacy for the
+Presidency but who felt that it would be disgraceful to put such a
+slight upon the gallant old hero of the two wars. On the other hand, the
+restriction was urged chiefly for that very reason, that it would debar
+Gomez; for, idolized as he was by the great mass of the Cuban people, he
+had a number of unrelenting enemies, especially among these politicians
+whom he had opposed and overruled in the matter of the Cuban Assembly
+and the payment of soldiers at the end of the war. After several days of
+acrimonious discussion the friends of Gomez won by a narrow margin, and
+the offensive proposal was rejected.</p>
+
+<p>There were many other controversial points, less personal and more
+worthy of debate in such a gathering on bases not of personality but of
+principle. The governmental powers of the Provinces gave rise to debates
+resembling those over state rights in America. The recognition of Cuban
+debts was a momentous matter. The method of electing Senators was also
+much discussed, as was the principle which the Military Administration
+had adopted of having the state and not the provinces or municipalities
+control public education. The right of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_192" id="page_192">{192}</a></span> the government to expel
+objectionable aliens was the theme of a long and spirited discussion.
+With all the animation, sentiment and rhetoric in which Latin debaters
+and orators more freely indulge than do the more phlegmatic
+Anglo-Saxons, all of these questions were very seriously considered
+according to their merits, and were disposed of on that same basis.
+There was no haste, and there was no undue delay; while everything was
+done "decently and in order." It took the Federal Convention of the
+United States four months of secret sessions to frame its Constitution,
+and its career was marked with many violent scenes, including the
+withdrawal of the representatives of one of the chief states from the
+Convention. The Cuban Convention had no incidents so unpleasant as that,
+and it completed its work in three months and a half.</p>
+
+<p>February 21, 1901 was the crowning day. Ten days before the draft of the
+Constitution, as yet unsigned, had been published in pamphlet form. On
+the date named the Convention was to give it validity by signing it. The
+public was admitted to view the scene, the consuls of foreign powers
+were in attendance as specially invited guests, and a fine military band
+discoursed patriotic and classical music. The Constitution, finally
+engrossed,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_193" id="page_193">{193}</a></span> was read aloud, and then one by one the delegates marched up
+to the President's desk and affixed their signatures. When the last name
+was written, all stood while the band played the national anthem of
+Cuba. The President of the Convention, Mendez Capote, made a graceful
+address of congratulation and good wishes; and the Convention adjourned,
+its work well ended.</p>
+
+<p class="c caption">AURELIA CASTILLO DE GONZALEZ</p>
+
+<p class="caption">
+
+Aurelia Castillo de Gonzalez, poet and essayist, was born in Camaguey in
+1842, spent much time in European travel, and then settled in Havana.
+She first attracted literary attention by her elegy on &quot;El Lugareno&quot; in
+1866, and since that time has been an incessant contributor to Cuban
+literature in verse and prose. She is the author of a fine study of the
+Life and Works of Gertrudis Gomez de Avellaneda, of a volume of fables,
+and a number of satires. Her complete works (to date) were published in
+five volumes in 1913.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 145px;">
+<a href="images/i034.png">
+<img src="images/i034_sml.png" width="145" height="212" alt="AURELIA CASTILLO DE GONZALEZ
+
+Aurelia Castillo de Gonzalez, poet and essayist, was born in Camaguey in
+1842, spent much time in European travel, and then settled in Havana.
+She first attracted literary attention by her elegy on &quot;El Lugareno&quot; in
+1866, and since that time has been an incessant contributor to Cuban
+literature in verse and prose. She is the author of a fine study of the
+Life and Works of Gertrudis Gomez de Avellaneda, of a volume of fables,
+and a number of satires. Her complete works (to date) were published in
+five volumes in 1913." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p>We have said that at the opening session, immediately after his
+introductory address, the American Military Governor left the hall. He
+did not revisit it, and neither he nor any American officer was ever
+present at any meeting of the Convention; nor was any American
+representative present at the closing function of the signing of the
+Constitution. The purpose of that abstention was obvious. It was to
+avoid so much as the appearance or the suspicion of American meddling or
+dictation in the work of the Convention. General Wood had told the
+Convention that it had nothing to do with his government of the island.
+Conversely he wished to show that he and his government had nothing to
+do with the work of the Convention.</p>
+
+<p>The Constitution thus auspiciously brought into existence declares Cuba
+to be a sovereign republic. The powers of government are much more
+centralized than those in the United States. The six Provinces have no
+such rights as have the states of America, though they have a liberal
+measure of local governmental power. They are not states or provinces,
+however, but mere departments&mdash;fractions of the whole instead of
+integral units. Each has a Governor and an elected Assembly. So each
+city and town has a mayor and a council. Municipalities have the power
+to levy taxes for local needs. The control of railroads and telegraphs
+is a national function, and the judicial system is also national. There<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_194" id="page_194">{194}</a></span>
+is freedom of speech, of press and of worship. No prisoner may be held
+longer than twenty-four hours without judicial process. Congress
+consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives. There are six
+Senators from each department, elected by the municipalities for six
+years, one third retiring every two years. Representatives are elected
+from districts by the people for four years, there being one member to
+every 25,000 inhabitants. Senators and Representatives must be
+twenty-five years old, and if not native citizens must have been
+naturalized eight years. The President and Vice-President are elected
+for four years by the people through electoral colleges, with a
+provision for minority representation, each citizen voting for only
+two-thirds of the number of electors to which his district is entitled.
+Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed for life by the President
+with the ratification of the Senate. The civil law and constitutional
+guarantees can be suspended in case of emergency only by Congress when
+it is in session, but by the President when Congress is not in session.
+The House of Representatives may impeach the President, when the Senate
+may suspend him from office, try him, and upon conviction remove him
+permanently. Amendments of the Constitution must be voted by two-thirds
+of both Houses and ratified by a popular convention specially called for
+the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>There can be no question that this was a highly creditable production,
+and one which amply merited the qualified approval which was given to it
+by Elihu Root, Secretary of War of the United States, when he said: "I
+do not fully agree with the wisdom of some of the provisions of this
+Constitution. But it provides for a republican form of government; it
+was adopted after long and patient consideration and discussion; it
+represents<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_195" id="page_195">{195}</a></span> the views of the delegates elected by the people of Cuba;
+and it contains no features which would justify the assertion that a
+government organized under it will not be one to which the United States
+may properly transfer the obligations for the protection of life and
+property under international law, assumed in the Treaty of Paris."</p>
+
+<p>The first part of the Convention's work was thus done. There remained
+the second part, the expression of Cuban opinion as to what ought to be
+the relations between that island and the United States. Over this a
+most unfortunate controversy arose, chiefly provoked and fomented,
+however, not by Cubans but by the partisan enemies of the President of
+the United States and of his policy, who did not scruple to intrigue
+against him in the affairs of foreign lands. It will be recalled that
+this hatred of him, provoked largely because of his insistence on
+fulfilling the pledge of Cuban freedom instead of seeking to serve
+certain sordid interests by forcibly annexing the island, culminated in
+the assassination of President McKinley at the incitement of his
+political foes. The opposition to him and to his policy in Cuba was
+continued unabated against his successor, President Roosevelt; and it
+was most unfortunate for both countries that the establishment of Cuban
+self-government and the determination of her relations to her northern
+neighbor, had to be effected in such circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>The United States government had to deal on the one hand with those who
+insisted that it should have no more special relations with Cuba than
+any other country had; and on the other with those who demanded the
+repudiation of the Congressional pledge and the forcible annexation of
+the island. In those circumstances it was not strange that many Cubans
+were disinclined to make any such arrangement as had been required in
+the call for<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_196" id="page_196">{196}</a></span> the Convention. They recalled that the United States had
+declared that "Cuba is of right and ought to be free and independent,"
+and they were not disposed to look beyond that declaration.</p>
+
+<p>Three considerations were too much overlooked on both sides, save by the
+thoughtful American and Cuban statesmen who finally solved the problem.
+One was that the United States had for nearly a century exercised a
+certain degree of protection or supervision over Cuba. It had repeatedly
+forbidden European powers to meddle with the island, and had for many
+years guaranteed and protected Spain in her possession of it. It was
+held to be only reasonable that a similar degree of interest should be
+maintained in the island in its independent status. The second point was
+that in the Treaty of Paris in 1898 the United States had incurred a
+certain moral if not a legal responsibility for the future of Cuba. The
+third was the much less specific yet by no means negligible
+consideration that the United States had intervened in Cuba to put an
+end to conditions which had become intolerably offensive to it, and it
+was therefore equitably entitled to take all proper precautions against
+a recurrence of such conditions.</p>
+
+<p>In pursuance of the requirements of the call for the Convention, then,
+immediately after the signing of the Constitution, a committee was
+appointed to draft a project concerning relations with the United
+States. It consisted of Diego Tamayo, Gonzalo de Quesada, Juan Gualberto
+Gomez, Enrique Villuendas, and Manuel Ramon Silva. These gentlemen
+conferred with General Wood, to learn the wishes of President McKinley,
+and then drafted a scheme which they presented to the Convention and
+which that body adopted on February 27. Unfortunately between the
+President's wishes and the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_197" id="page_197">{197}</a></span> committee's project there were radical
+differences. The President, through his Secretary of War, Elihu Root,
+had on February 9 expressed with much circumstance and detail and a
+wealth of argument the relationship which the United States government
+regarded as essential. It amounted to this: That the Cuban government
+should never make any treaty or engagement which would impair its
+independence, nor make any special agreement with any foreign power
+without the consent of the United States; that it should contract no
+public debt in excess of the capacity of the ordinary revenues of the
+island; that the United States should have the right of intervention for
+the preservation of Cuban independence and the maintenance of a stable
+government; that all the acts of the American Military Administration
+should be validated; and that the United States should be permitted to
+acquire and to hold naval stations in Cuba at certain points.</p>
+
+<p>The Committee of the Convention reported that in its judgment some of
+these conditions were unacceptable, inasmuch as they impaired the
+independence of Cuba. So it proposed and the Convention adopted
+proposals to this effect: That Cuba should never impair her independence
+by any agreement with any power, not excepting the United States; that
+she should never permit her territory to be used as a base or war
+against the United States; that she accepted the obligations expressed
+and implied in the Treaty of Paris; that she should validate the acts of
+the Military Government "for the good government of Cuba"; and that the
+United States and Cuba should regulate their commercial relations by
+means of a reciprocity treaty.</p>
+
+<p>Obviously, there was a wide divergence between the two schemes. It was
+unfortunate that the American<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_198" id="page_198">{198}</a></span> Congress was about to adjourn, on March
+4, and was reluctant to reassemble in special session, and also that the
+political passions to which we have referred were raging at so high a
+pitch. In more favorable circumstances the matter would have been
+settled diplomatically without friction or ill-feeling. There was,
+indeed, a very considerable conservative party in Cuba, probably
+comprising a majority of the substantial, well informed and orderly
+inhabitants, who favored some such scheme of American supervision and
+control as that which had been proposed, and if there had been a little
+more time for calm deliberation they would probably have won the
+Convention and the whole island to their point of view. Unhappily the
+government at Washington determined to finish the matter up before
+Congress adjourned on March 4, and in the short time which intervened
+the passionate voice of faction was much more in evidence man the
+thoughtful and measured voice of patriotic counsel.</p>
+
+<p>Senator Orville H. Platt, of Connecticut, one of the ablest and
+fairest-minded men in that body, was the Chairman of the Committee on
+Relations with Cuba. It was probably he who suggested the modification
+which was made in the instructions to the Convention. He now declared
+that&mdash;which was perfectly true&mdash;the United States Congress had no power
+to approve, reject, or in any way amend or modify the Cuban
+Constitution. Cuba was entitled to establish her own government without
+let or hindrance. But he also held that by virtue of the grounds of its
+intervention in Cuban affairs the United States possessed certain rights
+and privileges in that island above those of other powers, and that it
+was in duty bound, for the sake of both Cuba and itself, to provide in
+some assured way for the permanent safe-<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_199" id="page_199">{199}</a></span>guarding of those special
+interests. These views were approved by the best thought of both
+countries, and ultimately prevailed.</p>
+
+<p>In accordance with the views thus expressed, Senator Platt prepared as
+an addendum to the Army Appropriation bill, on February 25, the historic
+measure known as the Platt Amendment. This, consisting of eight brief
+paragraphs, embodied the very points which the President had already
+made on February 9, with the addition of three more. One of these was,
+that the Cuban government should maintain the work of sanitation already
+so auspiciously begun, for the protection of its own people and also the
+people of the United States from epidemic pestilence; a requirement
+which was probably quite superfluous, seeing that the Cubans were as
+intent as the Americans upon the elimination of yellow fever and
+malaria. The second was, that the Isle of Pines should be omitted from
+the proposed constitutional boundaries of Cuba, the title thereto being
+left for future adjustment by treaty. This extraordinary demand was a
+bad blot upon the measure, and it is difficult to understand how it ever
+was permitted to be inserted at the behest of some unscrupulous and
+sordid scheme of exploitation. Happily, subsequent treaty agreements and
+court decisions defeated its purpose and confirmed Cuba in her title to
+the Isle of Pines. The third was the requirement that Cuba should make
+this Platt Amendment either a part of her Constitution or an ordinance
+under it and appended to it, and should also embody it in a permanent
+treaty with the United States.</p>
+
+<p>At this the storm broke. The great mass of the conservative and
+thoughtful people of Cuba, while they regretted the need of it,
+recognized the necessity of such an arrangement, and earnestly favored
+the acceptance of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_200" id="page_200">{200}</a></span> the Platt Amendment, even with the one or two
+objectionable features. But the radicals vigorously opposed it, and in
+their opposition were greatly encouraged by the factional enemies of the
+President in the United States, who broke all bounds of decency, and not
+only raged against him there but organized a propaganda in Cuba itself,
+to incite Cubans to oppose and resist the United States. In this the
+foremost of such agitators were doubly false. They were not only
+stirring up a foreign people against their own country, but they were
+doing so with the deliberate and malignant hope of precipitating an
+armed conflict between the two countries which would result in the
+conquest and forcible annexation of Cuba. While pretending to sympathize
+with Cuba and to resent the alleged American impairment of her
+sovereignty, they were really scheming for the utter destruction of
+Cuban independence.</p>
+
+<p>Agitation, discussion, proposals and counter proposals, upon none of
+which could the Convention agree, continued week after week. At the end
+of March the question arose of sending a Commission to Washington to see
+the President. This was opposed violently, chiefly at the incitement of
+American emissaries, who busied themselves in Cuba in urging the
+rejection of everything that promised a settlement of the controversy.
+On April 1 some unscrupulous intriguer caused a message to be
+telegraphed from Washington to the effect that if a Commission came it
+would not be received; and this was received in Havana just as the
+Convention was about to vote to send such a Commission. Naturally, the
+Commission was not sent. On April 9, having learned that the message was
+unofficial and mischievous, the Convention reconsidered the matter and
+by an overwhelming majority voted to send a commission. Again
+mysterious<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_201" id="page_201">{201}</a></span> dispatches came from Washington, saying that the President
+was resolute in refusing to recognize any Cuban envoys, and in
+consequence the sending of the Commission was delayed.</p>
+
+<p>Then the proposal was made that the Convention should reject the Platt
+Amendment outright, and afterward send a Commission to Washington; and
+this was actually carried, though by mistake, some members voting
+exactly contrary to the way they intended. Then it was voted to send a
+Commission, with special instructions to try to secure the inclusion of
+a commercial treaty in the Platt Amendment. With this in view the
+Convention on April 15 designated five members of such a Commission.
+They were Mendez Capote, the President of the Convention; Diego Tamayo,
+Leopoldo Berriel, Pedro Gonzales Llorente, and Rafael Portuondo; but as
+Dr. Berriel could not go, General Pedro Betancourt was named in his
+place. The Commission sailed for Washington on April 20. General Wood
+also sailed on the same day, though on another steamer. The Cubans
+reached Washington four days later, and the next day, in contradiction
+to the false dispatches which had been sent, they were courteously
+received by President McKinley. After a brief interview he introduced
+them to the Secretary of War, to whose department Cuban affairs, under a
+Military governor, belonged. He received them most cordially. Indeed, he
+had strongly wished them to come to Washington for a conference. He told
+them frankly that the Platt Amendment must stand, just as it was, and
+that it must be accepted and adopted by Cuba before any further steps
+could be taken for the establishment of a Cuban government. Then, at
+their request, he gave a detailed explanation of what the United States
+government conceived to be the meaning,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_202" id="page_202">{202}</a></span> the purpose and the effect of
+each of the provisions of that instrument. He especially showed that it
+was merely a logical continuation of long established American policy;
+that it was intended not for the gain of the United States but for the
+protection of Cuba; and that it would in no way interfere with the
+domestic self-sovereignty of the Cuban people, or with the rank of Cuba
+as an independent nation among the nations of the world.</p>
+
+<p>The Committee returned to Havana and reported to the Convention the
+results of its mission, and the Convention resumed consideration of the
+American demands in the new light of Mr. Root's exposition of them.
+Faction was still furious. Enemies of the President in the United States
+went to Cuba or sent word thither, urging the radical element to hold
+out to the bitter end against the Platt Amendment, saying that it would
+need only a little longer resistance to compel the American government
+to abandon it altogether. Counsels were divided in the Convention, and
+numerous proposals of substitutes for the Amendment or for parts of it
+were made, but upon none of them could the Convention agree. Some of the
+most radical members suggested that the Convention adjourn without day.
+But on the whole wiser counsels prevailed. The Commission had been much
+impressed by Mr. Root's candid and cogent presentation of the case. It
+had also become convinced that if the Amendment were adopted a liberal
+reciprocity measure would be granted which would be of vast value to
+Cuban commerce and industry. Consideration of the subject continued
+until the latter part of May. On May 28 the question of adoption of the
+Platt Amendment with certain qualifications was presented to the
+Convention for a final vote. The Convention divided<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_203" id="page_203">{203}</a></span> equally. There were
+fourteen ayes and fourteen nays. Thereupon the President, Mendez Capote,
+cast the deciding ballot. He voted aye. This caused a renewal of the
+storm. Diego Tamayo and Juan Gualberto Gomez were especially outspoken
+in their denunciation of all who had voted for the measure, and some of
+the former's remarks were so severe that their retraction was required.
+The qualified acceptance of the Amendment was not, however, satisfactory
+to the Washington government, and the Convention was promptly informed
+of that fact. In consequence the matter was reopened, and on June 12,
+after a brief and temperate debate, a final vote was taken on
+unconditional acceptance and adoption of the Platt Amendment. The result
+was sixteen ayes to eleven nays.</p>
+
+<p>That ended the matter. The Amendment had become a permanent addendum to
+the Cuban Constitution, and the relations between the island's future
+government and the United States was irrevocably determined. There was
+little further criticism. The American agitators and speculators who had
+been inciting the Cubans to resistance, in order thus to make them
+compass their own ruin, abandoned their execrable intrigues for other
+ventures elsewhere, while the Cubans who had been their dupes, relieved
+of their pernicious influence, soon began to appreciate the
+reasonableness of most of the provisions of the Amendment and the very
+material benefits which it would bestow upon Cuba.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_204" id="page_204">{204}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h3>
+
+<p>The concretion of Cuban history is in the Constitution of the Cuban
+Republic. In that document are realized the hopes of a patient but
+resolute people. In it are embodied the ideals for which Lopez fought
+and died; for which Cespedes strove; for which Marti pleaded and taught
+and planned; for which Maximo Gomez and Antonio Maceo battled against
+desperate odds; for which Estrada Palma gave the ripe statesmanship of a
+devoted life. There were provisional constitutions before, drafted in
+mountain camps in the intervals between battles, but they represented
+aspirations rather than achievements. It was reserved for the time of
+triumph, when the Spaniard was forever driven from the Cuban shores, and
+the Pearl of the Antilles was no more made to adorn an alien diadem, for
+the statesmanship of the island in calm deliberation to frame the
+instrument which was to confirm and safeguard for all time that which
+had been won with the blood of innumerable martyrs, and which was to
+erect the Cuban people into the Cuban Nation.</p>
+
+<p class="c caption">THE CAPITOL</p>
+
+<p class="caption">The Capitol, the new government building at Havana, is one of the great
+public works of the administration of President Menocal. It occupies a
+fine site in the heart of the city, and will architecturally rank among
+the noteworthy government buildings of the world. In the contrast
+between it and ancient La Fuerza, its original predecessor, is suggested
+the whole span of Cuban history.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<a href="images/i036.png">
+<img src="images/i036_sml.png" width="550" height="323" alt="THE CAPITOL
+
+The Capitol, the new government building at Havana, is one of the great
+public works of the administration of President Menocal. It occupies a
+fine site in the heart of the city, and will architecturally rank among
+the noteworthy government buildings of the world. In the contrast
+between it and ancient La Fuerza, its original predecessor, is suggested
+the whole span of Cuban history." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p>We shall profitably pause for a space in our narrative, to note what
+manner of Constitution it was that was thus adopted:</p>
+
+<p>We, the delegates of the people of Cuba, in national convention
+assembled for the purpose of framing and adopting the Fundamental Law
+under which Cuba is to be organized as an independent and sovereign
+State, and be given a government capable of fulfilling its
+international<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_205" id="page_205">{205}</a></span> obligations, preserving order, securing liberty and
+justice, and promoting the general welfare, do hereby ordain, adopt, and
+establish, invoking the favor of God, the following Constitution:</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Title</span> I<br />
+<br />
+THE NATION, ITS FORM OF GOVERNMENT, AND THE<br />
+NATIONAL TERRITORY<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article</span> 1. The people of Cuba constitute themselves into a sovereign,
+independent State and adopt a republican form of government.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 2. The island of Cuba and the islands and islets adjacent thereto,
+which up to the date of the ratification of the treaty of Paris, of
+December 10, 1898, were under the sovereignty of Spain, form the
+territory of the Republic.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 3. The territory of the Republic shall be divided into the six
+provinces which now exist, each of which shall retain its present
+boundaries. The determination of their names corresponds to the
+respective provincial councils.</p>
+
+<p>The provinces may by resolution of their respective provincial councils
+and the approval of Congress annex themselves to other provinces, or
+subdivide their territory and form new provinces.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Title</span> II<br />
+<br />
+CUBANS<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 4. Cuban nationality is acquired by birth or by naturalization.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 5. Cubans by birth are:<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_206" id="page_206">{206}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>1. All persons born of Cuban parents whether within or without the
+territory of the Republic.</p>
+
+<p>2. All persons born of foreign parents within the territory of the
+Republic, provided that on becoming of age they apply for inscription,
+as Cubans, in the proper register.</p>
+
+<p>3. All persons born in foreign countries of parents natives of Cuba who
+have forfeited their Cuban nationality, provided that on becoming of age
+they apply for their inscription as Cubans in the register aforesaid.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 6. Cubans by naturalization are:</p>
+
+<p>1. Foreigners who having served in the liberating army claim Cuban
+nationality within six months following the promulgation of this
+constitution.</p>
+
+<p>2. Foreigners domiciled in Cuba prior to January 1, 1899, who have
+retained their domicile, provided that they claim Cuban nationality
+within six months following the promulgation of this constitution, or if
+they are minors within a like period following the date on which they
+reach full age.</p>
+
+<p>3. Foreigners who after five years' residence in the territory of the
+Republic, and not less than two years after the declaration of their
+intention to acquire Cuban nationality have obtained naturalization
+papers according to law.</p>
+
+<p>4. Spaniards residing in the territory of Cuba on the 11th day of April,
+1899, who failed to register themselves as such in the corresponding
+register within one year thereafter.</p>
+
+<p>5. Africans who were slaves in Cuba, and those "emancipated" referred to
+in article 13 of treaty of June 28, 1835, between Spain and England.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 7. Cuban nationality is lost:</p>
+
+<p>1. By the acquisition of foreign citizenship.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_207" id="page_207">{207}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. By the acceptance of employment or honors from another government
+without permission of the Senate.</p>
+
+<p>3. By entering the military service of a foreign nation without the said
+permission.</p>
+
+<p>4. In cases of naturalized Cubans, by their residence for five years
+continuously in the country of origin, except when serving an office or
+fulfilling a commission of the Government of the Republic.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 8. Cuban nationality may be reacquired in the manner to be provided
+by law.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 9. Every Cuban shall be bound:</p>
+
+<p>1. To bear arms in defense of his country in such cases and in such
+manner as may be determined by the laws.</p>
+
+<p>2. To contribute to the payment of public expenses in such manner and
+proportion as the laws may prescribe.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Title</span> III<br />
+<br />
+FOREIGNERS<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 10. Foreigners residing within the territory of the Republic shall
+be on the same footing as Cubans:</p>
+
+<p>1. In respect to protection of their persons and property.</p>
+
+<p>2. In respect to the enjoyment of the rights guaranteed by Section first
+of the following title, excepting those exclusively reserved to
+citizens.</p>
+
+<p>3. In respect to the enjoyment of civil rights under the conditions and
+limitations prescribed in the law of aliens.</p>
+
+<p>4. In respect to the obligation of obeying the laws, decrees,
+regulations, and all other statutes that may be in force in the
+Republic, and complying with their provisions.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_208" id="page_208">{208}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>5. In respect to submission to the jurisdiction and decisions of the
+courts of justice and all other authorities of the Republic.</p>
+
+<p>6. In respect to the obligation of contributing to the public expenses
+of the State, province, and municipality.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Title</span> IV<br />
+<br />
+RIGHTS GUARANTEED BY THIS CONSTITUTION<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Section First</span><br />
+<br />
+INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 11. All Cubans are equal before the law. The Republic does not
+recognize any personal prerogatives.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 12. No law shall have retroactive effect, except when penal and
+favorable to the defendant.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 13. Obligations of a civil nature arising out of contracts or other
+acts or omissions shall not be nullified by either the legislative or
+the executive power.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 14. The penalty of death shall in no case be imposed for offenses
+of political character, said offenses to be defined by law.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 15. No person shall be detained except in the cases and in the
+manner prescribed by law.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 16. Every arrested person shall be set at liberty or placed at the
+disposal of the competent judge or court within twenty-four hours
+immediately following the arrest.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 17. All arrests shall be terminated, or turned into formal
+imprisonments, within seventy-two hours, immediately after the delivery
+of the arrested person to the judge or court of competent jurisdiction.
+Within the same time notice shall be served upon the interested party of
+the action taken.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_209" id="page_209">{209}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 18. No person shall be imprisoned except by order of a competent
+judge or court.</p>
+
+<p>The order directing the imprisonment shall be affirmed or reversed, upon
+the proper hearing of the prisoner, within seventy-two hours next
+following the committal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 19. No person shall be prosecuted or sentenced except by a
+competent judge or court, by virtue of laws in force, prior to the
+commission of the offense, and in the manner and form prescribed by said
+laws.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 20. Every person arrested or imprisoned without the formalities of
+law, or outside of the cases foreseen in this constitution or the laws,
+shall be set at liberty at his own request or that of any citizen.</p>
+
+<p>The law shall determine the form of summary proceedings to be followed
+in this case.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 21. No one shall be bound to testify against himself, neither shall
+he be compelled to testify against his consort, nor against his
+relatives within the fourth degree of consanguinity or second of
+affinity.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 22. The secrecy of correspondence and other private documents is
+inviolable, and neither shall be seized or examined except by order of a
+competent authority and with the formalities prescribed by the laws. In
+all cases matters therein contained not relating to the subject under
+investigation shall be kept secret.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 23. Domicile is inviolable; and therefore no one shall enter at
+night the house of another except by permission of its occupant, unless
+it be for the purpose of giving aid and assistance to victims of crime
+or accident; or in the daytime, except in the cases and in the manner
+prescribed by law.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 24. No person shall be compelled to change his domicile or
+residence except by virtue of an order issued<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_210" id="page_210">{210}</a></span> by a competent authority
+and in the cases prescribed by law.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 25. Every one may freely express his ideas either orally or in
+writing, through the press, or in any other manner, without subjection
+to previous censorship; but the responsibilities specified by law, when
+attacks are made upon the honor of individuals, the social order, or the
+public peace, shall be properly enforced.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 26. The profession of all religions, as well as the practice of all
+forms of worship, is free, without any other restriction than that
+demanded by the respect for Christian morality and public order. The
+church shall be separated from the state, which in no case shall
+subsidize any religion.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 27. All persons shall have the right to address petitions to the
+authorities, to have them duly acted upon, and to be informed of the
+action taken thereon.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 28. All the inhabitants of the Republic have the right to assemble
+peacefully, without arms, and to associate with others for all lawful
+pursuits of life.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 29. All persons shall have the right to enter or leave the
+territory of the Republic, to travel within its limits, and to change
+their residence, without necessity of safe conducts, passports, except
+when otherwise provided by the laws governing immigration, or by the
+authorities, in cases of criminal prosecution.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 30. No Cuban shall be banished from the territory of the Republic
+or prohibited from entering it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 31. Primary instruction shall be compulsory and gratuitous. The
+teaching of arts and trades shall also be gratuitous. Both shall be
+supported by the State, as long as the municipalities and Provinces,
+respectively, may lack sufficient funds to defray their expenses.</p>
+
+<p>Secondary and superior education shall be controlled<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_211" id="page_211">{211}</a></span> by the State. All
+persons however, may, without restriction, learn or teach any science,
+art, or profession, and found and maintain establishments of education
+and instruction, but it pertains to the State to determine what
+professions shall require special titles, what conditions shall be
+required for their practice and for the securing of diplomas, as well as
+for the issuing thereof as established by law.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 32. No one shall be deprived of his property, except by competent
+authority, upon proof that the condemnation is required by public
+utility, and previous indemnification. If the indemnification is not
+previously paid, the courts shall protect the owners and, if needed,
+restore to them the property.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 33. In no case shall the penalty of confiscation of property be
+imposed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 34. No person is bound to pay any tax or impost not legally
+established and the collection of which is not carried out in the manner
+prescribed by the laws.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 35. Every author or inventor shall enjoy the exclusive ownership of
+his work or invention for the time and in the manner determined by law.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 36. The enumeration of the rights expressly guaranteed by this
+Constitution does not exclude other rights based upon the principle of
+the sovereignty of the people and the republican form of Government.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 37. The laws regulating the exercise of the rights which this
+Constitution guarantees shall be null and void if said rights are
+abridged, restricted, or adulterated by them.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Section Second</span><br />
+<br />
+RIGHT OF SUFFRAGE<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 38. All Cubans of the masculine sex, over<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_212" id="page_212">{212}</a></span> twenty-one years of age,
+have the right of suffrage, except the following:</p>
+
+<p>1. Those who are inmates of asylums.</p>
+
+<p>2. Those judicially declared to be mentally incapacitated.</p>
+
+<p>3. Those judicially deprived of civil rights on account of crime.</p>
+
+<p>4. Those serving in the land or naval forces of the Republic when in
+active service.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 39. The laws shall establish rules and methods of procedure to
+guarantee the intervention of the minorities in the preparation of the
+census of electors, and in all other electoral matters, and its
+representation in the House of Representatives and in the provincial and
+municipal councils.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Section Third</span><br />
+<br />
+SUSPENSION OF CONSTITUTIONAL GUARANTIES<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 40. The guaranties established in articles 15, 16, 17, 19, 22, 23,
+24, and 27, section first of this title, shall not be suspended either
+in the whole Republic, or in any part thereof, except temporarily and
+when the safety of the state may require it, in cases of invasion of the
+territory or of serious disturbances that may threaten public peace.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 41. The territory in which the guaranties mentioned in the
+preceding article are suspended shall be ruled during the period of
+suspension according to the law of public order which may have been
+previously enacted. But neither the said law, nor any other, shall order
+the suspension of other guaranties not mentioned in the said article.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_213" id="page_213">{213}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Nor shall any new offenses be created, or new penalties not established
+by the law which was in force at the time of the suspension, be ordered
+to be inflicted during the same.</p>
+
+<p>The executive power is hereby forbidden to exile or expel from the
+country any citizen thereof, or compel him to reside at any other place
+farther than one hundred and twenty kilometers from his domicile. Nor
+shall it detain any citizen for more than ten days, without delivering
+him to the judicial authorities, or repeat the detention during the time
+of the suspension of guaranties. The detained individuals shall be kept
+in special departments in the public establishments destined for the
+detention of prisoners charged with common offenses.</p>
+
+<p>ART. 42. The suspension of the guaranties specified in article 40 shall
+be ordered only and exclusively by means of a law, but if Congress is
+not in session, it can be ordered by a decree of the President of the
+Republic. But the President shall have no power to suspend the
+guaranties more than once during the period intervening between two
+sessions of Congress, or for an indefinite period of time, or for a
+period longer than thirty days, without calling at the same time
+Congress to meet. In all cases the President shall report the facts to
+Congress, in order that it may act as deemed proper.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Title</span> V<br />
+<br />
+THE SOVEREIGNTY AND THE PUBLIC POWERS<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 43. The sovereignty is vested in the people of Cuba, and from the
+said people all the public powers emanate.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_214" id="page_214">{214}</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Title</span> VI<br />
+<br />
+THE LEGISLATIVE POWER<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Section First</span><br />
+<br />
+THE LEGISLATIVE BODIES<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 44. The legislative power is vested in two elective bodies, to be
+known as the Chamber of Representatives and the Senate; the two together
+constituting the Congress.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Section Second</span><br />
+<br />
+THE SENATE, ITS MEMBERSHIP AND ITS POWERS<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 45. The Senate shall consist of four Senators for each Province, to
+be elected in each one for a period of eight years by the provincial
+councilors, and by double that number of electors forming with the
+councilors an electoral college.</p>
+
+<p>One-half of the electors shall consist of citizens paying the greatest
+amount of taxes, and the other half shall possess the qualifications
+required by law. But it is necessary for all of them to be of full age
+and residents of the Province.</p>
+
+<p>The election of electors shall be made by the provincial voters one
+hundred days before that of the senators.</p>
+
+<p>The Senate shall be renewed by halves every four years.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 46. No one shall be a senator who has not the following
+qualifications:</p>
+
+<p>1. To be a Cuban by birth.</p>
+
+<p>2. To be over thirty-five years of age.</p>
+
+<p>3. To be in the full enjoyment of civil and political rights.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_215" id="page_215">{215}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 47. The Senate shall have the following exclusive powers:</p>
+
+<p>1. To try, sitting as a tribunal of justice, the impeachment of the
+President of the Republic, upon charges made against him by the Chamber
+of Representatives, for crimes against the external security of the
+State, against the free exercise of the legislative or judicial powers,
+or for violation of the constitutional provisions.</p>
+
+<p>2. To try, sitting as a tribunal of justice, the impeachment of the
+secretaries of state, upon charges made against them by the Chamber of
+Representatives, for crimes against the external security of the State,
+the free exercise of the legislative or judicial powers, violation of
+the constitutional provision, or any other crime of political character
+determined by law.</p>
+
+<p>3. To try, sitting as a tribunal of justice, the impeachment of the
+governors of Provinces, upon charges made against them by the provincial
+councils or by the President of the Republic for any of the crimes named
+in the foregoing paragraph.</p>
+
+<p>When the Senate sits as a tribunal of justice, it shall be presided over
+by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and shall not impose any other
+penalty than that of removal from office, or removal from office and
+disqualification from holding any public office; but the infliction of
+any other penalty upon the convicted official shall be left to the
+courts declared by law to be competent for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>4. To confirm the nominations made by the President of the Republic for
+the positions of Chief Justice and Associate Justices of the Supreme
+Court, diplomatic representatives and consular agents of the nation, and
+all other public officers whose nominations require the approval of the
+Senate in accordance with the law.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_216" id="page_216">{216}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>5. To authorize Cuban citizens to accept employment or honors from
+foreign governments or to serve in their armies.</p>
+
+<p>6. To approve the treaties entered into by the President of the Republic
+with other nations.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Section Third</span><br />
+<br />
+THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, ITS MEMBERSHIP AND ITS POWERS<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 48. The House of Representatives shall consist of one
+representative for each twenty-five thousand inhabitants or fraction
+thereof over twelve thousand five hundred, elected for the period of
+four years by the direct vote of the people and in the manner provided
+by law.</p>
+
+<p>The House of Representatives shall be renewed by halves every two years.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 49. No one shall be a Representative who has not the following
+qualifications:</p>
+
+<p>1. To be a Cuban citizen by birth or by naturalization, provided in the
+latter case that the candidate has resided eight years in the Republic,
+to be counted from the date of his naturalization.</p>
+
+<p>2. To have attained to the age of twenty-five years.</p>
+
+<p>3. To be in full possession of all civil and political rights.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 50. The power to impeach before the Senate the President of the
+Republic and the cabinet ministers, in the cases prescribed in
+paragraphs first and second of article 47 corresponds to the House of
+Representatives. But the concurrence of two-thirds of the total number
+of Representatives, in secret session, shall be required to exercise
+this right.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_217" id="page_217">{217}</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Section Fourth</span><br />
+<br />
+PROVISIONS COMMON TO BOTH HOUSES OF CONGRESS<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 51. The positions of Senator and Representative are incompatible
+with the holding of any other paid position of Government appointment,
+except a professorship in a Government institution, obtained by
+competitive examination prior to the election.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 52. Senators and Representatives shall receive from the State a
+pecuniary remuneration, alike for both positions, the amount of which
+may be changed at any time; the change shall not take effect until after
+the renewal of the legislative bodies.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 53. Senators and Representatives shall be inviolable for their
+votes and opinions in the discharge of their duties. Senators and
+Representatives shall only be arrested or indicted upon permission of
+the body to which they belong, if Congress is then in Session, except in
+case of flagrante delicto. In this case, and in the case of the arrest
+or indictment being made when Congress is not in session, the fact shall
+be reported, as soon as practicable, to the respective House for proper
+action.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 54. Both Houses of Congress shall open and close their sessions on
+the same day; they shall meet in the same city, and neither shall move
+to any other place, or adjourn for more than three days, except by
+common consent. Nor shall they begin to do business without two-thirds
+of the total number of their members being present, or continue their
+sessions without the attendance of an absolute majority.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 55. Each House shall be the judge of the election of its respective
+members and shall also pass upon their resignations. No Senator or
+Representative shall be expelled from the House to which he belongs,
+except upon<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_218" id="page_218">{218}</a></span> grounds previously determined, and to the concurrence of at
+least two-thirds of the total number of its members.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 56. Each House shall frame its respective rules and regulations,
+and elect from among its members its president, vice-presidents and
+secretaries. But the president of the Senate shall not discharge his
+duties as such, except in case the Vice-President of the Republic is
+absent or acting as President.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Section Fifth</span><br />
+<br />
+CONGRESS AND ITS POWERS<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 57. Congress shall assemble, without necessity of previous call,
+twice in each year, each session to last not less than forty working
+days. The first session shall begin on the first Monday in April and the
+second on the first Monday in November.</p>
+
+<p>It shall meet in extra session in such cases and in such manner as may
+be provided by its rules and regulations and when called to convene by
+the President of the Republic in accordance with the provisions of this
+Constitution. In both cases it shall only consider the express object or
+objects for which it assembles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 58. Congress shall meet in joint session to proclaim, after
+counting and verifying the electoral vote, the President and
+Vice-President of the Republic.</p>
+
+<p>In this case the president of the Senate, and in his absence the
+president of the House of Representatives, as vice-president of the
+Congress, shall preside over the joint meeting.</p>
+
+<p>If upon counting the votes for President it is found that none of the
+candidates has an absolute majority of votes, or if the votes are
+equally divided, Congress, by the same majority, shall elect as
+President one of the two <span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_219" id="page_219">{219}</a></span>candidates having obtained the greatest number
+of votes.</p>
+
+<p>Should more than two candidates receive the highest number of votes&mdash;no
+one obtaining an absolute majority&mdash;two or more having secured the same
+number, Congress shall elect from said candidates.</p>
+
+<p>The method established in the preceding paragraph shall be also employed
+in the election of Vice-President of the Republic.</p>
+
+<p>The counting of the electoral vote shall take place prior to the
+expiration of the Presidential term.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 59. Congress shall have the following powers:</p>
+
+<p>1. To enact the national codes and the laws of a general nature; to
+determine the rules that shall be observed in the general, provincial,
+and municipal elections; to issue orders for the regulation and
+organization of all services pertaining to the administration of
+national, provincial, and municipal government; and to pass all other
+laws and resolutions which it may deem proper relating to other matters
+of public interest.</p>
+
+<p>2. To discuss and approve the budgets of the revenues and expenses of
+the Government. The said revenues and expenses, except such as will be
+mentioned hereafter, shall be included in annual budgets which shall be
+available only during the year for which they shall have been approved.</p>
+
+<p>The expenses of Congress, those of the administration of justice, and
+those required to meet the interest and redemption of loans, shall have,
+the same as the revenues with which they have to be paid, the character
+of permanent and shall be included in a fixed budget which shall remain
+in force until changed by special laws.</p>
+
+<p>3. To contract loans, with the obligation, however, of providing
+permanent revenues for the payment of the interest and redemption
+thereof.</p>
+
+<p>All measures relating to loans shall require the vote of two-thirds of
+the total numbers of the members of each House.</p>
+
+<p>4. To coin money, fixing the standard, weight, value, and denomination
+thereof.</p>
+
+<p>5. To regulate the system of weights and measures.</p>
+
+<p>6. To make provisions for regulating and developing internal and foreign
+commerce.</p>
+
+<p>7. To regulate the services of communications and railroads, roads,
+canals, and harbors, creating those required by public convenience.</p>
+
+<p>8. To levy such taxes and imposts of national character as may be
+necessary for the needs of the government.</p>
+
+<p>9. To establish rules and proceedings for obtaining naturalization.</p>
+
+<p>10. To grant amnesties.</p>
+
+<p>11. To fix the strength of the land and naval forces and provide for
+their organization.</p>
+
+<p>12. To declare war and approve treaties of peace negotiated by the
+President of the Republic.</p>
+
+<p>13. To designate, by means of a special law, the official who shall act
+as President of the Republic in case of death, resignation, removal, or
+supervenient inability of the President and Vice-President.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 60. Congress shall not attach to appropriation bills any provision
+tending to make changes or reforms in the legislation or in the
+administration of the Government; nor shall it diminish or abolish
+revenues of permanent character without creating at the same time new
+revenues to take their place, except in case that the decrease or
+abolition depend upon the decrease or abolition of the equivalent
+permanent expenses. Nor shall Congress appropriate for any service to be
+provided for in the annual budget a larger sum of money than that
+<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_221" id="page_221">{221}</a></span>recommended in the estimates submitted by the Government; but Congress
+may by means of special laws create new services and reform or give
+greater scope to those already existing.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Section Sixth</span><br />
+<br />
+INITIATIVE, PREPARATION, APPROVAL,<br />
+AND PROMULGATION OF LAWS<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 61. The right to initiate legislation is vested without distinction
+in both houses of Congress.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 62. Every bill passed by the two houses, and every resolution of
+the same which has to be executed by the President of the Republic,
+shall be submitted to him for approval. If they are approved, they shall
+be signed at once by the President. If they are not approved, they shall
+be returned by the President, with his objections, to the house in which
+they originated, which shall enter said objections upon its journal and
+engage again in the discussion of the subject.</p>
+
+<p>If after this new discussion two-thirds of the total number of the
+members of the house vote in favor of the bill or resolution as
+originally passed, the latter shall be referred with the objections of
+the President, to the other house, where it shall be also discussed, and
+if the measure is approved there by the same majority it shall become
+law. In all these cases the vote shall be by yeas and nays.</p>
+
+<p>If within ten working days immediately following the sending of the bill
+or resolution to the President, the latter fails to return it, it shall
+be considered approved and shall become law.</p>
+
+<p>If within the last ten days of a session of Congress a bill is sent to
+the President of the Republic, and he wishes<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_222" id="page_222">{222}</a></span> to take advantage of the
+whole time granted him in the foregoing paragraph for the purposes of
+approval or disapproval, he shall acquaint the Congress with his desire,
+so as to cause it to remain in session, if it so wishes, until the end
+of the ten days. The failure by the President to do so shall cause the
+bill to be considered approved and become law.</p>
+
+<p>No bill totally rejected by one house shall be discussed again in the
+same session.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 63. Every law shall be promulgated within ten days next following
+its approval by either the President or the Congress, as the case may
+be, under the provisions of the preceding article.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Title</span> VII<br />
+<br />
+THE EXECUTIVE POWER<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">SECTION FIRST</span><br />
+<br />
+THE EXERCISE OF THE EXECUTIVE POWER<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 64. The executive power shall be vested in the President of the
+Republic.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Section Second</span><br />
+<br />
+THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC, HIS POWERS<br />
+AND DUTIES<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. 65. To be President of the Republic the following qualifications
+shall be required.</p>
+
+<p>1. To be a Cuban by birth or naturalization, and in the latter case to
+have served in the Cuban armies in the wars of independence for at least
+ten years.</p>
+
+<p>2. To be over forty years of age.</p>
+
+<p>3. To be in the full enjoyment of civil and political rights.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_223" id="page_223">{223}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 66.</span> The President of the Republic shall be elected by presidential
+electors on the same day, in the manner provided by law.</p>
+
+<p>The term of office shall be four years, and no one shall be President
+for three consecutive terms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 67.</span> The President, before entering on the discharge of the duties
+of his office, shall take oath or affirmation before the supreme court
+of justice to faithfully discharge his duties and comply and cause
+others to comply with the constitution and the laws.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 68.</span> The President of the Republic shall have the following powers
+and duties:</p>
+
+<p>1. To approve and promulgate the laws, and obey and cause others to obey
+their provisions. To enact, if Congress has not done so, such rules and
+regulations as may be necessary for the proper execution of the laws;
+and to issue all orders or decrees which may be conducive to the same
+purpose or to any other purposes of government and the administration
+thereof in the Republic, provided that in no case the said orders or
+decrees are at variance with the provisions of the law.</p>
+
+<p>2. To call Congress, or the Senate alone, to meet in extra session in
+the cases set forth in the constitution, or when in his opinion the
+meeting may be necessary.</p>
+
+<p>3. He shall adjourn Congress when no agreement can be reached between
+the two houses on the question of adjournment.</p>
+
+<p>4. To transmit to Congress at the beginning of each session, and
+whenever he may deem it advisable, a message relating to the acts of his
+administration, showing the general condition of the affairs of the
+Republic, and recommending the adoption of such laws and measures as he
+may deem necessary or advisable.</p>
+
+<p>5. To submit to Congress through either one of the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_224" id="page_224">{224}</a></span> Houses, before the
+15th of November, a draft of the annual budget.</p>
+
+<p>6. To furnish Congress all the information desired by it on every matter
+of business which does not require secrecy.</p>
+
+<p>7. To conduct all diplomatic negotiations and conclude treaties with
+foreign nations, provided that these treaties be submitted for approval
+of the Senate, without which requisite they shall be neither valid nor
+binding upon the Republic.</p>
+
+<p>8. To freely appoint and remove the Secretaries of State, giving
+Congress information of his action.</p>
+
+<p>9. To appoint, with the approval of the Senate, the Chief Justice and
+the Associate Justices of the Supreme Court, and the diplomatic and
+consular agents of the Republic. If the vacancy occurs at a time in
+which the Senate is not in session, he shall have power to make the
+appointment of said functionaries ad interim.</p>
+
+<p>10. To appoint all other public officers recognized by law, whose
+appointment is not entrusted to some other authority.</p>
+
+<p>11. To suspend the exercise of the rights enumerated in article 40 of
+the constitution in the cases and in the manner set forth in articles 41
+and 42.</p>
+
+<p>12. To suspend the resolutions passed by the provincial and municipal
+councils in the cases and in the manner set forth in this constitution.</p>
+
+<p>13. To order the suspension of the governors of provinces in case they
+exceed their powers or violate the laws; but in these cases he shall
+report the fact to the Senate, in the manner and form determined by law,
+for such action as may be proper.</p>
+
+<p>14. To prefer charges against the governors of provinces in the cases
+set forth in paragraph 3 of article 47.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_225" id="page_225">{225}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>15. To grant pardons according to the provisions of the law, except in
+the case of public functionaries convicted for wrongs done in the
+exercise of their functions.</p>
+
+<p>16. To receive diplomatic representatives and admit consular agents of
+other nations.</p>
+
+<p>17. To dispose of the land and sea forces of the Republic as chief
+commander of the same. To provide for the defense of the national
+territory, reporting to Congress what he may have done on the subject.
+To provide for the preservation of peace and public order in the
+interior of the country. If there is danger of invasion or of any
+rebellion breaking out and gravely threatening the public safety,
+Congress not being in session at the time, the President shall call it
+to convene without delay for such action as may be deemed proper.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 69.</span> The President shall not leave the territory of the Republic
+without the permission of Congress.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 70.</span> The President shall be responsible before the Supreme Court for
+the common offense he may commit during his term of office, but he shall
+not be prosecuted without previous permission of the Senate.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 71.</span> The President shall receive from the State a salary which may
+be changed at any time, but the change shall not go into effect until
+the next following presidential term.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Title VIII</span><br />
+<br />
+THE VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 72.</span> There shall be a Vice-President of the Republic, who shall be
+elected in the same manner and for the same period of time as the
+President, and jointly with him. To be Vice-President the same
+qualifications set forth in this constitution to be President shall be
+required.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_226" id="page_226">{226}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 73.</span> The Vice-President of the Republic shall be the President of
+the Senate, but he shall vote only in case that the votes of the
+Senators are equally divided.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 74.</span> In case of temporary or permanent absence of the President of
+the Republic, the Vice-President shall act in his place. If the absence
+is permanent, the Acting President shall continue in office until the
+end of the presidential term.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 75.</span> The Vice-President shall receive from the State a salary which
+may be changed at any time, but the change shall not go into effect
+until the next following presidential term.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Title IX</span><br />
+<br />
+THE SECRETARIES OF STATE<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 76.</span> For the transaction of the executive business the President of
+the Republic shall have as many Secretaries of State as the law may
+determine, and no one shall be a Secretary of State who is not a Cuban
+citizen in the full enjoyment of his civil and political rights.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 77.</span> All decrees, orders and decisions of the President of the
+Republic shall be counter-signed by the secretary of State to whom the
+matter corresponds. Without this signature no decree, order or decision
+of the President shall have binding force nor shall it be obeyed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 78.</span> The secretaries of state shall be personally responsible for
+the measures signed by them, and jointly and severally for the measures
+agreed upon or authorized by them at a cabinet meeting. This
+responsibility does not exclude the personal and direct responsibility
+of the President of the Republic.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art.</span> 79. The secretaries of state shall be impeachable before the Senate
+by the House of Representatives in the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_227" id="page_227">{227}</a></span> cases mentioned in the second
+paragraph of article 47.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 80.</span> The secretaries of state shall receive from the State a salary,
+which may be changed at any time, but the change shall not go into
+effect until the next following presidential term.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Title X</span><br />
+<br />
+THE JUDICIAL POWER<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Section First</span><br />
+<br />
+THE EXERCISE OF THE JUDICIAL POWER<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 81.</span> The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court of Justice and
+in all the other tribunals which may be established by law. The law
+shall regulate the respective organization and powers of these
+tribunals, the manner of exercising their powers, and the qualifications
+required of the judicial functionaries.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Section Second</span><br />
+<br />
+THE SUPREME COURT OF JUSTICE<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 82.</span> To be Chief Justice or Associate Justice of the Supreme Court
+the following qualifications shall be required:</p>
+
+<p>1. To be a Cuban by birth.</p>
+
+<p>2. To be over thirty-five years of age.</p>
+
+<p>3. To be in the full enjoyment of civil and political rights and not to
+have been condemned to any corporal punishment for common offenses.</p>
+
+<p>4. To have in addition to the foregoing qualifications any one of the
+following:</p>
+
+<p>To have practiced in Cuba, during ten years at least, the profession of
+lawyer; or have discharged for the same<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_228" id="page_228">{228}</a></span> length of time judicial
+functions, or have taught law for the same number of years in an
+official establishment.</p>
+
+<p>The following persons are also eligible for the positions of Chief
+Justice or Associate Justices of the Supreme Court, even if not having
+the qualifications set forth in clauses 1, 2, and 3 of this article:</p>
+
+<p>(a) Those who have served in the judiciary of the time determined by law
+in a position of equal or immediately inferior category.</p>
+
+<p>(b) Those who, previous to the promulgation of this constitution, served
+as justices of the supreme court of the island of Cuba.</p>
+
+<p>The time of service in the judiciary shall be computed as time of
+practice of law for the purpose of qualifying the lawyers to be
+appointed justices of the supreme court.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 83.</span> The Supreme Court shall have the following powers, in addition
+to those already vested or hereafter to be vested in it:</p>
+
+<p>1. To take cognizance of cases on a writ of error.</p>
+
+<p>2. To decide conflicts of jurisdiction between courts immediately
+inferior to it, or not having a common superior.</p>
+
+<p>3. To take cognizance of the cases to which the State on the one side
+and the provinces or municipalities on the other, are parties.</p>
+
+<p>4. To decide as to the constitutionality of the laws, decrees, and
+regulations when a question of that effect is raised by any party.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Section Third</span><br />
+<br />
+GENERAL RULES REGARDING THE ADMINISTRATION<br />
+OF JUSTICE<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 84.</span> Justice shall be administered gratuitously throughout the
+entire territory of the Republic.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_229" id="page_229">{229}</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 85.</span> The courts shall take cognizance of all cases, whether civil,
+criminal, or between the Government and private parties.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 86.</span> No judicial commissions or extraordinary tribunals, no matter
+under what name, shall ever be created.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 87.</span> No functionary of the judicial order shall be suspended or
+removed from his office except for crime or any other grave cause, fully
+proven, and always after being heard. Nor shall he be transferred
+without his consent to any other place, unless it is for the manifest
+benefit of the public service.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 88.</span> All judicial functionaries shall be personally responsible, in
+the manner and form determined by law, for the violations of law which
+they may commit.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 89.</span> The salaries of judicial functionaries shall not be changed
+except at the end of periods of more than five years, and by means of a
+law. The law, however, shall not give different salaries to positions
+whose rank, category, and functions are equal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 90.</span> The courts for the forces of land and sea shall be governed by
+a special organic law.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Title XI</span><br />
+<br />
+THE PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Section First</span><br />
+<br />
+GENERAL PROVISIONS<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 91.</span> A province consists of the municipal districts established
+within its limits.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 92.</span> Each province shall have a governor and a provincial council
+elected directly by the people, in the manner and form established by
+law.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_230" id="page_230">{230}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The number of councilors in each province shall not be less than eight
+nor more than twenty.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Section Second</span><br />
+<br />
+THE PROVINCIAL COUNCILS AND THEIR POWERS<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 93.</span> The provincial councils shall have the following powers:</p>
+
+<p>1. To resolve upon matters concerning the provinces which, under the
+constitution, treaties or laws, are not within the general jurisdiction
+of the State or the exclusive jurisdiction of the municipal councils.</p>
+
+<p>2. To frame the budget of their expenses, providing at the same time for
+the necessary revenue to meet them, provided that this is done in a
+manner not inconsistent with the system adopted by the State.</p>
+
+<p>3. To contract loans for public works of provincial interest, provided
+that at the same time sufficient revenue is raised to meet the payment
+of interest and principal when due.</p>
+
+<p>Such loans shall not be carried into effect unless they are approved by
+two-thirds of the municipal councils of the province.</p>
+
+<p>4. To impeach before the Senate the governor of their respective
+province, in the case set forth in paragraph 3 of article 47, when
+two-thirds of the total number of provincial councilors decide in secret
+session that this should be done.</p>
+
+<p>5. To appoint and remove, according to law, the provincial employes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 94.</span> The provincial councils shall have no power to diminish or
+abolish revenue of permanent character without creating at the same time
+other revenue to take its place, except in case that the decrease or
+suppression<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_231" id="page_231">{231}</a></span> is due to the decrease or suppression of equivalent
+permanent expenses.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 95.</span> The resolutions of the provincial councils shall be sent to the
+governor of the province. If approved, they shall be signed by him; if
+not, they shall be returned with his objections to the council, wherein
+the subject shall be again discussed. If after the second discussion the
+resolution is approved by two-thirds of the total number of councilors
+it shall become a law.</p>
+
+<p>If the governor does not return the resolution within ten days from the
+date of reference it shall be considered approved and shall become a
+law.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 96.</span> The resolutions of the provincial councils may be suspended by
+the governor of the province or by the President of the Republic,
+whenever, in their opinion, they are contrary to the constitution, the
+laws, or any resolutions passed by the municipal councils in due
+exercise of their functions; but the right to take cognizance of and
+pass upon the claims which may arise out of the said suspension shall be
+reserved to the courts of justice.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 97.</span> Neither the provincial councils not any section or committees,
+selected from their members or from persons not members thereof, shall
+intervene in matters belonging to any class of elections.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 98.</span> The provincial councilors shall be personally responsible
+before the courts in the manner determined by law for whatever may be
+done by them in the exercise of their functions.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Section Third</span><br />
+<br />
+THE GOVERNORS OF PROVINCES AND THEIR POWERS<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 99.</span> The governors of provinces shall have the following powers:<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_232" id="page_232">{232}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>1. To comply and cause others to comply, as far as their provinces are
+concerned, with the laws, decrees, and general rules and regulations of
+the nation.</p>
+
+<p>2. To publish such resolutions of the provincial councils as have force
+of law, and comply and cause others to comply with them.</p>
+
+<p>3. To issue orders, instructions, and rules for the proper execution of
+the resolutions of the provincial council, if the latter has not done so
+already.</p>
+
+<p>4. To call the provincial councils to convene in extra session whenever
+in his own judgment the same may be necessary. The subjects to be
+discussed in this session shall be set forth in the call.</p>
+
+<p>5. To suspend the resolutions of the provincial and municipal councils
+in the cases set forth in this constitution.</p>
+
+<p>6. To order the suspension of mayors, in case they have exceeded their
+powers, violated the constitution or the laws, acted in contravention to
+the resolutions of the provincial councils, or failed to do their duty.
+The suspension shall be reported to the provincial council in the manner
+and form established by law.</p>
+
+<p>7. To appoint and remove the employes of their offices in the manner
+provided by law.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 100.</span> The governors shall be responsible before the Senate in the
+cases set forth in this constitution, and before the courts of justice,
+according to the provisions of the law, in all other classes of
+offenses.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 101.</span> The governors shall receive from the provincial treasury a
+salary, which may be changed at any time, but the change shall not take
+effect until after a new governor's election is held.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 102.</span> In case of temporary or permanent vacancy of the position of
+governor of the province, the president of the provincial council shall
+act in his place. If the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_233" id="page_233">{233}</a></span> vacancy is permanent, the acting governor
+shall continue in the discharge of his duties as such until the end of
+the term.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Title XII</span><br />
+<br />
+THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Section First</span><br />
+<br />
+GENERAL PROVISIONS<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 103.</span> The municipal districts shall be governed by municipal
+councils, consisting of aldermen or councilors directly elected by the
+people, in the number and in the manner provided by law.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 104.</span> There shall be in each municipal district a mayor elected by
+the people by direct vote in the manner and form established by law.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Section Second</span><br />
+<br />
+THE MUNICIPAL COUNCILS AND THEIR POWERS<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 105.</span> The municipal councils shall have the following powers:</p>
+
+<p>1. To resolve on all matters exclusively relating to their own municipal
+districts.</p>
+
+<p>2. To prepare the budget of their expenses, providing at the same time,
+on condition, however, that this is done in a manner consistent with the
+general system of taxation of the Republic.</p>
+
+<p>3. To resolve on the negotiation of loans, providing at the same time
+the permanent revenue necessary to meet the interest and principal when
+due.</p>
+
+<p>In order that these loans may be carried into effect, they shall have to
+be approved by two-thirds of the electors of the municipal district.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_234" id="page_234">{234}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>4. To appoint and remove the municipal employes in the manner
+established by law.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 106.</span> The municipal councils shall not decrease or suppress any
+revenues of permanent character without establishing at the same time
+some other revenues which may take their place, except in case the
+decrease or suppression is due to the decrease or suppression of the
+equivalent permanent expense.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 107.</span> The resolutions of the municipal councils shall be referred to
+the mayor. If approved by him, they shall be authorized with his
+signature; if not, they shall be returned, with his objections, to the
+municipal council, wherein they shall be again discussed. If, after a
+second discussion, two-thirds of the total number of councilors vote in
+favor of the resolution it shall become a law.</p>
+
+<p>When the mayor does not return the resolution, within ten days after the
+date of reference, it shall be considered approved and become a law.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 108.</span> The resolutions of the municipal councils may be suspended by
+the mayor, the governor of the province, or the President of the
+Republic, when in their opinion they are contrary to the constitution,
+the treaties, the laws, or the resolutions passed by the provincial
+councils within the sphere of their powers. But the right to take
+cognizance and pass upon the claims which may arise out of said
+suspension shall be reserved to the courts of justice.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 109.</span> The members of the municipal councils shall be personally
+responsible before the courts of justice, in the manner and form
+established by law, for the acts done by them in the performance of
+their duties.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_235" id="page_235">{235}</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Section Third</span><br />
+<br />
+THE MAYORS AND THEIR POWERS AND DUTIES<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 110.</span> Mayors shall have power:</p>
+
+<p>1. To publish such resolutions of the municipal councils as may have
+force of law, and execute and cause the same to be executed.</p>
+
+<p>2. To administer the municipal affairs, issuing orders and instructions
+as well as rules for the better execution of the resolutions of the
+municipal councils, whenever the latter may fail to do so.</p>
+
+<p>3. To appoint and remove the employes of their respective offices in the
+manner provided by law.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 111.</span> The Mayors shall be personally responsible before the courts
+of justice, in the manner prescribed by law, for all acts performed by
+them in the discharge of their functions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 112.</span> Each Mayor shall receive a salary, to be paid by the municipal
+treasury, which may be changed at any time; but such change shall not
+take effect until after a new election for Mayor has been held.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 113.</span> In case of vacancy, either temporary or permanent, of the
+office of Mayor, the president of the municipal council shall act as
+Mayor.</p>
+
+<p>Should the absence be permanent, the substitute shall act until the end
+of the term for which the Mayor was elected.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">Title XIII</span><br />
+<br />
+THE NATIONAL TREASURY<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art. 114.</span> All property existing within the territory of the Republic not
+belonging to provinces, municipalities or private individuals or
+corporations, shall belong to the State.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_236" id="page_236">{236}</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+<span class="smcap">TITLE XIV</span><br />
+<br />
+AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">ART. 115.</span> The Constitution shall not be amended, in whole or in part,
+except by resolution passed by two-thirds of the total number of members
+of each House of Congress.</p>
+
+<p>Six months after the resolution to amend the Constitution has been
+passed, a constitutional convention shall be called to assemble for the
+exclusive and specific purpose of either approving or rejecting the
+amendment. Each House shall, in the meantime, continue to perform its
+duties with absolute independence of the convention.</p>
+
+<p>Delegates to the said convention shall be elected by each province at
+the rate of one for every fifty thousand inhabitants, in the manner that
+may be provided by law.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+TRANSIENT PROVISIONS<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>First. The Republic of Cuba does not recognize any other debts or
+obligations than those legitimately contracted in favor of the
+revolution by commanders of bodies of the liberating army, subsequent to
+the twenty-fourth day of February, eighteen hundred and ninety-five, and
+prior to the nineteenth day of September of the same year, on which date
+the Jimaguayu Constitution was promulgated; and the debts and
+obligations contracted afterward, by the revolutionary government,
+either by itself or through its legitimate representatives in foreign
+countries. Congress shall examine said debts and obligations and decide
+upon the payment of those which are found legitimate.</p>
+
+<p>Second. Persons born in Cuba, or children of native-born Cubans, who, at
+the time of the promulgation of this<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_237" id="page_237">{237}</a></span> Constitution, are citizens of any
+foreign nation shall not enjoy the rights of Cuban nationality without
+first renouncing expressly the foreign citizenship.</p>
+
+<p>Third. The time of service of foreigners in the wars of independence of
+Cuba shall be counted as time of naturalization and residence, for the
+acquisition of the right granted to naturalized citizens in article 49.</p>
+
+<p>Fourth. The basis of population established in relation to the election
+of representatives in Congress, and of delegates to the constitutional
+convention, in articles 48 and 115, may be changed by law whenever, in
+the judgment of Congress, the change becomes necessary through the
+increase in the number of inhabitants, shown by censuses to be
+periodically taken.</p>
+
+<p>Fifth. At the time of the first organization of the Senate, the Senators
+shall be divided into two groups for the purpose of their renewal.</p>
+
+<p>Those forming the first group shall cease in their duties at the
+expiration of the fourth year, and those forming the second group at the
+expiration of the eighth year. It shall be decided by lot which of the
+two Senators from each province shall belong to either group.</p>
+
+<p>The law shall provide the method to be followed in the formation of the
+two groups into which the House of Representatives shall be divided for
+the purpose of its partial renewal.</p>
+
+<p>Sixth. Ninety days after the promulgation of the electoral law, which
+shall be framed and adopted by the constitutional convention, an
+election shall be held of the public functionaries provided by the
+Constitution, to whom the transfer of the Government of Cuba, in
+conformity with the provisions of Order No. 301 of Headquarters Division
+of Cuba, dated July twenty-fifth, nineteen hundred, is to be made.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_238" id="page_238">{238}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Seventh. All laws, decrees, regulations, orders and other provisions
+which may be in force at the time of the promulgation of this
+Constitution shall continue to be observed, in so far as they do not
+conflict with the said Constitution, until legally revoked or amended.</p>
+
+<p>Hall of sessions of the Constitutional Convention, Havana, February
+twenty-first, nineteen hundred and one.</p>
+
+<p>The Constitutional Convention, acting in conformity with the order of
+the Military Governor of the island, of July 25, 1900, by which it was
+called to assemble, resolves to attach, and does hereby attach to the
+Constitution of the Republic of Cuba adopted on February twenty-first
+ultimo, the following.</p>
+
+<p class="c top5">
+APPENDIX<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Article</span> I. The Government of Cuba shall never enter into any treaty or
+other compact with any foreign power or powers which will impair or tend
+to impair the independence of Cuba, nor in any way authorize or permit
+any foreign power or powers to obtain by colonization or for military or
+naval purposes, or otherwise, lodgment in or control over any portion of
+said island.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. II. That said Government shall not assume or contract any public
+debt to pay the interest upon which, and to make reasonable sinking-fund
+provision for the ultimate discharge of which, the ordinary revenues of
+the island, after defraying the current expenses of Government, shall be
+inadequate.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Art</span>. III. That the Government of Cuba consents that the United States
+may exercise the right to intervene for the preservation of Cuban
+independence, the maintenance of a government adequate for the
+protection of life, property, and individual liberty, and for
+discharging the obligations with respect to Cuba imposed by the Treaty
+of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_239" id="page_239">{239}</a></span> Peace on the United States, now to be assumed and undertaken by the
+Government of Cuba.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">ART. IV.</span> That all acts of the United States in Cuba during its military
+occupancy thereof are ratified and validated, and all lawful rights
+acquired thereunder shall be maintained and protected.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">ART. V.</span> That the Government of Cuba will execute, and, as far as
+necessary, extend the plans already devised, or other plans to be
+mutually agreed upon, for the sanitation of the cities of the island, to
+the end that a recurrence of epidemic and infectious diseases may be
+prevented, thereby assuring protection to the people and commerce of
+Cuba, as well as to the commerce of the southern ports of the United
+States and the people residing therein.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">ART. VI.</span> That the Isle of Pines shall be omitted from the proposed
+constitutional boundaries of Cuba, the title thereto being left to
+future adjustment by treaty.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">ART. VII.</span> That to enable the United States to maintain the independence
+of Cuba, and to protect the people thereof, as well as for its own
+defence, the Government of Cuba will sell or lease to the United States
+lands necessary for coaling or naval stations, at certain specified
+points, to be agreed upon with the President of the United States.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">ART. VIII.</span> That, by way of further assurance, the Government of Cuba
+will embody the foregoing provisions in a permanent treaty with the
+United States.</p>
+
+<p>Hall of sessions, June twelfth, nineteen hundred and one.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_240" id="page_240">{240}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h3>
+
+<p>After the Constitution, the Government. On October 14, 1901, General
+Wood as Military Governor of Cuba issued an order for the holding of a
+general election throughout the island on December 31, that day to be a
+legal holiday. At that election there were to be chosen Presidential and
+Senatorial Electors, Members of the House of Representatives, Governors
+of Provinces or Departments, and members of Provincial Assemblies or
+Councils. At the same time it was announced that the election of
+President, Vice-President and Senators, by the electoral colleges, would
+take place on February 24, 1902. A provisional election law was also
+promulgated at that time.</p>
+
+<p>This order brought acutely to the fore the question of Presidential
+candidates. There were several of them, but none of them could be
+regarded as a party candidate for the reason that there were then
+practically no parties. The three which had existed had gradually
+dissolved, merged into each other, and left the Cuban people free to
+follow purely individual leaders again.</p>
+
+<p>Maximo Gomez was naturally looked to as the foremost candidate for the
+Presidency, and despite the bitterness of some politicians against him
+there is little doubt that if he had consented to be a candidate he
+would have stood alone and been elected practically without opposition.
+No man deserved the honor more than he. But it was more than an honor.
+It was a tremendously serious responsibility. Now Gomez was not the man
+to<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_241" id="page_241">{241}</a></span> shirk responsibility. But he was not a man, either, to accept it
+rashly. He knew his own limitations. He knew, too, the requirements of
+the place. There was needed a scholar and statesman, rather than a
+"rough and ready" bushwhacking soldier. So he would not even consider
+the offer of the nomination. "I was never intended," he said, "to become
+the President of any country. I think too much of Cuba to become her
+President."</p>
+
+<p>Calixto Garcia, who after the death of Antonio Maceo stood second to
+Gomez as a commander, and who was General-in-Chief of the eastern half
+of the island, had won a splendid reputation for efficient work in
+Oriente and Camaguey, and was a man of great force and ability, and of
+much popularity among the Cuban people. But he died at Washington of
+pneumonia soon after the close of the war.</p>
+
+<p>With these two great chieftains of Cuba's wars thus out of the running,
+the choice by common consent fell upon Tomas Estrada Palma; and a better
+choice could not have been made. We have already seen something of his
+work as the head of the Cuban Junta in New York. He was now past the
+prime of life, having been born at Bayamo in 1837, but he was in full
+mastery of his ripe intellectual and physical powers. The son of a rich
+and distinguished family, he was sent in his youth to Seville to study
+law, and for a time practised it with much success in Cuba. But he was a
+patriot, and when the Ten Years' War began he entered the Cuban ranks
+and had a distinguished career in the field, as also in the councils of
+the Republic in the field. Unfortunately he was captured by the enemy
+and was sent to Spain, where he was a prisoner until the end of the war.
+Then he went to Honduras, became Postmaster-General of that country, and
+married the accomplished daughter of President Guardiola.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_242" id="page_242">{242}</a></span> Thence he
+went to the United States and for some years was the head of an
+admirable private school for boys at Central Valley, New York; most of
+his pupils being from Cuba and other Latin-American countries.</p>
+
+<p>At the outbreak of the War of Independence in 1895 the veteran patriot
+promptly offered himself for any service that he could perform. Though
+nearing the age of three score, he would gladly have taken up his rifle
+again and gone into the field. But there was more important and more
+profitable work for Cuba to be done than that would have been, and he
+entered upon it with zeal, as the head of the Cuban Junta in New York.
+Especially after the death of Marti, he was the guiding spirit of that
+organization, and as such, at least in the eyes of America and of the
+world at large, he was the actual head of the Cuban revolution, even
+more than the President of the Provisional Government in the patriot
+stronghold in the mountains of Cubitas. He was not merely the very
+active head of the working organization of the Junta, which supplied the
+Cuban army with the sinews of war, but he was the diplomatic
+representative of Cuba, though only informally recognized, at
+Washington. He was at this time still in the United States, and was
+making no effort whatever to secure the Presidential nomination.
+Doubtless he would have been quite content not to receive it, and would
+have given his heartiest and most efficient support to any other man who
+might have been chosen. But there was a spontaneous turning of all Cuban
+eyes and minds and hearts toward him as the man of all best fitted to
+inaugurate the independent republican sovereignty of the insular state
+as its first President. He was the choice of no party&mdash;parties were yet
+inchoate&mdash;but of the Cuban people.</p>
+
+<p>In similar fashion General Bartolome Maso was put<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_243" id="page_243">{243}</a></span> forward for
+Vice-President. Of him we have already heard much in these pages; a
+stern old warrior patriot of Oriente, who had done inestimable service
+in the field in the two wars, and who had been President of the
+Revolutionary Government&mdash;its last President, in the mountains of
+Cubitas, at the time of the American intervention. A man of fine
+education, of unblemished integrity, of sterling patriotism, he
+commanded the respect and affection of all who knew him; though it must
+be confessed that he was personally little known at the capital or in
+the western half of the island.</p>
+
+<p>For a time there seemed every prospect that these two men, so admirably
+chosen, would be elected without contest. But at the end of October
+there was a schism. Estrada Palma was favorably inclined toward the
+Platt Amendment, while Bartolome Maso remained outspoken against it. The
+sequel was that all the politicians of whatever factions who were
+opposed to that instrument joined in putting Maso forward as a candidate
+not for the Vice-Presidency but for the Presidency, in opposition to
+Palma. On October 31 Maso issued an address announcing his candidacy,
+which, he said, he had been induced to accept "in order to preserve the
+nationalism and patriotism of the country"; and he added that the
+American intervention had been "perverted into a military occupation
+approaching a conquest." This was exaggeration, though entirely sincere;
+Maso lacking the broad international vision necessary to appreciate the
+relationships with the United States and the rest of the world upon
+which Cuba was about to enter. But it made a strong appeal to a number
+of diverse and incongruous elements, including some of the former
+Autonomists, many of the Spaniards, and a number of Negroes who were
+inclined to form a race party of their own.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_244" id="page_244">{244}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There followed an animated but orderly and amicable campaign of mass
+meetings and stump speeches, quite after the American style. At one time
+the followers of Maso appeared to be numerous, and claimed that they
+were sixty per cent. of the citizens of Cuba. But such claims were
+illusory. Nearly all important leaders, from Maximo Gomez down, were on
+the side of Estrada Palma, and before the actual trial of strength at
+the polls Maso withdrew from the campaign, leaving Palma alone in the
+field. The supporters of Maso explained that his candidacy was withdrawn
+because there was no prospect of a fair election. They objected to some
+provisions of the election law, and complained that they were not fairly
+represented on the boards of registration and election. They even
+alleged that frauds were being committed in the registration, and they
+asked that the election be postponed in order that there might be
+another registration over which they should have a larger measure of
+supervision. This request was refused, whereupon they withdrew from all
+participation in the election. A manifesto was issued, denouncing the
+Central Board of Elections as "a coalition of partisans" and declaring
+that "neither in official circles in the United States nor in Cuba does
+the intention exist to see that the elections are carried out with
+sufficient legality to reflect the real wishes of the Cubans." These
+imputations were unwarranted, and most regrettable; and were rightly
+regarded by the great majority of Cubans as a practical confession of
+the weakness of the Maso faction.</p>
+
+<p>The elections were duly held on the day appointed, and were conducted
+with admirable quiet, order and dignity. The unfortunate feature of them
+was that only a very light vote was polled. Not only did the supporters
+of Maso pretty generally abstain from voting, but many<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_245" id="page_245">{245}</a></span> of Palma's
+followers, knowing that there was no real contest, did not take the
+trouble to go to the polls. Commenting upon the circumstances, General
+Wood reported: "I regret to state that a large portion of the
+conservative element, composed of property owners, and business and
+professional men, did not take such an interest in the elections as
+proper regard for the welfare of their country required, and
+consequently the representation of this element among the officials
+elected has not been proportionately as large as the best interests of
+the island demand." Despite the abstention of Maso's followers from
+voting, eight members of that faction were elected in the sixty-three
+members of the Electoral College. On February 24 the Electoral College
+met and elected Tomas Estrada Palma to be President and Luis Estevez to
+be Vice-President of the Republic of Cuba.</p>
+
+<p>President Roosevelt, in a message to the Congress of the United States
+on March 27, reported the progress of Cuba toward self-government, and
+recommended that provision be made for sending diplomatic and consular
+representatives thither, and the Secretary of War began preparations for
+withdrawing the Military Governor and all American officials and forces,
+and permitting the installation of the native government. It was
+arranged that the last-named event should occur on May 20, 1902, four
+years and a month after the American act of intervention.</p>
+
+<p>The closing weeks of the American occupation were made busy with the
+closing up of affairs preparatory to departure. Two new laws relating to
+railroads were promulgated on February 7 and March 3; laws which the
+Cubans on assuming the government of the island found so beneficent that
+they retained them unchanged. Another law on January 24 rearranged the
+municipalities<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_246" id="page_246">{246}</a></span> of the island and abolished a considerable number of
+them, and still another on March 5 was intended to facilitate the
+determination of boundaries of estates. Still another, on April 12, was
+so vigorously opposed by Cubans that it was presently revoked, to the
+great loss of the island. This was practically an application of the
+merit system to a part of the civil service, declaring that officials in
+the judicial and public prosecution services should not be removed from
+their places without proof of adequate cause. Its revocation left those
+and all branches of the civil service to be the prey of the spoils
+system.</p>
+
+<p>In April and May there were promulgated orders for systematizing
+municipal finances, a manual for military tribunals, quarantine
+regulations, rules for the revenue cutter service, immigration laws,
+sanitary regulations, and some modifications of the Code of Civil
+Procedure. These were all practical measures, of undoubted benefit to
+the island, and all dealt with matters in which American experience was
+reasonably supposed to be of advantage to Cuba.</p>
+
+<p>General Wood on May 5 called the elected members of the Cuban Congress
+together at the Palace, in the name of the President of the United
+States, to welcome them and to wish them success in their coming work,
+and to have them examine and pass upon their own credentials and count
+and rectify the vote of the Electoral College for President and
+Vice-President. He also announced to them that the formal transfer of
+government, from the United States military authorities to the Cuban
+President and Congress, would take place at noon of May 20. Mendez
+Capote made a graceful and appreciative reply on behalf of himself and
+his colleagues, and the two Houses took possession of their respective
+halls and busied<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_247" id="page_247">{247}</a></span> themselves with their credentials and with
+preparations for the serious work which lay just a little distance
+before them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 384px;">
+<a href="images/i037.png">
+<img src="images/i037_sml.png" width="384" height="324" alt="SCENE IN VILLALON PARK, HAVANA" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">SCENE IN VILLALON PARK, HAVANA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Meantime Tomas Estrada Palma was closing up his affairs in the land of
+which he had been a guest for many years and was preparing to return to
+the land of his birth to be its chief magistrate. He did not leave the
+United States until late in April. Instead of going directly to Havana
+he landed at Gibara, on the northern coast of Oriente, whence he went to
+Holguin, to Santiago, and then to his old home, which also was destined
+to be his last, at Bayamo. After a few days' visit there he proceeded to
+Havana, and arrived in that city on May 11. All the way through the
+island he was greeted with unbounded <span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_248" id="page_248">{248}</a></span>enthusiasm, and at every stopping
+place he was received and entertained with all possible social
+attention.</p>
+
+<p>Havana itself for a week preceding the installation of the government
+gave itself up to one incessant fiesta. Arches spanned the principal
+streets, flowers and bunting made the day brilliant with color, and
+fireworks illumined the night. The night of May 19 was such as the
+ancient city had never before known. From evening to morning it was one
+glare of rockets and illuminations, one roar of anticipatory and
+jubilant cheers and music. If one single inhabitant of the city slept,
+his name is not recorded. The riot of joy continued unabated until just
+before noon, when it slackened for a time, only as a mark of respect for
+the epochal ceremony which was being performed in the great State Hall
+of the Palace.</p>
+
+<p>There, in the very place where less than four years before General
+Castellanos had abdicated the power of Spain over the last of her
+American colonies, were gathered the members of the American Government
+of Intervention, about to retire; the members of the Cuban Government,
+about to assume authority; the representatives of various foreign
+powers; and a few private guests of distinction. The central figures
+were Leonard Wood and Tomas Estrada Palma. The former read a brief note
+from President Roosevelt, announcing the transfer which was about to be
+made, and expressing to the Cuban government the sincere friendship and
+good wishes of the United States, the most earnest hopes for the
+stability and success of the Cuban government, for the blessings of
+peace, justice and prosperity and ordered freedom among the people of
+Cuba and for enduring friendship between the United States and that
+Republic.</p>
+
+<p class="c caption">TOMAS ESTRADA PALMA</p>
+
+<p class="caption">&quot;The Franklin of Cuba,&quot; Tomas Estrada Palma, was born at Bayamo on July
+9, 1835, was educated in Havana and at the University of Seville, Spain,
+and began the practice of law at his native place. But realizing that
+under Spanish rule there was little administration of real justice in
+Cuba, he abandoned his profession, devoted himself to the management of
+his plantation, and when the Ten Years&#39; War was planned entered the
+patriotic conspiracy with zeal. He freed his slaves, gave his fortune to
+the cause, and entered the army. His mother accompanied him to the camp,
+and in his absence was captured by the Spaniards, who murdered her
+through starvation and ill-treatment. He became Secretary of the
+Republic and in March, 1876, was elected President. Betrayed to the
+enemy, he was imprisoned in Morro Castle, Havana, and afterward in
+Spain. At the end of the war he went to Honduras, taught school and
+served as Postmaster-General, and then went to New York State, where he
+established a school for boys. At the beginning of the War of
+Independence he again gave himself to the Cuban cause, succeeded Marti
+as head of the Junta in New York, became first President of the
+Republic, was forced to resign through a traitorous insurrection and
+ill-planned intervention, and died on November 4, 1908.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 374px;">
+<a href="images/i038.png">
+<img src="images/i038_sml.png" width="374" height="573" alt="TOMAS ESTRADA PALMA
+
+&quot;The Franklin of Cuba,&quot; Tomas Estrada Palma, was born at Bayamo on July
+9, 1835, was educated in Havana and at the University of Seville, Spain,
+and began the practice of law at his native place. But realizing that
+under Spanish rule there was little administration of real justice in
+Cuba, he abandoned his profession, devoted himself to the management of
+his plantation, and when the Ten Years&#39; War was planned entered the
+patriotic conspiracy with zeal. He freed his slaves, gave his fortune to
+the cause, and entered the army. His mother accompanied him to the camp,
+and in his absence was captured by the Spaniards, who murdered her
+through starvation and ill-treatment. He became Secretary of the
+Republic and in March, 1876, was elected President. Betrayed to the
+enemy, he was imprisoned in Morro Castle, Havana, and afterward in
+Spain. At the end of the war he went to Honduras, taught school and
+served as Postmaster-General, and then went to New York State, where he
+established a school for boys. At the beginning of the War of
+Independence he again gave himself to the Cuban cause, succeeded Marti
+as head of the Junta in New York, became first President of the
+Republic, was forced to resign through a traitorous insurrection and
+ill-planned intervention, and died on November 4, 1908." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_249" id="page_249">{249}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>General Wood then addressed the Cuban President and Congress, declaring
+that he transferred to them the government and control of the island,
+and that the American military occupation was ended. He reported the
+amount of public funds which he turned over to the new officials, and
+called attention to various plans for sewering, paving and other
+sanitary works which were in course of execution. President Palma
+responded, accepting the transfer of sovereignty, and expressing his and
+his countrymen's appreciation of the course which the American
+government had pursued.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the transcendent consummation was achieved, for which during so
+many weary and tragic years so many Cuban patriots had longed and for
+which so much treasure had been spent, so much blood had been shed, and
+so many lives had been sacrificed. "Cuba Libre" was an accomplished fact
+among the nations of the world.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving that memorable scene, General Wood telegraphed to the President
+of the United States:</p>
+
+<p>"I have the honor to report that, in compliance with instructions
+received, I have this day, at 12 o'clock sharp, transferred to the
+President and Congress of the Republic of Cuba the government and
+control of the island, to be held and exercised by them under the
+provisions of the Constitution of the Republic of Cuba."</p>
+
+<p>One other incident remained. As soon as the brief ceremony with the
+palace was completed, the American flag was hauled down from that and
+all other public buildings and the Cuban flag was raised in its place.
+It is not known whether the American Senator who had predicted that
+"That Flag will never be hauled down!" was there to see the sight.
+Certain it is that the people of Cuba were almost&mdash;and most
+pardonably&mdash;wild with joy to see their own beautiful emblem at last
+float in token of sovereignty over their island's capital. The Cuban
+flag flying over the Palace and over the Morro Castle was<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_250" id="page_250">{250}</a></span> the supreme
+consummation of their patriotic dreams and visions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 233px;">
+<a href="images/i039.png">
+<img src="images/i039_sml.png" width="233" height="277" alt="FLAG OF CUBA" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">FLAG OF CUBA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The red, white and blue flag of Cuba, though then first raised in
+unchallenged sovereignty, was then by no means a new thing. It was
+already more than half a century old, and had been the guidon of brave
+men in three bloody wars. It was designed by the first great Cuban
+revolutionist, Narciso Lopez, and by his comrade, Miguel Teurbe Tolon,
+of Matanzas, a gifted poet and ardent patriot, and it was first
+displayed by Lopez in his raid upon and capture of the city of Cardenas,
+on May 19, 1850. The five bars, alternately blue and white, represented
+the five provinces into which the island was at that time divided; the
+red triangle represented the blood of patriots which was being shed in
+the cause of liberty; and the white star was the star of Cuba's hope.
+After the death of Lopez the flag disappeared. But when the Ten<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_251" id="page_251">{251}</a></span> Years'
+War began many flags of that same design were made, the workroom being
+in a house on Warren Street in the City of New York, and thereafter it
+remained familiar to every Cuban patriot.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 155px;">
+<a href="images/i040.png">
+<img src="images/i040_sml.png" width="155" height="182" alt="COAT OF ARMS OF CUBA" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">COAT OF ARMS OF CUBA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The coat of arms of the Republic of Cuba displays the colors of the
+flag, and by their side the Royal Palm, perhaps the most notable of the
+trees in Cuba. The tree springs from a grassy plain, at the back of
+which is a mountain range; agriculture and mining being thus typified.
+Across the top of the shield extends a landscape-seascape, representing
+the ocean, with Florida at one side and Yucatan at the other, while
+between them lies the Key, Cuba. From the far horizon rises the sun.
+Above all is the Cap of Liberty, while around the shield are twined
+branches of oak and laurel.</p>
+
+<p>No more just and fitting estimate of the great work of intervention
+which thus, on May 20, 1902, was consummated, has ever been made than
+that which was uttered only a few weeks later by President Roosevelt, in
+speaking before a distinguished audience at Harvard University. He said:</p>
+
+<p>"Four years ago Leonard Wood went down to Cuba,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_252" id="page_252">{252}</a></span> has served there ever
+since, has rendered her literally invaluable service; a man who through
+these four years thought of nothing else, did nothing else, save to try
+to bring up the standard of political and social life in that island, to
+clean it physically and morally, to make justice even and fair in it, to
+found a school system which should be akin to our own, to teach the
+people after four centuries of misrule that there were such things as
+government righteousness and honesty and fair play for all men on their
+merits as men."</p>
+
+<p>That was the work which Leonard Wood did in Cuba; that was the work
+which the United States government did by and through him; the
+consummation of which was denoted in that unique act of withdrawing the
+American flag and raising the Cuban flag in its place. Fortunate was it,
+however, that the results of that work, the teachings of the American
+occupation, the meaning of the American flag, were not and could not be
+withdrawn when the Stars and Stripes came down. Just as the colors and
+indeed the essential pattern of the flag remained, in different
+arrangement, so the essential spirit of American republicanism remained,
+to be manifested not any longer by American interveners but by the Cuban
+people themselves.</p>
+
+<p>It was a marvellous achievement, that of those four years. It was such
+as the world had not seen equalled, at any other time or in any other
+place. It was creditable in the highest degree to the Cuban people
+themselves. It was creditable to the United States, for its intervention
+at its own great cost and for its scrupulous keeping of its faith. It
+was creditable to many individual actors in the great drama, both
+insular and continental, who displayed unsurpassed fidelity,
+self-sacrifice and heroism in the cause of Cuban liberation. But<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_253" id="page_253">{253}</a></span> the
+simple truth and justice of history would be impaired if the chief
+credit were not given, <i>primus inter pares</i>, to the great American
+administrator, conquering soldier and constructive statesman, who from
+first to last was the guiding genius of Cuban rehabilitation.</p>
+
+<p>The works of Durham in Canada, and of Cromer in Egypt, form splendid
+passages in the history of benevolent colonial administration. But there
+was a more difficult work performed not for a dependent colony which
+would return compensation to the Mother Country or to the suzerain power
+but for an alien land and people, presently to become entirely
+independent of their benefactor. He found the Pearl of the Antilles
+war-ravaged and faction-rent; her fields desolated, her industries
+destroyed; her women widowed and her children orphaned; her treasury
+empty and her debts heavy and pressing; her government abolished and her
+laws inadequate; with famine, pestilence and hopelessness stalking
+throughout the land. It was his work to heal the wounds of war and to
+unite the people of all classes and parties for the common good; to
+assist the revival of agriculture and the rebuilding of industry; to
+care for the widowed and the orphaned; to replenish the public treasury
+and to discharge the debt of honor to the veterans of the War of
+Independence; to organize efficient government and out of his own
+constructive genius to conceive and to promulgate needed and beneficent
+laws; to feed the hungry until they could feed themselves, to banish
+pestilence until a lazar-house became a health resort, and to inspire
+with hope and faith triumphant a people who for a generation had striven
+with the demons of despair.</p>
+
+<p>With such a labor successfully achieved, through the exercise of a tact,
+a perseverance, a resourcefulness and an administrative genius not
+surpassed in his day and<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_254" id="page_254">{254}</a></span> generation, we may not wonder that he was
+universally beloved by all the Cuban people regardless of class, of
+previous condition or of political predilections; that the only cloud
+resting upon the brilliance of the consummation of Cuban independence
+proceeded from the fact of his departure from the island and the people
+he had so greatly served; and that, not waiting for the slow tributes of
+remote posterity, the Cuban people of his own day hold in their
+supremest confidence, gratitude, respect and enduring affection the
+name, the memory and the vital personality of Leonard Wood.</p>
+
+<p>President Palma had already selected the members of his Cabinet on May
+17, three days before the transfer. It contained six members, chosen
+without regard to party, for the President was not a partisan. As a
+matter of fact, however, it contained representatives of all three of
+the old parties, which were at this time in course of dissolution and
+reorganization into the two which have since divided the Cuban people
+between them. Diego Tamayo was the Secretary of Government, having
+charge of the postal service, the signal service, sanitation, and the
+Rural Guard. Carlos Zaldo was Secretary of State and of Justice. Emilio
+Terry was Secretary of Agriculture. Manual Luciano Diaz was Secretary of
+Public Works; Eduardo Yero was Secretary of Public Instruction; and
+Garcia Montes was Secretary of Finance.</p>
+
+<p>The President presented his first message to Congress on May 28. He
+spoke with gratitude of the disinterested intervention and services of
+the United States, and with confidence of Cuba's ability to fulfil her
+duties as a sovereign State. He recommended care in the preparation of
+the budget, and the formulation of measures for the encouragement of
+cattle-raising and the growing<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_255" id="page_255">{255}</a></span> of sugar and tobacco. Just then, owing
+to the great increase of European beet sugar growing the Cuban sugar
+trade was in an unsatisfactory state, but he hoped to improve it by
+securing a reciprocity treaty with the United States which would admit
+Cuban sugar to the markets of that country free of tariff duty. He also
+promised to promote the building of much-needed railroads. He urged the
+cultivation of cordial relations and commercial intercourse with all
+nations, but especially with the United States. As a special act of
+grace, a number of Americans who had justly been sentenced to terms in
+Cuban prisons under the Government of Intervention received pardons.
+These included three men, Rathbone, Neely and Reeves, who had been
+sentenced for ten years for frauds in the Cuban postoffice, the only
+serious scandal of the American administration.</p>
+
+<p>Two of the items in the Platt Amendment were soon taken up by the United
+States government, and were settled in a way eminently satisfactory to
+Cuba. One was the disposition of the Isle of Pines. It was decided by
+the State Department at Washington that when the American government was
+withdrawn from Cuba, control of the Isle of Pines was transferred to the
+Cuban government, to be held and exercised by it unless and until some
+other disposition should subsequently be effected. In time Cuban
+ownership of the isle was definitively confirmed by the government of
+the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The other point was that of American naval stations. A report was made
+by Rear-Admiral Bradford of the United States Navy, recommending the
+establishment of naval stations at Triscornia, in Havana Harbor; and at
+Guantanamo, east of Santiago; and the establishment of coaling stations
+at Nipe Bay and Cienfuegos. The<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_256" id="page_256">{256}</a></span> Cubans were not inclined to object to
+any of these excepting the first-named, to which their objection was
+reasonable and convincing. It would not be agreeable, they thought, to
+have the flag of a foreign power flying right in front of their own
+capital and at the very gate of the harbor of that capital, so that
+foreign vessels would pass by it and salute it equally with the Cuban
+flag. This objection was recognized and respected by the United States
+government, which waived all claim to Triscornia, and on July 2, 1903,
+contented itself with land for naval stations at Guantanamo, one of the
+finest harbors in the world, on the south coast of Oriente, and Bahia
+Honda, another superb harbor, on the north coast of Pinar del Rio. Of
+these only Guantanamo has actually been utilized.</p>
+
+<p>The matter of reciprocity between the United States and Cuba was taken
+up, but it was long before anything was effected. General Wood had urged
+that a reduction of at least 33&#8531; per cent. should be made in the
+sugar duty in favor of Cuba, as absolutely essential to the prosperity
+of the island, and President Roosevelt urged upon Congress in the
+strongest possible manner the desirability of some such action, partly
+for the sake of Cuban prosperity, and partly for the fulfilment of
+America's moral duty toward that island. Indeed, such commercial
+relations had been promised to Cuba, and it was bad faith to withhold
+them. Of course the commercial interests of Europe, both in sugar and
+all other wares, were earnestly opposed to any such arrangement, and
+they had their governments exert all possible influence to prevent its
+being made. There were also large beet sugar interests in the United
+States which strenuously opposed any reduction of the tariff on Cuban
+sugar. President Roosevelt had a long and desperate battle with<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_257" id="page_257">{257}</a></span>
+Congress over the matter, before he finally prevailed upon it grudgingly
+and imperfectly to make a reciprocity agreement, from which the United
+States would profit much more than Cuba. This was on March 29, 1903.
+Meantime, because of the American refusal to grant reciprocity, Cuba
+suffered acute economic depression approximating disaster. The insular
+treasury had scarcely enough money with which to pay current expenses,
+and the government was driven to the imposition of burden-some taxes
+upon many articles to save itself from bankruptcy.</p>
+
+<p>The reciprocity treaty was finally ratified by the American Senate on
+March 29, 1903. But it did not at once go into effect. There was needed
+Congressional legislation to make it effective, and this was not
+supplied. After discreditable delay on the part of the lawmakers,
+President Roosevelt called Congress together in special session on
+November 10, 1903, for the express purpose of having it take the needed
+action for putting the treaty into operation. "I deem," he said, "such
+legislation demanded not only by our interest but by our honor.... When
+the acceptance of the Platt Amendment was required from Cuba by the
+action of the Congress of the United States, this government thereby
+definitely committed itself to the policy of treating Cuba as occupying
+a unique position as regards this country. It was provided that when the
+island became a free and independent republic she should stand in such
+close relations with us as in certain respects to come within our system
+of international policy; and it necessarily followed that she must also
+to a certain degree become included within the lines of our economic
+policy.... We gave her liberty. We are knit to her by the memories of
+the blood and courage of our soldiers who fought for her in war;<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_258" id="page_258">{258}</a></span> by the
+memory of the wisdom and integrity of our administrators who served her
+in peace and who started so well on the difficult path of
+self-government. We must help her onward and upward; and in helping her
+we shall help ourselves.... A failure to enact such legislation would
+come perilously near a repudiation of the pledged faith of the nation."</p>
+
+<p>Thus at last through such gallant urging a measure of justice was
+secured for Cuba. The unwillingness and delay of Congress formed the
+most discreditable chapter of the history of America's dealings with
+Cuba. But the real attitude, the real purpose, the real spirit of the
+United States toward Cuba, were unmistakably set forth not in the
+paltering and tergiversation of a sordid Congress, but in the lofty and
+inspiring words of the great American President.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_259" id="page_259">{259}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h3>
+
+<p>The result of the earnest and efficient work of all departments of the
+Palma administration, in spite of the fact that the employes had much to
+learn, and that mistakes were unavoidably made, was that Cuba began
+almost immediately to establish herself as a nation worthy of
+consideration, and respected among the other nations of the world. Her
+commerce and industries were started for the first time on a stable
+basis, and the general feeling of confidence, not only in the natural
+resources of the island, but in the protection that had been promised
+Cuba by her sister republic on the north, all tended to start the new
+republic along the right lines. In a very short time after reciprocity
+with the United States was secured funds began to accumulate in the
+treasury, and by the end of the first Palma administration over
+0,000,000 had accrued to the credit of the country, and a large amount
+of constructive work had been undertaken in various parts of the island.
+Yet more than $4,000,000 had been spent on public works, and every
+village with 25 children had a school.</p>
+
+<p>It was the accumulation of this money in the treasury, and the rapid
+success along commercial and other lines that seemed to attend the
+republic during President Palma's administration, that served to excite
+desire and envy among the more or less restless and unscrupulous
+elements, who did not form a part of the Palma government. Some of these
+outsiders were men of much ability, and many of them were excellent
+orators. All of them<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_260" id="page_260">{260}</a></span> were familiar with the methods in Latin American
+republics of securing control of the government through revolution,
+force and violence. It was then that parties began to be formed,
+although these were divided into many groups, each surrounding its own
+political hero, who, in these days, was necessarily a man with a
+supposed military record. They eventually resolved themselves into two
+groups, the Moderado, who were in many respects the parents of the
+present Conservative party now in power under President Menocal, and the
+Liberal, under the leadership of Dr. Alfredo Zayas, an able lawyer and a
+shrewd political leader.</p>
+
+<p>During the Palma administration and especially at the beginning of the
+electoral campaign of 1905, another aspirant for presidential honors
+suddenly appeared in the person of General José Miguel Gomez, a man with
+no very brilliant record as a soldier, although he had taken part in the
+Ten Years' War, but who had a strong local following as Governor, under
+President Palma, of the Province of Santa Clara. General Gomez was an
+astute, clever, farseeing, active politician, with a considerable degree
+of originality and ability. Another man intimately connected with the
+history of Cuba was Gomez's chief clerk when Governor of the Province of
+Santa Clara, Orestes Ferrara, a gentleman of Italian birth, of somewhat
+reckless tendencies, who emerged from the War of Independence as a Cuban
+patriot, and was recognized as such by the Liberal party. Mr. Ferrara
+was a lawyer, a writer, a finely educated diplomat and an excellent
+speaker. All of these qualities succeeded in making him an important
+factor in influencing the destinies of the republic in its early days.</p>
+
+<p>During the first years of the Palma administration, the Moderado and
+Liberal parties gradually shaped<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_261" id="page_261">{261}</a></span> themselves into the present
+Conservative and Liberal parties; organizations which differ in
+political methods rather than in principles; if by principles we mean
+fundamental doctrines of political economy or statecraft, such as form
+the issues of division between parties in most other countries. They
+also differ largely in personnel. Throughout the agricultural regions
+the Conservatives prevail. That is because farmers, large and small,
+care little for office holding but do care a great deal for that
+tranquillity of the country which is essential to progress and
+prosperity. They have a material stake in the country's welfare, which
+is conserved by constitutional order rather than by revolution. On the
+other hand, in the cities may be found the great strength of the Liberal
+party; composed of men who own no real estate, and many of whom have no
+business or steady occupation of any kind, who have nothing to lose from
+economic and social disturbance but on the contrary may gain something
+by getting into public employment through a change of government. Such
+men are numerous in all cities of all countries, and they become the
+facile followers of designing and unscrupulous politicians. In the
+United States such men are described as "feeding at the public crib." In
+Cuba the corresponding phrase, equally expressive, is "nursing at the
+public bottle"&mdash;epitomised in the one word, "botella."</p>
+
+<p>It is not to be inferred that all Cuban Liberals are of this class, or
+that Conservatives are universally men of substance; but the dominant
+elements of the two parties are such as we have described. The restless
+and irresponsible Liberal masses have for leaders men of unquestioned
+ability, but unfortunately too often of more personal ambition of a
+sordid kind than sense of moral responsibility or sincere devotion to
+their country's best<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_262" id="page_262">{262}</a></span> interests. It will thus be seen that on more than
+one occasion men who were intellectually qualified to serve the Republic
+in the most efficient manner prostituted their talents to catering to
+the passions of the ignorant and idle, and made tools of them for their
+own selfish advancement, to the great detriment and greater menace of
+the Republic. In this deplorable state of affairs have been the main
+springs of most of the troubles which the young Republic has thus far
+suffered in its political and governmental affairs.</p>
+
+<p>The Conservative party is confined very largely to the owners of
+property, men of good reputation and business standing. In other words,
+it consists of men who have nothing to gain through a revolution, and
+everything to lose during a period of upheaval which means destruction,
+not alone of actual property, but of the assets of the country,
+especially its credit and standing in the markets of the world. Small
+holders of property in the country districts, farmers, merchants,
+planters and stock raisers, are naturally allied with the Conservative
+party, or the party of law and order, as are the owners of the big sugar
+estates and the mills in which the staples are produced, since the cane
+fields become an immediate prey of those elements who wish to depose the
+government or bring about an intervention, through which they sometimes
+gain in the confusion that follows a change of government. To this party
+belong the majority of the professional men, the old Autonomistas, and
+those men who have a genuine interest in the welfare of Cuba, not only
+in her present, but in her future, and who realize that uprisings,
+strikes and all allied movements tend naturally to discourage
+investments in property, and to destroy credit and the good name of the
+island.</p>
+
+<p>Such, then, in general terms, was the development of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_263" id="page_263">{263}</a></span> political parties
+in Cuba which occurred as soon as it was realized that it was worth
+while to have them. As long as Cuba was under Spanish domination, there
+was no use in parties. So long as there was doubt concerning the
+intentions of the United States in Cuba, there was little encouragement
+to their formation. But the moment the Stars and Stripes actually went
+down from the Palace and from the Morro, the great fact dawned upon the
+Cuban mind that what many had scarcely dared to expect or to hope for
+was actually achieved. Cuba was independent. For that reason her
+political controversies were thereafter to be domestic, and there was
+opportunity, even perhaps desirability, of division of the population
+into parties.</p>
+
+<p>This indeed was well, in principle. There is nothing more stimulating to
+citizenship or more conducive to good government in a republic than a
+healthful and amicable division of the citizens into parties, on grounds
+of principle. In a monarchy, the opposition party is one of protest and
+revolt. In a republic both parties are devoted to the governmental
+system, and differ only as to the principles of economics or what not on
+which it should be conducted. The lamentable feature of the Cuban case
+was that&mdash;chiefly, no doubt, because of antecedent conditions, because
+of centuries of ruthless repression of all national or civic
+aspirations&mdash;there had been no development of theories and principles of
+government to serve as bases for party division. It could not be said,
+for example, that this party was for a protective tariff and that one
+was for free trade, that one was for state rights and the other for
+national sovereignty. Such distinctions did not exist, and party
+divisions without them were therefore on less creditable lines. We have
+said that there were no questions of principle. But there<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_264" id="page_264">{264}</a></span> was one
+supreme question of principle, on which after all the division was made.
+But that was a question to which there was only one side for a worthy
+political party to take.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of Estrada Palma's administration, as we have
+indicated, he was not identified with any political party. He was
+broad-minded, and conceived himself to be not the leader of a party but
+the chief executive of the whole Cuban nation. He selected for his
+Cabinet the men whom he thought best fitted for the places, regardless
+of their political affiliations. He would probably have been glad to go
+through his entire administration as a non-partisan President, occupying
+in that respect a position similar to that of a constitutional
+sovereign, who traditionally "has no politics." Indeed, he maintained
+this independent and impartial attitude until the spring of 1905. Then
+he found it impossible to get measures passed by Congress, which he
+wanted and which the country needed, unless he affiliated with party
+leaders. The result was that he practically associated himself with the
+Moderados, or Conservatives as they are now known. This of course gave
+great umbrage to the Liberals, which was greatly increased when some of
+that party were removed from office because of their unsatisfactory
+service and their places were filled with Conservatives. And this was
+the beginning of the Liberal insurrection which led to the resignation
+and death of Estrada Palma.</p>
+
+<p>In the last days of President Palma's first term of office it was
+discovered that José Miguel Gomez had Presidential aspirations. He not
+only stated to the Moderate or Conservative party that he wanted to be
+President of the Republic of Cuba, but he declared that he proposed to
+succeed President Palma as such. This privilege was<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_265" id="page_265">{265}</a></span> refused him on the
+ground that the President, owing to his fair administration of the
+government during the four years of his service, was entitled to a
+second term. To this argument, General Gomez replied that if the
+Conservative party to which he had pretended to belong would not make
+him its Presidential nominee, he would go to the opposition and seek the
+nomination. This he at once proceeded to do, and with the assistance of
+Mr. Ferrara he persuaded the Liberals that, controlling the votes of the
+Province of Santa Clara, he held the balance of power. He also prevailed
+upon Dr. Alfredo Zayas to retire as a Presidential candidate, and to
+acquiesce in his running for election on the Liberal ticket; promising
+at the same time that, no matter what the result of the election might
+be, Dr. Zayas should have the nomination and his support four years
+afterward. It is interesting to observe that this promise was never
+fully kept, and that the two Liberal leaders have ever since been bitter
+enemies.</p>
+
+<p>The Presidential nominees of the two parties, in November, 1906, on the
+part of the Conservatives, were Estrada Palma, the President of Cuba,
+and on the part of the Liberals, José Miguel Gomez, ex-leader of the
+Moderados of the Province of Santa Clara. The Liberals, a few days
+before the election, feeling apparently that it would go against them,
+began the old tactics so prevalent in some South American republics, and
+practised by Maso's followers in 1901, of proclaiming proposed election
+frauds on the part of their opponents, then in control of the
+government, and predicting all manner of illegal practices and
+intimidation.</p>
+
+<p>At ten o'clock on the morning of election day, telegrams, announcements,
+and orders from Liberal leaders were posted at all voting places in the
+various cities and<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_266" id="page_266">{266}</a></span> country districts, directing members of that party
+to keep away from the polls, on the ground that the election frauds
+which had been arranged by the Conservatives could not possibly be
+overcome, and that the correct thing to do was to refuse to vote, as a
+protest against the government in power. These were obviously issued
+with a view of discrediting in advance an election which the Liberals
+could not hope to win. The Conservatives, of course, voted, and, as
+might be expected under those circumstances, the Palma government
+succeeded itself, with a few changes in the Cabinet, and everything
+seemed to promise well for the future.</p>
+
+<p>Within a year, however, threats of coming trouble, whispers of
+discontent, and reports of incipient uprisings could be heard in the
+cafés and public resorts throughout the island, and the agents of the
+secret service warned President Palma that a serious crisis was
+impending. This the President refused to credit, staging that there
+could be no possible reason for a revolution. The island was prosperous,
+work was plentiful for all who cared to labor; there were no conditions
+present to justify a revolution or uprising, and suspicions of anything
+of the kind must therefore be unjustified. In spite of President Palma's
+confidence, however, the plotting went on almost openly. His confidence
+in the people was known to all the Liberals, and they took advantage of
+it. The first real outbreak occurred before the slightest preparation
+had been made to deal with it. One night in the month of July, 1905, a
+group of thirty armed men suddenly appeared at the barracks of the Rural
+Guards, shot a dozen of them to death as they lay sleeping on their
+cots, seized their arms, ammunition and horses, and fled into the
+country, shouting the cry of "Revolution against the Palma government!"
+General Alejandro Rodriguez,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_267" id="page_267">{267}</a></span> a tried veteran of the War of
+Independence, and chief of the Rural Guards, gave an immediate order
+that they should be captured, dead or alive, and before ten o'clock the
+next morning nearly all of them had been taken and confined in the jails
+of Havana, where afterwards they were tried and convicted. These men in
+their defense claimed that the president of the Senate, Señor Moru
+Delgado, a prominent Liberal leader, had promised to meet them at
+daylight, on the morning of the assassination, with a body of three
+hundred armed and mounted Liberals, who were to start a revolution
+against President Palma; but did not fulfill his promise. The men who
+had been convicted were permitted to remain in jail until, as is too
+often the custom in some Latin American countries, they were freed by a
+general amnesty bill which had been forced through Congress by the
+Liberal party. The tendency to revolt against the Palma government
+apparently subsided with the arrest of these first disturbers, but,
+during the following January, 1906, reports of trouble in the extreme
+western portion of the island came to the notice of the officials. The
+leader was Pino Guerra, who, through his popularity as an accordion
+player at country dances, had secured election to the House of
+Representatives; and who with his taste for games of chance, at which he
+was generally unlucky, had got into debt to the amount of $7,000. His
+creditors in these debts were persistent, and this fact was given by him
+in a letter to General Fernando Freyre de Andrade, President of the
+House of Representatives, as an excuse for the revolution which he
+started. Pino Guerra indeed intimated that if someone would extend to
+him a little personal loan of $7,000 he would refrain from causing any
+trouble to the government. General Freyre de Andrade, being a politician
+who believed in<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_268" id="page_268">{268}</a></span> compromise and that even a poor end would justify the
+means, suggested to Guerra that he knew of $3,000 that had been
+appropriated for some purpose and not used, which might possibly be
+turned over, if his creditors would take it on account. "General"
+Guerra, as he called himself, consulted with his creditors, and they
+concluded to accept the offer, if they could get the cash. So the embryo
+revolutionist was conducted to the presence of the President, where the
+whole matter was explained by General Freyre de Andrade. To their
+surprise, President Palma promptly refused to have any of the treasury
+funds used to buy&mdash;or to pay blackmail to&mdash;a revolutionist. So "General"
+Guerra retired to nurse his resentment and to plan mischief; until some
+six weeks later when he started the uprising that was locally known as
+"Mr. Taft's picnic," because the leaders asserted that the capturing of
+the Palma government would be nothing more than a picnic, and assured
+Mr. Taft on his arrival to straighten out affairs that they really had
+not intended to assassinate President Palma, although three or four
+distinct plots had been made for that purpose; that they only meant to
+capture him, put him on the government yacht, and carry him to some
+remote part of the country and give him just a "pleasant picnic."</p>
+
+<p class="c caption">THE PRESIDENT&#39;S HOME</p>
+
+<p class="caption">The new Presidential Palace, which replaces in its functions the old
+home of the Spanish Governors, is of striking architecture and
+impressive size, affording ample room for many other functions than the
+mere housing of the President and his family; and in completeness of its
+appointments and beauty of its furnishings and internal decorations must
+rank among the finest official residences in the world.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<a href="images/i041.png">
+<img src="images/i041_sml.png" width="550" height="331" alt="THE PRESIDENT&#39;S HOME
+
+The new Presidential Palace, which replaces in its functions the old
+home of the Spanish Governors, is of striking architecture and
+impressive size, affording ample room for many other functions than the
+mere housing of the President and his family; and in completeness of its
+appointments and beauty of its furnishings and internal decorations must
+rank among the finest official residences in the world." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p>President Palma was repeatedly warned by the secret service, of which
+Pepe Jerez Varona was the chief, that serious trouble was coming through
+the propaganda of the Liberal party whose leaders had taken the position
+that the late election had been fraudulent and that the Liberals had
+been prevented from casting their votes, which they said was sufficient
+excuse for the uprising that was imminent. Local bands of the so-called
+"Constitutional Army" soon began to make their appearance throughout the
+central districts of the island. Each of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_269" id="page_269">{269}</a></span> these was headed by some
+prominent Liberal chieftain; among others, those at Havana by General
+Loinaz Castillo, in Pinar del Rio by Pino Guerra, and in Santa Clara by
+Orestes Ferrara, afterward President of the House of Representatives.
+The real promoters, instigators, and chiefs of the movement were General
+José Miguel Gomez, afterward President of the Republic; Carlos Garcia,
+later Minister to England; and Juan Gualberto Gomez, the trusted agent
+of Alfredo Zayas and leader of the negro Liberals of the island.
+Convincing proofs, in the form of documents over the signatures of these
+men, were found showing their treason to the republic. They did not
+actually lead the insurgent bands, because they were arrested and
+imprisoned just as they were setting out to do so. President Palma was
+advised that they should be tried and executed, but he protested against
+the courts taking such action, on the ground that he could not bring
+himself to sanction the execution of men, some of whom had in former
+days been his companions in arms.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime, the revolutionary force swept through various parts of
+the island, seizing horses, mules, beef cattle and produce, breaking
+open groceries and general stores, helping themselves to anything that
+suited their fancy, occasionally giving in exchange what was known as
+<i>vale</i>, or a receipt, to the owner, and if the owner happened to be an
+able bodied man, they usually compelled him to join the so-called
+"Constitutional Army." Congress at that time happened to have a Liberal
+majority, and it refused to consider or vote upon the budget of the
+coming year, thus practically compelling President Palma to use as the
+basis of expenditures the budget of the preceding year. The Liberals
+boasted that they had thus compelled the President technically to
+violate the <span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_270" id="page_270">{270}</a></span>Constitution, and that they were therefore justified in
+calling themselves the Constitutional Party and in forcing him out of
+the Presidency.</p>
+
+<p>The Cuban republic at this time had an armed force of about two thousand
+men, scattered throughout the island. These were the Rural Guards, and
+they were efficient, and as a rule loyal to the Palma government; but
+they were not sufficient in number to protect the sugar estates, and
+other properties. As before, President Palma refused, until the last
+moment, to believe that a serious uprising or revolution against his
+government was possible, on the ground that Cuba, although a young
+republic, had been very prosperous, that money was plentiful, that work
+was abundant for any man who cared to occupy himself, and that there was
+no real reason that would justify or cause a revolution. He cited the
+history and motives of previous revolutions in Cuba, and of those that
+had occurred in many other countries, insisting that this uprising could
+not be serious, and that the people of Cuba would not support it.
+Unfortunately he was not a politician. He had lived too many years in
+the safe and sane atmosphere of the United States, and did not realize
+the intense desire on the part of some of the people in Latin American
+countries to get into office, regardless of their qualifications or the
+means employed to accomplish their sordid purposes.</p>
+
+<p>All of this resulted in a sad lack of preparation. President Palma's
+Secretary of Finance, Colonel Ernesto Fonts-Sterling, and General Rafael
+Montalvo, Secretary of Public Works, realized the threatening dangers
+and urged immediate action; and finally against the President's will,
+twenty machine guns were ordered from the United States, and shipped to
+Cuba, together with 1,000,000 rounds of ammunition. A call for
+volunteers<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_271" id="page_271">{271}</a></span> was then issued, and in response numerous Americans from
+various parts of the island, and others from Texas, New Mexico and
+Arizona, in company with patriots of Cuba, came immediately to the side
+of the government. But the masses of the Cubans were very tired of war,
+and manifested a peculiar reluctance to assume responsibility, and to
+act in line with their consciences and best judgment, wherefore the call
+was not highly successful. Fourteen hundred veterans of the War of
+Independence, under the command of General Pedro Betancourt, of
+Matanzas, made response, and presented themselves in Havana for orders.
+A machine gun corps was formed, the gunners composed largely of
+Americans who had seen service in the war on the Mexican border, and who
+soon became excellent marksmen. Many of President Palma's counsellors
+urged immediate action to suppress the revolution with a firm hand. But
+he hesitated too long, hoping that some other way out of the difficulty
+would be discovered.</p>
+
+<p>In this emergency the United States Consul General, Mr. Frank Steinhart,
+suggested to President Palma that he should request the assistance of
+the United States, and urged that a commission of military men be sent
+from Washington, backed by a certain display of naval or military force
+sufficient to discourage the revolution and to convince the Liberal
+leaders that further wanton destruction of property would not be
+tolerated. Mr. Steinhart also assured him that he would see to it that
+such a commission would come with a full understanding of the situation,
+and with the power and spirit to assist him in maintaining peace and
+order. President Palma made this request to which the United States
+promptly responded by sending the gunboat <i>Bancroft</i>, and a company of
+marines who immediately came ashore at Havana.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_272" id="page_272">{272}</a></span> Following the <i>Bancroft</i>
+came other steamers, one of which brought the Secretary of War, William
+H. Taft, Robert Bacon, Assistant Secretary of State, and Major-General
+Frederick Funston, with several of his aides.</p>
+
+<p>In fuller explanation of these circumstances some official
+correspondence may pertinently be cited. On September 8, 1906, Consul
+General Steinhart sent the following confidential telegram to the State
+Department:</p>
+
+<p>"Secretary of State, Cuba, has requested me, in name of President Palma,
+to ask President Roosevelt to send immediately two vessels; one to
+Havana and other to Cienfuegos; they must come at once. Government
+forces are unable to quell revolution. The government is unable to
+protect lives and property. President Palma will convene Congress next
+Friday, and Congress will ask for our forcible intervention. It must be
+kept secret and confidential that Palma asked for vessels. No one here
+except President, Secretary of State and myself know about it. Very
+anxiously awaiting reply."</p>
+
+<p>The State Department at Washington replied to this on September 10th:</p>
+
+<p>"Your cable received. Two ships have been sent, due to arrive Wednesday.
+The President directs me to state that perhaps you had not yourself
+appreciated the reluctance with which this country would intervene.
+President Palma should be informed that in the public opinion here it
+would have a most damaging effect for intervention to be undertaken
+until the Cuban government has exhausted every effort in a serious
+attempt to put down the insurrection and has made this fact evident to
+the world. At present the impression certainly would be that there was
+no real popular support of the Cuban government, or else that the
+government was hopelessly weak. As conditions are at this moment we are
+not<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_273" id="page_273">{273}</a></span> prepared to say what shape the intervention should take. It is, of
+course, a very serious matter to undertake forcible intervention, and
+before going into it we should have to be absolutely certain of the
+equities of the case and of the needs of the situation. Meanwhile we
+assume that every effort is being made by the Government to come to a
+working agreement which will secure peace with the insurrectos, provided
+they are unable to hold their own with them in the field. Until such
+efforts have been made, we are not prepared to consider the question of
+intervention at all."</p>
+
+<p>On September 10, Consul-General Steinhart cabled again:</p>
+
+<p>"Your cable received and directly communicated to the President, who
+asks ships remain for a considerable time to give security to foreigners
+in the island of Cuba and says that he will do as much as possible with
+his forces to put down the insurrection, but if unable to conquer or
+compromise, Cuban Congress will indicate kind of intervention desirable.
+He appreciates reluctance on our part to intervene, especially in view
+of Secretary Root's recent statements. Few, however, understand Cuban
+situation, and a less number are able to appreciate same. This, of
+course, without any reference to superior authority. Palma applied
+public funds in public work and public education, and not in purchase of
+war materials. Insurrectionists for a considerable time prepared for
+present condition, hence government's apparent weakness at the
+commencement. Yesterday's defeat of rebels gives Government hope.
+Attempts useless from start."</p>
+
+<p>On September 12, Consul-General Steinhart again cabled.</p>
+
+<p>"Secretary of State the Republic of Cuba at 3:40 to-<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_274" id="page_274">{274}</a></span>day delivered to me
+memorandum in his own handwriting, a translation of which follows, and
+is transmitted notwithstanding the previous secret instructions on the
+subject. The rebellion is increasing in Provinces of Santa Clara, Habana
+and Pinar del Rio, and Cuban Government has no elements to contend with
+it, to defend the towns and prevent the rebels from destroying property.
+President Estrada Palma asks for American intervention and begs
+President Roosevelt to send to Habana with the greatest secrecy and
+rapidity 2,000 or 3,000 men to avoid any catastrophe in the capital. The
+intervention asked for should not be made public until American troops
+are in Habana. The situation is grave and any delay may produce massacre
+of citizens in Habana."</p>
+
+<p>The next day, Mr. Steinhart again cabled:</p>
+
+<p>"President Palma, the Republic of Cuba, through me officially asked for
+American intervention because he can not prevent rebels from entering
+cities and burning property. It is doubtful whether quorum when Congress
+assembles next Friday, tomorrow. President Palma has irrevocably
+resolved to resign and to deliver the government of Cuba to the
+representative whom the President of the United States will designate,
+as soon as sufficient American troops are landed in Cuba. This act on
+the part of President Palma to save his country from complete anarchy
+and imperative intervention come immediately. It may be necessary to
+land force of <i>Denver</i> to protect American property. About 8,000 rebels
+outside Habana. Cienfuegos also at mercy of rebels. Three sugar
+plantations destroyed. Foregoing all resolved in Palace."</p>
+
+<p>On September 14, Consul-General Steinhart finally cabled:<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_275" id="page_275">{275}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"President Palma has resolved not to continue at head of the government,
+and is ready to present his resignation even though present disturbances
+should cease at once. The Vice President has resolved not to accept the
+office. Cabinet ministers have declared that they will previously
+resign. Under these conditions it is impossible that Congress will meet
+for the lack of a proper person to convoke same to designate new
+President. The consequences will be the absence of legal power, and
+therefore the prevailing state of anarchy will continue unless
+government of the United States will adopt measures necessary to avoid
+this danger."</p>
+
+<p>On that day President Roosevelt wrote to Robert Bacon, the Assistant
+Secretary of State, enclosing a letter to Senor Gonzalo de Quesada, the
+Cuban minister to the United States for publication in the public press,
+in which he begged the Cuban patriots to band together, to sink all
+differences and personal ambitions, and to rescue the island from the
+anarchy of civil war; closing the letter as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"I am sending to Habana the Secretary of War, Mr. Taft, and the
+Assistant Secretary of State, Mr. Bacon, as special representatives of
+this Government, who will render such aid as is possible toward these
+ends. I had hoped that Mr. Root, the Secretary of State, could have
+stopped in Habana on his return from South America, but the seeming
+imminence of the crisis forbids further delay."</p>
+
+<p>Messrs. Taft and Bacon reached Cuba on September 19, 1906. Before
+leaving the ship they were informed that the Secretary of State and
+Justice of President Palma's cabinet would call at their convenience.
+They invited him on board at once and had a short talk with him. They
+were informed that immediately on publication<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_276" id="page_276">{276}</a></span> of the President's
+message, President Palma had directed a cessation of hostilities on the
+part of the government forces, and that the insurgents had done
+likewise. Messrs. Taft and Bacon then called upon President Palma. They
+told him that they regarded themselves as intermediaries and Peace
+Commissioners, and did not wish to negotiate with rebels in arms without
+his permission. He suggested that negotiations be conducted between the
+two political parties, rather than between himself and the insurgents,
+and suggested that the Vice-President, Mendez Capote, for the Moderate
+party, and Senator Alfredo Zayas, head of the Liberal party, be the
+negotiators. He added that General Menocal on behalf of the veterans of
+the War of Independence had previously attempted, on September 8, to
+bring about a compromise, but without avail.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 177px;">
+<a href="images/i042.png">
+<img src="images/i042_sml.png" width="177" height="198" alt="William H. Taft" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>President Palma told Mr. Taft very earnestly and somewhat pathetically
+of his efforts to teach his people the knowledge of good government
+gained from his twenty years of residence in the United States, and his
+association with the American people, and called attention to his
+successful handling of Cuban finances, to the economy of expenditures of
+his government, to the fact that he had at all times encouraged the
+investment of foreign capital, and to the prosperity of his four years
+as President. He deplored what he regarded as a lack of patriotism on
+the part of the leaders of the insurrection, and cited a number of
+instances to prove that they were actuated by motives of greed and
+desire for office. His<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_277" id="page_277">{277}</a></span> demeanor was dignified and earnest, and what he
+said made a deep impression.</p>
+
+<p>The Americans then went to the home of the American Minister at
+Marianao, a suburb of Havana, where the insurgents had outposts just
+across the bridge, about 1,000 yards from the minister's house. There
+they conferred, as President Palma had suggested, with Señors Capote and
+Zayas, with the Secretary of Government, General Rafael Montalvo, who
+had charge of mobilizing the forces of the government; with General
+Rodriguez, and with the American Consul General, Mr. Steinhart, who had
+been eight years in the island, understood its conditions, and spoke its
+language.</p>
+
+<p>It was explained to Mr. Taft that some of the leaders of the revolution
+had been apprehended, and at present were incarcerated in the
+penitentiary, but that they could be summoned to the home of the
+American Minister, if he so desired. He did desire it, and the Liberal
+leaders were brought from their prison. They included Jose Miguel Gomez,
+Gualberto Gomez, Carlos Garcia, and others of the group. Senator Alfredo
+Zayas remained present, and when Mr. Taft asked for a statement from the
+prisoners regarding the causes of the revolution and their purposes and
+demands, he acted as counsel and spokesman. Dr. Zayas stated that the
+election of the President and his government had been absolutely
+fraudulent; that armed soldiers had prevented the approach of the
+Liberals to the polls; that they had absolute proof that the votes would
+never be counted but that the whole proceeding would be a farce, and
+that, as a protest against such frauds and miscarriage of justice, they
+had deliberately refrained from going to the polls after ten o'clock in
+the morning; that the results of the election had been absurd and
+ridiculous; that the Liberals were greatly in<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_278" id="page_278">{278}</a></span> the majority in the
+island, "as every one knew," and that the government, as constituted,
+was an imposition on the people, weak, inefficient and corrupt. He added
+that he and his compatriots wanted nothing more than that which they
+were in a position to enforce, and which they would have enforced had it
+not been for the suspension of hostilities which had been acquiesced in
+by the Liberals only out of deference to Mr. Taft and his commission.</p>
+
+<p>In other words, Dr. Zayas stated that they wished the immediate
+resignation of President Palma, his cabinet, and all members of Congress
+who had secured their seats at the last election; and he intimated that
+the judges of the courts who had been appointed by the Conservative
+party were corrupt and incompetent, and should be replaced by better
+men. In fact, they demanded the removal of the entire administration,
+and the annulment of the results of the last election.</p>
+
+<p>Against this Mr. Taft protested, stating that Dr. Zayas's suggestions
+were decidedly radical; that so far as Estrada Palma was concerned, he
+had been elected with at least the moral support of the United States
+government; that Washington knew and trusted him and had every reason to
+believe him a thoroughly honest man; and that he could not consent to
+any move so sweeping as that which Dr. Zayas suggested. Dr. Zayas
+immediately withdrew his objection to President Palma, stating that, on
+second thought, his retention as President would preserve the republican
+form of government, and save the island from a political change that
+should be avoided if possible. Therefore, Mr. Palma was more than
+welcome to remain as President of the Republic; but every other
+condition expressed with reference to Congress, the cabinet and the
+courts, must be enforced, and at once. That<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_279" id="page_279">{279}</a></span> was the ultimatum given to
+Mr. Taft by the leaders of the Liberals.</p>
+
+<p>This ultimatum was conveyed at once to President Palma, together with
+the intimation that it was a bad mess all around, and that, since a
+force variously estimated at between twelve and twenty thousand men
+surrounded the City of Havana, and property was in danger, and since
+Orestes Ferrara had already notified the commission that if the demands
+were not acquiesced in, three of the large sugar plantations in the
+neighborhood of Cienfuegos would be given over to the torch at daylight
+the next morning, it was probably best to yield to the demands of the
+Liberals, and practically to let them have their way, in the interest of
+peace, brotherhood and conservation of the rights of property.</p>
+
+<p>This astounding and unworthy attitude on the part of the Commission
+deeply hurt President Palma, who had with good cause expected not only
+its moral aid but probably also the military support of the armed force
+that came to Cuba, at least as long as the policy of his government
+could be justified. This mental attitude was not however indicated by
+any word that came from his lips. With unmoved dignity he bowed in
+uncomplaining acquiescence, and said that he entirely understood the
+situation; that Mr. Taft would receive his resignation as President, by
+word of mouth and in writing, as quickly as it could be dictated to his
+secretary; and that he would retire at once from the Presidency of Cuba.
+Against this action Mr. Taft protested, though he himself had obviously
+made it necessary, and explained that arrangements had been made, at his
+suggestion, in which Dr. Zayas as leader of the Liberals had acquiesced,
+to the effect that Mr. Palma should remain as President of the Republic,
+although the Liberals demanded the expulsion<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_280" id="page_280">{280}</a></span> of all other members of
+the administration. President Palma thanked Mr. Taft for his expression
+of faith in him personally, but absolutely refused to consider the
+withdrawal of his resignation, stating with impregnable logic, which Mr.
+Taft could not refute, that if his cabinet, his Congress and his courts
+were fraudulent, or held their positions illegally, he himself, having
+been elected at the same time, and in the same manner, was not the real
+President of Cuba. Therefore, he refused to remain longer in office. He
+added with punctilious courtesy that he would take the liberty of eating
+his supper in the palace with his family, since it was prepared, but he
+would not remain within its walls another day.</p>
+
+<p>When this attitude of the President was communicated to the members of
+the Cuban Congress, a meeting was at once called, at which, after a
+great deal of animated discussion, a joint committee was appointed,
+consisting of twenty-four men, to wait upon and expostulate with
+President Palma, but after several hours of pleading, they were
+unsuccessful in persuading him to change his mind.</p>
+
+<p>So came the fall of the Palma government, whereupon Secretary Taft
+assumed complete charge and control of the affairs of the Cuban
+Republic. The insurgent leaders signed a formal agreement to surrender,
+in which they promised to restore to their owners the horses and other
+property which they had seized, though as a matter of fact none of them
+did so; since, for good measure, perhaps, Mr. Taft through military
+decree gave to the rebels an absolute deed of ownership of the horses
+they had stolen from the stables and fields of their rightful owners. It
+took them nearly two weeks to disarm and disperse. Then Mr. Taft issued
+a proclamation granting "a full and complete amnesty and pardon to all
+persons who have<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_281" id="page_281">{281}</a></span> directly or indirectly participated in the recent
+insurrection in Cuba, or who have given aid or comfort to persons
+participating therein, for offenses political in their nature and
+committed in the course of the insurrection and prior to disbandment."
+This amnesty, he added, was to be "considered and construed as covering
+offenses of rebellion, sedition or conspiracy to commit the same, and
+other related offenses."</p>
+
+<p>Finally, Mr. Taft announced on October 13 the turning over of the
+government of the island, with the full power which he himself had
+exercised, to Mr. Charles E. Magoon, and on that same date Mr. Magoon
+accepted and was installed in the office, thus beginning the second
+Government of Intervention. The general feeling of Cubans at that time
+was divided. The pessimistic elements rather suspected that the United
+States, having been called there a second time, might never leave. On
+the other hand, the thinking class, and those who had experienced the
+United States government and its various administrations in Cuba,
+especially under General Leonard Wood, were confident that it was only a
+temporary régime that circumstances had made necessary, and they hoped
+that out of it much good would come.</p>
+
+<p>Thus ended the most pathetic and tragic incident in the history of the
+Cuban Republic, and the one which was on the whole most discreditable to
+the United States. Nothing could have been more deplorable than that a
+statesman of the great ability, the lofty ideals and especially the
+generally judicial mind of Mr. Taft should thus weakly and illogically
+have yielded to a vile conspiracy, manifested through lawless threats
+and unproved clamor, against a Chief of State who in validity of title,
+in purity of character, in unselfish devotion to the public good, and in
+potential efficiency of enlightened administrationship,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_282" id="page_282">{282}</a></span> was not
+unworthy to be ranked even in the same category with the great President
+under whom Mr. Taft himself held his commission.</p>
+
+<p>Estrada Palma, according to Mr. Taft's intimation, had erred. History
+will forever record that he erred chiefly if not solely in assuming, in
+his own transparent integrity, that other men were as honest as himself.
+He was, his enemies asserted, weak. But intelligence and justice must
+discern and declare that his only weakness was in an over-confidence in
+the people to whose service he had given all the best of his life and in
+whose loyalty and support he imagined that he could securely trust. He
+could not, in the greatness of his own soul, bring himself to believe it
+possible for men, for men calling themselves Cuban patriots, to do such
+things as those which Jose Miguel Gomez and Alfredo Zayas and Orestes
+Ferrara and their coparceners did. He was not moved by weakness, but by
+a desire to protect Cuba from the ravages of sordid revolution and from
+the unscrupulous exploitation of bushwhacking bandits, and to preserve
+for the Cuban people and their Republic the good name which had been so
+fairly and as he thought fully established during the years of his first
+administration. His place in the annals of Cuba is secure. His rank
+among the constitutional executives of the world is enviably high. There
+has been in Cuba or elsewhere no more honest administration than his,
+and none that more intelligently, unselfishly and untiringly strove to
+fulfil its every duty to the state. Its untimely fall is not to be
+charged against any subjective fault of its own, but to the unscrupulous
+malice of sordid foes, the apathy of the people in whom too great
+confidence had been reposed, and to the inexplicable betrayal by those
+who should have supported and protected it but who instead consented to
+its destruction.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_283" id="page_283">{283}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h3>
+
+<p>Mr. Magoon came to Cuba but little known to Cubans and unfamiliar with
+what was before him. During this second American intervention there were
+some radical changes in the administration, and more public works were
+undertaken than President Palma had ventured upon. The consensus of
+opinion among American officers, all the officers who had accompanied
+Mr. Magoon, was that the Palma administration had made a mistake in
+allowing so much money to accumulate in the treasury. It had become a
+temptation to those who were not in power, and it would have been better
+to have the money expended along lines that would tend to advance the
+republic rather than to permit it to accumulate. So it was realized that
+if it was not expended during Mr. Magoon's administration, it would be
+spent, and probably largely wasted, if not actually misappropriated, by
+the Liberals if they should secure control of the government.</p>
+
+<p>The most unfortunate thing in connection with the visit of Mr. Taft, and
+therefore with the administration of Mr. Magoon, was that the Liberals
+had apparently gained their ends. The majority of thoughtful and
+patriotic Cubans had expected the intervention of the United States to
+result in the upholding of law, order and justice in the support of
+President Palma and his administration. They had expected that Mr. Taft
+would take time to investigate the case thoroughly, and that he would
+insist at the outset, as an indispensable preliminary to his<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_284" id="page_284">{284}</a></span> entering
+into conference with them, that the Liberal insurgents should surrender
+their arms and ammunition, return the property which they had stolen,
+and submit themselves loyally to the constitutional government of the
+island; and that after that, but only after it, he would see to it that
+justice was done to them as to all parties and all people. That course
+was unfortunately not taken. Mr. Taft entered into conference with
+unrepentant and defiant rebels whose followers were at the moment in
+arms, threatening and preparing to make further criminal assaults upon
+property and life. He regarded or at least treated them as no less
+worthy of a hearing and of being taken into conference than the
+President himself; and despite his protests he concluded the sorry
+performance by practically ousting President Palma and his cabinet at
+the behest of these lawless insurgents.</p>
+
+<p>The sequel was tragedy. Estrada Palma died, not of pneumonia but of a
+broken heart. Nor was that all. Encouragement was given to the lawless
+and criminal elements of the island, and to those who resort to
+violence, insurrection and revolution as the means of attaining their
+political ends, which has been felt ever since and which has repeatedly
+given rise to attempts to repeat the performance which then was so
+successful. Recognition was given to the Liberals, through what were
+doubtless good but certainly were mistaken motives, and the Liberals
+insisted upon maintaining that recognition and profiting from it. So
+when a Council, or Consulting Board, of eleven members was formed with
+General Enoch H. Crowder as chairman, it contained only two
+Conservatives and one man of doubtful affiliations. Three members,
+Senors Garcia Kohly, Viondi and Carrera, did not belong to the August
+revolutionists but were members of the Moderado party, which had
+supported<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_285" id="page_285">{285}</a></span> Estrada Palma. They acted as "Independents" on the
+Commission, though they were intimately associated with the Liberals,
+and as "Independents" they participated in the municipal elections. But
+later they joined the Liberals outright. All the rest of the Commission,
+or Consulting Board, were Liberals who had actually taken part in the
+rebellion. No appointment to office could be made without the sanction
+of that Board, and the result was that the Second Government of
+Intervention was packed with Liberal placeholders. Competent men, who
+had served the State well under President Palma's administration, were
+dismissed and replaced by incompetents whose sole recommendation was
+that they were Liberals. Now the voters of Cuba are as a rule easily
+impressed, and do not always appreciate the possibility, through hard
+work, of transforming a minority into a majority. They delight in being
+at once on the winning side, and therefore pay much attention to
+determining not so much which of two rival and contending parties is
+really right and deserving of support, as which side is going to win.
+The fact that the Liberal leaders, who previously had had almost no
+recognition, social, political or official, suddenly came to the front,
+and with the apparent acquiescence of the United States, or of the
+commission appointed in Washington, were exerting great influence,
+seemed a pretty sure indication, or at least was so interpreted, that
+the United States had changed its ideas with regard to the government in
+Cuba, and was favoring, and probably would continue to favor and sustain
+the Liberal party. That was one of the reasons why the Liberals won
+their next election. In fact they pointed to it as evidence of America's
+moral support, and frequently referred to and displayed an order, said
+to have been issued through mistake, which provided that every man<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_286" id="page_286">{286}</a></span> who
+had stolen a horse, and who confessed his theft frankly, should have
+full proprietary title to that horse and need not surrender it to the
+owner. The order is still on the statute books, a memento of the
+American intervention. That was resented by the better citizens; it
+discouraged many people who had had great confidence in the United
+States, and it illustrates not the general policy of the second
+government of intervention, but some of the unfortunate things that took
+place under that intervention, that seemed to the better class in Cuba,
+as mistaken.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Magoon spent the larger part of the money found in the treasury on
+public works, the building of roads, and various enterprises for the
+best interests of the island. It is claimed that in some instances the
+contracts became a source of graft, and that the roads were not built
+according to specifications. At any rate, they were built, and were
+sorely needed, and the results on the whole were excellent. Of the
+6,000,000 left by the Palma administration nearly every dollar was
+expended at that time.</p>
+
+<p>Although the second Government of Intervention was theoretically and
+nominally, and doubtless meant to be actually, quite non-political and
+impartial as between the Cuban parties, the very circumstances of its
+origin made it appear to favor the Liberals. It had come into power by
+accepting the resignation of the Palma administration, which was
+practically Conservative, at the demand of the Liberals. The Liberals
+thus enjoyed all through its duration the prestige of victory, without
+having to bear any of the responsibility of being in office, or
+incurring any of the odium which is almost inevitable to every human
+government which has not learned to achieve the impossible task of
+pleasing everybody. There was no such foundation work to do as had been<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_287" id="page_287">{287}</a></span>
+done under the first Intervention, and the American government busied
+itself principally with routine matters, and with making it possible for
+the Cubans to resume control of their own affairs.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important undertakings at this time from a non-political
+point of view was the taking of a new census. This was not done on so
+elaborate a scale as the preceding census of 1899, but was more strictly
+an enumeration of the people, for purposes of apportionment, etc. It was
+taken under the direction of the American Government of Intervention in
+1907, the actual work on it being done by a staff of Cuban canvassers
+and statisticians, and it was believed to have been accurately and
+comprehensively done.</p>
+
+<p>The work of compiling the new census of Cuba which was taken in 1907 was
+continued in the early part of 1908 and was completed and results were
+published at the end of March of that year. The total population of the
+island was reported to be 2,048,980, and out of this number 419,342 were
+citizens and entitled to vote. It was then arranged to hold municipal
+and provincial elections on August 1, and a national election on
+November 14. These elections would be essential parts of the processes
+by which the United States government would bring its second
+intervention to a close and restore the island to the control and
+government of its own people. The electoral law under which they were to
+be conducted was promulgated for the August election on April 1 and for
+the November election on September 11, 1908.</p>
+
+<p>This law had three salient and characterizing features. The first was
+that it established a system of permanent election boards which were
+charged with the work of conducting the elections. In each municipality
+there was to be a board of three members. In each department<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_288" id="page_288">{288}</a></span> or
+province there was to be a board of five members of whom two were to be
+representatives of the two principal political parties of the island
+while the other three were to be non-political members, officials of the
+courts or representatives of the education department. The second
+salient feature of the law was a system of compulsory registration. This
+provided for the making and keeping by the election boards of lists of
+all persons in the island who were entitled to vote. The basis of these
+lists was the census of 1907, and it was provided that the lists should
+be revised, corrected and amplified by the election boards every year.</p>
+
+<p>The third and perhaps the most important feature of the law was its
+provision for proportional representation. This secured minority
+representation, giving each of the important political parties
+membership in legislative bodies and also in the Electoral College
+representation in proportion to the number of votes polled.</p>
+
+<p>Under the constitution of Cuba the right of suffrage is guaranteed to
+every adult male in full enjoyment of his ordinary civil rights. This of
+course bestows the franchise upon a great number of illiterate persons.
+The commission which revised the electoral law in 1908 carefully
+considered the question of undertaking in some way to deal with the
+illiterate vote so that it would not be, as it seemed on the face to be,
+a potential menace to the state. It was finally decided however, that it
+would be impracticable and inadvisable to attempt in any way to modify
+the constitution. Provisions were, however, adopted whereby alien
+residents of the island, although not permitted to vote, were made
+eligible for election as members of municipal councils and also as
+associate members of municipal commissions.</p>
+
+<p class="c caption">THE ACADEMY OF ARTS AND CRAFTS</p>
+
+<p class="caption">The Academy of Arts and Crafts is one of the notable institutions which
+make Havana an important centre of culture, both theoretical and
+applied. This great school of technology was opened in 1882, and
+occupies a fine building of dignified and impressive academic
+architecture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<a href="images/i043.png">
+<img src="images/i043_sml.png" width="550" height="357" alt="THE ACADEMY OF ARTS AND CRAFTS
+
+The Academy of Arts and Crafts is one of the notable institutions which
+make Havana an important centre of culture, both theoretical and
+applied. This great school of technology was opened in 1882, and
+occupies a fine building of dignified and impressive academic
+architecture." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_289" id="page_289">{289}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The provincial and municipal elections occurred on August 1. There were
+in the field three major political parties, namely, the Conservatives,
+the Liberals and the Historical Liberals. The latter two were formed by
+a split which had occurred in the Liberal party. The principal faction
+was led by Jose Miguel Gomez, who claimed to be representative of the
+original and only simon pure Liberals, and who regarded the other
+faction as an illegitimate schism. The followers of Gomez accordingly
+called themselves the Historical Liberal Party, but were popularly known
+as the Miguelistas. The other faction was led by Alfredo Zayas and
+called itself simply the Liberal Party, being popularly known as the
+Zayistas. There was another insignificant faction which had been known
+as the National Independent Party but which now merged itself with the
+Zayistas. The third party was of course the Conservative.</p>
+
+<p>The result of the elections of August 1 was the polling of 269,132 votes
+or about 60 per cent. of the registration. The Conservatives elected
+their candidates for Governor in the three provinces of Pinar del Rio,
+Matanzas and Santa Clara. In the municipalities of the island the
+Conservatives elected twenty-eight mayors, the Miguelistas thirty-five
+and the Zayistas eighteen. The elections were conducted quietly and
+legally, no serious charges of intimidation or fraud were made, and the
+results were loyally accepted by men of all parties.</p>
+
+<p>The campaign for the Presidential election was then continued with much
+zeal. The results of the election of August 1 were taken deeply to heart
+by the various Liberal leaders as demonstrating to them that the split
+in their party would be fatal to them in the national election unless it
+were healed or at least some sort of a modus vivendi were established.
+Accordingly Jose Miguel Gomez and Alfredo Zayas "got together" and<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_290" id="page_290">{290}</a></span>
+agreed upon a compromise of their claims. It was altogether apparent
+that Gomez was on the whole the stronger of the two candidates. Also he
+was the older of the two men. Therefore it was agreed that he should
+have the first chance at the Presidency of Cuba. He should be the
+candidate at the coming election of 1908, but if he was successful in
+being elected he should not seek a second term but at the end of his
+first should step aside and give his support to Zayas as his successor.
+With this understanding the party was reunited for the purposes of the
+campaign. Gomez was made the candidate for the Presidency and Zayas was
+nominated for the Vice-Presidency. The Conservatives nominated for the
+Presidency General Mario G. Menocal and for the Vice-Presidency Doctor
+Rafael Montoro.</p>
+
+<p>The campaign was conducted with much spirit and earnestness but
+generally in a dignified and law abiding manner. The chief stock in
+trade of the Liberals was abuse of the former administration of Estrada
+Palma, and of General Menocal as the inheritor of its traditions and
+policies. There were also many intemperate attacks upon Doctor Montoro
+because of his former association with the Autonomist party and the
+brief Autonomist Government during the later part of the War of
+Independence. How insincere this criticism of Dr. Montoro was appeared a
+little later when that statesman was appointed to a very important
+office under the Gomez administration.</p>
+
+<p>The election occurred on November 14, under the general supervision of
+the American Government of Intervention, and was conducted in a peaceful
+and legal manner, giving no cause for serious complaints on either side.
+The result of the polling was a decisive victory for the Liberal party.
+Of the 331,455 votes the Liberals<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_291" id="page_291">{291}</a></span> polled 201,199 and the Conservatives
+130,256, there being thus a Liberal majority of 70,943. The Liberals
+carried all six provinces of the island, obtaining their largest
+majorities in Havana, Santa Clara and Oriente. Gomez and Zayas were
+assured of the entire electoral vote, though under the law of
+proportional representation for minorities the Conservatives elected
+thirty-two members of Congress to the Liberals' fifty-one.</p>
+
+<p>Various reasons were assigned for this decisive defeat of General
+Menocal. One was, that the Liberals were in the public eye as coming
+men. It was said that as their leaders had never been tried as directors
+of the Republic, it was time to give them an opportunity to show what
+they could do. The policy which the Liberals had outlined in advance was
+very attractive to certain classes of the population. They promised to
+abolish the law which General Wood had made, prohibiting cock-fighting.
+They even harked back to "Jack" Cade for inspiration, and promised that
+when they came into power there should be no necessity for men to work
+as hard as they had been doing. In token of these two promises they
+adopted as their pictorial emblem in the campaign a plow standing idle
+in a weed-grown field without plowman or oxen, and with a fighting cock
+perched upon its beam. Their campaign cry might therefore appropriately
+have been "Cockfighting and Idleness!" It is not agreeable to recall
+that such issues appealed to so large a proportion of the citizens of
+Cuba that upon them the election of 1908 was won.</p>
+
+<p>Much of the stock in trade of the Liberal campaign consisted also in
+denunciation of General Menocal. The Liberals declared that he was
+representative of the class and the régime that had practically been
+dismissed by the United States government in the Second Intervention,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_292" id="page_292">{292}</a></span>
+namely, the "silk-stocking" or intellectual class, which did not
+sympathize with the people and with the real cause of popular liberty.
+It was also pointed out as though it were an opprobrious fact that
+General Menocal had associated with himself as Vice-Presidential
+candidate Dr. Rafael Montoro, to whose character and ability not even
+the Liberals ventured to take exception, but who had been an Autonomist.
+When this reputed reason for his defeat was mentioned to General Menocal
+he declared that he was willing to accept it, though he did not believe
+it to be the true one; adding that after having been associated with Dr.
+Montoro during the campaign and having intimately exchanged ideas with
+him, he regarded him, Autonomist though he had been, as one of the best
+men Cuba had ever produced, and would more gladly be defeated with him
+than be victorious with the companion of his opponent.</p>
+
+<p>The various provincial and municipal officers who had been elected on
+August 1 took office and the new provincial laws went into effect on
+October 1, 1908. Because of the persistent failure of the Cuban Congress
+hitherto to enact new municipal legislation these were the first local
+officials chosen by the people since the municipal elections which were
+held under the first American Government of Intervention of 1901. Since
+1901 all vacancies occurring in municipal offices had been filled either
+by the votes of the municipal councils themselves or by appointment of
+the national government. This was because no provision had been made for
+their election by the people. Naturally this state of affairs gave great
+dissatisfaction and repeated demands were made by the Liberals for the
+removal of the holdover officials. It was also contended by the Liberals
+that the election of members of the provincial councils in 1905 had
+been<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_293" id="page_293">{293}</a></span> illegal. Under the old law provincial governors and councilmen
+were elected for four years and half of the council was renewed every
+two years. Thus half of the council was elected in 1903 and these
+members took their seats in 1904, and half were again elected in 1905
+and took their seats in 1906. The contention of the Liberals was that
+this latter half, of 1905-1906, were illegal. On April 6, 1908, the
+terms of councilmen elected in 1903 and seated in 1904 expired, leaving
+in office only those who had been elected in 1905 and seated in 1906,
+whom the Liberals affected to regard as having been illegally elected,
+and who in any case were not sufficient for a legal quorum. The Liberals
+demanded therefore that all seats be declared vacant and that the powers
+of the provincial assemblies be vested for the time in the Provisional
+Government of Intervention. This was done, and the provincial governors
+were also required to resign. These latter vacancies were filled
+temporarily by the appointment of United States army officers, who
+served until October 1, 1908, when they were succeeded by men elected by
+the Cuban people.</p>
+
+<p>There was undoubtedly great need for a thorough revision of the laws of
+Cuba. Those existing at this time were for the most part a legacy of the
+old Spanish government and it was quite obvious that laws which had been
+enacted by a despotic government for the control of a subject colony
+were not suited for a free and independent republic. They were certainly
+not in harmony with the constitution which had been adopted. It was an
+anomalous state of affairs that after the adoption of the constitution
+Cuban municipalities should continue to be governed under the Spanish
+provincial and municipal code of 1878. This code gave the Central
+Government not only intimate supervision over but practical control<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_294" id="page_294">{294}</a></span> of
+all municipal affairs, even to the smallest details, and naturally was
+very unsatisfactory to the people who were desirous of local home rule
+as well as of national independence. In fact the efforts of the national
+authorities to enforce these laws were regarded with displeasure and
+actually caused strong local antagonism to the national government.</p>
+
+<p>Under the second government of intervention, therefore, a commission was
+organized in 1907 consisting of both Cubans and Americans, the former
+being the majority, for the purpose of drafting elaborate codes of
+electoral, municipal, provincial, judiciary and civil service laws. This
+commission completed its work but all its recommendations were not
+adopted. Its provincial and municipal codes were however put into effect
+on October 1, 1908.</p>
+
+<p>The general condition of the island during the second American
+intervention was excellent so far as the maintenance of law and order
+was concerned. This was largely due to the efficient work of the Rural
+Guard, the operations of which were directed by a number of American
+officers detailed for that purpose. While brigandage was not wholly
+suppressed, it was much diminished and held in check.</p>
+
+<p>One of the chief controversies with which the government of intervention
+had to deal was that with the Roman Catholic church over various
+properties formerly belonging to it which had been confiscated by the
+Spanish government. There was some such property in the province of
+Oriente, a part of extensive estates once held by certain monastic
+orders. It had been taken by the Spanish government during the Ten
+Years' War, and at the end of that conflict the government refused to
+return it, but instead of doing so agreed to make an annual
+appropriation<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_295" id="page_295">{295}</a></span> for the benefit of the church. Upon the separation of
+State and Church under American intervention in 1899 these
+appropriations were discontinued, whereupon the church claimed that the
+property should be restored to it. The validity of this claim was
+recognized by the American government, but instead of complying with it
+by actual restoration of the property that government purchased a part
+of the property from the church at a price mutually agreed upon as
+satisfactory. It was over the remainder of this property that the
+controversy was renewed, and it was settled by a similar purchase in
+1908. Another such controversy arose over valuable property in Havana,
+which had been taken from the church by the government for the custom
+house and other public offices; and it also was settled by fair purchase
+on July 12, 1907.</p>
+
+<p>After the installation of provincial and municipal officers on October
+1, 1908, and after the successful conduct of the national election on
+November 14 following, the American Government of Intervention busied
+itself chiefly with preparations for withdrawing from the island and
+returning the control and government to the representative of the Cuban
+people. This was finally effected on January 28, 1909, when Governor
+Magoon retired and Jose Miguel Gomez became President of Cuba. The total
+cost to Cuba of the second American intervention was estimated at about
+$6,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>The general feeling of the responsible people of Cuba concerning the
+second American intervention was one of extreme disappointment, owing to
+the fact that they compared it with the intervention under General Wood,
+or rather with the conduct of affairs under him. That first intervention
+was under the control of military officers, and when they made up their
+mind that a thing should be done, it was done, and as a rule well done,
+and<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_296" id="page_296">{296}</a></span> the example which was set in directing affairs of the government,
+organizing public works, schools, in sanitation, and in auditing, made
+the second intervention suffer by comparison.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_297" id="page_297">{297}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h3>
+
+<p>Jose Miguel Gomez became President and Alfredo Zayas became
+Vice-President of the Republic of Cuba on January 28, 1909. With a
+substantial majority in Congress ready to do his will, and with the
+immeasurable prestige of success, first over the Palma Administration
+and later in the contest at the polls, the President was almost
+all-powerful to adopt and to execute whatever designs he had, either for
+the assumed welfare of Cuba or for the strengthening of his own
+political position. He selected a Cabinet of his own supporters, as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p class="scrt">Secretary of State, Senor Garcia Velez.<br />
+Secretary of Justice, Senor Divino.<br />
+Secretary of Government, Senor Lopez Leiva.<br />
+Secretary of the Treasury, Senor Diaz de Villegas.<br />
+Secretary of Public Works, Senor Chalons.<br />
+Secretary of Agriculture, Commerce and Labor, Senor Foyo.<br />
+Secretary of Public Instruction and Arts, Senor Meza.<br />
+Secretary of Sanitation and Charity, Senor Duque.<br />
+Secretary to the President, Senor Damaso Pasalodos.</p>
+
+<p>Not many of these men had hitherto been conspicuous in the affairs of
+the island, in either peace or war, and their capacity for service was
+untried. It cannot be said that they were regarded with any large degree
+of enthusiastic confidence by the nation at large. Yet there was
+indubitably a general purpose, even among the most resolute
+Conservatives, to give them a fair trial and to wish them success. Men
+who had the welfare of Cuba<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_298" id="page_298">{298}</a></span> at heart cherished that welfare far above
+any mere personal or partisan ambitions.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 171px;">
+<a href="images/i044.png">
+<img src="images/i044_sml.png" width="171" height="200" alt="JOSE MIGUEL GOMEZ" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>It would not be easy to imagine a man much more different from the first
+President of Cuba than his successor, the second President; though
+indeed the latter was a man of no mean record, especially in war. Jose
+Miguel Gomez was born in Sancti Spiritus on July 6, 1858. He there
+obtained his earlier education, which he continued at the Institute of
+Havana, taking his degree of Bachelor of Arts and Sciences in 1875. He
+joined the revolutionary forces shortly before the end of the Ten Years'
+War. When, after the Zanjon Peace, the struggle broke out afresh, in the
+Little War, Gomez took once more to the field and attained the rank of
+Lieutenant Colonel. This outbreak having failed, he returned to his home
+and devoted himself to managing his father's estate in Sancti Spiritus.
+When once more the Cuban patriots resumed their struggle for the cause
+of independence in 1895, he again answered the call to arms. The action
+of Manajato won for him the rank of Colonel and the command of the
+Sancti Spiritus brigade. He was subsequently promoted to Brigadier
+General and then to the rank of Division General, after the battle of
+Santa Teresa where he was wounded. By the year 1898 he was at the head
+of the first division of the Fourth Army Corps which operated in Santa
+Clara Province. In this command he figured in most of the battles fought
+in that section at the time. The capture of the supposedly impregnable
+ingenio Canambo in the Trinidad Valley was one of the feats of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_299" id="page_299">{299}</a></span> this
+campaign. Also the attack and capture of Jibaro, a town defended by a
+strong contingent, and the operation of strategical importance conducted
+against Arroyo Blanco, are to the General's credit in this campaign, in
+which he was effectively assisted by a remarkable staff of young men,
+who won a reputation for their capability and courage. When the Santa
+Cruz del Sur Assembly met, at the close of the war against Spain,
+General Gomez was elected to represent Santa Clara. Shortly after, he
+formed part of a delegation which was sent to Washington on a diplomatic
+mission. On his return to Cuba he was appointed Civil Governor of the
+Province of Santa Clara on March 14, 1899; which position he held until
+September 27, 1905, when he resigned, having been nominated as the
+candidate of the Liberal party for the Presidency. His years of office
+as Governor of Santa Clara were interrupted by his attending the
+sessions of the Constitutional Convention at Havana, as a delegate from
+Santa Clara. When General Gomez was defeated by President Estrada Palma,
+who ran for re-election, conspiracies and agitations were organized
+which culminated in the revolt of August, 1906, against Estrada Palma's
+administration. Of this conspiracy and agitation Gomez was the organizer
+and leader. The Palma Government having proved its inability to quench
+the uprising, the American authorities intervened, and at the close of
+that intervention, on January 28, 1909, Gomez was installed as President
+of Cuba.</p>
+
+<p>Of different type entirely, yet not unsuited to work with Jose Miguel
+Gomez whenever their mutual interests made cooperation desirable, was
+the new Vice-President, Dr. Alfredo Zayas. He too was a man of
+conspicuous record, in the War of Independence and afterward, though it
+had not been made on the field of battle.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_300" id="page_300">{300}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Alfredo Zayas was born on February 21, 1861, and took his degree of
+licentiate in administrative law in 1882 at the University of Havana,
+and the following year in civil and canonic law. He soon acquired a
+reputation as a lawyer and in the world of letters. During the War of
+Independence he was the delegate in Havana of the revolutionary party.
+His activities in this connection having been discovered, he was
+imprisoned in September, 1896, and was sent to Spain and incarcerated at
+several of the prisons of the Spanish Government in Africa. After the
+War of Independence, Dr. Zayas led an active political life. He was the
+founder and Secretary of the Patriotic Committee, was a prominent member
+of the Constituent Convention, of which he acted as Secretary, and was
+foremost in organizing and leading the activities of the National,
+Liberal-National and Liberal parties. He served as Senator from the
+Province of Havana. He was one of the jurists who formed the
+Consultative Committee, appointed to draw up the organic laws of the
+executive and judicial powers, as well as the laws relating to the
+provincial and municipal institutions. At different times he occupied
+the posts of prosecuting attorney, municipal judge, and sub-secretary of
+Justice. During the revolutionary movement which took place in 1906
+against the Estrada Palma administration, Dr. Zayas was president of the
+revolutionary committee. After the provisional administration which
+followed the fall of President Palma, he was elected to the
+Vice-Presidency of the Republic.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 167px;">
+<a href="images/i045.png">
+<img src="images/i045_sml.png" width="167" height="197" alt="DR. ALFREDO ZAYAS" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_301" id="page_301">{301}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Dr. Zayas's life in the world of letters is no less interesting. From
+1890-93 he published various periodicals and collaborated in others. He
+has written several books on Cuban history and studies on the language
+of the primitive inhabitants of the Island, on bibliography, on
+questions relating to law and political economy, etc. He is a member of
+the Academy of History and for eleven years was President of the
+Sociedad Economica.</p>
+
+<p>The armed forces of the American government were of course withdrawn
+from Cuba on January 28, 1909, at the same time with the retirement of
+Governor Magoon and the second Government of Intervention, and the
+maintenance of order was left for a time entirely with the Rural Guard.
+That body of men had been very efficient during the American
+intervention and was considered by many to be quite ample for all the
+military purposes of the island. During 1909, however, President Gomez
+decided to organize a permanent Cuban army. To the chief command of this
+he appointed his friend Pino Guerra. The organization consisted of a
+general staff, a brigade of two regiments of infantry of three
+battalions each, amounting to about 2,500 officers and men; two
+batteries of light field artillery and four batteries of mounted
+artillery, amounting to about 800 officers and men; a machine gun corps
+of four companies comprising 500 officers and men; and a corps of coast
+artillery comprising 1,000 officers and men. This force was trained and
+equipped under the direction of officers of the United States army who
+were borrowed for the purpose by the Cuban government.</p>
+
+<p>The administration of President Gomez was marked with the enactment of
+many new laws, and of the undertaking of a number of enterprises. One
+law granted amnesty to all persons excepting those who had been
+convicted<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_302" id="page_302">{302}</a></span> of certain peculiarly odious offenses. Another suspended the
+duty on the export of sugar, tobacco and liquors which had been imposed
+by the former Palma administration. On the other hand an additional tax
+was imposed upon all imports. Early in the administration a perpetual
+franchise was granted for telephone service throughout the entire
+Island, an act which was severely criticized on the ground that the
+President himself was believed to derive pecuniary profit from it. Laws
+were also enacted in 1909, legalizing cock fighting and establishing the
+national lottery.</p>
+
+<p>In 1910, the second year of this administration, President Gomez began
+to manifest marked sensitiveness toward the criticisms which were made
+of his administration, and on February 3, two editors were convicted of
+libelling him, because they had accused him of deriving profit from
+governmental activities, and they were sentenced to terms of
+imprisonment. In April, he appointed to a place in his cabinet Senor
+Morua, a negro, and the first member of that race to hold cabinet office
+in Cuba. In July an insurrection occurred in Oriente near the town of El
+Caney, which was suppressed by the Rural Guards with little difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>The active participation of government officers in party politics led to
+a disturbing incident at the beginning of August. At that time the
+Secretary of the Treasury, Senor Villegas, attended a convention of the
+Liberal party where he became involved in a violent quarrel. In
+consequence, the president ordered that thereafter no member of the
+Cabinet should be permitted to attend political meetings, or engage in
+active political work; whereupon Villegas resigned his place in the
+Cabinet.</p>
+
+<p>In November, congressional elections were held to elect half of the
+members of the House of Representatives.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_303" id="page_303">{303}</a></span> During the campaign the former
+quarrel in the Liberal party became acute. One faction started a violent
+agitation for the suppression of all religious orders in the Island, for
+the abolition of trusts in business, and for the prohibition of the
+holding of property in Cuba by foreign corporations. The other faction
+took for the chief plank in its platform the repudiation of the Platt
+Amendment. An attempt was also made by the negro members of the party to
+organize a third faction, comprising exclusively the members of their
+race. Because of these dissensions in the Liberal party the
+Conservatives made a somewhat better showing at the election than they
+had done in 1908, but the Liberals were generally successful and secured
+a majority in Congress.</p>
+
+<p>At the opening of the session, President Gomez urged revision of the
+tariff in order to provide fuller protection for certain manufacturing
+industries; the building of a new Palace of Justice; and the
+establishment at state expense of public libraries in the chief cities.
+During this year an attempt was made to assassinate General Pino Guerra,
+but it was unsuccessful. The would-be assassin was arrested and Guerra
+professed to recognize in him an officer of the police who had had some
+grudge against him. Alfredo Zayas and Frank Steinhart, the former United
+States Consul General, also made public complaints of attempts to
+assassinate them, and reported the matter to the Supreme Court, but that
+tribunal declined to investigate their charges. An attempt was made to
+connect the attempted assassination of General Guerra with a bill
+pending before Congress, which provided that the head of the army should
+not be removed excepting for cause. It was said that this bill was
+strongly opposed by the Commander of the Rural Guards, and that he had
+in consequence incited the attempt to assassinate Guerra.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_304" id="page_304">{304}</a></span> There was
+much public discussion and agitation of this matter, but nothing
+practical resulted from it.</p>
+
+<p>Charges continued to be made increasingly of the profligacy and
+corruption of the Gomez administration. It was charged, doubtless with
+much truth, that the number of public offices and office holders had
+been unnecessarily multiplied to a scandalous extent for the sake of
+giving profitable jobs to the friends of Liberal leaders. It was also
+intimated that the Government had subsidized the press to suppress the
+truth concerning these and other charges, and thus to avoid an open
+scandal which might result in a third American intervention. Taxation
+was declared to be excessive and oppressive, amounting in some cases to
+as much as 30 per cent. of the value of the property. Other charges were
+that public offices, executive, legislative and even judicial, were
+practically sold to the highest bidder for cash; that concessions for
+public utilities were similarly disposed of for the profit not of the
+public but of members of the Government, and that then extortionate
+prices were charged to the public for the service rendered; that the
+natural resources of Cuba were thus being parceled out to speculators
+for cash; that a bill purporting to be for the improvement of the ports
+had increased four-fold the expenses of those ports, for the enrichment
+of a speculative company, and that in general the functions of the
+government were being perverted to the uses and the personal enrichment
+of a ring of Liberal politicians.</p>
+
+<p>As the date of the electoral campaign of 1912 drew near, the conduct of
+the administration became such as to incur the menace of another
+intervention. In January of that year an arbitrary attempt was made by
+President Gomez to thwart the activities and impair the influence of the
+Veterans' Association, by forbidding army<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_305" id="page_305">{305}</a></span> officers and members of the
+Rural Guard to attend any of its meetings, on the pretended ground that
+they were engaged in factional political agitation. As the organization
+was in no sense a partisan affair, but was composed of men of varying
+shades of political opinion who had the good of Cuba at heart, and who
+strove to avert the danger of further intervention by making and keeping
+the Cuban government above reproach, this decree of the President's was
+sharply resented and was openly disobeyed by many army officers. When on
+the evening of Sunday, January 14, 1912, many officers and Rural Guards
+attended a meeting of the National Council of the Veterans' Association,
+and were received with much enthusiasm, the situation caused so much
+disquiet that the United States government felt constrained to send a
+note of warning to President Gomez, stating that it was much concerned
+over the state of affairs in Cuba; that the laws must be enforced and
+order maintained; and that the President of the United States looked to
+the President and government of Cuba to see to it that there was no need
+of a third intervention.</p>
+
+<p>This note evoked from President Gomez the declaration that matters in
+Cuba were not in as bad a state as had been reported, and that he had
+the whole situation well in hand. General Emilio Nunez, the head of the
+Veterans' Association, declared that that organization would remain firm
+in its object to guarantee peace, to moralize the Administration, and to
+spread patriotism in the hearts of the people; and that it protested
+against that which might be a menace to the freedom and independence of
+Cuba, with confidence that the people of the United States would never
+regard its unselfish and patriotic campaign as an excuse for unwarranted
+intervention. He added that the Association had not sought to annul the
+law against participation<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_306" id="page_306">{306}</a></span> in politics by the army, but resented the
+charge in the Presidents' decree that it was "playing politics."
+"Patriotically we shall make every sacrifice, but we shall never resign
+ourselves to be miserable slaves dominated by irresponsible power
+untrammelled by laws or principles."</p>
+
+<p>The leaders of the Liberal party were by no means a unit in attitude
+toward the crisis, the antagonism already mentioned between President
+Gomez and Vice-President Zayas flaming up anew. The newspaper organ of
+the Zayista faction openly declared: "We are on the brink of an abyss,
+whither we have been brought by the stubborn stupidity of a portion of
+the administration and by flagrant contempt for Congress and its
+enactments. These things have brought on all our existing ills." Orestes
+Ferrara, Speaker of the House of Representatives, much alarmed at the
+menace of intervention which might on this occasion have been as
+disastrous to the Liberals as the former intervention had been to the
+administration of Estrada Palma, declared that party differences must be
+dropped and that "We must resign our passions and ambitions to save Cuba
+from another shameful foreign domination."</p>
+
+<p>Meantime the masses of thoughtful, patriotic citizens, disgusted with
+what they regarded as governmental extravagance and corruption, held
+themselves in admirable restraint, hoping that the peril of intervention
+would be in some way avoided until they could have an opportunity of
+permanently averting it through the election of a government which would
+give the United States no further cause for anxiety or for even a
+thought of resuming control of Cuban affairs. The crisis was thus
+fortunately passed, and the settlement of the Cuban people with the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_307" id="page_307">{307}</a></span>
+administration of Jose Miguel Gomez was postponed, as was fitting, until
+the fall elections.</p>
+
+<p>There followed a little later another ominous incident, for which
+President Gomez was largely responsible, but which he repudiated and
+dealt with in an energetic and efficient manner. The attempt, already
+referred to, at the organization of a negro party in the election
+campaign of 1910 was followed in May, 1912, by the outbreak of what
+seemed to be a formidable negro revolt. The leaders of this movement
+were two negro friends of Gomez, General Estenoz and General Ivonnet.
+They had been officers in the War of Independence, and it was said that
+Gomez had promised them and their negro followers great rewards if they
+would support him in his campaign for the presidency. When these
+promises were unfulfilled, these two men went through the Island urging
+the negroes to organize a political party of their own, which would
+probably hold the balance of power between the Conservatives and
+Liberals. Because of their violent agitation to this end they were
+arrested and imprisoned for a time. Then they were released and treated
+with much consideration. Indeed, they were offered appointment to
+offices, which, however, they declined. Instead, they renewed their
+agitation, and on May 22 an open revolt under their leadership occurred.
+So serious did the situation appear that an appeal was made to the
+United States Government, and preparations were actually made to send a
+naval and military expedition to protect the lives and property of
+Americans in the Island. President Gomez, however, rallied his military
+forces with much energy, and on June 14 completely routed the main body
+of the insurgents, capturing all their supplies of ammunition and
+provisions. This practically ended<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_308" id="page_308">{308}</a></span> the trouble. Estenoz was killed in
+the fighting, and Ivonnet was captured and then killed; "in an attempt
+to escape."</p>
+
+<p>Another embarrassment for the passing administration occurred in August,
+1912, when the United States government called upon President Gomez to
+make prompt settlement of certain claims which had been pending for two
+years, amounting to more than $500,000, and growing out of contracts for
+the waterworks and sanitation of the city of Cienfuegos. President Gomez
+protested that the Cuban treasury was without funds for the purpose, and
+that it would be necessary to wait until Congress could make a special
+appropriation. This reply was not convincing, seeing that payment of
+these identical claims had been made in a loan of $10,000,000 which the
+Cuban government had made in New York with the approval of the United
+States; and it was naturally assumed at Washington either that the money
+had been spent for other purposes or that it was being purposely
+withheld by President Gomez on some technicality or for some ulterior
+motive.</p>
+
+<p>As an incident of this controversy, in the closing days of August, the
+Liberal press of Havana conducted a campaign of vilification against
+Hugh S. Gibson, the American Chargé d'Affaires in Cuba, which culminated
+in a personal assault upon that gentleman by Enrique Maza, a member of
+the staff of one of the papers. This outrage provoked a sharp protest
+from the Washington government, in terms which implied a menace of
+action if reparation were not made. This alarmed President Gomez, and
+caused him to make at least a show of punishing the offender, and to
+write a long message of apology and pleading to President Taft, in which
+he promised to deal with Maza and with the newspapers which had been<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_309" id="page_309">{309}</a></span>
+slandering Mr. Gibson, to the full extent of the law, and begged for a
+reassuring statement of friendship from the United States government.
+Ultimately Maza was punished by imprisonment, and the penalty of the law
+was also applied to Senor Soto, the responsible editor of one of the
+papers which had most libelled the American Charge d'Affaires. The
+Cienfuegos claim was also paid; but because of it an attempt was made to
+enact a law excluding all foreign contractors from participation in
+Cuban public works!</p>
+
+<p>The Presidential election occurred on November 1, and resulted, as we
+shall hereafter see, in assurance that the Liberal party would be
+retired from power in May of the following year, and that the government
+of the island would be confided to the hands of those who had striven to
+uphold the wise and patriotic administration of Estrada Palma. In the
+few remaining months of his administration President Gomez pursued
+substantially the same policy that had marked the preceding years. In
+March, 1913, Congress enacted an Amnesty bill which would have meant a
+general jail delivery throughout the Island, and which President Gomez
+was strongly inclined to sign. He was restrained at the last moment from
+doing so, however, by the energetic protests of the United States
+government, which indeed were tantamount to an ultimatum; and instead
+returned the measure to Congress with his veto, and with a
+recommendation that it be revised so as to avoid the objections of the
+United States&mdash;though he did not directly mention the United States&mdash;and
+then repassed. This was done and the modified bill became a law at the
+middle of April.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the general extravagance of the Gomez administration, the
+overcrowding of all government offices with superfluous and incompetent
+placeholders, and<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_310" id="page_310">{310}</a></span> the expenditure of more than $140,000,000 within two
+and a half years, there were several specific performances which
+provoked severe censure. One of these was the installation of the
+National Lottery, which was done by vote of Congress at the dictation of
+the President. The pretext given for this was that Cubans loved to
+gamble, and that if they had no lottery of their own they would send
+their money to Madrid, for chances in the lottery there; and it was
+better to keep their money in Cuba than to have it sent to Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Another act of the administration which incurred strong censure and
+which was ultimately repealed by the government of President Menocal,
+with the approval of the courts, was what was commonly known as the
+"Dragado deal." This was the granting to a speculative corporation
+composed chiefly of Liberal politicians and called the Ports Improvement
+Company of Cuba, of an omnibus concession for the dredging of harbors,
+reclaiming of coastal swamp lands, and similar works; for which the
+corporation was authorized to collect port fees, including a heavy
+surtax on imported merchandise, of which a small proportion would go to
+the government and the remainder to the coffers of the corporation. This
+concession was granted by President Gomez in 1911, against the advice of
+the United States government, and against strong and widespread protests
+from the people and press of Cuba, by whom it was regarded as a
+monstrous piece of corrupt jobbery. While it was in force, this
+concession paid millions of dollars a year to its holders, with an
+almost undiscernible minimum of advantage to the nation.</p>
+
+<p>Following this came a bargain with the railroads centering in Havana, by
+which the arsenal grounds belonging to the Republic and comprising a
+large and valuable tract lying immediately on the Bay of Havana were
+given<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_311" id="page_311">{311}</a></span> to those companies in exchange for two comparatively small plots
+which had been occupied by them as a terminal station and warehouse. In
+addition the railroad companies agreed to build, or to provide the money
+for building, a new Presidential Palace, which President Gomez hoped to
+have finished in time for his own occupancy. This exchange was, in
+itself, undoubtedly a good thing. It gave the railroads an admirable
+site for the great terminal which they needed and which is now one of
+the valuable assets of Havana and indeed of Cuba. But the manner in
+which the bargain was made, the exercise of political influence, and the
+strong and unrefuted suspicion of the corrupt employment of pecuniary
+considerations, brought upon the transaction strong reprobation. An
+ironic sequel was that the work which was done on the proposed new
+palace was so bad that it presently had all to be torn down.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately there was no relaxation in the maintenance of sanitary
+measures for the prevention of epidemics, and while there was little or
+no road building or other such public works those already constructed
+were generally well maintained. The judgment of thoughtful and impartial
+men upon the administration of José Miguel Gomez was therefore that it
+had contained some good and much evil, and that even the good had been
+done too often in an unworthy if not an actually evil way. It had been
+the administration of an astute and not over-scrupulous politician, who
+sought to serve first his own interests, next those of his party and
+friends, and last those of the nation, and not that of an enlightened
+and patriotic statesman, seeking solely to promote the welfare of the
+people who had chosen him to be their chief executive.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_312" id="page_312">{312}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h3>
+
+<p>The fourth Presidential campaign in Cuba began in the spring of 1912.
+The Liberal administration had given the nation a thorough taste of its
+quality, with the result that there was a strong reaction against it on
+the part of many who had been its zealous upholders. The compact between
+José Miguel Gomez and Alfredo Zayas was, however, carried out, the
+former not seeking re-election but standing aside in favor of the
+latter, who accordingly received the Presidential nomination at the
+convention which was held on April 15. Before this, on April 7, the
+Conservative convention by unanimous vote and with great enthusiasm
+nominated General Mario G. Menocal for President, and Enrique José
+Varona for President. The campaign was conducted with much determination
+on both sides, but in a generally orderly fashion, and the election,
+which occurred on November 1, was also conducted in a creditable manner.
+Although the Liberals had made extravagant claims in advance, the result
+of the polling was a decisive victory for General Menocal, who easily
+carried every one of the six provinces. This result was due in part to
+the popular revulsion against the corruption of the Liberal
+administration, and partly to the immense popularity of the Conservative
+candidate and his admirable record as a useful public servant in various
+capacities.</p>
+
+<p class="c caption">MARIO G. MENOCAL</p>
+
+<p class="caption">The third President of the Republic of Cuba, General Mario G. Menocal,
+comes of one of the most distinguished families in Latin America. He was
+born at Jaguey Grande, Cuba, on December 17, 1866, was educated at
+Cornell University, New York, and became associated in professional and
+business work with his uncle, Aniceto G. Menocal, the distinguished
+canal and railroad engineer. He entered the War of Independence at the
+beginning and served to the end with distinction. He was defeated for
+the Presidency in 1908, but was elected in 1912 and reelected in 1916.
+His history is the history of Cuba for the last seven years.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 372px;">
+<a href="images/i046.png">
+<img src="images/i046_sml.png" width="372" height="550" alt="MARIO G. MENOCAL
+
+The third President of the Republic of Cuba, General Mario G. Menocal,
+comes of one of the most distinguished families in Latin America. He was
+born at Jaguey Grande, Cuba, on December 17, 1866, was educated at
+Cornell University, New York, and became associated in professional and
+business work with his uncle, Aniceto G. Menocal, the distinguished
+canal and railroad engineer. He entered the War of Independence at the
+beginning and served to the end with distinction. He was defeated for
+the Presidency in 1908, but was elected in 1912 and reelected in 1916.
+His history is the history of Cuba for the last seven years." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_313" id="page_313">{313}</a></span>
+Mario G. Menocal, who was thus chosen to be the head of the Cuban
+Republic, came of an old Havana family, traditionally revolutionary, and
+was born in Jaguey Grande, Matanzas, in December, 1866. When his family
+emigrated, as a consequence of his father having taken part in the Ten
+Years' War, Mario Menocal began his education in the United States. He
+was graduated at Cornell University with the Class of 1888 and took his
+degree as Civil Engineer. No sooner was he graduated than his uncle,
+Aniceto G. Menocal, the distinguished engineer of the Isthmian Canals,
+summoned him to his side to work with him at Nicaragua. In 1893 he went
+to Cuba as engineer of a French Company to exploit a salt mine at Cayo
+Romano. He was working on the construction of the Santa Cruz railway in
+Camaguey when the War of Independence broke out in 1895. On June 5 of
+that year he joined the forces of Commander Alejandro Rodriguez as a
+private. At the attack on Fort Ramblazo he was promoted to sergeant, and
+it was not long before his military talents had won for him the rank of
+Lieutenant Colonel.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;">
+<a href="images/i047.png">
+<img src="images/i047_sml.png" width="361" height="219" alt="BIRTHPLACE AND BOYHOOD HOME OF PRESIDENT MARIO G.
+MENOCAL, JAGUEY GRANDE, MATANZAS" title="" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">BIRTHPLACE AND BOYHOOD HOME OF PRESIDENT MARIO G.
+MENOCAL, JAGUEY GRANDE, MATANZAS</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the Revolutionary Government was constituted on September 15, 1895,
+Colonel Menocal was appointed<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_314" id="page_314">{314}</a></span> Assistant Secretary of War, and in that
+capacity assisted Generals Gomez and Maceo in organizing the "invasion"
+contingent. He later joined the Third Army Corps under Mayia Rodriguez,
+and remained with it until the beginning of 1896 when he was called by
+General Calixto Garcia, who had just reached the Island and who made
+Menocal his Chief of Staff. Thereafter his name was associated with
+Garcia's brilliant campaign in Oriente.</p>
+
+<p>Among the many battles in which Colonel Menocal took part were the
+hard-fought engagements of La Gloria, Bellezas, Moscones, Hierba de
+Guinea, and the great struggle at Guantanamo, in July, 1896, against two
+Spanish columns which were cut apart and were obliged to abandon the
+Ramon de las Yaguas zone. In August the agricultural regions of Holguin
+were invaded and the Loma de Heirro fort seized, artillery being used
+for the first time in the war. This feat caused his promotion to the
+rank of Colonel. He then was active in the Sierra Maestra Mountains to
+meet Mendez's expedition. In October, Menocal seized Guaimaro,
+conducting personally the assault on Fort Gonfan, having captured which,
+he was made Brigadier General.</p>
+
+<p>In November, 1896, he took part in the battles of Alta Conchita and
+Lugones against Gen. Pando. Later he was present at the siege of Jiguani
+(April 13, 1897) and at Tuaheque, Jacaibama and Jucaibanita against Vara
+del Rey and Nicolas Rey, and at Baire he fought at the battle of
+Ratonera. It was at this time that Gen. Calixto Garcia made him Chief of
+the 3rd Division of the 2nd Corps, which included the western part of
+Holguin and Tunas. At the head of these forces he organized the attack
+and capture of Tunas, which was achieved by Gen. Calixto Garcia, August
+30, 1897, Menocal having been wounded in a trench assault.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_315" id="page_315">{315}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This strategic success won for him an immediate promotion to Division
+General. In November, 1897, he attacked Fort Guamo on the Cauto River,
+one of the bloodiest events of the war, and took part in the battles of
+Cayamos, Monte Oscuro, Nabraga and Aguacatones, succeeding in this
+latter in seizing Tejeda's supply train.</p>
+
+<p>In March, 1898, he was appointed Chief of the 5th Army Corps, to join
+which he marched at the head of 200 select men, among whom were many
+prominent figures of the war&mdash;many still alive&mdash;as General Sartorius,
+Colonels Aurelio Hevea, Enrique Nunez, Federico Mendizabal, Pablo,
+Gustavo and Tomas Menocal, Rafael Pena, Carlos Manuel de Cespedes,
+Commander Manuel Secades, Miguel Coyula, Ignacio Weber, Alberto de
+Cardenas, Antonio Calzades and Domingo Herrera. With this brave
+contingent, and assisted by the forces of Gen. Agramonte, Gen. Menocal
+passed the Trocha at its most dangerous point between Ciego de Avila and
+Jucaro. After a fifty days' march from Holguin, they reached Havana,
+relieving Gen. Alejandro Rodriguez of his command as Chief of the 5th
+Army Corps.</p>
+
+<p>Gen. Menocal was in this command when the American Intervention came,
+and cooperated with the American authorities in maintaining public order
+in Havana while the evacuation of the Spanish troops took place. Then
+General Ludlow appointed him Chief of the Havana Police, which body he
+organized, giving posts under him to the most distinguished chiefs of
+the Province of Havana. In 1899 he was appointed Inspector of Light
+Houses and subsequently Inspector of Public Works, which offices he
+resigned to manage Central Chaparra, in June, 1899.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult to speak without danger of apparent exaggeration of the
+incommensurable work of General<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_316" id="page_316">{316}</a></span> Menocal at Chaparra, as a true "captain
+of industry." There what were formerly barren fields have been
+transformed by something more than the touch of a magician's wand into
+the greatest sugar-producing establishment in the world. Nor does it
+consist merely of the gigantic mills. Houses for homes, schools, stores,
+churches, surround it, forming a city of no fewer than 30,000 prosperous
+inhabitants, devoted to the manufacture of sugar. Of this unique
+community, General Menocal was the chief creator and for years the
+responsible head. Even it, however, did not monopolize his attention,
+for he organized and managed also great sugar mills at San Manuel, Las
+Delicias, and elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>In 1903 General Menocal was appointed by President Palma to be one of a
+Commission for the negotiation of a loan for the payment of the soldiers
+of the army in the War of Independence, together with Gonzalo de Quesada
+and D. Mendez Capote. Three years later he was conspicuous and active in
+the Veteran movement which strove to avert the necessity of the second
+American intervention. In 1908, as we have seen, he was nominated for
+the Presidency, with Dr. Montoro for the Vice-Presidency, but was
+defeated. Again he was nominated for the Presidency, with Enrique José
+Varona as candidate for the Vice-Presidency, and was elected for the
+term of 1913-1917; at the expiration of which he was reelected, with
+General Emilio Nunez as Vice-President.</p>
+
+<p class="c caption">ENRIQUE JOSÉ VARONA</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Poet, philosopher and statesman, Enrique José Varona y Pera was born in
+Camaguey in 1849. Before attaining his majority he had published a
+volume of poems. Later he was the author of &quot;Philosophical Lectures,&quot;
+&quot;Commentaries on Spanish Grammar and Literature,&quot; &quot;The Intellectual
+Movement in America,&quot; &quot;Cain in Modern Literature,&quot; &quot;Idealism&quot; and
+&quot;Naturalism.&quot; He was a Deputy from Cuba to the Spanish Cortes; editor of
+The Cuban Review and Patria, the latter the organ of the
+patriots&mdash;in New York&mdash;in the War of Independence; Secretary of Finance
+and Public Instruction during the Governorship of Leonard Wood; and
+Vice-President of the Republic during the first administration of
+President Menocal, in 1913-1917. For many years he has been Professor of
+Philosophy in the University of Havana.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 365px;">
+<a href="images/i048.png">
+<img src="images/i048_sml.png" width="365" height="550" alt="ENRIQUE JOSÉ VARONA
+
+Poet, philosopher and statesman, Enrique José Varona y Pera was born in
+Camaguey in 1849. Before attaining his majority he had published a
+volume of poems. Later he was the author of &quot;Philosophical Lectures,&quot;
+&quot;Commentaries on Spanish Grammar and Literature,&quot; &quot;The Intellectual
+Movement in America,&quot; &quot;Cain in Modern Literature,&quot; &quot;Idealism&quot; and
+&quot;Naturalism.&quot; He was a Deputy from Cuba to the Spanish Cortes; editor of
+The Cuban Review and Patria, the latter the organ of the
+patriots&mdash;in New York&mdash;in the War of Independence; Secretary of Finance
+and Public Instruction during the Governorship of Leonard Wood; and
+Vice-President of the Republic during the first administration of
+President Menocal, in 1913-1917. For many years he has been Professor of
+Philosophy in the University of Havana." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p>Enrique José Varona, who thus became Vice-President of Cuba in 1913,
+ranked as one of the foremost scholars and writers of the nation. He was
+born in Camaguey on April 13, 1849, and in early life adopted the career
+of a man of letters in addition to serving the public in political
+matters. He was at once an orator of rare eloquence, a philosopher of
+profound learning, and a poet of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_317" id="page_317">{317}</a></span> exceptional charm. He served,
+before the War of Independence, as a Deputy in the Spanish Cortes from
+Cuba; he wrote the famous plea for Cuban independence entitled "Cuba
+contra España," which was translated into a number of languages; and
+under the administration of General Wood was Secretary of Public
+Instruction and of the Treasury. He was once President of the
+Anthropological Society of Cuba, and was a Member of the Academy of
+History. He has written numerous books, comprising philosophical
+disquisitions, essays on nature and art, and lyrical poetry.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Rafael Montoro, who was refused election to the Vice-Presidency in
+1908, has since that date been kept in the service of his country in
+highly important capacities, and now, as Secretary to the Presidency, is
+most intimately associated with President Menocal, and exerts an
+exceptional degree of usefulness in many directions to the national
+welfare of the Cuban Republic.</p>
+
+<p>Rafael Montoro was born in Havana on October 24, 1852. He received his
+primary education in Havana and in his tenth year was taken to Europe
+and to the United States. He was a pupil of the Charlier Institute in
+New York until 1865. Having returned to Havana he took up his
+preparatory studies at the school of San Francisco de Asis. In 1867 he
+returned to Europe with his family, which settled in Madrid. Here he
+spent his youth until 1878, devoting himself to literary and
+intellectual activities; he contributed to various periodicals, was
+editor of the "Revista Contemporanea"; second secretary of the Ateneo de
+Madrid; vice president of the Moral and Political Sciences Section of
+that institution; second secretary of the Spanish Writers' and Artists'
+Association, etc. On his return to Cuba he took an active part in
+constituting and organizing the Liberal Party, which seized<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_318" id="page_318">{318}</a></span> the first
+opportunity to uphold the cause of Colonial Autonomy, calling itself the
+Autonomist Liberal Party. In 1879 he was elected a member of the Central
+Junta of the party and in the first elections after Cuba had been
+granted the right of representation at the Cortes took place, he was
+elected a Deputy from the province of Havana. Later he continued working
+for his party as editor of its organ <i>El Triunfo</i>, which became <i>El
+Pais</i>, and as an orator in meetings and assemblies. In 1886 he was
+reelected Deputy to the Cortes from the province of Camaguey and yearly
+went to Spain during the period of the Legislature, being a member of
+the Autonomist minority headed by Rafael Maria de Labra. The Sociedad
+Economica de Amigo del Pais appointed Dr. Montoro a Special Delegate to
+the Junta de Information which met at Madrid in 1890, the principal
+economic institutions of Cuba having been previously invited by the
+Spanish Colonial Department. The purpose of this Junta was to report on
+the tariff regime of the Island and on the proposed commercial treaty
+with the United States, as suggested by the famous McKinley Bill of
+1890. Towards the middle of 1895 he returned to his activities in Havana
+as editorial writer of <i>El Pais</i> and member of the Central Junta of the
+Party.</p>
+
+<p>When autonomy was granted in 1898, he formed part, as Secretary of the
+Treasury, of the Cabinet organized by José Maria Galvez, the head of the
+party since its foundation in 1878. When Spanish rule came to an end, as
+a consequence of the war and of the American intervention, and the
+Autonomist Government ceased, Dr. Montoro retired to private life. In
+1900 and 1901 he was appointed to but did not accept the professorship
+of philosophy and history in the University of Havana. He was a member
+of the Committee which was to undertake the reform of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_319" id="page_319">{319}</a></span> the Municipal
+suffrage legislation under Governor Brooke and of the Committee charged
+by General Wood with the revision of the legislation on the importation
+tariff.</p>
+
+<p>In 1902 Dr. Montoro was appointed by the Palma administration as Envoy
+Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the Court of St. James. In
+1904 he was appointed also Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
+Plenipotentiary in Germany, which caused him to reside alternately in
+both countries until 1906 when he was appointed with Gonzalo de Quesada
+and Gonzales Lanuza a delegate of the Republic to the Third Pan-American
+International Conference held at Rio de Janeiro. In the same year he was
+confirmed in both his posts, at London and Berlin, by Governor Magoon,
+as were the other members of the diplomatic and consular corps, but
+later he was appointed a member of the Consultive Committee on Laws. In
+1907 he was one of the founders of the National Conservative Party, of
+which he was appointed second vice-president, and was nominated as the
+Party's candidate for the Vice-Presidency of the Republic, with General
+Menocal as Presidential Candidate.</p>
+
+<p>When General Jose M. Gomez took possession of the Government as
+President, Dr. Montoro was confirmed in his posts as Minister at Berlin
+and London, returning to Europe to remain there until 1910, in which
+year he was appointed by President Gomez a delegate to the Fourth
+Pan-American International Conference, which took place at Buenos Aires.
+At this Conference he was elected to preside over the seventh section of
+Consular documents, Tariff regulations, Census and Commercial
+Statistics.</p>
+
+<p>In 1910 and 1911, respectively, he ceased his posts as Minister at
+Berlin and London to become Diplomatic <span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_320" id="page_320">{320}</a></span>Advisor of the State Department.
+In 1913 he was appointed Secretary of the Presidency under General
+Menocal to which post he gave an importance which it had lacked
+theretofore. In this capacity he still is an assiduous and valuable
+collaborator of the Menocal Administration.</p>
+
+<p>Of Dr. Montoro's writings the following have been collected in book
+form: "Political and Parliamentary Speeches; Reports and Dissertations"
+(1878-1893), Philadelphia, 1894. "Elements of Moral and Civic
+Instruction" (1903).</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Montoro is a member of the National Academy of Arts and Letters of
+which he was elected Director in 1812. He was President of the Executive
+Committee at Havana of the 2nd Pan-American Scientific Congress (1915)
+and was a member of the High Committee for Cuba of the Pan-American
+Financial Congress (1917) and of the American Institute of International
+Law (1916).</p>
+
+<p>President Menocal gathered about himself a Cabinet of representative
+Cubans, selected for their ability rather than on grounds of personal
+favor or political advantage; two of them, the Secretaries of Justice
+and Education, being members of the Liberal party. The places were
+filled as follows:</p>
+
+<p class="scrt">Secretary of Government, Cosimo de la Torriente.<br />
+Secretary of the Interior, Aurelio Hevea.<br />
+Secretary of the Treasury, Leopoldo Cancio.<br />
+Secretary of Health and Charities, Enrique Nuñez.<br />
+Secretary of Justice, Cristobal de la Guardia.<br />
+Secretary of Agriculture, Emilio Nuñez.<br />
+Secretary of Public Works, José Villalon.<br />
+Secretary of Education, Ezequiel Garcia.</p>
+
+<p class="c caption">RAFAEL MONTORO</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Called by Cabrera &quot;Our Great Montoro&quot; and by others the &quot;Cuban
+Castelar,&quot; Dr. Rafael Montoro has long been eminent in the public life
+of Cuba as a scholar, writer, orator, statesman, diplomat,
+administrator, and unwavering and resolute patriot The record of his
+services to Cuba, as Ambassador to the foremost courts of Europe, as
+Secretary to the Presidency, and in other distinguished capacities at
+home and abroad, forms a brilliant passage elsewhere in this History of
+Cuba.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 378px;">
+<a href="images/i016.png">
+<img src="images/i016_sml.png" width="378" height="565" alt="RAFAEL MONTORO
+
+Called by Cabrera &quot;Our Great Montoro&quot; and by others the &quot;Cuban
+Castelar,&quot; Dr. Rafael Montoro has long been eminent in the public life
+of Cuba as a scholar, writer, orator, statesman, diplomat,
+administrator, and unwavering and resolute patriot The record of his
+services to Cuba, as Ambassador to the foremost courts of Europe, as
+Secretary to the Presidency, and in other distinguished capacities at
+home and abroad, forms a brilliant passage elsewhere in this History of
+Cuba." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_321" id="page_321">{321}</a></span>
+The spirit in which the new President began his work, and the spirit
+which animated his associates in the government, was admirably expressed
+by him soon after his election and before his inauguration, in a frank,
+informal but very serious personal conversation. "What," he was asked,
+"does Cuba need? And what do you expect to accomplish as her President?"</p>
+
+<p>"Cuba," replied General Menocal, "needs an honest administration of its
+governmental affairs; and that is what I can give it and will give it.
+But more than that, Cuba needs more citizens anxious to develop its
+marvellous resources and fewer citizens anxious to hold office. I was
+not elected as a politician, and I have no ambition to succeed as a
+politician."</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 175px;">
+<a href="images/i035.png">
+<img src="images/i035_sml.png" width="175" height="200" alt="DR. JUAN GUITERAS
+
+One of the foremost physicians and scientists of Cuba, Dr. Juan Guiteras
+is the son of the distinguished educator Eusebio Guiteras, and was born
+at Matanzas on January 4, 1852. He collaborated with Dr. Carlos J.
+Finlay in the discovery and demonstration of the transmission of yellow
+fever by mosquitoes, and contributed much to the eradication of that and
+other pestilences from Cuba. Under President Menocal&#39;s administration he
+was made Director of Sanitation. He was a delegate to the second
+Pan-American Scientific Congress at Washington in 1916." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p class="c caption">DR. JUAN GUITERAS</p>
+
+<p class="caption">One of the foremost physicians and scientists of Cuba, Dr. Juan Guiteras
+is the son of the distinguished educator Eusebio Guiteras, and was born
+at Matanzas on January 4, 1852. He collaborated with Dr. Carlos J.
+Finlay in the discovery and demonstration of the transmission of yellow
+fever by mosquitoes, and contributed much to the eradication of that and
+other pestilences from Cuba. Under President Menocal&#39;s administration he
+was made Director of Sanitation. He was a delegate to the second
+Pan-American Scientific Congress at Washington in 1916.</p>
+
+<p>Reference being made to the menace of revolution, President Menocal
+said, with emphasis:</p>
+
+<p>"There will be no revolution under my administration. There may be
+outbreaks headed by disappointed politicians or military adventurers,
+but they will be crushed and their leaders will be punished. The day is
+past when men of this class can arrest the orderly processes of
+government. I shall have back of me not only a loyal army, but also a
+loyal people who are determined to show to the United States and to the
+world that Cuba realizes<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_322" id="page_322">{322}</a></span> her responsibilities and is capable of
+self-government. I shall appoint honest men, and will guarantee that
+they honestly administer their duties. I shall urge the passage of
+honest taxation laws, and have faith that the people will respond by
+electing men who will assist me to make Cuba worthy of the favors which
+God has lavished upon her."</p>
+
+<p>With such purposes and with such expectations he entered upon his great
+work. Unfortunately there was not a majority upon which he could depend
+in Congress to enact the measures which were needed for the welfare of
+Cuba. Indeed, there was a hostile majority, as we shall see, which
+deliberately set itself to embarrass and thwart him in his undertakings.
+But that had merely the effect which obstacles usually have upon men who
+are really brave and strong. It indeed made his work more difficult, but
+it did not turn him from his purpose nor defeat his efforts. Rather did
+it give him all the greater credit and honor, to have achieved so much
+in the face of so much opposition.</p>
+
+<p>General Mario G. Menocal became President and Senor Enrique Jose Varona
+became Vice-President of Cuba on May 20, 1913, the tenth anniversary of
+the establishment of the independent Cuban Government. The President
+delivered his first message to Congress on the following day. It was an
+eminently practical, statesman-like and businesslike document, in which
+he modestly promised a wise and prudent administration of his office,
+and especially an immediate reform of the finances of the Government,
+which was notoriously much needed. As a small beginning of this reform,
+5,000 for
+Presidential secret service. Many debts had been left over by the former
+administration and he purposed to address himself<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_323" id="page_323">{323}</a></span> to the liquidation of
+these, so far as they had been honestly contracted. The notorious
+Dragado concession was repealed on August 4, and a commission was
+appointed to investigate the methods of the company. As a result of this
+and other investigations, the former Secretary of Public Works, and
+Auditor were indicted for misappropriation of public funds, and various
+other officers were prosecuted.</p>
+
+<p>The President desired to obtain a loan of $15,000,000 with which to pay
+off the debts which had been left to him by his predecessor, and also
+for urgent road work, and the paving and sewering of the streets of
+Havana. This was, however, refused him by Congress, and that body, under
+the domination of the Liberals, refused to pass any budget whatever.
+President Menocal was therefore compelled to declare the budget of the
+preceding year still in force, pending the adoption of new financial
+provisions. Hoping to persuade or to compel Congress to perform its
+constitutional duty, he called that body together in special session in
+July and again in October, but on both occasions the Liberals all
+absented themselves and thus prevented the securing of a quorum. These,
+it will be observed, were similar to the tactics which the same party in
+Congress had employed against President Palma in their malignant
+campaign for the overthrow of his administration. But President Menocal
+was not thus to be overthrown. When the Liberals in October, a second
+time, refused to perform their duty he issued a manifesto in which he
+seriously criticized them and made it plain that no such methods would
+be permitted to interfere with the legitimate work of Government. Rumors
+were indeed current that he would resort to compulsion if persuasion
+failed. The Liberals attempted to reply with a countermanifesto
+protesting against his action as a<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_324" id="page_324">{324}</a></span> usurpation of congressional
+authority, declaring their opposition to the making of the proposed
+loan, and pretending that it would be illegal to hold the special
+session which he had called for October.</p>
+
+<p>The President exercised patience and waited until November 2, when the
+regular session of Congress opened, and the Liberals took their seats.
+At this time the Liberals practically stultified themselves by agreeing
+to discuss and finally to approve the loan project which they had
+formerly opposed. After transacting this and some other business,
+Congress adjourned in December.</p>
+
+<p>Among the reforms which President Menocal promptly undertook to effect
+was the abolition of the national lottery which had been established
+during the Gomez administration. In his messages and through the
+influence of all legitimate presidential influence he strove to abolish
+this form of legalized gambling. His arguments were that the low price
+of the tickets, only 25¢, and the appeal which was thus made to the poor
+and ignorant, to servants and working women as well as to men, had
+caused great injury and had brought about a certain degree of moral
+decline among the masses of the people. It had induced many individuals
+to borrow money and even to steal in order to purchase lottery tickets,
+in the delusive hope of winning one of the large prizes, which ran up to
+$100,000, and thus exempting themselves from the necessity of work for
+the rest of their lives. The lottery, it is true, yielded a considerable
+revenue each year for the government, but General Menocal regarded this
+as far more than counter-balanced by the social and moral evil which it
+wrought, and by the reproach which it brought upon the good name of the
+Republic. He was unable, however, to persuade Congress to abolish it,
+partly because of the popular love of gambling which so largely pervades
+Latin American<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_325" id="page_325">{325}</a></span> countries, and partly&mdash;perhaps chiefly&mdash;because the
+privilege of selling tickets at wholesale, at a handsome profit, was
+farmed out to many members of Congress.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of his administration, President Menocal found all the
+Government offices crowded with the appointees of the former
+administration. A great many of them were entirely superfluous and a
+great many of them were also entirely incompetent to fill their places.
+There was, therefore, a considerable clearing out of placeholders. There
+might have been, of course, what is known in America as a "clean sweep,"
+and this was urged by a few of the President's friends. But General
+Menocal would listen to no such proposition. A Civil Service law had
+indeed been formulated by the Consulting Commission presided over by
+General Crowder, and had been in force since 1907, and while an
+unscrupulous executive might have evaded its provisions, General Menocal
+was a believer in the merit system, and in secure tenure of office for
+men who were doing their duty. He therefore refused positively to remove
+a single man merely because of his political affiliations. So far as
+placeholders were dismissed, they were dismissed because of incompetence
+or dishonesty, or because their services were superfluous. As a result
+of this enlightened policy, it is true, President Menocal was compelled
+to conduct his administration through the agency of a staff, the
+majority of which was composed of his political opponents. He even
+appointed two Liberals to his cabinet, while nearly all the foreign
+ministers and consuls and important officers of the various departments
+were members of that party, holding over from the Gomez administration.
+It cannot be said that this policy was in all cases appreciated by those
+who personally profited from it, for some of these officeholders did not
+scruple to engage in intrigues against the President<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_326" id="page_326">{326}</a></span> whose generosity
+retained them in their places.</p>
+
+<p>The United States Government retained a certain supervision over some of
+the acts of the Cuban Government. Thus, as hitherto stated, in March,
+1913, an amnesty bill had been passed at the instance of the Gomez
+administration, which would have set at liberty several hundred
+political and other prisoners, but it was objected to by Mr. Bryan, the
+Secretary of State of the United States, and was accordingly vetoed. It
+was again posed in a modified form on April 25, and was again similarly
+vetoed. In November, 1913, it was once more taken up and revised so as
+to extend the pardon to those who had participated in the negro
+insurrection, and to some former officeholders of the Gomez
+administration who had been indicted. It was also intended that it
+should extend amnesty to General Ernesto Asbert, Governor of the
+Province of Havana, to Senator Vidal Morales, and to Representative
+Arias, who had been indicted for the murder of the Chief of Police of
+Havana, General Armando Riva; a tragedy which occurred during a police
+raid on a club, on the evening of July 7. This attempt to extend amnesty
+to these men caused an acute and prolonged controversy. But on December
+9, 1914, the bill was finally passed in a form which granted amnesty to
+General Asbert, but not to Senator Arias. In this form the United States
+Government sanctioned its enactment because of the belief that the real
+burden of guilt rested upon the latter rather than upon the former.</p>
+
+<p>This controversy over amnesty to General Asbert meanwhile had serious
+political effects in Cuba. For a time the so-called Asbert faction of
+the Liberal party allied itself with the Conservatives in Congress in
+support of President Menocal and thus gave him a majority in that body.
+But in the summer of 1914 this faction became<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_327" id="page_327">{327}</a></span> reunited with the rest of
+the Liberal party, and Conservative control of Congress was lost. The
+Speaker of the House of Representatives, Senor Gonzales Lanuza, a
+Conservative, resigned and was succeeded by Senor Urquiaga, a Liberal,
+on August 31. When at last in February, 1915, the act of amnesty for
+General Asbert was completed, and he was released and fully
+rehabilitated, there was a great popular celebration of the event in the
+City of Havana.</p>
+
+<p>The first attempt at insurrection in President Menocal's administration
+occurred on November 9, 1913, when Crecencio Garcia, a mulatto,
+undertook to lead a revolt in the province of Santa Clara. It was
+promptly suppressed by the Rural Guard in a manner which augured well
+for the promise which the President had made, that there would be no
+revolutions during his administration; and there were no more such
+attempts until the great treason of ex-President Gomez.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_328" id="page_328">{328}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h3>
+
+<p>The fifth Presidential campaign of the Republic of Cuba occurred in
+1916. The Conservative candidate for President was General Mario G.
+Menocal, who was thus seeking reelection, and the candidate for
+Vice-President was General Emilio Nuñez, of whom we have already heard
+as the leader of the Veterans' Association in its legitimate and orderly
+resistance to the corruption and despotism of the Gomez administration,
+who had had a distinguished career in the Liberating Army in the War of
+Independence, and who was at this time serving as Secretary of
+Agriculture, Industry and Commerce in the cabinet of President Menocal.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 154px;">
+<a href="images/i049.png">
+<img src="images/i049_sml.png" width="154" height="217" alt="GEN. D. EMILIO NUÑEZ" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the Liberal side, in accordance with the compact formerly made
+between him and José Miguel Gomez, the Presidential candidate was Dr.
+Alfredo Zayas, and the Vice-Presidential candidate was Carlos Mendieta,
+a journalist and Representative in Congress, who had long been
+conspicuous in the practical management of the Liberal Party.</p>
+
+<p>The general prosperity which Cuba had been enjoying under the
+administration of President Menocal excited the envy and cupidity of the
+Liberal place-seekers and roused them to extraordinary efforts to regain
+possession of the government. A shameless attempt was made to<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_329" id="page_329">{329}</a></span> force a
+bill through Congress disqualifying a President for reelection unless he
+resigned his office at least sixty days before the election; but it
+failed of success. Long in advance of the actual contest a vigorous
+propaganda was started all over the island on lines similar to those
+which had been successful in causing the overthrow of Estrada Palma.
+While few ventured to asperse the character of President Menocal
+himself, his administration was vilified as corrupt and inefficient. It
+was charged that he did not, like Gomez, "divide the spoils" with his
+party followers, that he was both selfish and weak, and that his fatal
+weakness in office had been more than amply demonstrated, and would
+justify them in overthrowing his government. The Liberal newspapers
+asserted that at least three quarters of the inhabitants of the island
+were not in sympathy with the Conservative position and with the
+President, but had been deluded into voting for him; that they did not
+approve of his persistent acquiescence in every little hint and
+suggestion that might come from the United States; and that having been
+graduated from an American University, he was more American in his ideas
+and ideals than he was true Cuban, and deserved defeat at the next
+election.</p>
+
+<p>This was largely for the purpose of preparing the public for the claim,
+which was made before the polls had been open two hours, that the
+Liberals were sweeping the country, and that the Conservatives could
+make no possible or effective showing in the election. In pursuance of
+this propaganda, it was so arranged that the local boards of the larger
+towns and cities, where there was an excess of the rank and file of the
+Liberal party, should rush in their returns. These records were sent in
+immediately and seemed to indicate a sweeping victory for the Liberal
+party. The country districts, where were registered<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_330" id="page_330">{330}</a></span> the votes of the
+farmers, the sugar planters, and the people of property who believed in
+work and the maintenance of law and order, being remote from the
+capital, came in much later, and in many instances, owing to distance
+and the uncertainty of travel, reliable returns from these districts
+were delayed until the next day, so that at midnight it looked as though
+the election had been carried by the Liberal party. On the following
+day, however, as the returns began to arrive from the remote districts,
+a decided change in the aspect of the situation became apparent, and by
+that night it was seen that a very closely contested election had taken
+place, and that the result would probably be in doubt, as it was in the
+United States, for several days.</p>
+
+<p>This delay gave occasion for charges and accusations of fraud on both
+sides, and each prepared itself for a hard struggle. It was discovered
+that the matter would have to be settled by electoral boards and courts
+established for that purpose. In the meantime, the Liberals demanded
+that General Menocal acknowledge his defeat and proclaimed the election
+of Dr. Zayas on all sides, and openly demanded to have the government
+immediately turned over to them, or there would be serious trouble in
+store for the Conservatives and the country. In the meantime, pressure
+was brought to bear on the United States government, and protection was
+asked by the Liberals against the manifest danger that they would be
+cheated of their success at the polls. Threats were also heard that a
+revolution would undoubtedly follow as a protest against the usurpation,
+as it was termed, of their legitimate right to take control of the
+government, and Dr. Alfredo Zayas, in a private conversation with the
+American minister, hinted at this, and predicted that if a revolution
+should become necessary, it would undoubtedly<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_331" id="page_331">{331}</a></span> be successful, since he
+knew that two-thirds of the army was with him in sympathy, and would
+follow the Liberal command to overthrow the Menocal government if he
+should see fit to give such a command.</p>
+
+<p>General Menocal stated very frankly that the determination of the
+contest must be left to the local boards and to the courts for decision,
+and whatever that might be, regardless of any injustice that might be
+imposed upon him and his party, he would acquiesce, and would be the
+first man to shake the hand of the successful candidate. A similar
+statement was never made by the Liberals. They continued the cry of
+fraud, and openly stated that if they did not succeed a revolution would
+follow. The judges of the courts, excepting the chief justice of the
+Supreme Court, Senor Pichardo, had been appointed by Gomez, and
+naturally great pressure was brought to bear on them to "save the
+constitution," as it was called, for the Liberals. In the decisions that
+followed, the Conservatives stated frankly that they believed this
+pressure was producing manifestly unfair decisions, but made at no time
+any attempt to ignore them or set them aside.</p>
+
+<p>The court decided that in two districts, Victoria de las Tunas, in the
+province of Oriente, and another town in Santa Clara, new elections must
+be held. In the first one the Liberals had, at four o'clock in the
+morning previous to the day of election, set fire to the town hall,
+burning all of the electoral lists, so that an election was absolutely
+impossible. This was probably due to the fact that Victoria de las Tunas
+held General Menocal in great esteem, since, owing to his personal valor
+in leading the charges against the Spanish army, when in command of that
+town, the Cubans had been victorious. In the city of Santa Clara
+province, the frauds claimed by both sides rendered it so impossible to
+determine the true result of<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_332" id="page_332">{332}</a></span> the election that a second election was
+deemed necessary. According to the records of the Liberal party, the
+vote of these two towns, or possibly either one of them, would determine
+the election, and Dr. Alfredo Zayas felt quite confident that he would
+be the successor of General Menocal, and openly so stated.</p>
+
+<p>The Conservatives, on the other hand, said, "We can only await and abide
+by the decisions of the courts, and will surrender nothing until such
+decisions are handed down." The supporters of Dr. Zayas stated that the
+soldiers, who had been sent there to maintain order, had been sent there
+for the sole purpose of preventing the Liberals from approaching the
+polls. At this General Nuñez, the Vice Presidential candidate, invited
+Dr. Zayas, the Liberal leader, to accompany him thither and to point out
+any Liberal in that district who wished to vote, promising that he would
+furnish a machine and any protection that might be necessary to see that
+he and every Liberal in the district deposited his vote, and that they
+together would witness the count.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Zayas never had an opportunity to bring this matter to a decision,
+owing to the fact that General Gomez, who hated Dr. Zayas bitterly, and
+who had opposed him in public print more strongly than any other man,
+saw immediately the possibility of riding into power as the man of the
+hour, as the real, dominating force of the republic, and as the only
+man, as he expressed it, able to save the electoral campaign from
+becoming one of protracted discord and dispute. So he forbade Dr. Zayas
+to go to the town where the election was to be held, or to accept
+General Nuñez's invitation, and stated that he was himself tired of the
+whole thing, and that he was going to take his yacht and go on a fishing
+trip, which he did, leaving at midnight with about thirty trusted
+friends, including<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_333" id="page_333">{333}</a></span> all of the prominent Liberal leaders. Passing around
+Cape San Antonio, the yacht anchored off the coast near Tunas de Zaza,
+and there met a group of men by previous arrangement, and started a
+revolution or a "popular uprising," as he termed it, against the Menocal
+government.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime, a carefully laid plot, that had been planned months
+before, for seizing control of the armed forces of the island was put
+into execution. On Saturday night, February 14, 1917, without warning,
+two companies of men stationed at the Columbia barracks, at a previously
+arranged signal of two shots, jumped from their beds, grabbed their arms
+and ammunition, and started across the parade ground for the open
+country, of the west. Although the details of this plot were known,
+other loyal companies at the command of their officers were called into
+immediate action, charged the Liberals and captured more than half of
+them and killed a few of the remainder, who at first had succeeded in
+escaping. This was the only apparent disloyalty in the western end of
+the island. Matanzas, Pinar del Rio and Havana remained loyal to the
+government. Among the forces stationed at the City of Santiago, far
+removed from the immediate control of the commanding generals of the
+army, seeds of sedition, which consisted largely of promises of
+immediate promotion of all officers, were planted. Every sergeant was to
+be made a captain, every captain a colonel, every lieutenant a major,
+with promises of increased pay, and the incidental rewards that come to
+the successful revolutionist. This was also true of the Province of
+Camaguey, where, at almost the same hour that the uprising took place in
+Camp Columbia barracks, several companies of men seized control, made
+prisoners of their comrades who were loyal to the government or shot
+them dead, captured and imprisoned the civil<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_334" id="page_334">{334}</a></span> governors, intimidated the
+police, or made them prisoners, and took charge of the customhouse and
+the accumulated funds, and all moneys deposited in banks, belonging to
+either the state or the federal government. Incidentally all moneys that
+were accessible were seized at the same time, which belonged to said
+banks, on the ground that there was no time to discriminate. In the City
+of Santiago several millions of dollars were thus seized by the three or
+four Liberal leaders in command. These men, when the failure of the
+revolution became apparent, escaped from the island, carrying some two
+or three millions in United States currency and Cuban gold with them,
+and landed in Santo Domingo, where some of them were afterward captured,
+while the others escaped to the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Securing control of Santiago de Cuba, and having access to the cables,
+the rebels immediately wired to the revolutionary headquarters in New
+York, which had been established by Dr. Orestes Ferrara, one of the
+moving figures in the previous uprising of 1906, in company with Dr.
+Raimundo Cabrera, for the dissemination of news favorable to the Liberal
+side. Matter was issued, to be used in the American papers, for the
+purpose of preparing the United States for the usurpation of the
+government of Cuba by General Gomez, and defending such action on the
+ground that it was the only solution of a bad electoral muddle, and that
+the real choice of the people was General Gomez, who should have been,
+and was ultimately, the leader of their party. It was said that Dr.
+Zayas, without justification, had usurped and endeavored to maintain the
+permanent control of the Liberal party, and that his lack of popularity
+had been indicated by his defeat four years before. The entire island
+was represented, and especially the army, as having voluntarily gone
+over<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_335" id="page_335">{335}</a></span> to the side of the Liberals. General Gomez was pictured as having
+landed and by previous arrangement placed himself at the head of 12,000
+men, who were marching upon the City of Havana; while the President of
+the republic was variously reported as having been shot, and afterward
+as having fled in abject fear from the palace, and as having at last
+found shelter in the home of the American minister, Mr. William E.
+Gonzales. It was added that Havana was under the control of the
+Liberals, as was the remainder of the island, and that all that was
+necessary was the triumphant march of General Gomez into the capital,
+where he would assume authority as Liberal Dictator until the island
+should assume its normal and peaceful condition, when another election
+would be called, in which the people would have an opportunity to choose
+and place the power in the hands of the only real man of destiny,
+General Gomez.</p>
+
+<p>In the Province of Camaguey, the insurgents followed the same program as
+did those in Oriente, intimidating the police, by firing two volleys
+into police headquarters and assassinating those men who were forming a
+council, the civil government and various other officers having been
+imprisoned. They took immediate control of the railroads, and the
+rolling stock, placed Liberal or disloyal troops on trains, and started
+them across the border to Santa Clara, where they joined General Gomez,
+who, with his men, was marching north to the railroad.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime, General Menocal and the loyal troops of the island, in
+the west, started a vigorous campaign to prevent the island from falling
+into the hands of the rebels. Officers whose loyalty was beyond question
+were placed in command of troops, and sent at once into Santa Clara,
+Camaguey and Oriente, and one of Cuba's gunboats, with a company of 300
+men, was dispatched to the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_336" id="page_336">{336}</a></span> City of Santiago de Cuba, to drive the
+disloyal element from that place. Colonel Pujol was sent to take
+measures to restore order in Camaguey. Colonel Collazo and Lieutenant
+Colonel Lozama and other officials known for their courage, efficiency
+and valor were placed in command of three separate bodies of troops,
+with orders to surround Gomez, and give him and his supporters immediate
+battle, and capture or annihilate them. These men were equipped with
+machine guns, well armed and prepared for a campaign of extermination,
+if necessary. In the meantime, the Secretary of Government, Colonel
+Hevea, who, according to the Cuban law has control over and is
+responsible for order in the interior districts, traveled by locomotive
+and automobile, day and night, reporting to the President all that
+occurred, and giving those orders which seemed wise for suppressing the
+uprising. The American Minister, representing the sentiment of the
+United States, which seriously deprecated Cuba's falling into the
+revolutionary habit, visited the palace every day, with his military
+aide, then Major Wittemeyer, kept in close touch with Washington, and
+reported every change in the drama that was being presented in Cuba. In
+the meantime, one of the Cuban officials had effectively thwarted
+General Gomez in his proposed triumphant march into Havana, by blowing
+up the large bridge over the Zaza river, thus preventing the
+insurrectionists from gaining control of the railroads in the western
+half of the island.</p>
+
+<p>Realizing the grave danger that threatened Cuba in the destruction of
+the cane through fire, which had already begun on a large scale, and in
+the stealing, and killing of both cattle and horses on the part of the
+insurrectionists, Major Wittemeyer, with the authority of the War
+Department in Washington, communicated to President<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_337" id="page_337">{337}</a></span> Menocal the fact
+that the United States government would gladly land whatever force was
+deemed necessary to assist in the maintenance of order and the
+protection of property. This offer the President refused, stating that
+he believed that there was a sufficient force absolutely loyal to his
+government to control the situation, adding that he was thoroughly aware
+of the plans of the Liberals, that he was in close touch with his own
+command and was confident that his officers would succeed in quelling
+the insurrection in a comparatively short time. He added that he thought
+it wise for the government of Cuba to demonstrate its ability to
+maintain itself, and to suppress any uprising that might occur of that
+nature, and thus avoid the rather unpleasant task, on the part of the
+United States, of being compelled to interfere with the personal and
+political affairs of their sister republic.</p>
+
+<p>That General Menocal's prediction was based on sound logic was
+demonstrated by the fact that within twenty-three days the forces of
+ex-President Gomez were surrounded, defeated and captured. The General,
+his son, his aides and his entire staff were taken prisoners and brought
+to Havana and placed in the penitentiary on Principe Hill. In General
+Gomez's saddle bags were found military orders instructing his chiefs to
+burn every sugar plantation on the Island not known to be the property
+of Liberals, and tear up every mile of railroad, together with
+information demonstrating that he was preparing to blow up every bridge
+through the island, thus attempting to prevent the government from
+sending forces against him. This work of destruction, in so far as
+possible before the capture, had been carried out to the letter. The
+railroads along which the revolutionists had control were out of
+commission for several months, and much valuable property was
+destroyed.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_338" id="page_338">{338}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The disappointment in the Liberal ranks consequent upon the capture of
+General Gomez and his staff, and the inevitable failure of the movement,
+was general and profound, but the last desperate hope seemed to inspire
+them to continue the struggle under the leadership of Carlos Mendieta,
+who had been their candidate for Vice-President. The plan adopted by
+them was to revert to the desperate methods of some former wars. In
+brief, it was to divide into small bands, who were to carry on a reign
+of terror and destruction throughout the island, the purpose of which
+was solely to bring about another American intervention; the argument
+was used that they had succeeded in doing this in 1906, and thus had
+secured a tacit recognition of the Liberal party, and their ultimate
+control of the government. "We were successful," they argued, "and since
+the commercial, industrial and political relations between the two
+republics are so intimate and the Platt Amendment authorizes the United
+States to enter Cuba at any time when, in their estimation, the
+circumstances justify such action, if we continue long enough, burn
+enough, destroy enough, and succeed in keeping up this state of turmoil
+long enough, the American authorities will, sooner or later, be
+compelled to come here, and put an end to affairs that will undoubtedly
+bring about the resignation of Menocal. His life will be made
+intolerable and our several plans for his assassination, that have
+heretofore met with misfortune, if followed, will later bear fruit."</p>
+
+<p>At the middle of March, Carlos Mendieta, as leader of this bushranging
+rebellion, issued a manifesto threatening the destruction of foreign
+property and declaring that there would be no guarantee for the safety
+of American lives unless the United States undertook the supervision of
+the elections in Santa Clara and Oriente provinces.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_339" id="page_339">{339}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In their manifesto the rebels promised to lay down their arms if the
+government would hold new elections in Santa Clara Province. If the
+government refused to hold such elections the rebels threatened to
+continue the revolution and to proclaim Mendieta Provisional President.</p>
+
+<p>The activities of the revolutionary conspirators and propagandists in
+the United States, under the direction of Orestes Ferrara in New York,
+meanwhile became so offensive that the United States government felt
+compelled to take action. Accordingly on March 25, the State Department
+at Washington warned Dr. Ferrara that unless he ceased his pernicious
+operations he and his associate, Raimundo Cabrera, would be placed under
+arrest. This had the result of tempering somewhat the zeal of the
+conspirators, though their propaganda was still furtively maintained.</p>
+
+<p>In passing, it may be stated that a part of the general plan&mdash;indeed the
+first step in the proposed uprising&mdash;was to assassinate General Menocal,
+while on his way from the palace to his estate, eight miles distant,
+known as El Chico. The mayor of the suburb of Marianao, together with
+the chief of police of that village, and four soldiers, who had agreed
+for a consideration to take part in the assassination, were stationed at
+a point carefully selected, with orders to fire a charge of buckshot
+into the President's back from the step of his automobile, and then
+behind the screen of trees and underbrush which lined the roadside to
+make their escape. It was proposed to assassinate the chauffeurs and all
+others who might be in the car in order to prevent immediate pursuit.
+Since General Menocal was in the habit of going to his country home
+every afternoon between five and six, the plan probably would have
+succeeded, had it not been for an attack<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_340" id="page_340">{340}</a></span> of conscience on the part of
+one of the soldiers, who, after agreeing, lost heart, and a few hours
+before the departure of the machine hastened to the palace and insisted
+upon seeing the President, to whom he gave all the details of the plot.
+The betrayal of the plot by the soldier, who was suspected when he did
+not make his appearance in company with the others, and the machine not
+leaving the palace at the usual hour, which was to have been telephoned
+to the plotters, convinced them that discovery was more than probable.
+The mayor, with the chief of police, and the others, immediately fled
+from Marianao. Pursuit was given, in spite of which they resisted
+capture for several days. Exhausted and wounded, they were finally taken
+in an old sugar mill near Bahia Honda, in the Province of Pinar del Rio.</p>
+
+<p>Not discouraged by this failure, numerous other plans for the
+assassination of the President were arranged, among others the
+manufacture of a highly explosive bomb, and an arrangement by which four
+Liberals agreed to attempt to place or throw it under the President's
+desk. In order to make this plan work, it was necessary to have some man
+who could gain access to the palace, and to the office of the President,
+and this could be done through the assistance of some one of the
+soldiers who had been stationed on guard duty on the upper floor of the
+executive mansion. After several months of careful study, one of these
+soldiers was selected, and after another conference, the matter was
+settled, and the man was intrusted with the bomb, which was delivered to
+him at the appointed hour, and with which he ascended the palace stairs
+and eventually succeeded in reaching the President, to whom he delivered
+the bomb, with his evidence and the whole story. Of course, this second
+betrayal of the plans of the conspirators brought about their capture,
+and they<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_341" id="page_341">{341}</a></span> were tried and condemned to various terms in prison. Various
+other plots were formed, none of which was successful.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 169px;">
+<a href="images/i050.png">
+<img src="images/i050_sml.png" width="169" height="216" alt="JOSÉ LUIS AZCARATA SECRETARY OF JUSTICE" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>As a natural result of the revolution started a few days before, the two
+additional elections ordered by the Supreme Court, were necessarily
+postponed, since the island had been thrown into a turmoil by the action
+of General Gomez. They were, however, afterwards held, and resulted in
+decided Conservative majorities, which were carried by the electoral
+boards to the Central Electoral Junta, presided over by the Chief
+Justice of the Supreme Court, Señor Pichardo, and justified that body in
+announcing the election of General Menocal to a second term as
+President. In spite of this decision of the courts, which General
+Menocal had previously agreed to abide by, the insurrectionary elements
+of the Liberal party still insisted that General Menocal's second term
+was secured through deliberate and carefully planned frauds and
+intimidation of the voters at the polls. The fact is that the election
+laws of Cuba forbid and prevent any soldier from standing even in the
+doorway of a polling place. He cannot approach nearer than the corner of
+the building in which the votes are being deposited, nor can he leave
+his post and come closer to the polls, unless some serious disturbance,
+where lives are threatened, occurs, with which the police of the
+district cannot cope. Since the minority is represented during the time
+of voting, and during the count by a man selected for that purpose, no
+fraud could<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_342" id="page_342">{342}</a></span> well be perpetrated without the consent of someone
+responsible to the opposition.</p>
+
+<p>The army officers who had been led by José Miguel Gomez to revolt, had
+been captured with arms in their hands, fighting to overthrow the
+constitutional government of the island; a purpose of which they had
+made no secret. They were therefore guilty of sedition and treason, and
+were subject to trial by court martial and to capital punishment upon
+conviction of their crime. They were thus tried, and some were condemned
+to death and others to long terms of imprisonment; but the extreme
+sentence was never executed upon one of them, while many of the prison
+sentences were shortened and some of the men were pardoned outright.
+This generous action of President Menocal's was performed through the
+same spirit of magnanimity that moved Estrada Palma to like clemency,
+years before; and it was as ill requited. Some of the men whom he had
+thus saved from the gallows or the firing squad promptly resumed
+criminal conspiracies against him; while the Liberal party as a whole
+demanded that the pardoned officers should be at once reinstated in the
+army with full rank and back pay for the time which they had spent in
+insurrection and in prison, and railed against President Menocal for not
+granting that additional act of grace!</p>
+
+<p>The government of the United States is naturally always on the side of
+law and order among its neighbors, and while it of course scrupulously
+refrains from meddling in their affairs unless under intolerable
+provocation, as in the case of Cuba in 1898, it has always given and
+doubtless will always give its sympathy and moral support to those who
+are striving for peace and progress and the security of life and
+property. Toward Cuba its attitude<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_343" id="page_343">{343}</a></span> is more marked than toward other
+states, because of the special relations which exist between the two
+countries. We have seen how it intervened in Cuban affairs for what it
+supposed to be the restoration of tranquillity in 1906. While
+unfortunately its influence was on that occasion made to appear as
+though given to the revolutionary rather than the legitimate side, its
+intent was unmistakable. In spite of the advantage which they took of
+its intervention at that time, the Liberal leaders in Cuba have since
+felt much aggrieved at it for standing in the way of their designs on
+more than one occasion when they wished to revolt against constitutional
+order.</p>
+
+<p>The United States did not intervene in 1917. It was not, as President
+Menocal confidently assured it, necessary for it to do so. But it is
+pleasant to recall that it stood ready to do so, and there is of course
+no possible doubt as to what the purport of its intervention would have
+been. During that episode no fewer than five messages were addressed to
+the people of Cuba by the government of the United States, warning them
+against any attempt at forcible revolution. They breathed the spirit of
+the epigram of John Hay in 1903: "Revolutions have gone out of fashion
+in our neighborhood." Thus on February 19, 1917, the United States made
+it known to the Cuban government and through it to the Cuban people
+that&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"The American Government has in previous declarations defined its
+attitude respecting the confidence and support it gives the
+constitutional governments and the policy it has adopted toward any
+disturbers of the peace through revolutionary ventures. The American
+government again wishes to inform the Cuban people of the attitude it
+has assumed in view of the present events:<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_344" id="page_344">{344}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"First&mdash;The government of the United States gives its support to and
+stands by the Constitutional Government of the Republic of Cuba.</p>
+
+<p>"Second&mdash;The present insurrection against the Constitutional Government
+of Cuba is regarded by the American Government in the light of an
+anti-constitutional and illegal act, which it will not tolerate.</p>
+
+<p>"Third&mdash;The leaders of the revolt will be held responsible for the
+damages which foreigners may suffer in their persons or their property.</p>
+
+<p>"Fourth&mdash;The government of the United States will examine attentively
+what attitude it will adopt respecting those concerned in the present
+disturbance of the peace in Cuba, or those who are actually
+participating in it."</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of March American Marines and Bluejackets were landed
+at Santiago, Guantanamo, Manzanillo, Nuevitas, and El Cobre, for patrol
+duty for the protection of American interests.</p>
+
+<p>Again, on March 24 the American government sent a note saying:</p>
+
+<p>"It has come to the knowledge of the United States Government that in
+Cuba propaganda persists that in response to efforts of agents against
+the constitutional government the United States is studying the adoption
+of measures in their favor."</p>
+
+<p>It was quite true. The remaining insurgents&mdash;Gomez and the other
+principal leaders had already been captured&mdash;were declaring that just as
+in 1906 American intervention had meant the success of the revolution,
+so now the United States was about to intervene again to the same
+effect. Wherefore this American note continued:</p>
+
+<p>"The constitutional government of Cuba has been and will continue to be
+sustained and backed by the government<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_345" id="page_345">{345}</a></span> of the United States in its
+efforts to reestablish order throughout the territory of the republic.</p>
+
+<p>"The United States government, emphasizing its condemnation of the
+reprehensible conduct of those rising against the constitutional
+government in an effort to settle by force of arms controversies for
+which existing laws establish adequate legal remedies, desires to make
+known that until those in rebellion recognize their duties as Cuban
+citizens, lay down their arms and return to legality, the United States
+can hold no communication whatever with any of them and will be forced
+to regard them as outside the law and unworthy of its consideration."</p>
+
+<p>That was plain talk, and it had its effect. But the climax was yet to
+come in a final message which stated that if destruction of property,
+disturbance of public order and deliberate attempts to overthrow the
+established government were continued, Cuba being an ally of the United
+States, the United States would be compelled to regard the doers of such
+deeds as enemies and to proceed against them as such. At that time both
+the United States and Cuba were at war with Germany, and were therefore
+allies in offense and defense, and it was quite logical for one ally to
+regard as its enemy any enemy of the other ally. In brief, any one
+waging war against the Cuban government was in effect waging war against
+the government of the United States. That stern logic put a quietus upon
+the attempted insurrection. "Our last recourse," said one of the rebel
+leaders, "has been taken from us. There is no use in starting a
+revolution if it is to be doomed to failure before it begins."<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_346" id="page_346">{346}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX</h3>
+
+<p>Cuba entered the Great War. That fact was the supreme seal to her
+title-deeds to a place as peer among the nations; placing her in
+blood-brotherhood with her neighbors. She entered the war almost
+simultaneously with the United States, though with less delay than that
+country. At Washington the President addressed Congress on April 2,
+advising a declaration of war against Germany, and the declaration was
+made on April 6. At Havana the President delivered his war message on
+April 6, and on April 7 war was declared. In that impressive and epochal
+message, the most momentous and solemn that any chief of state can ever
+utter, President Menocal reviewed in dispassionate detail the criminal
+record of Germany in her unrestricted submarine warfare, and then
+continued:</p>
+
+<p>"The government of the United States, to which country we are bound by
+the closest ties, had during the last two years incessantly formulated
+energetic protests and claims based on the most elemental principles of
+justice in defence of its citizens who were victims on many occasions of
+attacks by German submarines; of the liberty of the seas and the respect
+due the lives and property of neutrals; and revindicating the right to
+navigate and engage in commerce freely, without restrictions save those
+sanctioned by international law, by treaties, and by the universal
+practise of civilized nations.</p>
+
+<p>"Since February 1 submarines have attacked and sunk without mercy. Such
+acts of war without quarter,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_347" id="page_347">{347}</a></span> directed against all nations, to close
+down the world's commerce under terrible penalties, cannot be tolerated
+without accepting them as legitimate to-day and always.</p>
+
+<p>"Cuba cannot appear indifferent to such violations, which at any moment
+may be carried out at the cost of the lives and interests of its own
+citizens. Nor can it, without loss of dignity and decorum, show
+indifference to the noble attitude assumed by the United States, to
+which we are bound by ties of gratitude and by treaties. Cuba cannot
+remain neutral in this supreme conflict, because a declaration of
+neutrality would compel it to treat alike all belligerents, denying them
+with equal vigor entrance to our ports and imposing other restrictions
+which are contrary to the sentiment of the Cuban people and which
+inevitably in the end would result in conflict with our friend and ally.</p>
+
+<p>"In full and firm consciousness that I am fulfilling one of my most
+sacred duties, although with profound sentiment, because I am about to
+propose a resolution which will plunge our country into the dangers of
+the greatest conflagration in history, but without casting odium upon,
+or without animosity toward, the German people, but convinced that we
+are compelled to take this step by our international obligations and the
+principles of justice and liberty, I appeal to the honorable Congress in
+the use of its executive faculties, with full knowledge of all the
+antecedents in the case and with the mature deliberation of its
+important claim, to resolve, as a result of these unjustifiable and
+repeated acts of aggression by submarines, notwithstanding the protests
+of neutral governments, among them Cuba, that there has been created and
+exists a state of war between Cuba and the imperial German government,
+and adopt all measures necessary, which I reserve to myself the right to
+recommend at the proper<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_348" id="page_348">{348}</a></span> moment, for the maintenance of our rights; to
+defend our territory; to provide for our security, and to cooperate
+decidedly to these ends with the United States government, lending it
+what assistance may be in our power for the defence of the liberty of
+the seas, of the rights of neutrals, and of international justice."</p>
+
+<p>The next day the Cuban Congress adopted the declaration of war, in the
+exact words of the President's message. A resolution was at the same
+time introduced and adopted, authorizing the President to organize and
+to place at the disposal of the President of the United States a
+contingent of 10,000 men, for military service in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>It would be superfluous to dwell upon the causes which led Cuba thus
+promptly and heartily to commit herself to the side of the Allies in the
+war. They were largely identical with those which impelled other nations
+to the same course. There was a resolution to vindicate the sanctity of
+treaties and the majesty of international law. There was an abhorrence
+of the infamous practices of the German government and the German army.
+There was resentment against the gross violation of neutral rights of
+which Germany had been guilty. There was recognition of the grave menace
+to popular governments the world over which was presented by the
+voracious and unscrupulous ambitions of Prussian militarism. There was a
+feeling that as the war had first been directed against two small
+nations, on the principle that small states had no rights that large
+ones were bound to respect, it was incumbent upon other small states to
+protest against that arrogant attitude. There was a desire to show that
+Cuba, youngest and one of the smallest of the nations, was ready to take
+her full part as a nation among nations, in war as well as in peace.
+There was, also, no doubt a legitimate feeling that in this matter it<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_349" id="page_349">{349}</a></span>
+would be appropriate for Cuba&mdash;though of course under no compulsion&mdash;to
+align herself with the great northern neighbor with whom she sustained
+such close relations.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time, backed undoubtedly by German money, and as a part of
+the German propaganda, financial interests, banks and houses of long
+standing in Cuba, all of which were eventually placed on a black list,
+exerted a very strong influence among their customers and through their
+connections, commercial, social and political, in favor of Germany. They
+did succeed in influencing and directing the editorial policy of some
+prominent newspapers, but the chief result of their pernicious
+activities was to get themselves and their sympathizers into trouble.
+One of the foremost bankers of Havana, where he had lived for many years
+and was personally much liked and esteemed in society, while not openly
+espousing the cause of Germany, after Cuba had declared war, was known
+to be thoroughly in sympathy with Germany. He with over a hundred other
+Germans was interned, or kept <i>incommunicado</i>, and in his house
+documents were found demonstrating that he was not only an agent in
+distributing German propaganda, but also a distributor of funds intended
+to promote the cause of Germany in Cuba and the West Indies.</p>
+
+<p>Another very strong influence that was exerted in Cuba against the
+attitude of President Menocal and his government was that of many of the
+clergy of the Roman Catholic church, who openly spoke to their
+congregations in favor of Germany and against the cause of the Allies.
+Nor was the Liberal party by any means as loyal to the Allies as the
+unanimous vote in Congress might seem to suggest. Many of its members
+either openly or secretly gave their sympathy and influence to the
+German side. This was partly because of their inveterate<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_350" id="page_350">{350}</a></span> opposition to
+anything advocated by the Conservative government; and partly because of
+the aid which German interests in Cuba had given, morally, politically
+and pecuniarily, to the insurrection of José Miguel Gomez in 1917. It
+was proved in trials in the courts of Cuba, which were held in
+consequence of the damages wrought by that uprising, that Germans and
+men of German parentage had conspired to give information to the rebels
+and to supply them with munitions, and in other ways strove to aid that
+movement in overthrowing the government. But these seditious and
+disloyal elements in Cuba were probably no stronger in Cuba than in the
+United States or other countries.</p>
+
+<p>Cuba did not suffer from incendiarism and similar German outrages as did
+the United States. On the other hand, the Cuban government was fully as
+strict as that of the United States in taking possession of German
+property, and in blacklisting all firms and individuals known to be in
+sympathy with Germany. All trading of any kind with such parties was
+forbidden; an arrangement being made by which open accounts with them
+could be closed. A Custodian of Alien Property was also appointed.</p>
+
+<p>Even before the declaration of war the Cuban government took strenuous
+means to prevent violations of neutrality. A few weeks before the
+declaration of war German agents fitted up a steamer in Havana harbor as
+a commerce-destroying cruiser, and watched for an opportunity to take
+her out to the high seas. Learning of these plans, the Cuban government
+stationed a cruiser alongside that vessel, with guns trained upon her,
+to prevent the purposed escape. Immediately upon the declaration of war
+the four German ships which were lying interned in Havana harbor were
+seized by the<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_351" id="page_351">{351}</a></span> Cuban government. It was found that the German crews had
+seriously damaged the machinery of the vessels, as they did at New York
+and elsewhere; but the Cuban government had repairs made and then turned
+the vessels over to the United States.</p>
+
+<p>In what we may call the non-military activities of the war, Cuba was
+notably energetic and efficient. There was close cooperation with the
+United States government in the matter of food conservation and supply.
+Cuba was naturally looked to for an increased supply of sugar, for which
+there was great need; and as a result of inquiries by Mr. Hoover, the
+United States Food Commissioner, as to what the island could do in that
+respect, the Cuban Department of Agriculture sent the chief of its
+Bureau of Information, Captain George Reno, to Washington to confer with
+Mr. Hoover and to formulate plans for the exercise of the most efficient
+cooperation possible between Cuba and the United States. Recognizing the
+desirability if not the necessity that Cuba should not only be able to
+feed herself during the war but should also export as much food as
+possible, the insular government took steps at once for the increase of
+food production to the highest attainable degree, and also for the
+practice of thrift and economy. In consequence Cuba endured cheerfully
+the same system of wheatless days and meatless days and rationing in
+various articles of food that prevailed in the United States; with
+excellent results.</p>
+
+<p>President Menocal also made preparations, at the suggestion of and in
+conjunction with the United States War Department, for the provision of
+a detachment of troops for service either in Europe or in any part of
+the world that the Department at Washington might deem expedient. The
+best officers of the Cuban army accepted<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_352" id="page_352">{352}</a></span> an invitation from the
+military authorities of the United States to receive instruction in
+modern military tactics, which had been brought out by the war, and
+Senator Manuel Coronado patriotically gave a sum sufficient for the
+building of a number of airplanes, to be used by Cuban aviators.
+Volunteers for this division were easily secured and the instruction
+began under the direction of Cuban aviators who had been in the service
+of France. The War Department of the United States notified the Republic
+of Cuba that owing to the severe exposure of the men to the freezing
+water and mud of the trenches of Belgium and France, it was doubtful
+whether soldiers of tropical countries could withstand the strain upon
+their health necessarily endured during the winter campaign in Europe,
+intimating that their services would be far more useful in taking the
+place of other troops stationed in warmer climates, as the Porto Ricans
+were taking the place of the marines that were stationed in the Panama
+Canal Zone. This was a rather severe disappointment to General Pujol and
+the other officers, who were very anxious to take their places in the
+line of fire.</p>
+
+<p>Noteworthy and most admirable were the achievements of Cuba in the
+financial operations of the war. Subscriptions were eagerly made to
+every one of the Liberty Loans, and to the final Victory Loan, with the
+result that in every case the amount allotted to Cuba was far exceeded.
+The quota for the third loan was subscribed twice over within five days.
+In this work not only did banks and commercial houses take part, as a
+matter of business, but also many private citizens volunteered as
+canvassers; though indeed the eagerness of people to subscribe made
+canvassing perfunctory and urging superfluous.</p>
+
+<p class="c caption">SEÑORA MENOCAL</p>
+
+<p class="caption">It is not alone through the felicitous circumstance of her being the
+wife of President Mario G. Menocal that Señora Marienita Seva de Menocal
+is entitled to the distinction&mdash;never more appropriate than in her
+case&mdash;of being the &quot;first lady of the land.&quot; Her title rests equally
+upon personal charm, the graces of social hospitality, and womanly
+leadership of the most efficient kind in philanthropic and patriotic
+endeavor for the advancement of the public welfare and the confirmation
+of the integrity and promotion of the prosperity of the Republic; while
+her indefatigable labors in the great war invested her name with
+affectionate and grateful distinction in the camps and among the peoples
+of the Allied nations.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 336px;">
+<a href="images/i051.png">
+<img src="images/i051_sml.png" width="336" height="550" alt="SEÑORA MENOCAL
+
+It is not alone through the felicitous circumstance of her being the
+wife of President Mario G. Menocal that Señora Marienita Seva de Menocal
+is entitled to the distinction&mdash;never more appropriate than in her
+case&mdash;of being the &quot;first lady of the land.&quot; Her title rests equally
+upon personal charm, the graces of social hospitality, and womanly
+leadership of the most efficient kind in philanthropic and patriotic
+endeavor for the advancement of the public welfare and the confirmation
+of the integrity and promotion of the prosperity of the Republic; while
+her indefatigable labors in the great war invested her name with
+affectionate and grateful distinction in the camps and among the peoples
+of the Allied nations." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_353" id="page_353">{353}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A similar interest was manifested in Red Cross contributions and Red
+Cross work, with equally gratifying results. In both of these activities
+a leading and most efficient part was taken by the women of Cuba. In
+subscribing to the loans they were most generous; in canvassing for
+subscriptions from others and in collecting and working for the Red
+Cross they were indefatigable and irresistible. They made it a point of
+patriotic honor, and almost a condition of social acceptability, to
+respond in the fullest possible manner to every such call of the war. In
+Cuba's domestic struggles, the women had suffered cruelly, and their
+sympathies sprang spontaneously and generously toward the lands of
+Europe where womanhood was suffering a thousand martyrdoms. Thus as the
+manhood of Cuba with a unanimity which the few exceptions only
+emphasized rallied to the call of the President to throw the material
+and militant might of the Republic on the side of law, of civilization
+and of democracy, the womanhood of Cuba, with no less unanimity and
+zeal, followed Señora Menocal in the equally necessary and grateful
+tasks of the campaign which women even better than men could perform.</p>
+
+<p>No tribute could be too high to render to these devoted women, who were
+always ready to make personal sacrifices of time, of strength, of money,
+of work, for the cause of humanity. Amid all its historic fiestas and
+pageants, Havana has seen no fairer or more inspiring spectacle than
+that of the Red Cross women, Senora Menocal at their head, marching in
+stately procession through her streets to manifest their devotion to the
+cause and to arouse others to equal earnestness. The magnitude of the
+sums raised by the women of Cuba for the war loans and for the Red
+Cross, and for Cuban hospital units at the front, and the amount of
+bandages and other hospital supplies and clothing prepared by them<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_354" id="page_354">{354}</a></span> for
+the armies "over there," made proud items in Cuban statistics of the
+Great War.</p>
+
+<p>Thitherto Cuba had often been engaged in war, but it was always in what
+may be termed selfish war, for her own defence against an alien enemy or
+for her own liberation from oppressors who, at first kin, had become
+alien. Now for the first time it was her privilege to engage in a
+greater struggle than any before, and one which was for her own
+interests only to the extent to which those interests were involved with
+and were practically identical with the interests of all civilized
+nations and of world-wide humanity. Said Thomas Jefferson on a memorable
+occasion, referring to the relations between America and Great Britain:</p>
+
+<p>"Nothing would more tend to knit our affections than to be fighting once
+more, side by side, in the same cause."</p>
+
+<p>Thus we must reckon that affection and confidence between Cuba and the
+United States were greatly strengthened and confirmed by the fact that
+they were at least potentially and indeed to some degree actually
+fighting side by side in the same cause, and that cause not exclusively
+their own but that of the whole world. Nor was the event without a
+comparable effect upon Cuba's relations to the world at large. Her
+sympathies were broadened; her recognition by other powers was extended;
+and as once she had been a mere pawn in the international game, now she
+became a vital and potent factor in international affairs.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_355" id="page_355">{355}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX</h3>
+
+<p>"A revolution which comprehends the responsibilities incumbent upon the
+founders of nations." Those were almost the last words of José Marti,
+epigrammatically expressive of his purpose in fomenting the ultimate and
+triumphant revolution of 1895-1898, and of the purpose of those devoted
+men who caught the standard of liberty from his dying hand and through
+labors and perils and tragedies incommensurable bore it on to victory.
+How well that purpose has been served in these scarcely twenty years of
+the independent Republic of Cuba, how true to Marti's transcendent ideal
+his successors in Cuban leadership have been, the record which we have
+briefly rehearsed must tell. On the whole, the answer to the implied
+interrogatory is gratifying and reassuring.</p>
+
+<p>The real leaders of the Cuban nation have comprehended the
+responsibilities, unspeakably profound and weighty, that rest upon the
+founders of a nation, and no less upon those who direct the affairs of a
+nation after its foundation, to the last chapter in its age-long annals.
+We should go far, very far, before we could find a statesman more
+appreciative of that responsibility than Tomas Estrada Palma, or one who
+more manfully strove to discharge its every duty with scrupulous
+fidelity and with all the discretion and wisdom with which he had
+himself been plenteously endowed and which he could summon to his
+council board from among his loyal compatriots.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_356" id="page_356">{356}</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We must regard it as the supreme reproach of José Miguel Gomez that,
+with all his ability and energy, he lacked that supreme quality, the
+sense of civic responsibility, which Marti prescribed for Cuba and for
+Cubans. His shameful and unpardonable treason&mdash;a double treason, to his
+own party partner as well as to the government of his country&mdash;was not
+inspired by the genius of Marti. It did not comprehend the gigantic
+responsibilities which it so lightly sought to assume, but was marked
+with the irresponsibility which has characterized so many revolutions in
+other Latin American countries, and which has brought upon those lands
+disaster and measureless reproach.</p>
+
+<p>Under the third Presidency which Cuba has enjoyed that responsibility is
+happily comprehended in complete degree. Not even Estrada Palma
+possessed a higher sense of duty to the state and to the world than
+Mario G. Menocal, nor gave to it more tangible and efficient exposition.
+Nor shall we incur reproach of lack of reverence for a great name if we
+perceive that in certain essential and potent particulars Cuba's third
+President is even more capable of discharging that responsibility than
+was the first. The younger, alert, practical man of affairs, expert in
+the duties of both peace and war, has the advantage over the elder sage
+whose life for many years had been cloistered in academic calm.</p>
+
+<p>We might not inappropriately gauge the extent of Cuba's discharge of her
+responsibilities as a sovereign nation by the measure of her progress in
+various paths of human welfare. This is not the place for a
+comprehensive census of the island, or for a conspectus of its
+statistics. <i>Ex pede Herculem.</i> From a few items we may estimate the
+whole. In the days of unembarrassed Spanish rule, before that
+sovereignty was challenged by revolutions,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_357" id="page_357">{357}</a></span> the island had a population
+of a million souls. It had between two hundred and three hundred
+teachers, and&mdash;in 1841&mdash;9,082 children enrolled in schools. That was one
+schoolchild in every 110 of the population. To-day the island has a
+population of 2,700,000, and it has 350,000 children enrolled in its
+schools. That is one child in every eight of the population. The
+contrast between one-eighth and one-one hundred and tenth is one valid
+and expressive measure of Cuba's discharge of her responsibility.</p>
+
+<p>Under the administration of President Menocal the annual appropriation
+for public education is more than $10,000,000. There are six great
+normal schools to train the 5,500 teachers who are needed to care for
+the 350,000 pupils; and as the national government conducts all the
+schools there is no discrimination between poor places and wealthy
+communities, but an equal grade of teaching is maintained in all. Nor
+does the state stop with primary education, but provides practically
+free secondary and university education for all who desire it.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 168px;">
+<a href="images/i052.png">
+<img src="images/i052_sml.png" width="168" height="228" alt="FRANCISCO DOMINGUEZ ROLDÁN SECRETARY OF PUBLIC
+INSTRUCTION" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Shall we take public health as another measure of progress? In the half
+dozen years just before the War of Independence the death rate in Havana
+was 33 to the 1,000. By 1902 it was reduced to 22, or only a little more
+than in New York. To-day, under President Menocal, the death rate for
+all Cuba is only 11.2. In the registration area of the United States it
+is 14. In the United Kingdom it is 14.2, and Britain vaunts herself
+<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_358" id="page_358">{358}</a></span>upon its lowness. In France it is 19.6; in Argentina it is 21.6; in
+Chili it is 31.1. There are only three countries in the world with lower
+rates of mortality than Cuba; and they are New Zealand, with 9.5,
+Newfoundland with 10.5, and Australia with 10.6.</p>
+
+<p class="c caption" style="clear:both;">BONEATO ROAD, ORIENTE</p>
+
+<p class="caption">No country in the world, probably, is more amply equipped with good
+road&mdash;for both industrial and pleasure purposes, than Cuba. Radiating
+from the capital and other important cities splendid automobile highways
+give access to all parts of the island, leading not only to cities and
+ports but also for hundreds of miles through enchanting scenery. Of such
+highways the Boneato Road, winding through the mountains of Santiago, in
+the Province of Oriente, is a superb example.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<a href="images/i053.png">
+<img src="images/i053_sml.png" width="550" height="348" alt="BONEATO ROAD, ORIENTE
+
+No country in the world, probably, is more amply equipped with good
+road&mdash;for both industrial and pleasure purposes, than Cuba. Radiating
+from the capital and other important cities splendid automobile highways
+give access to all parts of the island, leading not only to cities and
+ports but also for hundreds of miles through enchanting scenery. Of such
+highways the Boneato Road, winding through the mountains of Santiago, in
+the Province of Oriente, is a superb example." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p>Again, consider what is still the chief industry of Cuba. Before the
+administration of President Menocal, these were the yearly sugar crops,
+in tons:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""
+class="sml">
+<tr><td align="left">1908</td><td align="right">961,958</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1909</td><td align="right">1,513,582</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1910</td><td align="right"> &nbsp; 1,804,349</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1911</td><td align="right">1,480,217</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1912</td><td align="right">1,893,687</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Compare or contrast those figures with these, under the administration
+of a President who comprehends his responsibilities:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=""
+class="sml">
+<tr><td align="left">1913</td><td align="right">2,429,240</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1914</td><td align="right">2,596,567</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1915</td><td align="right">2,583,845</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1916</td><td align="right">3,006,624</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1917</td><td align="right">3,019,936</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1918</td><td align="right">3,444,605</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1919</td><td align="right">&nbsp; &nbsp; 4,000,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>No less impressive and significant are the figures which indicate the
+volume of trade between Cuba and the United States. The imports of
+3,000,000; in 1908 they
+were $48,577,000; in 1917 they were $189,875,000. The exports of Cuban
+goods to the United States were in 1908 only $78,869,000, and in 1917
+25,275,000, and in 1919 more than $500,000,000. The balance
+of trade is thus heavily in Cuba's favor. Small as Cuba is<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_359" id="page_359">{359}</a></span> in
+comparison with some of her neighbors, her commerce with the United
+States far exceeds theirs. Thus in 1917 the commerce, in both
+directions, of Brazil with the United States was $180,000,000; of Chili,
+048,000,000; and
+of Cuba, $415,150,000.</p>
+
+<p>Financially, the administration of President Menocal is to be credited
+with the cancellation of the heavy and largely unnecessary debts which
+were left to it by the preceding administration; an achievement which
+contributed greatly to the improvement of Cuba's international credit.
+The foreign claims of Great Britain, France and Germany, which had been
+an embarrassing problem for several years, have been so satisfactorily
+adjusted that their complete settlement will be effected at a time
+convenient to all parties concerned. The grave fiscal and economic
+crisis which followed the beginning of the war of 1914, in practically
+all the markets of the world was avoided in Cuba by the Economic Defense
+Bill, and the establishment of a Cuban national monetary system has
+facilitated exchange and all manner of transactions in Cuba, and has
+redeemed the country from the reproach of being ridden by and dependent
+upon foreign coin as its medium of exchange.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 174px;">
+<a href="images/i054.png">
+<img src="images/i054_sml.png" width="174" height="216" alt="JOSÉ A. DEL CUETO PRESIDENT OF SUPREME COURT" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>The sanitary redemption of Cuba was indeed effected under the
+administration of Leonard Wood in the first American Government of
+Intervention. But the fortunate condition then attained has been not
+only fully maintained but constantly and materially bettered<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_360" id="page_360">{360}</a></span> through
+the activity of the public health department of the Menocal
+administration. New problems in sanitation have arisen, only to be met
+with promptness, thoroughness and success. One of the most severe tests
+of the efficiency of the organization against disease occurred when the
+dreaded bubonic plague was imported; and that efficiency was amply
+vindicated by the complete eradication of that pestilence within a few
+weeks.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 164px;">
+<a href="images/i055.png">
+<img src="images/i055_sml.png" width="164" height="219" alt="DR. FERNANDO MÉNDEZ-CAPOTE, SECRETARY OF SANITATION" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;">
+<a href="images/i056.png">
+<img src="images/i056_sml.png" width="150" height="212" alt="GEN. JOSÉ MARTI, SECRETARY OF WAR" title="" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Shortly after his accession to the Presidency, General Menocal effected
+a complete reorganization of the military system. It was not his purpose
+to burden the country with unnecessary armaments, but he realized the
+necessity of a certain degree of militant preparation for emergencies
+and therefore provided it with a small but efficient army and navy,
+commensurate with the necessities of the country, and entirely subject,
+of course, to the control and direction of the people through their
+civil government. The efficiency of this arm of the Government was well
+demonstrated at the time already described in these pages when, early in
+1917, a widespread revolution was attempted for the purpose of
+overthrowing the constitutional and legal government of the country. At
+that time the President showed the same triumphant ability as a military
+strategist that he had<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_361" id="page_361">{361}</a></span> displayed as a civil administrator, in directing
+the movements of the Government troops from the Palace in Havana. It was
+due to his vigilance and energy in directing the campaign, as well, of
+course, as to the able assistance of his staff, that the rebel forces
+were promptly surrounded and captured and thus a death blow was struck
+at what we may hope will prove to have been the last attempt at
+revolution in Cuba.</p>
+
+<p>No less remarkable than his energy in war was the President's
+magnanimity in dealing with his vanquished enemies when peace had been
+restored, though sometimes against the will of many of his foremost
+advisers. He led the movement of opinion favorable to harmony and
+reconciliation, which was finally confirmed by a law of congress
+granting full amnesty to all civilians who participated in that ill
+advised insurrection. Instead of using persecution, bitterness and
+vindictive oppression against his enemies, President Menocal restored
+good will through the Island by his magnanimous generosity and abundant
+acts of grace.</p>
+
+<p>We have already spoken of President Menocal's admirable course in
+pointing out where the duty of his country lay in the great crisis of
+the European war, and in confirming the traditional friendship between
+Cuba and the United States by making the insular republic an ally of its
+great northern neighbor in that world-wide conflict. His recommendation
+of a declaration of war was immediately and unanimously adopted by the
+Cuban Congress, and thereafter the policy of the republic, under his
+direction, was one of close cooperation with the United States, and of
+placing all the resources and energies of the Island at the disposal of
+the Allied cause. It is worthy of record that the French Government
+showed its appreciation, not only of his spirit and purpose<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_362" id="page_362">{362}</a></span> but of his
+actual achievements in the war, by conferring upon him the Grand Cross
+of the Legion of Honor.</p>
+
+<p>During these last few years the agricultural, industrial and economical
+resources of Cuba have been developed to an extent hitherto unknown and
+undreamed of in the history of the country. Industries have been
+immensely stimulated, great new enterprises have been created, and an
+expansion of foreign trade has been attained which makes Cuba in
+proportion to its size the foremost commercial country of the world.</p>
+
+<p class="c caption">EUGENIO SANCHEZ AGRAMONTE</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Bearing a name which has been identified with many high achievements in
+medical and other science, Dr. Eugenio Sanchez Agramonte has added new
+lustre to it by his own achievements for the health of humanity and for
+the welfare of his fatherland. He was born in Camaguey on April 17,
+1865, and had already attained enviable rank as a physician and
+sanitarian when, still a young man, he entered the War of Independence.
+His chief services were rendered as Director of the Sanitary Department
+of the Army of Liberation, in which place he had the rank of General. He
+was also Director of the great Casa de Beneficia. After the war he took
+an active interest in civic affairs, and became the president of the
+Conservative party. With the election of General Menocal to the
+Presidency of the Cuban Republic, General Agramonte was elected
+president of the Senate, which position he held until 1917, when
+President Menocal appointed him Secretary of Agriculture, Commerce and
+Labor.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 159px;">
+<a href="images/i057.png">
+<img src="images/i057_sml.png" width="159" height="197" alt="EUGENIO SANCHEZ AGRAMONTE
+
+Bearing a name which has been identified with many high achievements in
+medical and other science, Dr. Eugenio Sanchez Agramonte has added new
+lustre to it by his own achievements for the health of humanity and for
+the welfare of his fatherland. He was born in Camaguey on April 17,
+1865, and had already attained enviable rank as a physician and
+sanitarian when, still a young man, he entered the War of Independence.
+His chief services were rendered as Director of the Sanitary Department
+of the Army of Liberation, in which place he had the rank of General. He
+was also Director of the great Casa de Beneficia. After the war he took
+an active interest in civic affairs, and became the president of the
+Conservative party. With the election of General Menocal to the
+Presidency of the Cuban Republic, General Agramonte was elected
+president of the Senate, which position he held until 1917, when
+President Menocal appointed him Secretary of Agriculture, Commerce and
+Labor." title="" /></a></div>
+
+<p>According to recent data the foreign trade of Cuba is $800,000,000.
+Reckoning the population of the Island at about 2,700,000, that means a
+96 per capita. In the year immediately
+preceding the outbreak of the European war, and before the great
+disturbance of commerce caused by that conflict, the foreign trade of
+the United States of America amounted to only $39 per<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_363" id="page_363">{363}</a></span> capita, and even
+that of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland to only $170.</p>
+
+<p>Before the enraptured vision of Columbus, Cuba baffled appreciation. To
+the more discriminating vision of to-day, her future equally baffles
+while it piques imagination. Louis Napoleon, meditating upon the
+possibilities of an American Isthmian canal, once said:</p>
+
+<p>"The geographical position of Constantinople rendered her the Queen of
+the ancient world. Occupying, as she does, the central point between
+Europe, Asia and Africa, she could become the entreport of the commerce
+of all those countries, and obtain over them immense preponderance; for
+in politics, as in strategy, a central position always commands the
+circumference."</p>
+
+<p>Then he pointed out the similarity of position of Nicaragua, where he
+hoped to construct a canal, and argued that it similarly might obtain a
+like status in the Western World. It needs little suggestion to point
+out that Cuba fulfils those conditions in a supreme degree. It was not
+vainly that Spaniards centuries ago called Havana the Key of the Gulf,
+of the Caribbean, of the Indies, of the Western World. The position of
+Cuba is unique and incomparable, with relation to the United States,
+Mexico, Central America and South America, and the two enclosed seas
+which form the Mediterranean of the American Continents. Of old the
+treasure fleets of Spain passed by her coasts, and visited her harbors.
+To-day she is similarly visited by the fleets which ply between North
+America and South America, and between the Atlantic and the Pacific
+oceans. Reckoned by routes of traffic on the charted seas, she is the
+commercial centre of the world.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a href="images/i058.png">
+<img src="images/i058_sml.png" width="318" height="404" alt="ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, HAVANA" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, HAVANA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is not with ambition for conquest or for political ascendancy that
+Cuba exults in that proud position, but<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_364" id="page_364">{364}</a></span> merely that she may in the
+words of her President "show herself worthy of the favors which God has
+lavished upon her," and make herself a joy unto herself and a
+convenience and a benefaction to the peaceful world.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a href="images/i058.png">
+<img src="images/i058_sml.png" width="318" height="404" alt="ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, HAVANA" title="" /></a>
+<span class="caption">ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, HAVANA</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is into such an
+estate that she has now found the sure way to enter, and is indeed
+confidently and triumphantly entering, through achievements which,
+though embraced in only half a dozen years, are worthy of a generation
+of progress and are auspicious of immeasurable generations of progress
+yet to come; achievements toward which<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_365" id="page_365">{365}</a></span> her present Chief of State has
+greatly and indispensably contributed.</p>
+
+<p>The story of Cuba is from Velasquez to Menocal. That is the story which
+we have tried to tell. But that is by no means the whole history of
+Cuba. Even of that portion of it we have been able here to give only an
+outline of the essential facts. But surely the span of four hundred and
+seven years must not be reckoned as a finality. It is only the beginning
+of the annals of a land and a people whose place among the nations of
+the world in honorable perpetuity is now assured as far as it can be
+assured by human purpose and achievement.</p>
+
+<p>These pages are, then, in fact, merely the prologue to records of
+progress and attainment which shall honor the name of Cuba and adorn the
+story of the world, "far on, in summers that we shall not see."</p>
+
+<p>From Velasquez to Menocal. The span is tremendous, in character as well
+as in lapse of time. It is a span from the fanatical and ruthless
+conqueror seeking only his own and his country's advantage, selfish and
+sordid, to the broad-minded and altruistic statesman and philanthropist,
+seeking the advantage and the advancement of his fellow men. It is a
+span, in brief, from the Sixteenth Century age of force to the Twentieth
+Century age of law.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the span and the contrast involve a certain analogy. It
+was the work of Velasquez, masterful man of vision that he was, to begin
+the transformation of a land of aboriginal barbarians into at least a
+semblance of civilization; the transformation from the primitive,
+scarcely more than animal, existence of the Cuban autochthones, to the
+strenuous if sophisticated life of Spain. It has been and is the work of
+President Menocal and his accomplished and patriotic colleagues to
+induct the land<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_366" id="page_366">{366}</a></span> and people from the discredited remnants of a false
+colonial system into the clearer light, the fuller life and the
+immeasurably more spacious and elevated opportunities of a free and
+independent people who "comprehend the responsibilities incumbent upon
+the founders of nations."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_367" id="page_367">{367}</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Abarzuza, Sr. proposes reforms for Cuba, IV, 6.</li>
+
+<li>Abreu. Marta and Rosalie, patriotism of, IV, 25.</li>
+
+<li>Academy of Sciences, Havana, picture of, IV, 364.</li>
+
+<li>Adams, John Quincy, enunciates American policy toward Cuba, II, 258;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 259;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Cuban annexation, 327.</span></li>
+
+<li>Aglona, Prince de. Governor, II, 363.</li>
+
+<li>Agramonte, Aristide, in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172.</li>
+
+<li>Agramonte, Enrique, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12.</li>
+
+<li>Agramonte, Eugenio Sanchez, sketch and portrait, IV, 362.</li>
+
+<li>Agramonte, Francisco, IV, 41.</li>
+
+<li>Agramonte, Ignacio, portrait, facing. III, 258.</li>
+
+<li>Agriculture, early attention to, I, 173, 224;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">progress, 234;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">II, 213;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">absentee landlords, 214;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">statistics, 223;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">discussed in periodicals, 250;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rehabilitation of after War of Independence, IV, 147.</span></li>
+
+<li>Aguayo, Geronimo de, I, 161.</li>
+
+<li>Aguero, Joaquin de, organizes revolution, III, 72;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">final defeat, 87.</span></li>
+
+<li>Aguiar, Luis de, II, 60.</li>
+
+<li>Aguiera, Jose, I, 295.</li>
+
+<li>Aguila, Negra, II, 346.</li>
+
+<li>Aguilera, Francisco V., sketch and portrait, III, 173.</li>
+
+<li>Aguirre, Jose Maria, filibuster, IV, 55;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 85.</span></li>
+
+<li>Albemarle, Earl of, expedition against Havana, II, 46;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">occupies Havana, 78;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy with Bishop Morell, 83.</span></li>
+
+<li>Alcala, Marcos, I, 310.</li>
+
+<li>Aldama, Miguel de, sketch and portrait, III, 204.</li>
+
+<li>Aleman, Manuel, French emissary, II, 305.</li>
+
+<li>Algonquins, I, 7.</li>
+
+<li>Allen, Robert, on "Importance of Havana," II, 81.</li>
+
+<li>Almendares River, tapped for water supply, I, 266;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view on, IV, 167.</span></li>
+
+<li>Almendariz, Alfonso Enrique, Bishop, I, 277.</li>
+
+<li>Alquiza, Sancho de, Governor, I, 277.</li>
+
+<li>Altamarino, Governor, I, 105;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">post mortem trial of Velasquez, 107;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacked by the Guzmans, 109;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">removed, 110.</span></li>
+
+<li>Altamirano, Juan C., Bishop, I, 273;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seized by brigands, 274.</span></li>
+
+<li>Alvarado, Luis de, I, 147.</li>
+
+<li>Alvarado, Pedro de, in Mexico, I, 86.</li>
+
+<li>Amadeus, King of Spain, III, 260.</li>
+
+<li>America, relation of Cuba to, I, 1;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">II, 254. See <span class="smcap">United States</span>.</span></li>
+
+<li>American Revolution, effect of upon Spain and her colonies, II, 138.</li>
+
+<li>American Treaty, between Great Britain and Spain, I, 303.</li>
+
+<li>Andrea, Juan de, II, 9.</li>
+
+<li>Angulo, Francisco de, exiled, I, 193.</li>
+
+<li>Angulo, Gonzales Perez de, Governor, I, 161;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">emancipation proclamation, 163;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrel with Havana Council, 181;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">flight from Sores, 186;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">end of administration, 192.</span></li>
+
+<li>Anners, Jean de Laet de, quoted, I, 353.</li>
+
+<li>Annexation of Cuba to United States, first suggested, II, 257, 326;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">campaign for, 380;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sought by United States, III, 132, 135;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Marcy's policy, 141;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ostend Manifesto, 142;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Buchanan's efforts, 143;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">not considered in War of Independence, IV, 19.</span></li>
+
+<li>Antonelli, Juan Bautista, engineering works in Cuba, I, 261;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">creates water supply for Havana, 266.</span></li>
+
+<li>Apezteguia. Marquis de, Autonomist leader, IV, 94.</li>
+
+<li>Apodaca, Juan Ruiz, Governor, II, 311.</li>
+
+<li>Arana, Martin de, warns Prado of British approach, II, 53.</li>
+
+<li>Arana, Melchior Sarto de, commander of La Fuerza, I, 237.</li>
+
+<li>Arana, Pedro de, royal accountant, I, 238.</li>
+
+<li>Aranda, Esquival, I, 279.</li>
+
+<li>Arango, Augustin, murder of, III, 188.</li>
+
+<li>Arango, Napoleon, treason of, III, 226.</li>
+
+<li>Arango y Pareño, Francisco, portrait, frontispiece, Vol. II;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">organizes Society of Progress, II, 178;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">leadership in Cuba, 191;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward slavery, 208;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his illustrious career, 305 et seq.</span></li>
+
+<li>Aranguren, Nestor, revolutionist, IV, 85;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 92.</span></li>
+
+<li>Araoz, Juan, II, 181.</li>
+
+<li>Arias, A. R., Governor, III, 314.</li>
+
+<li>Arias, Gomez, I, 145.</li>
+
+<li>Arignon, Villiet, quoted, II, 26, 94.</li>
+
+<li>Armona, José de, II, 108.</li>
+
+<li>Army, Cuban, organization of, III, 178;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reorganized, 263;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Jose Miguel Gomez, IV, 301.</span></li>
+
+<li>Army, Spanish, in Cuba, III, 181, 295.</li>
+
+<li>Aroztegui, Martin de, II, 20.</li>
+
+<li>Arrate, José Martin Felix, historian, II, 17, 179.</li>
+
+<li>Arredondo, Nicolas, Governor at Santiago, II, 165.</li>
+
+<li>Asbert, Gen. Ernesto, amnesty case, IV, 326.</li>
+
+<li>"Assiento" compact on slavery, II, 2.</li>
+
+<li>Assumption, Our Lady of the, I, 61.</li>
+
+<li>Astor, John Jacob, aids War of Independence, IV, 14.</li>
+
+<li>Asylums for Insane, II, 317.</li>
+
+<li>Atares fortress, picture, II, 103.</li>
+
+<li>Atkins, John, book on West Indies, II, 36.</li>
+
+<li>Atrocities, committed by Spanish, III, 250;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cespedes's protest against, 254;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Book of Blood," 284;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish confession of, 286;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of destruction,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_368" id="page_368">{368}</a></span></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">295;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Weyler's "concentration" policy, IV, 85.</span></li>
+
+<li>Attwood's Cay. See <span class="smcap">Guanahani</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Autonomist party, III, 305;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">IV, 34;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward Campos in War of Independence, 59;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cabinet under Blanco, 94;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">earnest efforts for peace, 101;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">record of its government, 102.</span></li>
+
+<li>Avellanda, Gertrudis Gomez de, III, 331;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing, 332.</span></li>
+
+<li>Avila, Alfonso de, I, 154.</li>
+
+<li>Avila, Juan de, Governor, I, 151;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">marries rich widow, 154;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">charges against him, 157;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">convicted and imprisoned, 158.</span></li>
+
+<li>Avila. See <span class="smcap">Davila</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Aviles, Pedro Menendez de, See <span class="smcap">Menendez</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Ayala, Francisco P. de, I, 291.</li>
+
+<li>Ayilon, Lucas V. de, strives to make peace between Velasquez and Cortez, I, 98.</li>
+
+<li>Azcarata, José Luis, Secretary of Justice, sketch and portrait, IV, 341.</li>
+
+<li>Azcarate, Nicolas, sketch and portrait, III, 251, 332.</li>
+
+<li>Azcarraga, Gen., Spanish Premier, IV, 88.</li>
+
+<li class="top5">"Barbeque" sought by Columbus, I, 18.</li>
+
+<li>Bachiller, Antonio, sketch and portrait, III, 317.</li>
+
+<li>Bacon, Robert, Assistant Secretary of State of U. S., intervenes in revolution, IV, 272.</li>
+
+<li>Bahia Honda, selected as U. S. naval station, IV, 256.</li>
+
+<li>Balboa, Vasco Nuñez de, I, 55, 91.</li>
+
+<li>Bancroft, George, quoted, I, 269;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">II, 1, 24, 41, 117, 120, 159.</span></li>
+
+<li>Banderas, Quintin, revolutionist, IV, 34;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">raid, 57;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 84.</span></li>
+
+<li>Baracoa, Columbus at, I, 18;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Velasquez at, 60;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">picture, 60;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first capital of Cuba, 61, 168.</span></li>
+
+<li>Barreda, Baltazar, I, 201.</li>
+
+<li>Barreiro, Juan Bautista, Secretary of Education, IV, 160.</li>
+
+<li>Barrieres, Manuel Garcia, II, 165.</li>
+
+<li>Barrionuevo, Juan Maldonado, Governor, I, 263.</li>
+
+<li>Barsicourt, Juan Procopio. See <span class="smcap">Santa Clara</span>, Conde.</li>
+
+<li>Bayamo, founded by Velasquez, I, 68, 168;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuban Republic organized there, III, 157.</span></li>
+
+<li>Bayoa, Pedro de, I, 300.</li>
+
+<li>Bay of Cortez, reached by Columbus, I, 25.</li>
+
+<li>Bees, introduced by Bishop Morell, II, 104;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">increase of industry, 132.</span></li>
+
+<li>"Beggars of the Sea," raid Cuban coasts, I, 208.</li>
+
+<li>Bells, church, controversy over, II, 82.</li>
+
+<li>Bembrilla, Alonzo, I, 111.</li>
+
+<li>Benavides, Juan de, I, 280.</li>
+
+<li>Berrea, Esteban S. de, II, 6.</li>
+
+<li>Betancourt, Pedro, Civil Governor of Matanzas, IV, 179;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">loyal to Palma, 271.</span></li>
+
+<li>Betancourt. See <span class="smcap">Cisneros</span>.</li>
+
+<li>"Bimini," Island of, I, 139.</li>
+
+<li>Bishops of Roman Catholic Church in Cuba, I, 122.</li>
+
+<li>"Black Eagle," II, 346.</li>
+
+<li><i>Black Warrior</i> affair, III, 138.</li>
+
+<li>Blanchet, Emilio, historian, quoted, II, 9, 15, 24;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on siege of Havana, 57, 87.</span></li>
+
+<li>Blanco, Ramon, Governor, IV, 88;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">undertakes reforms, 89;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">plans Cuban autonomy, 93;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on destruction of <i>Maine</i>, 99;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns, 121.</span></li>
+
+<li>Blue, Victor, observations at Santiago, IV, 110.</li>
+
+<li>Bobadilla, F. de, I, 54.</li>
+
+<li>Boca de la Yana, I, 18.</li>
+
+<li>"Bohio" sought by Columbus, I, 18.</li>
+
+<li>Bolivar, Simon, II, 333;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 334;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Liberator," 334 et seq.;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence on Cuba, 341;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Soles de Bolivar," 341.</span></li>
+
+<li>Bonel, Juan Bautista, II, 133.</li>
+
+<li>"Book of Blood," III, 284.</li>
+
+<li>Bourne, Edward Gaylord, quoted, on slavery, II, 209;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Spanish in America, 226.</span></li>
+
+<li>Brinas, Felipe, III, 330.</li>
+
+<li>British policy toward Spain and Cuba, I, 270;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">aggressions in West Indies, 293;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">slave trade, II, 2;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of 1639, 22;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">designs upon Cuba, 41;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">expedition against Havana, 1762, 46;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquest of Cuba, 78;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">relinquishment to Spain, 92. See <span class="smcap">Great Britain</span>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Broa Bay, I, 22.</li>
+
+<li>Brooke, Gen. John R., receives Spanish surrender of Cuba, IV, 122;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclamation to Cuban people, 145;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">retired, 157.</span></li>
+
+<li>Brooks, Henry, revolutionist, IV, 30.</li>
+
+<li>Buccaneers, origin of, I, 269.</li>
+
+<li>Buccarelli, Antonio Maria, Governor, II, 110;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">retires, 115.</span></li>
+
+<li>Buchanan, James, on U. S. relations to Cuba, II, 263;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">III, 135;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Minister to Great Britain, 142;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">as President seeks annexation of Cuba to U. S., 143.</span></li>
+
+<li>Bull-fighting, II, 233.</li>
+
+<li>Burgos, Juan de, Bishop, I, 225.</li>
+
+<li>Burtnett, Spanish spy against Lopez, III, 65.</li>
+
+<li>Bustamente, Antonio Sanchez de, jurist, sketch and portrait, IV, 165.</li>
+
+<li class="top5">Caballero, José Agustin, sketch and portrait, III, 321.</li>
+
+<li>Caballo, Domingo, II, 173.</li>
+
+<li>Cabanas, defences constructed, II, 58;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Laurel Ditch, view, facing, 58.</span></li>
+
+<li>Caballero, Diego de, I, 111.</li>
+
+<li>Cabezas, Bishop, I, 277.</li>
+
+<li>Cabrera, Diego de, I, 206.</li>
+
+<li>Cabrera, Luis, I, 198.</li>
+
+<li>Cabrera, Lorenzo de, Governor, I, 279;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">removed, 282.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cabrera, Rafael, filibuster, IV, 70.</li>
+
+<li>Cabrera, Raimundo, conspirator in New York, IV, 334;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">warned, 339.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cadreyta, Marquis de, I, 279.</li>
+
+<li>Cagigal, Juan Manuel de, Governor, II, 154;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">defence of Havana, 155;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">removed and imprisoned, 157.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cagigal, Juan Manuel, Governor, II, 313;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">successful administration, 315.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cagigal de la Vega, Francisco, defends Santiago, II, 29;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governor, 32;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Viceroy of Mexico, 34.</span></li>
+
+<li>Caguax, Cuban chief, I, 63.</li>
+
+<li>Calderon, Gabriel, Bishop, I, 315.</li>
+
+<li>Calderon, Garcia, quoted, II, 164, 172.</li>
+
+<li>Calderon de la Barca, Spanish Minister,<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_369" id="page_369">{369}</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on <i>La Verdad</i>, III, 19;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on colonial status, 21;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">negotiations with Soulé, 140.</span></li>
+
+<li>Calhoun, John C., on Cuba, III, 132.</li>
+
+<li>Calleja y Isisi, Emilio, Governor, III, 313;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclaims martial law, IV, 30;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns, 35.</span></li>
+
+<li>Camaguey. See <span class="smcap">Puerto Principe</span>, I, 168.</li>
+
+<li>Campbell, John, description of Havana, II, 14.</li>
+
+<li>Campillo, Jose de, II, 19.</li>
+
+<li>Campos, Martinez de, Governor, III, 296;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclamations to Cuba, 297, 299;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">makes Treaty of Zanjon and ends Ten Years War, 299;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Spanish crisis, IV, 36;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governor again, 37;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">establishes Trocha, 44;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeated by Maceo, 46;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conferences with party leaders, 59, 63;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">removed, 63.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cancio, Leopoldo, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 161, 320.</li>
+
+<li>Canizares, Santiago J., Minister of Interior, IV, 48.</li>
+
+<li>Canning, George, policy toward Cuba, II, 257;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 258.</span></li>
+
+<li>Canoe, of Cuban origin, I, 10.</li>
+
+<li>Canon, Rodrigo, I, 111.</li>
+
+<li>Canovas del Castillo, Spanish Premier, IV, 36;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">assassinated, 88.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cape Cruz, Columbus at, I, 20.</li>
+
+<li>Cape Maysi, I, 4.</li>
+
+<li>Cape of Palms, I, 17.</li>
+
+<li>Capote, Domingo Menendez. Vice-President, IV, 90;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Secretary of State, 146;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Constitutional Convention. 189.</span></li>
+
+<li>Carajaval, Lucas, defies Dutch, I, 290.</li>
+
+<li>Cardenas, Lopez lands at, III, 49.</li>
+
+<li>Caribs, I, 8.</li>
+
+<li>Carillo, Francisco, filibuster, IV, 55.</li>
+
+<li>Carleton, Sir Guy, at Havana, II, 47.</li>
+
+<li>Carranza, Domingo Gonzales, book on West Indies, II, 37.</li>
+
+<li>Carrascesa, Alfonso, II, 6.</li>
+
+<li>Carreño, Francisco, Governor, I, 219;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions at his accession, 228;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">dies in office, 229;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">work in rebuilding Havana, 231.</span></li>
+
+<li>Carroll, James, in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172.</li>
+
+<li>Casa de Beneficienca, founded, I, 335;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">II, 177.</span></li>
+
+<li>Casa de Resorgiamento, founded, II, 31.</li>
+
+<li>Casares, Alfonso, codifies municipal ordinances, I, 207.</li>
+
+<li>Castellanos, Jovellar, last Spanish Governor of Cuba, IV, 121;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">surrenders Spanish sovereignty, 123.</span></li>
+
+<li>Castillo, Demetrio, Civil Governor of Oriente, IV, 180.</li>
+
+<li>Castillo, Ignacio Maria del, Governor, III, 314.</li>
+
+<li>Castillo, Loinaz, revolutionist. IV, 269.</li>
+
+<li>Castillo, Pedro del, Bishop, I, 226.</li>
+
+<li>Castro, Hernando de, royal treasurer, I, 115.</li>
+
+<li>Cathcart Lord, expedition to West Indies, II, 28.</li>
+
+<li>Cathedral of Havana, picture, facing I, 36;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">begun, I, 310.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cat Island. See <span class="smcap">Guanahani</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Cayo, San Juan de los Remedios del, removal of, I, 319.</li>
+
+<li>Cazones, Gulf of, I, 21.</li>
+
+<li>Cemi, Cuban worship of, I, 55.</li>
+
+<li>Census, of Cuba, first taken, by Torre, II, 131;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">by Las Casas, 176;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of slaves, 205;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1775, 276;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1791, 277;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Humboldt on, 277;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1811, 280;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1817, 281;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1827, 283;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1846, 283;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1899, IV, 154;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1907, 287.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cespedes, Carlos Manuel, III, 157;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 158;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Spain, 158;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">leads Cuban revolution, 158;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Republic, 158;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclamation, 168;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">negotiations with Spain, 187;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">removed from office, 275.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cespedes, Carlos Manuel, filibuster, IV, 55.</li>
+
+<li>Cespedes, Enrique, revolutionist, IV, 30.</li>
+
+<li>Cervera, Admiral, brings Spanish fleet to Cuba, IV, 110;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 110;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">surrenders, 114.</span></li>
+
+<li>Chacon, José Bayoma, II, 13.</li>
+
+<li>Chacon, Luis, I, 331, 333.</li>
+
+<li>Chalons, Sr., Secretary of Public Works, IV, 297.</li>
+
+<li>Chamber of Commerce founded, II, 307.</li>
+
+<li>Charles I, King, I, 74;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">denounces oppression of Indians, 128.</span></li>
+
+<li>Chaves, Antonio, Governor, I, 157;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">prosecutes Avila, 157;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">ruthless policy toward natives, 159;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy with King, 160;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">dismissed from office, 161.</span></li>
+
+<li>Chaves, Juan Baton de, I, 331.</li>
+
+<li>Chilton, John, describes Havana, I, 349.</li>
+
+<li>Chinchilla, José, Governor, III, 314.</li>
+
+<li>Chinese, colonies in America, I, 7;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">laborers imported into Cuba, II, 295.</span></li>
+
+<li>Chorrera, expected to be Drake's landing place, I, 248.</li>
+
+<li>Chorrera River, dam built by Antonelli, I, 262.</li>
+
+<li>Christianity, introduced into Cuba by Ojeda, I, 55;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">urged by King Ferdinand, 73.</span></li>
+
+<li>Church, Roman Catholic, organized and influential in Cuba, I, 122;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">cathedral removed from Baracoa to Santiago, 123;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conflict with civil power, 227;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy with British during British occupation, II, 84;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">division of island into two dioceses, 173;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward War of Independence, IV, 26;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy over property, 294.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cienfuegos, José, Governor, II, 311.</li>
+
+<li>Cimmarones, "wild Indians," I, 126;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolt against De Soto, 148.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cipango, Cuba identified with, by Columbus, I, 5.</li>
+
+<li>Cisneros, Gaspar Betancourt, sketch and portrait, II, 379.</li>
+
+<li>Cisneros, Pascal Jiminez de, II, 110, 127.</li>
+
+<li>Cisneros, Salvador, III, 167;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketch and portrait, 276;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Cuban Republic, 277;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Council of Ministers, IV, 48;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Constitutional Convention, 190.</span></li>
+
+<li>Civil Service, law, IV, 325;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">respected by President Menocal, 325.</span></li>
+
+<li>Clay, Henry, policy toward Cuba, II, 261.</li>
+
+<li>Clayton, John M., U. S. Secretary of State, issues proclamation against filibustering, III, 42.</li>
+
+<li>Cleaveland, Samuel, controversy over church bells, II, 83.</li>
+
+<li>Cleveland, Grover. President of United States, issues warning against breaches of neutrality, IV, 70;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reference to Cuba<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_370" id="page_370">{370}</a></span></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in message of 1896, 79;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">its significance, 80.</span></li>
+
+<li>Coat of Arms of Cuba, picture, IV, 251;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">significance, 251.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cobre, copper mines, I, 173, 259.</li>
+
+<li>"Cockfighting and Idleness" campaign, IV, 291.</li>
+
+<li>Coffee, cultivation begun, II, 33, 113.</li>
+
+<li>Coinage, reformed, II, 142;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">statistics of, 158.</span></li>
+
+<li>Collazo, Enrique, filibuster, IV, 55.</li>
+
+<li>Coloma, Antonio Lopez, revolutionist, IV, 30.</li>
+
+<li>Colombia, designs upon Cuba, II, 262;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">III, 134;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward Cuban revolution, 223.</span></li>
+
+<li>Columbus, Bartholomew, recalled to Spain, I, 57.</li>
+
+<li>Columbus, Christopher, portrait, frontispiece, Vol. I;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">discoverer of America, I;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">i;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first landing in America, 2;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">monument on Watling's Island, picture, 3;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrival in Cuba, 11;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">question as to first landing place, 12;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first impressions of Cuba and intercourse with natives, 14;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">exploration of north coast, 16;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">end of first visit, 18;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">second visit, 19;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">exploration of south coast, 21;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Bay of Cortez, 25;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">turns back from circumnavigation, 26;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Isle of Pines, 26;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">final departure from Cuba, 27;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">diary and narrative, 28 et seq.;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death and burial, 33;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">tomb in Havana cathedral, 34;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">removal to Seville, 36;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">removal from Santo Domingo to Havana, II, 181;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">epitaph, 182.</span></li>
+
+<li>Columbus, Diego, plans exploration and colonization of Cuba, I, 57;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attempts mediation between Velasquez and Cortez, 97;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">replaces Velasquez with Zuazo, 100;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebuked by King, 100.</span></li>
+
+<li>Comendador, Cacique, I, 55.</li>
+
+<li>Commerce, begun by Velasquez, I, 68;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rise of corporations, II, 19;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">after British occupation, 98;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Torre, 132;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reduction of duties, 141;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">extension of trade, 163;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tribunal of Commerce founded, 177;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Real Compania de Havana, 199;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">restrictive measures, 200;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chamber of Commerce founded, 307;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce with United States, III, 2;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">during American occupation, IV, 184;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">present, 358.</span></li>
+
+<li>Compostela, Diego E. de, Bishop, I, 318;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 332.</span></li>
+
+<li>Concepcion, Columbus's landing place, I, 3.</li>
+
+<li>Concessions, forbidden under American occupation, IV, 153.</li>
+
+<li>Concha, José Gutierrez de la, Governor, III, 62, 290.</li>
+
+<li>Conchillos, royal secretary, I, 59.</li>
+
+<li>Congress, Cuban, welcomed by Gen. Wood, IV, 246;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">turns against Palma, 269;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">friendly to Gomez, 303;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">hostile to Menocal, 323;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">protects the lottery, 324.</span></li>
+
+<li>Constitution: Cuban Republic of 1868, III, 157;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of 1895, IV, 47;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">call for Constitutional Convention, 185;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">meeting of Convention, 187;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">draft completed, 192;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">salient provisions, 193;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Elihu Root's comments, 194;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Convention discusses relations with United States, 197;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Platt</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amendment, 199;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">amendment adopted, 203;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">text of Constitution, 304 et seq.;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The Nation, 205;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cubans, 205;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Foreigners, 207;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Individual Rights, 208;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Suffrage, 211;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Suspension of Guarantees, 212;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sovereignty, 213;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Legislative Bodies, 214;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Senate, 214;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">House of Representatives, 216;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Congress, 218;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Legislation, 221;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Executive, 222;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President, 222;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vice-President, 225;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Secretaries of State, 226;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Judiciary, 227;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Supreme Court, 227;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Administration of Justice, 228;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Provincial Governments, 229;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Provincial Councils, 230;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Provincial Governors, 231;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Municipal Government, 233;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Municipal Councils, 233;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mayors, 235;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">National Treasury, 235;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amendments, 236;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Transient Provisions, 237;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Appendix (Platt Amendment), 238.</span></li>
+
+<li>"Constitutional Army," IV, 268.</li>
+
+<li>Contreras, Andres Manso de, I, 288.</li>
+
+<li>Contreras, Damien, I, 278.</li>
+
+<li>Convents, founded, I, 276;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nuns of Santa Clara, 286.</span></li>
+
+<li>Conyedo, Juan de, Bishop, II, 35.</li>
+
+<li>Copper, discovered near Santiago, I, 173;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">wealth of mines, 259;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reopened, II, 13;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">exports, III, 3.</span></li>
+
+<li>Corbalon, Francisco R., I, 286.</li>
+
+<li>Cordova de Vega, Diego de, Governor, I, 239.</li>
+
+<li>Cordova, Francisco H., expedition to Yucatan, I, 84.</li>
+
+<li>Cordova Ponce de Leon, José Fernandez, Governor, I, 316.</li>
+
+<li>Coreal, Francois, account of West Indies, quoted, I, 355.</li>
+
+<li>Coronado, Manuel, gift for air planes, IV, 352.</li>
+
+<li>Cortes, Spanish, Cuban representation in, II, 308;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">excluded, 351;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">lack of representation, III, 3;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">after Ten Years' War, 307.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cortez, Hernando, Alcalde of Santiago de Cuba, I, 72;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sent to Mexico by King, 74;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">agent of Velasquez, 86;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">early career, 90;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 90;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrel with Velasquez, 91;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">marriage, 92;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commissioned by Velasquez to explore Mexico, 92;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sails for Mexico, 94;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">final breach with Velasquez, 96;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">denounced as rebel, 97;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">escapes murder, 99.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cosa, Juan de la, geographer, I, 6, 53.</li>
+
+<li>Councillors, appointed for life, I, 111;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conflict with Procurators, 113.</span></li>
+
+<li>Creoles, origin of name, II, 204.</li>
+
+<li>Crittenden, J. J., protests against European intervention in Cuba, III, 129.</li>
+
+<li>Crittenden, William S., with Lopez, III, 96;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured, 101;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 105.</span></li>
+
+<li>Crombet, Flor, revolutionist, IV, 41, 42.</li>
+
+<li>Crooked Island. See <span class="smcap">Isabella</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Crowder, Gen. Enoch H., head of Consulting Board, IV, 284.</li>
+
+<li>Cuba: Relation to America, I, 1;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Columbus's first landing, 3;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">identified with Mangi or Cathay, 4;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Cipango, 5;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">earliest maps, 6;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">physical history, 7, 37 et seq.;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Columbus's discovery, 11 et seq.;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">named Juana, 13;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">other names, 14;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Columbus's account of, 28;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">geological history, 37-42;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">topography, 42-51;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">climate, 51-52;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first circumnavigation, 54;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">colonization, 54;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Velasquez at Baracoa, 60;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commerce begun, 68;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">government organized, 69;<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_371" id="page_371">{371}</a></span></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">named Ferdinandina, 73;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy of Spain toward, 175;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">slow economic progress, 215;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">land legislation, 232;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish discrimination against, 266;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">divided into two districts, 275;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">British description in 1665, 306;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">various accounts, 346;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">turning point in history, 363;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">close of first era, 366;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">British conquest, II, 78;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">relinquished to Spain, 92;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great changes effected, 94;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">economic condition, 98;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reoccupied by Spain, 102;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">untouched by early revolutions, 165;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of revolution in Santo Domingo, 190;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first suggestion of annexation to United States, 257;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Ever Faithful Isle," 268;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rise of independence, 268;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">censuses, 276 et seq.;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">representation in Cortes, 308;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Soles de Bolivar," 341;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">representatives rejected from Cortes, 351;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">transformation of popular spirit, 383;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">independence proclaimed, III, 145;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Republic organized, 157;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">War of Independence, IV, 15;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish elections held during war, 67;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Blanco's plan of autonomy, 93;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sovereignty surrendered by Spain, 123;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">list of Spanish Governors, 123. See <span class="smcap">Republic of Cuba</span>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Cuban Aborigines;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">I, 8;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">manners, customs and religion, 8 et seq.;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Columbus's first intercourse, 15, 24;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">priest's address to Columbus, 26;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Columbus's observations of them, 29;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">hostilities begun by Velasquez, 61;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">subjected to Repartimiento system, 70;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">practical slavery, 71;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Key Indians, 125;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cimmarones, 126;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">new laws in their favor, 129;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rojas's endeavor to save them, 130;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">final doom, 133;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">efforts at reform, 153;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">oppression by Chaves, 159;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Angulo's emancipation proclamation, 163.</span></li>
+
+<li>"Cuba-nacan," I, 5.</li>
+
+<li>"Cuba and the Cubans," quoted, II, 313.</li>
+
+<li>"Cuba y Su Gobierno," quoted, II, 354.</li>
+
+<li>Cuellar, Cristobal de, royal accountant, I, 59.</li>
+
+<li>Cushing, Caleb, Minister to Spain, III, 291.</li>
+
+<li>Custom House, first at Havana, I, 231.</li>
+
+<li class="top5">Dady, Michael J., &amp; Co., contract dispute, IV, 169.</li>
+
+<li>Davila, Pedrarias, I, 140.</li>
+
+<li>Davis, Jefferson, declines to join Lopez, III, 38.</li>
+
+<li>Del Casal, Julian, sketch and portrait, IV, 6.</li>
+
+<li>Del Cueta, José A., President of Supreme Court, portrait, IV, 359.</li>
+
+<li>Delgado, Moru, Liberal leader, IV, 267.</li>
+
+<li>Del Monte, Domingo, sketch, portrait, and work, II, 323.</li>
+
+<li>Del Monte, Ricardo, sketch and portrait, IV, 2.</li>
+
+<li>Demobilization of Cuban army, IV, 135.</li>
+
+<li>Desvernine, Pablo, Secretary of Finance, IV, 146.</li>
+
+<li>Diaz, Bernal, at Sancti Spiritus, I, 72;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Mexico, 86.</span></li>
+
+<li>Diaz, Manuel, I, 239.</li>
+
+<li>Diaz, Manuel Luciano, Secretary of Public Works, IV, 254.</li>
+
+<li>Diaz, Modeste, III, 263.</li>
+
+<li>Divino, Sr., Secretary of Justice, IV, 297.</li>
+
+<li>Dockyard at Havana, established, II, 8.</li>
+
+<li>Dolz, Eduardo, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 96.</li>
+
+<li>Dominguez, Fermin V., Assistant Secretary of Foreign Affairs, IV, 50.</li>
+
+<li>Dorst, J. H., mission to Pinar del Rio, IV, 107.</li>
+
+<li>"Dragado" deal, IV, 310.</li>
+
+<li>Drake, Sir Francis, menaces Havana, I, 243;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Hispaniola, 246;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">leaves Havana unassailed, 252;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">departs for Virginia, 255.</span></li>
+
+<li>Duany, Joaquin Castillo, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Assistant Secretary of Treasury, 50;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">filibuster, 70.</span></li>
+
+<li>Dubois, Carlos, Assistant Secretary of Interior, IV, 50.</li>
+
+<li>Duero, Andres de, I, 93, 115.</li>
+
+<li>Dulce y Garay, Domingo, Governor, III, 190, 194;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">decree of confiscation, 209;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recalled, 213.</span></li>
+
+<li>Dupuy de Lome, Sr., Spanish Minister at Washington, IV, 40;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">writes offensive letter, 98;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recalled, 98.</span></li>
+
+<li>Duque, Sr., Secretary of Sanitation and Charity, IV, 297.</li>
+
+<li>Durango, Bishop, I, 225.</li>
+
+<li>Dutch hostilities, I, 208, 279;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">activities in West Indies, 283 et seq.</span></li>
+
+<li class="top5">Earthquakes, in 1765, I, 315;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">II, 114.</span></li>
+
+<li>Echeverria, Esteban B., Superintendent of Schools, IV, 162.</li>
+
+<li>Echeverria, José, Bishop, II, 113.</li>
+
+<li>Echeverria, José Antonio, III, 324.</li>
+
+<li>Echeverria, Juan Maria, Governor, II, 312.</li>
+
+<li>Education, backward state of, II, 244;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">progress under American occupation, IV, 156;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">A. E. Frye, Superintendent, 156;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reorganization of system, 162;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Harvard University's entertainment of teachers, 163;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">achievements under President Menocal, 357.</span></li>
+
+<li>Elections: for municipal officers under American occupation, IV, 180;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">law for regulation of, 180;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">result, 181;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">for Constitutional Convention, 186;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">for general officers, 240;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">result, 244;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Presidential, 1906, 265;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">new law, 287;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">local elections under Second Intervention, 289;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Presidential, 290;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">for Congress in 1908, 303;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Presidential, 1912, 309;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Presidential, 1916, disputed, 330, result confirmed, 341.</span></li>
+
+<li>Enciso, Martin F. de, first Spanish writer about America, I, 54.</li>
+
+<li>Epidemics: putrid fever, 1649, I, 290;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">vaccination introduced, II, 192;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">small pox and yellow fever, III, 313;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Santiago, IV, 142;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gen. Wood applies Dr. Finlay's theory of yellow fever, 171;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">success, 176;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">malaria, 177.</span></li>
+
+<li>Escudero, Antonio, de, II, 10.</li>
+
+<li>Espada, Juan José Diaz, portrait, facing II, 272.</li>
+
+<li>Espagnola. See <span class="smcap">Hispaniola</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Espeleta, Joaquin de, Governor, II, 362.</li>
+
+<li>Espinosa, Alonzo de Campos, Governor, I, 316.</li>
+
+<li>Espoleto, José de, Governor, II, 169.</li>
+
+<li>Estenoz, Negro insurgent, IV, 307.</li>
+
+<li>Estevez, Luis, Secretary of Justice, IV, 160;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vice-President, 245.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_372" id="page_372">{372}</a></span></span></li>
+
+<li>Evangelista. See <span class="smcap">Isle of Pines</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Everett, Edward, policy toward Cuba, III, 130.</li>
+
+<li>"Ever Faithful Isle," II, 268, 304.</li>
+
+<li>Exquemeling, Alexander, author and pirate, I, 302.</li>
+
+<li class="top5">"Family Pact," of Bourbons, effect upon Cuba, II, 42.</li>
+
+<li>Felin, Antonio, Bishop, II, 172.</li>
+
+<li>Fels, Cornelius, defeated by Spanish, I, 288.</li>
+
+<li>Ferdinand, King, policy toward Cuba, I, 56;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">esteem for Velasquez, 73.</span></li>
+
+<li>Ferdinandina, Columbus's landing place, I, 3;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">name for Cuba, 73.</span></li>
+
+<li>Ferrara, Orestes, Liberal leader, IV, 260;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionist, 269;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">deprecates factional strife, 306;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary conspirator in New York, 334;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">warned by U. S. Government, I, 239.</span></li>
+
+<li>Ferrer, Juan de, commander of La Fuerza, I, 239.</li>
+
+<li>Figueroa, Vasco Porcallo de, I, 72;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">De Soto's lieutenant, 142;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">returns from Florida in disgust, 145.</span></li>
+
+<li>Figuerosa, Rojas de, captures Tortuga, I, 292.</li>
+
+<li>Filarmonia, riot at ball, III, 119.</li>
+
+<li>Filibustering, proclamation of United States against, III, 42;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">after Ten Years' War, 311, in War of Independence, IV, 20;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">expeditions intercepted, 52;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">many successful expeditions, 69;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">warnings, 70.</span></li>
+
+<li>Fine Arts, II, 240.</li>
+
+<li>Finlay, Carlos G., theory of yellow fever successfully applied under General Wood, IV, 171;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing, 172.</span></li>
+
+<li>Fish, Hamilton, U. S. Secretary of State, prevents premature recognition of Cuban Republic, III, 203;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">protests against Rodas's decree, 216;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on losses in Ten Years' War, 290;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seeks British support, 292;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">states terms of proposed mediation, 293.</span></li>
+
+<li>Fish market at Havana, founder for pirate, II, 357.</li>
+
+<li>Fiske, John, historian, quoted, I, 270.</li>
+
+<li>Flag, Cuban, first raised, III, 31;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">replaces American, IV, 249;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">picture, 250;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">history and significance, 250.</span></li>
+
+<li>Flores y Aldama, Rodrigo de, Governor, I, 301.</li>
+
+<li>Florida, attempted colonization by Ponce de Leon, I, 139;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">De Soto's expedition, 145. See <span class="smcap">Menendez</span>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Fonseca, Juan Rodriguez de, Bishop of Seville, I, 59.</li>
+
+<li>Fonts-Sterling, Ernesto, Secretary of Finance, IV, 90;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">urges resistance to revolution, 270.</span></li>
+
+<li>Fornaris, José, III, 230.</li>
+
+<li>Forestry, attention paid by Montalvo, I, 223;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">efforts to check waste, II, 166.</span></li>
+
+<li>Foyo, Sr., Secretary of Agriculture, Commerce and Labor, IV, 297.</li>
+
+<li>France, first foe of Spanish in Cuba, I, 177;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Family Pact," II, 42;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">interest in Cuban revolution, III, 126.</span></li>
+
+<li>Franquinay, pirate, at Santiago, I, 310.</li>
+
+<li>French refugees, in Cuba, II, 189;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">expelled, 302.</span></li>
+
+<li>French Revolution, effects of, II, 184.</li>
+
+<li>Freyre y Andrade, Fernando, filibuster,</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">IV, 70;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">negotiations with Pino Guerra, 267.</span></li>
+
+<li>Frye, Alexis, Superintendent of Schools, IV, 156;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy with General Wood, 162.</span></li>
+
+<li>Fuerza, La: picture, facing I, 146;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">building begun by De Soto, I, 147;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">scene of Lady Isabel's tragic vigil, 147, 179;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">planned and built by Sanchez, 194;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">work by Menendez, and Ribera, 209;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">slave labor sought, 211;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">bad construction, 222;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Montalvo's recommendations, 223;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Luzan-Arana quarrel, 237;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">practical completion, 240;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">decorated by Cagigal, II, 33.</span></li>
+
+<li class="top5">Galvano, Antony, historian, quoted, I, 4.</li>
+
+<li>Galvez, Bernardo, seeks Cuban aid for Pensacola, II, 146;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governor, 168;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 170.</span></li>
+
+<li>Galvez, José Maria, head of Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95.</li>
+
+<li>Garaondo, José, I, 317.</li>
+
+<li>Garay, Francisco de, Governor of Jamaica, I, 102.</li>
+
+<li>Garcia, Calixto, portrait, facing III, 268;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Cuban Republic, III, 301;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">joins War of Independence, IV, 69;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his notable career, 76 et seq.;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">joins with Shafter at Santiago, 111;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 241.</span></li>
+
+<li>Garcia, Carlos, revolutionist, IV, 269.</li>
+
+<li>Garcia, Esequiel, Secretary of Education, IV, 320.</li>
+
+<li>Garcia, Marcos, IV, 44.</li>
+
+<li>Garcia, Quintiliano, III, 329.</li>
+
+<li>Garvey, José N. P., II, 222.</li>
+
+<li>Gastaneta, Antonio, II, 9.</li>
+
+<li>Gelder, Francisco, Governor, I, 292.</li>
+
+<li>Gener y Rincon, Miguel, Secretary of Justice, IV, 161.</li>
+
+<li>Geraldini, Felipe, I, 310.</li>
+
+<li>Germany, malicious course of in 1898, IV, 104;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuba declares war against, 348;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">property in Cuba seized, 349;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">aid to Gomez, 350.</span></li>
+
+<li>Gibson. Hugh S., U. S. Chargé d'Affaires, assaulted, IV, 308.</li>
+
+<li>Giron. Garcia, Governor, I, 279.</li>
+
+<li>Godoy, Captain, arrested at Santiago, and put to death, I, 203.</li>
+
+<li>Godoy, Manuel, II, 172.</li>
+
+<li>Goicouria, Domingo, sketch and portrait, III, 234.</li>
+
+<li>Gold, Columbus's quest for, I, 19;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Velasquez's search, 61;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">the "Spaniards' God," 62;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">early mining, 81;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">value of mines, 173.</span></li>
+
+<li>Gomez, José Antonio, II, 18.</li>
+
+<li>Gomez, José Miguel, Civil Governor of Santa Clara, IV, 179;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">aspires to Presidency, 260, 264;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">turns from Conservative to Liberal party, 265;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">compact with Zayas, 265;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">starts revolution, 269;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">elected President, 290;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes President, 297;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cabinet, 297;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketch and portrait, 298;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">acts of his administration, 301;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">charged with corruption, 304;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conflict with Veterans' Association, 304;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrel with Zayas, 306;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">suppresses Negro revolt, 307;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">amnesty bill, 309;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">National Lottery, 310;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Dragado" deal, 310;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">railroad deal, 310;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">estimate of his administration, 311;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">double treason in 1916, 332;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeated and captured, 337;<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_373" id="page_373">{373}</a></span></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his orders for devastation, 337;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">aided by Germany, 350.</span></li>
+
+<li>Gomez, Juan Gualberto, revolutionist, IV, 30;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured and imprisoned, 52;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">insurgent, 269.</span></li>
+
+<li>Gomez, Maximo, III, 264;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">succeeds Gen. Agramonte, 275;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">makes Treaty of Zanjon with Campos, 299;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in War of Independence, IV, 15;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commander in chief, 16, 43;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 44;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">plans great campaign of war, 53;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy with Lacret, 84;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposed to American invasion, 109;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">appeals to Cubans to accept American occupation, 136;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">impeachment by National Assembly ignored, 137;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence during Government of Intervention, 149;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">considered by Constitutional Convention, 191;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proposed for Presidency, 240;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">declines, 241.</span></li>
+
+<li>Gonzalez, Aurelia Castillo de, author, sketch and portrait, IV, 192.</li>
+
+<li>Gonzales, William E., U. S. Minister to Cuba, IV, 335;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">watches Gomez's insurrection, 336.</span></li>
+
+<li>Gorgas, William C., work for sanitation, IV, 175.</li>
+
+<li>Government of Cuba: organized by Velasquez, I, 69;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">developed at Santiago, 81;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">radical changes made, 111;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in political status of island, 138;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">codification of ordinances, 207;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ordinances of 1542, 317;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">land tenure, II, 12;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reforms by Governor Guemez, 17;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reorganization after British occupation, 104;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great reforms by Torre, 132;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">budget and tax reforms, 197;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">authority of Captain-General, III, 11;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">administrative and judicial functions, 13 et seq.;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">military and naval command, 16;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attempted reforms, 63;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">concessions after Ten Years' War, 310.</span></li>
+
+<li>Governors of Cuba, Spanish, list of, IV, 123.</li>
+
+<li>Govin, Antonio, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketch and portrait, 95.</span></li>
+
+<li>Grammont, buccaneer, I, 311.</li>
+
+<li>Gran Caico, I, 4.</li>
+
+<li>Grand Turk Island. See <span class="smcap">Guanahani</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Grant, U. S., President of United States, III, 200;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">inclined to recognize Cuban Republic, 202;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">prevented by his Secretary of State, 203;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments in messages, 205, 292.</span></li>
+
+<li>Great Britain, interest in Cuban revolution, III, 125;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">protection sought by Spain, 129;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">declines cooperation with United States, 294;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">requires return of fugitives, 310.</span></li>
+
+<li>Great Exuma. See <span class="smcap">Ferdinandina</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Great Inagua, I, 4.</li>
+
+<li>Great War, Cuba enters, IV, 348;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">offers 10,000 troops, 348;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">German intrigues and propaganda, 349;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude of Roman Catholic clergy, 349;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">ships seized, 350;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">cooperation with Food Commission, 351;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">military activities, 352;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">liberal subscriptions to loans, 352;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Red Cross work, 352;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Señora Menocal's inspiring leadership, 353.</span></li>
+
+<li>Grijalva, Juan de, I, 65;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">expedition to Mexico, 66;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">names Mexico New Spain, 97;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">unjustly recalled and discredited, 88.</span></li>
+
+<li>Guajaba Island, I, 18.</li>
+
+<li>Guama, Cimmarron chief, I, 127.</li>
+
+<li>Guanabacoa founded, II, 21.</li>
+
+<li>Guanahani, Columbus's landing place, I, 2.</li>
+
+<li>Guanajes Islands, source of slave trade, I, 83.</li>
+
+<li>Guantanamo, Columbus at, I, 19;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">U. S. Naval Station, IV, 256.</span></li>
+
+<li>Guardia, Cristobal de la, Secretary of Justice, IV, 320.</li>
+
+<li>Guazo, Gregorio, de la Vega, Governor, I, 340;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">stops tobacco war, 341;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">warnings to Great Britain and France, 342;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">military activity and efficiency, II, 5.</span></li>
+
+<li>Guemez y Horcasitas, Juan F., Governor, II, 17;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reforms, 17;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">close of administration, 26.</span></li>
+
+<li>Guerra, Amador, revolutionist, IV, 30.</li>
+
+<li>Guerra, Benjamin, treasurer of Junta, IV, 3.</li>
+
+<li>Guerro, Pino, starts insurrection, IV, 267, 269;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commander of Cuban army, 301;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attempt to assassinate him, 303.</span></li>
+
+<li>Guevara, Francisco, III, 265.</li>
+
+<li>Guiteras, Juan, physician and scientist, sketch and portrait, IV, 321.</li>
+
+<li>Guiteras, Pedro J., quoted, I, 269;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">II, 6;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">42;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">207.</span></li>
+
+<li>Guzman, Gonzalez de, mission from Velasquez to King Charles I, I, 85;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">vindicates Velasquez, 108;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governor of Cuba, 110;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">marries rich sister-in-law, 116;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">litigation over estate, 117;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">tremendous indictment by Vadillo, 120;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">appeals to King and Council for Indies, 120;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seeks to oppress natives, 128;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">second time Governor, 137;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">makes more trouble, 148;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">trouble with French privateers, 178.</span></li>
+
+<li>Guzman, Nuñez de, royal treasurer, I, 109;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death and fortune, 115.</span></li>
+
+<li>Guzman, Santos, spokesman of Constitutionalists, IV, 59.</li>
+
+<li class="top5">Hammock, of Cuban origin, I, 10.</li>
+
+<li>Hanebanilla, falls of, view, facing III, 110.</li>
+
+<li>Harponville, Viscount Gustave, quoted, II, 189.</li>
+
+<li>Harvard University, entertains Cuban teachers, IV, 163.</li>
+
+<li>Hatuey, Cuban chief, leader against Spaniards, I, 62;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 63.</span></li>
+
+<li>Havana: founded by Narvaez, I, 69;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">De Soto's home and capital, 144;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rise in importance, 166;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governor's permanent residence, 180;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">inadequate defences, 183;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by Sores, 186;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">protected by Mazariegos, 194;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sea wall proposed by Osorio, 202;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fortified by Menendez, 209;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Key of the New World," 210;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commercial metropolis of West Indies, 216;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first hospital founded, 226;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Francisco church, picture, facing 226;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">building in Carreño's time, 231;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">custom house, 231;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">threatened by Drake, 243;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">preparations for defence, 250;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">officially called "city," 262;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">coat of arms, 202;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">primitive conditions, 264;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first theatrical performance, 264;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">capital of western district, 275;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great fire, 277;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacked by Pit Hein, 280;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by John Chilton, 349;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first dockyard established, II, 8;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacked by British under Admiral<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_374" id="page_374">{374}</a></span></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hosier, 9;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">University founded, 11;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by John Campbell, 14;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">British expedition against in 1762, 46;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">journal of siege, 54;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">American troops engaged, 66;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">surrender, 69;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">terms, 71;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">British occupation, 78;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great changes, 94;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">description, 94;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view from Cabanas, facing, 96;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reoccupied by Spanish, 102;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">hurricane, 115;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">improvements in streets and buildings, 129;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view in Old Havana, facing 130;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">street cleaning, and market, 169;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">slaughter house removed, 194;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">shopping, 242;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">cafés, 243;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tacon's public works, 365;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of old Presidential Palace, facing III, 14;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of the Prado, facing IV, 16;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">besieged in War of Independence, 62;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of bay and harbor, facing, 98;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">old City Wall, picture, 122;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of old and new buildings, facing 134;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">General Ludlow's administration, 146;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Police reorganized, 150;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of University, facing 164;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of the new capitol, facing 204;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of the President's home, facing 268;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of the Academy of Arts and Crafts, facing 288;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">new railroad terminal, 311.</span></li>
+
+<li>Hay, John, epigram on revolutions, IV, 343</li>
+
+<li>Hayti. See <span class="smcap">Hispaniola</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Hein, Pit, Dutch raider, I, 279.</li>
+
+<li>Henderson, John, on Lopez's expedition, III, 64.</li>
+
+<li><i>Herald</i>, New York, on Cuban revolution, III, 89.</li>
+
+<li>Heredia, José Maria. II, 274;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">exiled, 344;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">life and works, III, 318;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 318.</span></li>
+
+<li>Hernani, Domingo, II, 170.</li>
+
+<li>Herrera, historian, on Columbus's first landing, I, 12;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Hatuey, 62;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">description of West Indies, 345.</span></li>
+
+<li>Herrera, Geronimo Bustamente de, I, 194.</li>
+
+<li>Hevea, Aurelio, Secretary of Interior, IV, 320.</li>
+
+<li>Hispaniola, Columbus at, I, 19;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, II, 173;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">186;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect upon Cuba, 189.</span></li>
+
+<li>Hobson, Richmond P., exploit at Santiago, IV, 110.</li>
+
+<li>Holleben, Dr. von, German Ambassador at Washington, intrigues of, IV, 104.</li>
+
+<li>Home Rule, proposed by Spain, IV, 6;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">adopted, 8.</span></li>
+
+<li>Horses introduced into Cuba, I, 63.</li>
+
+<li>Hosier, Admiral, attacks Havana, I, 312;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">II, 9.</span></li>
+
+<li>Hospital, first in Havana, I, 226;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Belen founded, 318;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Paula and San Francisco, 195.</span></li>
+
+<li>"House of Fear," Governor's home, I, 156.</li>
+
+<li>Humboldt, Alexander von, on slavery, II, 206;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on census, 277;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">282;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on slave trade, 288.</span></li>
+
+<li>Hurricanes, II, 115, 176, 310.</li>
+
+<li>Hurtado, Lopez, royal treasurer, I, 116;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">has Chaves removed, 162.</span></li>
+
+<li class="top5">Ibarra, Carlos, defeats Dutch raiders, I, 288.</li>
+
+<li>Incas, I, 7.</li>
+
+<li>Independence, first conceived, II, 268;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">326;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first revolts for, 343;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sentiment fostered by slave trade, 377;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclaimed by Aguero, III, 72;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclaimed by Cespedes at Yara, 155;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proposed by United States to Spain, 217;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">War of Independence, IV, 1;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recognized by Spain, 119. See <span class="smcap">War of Independence</span>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Intellectual life of Cuba, I, 360;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">lack of productiveness in Sixteenth Century, 362;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuban backwardness, II, 235;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first important progress, 273;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great arising and splendid achievements, III, 317.</span></li>
+
+<li>Insurrections. See <span class="smcap">Revolutions</span>, and <span class="smcap">Slavery</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Intervention, Government of: First, established, IV, 132;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">organized, 145;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuban Cabinet, 145;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">saves island from famine, 146;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">works of rehabilitation and reform, 148;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">marriage law, 152;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">concessions forbidden, 153;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">census, 154;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">civil governments of provinces, 179;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">municipal elections ordered, 180;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">electoral law 180;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">final transactions, 246;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Second Government of Intervention, 281;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">C. E. Magoon, Governor, 281;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Consulting Board, 284;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">elections held, 289, 290;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commission for revising laws, 294;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy over church property, 294.</span></li>
+
+<li>Intervention sought by Great Britain and France, III, 128;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">by United States, IV, 106.</span></li>
+
+<li>Iroquois, I, 7.</li>
+
+<li>Irving, Washington, on Columbus's landing place, I, 12.</li>
+
+<li>Isabella, Columbus's landing place, I, 3.</li>
+
+<li>Isabella, Queen, portrait, I, 13.</li>
+
+<li>Isidore of Seville, quoted, I, 4.</li>
+
+<li>Islas de Arena, I, 11.</li>
+
+<li>Isle of Pines, I, 26;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recognized as part of Cuba, 224;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">status under Platt Amendment, IV, 255.</span></li>
+
+<li>Italian settlers in Cuba, I, 169.</li>
+
+<li>Ivonnet, Negro insurgent, IV, 307.</li>
+
+<li class="top5">Jamaica, Columbus at, I, 20.</li>
+
+<li>Japan. See <span class="smcap">Cipango</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Jaruco, founded, II, 131.</li>
+
+<li>Jefferson, Thomas, on Cuban annexation, II, 260;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">III, 132.</span></li>
+
+<li>Jeronimite Order, made guardian of Indians, I, 78;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes their oppressor, 127.</span></li>
+
+<li>Jesuits, controversy over, II, 86;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">expulsion of, 111.</span></li>
+
+<li>Jordan, Thomas, joins Cuban revolution, III, 211.</li>
+
+<li>Jorrin, José Silverio, portrait, facing III, 308.</li>
+
+<li>Jovellar, Joachim, Governor, III, 273;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclaims state of siege, 289;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns, 290.</span></li>
+
+<li>Juana, Columbus's first name for Cuba, I, 13.</li>
+
+<li>Juan Luis Keys, I, 21.</li>
+
+<li>Judiciary, reforms in, II, 110;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Navarro, 142;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Unzaga, 165;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Leonard Wood, IV, 177.</span></li>
+
+<li>Junta, Cuban, in United States, III, 91;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">New York, IV, 2;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">branches elsewhere, 3;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy in enlisting men, 19.</span></li>
+
+<li>Junta de Fomento, II, 178.</li>
+
+<li>Juntas of the Laborers, III, 174.</li>
+
+<li class="top5">Keppel, Gen. See <span class="smcap">Albemarle</span>.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_375" id="page_375">{375}</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Key Indians, I, 125;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">expedition against, 126.</span></li>
+
+<li>"Key of the New World and Bulwark of the Indies," I, 210.</li>
+
+<li>Kindelan, Sebastian de, II, 197, 315.</li>
+
+<li class="top5">Lacoste, Perfecto, Secretary of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, IV, 160.</li>
+
+<li>Land tenure, II, 12;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">absentee landlords, 214.</span></li>
+
+<li>Lanuza, Gonzalez, Secretary of Justice, IV, 146;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 146.</span></li>
+
+<li>Lares, Amador de, I, 93.</li>
+
+<li>La Salle, in Cuba, I, 73.</li>
+
+<li>Las Casas, Bartholomew, Apostle to the Indies, arrival in Cuba, I, 63;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 64;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">denounces Narvaez, 66;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">begins campaign against slavery, 75;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">mission to Spain, 77;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">before Ximenes, 77.</span></li>
+
+<li>Las Casas, Luis de, Governor, II, 175;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 175;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 182.</span></li>
+
+<li>Lasso de la Vega, Juan, Bishop, II, 17.</li>
+
+<li>Lawton, Gen. Henry W., leads advance against Spanish, IV, 112;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Military Governor of Oriente, 139.</span></li>
+
+<li>Lazear, Camp, established, IV, 172.</li>
+
+<li>Lazear, Jesse W., hero and martyr in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172.</li>
+
+<li>Ledesma, Francisco Rodriguez, Governor, I, 310.</li>
+
+<li>Lee, Fitzhugh, Consul General at Havana, IV, 72;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reports on "concentration" policy of Weyler, 86;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">asks for warship to protect Americans at Havana, 97;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Maine</i> sent, 98;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commands troops at Havana, 121.</span></li>
+
+<li>Lee, Robert Edward, declines to join Lopez, III, 39.</li>
+
+<li>Legrand, Pedro, invades Cuba, I, 302.</li>
+
+<li>Leiva, Lopez, Secretary of Government, IV, 297.</li>
+
+<li>Lemus, Jose Morales, III, 333.</li>
+
+<li>Lendian, Evelio Rodriguez, educator, sketch and portrait, IV, 162.</li>
+
+<li>Liberal Party, III, 306;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">triumphant through revolution, IV, 285;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">dissensions, 303;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conspiracy against election, 329.</span></li>
+
+<li>Liberty Loans, Cuban subscriptions to, IV, 352.</li>
+
+<li>Lighthouse service, under Mario G. Menocal, IV, 168.</li>
+
+<li>Linares, Tomas de, first Rector of University of Havana, II, 11.</li>
+
+<li>Lindsay, Forbes, quoted, II, 217.</li>
+
+<li>Linschoten, Jan H. van, historian, quoted, I, 351.</li>
+
+<li>Liquor, intoxicating, prohibited in 1780, II, 150.</li>
+
+<li>Literary periodicals: <i>El Habanero</i>, III, 321;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>El Plantel</i>, 324;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Cuban Review</i>, 325;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Havana Review</i>, 329.</span></li>
+
+<li>Literature, II, 245;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">early works, 252;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">poets, 274;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great development of activity, III, 315 et seq.</span></li>
+
+<li>Little Inagua, I, 4.</li>
+
+<li>Llorente, Pedro, in Constitutional Convention, IV, 188, 190.</li>
+
+<li>Lobera, Juan de, commander of La Fuerza, I, 182;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">desperate defence against Sores, 185.</span></li>
+
+<li>Lolonois, pirate, I, 296.</li>
+
+<li>Long Island. See <span class="smcap">Ferdinandina</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Lopez, Narciso, sketch and portrait, III, 23;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Venezuela, 24;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">joins the Spanish</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">army, 26;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">marries and settles in Cuba, 30;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">against the Carlists in Spain, 31;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">friend of Valdez, 31;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">offices and honors, 33;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">plans Cuban revolution, 36;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">betrayed and fugitive, 37;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">consults Jefferson Davis and Robert E. Lee, 38;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first American expedition, 39;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">members of the party, 40;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">activity in Southern States, 43;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">expedition starts, 45;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclamation to his men, 46;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">lands at Cardenas, 49;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">lack of Cuban support, 54;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reembarks, 56;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">lands at Key West, 58;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrested and tried, 60;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">second expedition organized, 65;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">betrayed, 67;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">third expedition, 70;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">final expedition organized, 91;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">lands in Cuba, 98;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeated and captured, 112;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 114;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">results of his works, 116.</span></li>
+
+<li>Lorenzo, Gen., Governor at Santiago, II, 347.</li>
+
+<li>Lorraine, Sir Lambton, III, 280.</li>
+
+<li>Los Rios, J. B. A. de, I, 310.</li>
+
+<li>Lottery, National, established by José Miguel Gomez, IV, 310.</li>
+
+<li>Louisiana, Franco-Spanish contest over, II, 117;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ulloa sent from Cuba to take possession, 118;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">O'Reilly sent, 123;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Uznaga sent, 126.</span></li>
+
+<li>Louverture, Toussaint, II, 186.</li>
+
+<li>Luaces, Joaquin Lorenzo, sketch and portrait, III, 330.</li>
+
+<li>Ludlow, Gen. William, command and work at Havana, IV, 144.</li>
+
+<li>Lugo, Pedro Benitez de, Governor, I, 331.</li>
+
+<li>Luna y Sarmiento, Alvaro de, Governor, I, 290.</li>
+
+<li>Luz y Caballero, José de la, "Father of the Cuban Revolution," III, 322;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great work for patriotic education, 323;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portrait, frontispiece, Vol III.</span></li>
+
+<li>Luzan, Gabriel de, Governor, I, 236;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy over La Fuerza, 237;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">feud with Quiñones, 241;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">unites with Quiñones to resist Drake, 243;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">energetic action, 246;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">tenure of office prolonged, 250;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">end of term, 260.</span></li>
+
+<li class="top5">Macaca, province of, I, 20.</li>
+
+<li>Maceo, José Antonio, proclaims Provisional Government, IV, 15;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">leader in War of Independence, 41;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commands Division of Oriente, 43;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeats Campos, 46;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">plans great campaign, 53;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">invades Pinar del Rio, 61;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">successful campaign, 73;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 74;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 74.</span></li>
+
+<li>Maceo, José, IV, 41;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">marches through Cuba, 76.</span></li>
+
+<li>Machado, Eduard, treason of, III, 258.</li>
+
+<li>Machete, used in battle, IV, 57.</li>
+
+<li>Madison, James, on status of Cuba, III, 132.</li>
+
+<li>Madriaga, Juan Ignacio, II, 59.</li>
+
+<li>Magoon, Charles E., Provisional Governor, IV, 281;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his administration, 283;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">promotes public works, 286;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">takes census, 287;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">election law, 287;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">retires, 295.</span></li>
+
+<li>Mahy, Nicolas, Governor, II, 315.</li>
+
+<li>Mail service established, II, 107;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">under American occupation, IV, 168.</span></li>
+
+<li>Maine sent to Havana, IV, 98;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">destruction of, 98;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">investigation, 100.</span></li>
+
+<li>Maldonado, Diego, I, 146.</li>
+
+<li>Mandeville, Sir John, I, 20.</li>
+
+<li>Mangon, identified with Mangi, I, 20.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_376" id="page_376">{376}</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Manners and Customs, II, 229 et seq.;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">balls, 239;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">shopping, 242;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of black and white races, 242;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">cafés, 243;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">early society, 248.</span></li>
+
+<li>Monosca, Juan Saenz, Bishop, I, 301.</li>
+
+<li>Manrique, Diego, Governor, II, 109.</li>
+
+<li>Manzaneda y Salines, Severino de, Governor, I, 320.</li>
+
+<li>Manzanillo, Declaration of Independence issued, III, 155.</li>
+
+<li>Maraveo Ponce de Leon, Gomez de, I, 339.</li>
+
+<li>Marco Polo, I, 4, 20.</li>
+
+<li>Marcy, William L., policy toward Cuba, III, 136.</li>
+
+<li>Mar de la Nuestra Señora, I, 18.</li>
+
+<li>Mariguana. See <span class="smcap">Guanahani</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Marin, Sabas, succeeds Campos in command, IV, 63.</li>
+
+<li>Markham, Sir Clements, on Columbus's first landing, I, 12.</li>
+
+<li>Marmol, Donato, III, 173, 184.</li>
+
+<li>Marquez, Pedro Menendez, I, 206.</li>
+
+<li>Marriage law, reformed under American occupation, IV, 152;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy over, 153.</span></li>
+
+<li>Marti, José, portrait, frontispiece, Vol IV;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">leader of War of Independence, IV, 2;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his career, 9;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in New York, 11;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">organizes Junta, 11;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">goes to Cuba, 15;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 16;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his war manifesto, 17;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fulfilment of his ideals, 355.</span></li>
+
+<li>Marti, José, secretary of War, portrait, IV, 360.</li>
+
+<li>Marti, the pirate, II, 357.</li>
+
+<li>Martinez Campos. See Campos.</li>
+
+<li>Martinez, Dionisio de la Vega, Governor, II, 8;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">inscription on La Punta, 14.</span></li>
+
+<li>Martinez, Juan, I, 192.</li>
+
+<li>Martyr, Peter, I, 53.</li>
+
+<li>Maso, Bartolome, revolutionist, IV, 34;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebukes Spotorno, 35;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Cuban Republic, 43;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vice President of Council, 48;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of Republic, 90;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">candidate for Vice President, 242;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seeks Presidency, 243.</span></li>
+
+<li>Mason, James M., U. S. Minister to France, III, 141.</li>
+
+<li>Masse, E. M., describes slave trade, II, 202;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rural life, 216;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Spanish policy toward Cuba, 227;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">social morals, 230.</span></li>
+
+<li>Matanzas, founded, I, 321;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">meaning of name, 321.</span></li>
+
+<li>Maura, Sr., proposes Cuban reforms, IV, 5.</li>
+
+<li>McCullagh, John B., reorganizes Havana Police, IV, 150.</li>
+
+<li>McKinley, William, President of United States, message of 1897 on Cuba, IV, 87;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">declines European mediation, 103;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">message for war, 104.</span></li>
+
+<li>Maza, Enrique, assaults Hugh S. Gibson, IV, 308.</li>
+
+<li>Mazariegos, Diego de, Governor, I, 191;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">a scandalous moralist, 193;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">defences against privateering, 193;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">takes charge of La Fuerza, 195;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy with Governor of Florida, 196;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">replaced by Sandoval, 197.</span></li>
+
+<li>Medina, Fernando de, I, 111.</li>
+
+<li>Mendez-Capote, Fernando, Secretary of Sanitation, portrait, IV, 360.</li>
+
+<li>Mendieta, Carlos, candidate for Vice President, IV, 328;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebels, 338.</span></li>
+
+<li>Mendive, Rafael Maria de, III, 328.</li>
+
+<li>Mendoza, Martin de, I, 204.</li>
+
+<li>Menendez, Pedro de Aviles, I, 199;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commander of Spanish fleet, 200;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">clash with Osorio, 201;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governor of Cuba, 205;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">dealing with increasing enemies, 208;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fortifies Havana, 209;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recalled to Spain, 213;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conflict with Bishop Castillo, 226.</span></li>
+
+<li>Menocal, Aniceto G., portrait, IV, 50.</li>
+
+<li>Menocal, Mario G., Assistant Secretary of War, IV, 49;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chief of Police at Havana, 144, 150;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in charge of Lighthouse Service, 168;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">candidate for President, 290;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">slandered by Liberals, 291;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">elected President, 312;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">biography, 312;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 312;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of birthplace, 313;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cabinet, 320;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">opinion of Cuba's needs, 321;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first message, 322;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conflict with Congress, 323;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">important reforms, 324;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">suppresses rebellion, 327;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">candidate for reelection, 328;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">vigorous action against Gomez's rebellion, 335;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">declines American aid, 337;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">escapes assassination, 339;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reelection confirmed, 341;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">clemency to traitors, 342;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">message on entering Great War, 346;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fulfilment of Marti's ideals, 355;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">estimate of his administration, 356;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">achievements for education, 357;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">health, 357;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">industry and commerce, 358;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">finance, 359;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"from Velasquez to Menocal," 365.</span></li>
+
+<li>Menocal, Señora, leadership of Cuban womanhood in Red Cross and other work, IV, 354;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 352.</span></li>
+
+<li>Mercedes, Maria de las, quoted, II, 174;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on slave insurrection, 368.</span></li>
+
+<li>Merchan, Rafael, III, 174;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">patriotic works, 335.</span></li>
+
+<li>Merlin, Countess de. See <span class="smcap">Mercedes</span>.</li>
+
+<li><i>Merrimac</i>, sunk at Santiago, IV, 111.</li>
+
+<li>Mesa, Hernando de, first Bishop, I, 122.</li>
+
+<li>Mestre, José Manuel, sketch and portrait, III, 326.</li>
+
+<li>Meza, Sr., Secretary of Public Instruction and Arts, IV, 297.</li>
+
+<li>Mexico, discovered and explored from Cuba, I, 87;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">designs upon Cuba, II, 262;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuban expedition against, 346;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">warned off by United States, III, 134;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fall of Maximilian, 150.</span></li>
+
+<li>Milanes, José Jacinto, sketch, portrait and works, III, 324.</li>
+
+<li>Miles, Gen. Nelson A., prepares for invasion of Cuba, IV, 111.</li>
+
+<li>Miranda, Francisco, II, 156;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Bolivar, 335.</span></li>
+
+<li>Miscegenation, II, 204.</li>
+
+<li>Molina, Francisco, I, 290.</li>
+
+<li>Monastic orders, I, 276.</li>
+
+<li>Monroe Doctrine, foreshadowed, II, 256;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">promulgated, 328.</span></li>
+
+<li>Monroe, James, interest in Cuba, II, 257;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">promulgates Doctrine, 328;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 329.</span></li>
+
+<li>Monserrate Gate, Havana, picture, II, 241.</li>
+
+<li>Montalvo, Gabriel, Governor, I, 215;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">feud with Rojas family, 218;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">investigated and retired, 219;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">pleads for naval protection for Cuba, 220.</span></li>
+
+<li>Montalvo, Lorenzo, II, 89.</li>
+
+<li>Montalvo, Rafael, Secretary of Public Works, urges resistance to revolutionists, IV, 270.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_387" id="page_387">{387}</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Montanes, Pedro Garcia, I, 292.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_377" id="page_377">{377}</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Montano See <span class="smcap">Velasquez</span>, J. M.</li>
+
+<li>Montes, Garcia, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 254.</li>
+
+<li>Montesino, Antonio, I, 78.</li>
+
+<li>Montiel, Vasquez de, naval commander, I, 278.</li>
+
+<li>Montoro, Rafael, Representative in Cortes, III, 308;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">spokesman of Autonomists, IV, 59;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Autonomist Cabinet, 95;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">candidate for Vice President, 290;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacked by Liberals, 291;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">biography, 317;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 320.</span></li>
+
+<li>Morales case, IV, 92.</li>
+
+<li>Morales. Pedro de, commands at Santiago, I, 299.</li>
+
+<li>Morals, strangely mixed with piety and vice, II, 229.</li>
+
+<li>Morell, Pedro Augustino, Bishop, II, 53;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy with Albemarle, 83;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">exiled, 87;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 113.</span></li>
+
+<li>Moreno, Andres, Secretary of Foreign Affairs, IV, 90.</li>
+
+<li>Moret law, abolishing slavery, III, 243.</li>
+
+<li>Morgan, Henry, plans raid on Havana, I, 297;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">later career, 303.</span></li>
+
+<li>Morro Castle, Havana, picture, facing I, 180;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">site of battery, 180;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">tower built by Mazariegos, 196;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fortified against Drake, 249;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">planned by Antonelli, 261;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">besieged by British, II, 55.</span></li>
+
+<li>Morro Castle, Santiago, built, I, 289;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">picture, facing 298.</span></li>
+
+<li>Mucaras, I, 11.</li>
+
+<li>Muenster, geographer, I, 6.</li>
+
+<li>Mugeres Islands, I, 84.</li>
+
+<li>Munive, Andres de, I, 317.</li>
+
+<li>Murgina y Mena, A. M., I, 317.</li>
+
+<li>Music, early concerts at Havana, II, 239.</li>
+
+<li class="top5">Nabia, Juan Alfonso de, I, 207.</li>
+
+<li>Nancy Globe, I. 6.</li>
+
+<li>Napoleon's designs upon Cuba, II, 203.</li>
+
+<li>Naranjo, probable landing place of Columbus, I, 12.</li>
+
+<li>Narvaez, Panfilo de, portrait, I, 63;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrival in Cuba, 63;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">campaign against natives, 65;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">explores the island, 67;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">errand to Spain, 77;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sent to Mexico to oppose Cortez, 98;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">secures appointment of Councillors for life, 111.</span></li>
+
+<li>Naval stations, U. S., in Cuba, IV, 255.</li>
+
+<li>Navarrete, quoted, I, 3, 12.</li>
+
+<li>Navarro, Diego Jose, Governor, II, 141, 150.</li>
+
+<li>Navy, Spanish, in Cuban waters, III, 182, 225.</li>
+
+<li>Negroes, imported as slaves, I, 170;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of, 171;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">slaves and free, increasing numbers of, 229. See <span class="smcap">Slavery</span>.</span></li>
+
+<li>New Orleans, anti-Spanish outbreak, III, 126.</li>
+
+<li>New Spain. See <span class="smcap">Mexico</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Newspapers: <i>Gazeta</i>, 1780, II, 157;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Papel Periodico</i>, 179;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">246;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">publications in Paris, Madrid and New York, 354;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">El Faro Industrial, III, 18;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Diario de la Marina, 18;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">La Verdad, 18;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">La Vos de Cuba, 260;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">La Vos del Siglo, 232;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">La Revolucion, 333;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">El Siglo, 334;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">El Laborante, 335.</span></li>
+
+<li>Norsemen, American colonists, I, 7.</li>
+
+<li>Nougaret, Jean Baptiste, quoted, II, 26.</li>
+
+<li>Nuñez, Emilio, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in war, 57;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Civil Governor of Havana, 179;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">head of Veterans' Association, 305;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Secretary of Agriculture, 320;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">candidate for Vice President, 328;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">election confirmed, 341.</span></li>
+
+<li>Nuñez, Enrique, Secretary of Health and Charities, IV, 320.</li>
+
+<li class="top5">Ocampo, Sebastian de, circumnavigates Cuba, I, 54.</li>
+
+<li>O'Donnell, George Leopold, Governor, II, 365;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his wife's sordid intrigues, 365.</span></li>
+
+<li>Oglethorpe, Governor of Georgia, hostile to Spain, II, 24, 30.</li>
+
+<li>O'Hara, Theodore, with Lopez, III, 46.</li>
+
+<li>Ojeda, Alonzo de, I, 54;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">introduces Christianity to Cuba, 55.</span></li>
+
+<li>Olid, Christopher de, sent to Mexico, I, 88.</li>
+
+<li>Olney, Richard. U. S. Secretary of State, attitude toward War of Independence, IV, 71.</li>
+
+<li>Oquendo, Antonio de, I, 281.</li>
+
+<li>Orejon y Gaston, Francisco Davila de, Governor, I, 301, 310.</li>
+
+<li>O'Reilly, Alexandre, sent to occupy Louisiana, II, 123;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">ruthless rule, 125.</span></li>
+
+<li>Orellano, Diego de, I, 86.</li>
+
+<li>Ornofay, province of, I, 20.</li>
+
+<li>Ortiz, Bartholomew, alcalde mayor, I, 146;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">retires, 151.</span></li>
+
+<li>Osorio, Garcia de Sandoval, Governor, I, 197;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conflict with Menendez, 199, 201;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">retired, 205;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">tried, 206.</span></li>
+
+<li>Osorio, Sancho Pardo, I, 207.</li>
+
+<li>Ostend Manifesto, III, 142.</li>
+
+<li>Ovando, Alfonso de Caceres, I, 214;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">revises law system, 233.</span></li>
+
+<li>Ovando, Nicolas de, I, 54.</li>
+
+<li class="top5">Palma, Tomas Estrada, head of Cuban Junta in New York, IV, 3;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Provisional President of Cuban Republic, 15;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Delegate at Large, 43;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rejects anything short of independence, 71;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">candidate for Presidency, 241;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his career, 241;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">elected President, 245;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrival in Cuba, 247;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 248;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">receives transfer of government from General Wood, 248;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cabinet, 254;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first message, 254;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">prosperous administration, 259;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">non-partisan at first, 264;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">forced toward Conservative party, 264;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reelected, 266;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">refuses to believe insurrection impending, 266;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">refuses to submit to blackmail, 268;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">betrayed by Congress, 269;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">acts too late, 270;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seeks American aid, 271;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">interview with W. H. Taft, 276;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns Presidency, 280;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">estimate of character and work, 282;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 284.</span></li>
+
+<li>Palma y Romay, Ramon, III, 327.</li>
+
+<li>Parra, Antonio, scientist, II, 252.</li>
+
+<li>Parra, Maso, revolutionist, IV, 30.</li>
+
+<li>Parties, political, in Cuba, IV, 59;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">origin and characteristics of Conservative and Liberal, 181, 261.</span></li>
+
+<li>Pasalodos, Damaso, Secretary to President, IV, 297</li>
+
+<li>Pasamonte, Miguel, intrigues against Columbus, I, 58.</li>
+
+<li>Paz, Doña de, marries Juan de Avila, I, 154.</li>
+
+<li>Paz, Pedro de, I, 109.</li>
+
+<li>Penalosa, Diego de, Governor, II, 31.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_378" id="page_378">{378}</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Penalver. See <span class="smcap">Penalosa</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Penalver, Luis, Bishop of New Orleans, II, 179.</li>
+
+<li>"Peninsulars," III, 152.</li>
+
+<li>Pensacola, settlement of, I, 328;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seized by French, 342;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recovered by Spanish, II, 7;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">defended by Galvez, 146.</span></li>
+
+<li>Pereda, Gaspar Luis, Governor, I, 276.</li>
+
+<li>Perez, Diego, repels privateers, I, 179.</li>
+
+<li>Perez, Perico, revolutionist, IV, 15, 30, 78.</li>
+
+<li>Perez de Zambrana, Luisa, sketch and portrait, III, 328.</li>
+
+<li>Personal liberty restricted, III, 8.</li>
+
+<li>Peru, good wishes for Cuban revolution, III, 223.</li>
+
+<li>Philip II, King, appreciation of Cuba, I, 260.</li>
+
+<li>Pieltain, Candido, Governor, III, 275.</li>
+
+<li>Pierce, Franklin, President of United States, policy toward Cuba, III, 136.</li>
+
+<li>Pina, Severo, Secretary of Finance, IV, 48.</li>
+
+<li>Pinar del Rio, city founded, II, 131;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maceo invades province, IV, 61;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">war in, 73.</span></li>
+
+<li>Pineyro, Enrique, III, 333;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketch and portrait, 334.</span></li>
+
+<li>Pinto, Ramon, sketch and portrait, III, 62.</li>
+
+<li>"Pirates of America," I, 296.</li>
+
+<li>Pizarro, Francisco de, I, 54, 91.</li>
+
+<li>Platt, Orville H., Senator, on relations of United States and Cuba, IV, 198;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amendment to Cuban Constitution, 199;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Amendment adopted, 203;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">text of Amendment, 238.</span></li>
+
+<li>Pococke, Sir George, expedition against Havana, II, 46.</li>
+
+<li>Poey, Felipe, sketch and portrait, III, 315.</li>
+
+<li>Point Lucrecia, I, 18.</li>
+
+<li>Polavieja, Gen., Governor, III, 314.</li>
+
+<li>Police, reorganized, II, 312;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">under American occupation, IV, 150;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">police courts established, 171.</span></li>
+
+<li>Polk, James K., President of the United States, policy toward Cuba, III, 135.</li>
+
+<li>Polo y Bernabe, Spanish Minister at Washington, IV, 98.</li>
+
+<li>Ponce de Leon, in Cuba, I, 73;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 139.</span></li>
+
+<li>Ponce de Leon, of New York, in Cuban Junta, IV, 13.</li>
+
+<li>Pope, efforts to maintain peace, between United States and Spain, IV, 104.</li>
+
+<li>Porro, Cornelio, treason of, III, 257.</li>
+
+<li>Port Banes, I, 18.</li>
+
+<li>Port Nipe, I, 18.</li>
+
+<li>Port Nuevitas, I, 3.</li>
+
+<li>Portuguese settlers, I, 168.</li>
+
+<li>Portuondo, Rafael, Secretary for Foreign Affairs, IV, 48;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">filibuster, 70.</span></li>
+
+<li>Prado y Portocasso, Juan, Governor, II, 49;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">neglect of duty, 52;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sentenced to degradation, 108.</span></li>
+
+<li>Praga, Francisco de, I, 282.</li>
+
+<li>Presidency, first candidates for, IV, 240;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tomas Estrada Palma elected, 245;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">José Miguel Gomez aspires to, 260;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">candidates in 1906, 265;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Palma's resignation, 280;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jose Miguel Gomez elected, 290;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fourth campaign, 312;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mario G. Menocal elected, 312;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fifth campaign, 328;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">General Menocal reelected, 341.</span></li>
+
+<li>Prim, Gen., Spanish revolutionist, III, 145.</li>
+
+<li>Printing, first press in Cuba, II, 245.</li>
+
+<li>Privateers, French ravage Cuba, I, 177;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Havana and Santiago attacked, 178;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Havana looted, 179;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jacques Sores, 183;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Havana captured, 186;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Santiago looted, 193;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">French raids, 220, et seq.</span></li>
+
+<li>Proctor, Redfield, Senator, investigates and reports on condition of Cuba in War of Independence, IV, 87.</li>
+
+<li>Procurators, appointment of, I, 112.</li>
+
+<li>Protectorate, tripartite, refused by United States, II, 261;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">III, 130, 133.</span></li>
+
+<li>Provincial governments organized, IV, 179, confusion in, 292.</li>
+
+<li>Public Works, promoted by General Wood, IV, 166;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">by Magoon, 286.</span></li>
+
+<li>Puerto Grande. See <span class="smcap">Guantanamo</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Puerto Principe, I, 18, 167.</li>
+
+<li>Punta, La, first fortification, I, 203;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">strengthened against Drake, 249;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fortress planned by Antonelli, 261;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">picture, IV, 33.</span></li>
+
+<li>Punta Lucrecia, I, 3.</li>
+
+<li>Punta Serafina, I, 22.</li>
+
+<li class="top5">Queen's Gardens, I, 20.</li>
+
+<li>Quero, Geronimo, I, 277.</li>
+
+<li>Quesada, Gonzalo de, Secretary of Cuban Junta, IV, 3;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Minister to United States, 275.</span></li>
+
+<li>Quesada, Manuel, sketch and portrait, III, 167;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclamation, 169;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 262.</span></li>
+
+<li>Quezo, Juan de, I, 113.</li>
+
+<li>Quilez, J. M., Civil Governor of Pinar del Rio, IV, 179.</li>
+
+<li>Quiñones, Diego Hernandez de, commander of fortifications at Havana, I, 240;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">feud with Luzan, 241;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">unites with Luzan to resist Drake, 243.</span></li>
+
+<li>Quiñones, Doña Leonora de, I, 117.</li>
+
+<li class="top5">Rabi, Jesus, revolutionist, IV, 34, 42.</li>
+
+<li>Railroads, first in Cuba, II, 343.</li>
+
+<li>Raja, Vicente, Governor, I, 337.</li>
+
+<li>Ramirez, Alejandro, sketch and portrait, II, 311.</li>
+
+<li>Ramirez, Miguel, Bishop, partisan of Guzman, I, 120;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">political activities and greed, 124.</span></li>
+
+<li>Ramos, Gregorio, I, 274.</li>
+
+<li>Ranzel, Diego, I, 295.</li>
+
+<li>Recio, R. Lopez, Civil Governor of Camaguey, IV, 180.</li>
+
+<li>Recio, Serafin, III, 86.</li>
+
+<li>Reciprocity, secured by Roosevelt for Cuba, IV, 256.</li>
+
+<li>"Reconcentrados," mortality among, IV, 86.</li>
+
+<li>Red Cross, Cuban activities, IV, 353.</li>
+
+<li>Redroban, Pedro de, I, 201.</li>
+
+<li>Reed, Walter, in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172.</li>
+
+<li>Reformists, Spanish, support Blanco's Autonomist policy, IV, 97.</li>
+
+<li>Reggio, Andreas, II, 32.</li>
+
+<li>Reno, George, in War of Independence, IV, 12;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">running blockade, 21;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 21;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">services in Great War, 351.</span></li>
+
+<li>Renteria, Pedro de, partner of Las Casas, I, 75;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposes slavery, 76.</span></li>
+
+<li>Repartimiento, I, 70.</li>
+
+<li>Republic of Cuba: proclaimed and organized, III, 157;<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_379" id="page_379">{379}</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first representative Assembly, 161;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constitution of 1868, 164;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first House of Representatives, 176;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Judiciary, 177;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">legislation, 177;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">army, 178;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fails to secure recognition, 203;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Government reorganized, 275;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">after Treaty of Zanjon, 301;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reorganized in War of Independence, IV, 15;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maso chosen President, 43;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Conventions of Yara and Najasa, 47;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constitution adopted, 47;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Government reorganized, Cisneros President, 48;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">capital at Las Tunas, 56;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">removes to Cubitas, 72;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">exercises functions of government, 72;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reorganized in 1897, 90;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">after Spanish evacuation of island, 134;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">disbanded, 135;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constitutional Convention called, 185;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constitution completed, 192;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with United States, 195;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Platt Amendment, 203;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">enters Great War, 346.</span></li>
+
+<li>Revolutions: Rise of spirit, II, 268;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in South America, 333;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Soles de Bolivar," 341;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attempts to revolt, 344;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Black Eagle," 346;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">plans of Lopez, III, 36;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lopez's first invasion, 49;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aguero's insurrection, 72;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments of New York <i>Herald</i>, 89;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lopez's last expedition, 91;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">results of his work, 116;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">European interest, 125;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">beginning of Ten Years' War. 155;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">end of Ten Years' War, 299;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">insurrection renewed, 308, 318;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">War of Independence, IV, 1;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sartorius Brothers, 4;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">end of War of Independence, 116;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolt against President Palma, 266;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">ultimatum, 278;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">government overthrown, 280;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Negro insurrection, 307;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conspiracy against President Menocal, 327;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great treason of José Miguel Gomez, 332;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gomez captured, 337;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">warnings from United States Government, 338;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutions denounced by United States, 343.</span></li>
+
+<li>Revolutionary party, Cuban, IV, 1, 11.</li>
+
+<li>Rey, Juan F. G., III, 40.</li>
+
+<li>Riano y Gamboa, Francisco, Governor, I, 287.</li>
+
+<li>Ribera, Diego de, I, 206;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">work on La Fuerza, 209.</span></li>
+
+<li>Ricafort, Mariano, Governor, II, 347.</li>
+
+<li>Ricla, Conde de, Governor, II, 102;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">retires, 109.</span></li>
+
+<li>Rio de la Luna, I, 16.</li>
+
+<li>Rio de Mares, I, 16.</li>
+
+<li>Riva-Martiz, I, 279.</li>
+
+<li>Rivera, Juan Ruiz, filibuster, IV, 70;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">succeeds Maceo, 79.</span></li>
+
+<li>Rivera, Ruiz, Secretary of Agriculture, Commerce and Industry, IV, 160.</li>
+
+<li>Roa, feud with Villalobos, I, 323.</li>
+
+<li>Rodas, Caballero de, Governor, III, 213;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">emancipation decree, 242.</span></li>
+
+<li>Rodney, Sir George, expedition to West Indies, II, 153.</li>
+
+<li>Rodriguez, Alejandro, suppresses revolt, IV, 266.</li>
+
+<li>Rodriguez, Laureano, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95.</li>
+
+<li>Rojas, Alfonso de, I, 181.</li>
+
+<li>Rojas, Gomez de, banished, I, 193;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Governor of La Fuerza, 217;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebuilds Santiago, 258.</span></li>
+
+<li>Rojas, Hernando de, expedition to Florida, I, 196.</li>
+
+<li>Rojas, Juan Bautista de, royal treasurer, I, 218.</li>
+
+<li>Rojas, Juan de, aid to Lady Isabel de Soto, I, 145;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">commander at Havana, 183.</span></li>
+
+<li>Rojas, Manuel de, Governor, I, 105;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">adopts policy of "Cuba for the Cubans," 106;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">second Governorship, 121;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">dealings with Indians, 126;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">noble endeavors frustrated, 130;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns, 135;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">the King's unique tribute to him, 135.</span></li>
+
+<li>Roldan, Francisco Dominguez, Secretary of Public Instruction, sketch and portrait, IV, 357.</li>
+
+<li>Roldan, José Gonzalo, III, 328.</li>
+
+<li>Roloff, Carlos, revolutionist, IV, 45;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Secretary of War, 48;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">filibuster, 70.</span></li>
+
+<li>Romano Key, I, 18.</li>
+
+<li>Romay, Tomas, introduces vaccination, II, 192;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 192.</span></li>
+
+<li>Roncali, Federico, Governor, II, 366;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Spanish interests in Cuba, 381.</span></li>
+
+<li>Roosevelt, Theodore, at San Juan Hill, IV, 113;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 113;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President of United States, on relations with Cuba, 245;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">estimate of General Wood's work in Cuba, 251;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fight with Congress for Cuban reciprocity, 256;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seeks to aid President Palma against revolutionists, 275;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">letter to Quesada, 275.</span></li>
+
+<li>Root, Elihu, Secretary of War, on Cuban Constitution, IV, 194;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Cuban relations with United States, 197;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">explains Platt Amendment, 201.</span></li>
+
+<li>Rowan, A. S., messenger to Oriente, IV. 107.</li>
+
+<li>Rubalcava, Manuel Justo, II, 274.</li>
+
+<li>Rubens, Horatio, Counsel of Cuban Junta, IV, 3.</li>
+
+<li>Rubios, Palacios, I, 78.</li>
+
+<li>Ruiz, Joaquin, spy, IV, 91;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 92. See <span class="smcap">Aranguren</span>.</span></li>
+
+<li>Ruiz, Juan Fernandez, filibuster, IV, 70.</li>
+
+<li>Rum Cay. See <span class="smcap">Conception</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Rural Guards, organized by General Wood, IV, 144;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">efficiency of, 301.</span></li>
+
+<li>Ruysch, geographer, I, 6.</li>
+
+<li class="top5">Saavedra, Juan Esquiro, I, 278.</li>
+
+<li>Sabinal Key, I, 18.</li>
+
+<li>Saco, José Antonio, pioneer of Independence, II, 378;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 378;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">literary and patriotic work, III, 325, 327.</span></li>
+
+<li>Sagasta, Praxedes, Spanish Premier, proposes Cuban reforms, IV, 6;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns, 36.</span></li>
+
+<li>Saint Augustine, expedition against, I, 332.</li>
+
+<li>Saint Mery, M. de, search for tomb of Columbus, I, 34.</li>
+
+<li>Salamanca, Juan de, Governor, I, 295;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">promotes industries, 300.</span></li>
+
+<li>Salamanca y Negrete, Manuel, Governor, III, 314.</li>
+
+<li>Salaries, some early, I, 263.</li>
+
+<li>Salas, Indalacio, IV, 21.</li>
+
+<li>Salazar. See <span class="smcap">Someruelos</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Salcedo, Bishop, controversy with Governor Tejada, I, 262.</li>
+
+<li>Sama Point, I, 4.</li>
+
+<li>Samana. See <span class="smcap">Guanahani</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Sampson, William T., Admiral, in Spanish-American War, IV, 110;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Santiago, 114;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 115.</span></li>
+
+<li>Sanchez, Bartolome, makes plans for La<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_380" id="page_380">{380}</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fuerza, I, 194;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">begins building, 195;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">feud with Mazariegos, 197.</span></li>
+
+<li>Sanchez, Bernabe, II, 345.</li>
+
+<li>Sancti Spiritus, founded by Velasquez, I, 68, 168.</li>
+
+<li>Sandoval, Garcia Osorio, Governor, I, 197. See <span class="smcap">Osario</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Sanitation, undertaken by Guemez, II, 18;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">vaccination introduced by Dr. Romay. 192;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">bad conditions, III, 313;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">General Wood at Santiago, IV, 142;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">achievements under President Menocal, 357.</span></li>
+
+<li>Sanguilly, Julio, falls in leading revolution, IV, 29, 55.</li>
+
+<li>Sanguilly, Manuel, in Constitutional Convention, IV, 190.</li>
+
+<li>San Lazaro watchtower, picture, I, 155;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fortified against Drake, 248.</span></li>
+
+<li>San Salvador. See <span class="smcap">Guanahani</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Santa Clara, Conde de, Governor, II, 194, 300.</li>
+
+<li>Santa Crux del Sur, I, 20.</li>
+
+<li>Santa Cruz, Francisco, I, 111.</li>
+
+<li>Santiago de Cuba, Columbus at, I, 19;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">founded by Velasquez, 68;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">second capital of island, 69;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seat of gold refining, 80;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">site of cathedral, 123;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">condition in Angulo's time, 166;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">looted by privateers, 193;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fortified by Menendez, 203;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">raided and destroyed by French, 256;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebuilt by Gomez de Rojas, 258;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">capital of Eastern District, 275;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Morro Castle built, 289;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by British, 299;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacked by Franquinay, 310;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacked by Admiral Vernon, II, 29;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">literary activities, 169;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great improvements made, 180;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">battles near in War of Independence, IV, 112;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">naval battle, 114;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">General Wood's administration, 135;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great work for sanitation, 142.</span></li>
+
+<li>Santiago, battle of, IV, 114.</li>
+
+<li>Santiago, sunset scene, facing III, 280.</li>
+
+<li>Santillan, Diego, Governor, I, 205.</li>
+
+<li>Santo Domingo See <span class="smcap">Hispaniola</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Sanudo, Luis, Governor, I, 336.</li>
+
+<li>Sarmiento. Diego de, Bishop, makes trouble, I, 149, 152.</li>
+
+<li>Saunders, Romulus M., sounds Spain on purchase of Cuba, III, 135.</li>
+
+<li>Sartorius, Manuel and Ricardo, revolutionists, IV, 4.</li>
+
+<li>Savine, Albert, on British designs on Cuba, II, 40.</li>
+
+<li>Schley, Winfield S., Admiral, in Spanish-American War, IV, 110;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 110;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Santiago, 114.</span></li>
+
+<li>Schoener's globe, I, 5.</li>
+
+<li>Schools, backward condition of, II, 174, 244, 312. See <span class="smcap">Education</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Shafter, W. R., General, leads American army into Cuba, IV, 111.</li>
+
+<li>Shipbuilding at Havana, II, 8, 33, 113, 300.</li>
+
+<li>Sickles, Daniel E., Minister to Spain, offers mediation, III, 217.</li>
+
+<li>Silva, Manuel, Secretary of Interior, IV, 90.</li>
+
+<li>Slave Insurrection, II, 13;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">III, 367, et seq.</span></li>
+
+<li>Slavery, begun in Repartimiento system, I, 70;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">not sanctioned by King, 82;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">slave trading begun, 83;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth and regulation, 170;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">oppressive policy of Spain, 266;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">the "Assiento," II, 2;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great growth</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">of trade, 22;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">gross abuses, 202;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">described by Masse, 202;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">census of slaves, 204;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rise of emancipation movement, 206;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rights of slaves defined by King, 210;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">African trade forbidden, 285;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Negro census, 286;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">early records of trade, 288;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Humboldt on, 288;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">statistics of trade, 289 et seq.;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">domestic relations of slaves, 292;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">dangers of system denounced, 320;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">official complicity in illegal trade, 366;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">slave insurrection, 367;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">inhuman suppression by government, 374 et seq.;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">emancipation by revolution of 1868, 159;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States urges Spain to abolish slavery, 242;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rodas's decrees, 242;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Moret law, 243.</span></li>
+
+<li>Smith, Caleb. publishes book on West Indies, II, 37.</li>
+
+<li>Smuggling, II, 133.</li>
+
+<li>"Sociedad de Amigos," II, 169.</li>
+
+<li>"Sociedad Patriotica," II, 166.</li>
+
+<li>"Sociedad Patriotica y Economica," II, 178.</li>
+
+<li>Society of Progress, II, 78.</li>
+
+<li>Solano, José de, naval commander, II, 147.</li>
+
+<li>"Soles de Bolivar," II, 341;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attempts to suppress, 343.</span></li>
+
+<li>Solorzano, Juan del Hoya, I, 337;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">II, 10.</span></li>
+
+<li>Someruelos, Marquis of, Governor, II, 196, 301.</li>
+
+<li>Sores, Jacques, French raider, II, 183;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacks Havana, 184;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">captures city, 186.</span></li>
+
+<li>Soto, Antonio de, I, 292.</li>
+
+<li>Soto, Diego de, I, 109, 217.</li>
+
+<li>Soto, Hernando de, Governor and Adelantado, I, 140;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 140;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrival in Cuba, 141;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">tour of island, 142;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">makes Havana his home, 144;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">chiefly interested in Florida, 144;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sails for Florida, 145;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his fate in Mississippi, 147;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">trouble with Indians, 148.</span></li>
+
+<li>Soto, Lady Isabel de, I, 141;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">her vigil at La Fuerza, 147;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 149.</span></li>
+
+<li>Soto, Luis de, I, 141.</li>
+
+<li>Soulé, Pierre, Minister to Spain, III, 137;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indiscretions, 138;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ostend Manifesto, 142.</span></li>
+
+<li>South Sea Company, II, 21, 201.</li>
+
+<li>Spain: Fiscal policy toward Cuba, I, 175;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">wars with France, 177;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">discriminations against Cuba, 266, 267;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">protests against South Sea Company, II, 22;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">course in American Revolution, 143;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">war with Great Britain, 151;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward America, 159;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">peace with Great Britain, 162;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">restrictive laws, 224;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy under Godoy, 265;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">decline of power, 273;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seeks to pawn Cuba to Great Britain for loan, 330;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">protests to United States against Lopez's expedition, III, 59;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seeks British protection, 129;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">refuses to sell Cuba, 135;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution against Bourbon dynasty, 145 et seq.;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rejects suggestion of American mediation in Cuba, 219;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seeks American mediation, 293;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">strives to placate Cuba, IV, 5;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">crisis over Cuban affairs, 35;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward War of Independence, 40;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">considers Autonomy, 71;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cabinet crisis of 1897, 88;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">proposes joint investigation of Maine disaster, 100;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">at war with United States, 106;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">makes Treaty of Paris, relinquishing Cuba, 118.<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_381" id="page_381">{381}</a></span></span></li>
+
+<li>Spanish-American War: causes of, IV, 105;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">declared, 106;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">blockade of Cuban coast, 110;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">landing of American army in Cuba, 111;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fighting near Santiago, 112;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fort at El Caney, picture, 112;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Juan Hill, battle, 113;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">San Juan Hill, picture of monument, 114;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">naval battle of Santiago, 115;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">peace negotiations, 116;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Peace Tree," picture, 116;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">treaty of peace, 118.</span></li>
+
+<li>Spanish literature in XVI century, I, 360.</li>
+
+<li>Spotorno, Juan Bautista, seeks peace, rebuked by Maso, IV, 35.</li>
+
+<li>Steinhart, Frank, American consul, advises President Palma to ask for American aid, IV, 271;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">correspondence with State Department, 272.</span></li>
+
+<li>Stock raising, early attention to, I, 173, 224;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">development of, 220.</span></li>
+
+<li>Stokes, W. E. D., aids War of Independence, IV, 14.</li>
+
+<li>Students, murder of by Volunteers, III, 260.</li>
+
+<li>Suarez y Romero, Anselmo, III, 326.</li>
+
+<li>Sugar, Industry begun under Velasquez, I, 175, 224;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth of industry, 265;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">primitive methods, II, 222;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth, III, 3;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great development under President Menocal, IV, 358.</span></li>
+
+<li>"Suma de Geografia," of Enciso, I, 54.</li>
+
+<li>Sumana, Diego de, I, 111.</li>
+
+<li class="top5">Tacon, Miguel, Governor, II, 347;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">despotic fury, 348;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conflict with Lorenzo, 349;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">public works, 355;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fish market, 357;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">melodramatic administration of justice, 359.</span></li>
+
+<li>Taft, William H., Secretary of War of United States, intervenes in revolution, IV, 272;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrives at Havana, 275;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">negotiates with President Palma and the revolutionists, 276;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 276;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conveys ultimatum of revolutionists to President Palma, 279;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">accepts President Palma's resignation, 280;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">pardons revolutionists, 280;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">unfortunate policy, 283.</span></li>
+
+<li>Tainan, Antillan stock, I, 8.</li>
+
+<li>Tamayo, Diego, Secretary of State, IV, 159;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Secretary of Government, 254.</span></li>
+
+<li>Tamayo, Rodrigo de, I, 126.</li>
+
+<li>Tariff, after British occupation, II, 106;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reduction, 141;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">oppressive duties. III, 5;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">under American occupation, IV, 183.</span></li>
+
+<li>Taxation, revolt against, II, 197;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"reforms," 342;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">oppressive burdens, III, 6;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">increase in Ten Years' War, 207;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">evasion of, 312;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">under American intervention, IV, 151.</span></li>
+
+<li>Taylor, Hannis, American Minister at Madrid, IV, 33.</li>
+
+<li>Tejada, Juan de, Governor, I, 261;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great works for Cuba, 262;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns, 263.</span></li>
+
+<li>Teneza, Dr. Francisco, Protomedico, I, 336.</li>
+
+<li>Ten Years' War, III, 155 et seq.;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first battles, 184;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">aid from United States, 211;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">offers of American mediation, 217;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rejected, 219;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">campaigns of destruction, 222;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">losses reported, 290;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">end in Treaty of Zanjon, 299;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">losses, 304.</span></li>
+
+<li>Terry, Emilio, Secretary of Agriculture, IV, 254.</li>
+
+<li>Theatres, first performance in Cuba, I, 264;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first theatre built, II, 130, 236.</span></li>
+
+<li>Thrasher, J. S., on census, II, 283.</li>
+
+<li>Tines y Fuertes, Juan Antonio, Governor, II, 31.</li>
+
+<li>Tobacco, early use, I, 9;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">culture promoted, 300;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">monopoly, 334;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Tobacco War," 338;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">effects of monopoly, II, 221.</span></li>
+
+<li>Tobar, Nuñez, I, 141, 143.</li>
+
+<li>Tolon, Miguel de, III, 330.</li>
+
+<li>Toltecs, I, 7.</li>
+
+<li>Tomayo, Esteban, revolutionist, IV, 34.</li>
+
+<li>Torquemada, Garcia de, I, 239;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">investigates Luzan, 241.</span></li>
+
+<li>Torre, Marquis de la, Governor, II, 127;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">work for Havana, 129;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 133.</span></li>
+
+<li>Torres Ayala, Laureano de, Governor, I, 334;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reappointed, 337.</span></li>
+
+<li>Torres, Gaspar de, Governor, I, 234;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conflict with Rojas family, 235;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">absconds, 235.</span></li>
+
+<li>Torres, Rodrigo de, naval commander, II, 34.</li>
+
+<li>Torriente, Cosimo de la, Secretary of Government, IV, 320.</li>
+
+<li>Toscanelli, I, 4.</li>
+
+<li>Treaty of Paris, IV, 118.</li>
+
+<li>Tres Palacios, Felipe Jose de, Bishop, II, 174.</li>
+
+<li>Tribune, New York, describes revolutionary leaders, III, 173.</li>
+
+<li>Trinidad, founded by Velasquez, I, 68, 168;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">great fire, II, 177.</span></li>
+
+<li>Trocha, begun by Campos, IV, 44;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Weyler's, 73.</span></li>
+
+<li>Troncoso, Bernardo, Governor, II, 168.</li>
+
+<li>Turnbull, David, British consul, II, 364;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">complicity in slave insurrection, 372.</span></li>
+
+<li class="top5">Ubite, Juan de, Bishop, I, 123.</li>
+
+<li>Ulloa, Antonio de, sent to take possession of Louisiana, II, 118;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">arbitrary conduct, 120.</span></li>
+
+<li>Union Constitutionalists, III, 306.</li>
+
+<li>United States, early relations with Cuba, II, 254;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">first suggestion of annexation, 257;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">John Quincy Adams's policy, 258;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jefferson's policy, 260;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Clay's policy, 261;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">representations to Colombia and Mexico, 262;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Buchanan's policy, 263;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Monroe Doctrine, 328;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">consuls not admitted to Cuba, 330;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Van Buren's policy, 331;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth of commerce with Cuba, III, 22;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President Taylor's proclamation against filibustering, 41;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">course toward Lopez, 60;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward Cuban revolutionists, 123;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">division of sentiment between North and South, 124;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy of Edward Everett, 130;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">overtures for purchase of Cuba, 135;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">end of Civil War, 151;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">new policy toward Cuba, 151;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recognition denied to revolution, 172;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">aid and sympathy given secretly, 195;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cuban appeals for recognition, 200;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recognition denied, 203;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">protests against Rodas's decrees, 216;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">offers of mediation, 217;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">rejected by Spain, 219;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">increasing interest and sympathy with revolutionists, 273;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">warning to Spanish Government, 291;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of reciprocity upon Cuba, 313;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward War of Independence, IV, 27, 70;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Congress favors recognition, 70;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">tender of good<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_382" id="page_382">{382}</a></span></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">offices, 71;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President Cleveland's message of 1896, 79;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">appropriation for relief of victims of "concentration" policy, 86;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President McKinley's message of 1897, 87;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sensation at destruction of <i>Maine</i>, 99;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">declaration of war against Spain, 106;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Treaty of Paris, 118;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">establishment of first Government of Intervention, 132;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Republic of Cuba, 195;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">protectorate to be retained, 196;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Platt Amendment, 199;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">mischief-making intrigues, 200;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">naval stations in Cuba, 255;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reciprocity, 256;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">second Intervention, 281;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">warning to José Miguel Gomez, 305;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">asks settlement of claims, 308;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chargé d'Affaires assaulted, 308;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">supervision of Cuban legislation, 326;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">warning to revolutionists, 339;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward Gomez revolution, 343.</span></li>
+
+<li>University of Havana, founded, II, 11.</li>
+
+<li>Unzaga, Luis de, Governor, II, 157.</li>
+
+<li>Urrutia, historian, quoted, I, 300.</li>
+
+<li>Urrutia, Sancho de, I, 111.</li>
+
+<li>Utrecht, Treaty of, I, 326;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">begins new era, II, 1.</span></li>
+
+<li>Uznaga, Luis de, sent to rule Louisiana, II, 126;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reforms, 165.</span></li>
+
+<li class="top5">Vaca, Cabeza de, I, 140.</li>
+
+<li>Vadillo, Juan, declines to investigate Guzman, I, 118;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">temporary Governor, 119;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">tremendous indictment of Guzman, 120;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">retires after good work, 121;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">clash with Bishop Ramirez, 124.</span></li>
+
+<li>Valdes, historian, quoted, II, 175.</li>
+
+<li>Valdes, Gabriel de la Conception, III, 325.</li>
+
+<li>Valdes, Jeronimo, Bishop, I, 335.</li>
+
+<li>Valdes, Pedro de, Governor, I, 202, 272;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">retires, 276.</span></li>
+
+<li>Valdes, Geronimo, Governor, II, 364.</li>
+
+<li>Valdueza, Marquis de, I, 281.</li>
+
+<li>Valiente, José Pablo, II, 170, 180.</li>
+
+<li>Valiente, Juan Bautista, Governor of Santiago, II, 180.</li>
+
+<li>Vallizo, Diego, I, 277.</li>
+
+<li>Valmaseda, Count, Governor, proclamation against revolution, III, 171, 270;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recalled for barbarities, 273.</span></li>
+
+<li>Van Buren, Martin, on United States and Cuba, II, 331.</li>
+
+<li>Vandeval, Nicolas C., I, 331, 333.</li>
+
+<li>Varela, Felix, sketch and portrait, III, 320;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">works, 321.</span></li>
+
+<li>Varnhagen, F. A. de, quoted, I, 2.</li>
+
+<li>Varona, Bernabe de, sketch and portrait, III, 178.</li>
+
+<li>Varona, José Enrique, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 159;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Vice President, 312;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">biography, 316;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 316.</span></li>
+
+<li>Varona, Pepe Jerez, chief of secret service, IV, 268.</li>
+
+<li>Vasquez, Juan, I, 330.</li>
+
+<li>Vedado, view in, IV, 176.</li>
+
+<li>Vega, Pedro Guerra de la, I, 243;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">asks fugitives to aid in defence against Drake, 248.</span></li>
+
+<li>Velasco, Francisco de Aguero, II, 345.</li>
+
+<li>Velasco, Luis Vicente, defender of Morro against British, II, 58;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">signal valor, 61;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, 67.</span></li>
+
+<li>Velasquez, Antonio, errand to Spain, I, 77</li>
+
+<li>Velasquez, Bernardino, I, 115.</li>
+
+<li>Velasquez, Diego, first Governor of Cuba, I, 59;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 59;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">colonizes Cuba, 60;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">hostilities with natives, 61, explores the island, 67;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">marriage and bereavement, 68;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">founds various towns, 68;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">begins Cuban commerce, 68;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">organizes government, 69;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">favored by King Ferdinand, 73;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">appointed Adelantado, 74;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seeks to rule Yucatan and Mexico, 85;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recalls Grijalva, 88;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrels with Cortez, 91;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sends Cortez to explore Mexico, 92, 94;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">seeks to intercept and recall Cortez, 97;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sends Narvaez to Mexico, 98;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">removed from office by Diego Columbus, 100;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">restored by King, 102;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">death and epitaph, 103;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">posthumous arraignment by Altamarino, 107;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">convicted and condemned, 108.</span></li>
+
+<li>Velasquez, Juan Montano, Governor, I, 293.</li>
+
+<li>Velez Garcia, Secretary of State, IV, 297.</li>
+
+<li>Velez y Herrera, Ramon, III, 324.</li>
+
+<li>Venegas, Francisco, Governor, I, 278.</li>
+
+<li>Vernon, Edward, Admiral, expedition to Darien, II 27;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Invasion of Cuba, 29.</span></li>
+
+<li>Viamonte, Bitrian, Governor, I, 286.</li>
+
+<li>Viana y Hinojosa, Diego de, Governor, I, 317.</li>
+
+<li>Victory loan, Cuban subscriptions to, IV, 353.</li>
+
+<li>Villa Clara, founded, I, 321.</li>
+
+<li>Villafana, attempts to assassinate Cortez, I, 99.</li>
+
+<li>Villafana, Angelo de, Governor of Florida, controversy with Mazariegos, I, 196.</li>
+
+<li>Villalba y Toledo, Diego de, Governor, I, 290.</li>
+
+<li>Villalobos, Governor, feud with Roa, I, 323.</li>
+
+<li>Villalon, José Ramon, in Cuban Junta, IV, 13;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Secretary of Public Works, 160, 330.</span></li>
+
+<li>Villalon Park, scene in, IV, 247.</li>
+
+<li>Villanueva, Count de, II, 342.</li>
+
+<li>Villapando, Bernardino de, Bishop, I, 225.</li>
+
+<li>Villarin, Pedro Alvarez de, Governor, I, 333.</li>
+
+<li>Villaverde, Cirillo, III, 327.</li>
+
+<li>Villaverde, Juan de, Governor of Santiago, I, 276.</li>
+
+<li>Villegas, Diaz de, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 297;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns, 302.</span></li>
+
+<li>Villuendas, Enrique, in Constitutional Convention, IV, 188;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">secretary, 189.</span></li>
+
+<li>Virginius, capture of, III, 277;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">butchery of officers and crew, 278 et seq.;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">British intervention, 280;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">list of passengers, 281;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">diplomatic negotiations over, 283.</span></li>
+
+<li>Vives, Francisco, Governor, II, 317;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">despotism, 317;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">expedition against Mexico, 346.</span></li>
+
+<li>Viyuri, Luis, II, 197.</li>
+
+<li>Volunteers, organized, III, 152;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">murder Arango, 188;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">have Dulce recalled, 213;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">cause murder of Zenea, 252;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">increased activities, 260;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">murder of students, 261.</span></li>
+
+<li class="top5">War of Independence, IV, i, 8;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">circumstances of beginning, 9;<span class="pagenumber"><a name="page_383" id="page_383">{383}</a></span></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">finances, 14;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Republic of Cuba proclaimed, 15;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude of Cuban people, 22;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">actual outbreak, 29;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">martial law proclaimed, 30;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish forces in Cuba, 31;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrival and policy of Martinez Campos, 38;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gomez and Maceo begin great campaign, 53;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish defeated, and reenforced, 55;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">campaign of devastation, 60;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">entire island involved, 61;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">fall of Campos, 63;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Weyler in command, 66;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">destruction by both sides, 68;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">losses, 90;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">entry of United States, 107;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude of Cubans toward American intervention, 108;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">end of war, 116.</span></li>
+
+<li>Watling's Island. See <span class="smcap">Guanahani</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Wax, development of Industry, II, 132.</li>
+
+<li>Webster, Daniel, negotiations with Spain, III, 126.</li>
+
+<li>Weyler y Nicolau, Valeriano, Governor, IV, 65;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, 66;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">harsh decree, 66;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquers Pinar del Rio. 83;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">"concentration" policy, 85;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">recalled, 88.</span></li>
+
+<li>Wheeler, Gen. Joseph, at Santiago, IV, 113, 115.</li>
+
+<li>White, Col. G. W., with Lopez, III, 40.</li>
+
+<li>Whitney, Henry, messenger to Gomez, IV, 107.</li>
+
+<li>Williams, Ramon O., United States consul at Havana, IV, 32;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">acts in behalf of Americans in Cuba, 72;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposes sending <i>Maine</i> to Havana, 100.</span></li>
+
+<li>Wittemeyer, Major, reports on Gomez revolution to Washington government, IV, 336;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">offers President Menocal aid of United States, 337.</span></li>
+
+<li>Wood, General Leonard, at San Juan Hill, IV, 113;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Military Governor of Santiago, 135;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his previous career, 140;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">unique responsibility and power, 141;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">dealing with pestilence, 142;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">organizes Rural Guards, 144;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">portrait, facing 158;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Military Governor of Cuba, 158;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">well received by Cubans, 158;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">estimate of <i>La Lucha</i>, 158;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his Cabinet, 159;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">comments on his appointments, 160;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reorganization of school system, 161;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">promotes public works, 166;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dady contract dispute, 171;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">applies Finlay's yellow fever theory with great success, 171;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">reform of jurisprudence, 177;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">organizes Provincial governments, 179;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">holds municipal elections, 180;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">promulgates election law, 181;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">calls Constitutional Convention, 185;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">calls for general election, 240;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his comments on election, 245;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">announces end of American occupation, 246;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">surrenders government of Cuba to</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cubans, 249;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">President Roosevelt's estimate of his work, 251;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of one of his mountain roads, facing 358.</span></li>
+
+<li>Woodford, Stewart L., United States Minister to Spain, IV, 103;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">presents ultimatum and departs, 106.</span></li>
+
+<li class="top5">Xagua, Gulf of, I, 21.</li>
+
+<li>Ximenes, Cardinal and Regent, gives Las Casas hearing on Cuba, I, 77.</li>
+
+<li class="top5">Yanez, Adolfo Saenz, Secretary of Agriculture and Public Works, IV, 146.</li>
+
+<li>Yellow Fever, first invasion, II, 51;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dr. Finlay's theory applied by General Wood, IV, 171;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">disease eliminated from island, 176.</span></li>
+
+<li>Yero, Eduardo, Secretary of Public Instruction, IV, 254.</li>
+
+<li>Ynestrosa, Juan de, I, 207.</li>
+
+<li>Yniguez, Bernardino, I, 111.</li>
+
+<li>Yucatan, islands source of slave trade, I, 83;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">explored by Cordova, 84.</span></li>
+
+<li>Yznaga, Jose Sanchez, III, 37.</li>
+
+<li class="top5">Zaldo, Carlos, Secretary of State, IV, 254.</li>
+
+<li>Zambrana, Ramon, III, 328.</li>
+
+<li>Zanjon, Treaty of, III, 299.</li>
+
+<li>Zapata, Peninsula of, visited by Columbus, I, 22.</li>
+
+<li>Zarraga, Julian, filibuster, IV, 70.</li>
+
+<li>Zayas, Alfredo, secretary of Constitutional Convention, IV, 189;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">compact with José Miguel Gomez, 265;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">spokesman of revolutionists against President Palma, 277;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">elected Vice President, 290;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes Vice President, 297;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">sketch and portrait, 300;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrel with Gomez, 306;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">candidate for President, 328;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">hints at revolution, 330.</span></li>
+
+<li>Zayas, Francisco, Lieutenant Governor, I, 205;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">resigns, 206.</span></li>
+
+<li>Zayas, Francisco, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95.</li>
+
+<li>Zayas, Juan B., killed in battle, IV, 78.</li>
+
+<li>Zayas, Lincoln de, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Superintendent of Schools, 162.</span></li>
+
+<li>Zenea, Juan Clemente, sketch and portrait, III, 252;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">murdered, 253;</span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his works, 332.</span></li>
+
+<li>Zequiera y Arango, Manuel, II, 274.</li>
+
+<li>Zipangu. See <span class="smcap">Cipanoo</span>.</li>
+
+<li>Zuazo, Alfonso de, appointed second Governor of Cuba, I, 100;</li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">dismissed by King, 102.</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Cuba, vol. 4, by 
+Willis Fletcher Johnson
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+</body>
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+</html>
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+Project Gutenberg's The History of Cuba, vol. 4, by Willis Fletcher Johnson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The History of Cuba, vol. 4
+
+Author: Willis Fletcher Johnson
+
+Release Date: October 8, 2010 [EBook #33848]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF CUBA, VOL. 4 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Etext transcriber's note:
+
+The use of Spanish accents in this text varies and has not been altered
+(ie. both Senor and Senor [tilde n], Senora and Senora [tilde n], Jose
+[acute accented letter e] and Jose appear; both Nunez and Nunez [tilde
+n], Marti and Marti [acute accented i], Carreno and Carreno appear
+[tilde n] (this will not be observed in the ASCI version).)
+
+Several typographical errors have been corrected
+(Almandares=>Almendares, Donate=>Donato, etc.).]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: JOSE MARTI
+
+The first great apostle and martyr of the Cuban War of Independence,
+Jose Marti, was born in Havana on January 28, 1853, and fell in battle
+at Dos Rios on May 19, 1895. He was a Professor of Literature, Doctor of
+Laws, economist, philosopher, essayist, journalist, poet, historian,
+statesman, tribune of the people, organizer of the final and triumphant
+cause of Cuban freedom. He suffered imprisonment in Spain and exile in
+Mexico, Guatemala, and the United States, doing his crowning work in the
+last-named country as the vitalizing and energizing head of the Cuban
+Junta in New York. His fame must be lasting as the nation which he
+founded, wide as the world which he adorned.]
+
+
+
+
+THE
+
+HISTORY OF CUBA
+
+BY
+
+WILLIS FLETCHER JOHNSON
+
+A.M., L.H.D.
+
+Author of "A Century of Expansion," "Four Centuries of
+the Panama Canal," "America's Foreign Relations"
+
+Honorary Professor of the History of American Foreign
+Relations in New York University
+
+_WITH ILLUSTRATIONS_
+
+VOLUME FOUR
+
+[Illustration]
+
+NEW YORK
+
+B. F. BUCK & COMPANY, INC.
+
+156 FIFTH AVENUE
+
+1920
+
+Copyright, 1920,
+
+BY CENTURY HISTORY CO.
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+ENTERED AT STATIONERS HALL
+
+LONDON, ENGLAND.
+
+PRINTED IN U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                              PAGE
+
+  CHAPTER I                        1
+
+Cuba for the Cubans--Era of the War of Independence--Organization of the
+Cuban Revolutionary Party--Vigilance of the Spanish Government--The
+Sartorius Uprising--The Abarzuza "Home Rule" Measure--Beginning of the
+War of Independence--Jose Marti, His Genius and His Work--Members of the
+Junta in New York--Independence the Aim--Marti's Departure for
+Cuba--Association with Maximo Gomez--Death of Marti--His Legacy of
+Ideals to Cuba.
+
+  CHAPTER II                      19
+
+Aims and Methods of the Junta--Efforts to Avoid American
+Complications--Filibustering Expeditions--Contraband Messenger
+Service--Attitude of the Various Classes of the Cuban People Toward the
+Revolution--No Racial nor Partisan Differences--The Spanish Element--The
+Mass of the Cuban People United for National Independence.
+
+  CHAPTER III                     29
+
+The First Uprising--Failure in Havana--Success in Oriente--Response of
+the Spanish Authorities--Superior Numbers of the Spanish Forces--Early
+Complications with the United States-Seeking Terms with the
+Patriots--Grim Reception of an Envoy--Ministerial Crisis at Madrid over
+Cuban Affairs--Martinez Campos, "Spain's Greatest Soldier," Sent to
+Cuba--His Conciliatory Policy--His Military Preparations--Antonio
+Maceo--Uprisings in Many Places--Provisional Government of the
+Patriots--Campos's Barricades--Campos Beaten by Maceo.
+
+  CHAPTER IV                      47
+
+Declaration of Cuban Independence--First Constitutional Convention--The
+First Government of Ministers--Founders of the Cuban
+Government--Desperate Efforts of Campos--Disadvantages of the
+Cubans--Plantation Work Forbidden--Campaigns by Maceo and Gomez--Losses
+of the Spaniards at Sea--Reenforcements from Spain Welcomed--Cuban
+Headquarters at Las Tunas--Invasion of Matanzas--Defeat and Narrow
+Escape of Campos--Action of the Autonomists--Loyalty Pledged to
+Campos--State of Siege in Havana--Campos Recalled to Spain.
+
+  CHAPTER V                       65
+
+General Marin--General Weyler the New Captain-General--His Arrival and
+Remorseless Policy--Cuban Elections a Farce--The Trocha--A War of
+Ruthless Destruction--Many Filibustering Expeditions--Interest of the
+United States Government--Diplomatic Controversies--Efficiency of the
+Provisional Government--Strengthening the Trocha--Activity of Maceo--His
+Betrayal and Death--Campaigns of Gomez and Others--Calixto Garcia--The
+Great Advance Westward--President Cleveland's Significant Message to the
+United States Congress.
+
+  CHAPTER VI                      82
+
+Bad Effects of Maceo's Death--Weyler in the Field Against Gomez--Daring
+and Death of Bandera--Dissensions in the Camp of Gomez--Weyler's
+Concentration Policy--A Practical Attempt at Extermination--Senator
+Proctor's Observations--President McKinley's Message--Crisis in
+Spain--Weyler Recalled and Succeeded by Ramon Blanco--Further Attempts
+at Reform and Conciliation--Condition of Cuba--The Revolutionists
+Uncompromising--The Ruiz-Aranguren Tragedy--Organization of the
+Autonomist Government--Attitude of the Spaniards--Visit of the Maine to
+Havana--Destruction of the Vessel--The Investigations--Futile Efforts of
+the Autonomist Government
+
+  CHAPTER VII                    103
+
+The Destruction of the Maine not the Cause of American
+Intervention--Causes Which Led to the War--Diplomatic
+Negotiations--German Intrigue--President McKinley's War Message--His
+Attitude Toward the Cuban People--Spanish Resentment--Declaration of
+War--American Agents Sent to Cuba--Attitude of Maximo Gomez--Supplies,
+not Troops, Wanted--Blockade of the Cuban Coast--Spanish Fleet at
+Santiago--Landing of the American Army--Operations at Santiago--Services
+of the "Rough Riders"--Naval Battle of Santiago--Surrender of the
+Spanish Army--The Armistice.
+
+  CHAPTER VIII                   118
+
+Departure of the Spanish Forces from Cuba--Treaty of Peace Between the
+United States and Spain--Cuba to be Made Independent--The Cuban
+Debt--First American Government of Intervention--The Roll of Spanish
+Rulers from Velasquez in 1512 to Castellanos in 1899--Relations between
+Americans and Cubans--Disbandment of the Provisional Government and
+Demobilization of the Cuban Army--A Mutinous Demonstration--Paying Off
+the Cuban Soldiers.
+
+  CHAPTER IX                     139
+
+American Occupation of Cuba--General Wood's Administration at
+Santiago--His Antecedents and Preparation for His Great Work--A
+Formidable Undertaking--Conquering Pestilence--Organization of the Rural
+Guards--American Administration at Havana and Throughout the
+Island--Grave Problems Confronting General Brooke--Agricultural and
+Industrial Rehabilitation--Reorganizing Local Government--Triumphal
+Progress of Maximo Gomez--Unification of Sentiment Among the
+People--Finances of the Island--Church and State--Marriage
+Reform--Franchises Refused--The Census--Improving the School System.
+
+  CHAPTER X                      158
+
+General Brooke Succeeded by General Leonard Wood--Favorable Reception of
+the Soldier-Statesman--A Cabinet of Cubans--Efficient Attention Paid to
+Public Education--Cuban Teachers at Harvard--Caring for Derelict
+Children--Public Works--Sanitation--Port
+Improvements--Roads--Paving--The Heroic Drama of the Conquest of Yellow
+Fever--Work of General Gorgas--A Home of Pestilence Transformed into a
+Sanitarium--Reforms in Court Procedure--Cleaning Up the Prisons--The
+First Election in Free Cuba--Rise of Political Parties--Taxation and the
+Tariff--Increase of Commerce.
+
+  CHAPTER XI                     185
+
+Preparations for Self-Government--Call for a Constitutional
+Convention--The Election--Meeting of the Convention--General Wood's
+Address--Organization of the Convention--Framing the
+Constitution--Debates over Church and State, and Presidential
+Qualifications--Signing of the Constitution--No Americans Present at the
+Convention--General Provisions of the Constitution--Relations between
+Cuba and the United States--Controversy between the Two
+Governments--Origin of the "Platt Amendment"--Attitude of the Cubans
+Toward It--Malign Agitation and Misrepresentation--A Mission to
+Washington--Final Adoption of the Amendment.
+
+  CHAPTER XII                    204
+
+Text of the Constitution of the Cuban Republic--The Nation, Its Form of
+Government, and the National Territory--Cubans and Foreigners--Bill of
+Rights--Sovereignty and Public Powers--The Legislature--The
+President--The Vice-President--The Secretaries of State--The Judicial
+Power--Provincial and Municipal Governments--Amendments.
+
+  CHAPTER XIII                   240
+
+Election of the First Cuban Government--Candidates for the
+Presidency--Tomas Estrada Palma Chosen by Common Consent--General Maso's
+Candidacy--The Election--Close of the American Occupation--A Festal Week
+in Havana--Transfer of Authority to the Cuban Government--The Cuban Flag
+at Last Raised in Sovereignty of the Island--President Roosevelt's
+Estimate of General Wood's Work in Cuba--President Palma's Cabinet--His
+First Message--The United States Naval Station--Reciprocity Secured
+after Discreditable Delay at Washington.
+
+  CHAPTER XIV                    259
+
+Admirable Work of the Palma Administration--Rise of Sordid
+Factionalism--Jose Miguel Gomez, Alfredo Zayas and Orestes
+Ferrara--Character of the Liberal Party, and of the Conservative
+Party--Conspiracy to Discredit an Election--An Abortive
+Insurrection--Pino Guerra's Intrigues--The Rebellion of Jose Miguel
+Gomez--President Palma's Unpreparedness and Incredulity--His Faith in
+the People--The Crisis--Suggestions of the American
+Consul-General--American Intervention sought--Ships and Troops
+Sent--Arrival of Mr. Taft--His Negotiations with the Rebels--His
+Yielding to Their Threats--Resignation of Estrada Palma--Mr. Taft's
+Pardon to the Rebels--Charles E. Magoon Made Provisional
+Governor--Estimate of President Palma and His Administration.
+
+  CHAPTER XV                     283
+
+Mr. Magoon's Administration--Recognition of the Liberals--The Offices
+Filled with Liberal Placeholders--Execution of Many Public Works--A New
+Census Taken--New Electoral Law--Proportional Representation--New
+Elections Held--Split in the Liberal Party--The Presidential
+Campaign--Bargain between Jose Miguel Gomez and Alfredo Zayas--General
+Menocal and Dr. Montoro--The Victory of the Liberals--Changes in
+Provincial and Municipal Administrations--Revision of Laws--Settling
+Church Claims--End of the Second Intervention.
+
+  CHAPTER XVI                    297
+
+Administration of President Jose Miguel Gomez--His Cabinet Sketch of His
+Career--Sketch of Vice-President Zayas--Army Reorganization--New
+Laws--The President's Sensitiveness to Criticism--Officials in
+Politics--Charges of Profligacy and Corruption--Clash with the Veterans'
+Association--The United States Interested--Quarrels between Gomez and
+Zayas--Formidable Negro Revolt Suppressed--Reluctance to Settle
+Claims--Outrage Upon an American Diplomat--Amnesty Bill--The Lottery
+Established--The "Dragado" Scandal--The Railroad Terminal.
+
+  CHAPTER XVII                   312
+
+The Fourth Presidential Campaign--Candidacy and Career of Mario G.
+Menocal--His Brilliant Work in the War of Independence and in the Sugar
+Industry--Sketch of Enrique Jose Varona--Dr. Rafael Montoro's
+Distinguished Career--His Diplomatic Services and Literary
+Achievements--President Menocal's Cabinet--His Aims and Plans for His
+Administration--First Message to Congress--Factional Obstruction--Paying
+Off Old Debts--Trying to Abolish Gambling--The Civil
+Service--Controversy Over the Asbert Amnesty Bill--A Small Insurrection.
+
+  CHAPTER XVIII                  328
+
+Reelection of President Menocal--Features of the Campaign--Liberal
+Conspiracy to Invalidate the Election by Revolutionary Means--Disputed
+Elections--The Double Treason of Jose Miguel Gomez--Outbreak of a
+Carefully Planned Insurrection--Intrigues of Orestes Ferrara in the
+United States--Vigorous Military Action of President Menocal--American
+Assistance Wisely Declined--Capture of the Rebel Chieftain--Efforts of
+the Insurgents at Devastation--Continuance of the Rebellion by Carlos
+Mendieta--Dr. Ferrara Warned by the American Government--Attempts to
+Assassinate President Menocal--Clemency Shown to Criminals--Attitude of
+the United States Government--Some Plain Talk from Washington.
+
+  CHAPTER XIX                    346
+
+Cuba's Entry into the War of the Nations--President Menocal's War
+Message--Prompt Response of Congress--Sentiments of the Cuban
+People--German Propaganda--Attitude of the Church--Liberal Intrigues
+with Germans--Seizure of German Ships--Conservation and Increased
+Production of Food--Military Services--Generous Subscriptions to Liberty
+Loans--Mrs. Menocal's Leadership in Red Cross Work--Noble Activities of
+the Women of Cuba--Moral and Spiritual Effect of Cuba's Participation in
+the War.
+
+  CHAPTER XX                     355
+
+Marti's Epigram on the Revolution--How It has been Fulfilled by the
+Cuban Republic--The Sense of Responsibility--Progress in Popular
+Education as a Criterion--Great Gain in Health--Enormous Growth of the
+Sugar Industry--Commerce of the Island--Stable Finances--Sanitary
+Efficiency--Military Reorganization--Statesmanship of President
+Menocal--Cuba's Unique Situation Among the Countries of the
+Globe--Significance of the Record Which She has Made from Velasquez to
+Menocal.
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+FULL PAGE PLATES
+
+Jose Marti _Frontispiece_
+
+FACING PAGE
+
+The Prado                                                             16
+
+Maximo Gomez                                                          44
+
+Jose Antonio Maceo                                                    74
+
+Bay and Harbor of Havana                                              98
+
+Old and New in Havana                                                134
+
+Leonard Wood                                                         158
+
+University of Havana                                                 164
+
+Carlos J. Finlay                                                     172
+
+The Capitol                                                          204
+
+Tomas Estrada Palma                                                  248
+
+The President's Home                                                 268
+
+The Academy of Arts and Crafts                                       288
+
+Mario G. Menocal                                                     312
+
+Enrique Jose Varona                                                  316
+
+Rafael Montoro                                                       320
+
+Senora Menocal                                                       352
+
+Boneato Road, Oriente                                                358
+
+
+TEXT EMBELLISHMENTS
+
+
+Ricardo del Monte                                                      2
+
+Julian del Casal                                                       6
+
+Jose Ramon Villalon                                                   13
+
+George Reno                                                           21
+
+La Punta Fortress, Havana                                             33
+
+Aniceto G. Menocal                                                    50
+
+General Weyler                                                        66
+
+William McKinley                                                      87
+
+Antonio Govin                                                         95
+
+Admiral Cervera                                                      110
+
+Admiral Schley                                                       110
+
+Old Fort at El Caney                                                 112
+
+Theodore Roosevelt                                                   113
+
+Monuments on San Juan Hill                                           114
+
+Admiral Sampson                                                      115
+
+Peace Tree near Santiago                                             116
+
+Part of Old City Wall of Havana                                      122
+
+Gonzalez Lanuza                                                      146
+
+Evelio Rodriguez Lendian                                             162
+
+Antonio Sanchez de Bustamente                                        165
+
+Almendares River, Havana                                             167
+
+Old Time Water Mill, Havana Province                                 169
+
+Street in Vedado, Suburb of Havana                                   176
+
+Aurelia Castillo de Gonzalez                                         192
+
+Scene in Villalon Park, Havana                                       247
+
+Flag of Cuba                                                         250
+
+Coat of Arms of Cuba                                                 251
+
+William H. Taft                                                      276
+
+Jose Miguel Gomez                                                    298
+
+Dr. Alfredo Zayas                                                    300
+
+Birthplace of Mario G. Menocal                                       313
+
+Dr. Juan Guiteras                                                    321
+
+General D. Emilio Nunez                                              328
+
+Jose Luis Azcarata                                                   341
+
+Francisco Dominguez Roldan                                           357
+
+Jose A. del Cueto                                                    359
+
+Dr. Fernandez Mendez-Capote                                          360
+
+General Jose Marti                                                   360
+
+Eugenio Sanchez Agramonte                                            362
+
+Academy of Sciences, Havana                                          364
+
+
+
+
+THE HISTORY OF CUBA
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+
+Cuba for Cuba must be the grateful theme of the present volume. We have
+seen the identification of the Queen of the Antilles with the Spanish
+discovery and conquest of America. We have traced the development of
+widespread international interests in that island, especially
+implicating the vital attention of at least four great powers. We have
+reviewed the origin and development of a peculiar relationship,
+frequently troubled but ultimately beneficent to both, between Cuba and
+the United States of America. Now, in the briefest of the four major
+epochs into which Cuban history is naturally divided, we shall have the
+welcome record of the achievement of Cuba's secure establishment among
+the sovereign nations of the world.
+
+The time for the War of Independence was well chosen. That conflict was,
+indeed, a necessary and inevitable sequel to the Ten Years' War and its
+appendix, the Little War; under the same flag, with the same principles
+and issues, and with some of the same leaders. Indeed we may rightly
+claim that the organization of the Cuban Republic remained continuous
+and unbroken, if not in Cuba itself, at least in the United States,
+where, in New York, the Cuban Junta was ever active and resolute. The
+Treaty of Zanjon ended field operations for the time. It did not for one
+moment or in the least degree quench or diminish the impassioned and
+resolute determination of the Cuban people to become a nation.
+
+We have said that the War of Independence was inevitable. That was
+manifestly so because of the determination of the Cubans to become
+independent. It was also because of the failure of the Spanish
+government to fulfil the terms and stipulations of the Treaty of Zanjon,
+concerning which we have hitherto spoken. It must remain a matter of
+speculation whether that government ever intended to fulfil them. It is
+certain that few thoughtful Cubans, capable of judging the probabilities
+of the future by the actualities of the past, expected that it would do
+so. We may also regard it as certain that even a scrupulous fulfilment
+of those terms, while it might have postponed it, would not and could
+not permanently have defeated the assertion of Cuban independence.
+
+[Illustration: RICARDO DEL MONTE
+
+Journalist, critic, poet and patriot, Ricardo del Monte was born at
+Cimorrones in 1830, and was educated in the United States and Europe. In
+Rome he was attached to the Spanish embassy. In Spain he was a
+journalist with liberal and democratic tendencies. He returned to Cuba
+in 1847 and edited several papers in Havana, including, after the Ten
+Years War, _El Triunfo_ and _El Pais_, the organ of the Autonomists. He
+was a writer in prose and verse of singular power and grace, his works
+ranking in style with the best of modern Spanish literature. He died in
+1908.]
+
+The Cuban Revolutionary Party, which as we have said never went out of
+existence, was reorganized for renewed activity in New York in April,
+1892; from which time we may properly date the beginning of the War of
+Independence. Its leader was Jose Marti, of whom we shall have much more
+to say hereafter; but he did not accept the official headship of the
+Junta. That place was taken by Tomas Estrada Palma, the honored veteran
+of the Ten Years' War, who at this time was the principal of an
+excellent boys' school at Central Valley, New York. He was the President
+of the Junta. The Secretary was Gonzalo de Quesada, worthy bearer of an
+honored name; a fervent patriot and an eloquent orator. The Treasurer
+was Benjamin Guerra, an approved patriot, and the General Counsel was
+Horatio Rubens. This New York Junta, meeting at No. 56 New Street, New
+York City, was the real head of the whole movement. But it was
+supplemented by many other Cuban clubs elsewhere. There were ten in New
+York, 61 at Key West, Florida; 15 at Tampa, two at Ocala, two in
+Philadelphia, and one each at New Orleans, Jacksonville, Brooklyn,
+Boston, Chicago, Atlanta, and St. Augustine. There were also six in the
+island of Jamaica, two in Mexico, and one in Hayti.
+
+The multiplication of these organizations and their increasing activity
+did not escape the observation of the Spanish government, which realized
+that revolution was in the air, and that it behooved it to do something
+to counteract it if it was to avoid losing the last remains of its once
+vast American empire. Accordingly early in 1893 the Cortes at Madrid
+enacted a bill extending the electoral franchise in Cuba to all men
+paying each as much as five pesos tax yearly. The Autonomist party at
+first regarded this concession with doubt and suspicion, but finally
+decided to give it a trial and participated in the elections held under
+the new law. But the result was unsatisfactory; owing, it was openly
+charged, to gross intimidation and frauds by the Government. The sequel
+was increased activity of the revolutionary organizations.
+
+The Spanish government was vigilant and strenuous. It sent more troops
+to Cuba, and it sent a large part of its navy to American waters, to
+patrol the Cuban coast, to cruise off the Florida coast, and to guard
+the waters between the two, in order to prevent the sending of
+filibustering expeditions or cargoes of supplies from the United States
+to Cuba. These efforts were so efficient that no important expeditions
+got through. But in spite of that fact an insurrection was started in
+Cuba in the spring of 1893.
+
+The leaders were two brothers, Manuel and Ricardo Sartorius, of Santiago
+de Cuba. On April 24 they put themselves at the head of a band of twenty
+men and, at Puernio, near Holguin, they proclaimed a revolution. The
+next day they were joined by eighteen more, and by the time they had
+marched to Milas, on the north coast, the band was increased to 300,
+while other bands, in sympathy with them, were formed at Holguin,
+Manzanillo, Guantanamo, and Las Tunas. This movement, however, was
+purely a private enterprise of the Sartorius Brothers; in which they
+presumably expected to be supported by a general uprising of the Cuban
+people. As a matter of fact there was no such uprising. The people
+seemed indifferent to it. The juntas and clubs in New York and elsewhere
+knew nothing about it. The Executive Committee of the Autonomist Party
+in Cuba adopted resolutions condemning it and giving moral support to
+the Spanish government, and the Cuban Senators and Deputies in the
+Cortes at Madrid took like action.
+
+Meantime the Spanish authorities in the island acted promptly and with
+vigor. The Captain-General summoned a council of war on April 27, and
+sent troops to the scene of revolt, and directed the fleet to exercise
+renewed vigilance to prevent aid from reaching the insurgents from the
+United States. The next day martial law was proclaimed throughout the
+province of Santiago de Cuba, and four thousand troops, divided into
+seven columns, were in hot pursuit of the revolutionists. The numbers of
+the latter rapidly dwindled through desertions and in a couple of days
+all had vanished save the two brothers and 29 of their followers. On May
+2 these all surrendered, on promise of complete pardon, a promise which
+was fulfilled, and on May 9 martial law was withdrawn and the abortive
+revolt was ended.
+
+This occurrence moved the Spanish government, however, to further
+efforts to placate the Cubans, and in 1894 the Minister for the
+Colonies, Senor Maura, proposed a bill for the reorganization of the
+insular government. The six provincial councils were to be merged into a
+single legislature. With this was to be combined an Executive Council,
+or Board of Administration, to administer the laws; consisting of the
+Governor-General as President, various high civil and military
+functionaries, and nine additional members named by Royal decree. This
+arrangement was strongly opposed and finally defeated, whereupon Senor
+Maura resigned. Later in the same year the Cabinet was reorganized with
+him as Minister of Justice and with Senor Abarzuza, a follower of Emilio
+Castelar, the Spanish Republican leader, as Minister for the Colonies.
+The Prime Minister was Praxedes Sagasta, the leader of the Spanish
+Liberals, and a statesman of consummate ability. There was much
+complaint by Conservatives that the Captain-General in Cuba, Emilio
+Calleja, favored the native Autonomists over the Loyalists or Spanish
+party. Despite this, Senor Abarzuza, after taking much counsel with the
+Prime Minister and others, planned radical action in behalf of Cuban
+autonomy, hoping to establish a new regime which, he fondly hoped, would
+allay discontent, abate disaffection, and confirm Cuba in her
+traditional status of the "Ever Faithful Isle." Accordingly he entered
+into long and earnest consultation with the leaders of the various
+political parties in Spain, including the Carlists and Radical
+Republicans, and also with representative Loyalists and Home
+Rulers--otherwise Spaniards and Autonomists--of Cuba. Never, indeed, was
+a more thorough attempt made to secure the judgment of all parties and
+thus to frame a measure that would be satisfactory to all. Moreover, an
+exceptionally reasonable and conciliatory spirit was shown by all the
+leading politicians, of all shades of opinion, so that it seemed for a
+time that the resulting bill, framed by Senors Sagasta and Abarzuza,
+would be accepted with scarcely a word of criticism and would mark the
+opening of a new era in colonial affairs.
+
+[Illustration: JULIAN DEL CASAL
+
+During his brief life, from 1863 to October 21, 1891, Julian del Casal,
+invalid and misanthrope though he was, made a brilliant record in the
+world of letters, and gave to Cuban poetry its greatest modern impulse.
+Most of his life was spent in penury, on the meagre earnings of a hack
+journalist, but his memory is cherished as that of one of the foremost
+men of letters of his time.]
+
+The bill was drafted. It was in purport a West Indies Home Rule bill.
+Its salient feature was the establishment in Cuba of an Insular Council,
+which would be the local governing body of the colony. Of it the Spanish
+Viceroy, or Captain General, would be the President; and of course he
+would continue to be appointed by the Crown. Of the members of the
+Council, one half would be appointed by the Crown, from among certain
+specified classes of the inhabitants of Cuba; and the other half would
+be elected by the suffrages of the Cuban people. This body would have,
+subject only to the veto of the Captain-General, control of all insular
+affairs, including supervision of provincial and municipal councils. It
+would also, subject to the approval of the Madrid government, legislate
+for the regulation of immigration, commerce, posts and telegraphs,
+revenue, and similar matters. On the face of it the measure promised
+great improvement in the government of the island, and the investing of
+the people of Cuba with a very large measure of self-government, both
+legislative and executive. It was the last and probably the best
+voluntary attempt ever made by Spain to give Cuba self-government.
+
+Unfortunately for Spain there were two fatal flaws in the scheme; one
+subjective, one objective. The former was the fact that the appointment
+of half the members of the Council by the Crown would assure in that
+body a constant majority devoted to and subservient to the Crown, and
+that circumstance, together with the veto power, would prevent the
+possibility of any legislation not entirely pleasing to Madrid. That
+made the thing quite unacceptable to all Cubans whose aim was the
+independence of the island or even genuine autonomy and home rule. The
+other flaw was the fact that while Cuban Loyalists and Autonomists were
+called into consultation over the bill, and gave it their approval,
+Cuban advocates of Independence were not called; they would not have
+entered into conference; and they were irrevocably committed against any
+scheme that did not provide for the complete separation of the island
+from Spain and the creation of an entirely independent government. The
+bill was adopted by the Spanish Chamber of Deputies by a practically
+unanimous vote, on February 14, 1895, and was likewise adopted by the
+Senate. In Cuba it was regarded by the Autonomists as not satisfactory,
+in that it retained too much power for the Crown. As for the party of
+Cuban Independence, it looked upon it as unworthy of serious
+consideration. Ten days after its passage by the Chamber of Deputies,
+the Cuban Revolution was proclaimed.
+
+The reproachful comment has been made by some writers that the Cuban
+leaders started the revolution at that date, February 24, 1895, in order
+to defeat the beneficent designs of Spain in granting autonomy to the
+island, and that if they had not done so, the Abarzuza law would have
+been generally accepted and successfully applied, and Cuba would have
+remained a colony of Spain, contented, loyal and prosperous. For this
+strange theory there is no good foundation. It had been made perfectly
+clear for more than two years preceding that no such arrangement--indeed,
+that nothing short of complete separation from Spain--would satisfy the
+Cuban people. Moreover, preparations had been copiously made for the
+revolution, long before the passage of this measure. Cubans in the
+United States, of whom there were many, had contributed freely of their
+means for the purchase of arms and ammunition. There were considerable
+stocks of arms in Cuba which had remained concealed since the Ten Years'
+War, and these had been added to by surreptitious shipments from the
+United States. It is a matter of record that considerable quantities of
+first rate Mauser rifles were obtained from the arsenals of the Spanish
+government, being secretly purchased from custodians who were either
+corrupt or in sympathy with the revolutionists. Efforts were also made
+to land expeditions from the United States. One formidable party was to
+have sailed from Fernandina, Florida, a month before the passage of the
+Abarzuza law, but it was checked and disbanded by the United States
+authorities.
+
+The year 1895 was not inappropriate for the beginning of a war which
+should annihilate the Spanish colonial empire and should add a new
+member to the world's community of sovereign nations. In almost every
+quarter of the globe great things were happening. At the antipodes Japan
+was completing her crushing defeat of China and was thus bringing
+herself forward as one of the great military and naval powers. The
+ancient empire of Siam was establishing an enlightened constitutional
+and parliamentary system of government. In Africa the epochal conflict
+between Boer and Briton was developing inexorably, and France was about
+to achieve the conquest of Madagascar. In Europe, Nicholas II was newly
+seated upon the throne of the Czars, and the strange resignation of the
+Presidency by Casimir-Perier threw France into such a crisis as she had
+scarcely known before since the foundation of the Republic. Nearer home,
+Peru and Ecuador were convulsed with revolution, and the controversy
+between Venezuela and British Guiana began to loom acute and ominous. In
+such a setting was the War of Cuban Independence staged.
+
+The foremost director of that war, its organizer and inspirer, was Jose
+Marti; one of those rare geniuses who have appeared occasionally in the
+history of the world to be the incarnation of great ideals of justice
+and human right. He was indeed many times a genius: Organizer,
+economist, historian, poet, statesman, tribune of the people, apostle of
+freedom, above all, Man. In himself he united the virtues, the
+enthusiasm and the energising vitality which his countrymen needed to
+have aroused in themselves. To his disorganized and disheartened country
+he brought a magic personality which won all hearts and inspired them
+all with his own irrepressible and indestructible ideal, National
+Independence.
+
+Marti was a native Cuban, born in Havana on January 28, 1853. In his
+mere boyhood he became an eloquent and inspiring advocate of the ideal
+to which he devoted his life and which he did so much to realize; and at
+the outbreak of the Ten Years' War, when he was scarcely yet sixteen
+years old, the Spanish government recognized in him one of its most
+formidable foes and one of the most efficient propagandists of Cuban
+independence. For that reason, before he had a chance to enter the ranks
+of the patriot army, he was deported from the island and doomed to
+exile. He made his way to Mexico, thence to Guatemala, and there, a lad
+still in his teens, became Professor of Literature in the National
+University of that country--a striking testimonial to his erudition and
+culture. After the Treaty of Zanjon he was permitted to return to Cuba,
+but he was one of those whom the Spanish government most feared, and he
+was therefore kept under the closest of surveillance by the police. It
+was not in his nature to dissemble, or to be afraid. He quickly came
+before the public in a series of memorable orations, memorable alike for
+their sonorous eloquence, their cultured erudition, and their intense
+patriotism; in which he set forth the deplorable state in which Cuba
+still lay, after her ten years' struggle for better things, and the need
+that the work which had been so bravely undertaken by Cespedes and his
+associates should be again undertaken and pressed to a successful
+conclusion. His orations seemed to have the effect attributed to
+Demosthenes in his Philippics: They made his hearers want to take up
+arms and fight against their oppressors.
+
+This of course brought upon him the wrath of Spain. He was arrested, and
+since he was altogether too dangerous a person to be set free in exile,
+he was carried a close prisoner to Spain. But he quickly made his escape
+and found asylum in the United States of America; and there his greatest
+work for Cuba was achieved. Porfirio Diaz had invited him to make his
+home in Mexico, where he might have risen to almost any eminence in the
+state, but he declined. "I must go," he said, "to the country where I
+can accomplish most for the freedom of Cuba from Spain. I am going to
+the United States." In New York City, where he made his home, he engaged
+in literary work, and was for some time a member of the staff of the New
+York _Sun_. But above all he devoted his time, thought, strength and
+means to organizing the Cuban revolution.
+
+He gathered together in the Cuban Revolutionary Party all the surviving
+veterans of the Ten Years' War, Cuban political exiles--like
+himself--the remnants of Merchan's old "Laborers' Associations," and
+welded them into a harmonious and resolute whole. He also traveled about
+the United States, in Mexico and Central America, and in Jamaica and
+Santo Domingo, wherever Cubans were to be found, rousing them to
+patriotic zeal and organizing them into clubs tributary to the central
+Junta in New York. In Cuba itself many such clubs were organized, in
+secret, which maintained surreptitious correspondence with the New York
+headquarters.
+
+We have already mentioned some of those with whom he surrounded himself:
+Tomas Estrada Palma, the President of the Junta; Gonzalo de Quesada, its
+Secretary, who lived to see the Republic established and to become its
+Minister to Germany, where he died; Benjamin F. Guerra, its Treasurer;
+and Horatio Rubens, its Counsel, who had been trained in the law office
+of Elihu Root. Others of that memorable and devoted company were General
+Emilio Nunez, afterward Vice-President of the Cuban Republic; and Dr.
+Joaquin Castillo Duany, formerly an eminent physician in the United
+States Navy, who had distinguished himself in the relief of the famous
+Jeannette Arctic expedition. These two had charge of the filibustering
+or supply expeditions which were surreptitiously dispatched from the
+United States to Cuba. At first General Nunez had charge of all, but
+when Dr. Duany came from Cuba the work was divided, and the former
+devoted himself to the coast from Norfolk to the Rio Grande, while the
+latter supervised that from Norfolk to Eastport, Maine. Dr. Duany and
+his brother had been prominent citizens and officials in Santiago de
+Cuba. As soon as the War of Independence began they joined the patriot
+forces, and Dr. Duany was made Assistant Secretary of War in the
+Provisional Government. As such, he ran the Spanish blockade of the
+island, in company with Mr. George Reno, another ardent patriot, and
+bore to New York authority from the Provisional Government for the
+issuing of $3,000,000 of Cuban bonds. He also carried with him in a
+little satchel $90,000 in cash, which had been contributed by various
+patriotic residents of Cuba.
+
+Another of Marti's associates in New York was Dr. Lincoln de Zayas, a
+brilliant orator, afterward Secretary of Public Instruction of the Cuban
+Republic; a man greatly loved by all who knew him. Dr. Enrique
+Agramonte, brother of that gallant Ignacio Agramonte who was a leader in
+the Ten Years' War and was killed in that conflict, was a member of the
+Junta in New York, who inspected and selected all the men who were to
+go on filibustering expeditions; a keen judge of the physical, mental
+and moral fitness of all the candidates who presented themselves before
+him. Colonel Jose Ramon Villalon was also active in the Junta; and he
+has since been Secretary of Public Works at Havana under President Mario
+G. Menocal. Nor must Ponce de Leon, a publisher and bookseller, of No.
+32 Broadway, New York, be forgotten. His office was frequently the
+meeting place of the conspirators, if so we may call the patriots, and
+he and his two sons--one a physician, the other in charge of the
+archives of the Cuban government--were among the most earnest and
+efficient workers for the cause of independence.
+
+[Illustration: JOSE RAMON VILLALON
+
+Jose Ramon Villalon, Secretary of Public Works, was born at Santiago in
+1864. He was sent to Barcelona to be educated and later studied at the
+Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa., where he graduated as civil engineer
+in 1899. On the outbreak of the war he accompanied General Antonio Maceo
+on his famous raid in Pinar del Rio province, and was present at the
+engagements of Artemisa, Ceja del Negro, Montezuelo, attaining the rank
+of lieutenant-colonel of engineers. While serving under Maceo he
+designed and constructed the first field dynamite gun, now in the
+National Museum in Havana. After the war he was made Secretary of Public
+Works under the military government of General Leonard Wood. Col.
+Villalon is a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, the
+American Institute of Mining Engineers, the Academy of Sciences
+(Havana), and the Cuban Society of Engineers.]
+
+The ideal of Marti and these associates was unequivocally that of Cuban
+independence. They had no thought of accepting or even considering mere
+autonomy under Spanish sovereignty, or any promises of reforms in the
+insular government. They might not have been inexorably opposed to
+annexation to the United States, had opportunity for that been offered.
+They might have accepted it, in fact, for the sake of getting entirely
+away from Spain; for that would at least have meant independence from
+Spain. But as a matter of fact, annexation was not considered. It was
+never discussed. It formed no part of the programme, not even as an
+alternative.
+
+Although a poet and a seer, Marti was one of the most practical of men.
+He realized with Cicero that "endless money forms the sinews of war."
+One of his first cares, therefore, was to finance the revolution. To
+that end he made a direct appeal to Cuban workmen--and women,
+too--wherever he could get into contact with them, to give one tenth of
+their weekly wages to the cause of Cuban independence. Probably never
+before or since in the world's wars has such a system of voluntary
+tithing been so successfully conducted. It seemed as though every Cuban
+in the United States responded. Wealthy men gave one tenth of their
+large incomes, and Cuban girls in cigar factories gave one tenth of
+their small wages. In many cases they did more, giving one day's wages
+each week. Indeed, this is said to have been the general rule in the
+cigar and cigarette factories of the United States. Next to Marti
+himself, Lincoln de Zayas was perhaps the most successful money raiser.
+Numerous speakers and canvassers went to all parts of the country where
+Cubans might be found, soliciting funds. Appeal was also made to
+Americans, but not so much for pecuniary aid as for sympathy and moral
+aid. But in fact much money was given by liberty loving Americans. John
+Jacob Astor, afterward a Colonel in the United States army in the war of
+intervention, gave $10,000. William E. D. Stokes, of New York, was also
+a large contributor and manifested much interest in the cause,
+presumably in part because his wife was a Cuban.
+
+Most of this work of Marti's was done in 1893 and 1894. His original
+plan was to launch a vast plan of numerous invasions of the island and
+simultaneous uprisings in all the provinces in 1894. He purchased and
+equipped three vessels, the _Amadis_, the _Baracoa_ and the _Lagonda_,
+only to suffer the mortification and very heavy loss of having them
+seized by the American authorities for violation of the neutrality law.
+Undaunted and undismayed, he renewed his efforts, and at last had the
+satisfaction of seeing the revolution openly begun at Baire, near
+Santiago, on February 24, 1895. And then occurred one of the most
+lamentable and needless tragedies of the whole war--indeed, of all the
+history of Cuba.
+
+It was not in Marti's generous and valiant spirit to remain at the rear
+and send others forward to face the fire of the foe. Accordingly, as
+soon as the revolution was started, he went from New York to Santo
+Domingo to confer with the old war horse of the Ten Years' conflict,
+Maximo Gomez, and from that island he issued his manifesto concerning
+the purposes and programme of the revolution. Well would it have been
+for him and for Cuba had he remained there, or had he returned to New
+York, to continue the work which he had been so successfully doing. But
+because of a thoughtless clamor in the press and on the part of the
+public he was moved to proceed to Cuba with Gomez. They landed in a
+frail craft at Playitas on April 11, with about 80 companions, many of
+them veterans of the Ten Years' War. They at once joined the cavalry
+forces of Perico Perez, and plunged into the thick of the fighting;
+Marti showing himself as brave in battle as he had been wise in council.
+Meantime a Provisional Government had been formed, by the proclamation
+of Antonio Maceo, with Tomas Estrada Palma as Provisional President of
+the Cuban Republic, Maximo Gomez as Commander in Chief of the Army, and
+Jose Marti as Secretary General and Diplomatic Agent Abroad. This
+appointment was agreeable to Marti, and would have meant the most
+advantageous utilization of his masterful talents for the good of Cuba.
+But it was not possible for him immediately to begin such duties. He was
+with the army in the interior of the island, and his approach to the
+coast whence he was to sail on his mission must be effected with
+caution.
+
+While Gomez set out for Camaguey, Marti turned toward the southern
+coast, intending to go first to Jamaica, whence he could take an English
+steamer for New York or any other destination he might select. Marti had
+with him an escort of only fifty men, and soon after parting company
+with Gomez he was led by a treacherous guide into a ravine where he was
+trapped by a Spanish force outnumbering the Cubans twenty to one. The
+Cubans fought with desperate valor, Marti himself leading a charge which
+nearly succeeded in cutting a way through the Spanish lines. But the
+odds were too heavy against them, and without even the satisfaction of
+taking two or three Spanish lives for every life they gave, the Cubans
+were all slain, Marti himself being among the last to fall. Word of the
+conflict reached Gomez, and he came hastening back, just too late to
+save his comrade, and was himself wounded in the furious attack which he
+made upon the Spaniards in an attempt at least to recover Marti's body.
+But his vengeful valor was ineffectual. Marti's body was taken
+possession of by the Spaniards, who demonstrated their appreciation of
+his greatness, though he was their most formidable foe, by bearing it
+reverently to Santiago and there interring it with all the honors of
+war.
+
+[Illustration: THE PRADO
+
+Havana's most fashionable residence street and driving thoroughfare
+extends from the gloomy Punta fortress along the line of the ancient
+city wall, past the Central Park to Colon Park, shaded with laurels and
+lined with handsome homes and clubs. In 1907 a hurricane wrecked many of
+the great laurels, as well as the royal palms of Colon Park, but in the
+genial climate of Cuba the ravages of the elements were rapidly
+repaired. The Prado was officially renamed by the Cuban Republic the
+Paseo de Marti, in honor of Jose Marti, but the old name still clings
+inseparably to it.]
+
+Thus untimely perished the man who should have lived to be known as the
+Father of His Country. But he left a name crowned with imperishable
+fame. A Spanish American author has said that the Spanish race in
+America has produced only two geniuses, Bolivar and Marti. If that
+judgment be too severe in its restriction, at least it is not an
+over-estimate of those two transcendent patriots. Marti left, moreover,
+an example and an inspiration which never failed his countrymen during
+the subsequent years of war. Their loss in his death was irreparable,
+but they were not inconsolable; for while he perished, his cause
+survived. That cause was well set forth by him in the manifesto which he
+issued at Monte Cristi, Hayti, on March 25, 1895, and which read as
+follows:
+
+"The war is not against the Spaniard, who, secured by his children and
+by loyalty to the country which the latter will establish, shall be able
+to enjoy, respected and even loved, that liberty which will sweep away
+only the thoughtless who block its path. Nor will the war be the cradle
+of disturbances which are alien to the tried moderation of the Cuban
+character, nor of tyranny. Those who have fomented it and are still its
+sponsors declare in its name to the country its freedom from all hatred,
+its fraternal indulgence to the timid Cuban, and its radical respect for
+the dignity of man, which constitutes the sinews of battle and the
+foundation of the Republic. And they affirm that it will be magnanimous
+with the penitent, and inflexible only with vice and inhumanity.
+
+"In the war which has been recommenced in Cuba you will not find a
+revolution beside itself with the joy of rash heroism, but a revolution
+which comprehends the responsibilities incumbent upon the founders of
+nations. Cowardice might seek to profit by another fear under the
+pretext of prudence--the senseless fear which has never been justified
+in Cuba--the fear of the negro race. The past revolution, with its
+generous though subordinate soldiers, indignantly denies, as does the
+long trial of exile as well as of the respite in the island, the menace
+of a race war, with which our Spanish beneficiaries would like to
+inspire a fear of the revolution. The war of emancipation and their
+common labor have obliterated the hatred which slavery might have
+inspired. The novelty and crudity of social relations consequent to the
+sudden change of a man who belonged to another into a man who belonged
+to himself, are overshadowed by the sincere esteem of the white Cuban
+for the equal soul, and the desire for education, the fervor of a free
+man, and the amiable character of his negro compatriot.
+
+"In the Spanish inhabitants of Cuba, instead of the hateful spite of the
+first war, the revolution, which does not flatter nor fear, expects to
+find such affectionate neutrality or material aid that through them the
+war will be shorter, its disasters less, and more easy and friendly the
+subsequent peace in which father and son are to live. We Cubans
+commenced the war; the Cubans and Spaniards together will terminate it.
+If they do not ill treat us, we will not ill treat them. Let them
+respect us and we will respect them. Steel will answer to steel, and
+friendship to friendship."
+
+It may be that not all the generous and altruistic anticipations of this
+exalted utterance were fully realized. It may be confidently declared
+that all were sincerely meant by their author; and the world will
+testify that seldom if ever was a war begun with nobler ideals than
+those thus set forth by Jose Marti.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+
+We have said that there was no consideration of annexation to the United
+States, on the part of the organizers and directors of the Cuban War of
+Independence. Neither was there much if any thought of intervention by
+the United States in Cuba's behalf; though that was what ultimately
+occurred. No doubt, if ever a fleeting thought of that passed through a
+Cuban patriot's mind, he esteemed it "a consummation devoutly to be
+wished." But it was not reckoned to be within the limits of reasonable
+possibility. Certainly it was never discussed, and it may be said with
+even more positiveness that there was never any attempt to bring it
+about by surreptitious means. The charge was occasionally made, in
+quarters unfriendly to the Cuban cause, that the Junta was endeavoring
+to embroil the United States in a war with Spain. That was absolutely
+untrue. No such effort was ever made by any responsible or authoritative
+Cuban.
+
+It might rather be said that the Junta was solicitous to avoid so far as
+possible danger of complications between the United States and Spain.
+For example, it did not encourage Americans to enter the Cuban army, but
+discouraged them from so doing and often rejected them outright. An
+expert ex-Pinkerton detective was employed by the Junta to serve
+constantly in its New York office. His duties were in part to detect if
+possible any spies or Spanish agents who might come in and want to
+enlist with, of course, the intention of betraying the cause. But he
+also did his best to dissuade all but Cubans from enlisting. He was
+under directions from the Junta to warn all American applicants, of whom
+there were many, that they had better not enter the Cuban service:
+First, because they did not realize the formidable and desperate
+character of the undertaking in which they were seeking to participate;
+second, because the Junta could give them no assurance of pay, or even
+of food; and third, because they were sure soon to grow tired of the
+arduous discouraging, up-hill campaign which was before them. The only
+men who were wanted, and the only men who were generally accepted were
+Cubans, whose patriotic interest in the island would enable them to
+endure cheerfully what would be intolerable to an alien. They were
+believed by the Junta to be the only men who would permanently stand the
+test.
+
+As a matter of fact only a very few Americans were accepted; probably
+not more than forty or fifty all told. They were accepted partly because
+they were so insistent and persistent in their desires and demands, and
+partly because of some qualifications which made them of special value.
+They were chiefly sharpshooters who had formerly served in the United
+States army. When they were accepted they were reminded that they were
+forfeiting all claim upon the United States government for protection or
+rescue, no matter what might befall them. Thus if they were killed or
+captured and ill treated in any way by the Spanish they would be
+debarred from appealing to the United States, and there would be no
+danger of any friction between the United States and Spain on their
+account.
+
+The only way in which the Junta deliberately incurred the risk of
+causing international trouble was in the organization and dispatching of
+filibustering and supply expeditions from the United States to Cuba. Of
+course, all such performances were illegal. Spain protested and raged
+against them, and the United States government sincerely and
+indefatigably strove to prevent them. But it was to no avail. The
+expeditions kept going. For two years there was an average of one a
+month, carrying men, arms and ammunition, and other supplies.
+
+[Illustration: GEORGE RENO]
+
+Another important traffic between Cuba and the United States was that in
+information between the patriots in the island and the Junta in New
+York. The chief agent in this perilous but essential work was Mr. George
+Reno, who has since served in important capacities under the civil
+government of the Cuban Republic. It was his duty periodically to run
+the blockade between the little town of Guanaja and Nassau. The former
+was a little place of a few hundred inhabitants on the Bay of Sabinal,
+on the northern coast of Camaguey; and the latter was the capital of New
+Providence Island in the British Bahamas, the favorite resort of
+blockade runners during the Civil War in the United States, and since
+then the terminus of a cable line running to Jupiter, on the Florida
+coast. At Nassau Dr. Indalacio Salas, a Cuban physician, who had lived
+there many years, represented the Junta and acted as a sort of Cuban
+postmaster; receiving letters and messages from Cuba and forwarding them
+to the United States, and vice versa.
+
+This contraband messenger service between Cuba and Nassau was one of the
+romantic features of the campaign of which the public knew nothing. The
+trips were made in a little sloop-rigged yacht, carrying three or four
+men, and while they afforded no spectacle to the public eye and did not
+figure in the news as did various filibustering expeditions, they were
+often of vital importance to the patriot cause, and they were fraught
+with much peril. The passage of several hundred miles was made across
+the Great Bahama Bank and the Tongue of Ocean; perilous waters dotted
+with reefs and rocks and subject to violent storms, and closely watched
+at the south by Spanish cruisers. The portion of the trip nearest the
+Cuban coast was generally made at night, to avoid the Spaniards, but the
+darkness added to the peril in other respects.
+
+This service was the chief though not the sole means of communication
+between the Cuban patriots and the rest of the world. Some
+correspondence was smuggled out of Havana on American steamers, but that
+was perilous work and was seldom attempted. Some was carried by a Cuban
+sailor in a little cat-rigged boat, with which he made trips when
+occasion offered between some point on the southern coast of Oriente and
+the island of Jamaica. On these trips, both from Nassau and Jamaica,
+were carried not only letters and communications of all sorts but also
+important supplies of medicines, surgical instruments, and other small
+articles which were often of indispensable value. The service was
+therefore of the greatest possible value to the Cubans, and it was
+arduous and perilous to those who rendered it. It was performed,
+however, without remuneration or compensation of any kind, save the
+satisfaction of aiding the patriot cause. The Cuban revolution had no
+money with which to pay salaries, but all men served for the sake of
+Cuba Libre.
+
+The attitude of the people of Cuba toward the revolution, so far as at
+this early date they knew what was going on, was varied according to
+their occupations, interests and relationships. The professional
+classes, the lawyers, physicians, educators, men of letters and others,
+for the most part wished for complete separation from Spain, and aided
+the cause of independence with their money and their influence. There
+were, however, some of them, including not a few of the most estimable
+and most patriotic men on the island, whose faith was not able to
+forecast victory. They saw on the side of the Cubans lack of money, lack
+of arms and ammunition, and lack of that direct connection with the
+outer world which was indispensable for support; and on the side of
+Spain plenty of money, equipment and communications, and an army of
+200,000 trained soldiers thrown into a territory about the size of the
+State of Pennsylvania, together with an inflexible resolution never to
+surrender the island but to suppress every insurrection at no matter
+what cost. It was surely not strange that they regarded such odds as too
+formidable to be overcome, by even the most ardent and self-sacrificing
+patriotism, and therefore thought that the course of greater wisdom
+would be to persuade, compel or otherwise prevail upon Spain to bestow
+upon the island a genuine and satisfactory measure of autonomy.
+
+The merchants and commercial classes very largely consisted of
+Spaniards, a fact which sufficiently indicates their attitude. They were
+not only resolutely committed against the revolution, and indeed against
+autonomy, but they were almost incredibly bitter against the Cuban
+Independence party. It was from those classes that the notorious "Cuban
+Volunteers" had been recruited in the Ten Years' war, men who, though
+living in Cuba and enriching themselves from her resources, were "more
+Spanish than Spain." They corresponded with the Tories of the American
+Revolution, and not merely the Tories who sat in their chairs and railed
+against the Revolution, but rather those who took up arms in the
+British cause, and who allied themselves with the Red Indians with
+tomahawk and scalping knife. The animus of these Spaniards in Cuba was
+not, generally speaking, love of Spain, nor yet hatred of the Cubans,
+but rather greed of gain. They were not patriotic, but simply sordid.
+With Cuba under Spanish domination, they were enabled to amass great
+wealth, and they wanted such conditions and such opportunities of
+enrichment continued. That was not an exalted attitude, and it was
+naturally odious to the Cuban patriots who were serving without pay and
+sacrificing their all for the independence of the island and for the
+attainment of a degree of material prosperity as well as of civic and
+spiritual enfranchisement immeasurably beyond the sordid conceptions of
+these selfish time-servers.
+
+The attitude of another important though less numerous and less
+demonstrative class, the manufacturers of sugar and tobacco, varied
+greatly according to the individual. Some were Spaniards; and they, like
+the merchants, were inflexibly opposed to the revolution, for similar
+reasons. Some were Autonomists, and they inclined toward compromise.
+They did not want their lands to be ravaged and their cane fields and
+buildings to be burned in war; not because they would hesitate at any
+necessary sacrifice for the welfare of Cuba but because they regarded
+such sacrifices as unnecessary. Some were members of the Cuban
+Independence party, and they cordially and eagerly supported the
+revolution; saying: "Let our fields and buildings be burned. If it is
+necessary in order to free the island that our property shall be ruined,
+let it be ruined!"
+
+This patriotic attitude of some of the great property-owners, who had
+most to lose through the ravages of war but who were ready to risk all,
+was finely displayed in the very midst of the conflict. There were in
+the Province of Santa Clara two very wealthy Cuban women, sisters. They
+were Marta Abreu, who became the wife of the Vice-President of the Cuban
+Republic, and who died in France, and Rosalie Abreu, whose home is
+preeminently the "show place" of Cuba and is perhaps the most beautiful
+residence in all the tropical regions of the world. These women gave
+large sums of money for the revolution and made many sacrifices for it,
+beside running great risks of utter disaster to their fortunes. They
+were both in Paris when news came of the death of Antonio Maceo, the
+brilliant and daring commander who had carried the war westward into
+Havana and Pinar del Rio and who fell in battle in the former province.
+His death was a disaster well calculated to shake the fortitude of the
+patriots, if not to strike them with despair. But immediately upon
+hearing the news Marta Abreu sent a cable dispatch to Benjamin Guerra,
+the Treasurer of the Junta, urging him not to be discouraged but to
+"keep the good work going," and adding that she and her sister were each
+mailing him a check for $50,000. Such a spirit was indomitable.
+
+The small farmers of the island, or "guajiros," the peasantry and rural
+workingmen, were strongly in favor of the revolution, although it meant
+unspeakable hardships to them. They sent their families up into the
+mountains, where they would be comparatively safe from the actual
+fighting, and where the old men, the women and the children could
+cultivate little patches of ground, planted with sweet potatoes, yucca
+and other food plants, which would supply them with nourishment and also
+contribute to the feeding of the patriot army. Then the men joined the
+ranks of the revolutionary army. It should be added that among the most
+eager recruits were many sons of Autonomists. Their fathers deprecated
+the war, but the sons realized its necessity. There were even some sons
+of Spanish Loyalists in the patriot army, who fought faithfully for the
+Cuban cause against their own fathers.
+
+The priesthood of the island was absolutely against the revolution and
+in favor of maintaining the sovereignty of the Spanish crown in Cuba.
+There may have been a few exceptions, of priests who not only favored
+independence but who actually went into the field with the patriot army
+and fought for it. But apart from them the Church was solidly for Spain.
+The great majority of the priests had come from Spain, and remained
+Spaniards at heart and in political sympathy. They preached from their
+pulpits against the revolution, and undoubtedly exerted considerable
+influence in that direction. That fact was not forgotten after the war,
+and it explained the very general antipathy toward or at least lack of
+sympathy with the Church which then and thereafter prevailed among the
+men of Cuba. The women, even the most patriotic, largely remained
+faithful to the Church and subject to its spiritual influence, but the
+men renounced it because of what they regarded as its unfaithfulness to
+the cause of Free Cuba.
+
+There were at this time happily no racial nor partisan differences among
+the patriots of Cuba. There were white men, there were negroes, and
+there were those of mixed blood. But the same spirit of independence
+animated them all, and they fought side by side in the field, and sat
+side by side in council, with never a thought of prejudice. Antonio
+Maceo, one of the most honored and trusted patriot generals, was a
+mulatto, but he was regarded as the peer of any of the white commanders,
+white men gladly served under him, and we have already seen how his
+death was regarded by the Abreu sisters, who were aristocrats of the
+purest Creole blood. It was only in later years, after Cuban
+independence had been attained, that so much as an attempt was made at
+the raising of race issues in Cuba, and then only through the exercise
+of the most sinister and unworthy influences for sordid ends.
+
+Nor were there partisan differences. Indeed at this time the Cuban
+Independence Party was a harmonious unity. There were no symptoms of any
+factional division. The rise of partisanship did not occur until after
+the war of independence had been won and, if we may for a moment
+anticipate the course of events, until it was realized that the United
+States really meant to keep its word and make Cuba an independent
+Republic. For, truth to tell, when the United States intervened in the
+conflict between Cuba and Spain, in the spring of 1898, while there was
+assured confidence throughout the island that the end of Spanish rule
+was at hand, there was also a general belief that annexation to the
+United States was inevitable. The great majority of the Cuban people
+probably did not know of the pledge which was appended to the
+Declaration of War, that the United States would withdraw and leave Cuba
+to self-government, and they assumed that American intervention meant
+American conquest and annexation. The comparatively few who did know
+about it had little expectation that it would ever be fulfilled. Even if
+the United States made the promise in good faith, something would happen
+to prevent its being carried out. When at last it was found that the
+United States was in earnest, and that Cuba was indeed to have
+independence, just as though she had won it without aid, there was
+surprise amounting almost to stupefaction, there was unbounded
+exultation, and there was, unhappily, division of the people into
+antagonistic parties. Of these we shall hear more hereafter.
+
+Thus was the issue joined. The great mass of the Cuban people was united
+and harmonious in its determination at last to achieve that independence
+of the island for which so many men during so many years had wished and
+worked and suffered. The Spanish party was implacable; and the
+Autonomists were largely unsympathetic--not all, for some in time joined
+the revolution; but the Cuban Independence party, comprising the large
+majority of the population, was resolute and irrepressible in its
+course.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+
+The war was on. Marti and his comrades had planned to have a
+simultaneous uprising in all six provinces on February 24. In each a
+leader was appointed, an organization was formed, and such supplies as
+could be obtained were provided. But in only three provinces did an
+actual insurrection occur. These were Oriente, or Santiago as it was
+then called, Santa Clara, and Matanzas; the extreme eastern and the two
+central provinces. In Oriente uprisings occurred at two points, under
+Henry Brooks at Guantanamo, and at Los Negros under Guillermon Moncada.
+In Matanzas there were also two uprisings; one at Aguacate, on the
+Havana borderline, under Manuel Garcia, and one at Ybarra. In Santa
+Clara the chief demonstration was near Cienfuegos, under General
+Matagas. The uprising in Havana was to have been under the leadership of
+Julio Sanguilly, but in some way never satisfactorily explained he was
+betrayed and arrested and the outbreak did not occur. There were not a
+few who at first suspected and even charged that Sanguilly himself had
+betrayed the cause, for Spanish money, but his sentence to life
+imprisonment by the Spanish authorities seemed abundantly to disprove
+this charge.
+
+The insurgents naturally made most headway at first in Oriente. There
+were fewer Spanish troops in that province and there were more mountain
+fastnesses for refuge in case of enforced retreat, than in the more
+densely settled and populated central provinces. We have already seen
+that a numerous company of patriots marched from Baire to Santiago to
+present to the Spanish commander there, General Jose Lachambre, their
+demands for the independence of Cuba. That officer of course rejected
+their demands, and on their retirement sent Colonel Perico Perez after
+them with 500 troops, to capture or disperse them. But Perez and his men
+did neither. Instead, they joined the insurgents under Henry Brooks, and
+were among the foremost to do effective work against the Spaniards. Maso
+Parra recruited a strong band near Manzanillo, but instead of fighting
+there proceeded to Havana Province, accompanied by Enrique Cespedes and
+Amador Guerra, in hope of raising the standard of revolution where
+Sanguilly had failed. The Spanish forces were so strong there, however,
+as to overawe most of the Cubans, or at any rate to make it seem more
+expedient to put forward their chief efforts in other places. In
+Matanzas the earliest engagements were fought by troops under Antonio
+Lopez Coloma and Juan Gualberto Gomez, with indifferent results. Another
+sharp conflict occurred at Jaguey Grande, and there were yet others at
+Vequita; at Sevilla, where the patriots defeated 1,500 Spanish regulars
+commanded by General Lachambre; at Ulloa, at Baire, and at Los Negros. A
+belated uprising in Pinar del Rio under General Azcuy came speedily to
+grief, as did another near Holguin. By the early days of March the
+entire movement seemed to have subsided save in the southern parts of
+Oriente.
+
+The Spanish authorities had acted promptly and vigorously. The
+revolution began on February 24. The very next day a special meeting of
+the Spanish Cabinet was held at Madrid, as a result of which the
+Minister for the Colonies, Senor Abarzuza, authorized Captain-General
+Callejas to proclaim martial law throughout Cuba. This was in fact done
+by Callejas before Abarzuza's order reached him, and he also put into
+operation the "Public Order law" which provided for the immediate
+punishment of anyone taken in the performance or attempt of a seditious
+act. The Captain-General had at his disposal at this time nominally six
+regiments of infantry and three of cavalry, two battalions of garrison
+artillery and one mountain battery, aggregating about 19,000 men, and
+nearly 14,000 local militia, remains of the notorious Volunteers of the
+Ten Years' War; a total of nearly 33,000 men. But these figures were
+delusive. Callejas himself reported, on his return to Spain two or three
+months later, that half of the regular forces existed only on paper, and
+that the militia was altogether untrustworthy. He had learned the latter
+fact by bitter experience when at the very beginning Perico Perez and
+his 500 men had deserted to the Cuban cause. The fact is that the leaven
+of patriotism had begun to work even among the old Volunteers and still
+more among their sons, and many of them came frankly over to the cause
+which they or their fathers had formerly so savagely opposed. Callejas's
+forces were very weak in artillery, but that did not greatly matter,
+since the revolutionists at this time had none at all. He enjoyed the
+great advantage of having possession of all the large towns and cities
+along the coast with their fortifications both inland and seaward;
+fortifications which were somewhat antiquated but still sufficiently
+effective against ill-armed insurgents without artillery. The Spanish
+navy in Cuban waters comprised five small cruisers and six gunboats; not
+a formidable force, but infinitely superior to that of the
+revolutionists, which consisted of nothing at all. It assisted in
+protecting the coast towns, and served for the transportation of troops
+and supplies, but its chief function was to guard the coast against
+filibustering and supply expeditions.
+
+Although the Spanish forces were very considerably superior to the
+revolutionists numerically as well as in equipment and abundance of
+supplies, Calleja realized that they would not be sufficient to cope
+with the patriots on their own ground and in the increasing numbers
+which he prudently anticipated would rally to their standard.
+Accordingly early in March he sent to Spain an urgent call for large
+reenforcements for both army and navy, declaring that he could not hold
+his own, much less suppress the revolt, without them, and giving warning
+that unless he received them promptly he would not be responsible for
+the consequences. In response a battalion of regulars was immediately
+transferred to Cuba from Porto Rico, and 7,000 more were sent from
+Spain. All the civil prefects throughout the island were replaced with
+military officers. In Havana and elsewhere all prominent Cubans
+suspected of complicity or even sympathy with the revolution were
+arrested and imprisoned. The Morro Castle at Havana was crowded with the
+best citizens of the metropolitan province. But this attempt at
+repression only added fuel to the flame. The revolution burst out anew
+in the Province of Oriente, and when Callejas ordered the local troops
+of Havana to proceed thither, they mutinied and refused to go. In such
+circumstances Callejas, who at first had affected to regard the outbreak
+as mere sporadic brigandage, now openly confessed that it was an
+island-wide revolution.
+
+Complications with the United States also speedily arose. The arrest of
+Julio Sanguilly and others at Havana has been mentioned. These men had
+been in the United States for years, and had become naturalized citizens
+of that country, wherefore the United States consul-general at Havana,
+Ramon O. Williams, made formal demand that they should be tried before a
+civil court and should have the benefit of counsel, instead of being
+summarily disposed of by court martial. This was a legitimate demand,
+which had to be granted, but it incensed Callejas so much that he asked
+the Spanish government to demand Williams's recall; which that
+government very prudently did not do. At Santiago, also, two American
+sailors, who had landed there in a small boat, and had been arrested as
+filibusters, made appeal to the American consul there, who also insisted
+that they should have a civil trial; as a result of which they were
+acquitted.
+
+[Illustration: LA PUNTA FORTRESS, HAVANA]
+
+While thus careful to protect the rights of its citizens, native or
+naturalized, the United States government was equally energetic in its
+endeavors to prevent violations of the neutrality law by filibustering
+expeditions, and went to great expense and pains therein. It watched and
+guarded all Atlantic and Gulf ports to prevent the departure of such
+expeditions, and gave hospitality to a Spanish cruiser which lay at Key
+West to watch for and intercept them. Hannis Taylor, the American
+Minister at Madrid, assured the Spanish government that the United
+States would do all that was in its power to prevent such expeditions
+from departing from its shores, and that promise was fulfilled with
+exceptional efficiency. Indeed, the United States administration
+incurred much popular censure for its energy in stopping the sailing of
+vessels which were suspected of carrying supplies to Cuba; for it did
+stop a number of them, to the very heavy pecuniary loss of the patriots.
+Nevertheless some vessels were successful in eluding the vigilance of
+the federal guards, and that fact gave umbrage in Spain; so that while
+at home the American government was charged with hostility to the Cuban
+cause, in Spain it was charged with too greatly favoring it.
+
+With the receipt of reenforcements, Callejas made renewed efforts to
+suppress the revolution; though he had little heart in the matter and
+seemed to realize the hopelessness of the task. Practically all the
+fighting was in Oriente. Colonel Santocildes made an unsuccessful attack
+upon the patriots near Guantanamo on March 10, and a week later Colonel
+Bosch had an equally unsatisfactory meeting with them under Brooks and
+Perez near Ulloa. So strong were the insurgents becoming in that
+province that they began to exercise the functions of civil government,
+in the carrying of mails and the collection of taxes. Beside Henry
+Brooks and Perico Perez, under whom were the largest forces, Bartolome
+Maso, who had returned from Havana, held Manzanillo with a thousand
+troops, Jesus Rabi occupied Baire and Jiguani with 1,500, and Quintin
+Banderas, Amador Guerra and Esteban Tomayo had among them 2,000 more.
+After his repulse at Guantanamo the Spanish Colonel Santocildes went to
+Bayamo, where he was attacked and routed with heavy loss. A few days
+later, on March 24, a battle was fought at Jaraguana between Amador
+Guerra, with 900 Cubans, and Colonel Araoz, with 1,000 Spanish regulars,
+in which the latter suffered the heavier losses, though they finally
+compelled the Cubans to retire from the field.
+
+At this time an effort was made by both the Captain-General and some
+leaders of the Cuban Autonomists to make terms with the revolutionists.
+With the assent and cooperation of Callejas a commission of Autonomists,
+headed by Juan Bautista Spotorno,--who had once been for a time
+President of the Cuban Republic, shortly after the Ten Years'
+War,--proceeded to Oriente and sought a conference with Bartolome Maso
+at Manzanillo. That sturdy patriot received them grimly. He listened to
+their proposals in ominous silence. Then, in a voice all the more
+menacing for its repression of passion, he addressed Spotorno:
+
+"You were once President of the Cuban Republic in the Field?"
+
+"Yes, Bartolome; you know that."
+
+"You then as President issued a decree of death against anyone who
+should seek to persuade the Cuban government to accept any terms short
+of independence?"
+
+"Yes, but...."
+
+"Then, Bautista Spotorno, for this once, go in peace; but go very
+quickly, lest I change my mind as you have changed yours. And be assured
+that if you or any of your kind ever come hither with such proposals
+again, I shall execute upon you or upon them your own decree!"
+
+The next day Jose Marti and Maximo Gomez issued in Hayti the manifesto
+which we have already cited, which had the result of assuring all
+wavering or doubtful Cubans that the most authoritative leaders of their
+nation were directing the revolution, and that it was to be indeed a
+struggle to a finish. There was another result. The Spanish
+Captain-General, Emilio Callejas, despaired of coping with the steadily
+rising storm, and on March 27 he placed his resignation in the hands of
+the Queen Regent of Spain. That sovereign immediately summoned a Cabinet
+council, herself presiding. It was no longer the Liberal Cabinet of
+Praxedes Sagasta. That body had fallen a few days before, in a
+political crisis which had arisen in Madrid over a newspaper controversy
+about Cuban affairs. An advanced Liberal paper, _El Resumen_, had
+imputed cowardice to army officers who, it said, were always eager to
+serve in Cuba in time of peace, but shunned that island whenever there
+was fighting going on. At this a mob of officers attacked and wrecked
+the offices of the paper, and the next evening attacked the offices of
+_El Heraldo_ and _El Globo_, which had denounced their doings. The next
+day all the papers of Madrid notified the government that they would
+suspend publication unless assured of protection against such outrages.
+General Lopez Dominguez approved the conduct of the riotous officers and
+demanded that the editors of the papers be delivered to him for trial by
+court martial. The Prime Minister, Sagasta, replied that that would not
+be legal, since all press offences against the army short of treason
+must be tried before civil juries. Then Marshal Martinez Campos, who as
+Captain-General had ended the Ten Years' War in Cuba, led a deputation
+of army officers to demand of Sagasta that he should suppress _El
+Resumen_ and have more strict press laws enacted. Sagasta refused and,
+finding his support in the Cortes untrustworthy in the face of military
+bullying, offered the resignation of the Ministry, on March 17. The
+Queen Regent invited Campos to form a Ministry, but he declined; though
+he announced that all newspaper men attacking the army would be shot,
+and he arbitrarily haled before military tribunals a number of editors,
+while other journalists fled the country.
+
+The Queen Regent then called upon Canovas del Castillo, the Conservative
+leader, to form a cabinet, and on March 25 he did so, despite the fact
+that his party was in a minority in the Cortes, and it was this
+Conservative cabinet which the sovereign consulted four days later
+concerning the resignation of Callejas and affairs in Cuba in general.
+It was decided to accept Callejas's resignation, with special thanks for
+his loyal services, to appoint Martinez Campos to succeed him, to ask
+fresh credits of $120,000,000 for the expenses of the war, to send large
+reenforcements to Cuba, and to increase the peace footing of the Spanish
+army from 71,000 to 82,000 men. The troops in Cuba were at once to be
+increased to 40,000 men, and 40,000 more were to be added, if needed, in
+four months. Thus did Spain rouse herself to fight her last fight for
+the retention of her last American possession.
+
+It was not, however, until April 15 that Callejas received a message
+from the Queen Regent, formally accepting his resignation, thanking him
+for "the activity, zeal and ability" with which he had conducted the
+military operations against the revolutionists, complimenting all the
+forces under his command for their valor, and directing him to return to
+Spain by the next steamer that sailed from Havana after the arrival of
+his successor. And his successor landed the very next day, at
+Guantanamo. There was much adverse comment among Spaniards in Cuba upon
+this summary recall of Callejas. The explanation of it was that the
+government regarded him as culpable for letting the revolution gain so
+great headway, but it did not deem it politic to censure him publicly,
+or at all until he was back at Madrid. As for Martinez Campos, he
+promised on his acceptance of the appointment that he would quickly
+suppress the revolt, as he had done the Ten Years' War; and doubtless he
+expected that he would be able to do so.
+
+Indeed, in sending Martinez Campos to Cuba, Spain "played her strongest
+card." He had long been known as "Spain's greatest General," and also as
+the "King-Maker," since it was he who had restored the Bourbon dynasty
+to the throne. He was undoubtedly a soldier of great valor, skill and
+resource. He was also a statesman of more than ordinary ability, and had
+been for a time Prime Minister of Spain, and for fifteen years had been
+making and unmaking ministries at will. Now, at the age of sixty-four he
+was still in the prime of his powers and at the height of his popularity
+and influence. His departure from Madrid for Cuba was attended with
+demonstrations, both official and popular, which could scarcely have
+been exceeded for royalty itself. He reached Guantanamo on April 16, and
+on the following day assumed his office. It was not until a week later
+that he reached Havana. There he was received with unbounded rejoicings
+by the Spanish party, and with sincere satisfaction by the Autonomists,
+while it must be confessed that many Cuban patriots regarded his coming
+with dismay. There could be no doubt that it portended the putting forth
+of all the might of Spain against the revolution, under the command of a
+great soldier-statesman who had never yet failed in an undertaking.
+
+On the very day after his arrival at Guantanamo the new Captain-General
+issued a proclamation to the people of Cuba. In it he pledged himself to
+fulfil in good faith all the reforms which had been promised in his own
+Treaty of Zanjon and in subsequent legislation by the Spanish Cortes,
+provided the loyal parties in Cuba would give him their support; this
+admission of dependence upon the people being obviously a bid for
+popularity. The parties in question were, of course, the Spaniards, who
+were divided into Conservatives and Reformists, and the Autonomists, or
+Cuban Home Rulers. They or their leaders at once pledged him their
+support, and the Spaniards gave it, for a time. But a number of the
+Autonomists were dissatisfied because he would promise nothing more
+than the fulfilment of reforms which had never been regarded as
+sufficient, and on that account refused him their support. Instead, they
+gave it to the revolutionists, and many of them, especially the younger
+men, actually joined the revolutionary army, or went to Jamaica or the
+United States to assist in the raising of funds and the equipping of
+expeditions. It was thus at this time that the disintegration of the
+once influential Autonomist party began.
+
+To the revolutionists he tried to be conciliatory. He offered full and
+free pardon to all who would lay down their arms, excepting a few of the
+leaders, and he doubtless expected that there would be a numerous
+response. It does not appear that there was any favorable response
+whatever. If any insurgents did surrender themselves--of whom there is
+no record--they were outnumbered a hundred to one by the Autonomists who
+at that time were transformed into revolutionists.
+
+Campos did not rely, however, upon his proclamation for the suppression
+of the insurrection. He set to work at once with all his consummate
+military skill and his knowledge of the island and of Cuban methods of
+warfare, to organize a military campaign of victory. He made General
+Garrich governor of the Province of Oriente, with General Salcedo in
+command of the First Division, at Santiago, and General Lachambre of the
+Second Division, at Bayamo. He undertook the organization of numerous
+bodies of irregular troops, to wage a guerrilla warfare against the
+Cubans similar to that which the Cubans themselves waged successfully
+against Spanish regulars. When he found his troops from Spain
+disinclined toward such work, or unsuited to it, he sought the services
+of young Spaniards who had for some years been settled in Cuba, such as
+had been so ready to serve in the former war. They generally declined,
+whereupon he sought to draft them into the service, and at that they
+threatened mutiny. As a last resort he sent for Lolo Benitez, a life
+prisoner at Ceuta. This man had been a guerrilla leader, on the Cuban
+side, in the Ten Years' War, but had been guilty of cruelties which
+caused the Cubans to repudiate him. He had been captured by the
+Spaniards and sent to the penal colony in Africa for life. But Campos
+brought him back and gave him a free pardon and commission as lieutenant
+colonel in the Spanish army, on condition that he would conduct a
+guerrilla warfare against his own countrymen. When this was done, and
+when under this man were placed numerous criminals released from Cuban
+jails, there were vigorous protests from Spanish officers against such
+degradation of the Spanish army, and warnings that such unworthy tactics
+would surely react against their author.
+
+The official attitude of the Spanish government was at this time set
+forth by the Spanish Minister to the United States, Senor Dupuy de Lome.
+He belittled the reports of Spanish oppressions and of Cuban uprisings.
+"There is very little interest," he said, "being taken in the revolt by
+the people of Havana. I think the uprising will speedily be put down.
+The arrival of General Martinez Campos has brought order out of chaos.
+He has shown clearly to the people that their interests will be
+protected, and as a result has caused a feeling of security. He is every
+inch a soldier, not a toy fighter. He is loyal to his country, but he is
+humane, and as far as possible he will treat his enemies leniently. In
+the case of the leaders of the revolt, however, severe justice will be
+meted out."
+
+Meantime the revolution was proceeding. The most formidable figure in
+its ranks in Cuba was that of Antonio Maceo, the mulatto general who
+above most of his colleagues possessed a veritable genius for war, both
+in strategy and in direct fighting. He had come of a family of fighters,
+and had been born in Santiago in 1849, and had fought in the Ten Years'
+War. He was highly gifted with the qualities of leadership among men,
+with valor and resolution, with keen foresight and great intelligence.
+He was probably the ablest strategist in the War of Independence, and
+personally the most popular commander. At the end of March he arrived in
+Cuba from Costa Rica with an expedition well equipped with rifles and
+small field pieces. With him were his brother Jose Maceo, Flor Crombet,
+Dr. Francisco Agramonte, and several other officers. The landing was
+made at Baracoa, the Spanish gunboats which were watching the coast
+being successfully eluded. Soon after landing the patriots were attacked
+by General Lachambre's troops at Duaba, but the latter were repulsed
+with considerable loss. A part of the expedition was then sent around by
+sea to Manzanillo, on a British schooner. That vessel was wrecked and in
+consequence its captain and crew were captured by the Spaniards, who put
+the captain to death. Dr. Agramonte was one of several members of the
+expedition who were also taken, but he, being an American citizen,
+escaped court martial and was more leniently dealt with by a civil
+court, on the demand of the American consul at Santiago.
+
+In a short time this masterful leader, Antonio Maceo, had control of
+practically all of the Province of Oriente outside of a few fortified
+coast cities and camps. The Captain-General, vainly imagining that the
+insurrection would be confined to that province, sent thither all
+available troops, leaving Havana, Matanzas and the others with scarcely
+more than police guard. Thus greatly outnumbered, Maceo wisely resorted
+not so much to guerrilla warfare as to what may be called Fabian
+tactics. He maintained his army in complete organization and observed
+all the rules of civilized warfare. But he also maintained a high degree
+of mobility, avoiding any general engagement, and wearing out the morale
+of the Spaniards with forced marches, surprise attacks, and all the
+bewildering and baffling tactics of which so resourceful and alert a
+commander was capable. Early in April he was indeed in much peril, being
+almost completely surrounded by superior forces near Guantanamo, and
+actually suffering severe losses at Palmerito; but he cut his way out by
+desperate fighting in which he also showed himself a master hand. The
+most serious loss at that time was the death of the brave revolutionist
+Flor Crombet. He was killed not by Spaniards but by a traitor in his own
+command, whom Maceo presently detected and hanged. Soon after the affair
+at Palmerito, however, Maceo captured El Caney, in the very suburbs of
+Santiago, and seized the rich supplies in the Spanish arsenal at that
+place.
+
+The sending of so many troops from the other provinces to Oriente
+emboldened the patriots of Havana and Matanzas to take up arms, and
+uprisings occurred at various places, particularly at Cardenas and the
+city of Matanzas. In the city of Havana itself a daring attempt was made
+to seize Cabanas and El Morro, liberate the political prisoners, and
+destroy the magazines if they could not be held. To encourage these
+movements Maceo sent detachments of his forces from Oriente westward,
+into Camaguey, then still known as the Province of Puerto Principe.
+Jesus Rabi occupied Victoria las Tunas, near the boundary of the latter
+province, and soon had bands operating beyond the border. There was an
+Autonomist organization at Camaguey, which at first disavowed the
+revolution and gave its adherence to the Captain-General, but it became
+demoralized upon the approach of the revolutionary forces, and many of
+its members were soon serving zealously in Maceo's ranks.
+
+The arrival of Jose Marti and Maximo Gomez in Cuba at the middle of
+April, as already related, almost simultaneously with the arrival of
+Martinez Campos, was promptly followed by increased activity on the part
+of the Cubans. Floriano Gascon organized a force of negro miners at
+Juragua, and inflicted a crushing defeat upon a Spanish garrison at
+Ramon de las Jaguas; the Spanish commander being afterward tried by
+Spanish court martial and condemned to death for inefficiency. At the
+end of the month a Spanish force was entrapped and almost destroyed by
+Jose Maceo, near Guantanamo. The first half of May was also marked with
+much fighting in the southern part of Oriente, in which the
+revolutionists were generally successful. Railroads were destroyed to
+break Spanish lines of communication, valuable supplies were captured,
+and Martinez Campos was made to realize the formidable character of the
+insurrection which he had so confidently promised to suppress.
+
+Mention has already been made of the Provisional Government which was
+proclaimed by Maceo early in April. On May 18 this was succeeded by
+another organization elected by a convention of delegates consisting of
+one representative of each 100 revolutionists actually in the field.
+Bartolome Maso, who had been in control of the district of Bayamo since
+early in March, was unanimously chosen President; Maximo Gomez was
+designated as Commander in Chief of the army; and Antonio Maceo was made
+Commander of the Division of Oriente. The next day occurred the tragedy
+of Marti's death, whereupon Tomas Estrada Palma, who had formerly been
+Provisional President, was named to succeed him as the delegate at large
+of the Cuban Republic to the United States and other countries; Manuel
+Sanguilly being later associated with him at Washington.
+
+All through that summer the strife continued, steadily extending its
+area westward into Camaguey and Santa Clara. Campos endeavored to
+confine the war to Oriente, by stretching a line of 4,000 Spanish troops
+across the island at the western boundary of that province, but on June
+2 Maximo Gomez broke through that line, crossed the Jobabo River, and
+entered Camaguey. There he was joined by a nephew of Salvador Cisneros,
+Marquis of Santa Lucia, with a large force, and by Marcos Garcia, mayor
+of Sancti Spiritus, who came across from the Province of Santa Clara.
+With these reenforcements Gomez soon had control of all the southern
+part of Camaguey, and on June 18 the Captain-General was compelled to
+declare that province in a state of siege.
+
+[Illustration: MAXIMO GOMEZ
+
+The foremost military chieftain of the War of Independence, Maximo Gomez
+y Baez, was a Cuban by adoption rather than birth, having been born at
+Bani, Santo Domingo, in 1838. He was an officer in the last Spanish army
+in that island, and went with it thence to Cuba. There he became
+disgusted with the brutality of the Spanish officers toward the Cubans,
+personally assaulted his superior, General Villar, and quit the Spanish
+service, returning to Santo Domingo, where he engaged in business as a
+planter. At the beginning of the Ten Years' War he returned to Cuba,
+joined the patriots, and did efficient service, rising to the chief
+command. After that war he returned to his plantation in Santo Domingo,
+but in 1895 joined Jose Marti in leading the Cuban War of Independence.
+Thereafter his story was the story of the Cuban cause. Declining to be
+considered a candidate for the Presidency of the Republic, he retired to
+private life after the establishment of independence, and died in 1905,
+full of years and honor.]
+
+Then Campos attempted a second barricade. He placed a line of troops
+across the island from Moron to Jucaro, near the western boundary of
+Camaguey, to prevent Gomez from going on into Santa Clara province. This
+was the line along which was afterward built a military railroad, and on
+which was constructed the famous "Trocha" or barrier of ditches, wire
+fences and block houses. It almost coincided with the line of
+demarcation between the two ecclesiastical dioceses into which the
+island was divided. But this attempt to confine the insurrection was no
+more successful than the other. Indeed it was folly to try to shut the
+revolution out of Santa Clara when it was already there. Marcos Garcia
+had left behind him many fervent patriots at Sancti Spiritus, and
+these soon organized a formidable force under the competent lead of
+Carlos Ruloff, and took the field, advancing northward and westward as
+far as Vega Alta. General Zayas and other patriotic leaders operated in
+the southern part of Santa Clara, and soon that province was almost as
+fully aflame with revolution as Oriente itself. This was the more
+significant, because it was a populous and opulent province, where the
+inhabitants had much to lose through the ravages of war. But like the
+Romans in the "brave days of old," the Cubans of the revolution "spared
+neither lands nor gold, nor limb nor life," for the achievement of their
+national independence.
+
+Meantime in Oriente the Cubans were more than holding their own. They
+suffered a sore loss in the death of the dashing champion Amador Guerra,
+who was treacherously slain in the moment of victory at Palmas Altas,
+near Manzanillo. But Henry Brooks landed supplies of artillery and
+ammunition at Portillo; Jesus Rabi almost annihilated a strong Spanish
+force in a defile near Jiguani and thus frustrated General Salcedo's
+plans to surround Maceo's camp at San Jorge; and on July 5 Quintin
+Bandera and Victoriano Garzon attacked and dispersed a newly landed
+Spanish army and captured its stores of arms and ammunition. These
+reverses for his arms exasperated Campos into the issuing of a
+proclamation on July 7, in which, while still offering pardon to all who
+voluntarily surrendered, he threatened death to all who were captured
+under arms, and exile to African prisons to all who were convicted of
+conspiring against the sovereignty of Spain.
+
+Following this, Campos, "Spain's greatest soldier," took the field in
+person. Of this there was need, for Maceo was besieging Bayamo,
+capturing all supplies which were sent thither, and threatening the
+Spanish garrison with starvation. Campos hastened to the relief of that
+place with General Santocildes and a strong force. But Maceo did not
+hesitate to measure strength with Campos. He attacked him openly at
+Peralejo, out-manoeuvered him and out-fought him and came very near to
+capturing him with his whole headquarters staff. Campos was indeed saved
+from capture only by the desperate valor of Santocildes, who lost his
+life in defending him: but he did lose his entire ammunition train and
+was compelled to retreat with the remnant of his shattered forces into
+Bayamo and there undergo the humiliation of being besieged by the
+"rebels" whom he had affected to despise. There he remained for a week,
+until General Suarez Valdez could come with an army, not to defeat the
+Cubans but to help Campos to flee in safety over the road by which he
+had come. Then, when the Spaniards had concentrated more than 10,000
+troops at Bayamo for a supreme struggle the wily Maceo quietly and
+swiftly removed his forces to another scene of action.
+
+Meantime in the far east of the province the patriots besieged the fort
+in Sabana and would have forced its surrender had not Spanish
+reenforcements arrived from Baracoa for its relief. The fort was
+destroyed, however, and the place had to be abandoned by the Spanish.
+Also at Baire, where the revolution began, Jesus Rabi captured a Spanish
+fort and its garrison. Everywhere throughout Oriente the Spaniards were
+on the defensive, while in every other province, even in Pinar del Rio,
+the revolution was ominously gaining strength.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+
+It now seemed opportune to effect a more complete organization of the
+civil government of the Cuban Republic, and for that purpose a
+convention was held in the Valley of the Yara, at which on July 15 a
+Declaration of Cuban Independence was proclaimed, and on August 7, near
+Camaguey the action of May 18 was confirmed and amplified, Bartolome
+Maso being retained as President; Maximo Gomez as Vice-President and
+Minister of War; Salvador Cisneros as Minister of the Interior; Gonzalo
+Quesada as Secretary for Foreign Affairs, with residence in the United
+States; Antonio Maceo as General in Chief of the Army; and Jose Maceo as
+Commander of the Army of Oriente.
+
+This was not, however, a finality. A national Constitutional Convention
+was called, at Najasa, near Guiamaro, in the Province of Camaguey, at
+which were present regularly elected representatives from all six
+provinces of the island. It afterward removed to Anton, in the same
+province, where it completed its labors on September 23, when the
+Constitution of the Republic of Cuba was completed and promulgated.
+Salvador Cisneros y Betancourt, Marquis of Santa Lucia, was chosen by
+acclamation to preside over the deliberations of this important body,
+and associated with him were the ablest and best minds of the Cuban
+nation.
+
+This Constitution provided for the government of Cuba by a Council of
+Ministers, until such time as the achievement of independence and the
+signing of a treaty of peace with Spain should make it practicable for a
+Legislative Assembly to be convoked and to meet for the performance of
+its functions. The Council of Ministers was to consist of six members: a
+President, Vice-President, and Secretaries of War, Foreign Affairs,
+Interior, and Treasury. This Council was to have full governmental
+powers, both legislative and administrative, civil and military; to levy
+taxes, contract loans, raise and equip armies, declare reprisals against
+the enemy when necessary, and in the last resort to control the military
+operations of the Commander in Chief. Treaties were to be made by the
+President and ratified by the Council. It was provided, however, that
+the treaty of peace with Spain, when made, must be ratified not only by
+the Council but also by the National Legislative Assembly which was then
+to be organized. No decree of the Council was valid unless approved by
+four of the six members, including the President. The President had
+power to dissolve the Council, in which case a new Council had to be
+formed within ten days. It was required that all Cubans should be
+obliged to serve the republic personally or with their property, as they
+might be able. But all property of foreigners was to be exempt from
+taxation or other levy, provided that their governments recognized the
+belligerency of Cuba. It was provided that there should be a national
+judiciary entirely independent of the legislature and executive.
+
+Under this system the Council was organized as follows: President,
+Salvador Cisneros y Betancourt, of Camaguey; Vice-President, Bartolome
+Maso, of Manzanillo, Oriente; Secretaries--of War, Carlos Roloff, of
+Santa Clara; of Foreign Affairs, Rafael Portuondo, of Santiago; of the
+Treasury, Severa Pina, of Sancti Spiritus; of the Interior, Santiago J.
+Canizares, of Los Remedios. Each Secretary appointed his own Deputy, who
+should have full power when taking his chief's place, as follows: War,
+Mario G. Menocal, of Matanzas; Foreign Affairs, Fermin G. Dominguez;
+Treasury, Joaquin Castillo Duany, of Santiago; Interior, Carlos Dubois,
+of Baracoa. The Commander in Chief was Maximo Gomez; the
+Lieutenant-General, or Vice-Commander in Chief was Antonio Maceo, and
+the Major Generals were Jose Maceo, Maso Capote, Serafin Sanchez, and
+Fuerto Rodriguez. Tomas Estrada Palma was minister plenipotentiary and
+diplomatic agent abroad. Later Bartolome Maso and General de Castillo
+were made special envoys to the United States.
+
+Salvador Cisneros, the President, has already been frequently mentioned
+in this history. He came of distinguished ancestry, the names of
+Cisneros and Betancourt frequently occupying honorable places in the
+annals of Cuba. Born in 1832, he was by this time past the prime of
+life, but he was just as zealous and efficient in the cause of Cuban
+freedom as he was when he sacrificed his title of Marquis of Santa
+Lucia, and sacrificed his estates, too, which were confiscated by the
+Spanish government, when he joined the Ten Years' War, later to succeed
+the martyred Cespedes as President. Of Bartolome Maso, too, we have
+spoken much. He also was advanced in years, having been born in 1831,
+and he, too, had served through the Ten Years' War and had in
+consequence of his patriotism lost all his estates.
+
+Carlos Roloff, the Secretary of War, was a Pole, who had come to Cuba in
+his youth and settled at Cienfuegos; bringing with him the passionate
+love of freedom which had long been characteristic of the Poles. He
+fought through the Ten Years' War and gained distinction therein, by his
+valor and military skill.
+
+Mario G. Menocal, the Assistant Secretary of War, was a native of Jaguey
+Grande, Matanzas, at this time only twenty-nine years old. He came of a
+family eminent in Cuban history, and indeed in the history of North
+America, since he was a nephew of that A. G. Menocal who was perhaps the
+most distinguished and efficient of all the engineers and surveyors for
+the Isthmian Canal schemes, both at Nicaragua and Panama. He himself
+was, even thus early in life, one of the foremost engineers of Cuba.
+
+[Illustration: ANICETO G. MENOCAL]
+
+Rafael Portuondo y Tamayo, Secretary of Foreign Affairs, was another
+young man--born at Santiago in 1867--of distinguished family and high
+ability. His Assistant Secretary, Fermin Valdes Dominguez, was one of
+the most eminent physicians of Havana, and was one of those students
+who, as hitherto related, were falsely accused by the Volunteers of
+desecrating an officer's grave. He escaped the fate of shooting, which
+was meted out to one in every five of his comrades, but was sent to
+life-long penal servitude at Ceuta. After the Treaty of Zanjon he was
+released and returned to Havana, where he attained great distinction in
+his profession.
+
+Severa Pina, Secretary of the Treasury, belonged to one of the oldest
+families of Sancti Spiritus. His Assistant, Dr. Joaquin Castillo Duany,
+has already been mentioned as one of the organizers of the Cuban Junta
+in New York. He had served on the United States Naval relief expedition
+which went to the Arctic regions in quest of the survivors of the
+_Jeannette_ exploring expedition.
+
+Santiago J. Canizares, Secretary of the Interior, was one of the
+foremost citizens of Los Remedios, and his Assistant, Carlos Dubois,
+enjoyed similar rank at Baracoa.
+
+Meantime Martinez Campos was straining every effort to fulfil his
+promise of victory. At the middle of July he had nearly 40,000 regular
+infantry, more than 2,500 cavalry, more than 1,000 artillery and
+engineers, 4,400 civil guards, 2,700 marines, and nearly 1,200
+guerrillas. His navy comprised 15 vessels, to which were to be added six
+which were approaching completion in Spain and 19 which were being
+purchased of other European nations. Thus his troops outnumbered the
+Cubans by just about two to one. For the latter aggregated only 24,000,
+of whom 12,000 were under Maceo in Oriente, 9,000 in Camaguey under
+Gomez, and 3,000 under Roloff and Sanchez in Santa Clara. In August
+large reenforcements for Campos arrived from Spain, and they were no
+longer, as before, half trained boys, but were the very flower of the
+Spanish army. They brought the total that had been sent to Cuba up to
+80,000, of whom 60,000 were regular infantry. However, probably between
+18,000 and 20,000 must be subtracted from those figures, for killed,
+deserted, and died of yellow fever and other diseases. But even if thus
+reduced to 60,000, the Spanish were still twice as many as the Cubans,
+who had increased their forces to not more than 30,000.
+
+The plans of campaign gave the Cubans, however, a great advantage. Fully
+half of the Spaniards had to remain on garrison duty in the cities and
+towns, especially along the coast, so that the number free to take the
+field against the Cubans was no greater than that of the latter. With
+numbers anywhere near equal, the Cubans were almost sure to win, because
+of their superior morale and their better knowledge of the country.
+
+The Cubans suffered much, it is true, from lack of supplies, and this
+lack became the more marked and grievous as the Spaniards increased
+their naval forces and drew tighter and tighter their double cordon of
+vessels around the island. Several costly expeditions which were fitted
+out in the United States during the year came to grief, being either
+restrained from sailing by the United States authorities or intercepted
+and captured by the Spanish. One such vessel, fully laden with valuable
+supplies, was seized at the mouth of the Delaware River, as it was
+setting out for Cuba, and the cargo was confiscated. The company of
+Cubans in command of the vessel were arrested and brought to trial, but
+were acquitted since the mere exportation of arms and ammunition in an
+unarmed merchant vessel was no violation of law. Far different was the
+fate of any such who were captured by the Spanish at the other end of
+the voyage, as they were approaching the Cuban coast. The mildest fate
+they could expect was a term of many years of penal servitude at Ceuta.
+Such was the sentence imposed upon sailors who were guilty of nothing
+more than smuggling the contraband goods into Cuba. As for Juan
+Gualberto Gomez and his comrades in an expedition which presumptively
+was intended for fighting as well as smuggling, twenty years at Ceuta
+was their sentence.
+
+During the summer of 1895 a severe but necessary order was issued by the
+Cuban commander in chief. This, addressed to the people of Camaguey
+Province, directed the cessation of all plantation work, save such as
+was necessary for the food supply of the families there resident; and
+also strictly forbade the supplying of any food to the Spanish garrisons
+in the towns and cities. Disobedience to these orders, it was plainly
+stated, would mean the destruction of the offending plantation. It was
+the purpose of General Gomez to deprive the Spaniards of all local
+supplies and make them dependent upon shipments of food, even, from
+Spain. This meant, no doubt, much hardship to the Cuban people. But
+there was little complaint, and it was seldom that the rule was
+violated. Whenever a flagrant violation was detected, the torch was
+applied, and canefield and buildings were reduced to ashes. There was
+also much destruction of railroads, bridges, telegraph lines and what
+not, to deprive the Spanish of means of transport and communication. It
+was a fine demonstration of the patriotism of the Cuban people that they
+almost universally acquiesced in this plan of campaign, without demur
+and without repining, although it of course meant heavy loss and untold
+inconvenience and often severe suffering, to them. They realized that
+they were at war, and that war was not to be waged with lace fans and
+rosewater.
+
+At the end of September, after the close of the Constitutional
+Convention, preparations were made for renewing the military campaign
+with more aggressive vigor. Jose Maceo was assigned to the command of
+the eastern part of Oriente, General Capote and General Sanchez took
+respectively the northern and southern parts of the western half, and
+General Rodriguez led the advance into Camaguey. Maximo Gomez himself
+accompanied Rodriguez's army, and was presently joined by Antonio Maceo,
+and together they planned the great campaign of the war, which was
+conceived by Gomez and executed by Maceo. This was nothing less than the
+extension of the war into every province and indeed every district and
+village of the island, by marching westward from Oriente to the further
+end of Pinar del Rio.
+
+Early in October Antonio Maceo set out to join Gomez in Camaguey, taking
+with him 4,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry. At San Nicolas he suffered a
+setback at the hands of General Aldave and a superior force of
+Spaniards, but resolutely continued his progress. Gomez meanwhile pushed
+on into Santa Clara, established headquarters near Las Tunas, where he
+could be in touch with expeditions from Jamaica, and began the
+aggressive against the Spaniards around Sancti Spiritus. Roloff,
+meanwhile, was operating at the northern part of the province, at
+Vueltas. Martinez Campos himself was in the field near Sancti Spiritus,
+but failed to check the Cuban advance. In fact, at almost every point
+the campaign was going steadily against the Spanish; so much against
+them that Campos feared to let the truth be known to the world.
+Accordingly he issued a decree forbidding the publication of any news
+concerning the war save that which was officially given out at his
+headquarters or by his chief of staff at Havana. Only Spanish and
+foreign--no Cuban--correspondents were permitted to accompany the army,
+and they only on their compliance with the rules.
+
+Still Campos appeared to cherish the thought that he could end the war
+by compromise, through pursuing a policy of leniency toward at least the
+rank and file of the insurgents; and in this he had the support of the
+Madrid government. That government had staked its all upon him, and was
+naturally disposed to give him a free hand and to approve everything
+that he did. However, it insisted that the rebellion must be crushed and
+that no further reforms for Cuba could be considered until that was
+done. It was feeling the strain of the war severely, especially since
+its last loan for war funds had to be placed at more than fifty per cent
+discount.
+
+October was a disastrous month for the Spanish at sea. One of their
+gunboats was wrecked on a key, and another, which had just been
+purchased in the United States, was boarded and seized by a party of
+revolutionists in the Cauto River, stripped of all its guns and
+ammunition, and disabled and scuttled. General Enrique Collazo, who
+earlier in the season had several times been baffled in such attempts,
+at last got away from Florida with a strong party of Cubans and
+Americans and effected a safe landing in Cuba. A little later Carlos
+Manuel de Cespedes did the same, bringing a large cargo of arms. Two
+expeditions also came from Canada, under General Francisco Carillo and
+Colonel Jose Maria Aguirre. The latter, by the way, was an American
+citizen who had been arrested in Havana at the very beginning of the
+war, along with Julio Sanguilly, but was released at the very urgent
+insistence of the United States government. Sanguilly, who was suspected
+by some Cubans of having betrayed their cause, was held, tried, and
+condemned to life imprisonment; a fact which cleared him of suspicion of
+complicity with the Spaniards.
+
+Maceo advanced through Camaguey and on November 12 reached Las Villas
+with an army of 8,000 men. Gomez had meanwhile moved northward almost to
+the Gulf coast, and was operating with 5,000 men between Los Remedios
+and Sagua la Grande, where he joined forces with Sanchez, who had
+marched westward, and with Roloff, Suarez, Cespedes and Collazo. He
+established headquarters near the Matanzas border, where he was in touch
+with Lacret, Matagas and other guerrilla leaders who were actively
+engaged in the latter province. In that same month Maceo fought a
+pitched battle with General Navarro, near Santa Clara, and a few days
+later Gomez similarly fought General Suarez Valdes in the same region.
+These were two of the greatest battles of the war, in point of numbers
+engaged and losses suffered, and were both handsomely won by the
+Cubans.
+
+In view of these losses, Campos welcomed the arrival of 30,000
+additional troops from Spain, under General Pando and General Marin. He
+also resorted to recruiting troops in some of the South American
+countries, particularly in Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay, thinking to
+find them hardier and better able to endure the climate and the
+hardships of Cuba than men from the Peninsula. Such recruiting was not
+regarded with favor in those countries, where sympathy was generally on
+the side of the Cubans; but a considerable number of adventurers were
+found who were willing to serve for good pay as soldiers of fortune.
+More and more, too, the Spanish soldiery indulged in excesses against
+the inhabitants of Cuba as well as against the revolutionists in the
+field, and the conflict showed symptoms of degenerating into the
+savagery which marked it at a later date. It is to be recalled to the
+credit of Campos that he resisted all such tendencies, and that he
+indeed sent back to Spain two prominent Generals, Bazan and Salcedo,
+because of their barbarous methods and their criticisms of his humanity.
+General Pando, on arriving with the fresh troops from Spain, was placed
+in command at Santiago; General Marin was assigned to Santa Clara;
+General Mella operated in Camaguey; and General Arderius was charged
+with the hopeless task of guarding Matanzas, Havana and Pinar del Rio
+from invasion by the revolutionists.
+
+The Cuban government, of President Cisneros and his colleagues,
+established its headquarters at Las Tunas, and there approved another
+military proclamation by the Commander in Chief, ordering the burning of
+all cane fields and the laying waste of all plantations which were
+providing or were likely to provide supplies to the Spaniards, and
+threatening with death all persons found giving the Spaniards aid or
+comfort. One notable blow was struck at the south, before the final
+advance was made toward Havana and the west. This was at the middle of
+December. Campos himself was at Cienfuegos, with 20,000 troops, and
+Gomez and Maceo decided to give him battle. The redoubtable negro
+farmer, Quintin Bandera, from Oriente, who at the age of sixty-three
+years had become one of the most agile, daring and successful guerrilla
+leaders, raided the Spanish lines and drew out a considerable force,
+upon which the Cubans fell at Mal Tiempo, thirty miles north of
+Cienfuegos. Only a couple of thousand men were engaged on each side, but
+it was one of the most significant battles of the war, because it was
+the first in which the Cubans relied upon the machete, and the result of
+the experiment made that fearful weapon thereafter their favorite arm,
+particularly in cavalry charges, and it struck a terror into the hearts
+of the Spanish soldiers such as nothing else could do. The machete was
+an enormous knife, as long as a cavalry sabre or longer, with a single
+edge as sharp as a razor on a blade almost as heavy as the head of a
+woodsman's axe. It had been used on sugar plantations, for cutting cane,
+and was so heavy that a single stroke was sufficient to cut through half
+a dozen of the thickest canes. Swung by the expert and sinewy arm of a
+Cuban soldier, it would sever a man's head from his body, or cut off an
+arm or leg, as surely as the blade of a guillotine. At Mal Tiempo a
+whole company of Spanish regulars was set upon by Cuban horsemen armed
+with nothing but machetes, and every one of them was killed.
+
+Turning swiftly away from Mal Tiempo, where they had both been present,
+Gomez and Maceo led their troops swiftly to the northwest and before
+Campos realized what their objective was they were raiding and defeating
+Spanish troops around Colon, in the east central part of the Province
+of Matanzas, between Campos and Havana. The distracted Captain-General
+hastened thither and, learning that they were retiring eastward toward
+the town of Santo Domingo, in Santa Clara, directed his course thither;
+only to find himself outwitted by the Cubans who had really moved
+further toward Colon. At last he came into contact with them, and with
+Emilio Nunez who had joined them, near the little village of Coliseo,
+and there he was badly worsted in the fight, and came near to losing his
+life, his adjutant being shot and killed at his side. The coming of
+night saved him from further losses. But then the Cubans, pursuing
+Fabian tactics, withdrew to Jaguey Grande, in Santa Clara, well content
+with their achievement, where they took counsel over plans for the great
+drive which was to carry them through Matanzas and Havana clear into
+Pinar del Rio.
+
+Campos made the best of his way hastily back to Havana, in a far
+different frame of mind from that in which he had come to Cuba eight
+months before. He had at that time in the island more than 100,000
+troops in active service. Since his appointment as Captain-General
+nearly 80,000 men had been sent thither from Spain. In addition there
+were the Volunteers, or what was left of them. According to Spanish
+authorities at Havana at that time the Volunteers numbered 63,000. True,
+they would not take the field. But they were serviceable for police and
+garrison duty in cities and towns, thus permitting all the regular army
+to be put into the field. The same authorities declared that with the
+Volunteers, marines and all other branches, Campos had at his disposal
+189,000 men. It is probable that the entire force under Gomez and Maceo
+in that first invasion of Matanzas did not exceed 10,000 men. These
+things gave "Spain's greatest General" much food for thought; not of
+the most agreeable kind.
+
+It gave others food for thought; the Spanish Loyalists of both
+Constitutionalist and Reformist predilections, and the dwindling but
+still resolute body of Cuban Autonomists. The last-named were at this
+desperate conjuncture of affairs Campos's best friends. The
+Constitutionalists were hostile to him. They had from the first
+disapproved his moderate and humane methods, wishing to return to the
+savagery of Valmaseda in the Ten Years' War. The Reformists were
+hesitant; they had little faith in Campos, yet they doubted the
+expedience of openly repudiating him. The Autonomists, having faith in
+his sincerity, respecting his humanity, and deploring the devastation
+and ruin which was befalling Cuba, urged that he should be supported
+loyally in at least one last effort to pacify the island and abate the
+horrors of civil war.
+
+The intellectual and moral power of the Autonomists carried the day. The
+Reformists first and then the Constitutionalists agreed to join them in
+making a demonstration of loyalty and confidence to the Captain-General,
+to cheer and sustain him in the depression--almost despair--which he was
+certainly suffering. So the representatives of all three factions
+appeared publicly before Campos. For the Constitutionalists, Santos
+Guzman spoke; an intense reactionary, who could not altogether conceal
+his feelings of disapproval of Campos's liberal course, or his
+realization of the desperate plight in which the country was at that
+time. But he made an impassioned pledge of the loyalty of his party to
+the Captain-General. For the Autonomists, Dr. Rafael Montoro was the
+spokesman, one of the foremost orators and scholars of the
+Spanish-speaking world. He had been a Cuban Senator in the Spanish
+Cortes, and perhaps more than any other man in Cuba commanded the
+respect and confidence of all parties, Spanish and Cuban alike. He also
+pledged to Campos the unwavering support of the Autonomists in what he
+believed sincerely to be the best policy for both Cuba and Spain. A
+representative of the Reformists spoke to the same effect. Then Campos
+responded with a frank confession that he had meditated resignation,
+fearing that he had lost the united confidence of the various parties;
+but that after this demonstration of loyalty, he would continue his
+military and civil administration with restored hope of success in
+pacifying the island.
+
+We have called the Autonomists at this time the best friends of Campos.
+It might be possible, however, to argue successfully that they were his
+worst friends, or at least badly mistaken friends. It might have been
+better, that is to say, for him to have persisted in retirement at that
+time, instead of merely postponing the day of wrath. For his renewed
+efforts either to crush or to pacify the revolutionists were vain. At
+the very moment when he was gratefully listening to those pledges of
+loyal support, Gomez and Maceo were pushing unrelentingly forward, not
+merely through Matanzas but far into Havana province itself. And like
+Israel of old, they were guided or accompanied by a pillar of fire by
+night and a pillar of cloud by day. The plantations near the capital
+were sources of supply for the Spanish, and they must be destroyed. It
+seemed savage to doom canefields and factories to the torch. But it was
+more humane to do that and thus make the island uninhabitable for the
+Spaniards, than to lose myriads of lives in battle. Moreover, the
+destruction of the sugar crop, then ripe for harvest, would do more
+than anything else to cripple the financial resources of Spain in the
+island. All Spain wanted of Cuba, said Gomez, grimly but truly, was what
+she could get out of it. Therefore if she was prevented from getting
+anything out of it she would no longer desire it but would let it go.
+
+So night after night "the midnight sky was red" with the glow of blazing
+canefields and factories, and day after day the tropic sun was half
+obscured by rolling clouds of smoke from the same conflagrations; while
+behind them the advancing armies left a broad swath of blackened
+desolation, above which gaunt, tall chimneys towered solitary, above
+twisted and ruined machinery, grim monuments of the passing of the
+destroyer. Day after day the inexorable terror rolled toward the
+capital. On the last day of the year the vanguard of the patriot army
+was at Marianao, only ten miles from Havana, and every railroad leading
+out of the city was either cut or had suspended operations. Two days
+later Campos proclaimed martial law and a state of siege in the
+Provinces of Havana and Pinar del Rio. Thus the new year opened with the
+entire island involved in the War of Independence. Nor was it merely a
+nominal state of war. Already Pinar del Rio was overrun by bands of
+Cuban irregulars, who destroyed the cane fields of Spanish Loyalists and
+ravaged the tobacco plantations of the famous Vuelta Abajo. But this was
+not enough. On January 5, 1896, Gomez, leaving Maceo and Quintin Bandera
+to hold Campos in check at Havana, drove straight at the centre of the
+Spanish line which strove to bar his progress westward, broke through
+it, and marched his whole army into Pinar del Rio.
+
+That was the beginning of the end for Campos. In desperation he flung
+all available troops in a line across the western part of Havana
+Province vainly hoping, since he had not been able thus to keep him out
+of Pinar del Rio, that thus he could keep Gomez shut up in that
+province, deprived of supplies or succor. Meantime he sent three of his
+ablest generals, Luque, Navarro and Valdez, into the western province,
+in hope of capturing Gomez. But the wily Cuban chieftain played with
+them, marching and countermarching at will and wearing them out, until
+he had completed his work there. Then as if to show his scorn at
+Campos's military barriers, he burst out of Pinar del Rio and reentered
+Havana, sweeping like a besom of wrath through the southern part of that
+province, and defeating the army of Suarez Valdez near Batabano. Then,
+while all the Spanish columns were in full cry after Gomez, Maceo
+crossed the border into Pinar del Rio at the north, and marched along
+the coast as far as Cabanas, destroying several towns on his way.
+
+From Batabano the Cubans under Gomez and Angel Guerra turned northward
+again, and by January 12 were at Managuas, in the outskirts of Havana,
+from which the sound of firing could be heard in the capital itself. The
+railroads had been stopped before, and now all telegraph communication
+with Havana was cut, save that by submarine cable. The city was not
+merely in a technical state of siege but was actually besieged, and if
+Jose Maceo and Jesus Rabi, who were on the eastern border of the
+province, had been able promptly to join Gomez and Bandera, Havana would
+probably have been captured. In this state of affairs the Spanish
+inhabitants of the city were frantic with fear, and with faultfinding
+against Campos for his inability to protect them from the
+revolutionists. The Volunteers mutinied outright refusing to serve
+longer under his orders unless he would alter his policy to one of
+extreme severity. The Spanish political leaders openly inveighed against
+him.
+
+In these circumstances Campos invited the leaders of the various
+parties, the very men who shortly before had pledged their support to
+him, to meet him again for a conference. They came, but in a different
+spirit from before. Santos Guzman was first to speak. He declared that
+the Constitutionalists had lost confidence in the Captain-General and
+did not approve his policy, and that they could no longer support him.
+The spokesman of the Reformists was less violent of phrase but no less
+hostile in intent and purport. From neither of the factions of the
+Spanish party could Campos hope for further support. There remained the
+Cuban Autonomists, and with a constancy which would have been sublime if
+only it had been exercised in a better cause, they reaffirmed their
+loyalty to Campos and to his policy and renewed their pledges of
+support. But this was in vain. Campos realized that a Spanish
+Captain-General who had not the support and confidence of the Spanish
+party would be an impossible anomaly. He would not resign, but he
+reported to Madrid the state of affairs, and placed himself, like a good
+soldier, at the commands of the government; excepting that he would not
+change his policy for one of ruthless severity. If he was to remain in
+Cuba, his policy of conciliation, in cooperation with the Autonomists,
+must be maintained.
+
+The answer was not delayed. On January 17 a message came from Madrid,
+directing Campos to turn over his authority to General Sabas Marin, who
+would exercise it until a permanent successor could be appointed and
+could arrive; and to return forthwith to Spain. Of course there was
+nothing for him to do but to obey. In relinquishing his office to his
+temporary successor he spoke strongly in defence of the policy which he
+had pursued. Later, out of office, he talked with much bitterness of the
+political conspiracies which had been formed against him by the
+Spaniards of Cuba, of their moral treason to the cause of Spain, and of
+the sordid tyranny which they exercised. He declared that Spain herself
+was at fault for the Cuban revolution, which never would have occurred
+if the island had been treated as an integral province of Spain and not
+as a subject and enslaved country; and he prophesied that the verdict of
+history would be, as it had been in the case of Central and South
+America, that Spain had lost her American empire through the perverse
+faults of the Spaniards themselves. "My successor," he added, "will
+fail." Three days later he sailed for Spain.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+
+The administration of General Marin lasted only a few weeks, but it was
+marked with strenuous doings. His first effort was to do what Campos had
+failed to do, namely, to maintain an impassable barrier between Pinar
+del Rio and Havana. He massed troops on the line between Havana and
+Batabano, and took command himself at the centre, hoping to draw Maceo
+into a general engagement. But Maceo sent Perico Diaz with 1,400 men
+from Artemisia to create a diversion just north of the centre, which was
+done very effectively, Diaz and General Jil drawing a large Spanish
+force into a trap and inflicting terrible slaughter with a cavalry
+machete charge. Taking advantage of this, Maceo with a small detachment
+easily crossed the trocha at the south. At once the Spanish forces all
+rushed in that direction, to head off Maceo and to prevent him from
+joining Gomez, whereupon the remainder of Maceo's troops crossed the
+trocha at the centre and north. After raiding Havana Province at will,
+and capturing fresh supplies, Maceo returned to Pinar del Rio, fought
+and won a pitched battle at Paso Real, won another at Candelaria, where
+the Spanish General Cornell was killed, and captured the city of Jaruco
+and its forts with 80 guns.
+
+By this time the new Captain-General had arrived. This was General
+Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau; the man most of all desired--and indeed
+earnestly asked for--by the Volunteers and other extremists among the
+Spanish party in Cuba, the man most undesired by the Autonomists, and
+the man most hated by the Cuban revolutionists. He had made himself
+unspeakably odious in the Ten Years' War as the chief aid of Valmaseda
+in his savage outrages, and he was confidently expected to renew in Cuba
+the horrors of that campaign; as he did. Upon the announcement of his
+appointment the Autonomists largely abandoned hope of any amicable
+arrangement, and those of them who were mayors or other officers
+promptly resigned their places, being unwilling to serve under him. Many
+of them left Cuba altogether, dreading the horrors which they knew were
+impending. As for the masses of the Cuban people, they flocked to the
+standard of the revolution in greater numbers than before. Within a
+month after Weyler's arrival at Havana, more than 15,000 fresh recruits
+were following the banners of Gomez and Maceo.
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL WEYLER]
+
+It was on February 10 that Weyler landed in Cuba. He promptly issued a
+number of decrees addressed to both the Spanish Loyalists and the Cuban
+Revolutionists. He chided the former for their indifference and fears,
+warned them that they must expect to make sacrifices and endure
+sufferings, and demanded of them that they should themselves undertake
+the guardianship of their cities and towns so as to release all his
+troops for service in the field. The latter he threatened with all
+possible pains and penalties if they persisted in their contumacy. Death
+or life imprisonment was to be the fate of all who circulated news
+unfavorable to the government, who interfered with the operation of
+railroads, telegraphs or telephones, who by word of mouth disparaged
+Spain or Spanish soldiers or praised the enemy, who aided the enemy in
+any way, or who failed to help the government and to injure the
+revolutionists at every opportunity. All inhabitants of Oriente,
+Camaguey and the district of Sancti Spiritus in Santa Clara were
+required to register at military headquarters and receive permits to go
+about their business. Later he ordered all persons living in rural
+districts to move into fortified towns, and confiscated the property of
+all who were absent from their homes without leave. It should be added
+that at the beginning of his administration he sought to curb and even
+reproved and punished the cruelties of his subordinates.
+
+In spite of the repudiation of Campos and his policy of pacification,
+and the accession of Weyler and his policy of severity, the Spanish
+Prime Minister, Canovas del Castillo, determined to make another attempt
+at amicable settlement. Elections for a new Cortes were to be held, and
+he directed that they should be held in Cuba as well as in the
+Peninsula. To that end it was desirable to raise the state of siege in
+at least the three western provinces, and on March 8 Weyler issued an
+order which he hoped would conduce to that end. The civil guard, or
+rural military police, was to be restored to duty, amnesty was offered
+to all insurgents who surrendered within fifteen days and who had not
+been guilty of burning or confiscating property, and all others were to
+be treated as bandits, to be put summarily to death. All loyal
+inhabitants were required actively to assist in repairing railroads,
+telegraph lines, etc. A similar proclamation was issued for the other
+provinces.
+
+The elections were set for April 12, and were then held. The Reformist
+faction of Spaniards refused to take part in them, not approving the
+policy of Weyler. The Cuban Autonomists also refused to vote, or to
+nominate candidates, excepting for Deputies from the University of
+Havana and the Economical Society of Havana. They did this at great risk
+to themselves, because Weyler after trying persuasions resorted to the
+most ominous threats against them if they would not take part in the
+elections, and there really was much danger that at least their leaders
+would be arrested and imprisoned for treason. The outcome was that only
+Constitutionalists voted, and only their candidates were elected;
+representing an insignificant fraction of the Cuban people.
+
+Meantime the war raged unceasingly. Having failed to keep the Cubans
+from invading Pinar del Rio, and then from emerging from that province,
+Weyler again formed a trocha from Havana to Batabano to prevent them
+from moving further east. But both Gomez and Maceo broke through, the
+former marching into the heart of Matanzas and playing havoc with the
+sugar plantations, and the latter going southward to the Cienaga de
+Zapata and thence into Santa Clara, where he received strong
+reenforcements from Oriente and Camaguey. Then, when Weyler was massing
+his troops in Santa Clara, Maceo with 10,000 men swept back to the very
+gates of Havana. With the adoption of Weyler's policy as announced in
+his proclamations, the war became a campaign of destruction on both
+sides, each burning towns in order that they might not be occupied by
+the other. In this fashion in a few weeks there were burned or laid in
+ruins in Pinar del Rio the towns of Cabanaz, Cayajabos, Vinales,
+Palacios, San Juan Martinez, Montezuelo, Los Arroyos, Cuano, San Diego,
+Nunez, Bahia Honda, Hacha and Quiobra; in Havana there perished La
+Catalina, San Nicolas, Nueva Paz, Bejucal, Jaruco, Wajay, Melena and
+Bainoa; in Matanzas, Los Ramos, Macagua, Roque, San Jose and Torriente;
+and in Santa Clara, Amaro, Flora, Mata, Maltiempo, Ranchuelo, Salamanca
+and San Juan. Many other towns were partially destroyed. On March 13
+Maceo attacked Batabano, one of the most strongly defended Spanish coast
+towns, took 50 guns and much ammunition, and destroyed the town. Nine
+days later Gomez sent troops into the city of Santa Clara, and captured
+240,000 rounds of ammunition. He established his headquarters so near
+Las Cruces that General Pando fled from that place to Cienfuegos; for
+which cowardice he was recalled to Spain, as were several other
+generals. Maceo, after his exploit at Batabano, returned to Pinar del
+Rio, routed General Linares at Candelaria and another Spanish army at
+Cayajibaos, and destroyed part of the town of Pinar del Rio.
+
+Filibustering was now rife. In spite of the vigilance of the United
+States government and of the Spanish navy, numerous expeditions carried
+men and arms to the Cuban patriots. Those which were successful were
+little heard of by the public, while those which failed often attracted
+much attention. General Calixto Garcia, one of the most resolute and
+daring veterans of the Ten Years' War, sent one on the steamer
+_Hawkins_, which was lost at sea. He organized another on the British
+steamer _Bermuda_, which was detained by the United States authorities
+on February 24, and he was arrested and tried for "organizing a military
+expedition," but was acquitted. A little later he reorganized the
+expedition and reached Cuba with it in safety. Enrique Collazo and
+others sent an expedition from Cedar Keys on the _Stephen R. Mallory_,
+which was detained, for a time, but finally got off and landed most of
+the cargo in Matanzas. The Danish steamer _Horsa_ was seized by the
+United States authorities for carrying a military expedition. The
+_Commodore_ carried a cargo of arms safely from Charleston, S. C. The
+_Bermuda_ took another expedition from Jacksonville under Col. Vidal and
+Col. Torres, but was attacked by a Spanish gunboat before all the cargo
+was landed, and took to flight, throwing the rest of the cargo
+overboard. Other successful expeditions in the early part of 1896 were
+five on the steamer _Three Friends_, one of which was led by Julian
+Zarraga and one by Dr. Joaquin Castillo Duany; three on the _Laurada_,
+of which one was led by Juan Fernandez Ruiz and one by Rafael Portuondo;
+several led by Rafael Cabrera, one by General Carlos Roloff, and one by
+Juan Ruiz Rivera. One came from France, under Fernando Freyre y Andrade,
+bringing 5,000 rifles and 1,000,000 cartridges. President Cleveland
+issued a warning, that all violators of the United States neutrality
+laws would be prosecuted and severely punished, and General Weyler
+offered large rewards for information leading to the capture of such
+expeditions, but the chief effect was to stimulate Cuban patriots to
+greater efforts, if also to increased precautions.
+
+Much attention was meanwhile paid to Cuban affairs by the United States
+government, not only in trying to check filibustering but also in
+looking after the rights--and wrongs--of American citizens, and also in
+seeking an ending of a war which was commercially ruinous and humanely
+most distressing. Several joint resolutions were introduced in the
+Congress at Washington, for recognizing the Cubans as belligerents, for
+inquiry into the state and conditions of the war, for intervention, and
+for recognizing the independence of the Cuban Republic. There were
+finally adopted on April 6 resolutions favoring recognition of Cuban
+belligerency and the tender of good offices for the settlement of the
+war on the basis of Cuban independence. It was of course necessarily
+left to the discretion of the President to execute these designs. He did
+not deem it expedient to recognize Cuban belligerence, but he did
+promptly, on April 9, direct the American Minister at Madrid to make the
+tender of good offices for ending the war on the basis of reforms which
+would be satisfactory to the Cuban people. True, it had been made clear
+that the great mass of the Cuban people would accept nothing short of
+independence; but the American Secretary of State, Mr. Olney, believed
+that if a genuine measure of Home Rule were granted and put into effect,
+the Cubans and their friends in the United States would withdraw their
+support from the revolution and thus constrain the revolutionists to
+yield and accept the compromise. To this overture of the United States
+government Spain made no reply; nor did it to a similar suggestion
+offered by the Pope. But Tomas Estrada Palma, speaking for the Cuban
+Junta in New York and for Cubans and Cuban sympathizers throughout the
+United States, declared that they were not at all interested in any such
+scheme, and that they would consider nothing short of absolute
+independence.
+
+The Spanish government did, indeed, consider a scheme of so-called
+autonomy, somewhat resembling that of Senor Abarzuza at the beginning of
+the war; but in the speech from the throne at the opening of the Cortes
+on May 11 it was frankly recognized that the revolutionists would accept
+nothing short of independence, and that therefore it would be expedient
+to attempt any such reforms until the insurrection had been subdued by
+force of arms; which was, of course, General Weyler's policy.
+
+There were numerous diplomatic controversies between Spain and the
+United States over Cuban affairs. The American Consul-General at Havana,
+Ramon O. Williams, intervened in behalf of numerous American citizens
+who had been arrested for complicity in the revolution, insisting upon
+their trial by civil and not by military courts. In the case of five
+American sailors taken on a filibustering expedition, death by shooting
+was ordered by Weyler, but the Spanish government quashed the sentence
+and ordered a civil trial on Mr. Williams's threat to close the
+Consulate and thus suspend relations. Antagonism between the consul and
+the Captain-General became so intense that Mr. Williams offered to
+resign his office, but the President requested him to remain. However he
+finally retired, at his own volition, and was succeeded on June 3 by
+Fitzhugh Lee; who proved equally resolute in his protection of American
+interests.
+
+Meantime, what of the revolutionary civil government of the Republic of
+Cuba? At the beginning it was a fugitive in the mountain fastnesses of
+the Sierra Maestra, in the southern part of Oriente, between Santiago
+and Manzanillo. Thence it removed to Las Tunas, in the same province.
+But after the great eastward drive by Gomez and Maceo it established
+itself permanently in the Sierra de Cubitas, in the Province of
+Camaguey, midway between the city of Camaguey and the north coast of
+Cuba. There it remained, in a practically impregnable stronghold, and
+there it surrounded itself with such military industries as it was
+capable of conducting--largely the manufacture of dynamite, machetes,
+and of clothing. From that capital it directed an efficient
+administration of the major part of the island. It levied and collected
+taxes, and gave to about two-thirds of the island a mail service at
+least as efficient as that of the Spanish government had ever been. A
+complete judicial and police system was maintained, and was more
+respected by the people than that of Spain. In brief it was
+substantially true, as President Cisneros declared, that the island was
+peaceful, law-abiding and well-governed, excepting in those places where
+the Spanish invaders were making trouble!
+
+But the Spanish did make trouble. Weyler once more strove to place an
+impassable barrier between Pinar del Rio and Havana, to keep Maceo shut
+up in the former province. He constructed it so strongly, with ditches,
+block houses, barbed wire fences, artillery and what not as to make it
+almost impossible of passage. Then he put 10,000 of his best troops west
+of it, to fight Maceo, and distributed 28,000 more along the trocha to
+keep Maceo from breaking out. The result was most unfortunate for the
+Spanish troops west of the trocha. They were there to hunt down Maceo.
+Instead, Maceo hunted them. If they ventured to attack him, he repulsed
+them. More often he attacked them, and almost invariably routed them. At
+Lechuza he cut to pieces Colonel Debos's column and drove its survivors
+to the shelter of a gunboat at the shore. At Bahia Honda and Punta Brava
+the Spanish were badly beaten. In the Rubi Hills a Spanish force was all
+but annihilated, and the commanders began to clamor for reenforcements;
+though Maceo had only 11,000 men, and the Spanish had 50,000 along the
+trocha to keep him from crossing it. During the summer the campaign
+slackened a little, though Maceo won several spirited engagements and
+maintained his control of practically all the province excepting parts
+of the coast. In the early fall, with his army increased to 20,000 he
+resumed the aggressive; using for the first time a dynamite gun which
+thoroughly demoralized the Spaniards. Near Pinar del Rio city, at Las
+Tumbas Torino, at San Francisco, at Guayabitos and at Vinales, he
+defeated the enemy and inflicted heavy losses. The same record was made
+early in October at San Felipe, at Tunibar del Torillo, at Manaja, at
+Ceja del Negro, and Guamo. A solitary Spanish victory was won at
+Guayabitos.
+
+Like the general government at Cubitas, Maceo had headquarters in the
+mountains, and there guarded effectively a large and fertile region,
+where supplies ample for feeding his army could be produced. He also
+conducted workshops for the manufacture of arms and ammunition. Against
+this position, in his rage and desperation, Weyler himself in November
+led an army of 36,000 picked troops, with six Generals. For several days
+attack after attack was made, every one being repulsed by Maceo with
+heavy loss to the Spaniards, until at last, with a third of his army
+destroyed, Weyler abandoned the attempt and retreated. Unfortunately, on
+December 4 Maceo with his staff and a small force decided to undertake a
+secret expedition to seek a conference with leaders in Havana Province.
+They accordingly crossed the Bay of Mariel in a small boat and thus
+reached the eastern side of the trocha. Messages were sent to
+revolutionary chiefs in Havana and Matanzas, asking them to come to a
+council of war at a designated point near Punta Brava, familiar to them
+all as secure rendezvous. A few came promptly, but in some way the
+secret of the meeting became known to the Spanish. In consequence, on
+December 7, while he was expecting the arrival of more of his friends,
+Maceo heard the sound of firing at the outposts of his camp. Riding to
+the scene, he found Spanish troops attacking him. He rallied his troops
+and under his directions they were soon mastering the enemy, when a shot
+struck Maceo and he fell mortally wounded; his last words, referring to
+the progress of the skirmish, being, "It goes well."
+
+[Illustration: JOSE ANTONIO MACEO
+
+Born at Santiago de Cuba in 1849, of a family of patriots and brave
+fighters, and dying in battle at Punta Brava, near Havana, on December
+7, 1896, Jose Antonio Maceo was one of the most gallant soldiers in the
+Ten Years' War and one of the very foremost chieftains of the War of
+Independence. Gifted with military genius and with leadership of men, he
+was the greatest strategist and the most popular commander in the
+Liberating Army, and the greatest terror to the foe. Partly of Negro
+blood, he was an equal honor to both races, and finely typified in
+himself their union in the cause of Cuban independence. A monument to
+his imperishable memory crowns Cacagual Hill, where his remains were
+buried.]
+
+At his fall his troops were panic stricken and gave way, so that the
+Spaniards occupied the field and plundered and stripped the dead. It was
+said that they did not know that it was Maceo whom they had killed until
+a native guide who was with them recognized his body. While they were
+still plundering the dead Cuban reenforcements under Pedro Diaz came up,
+furious at the loss of their peerless chief, and a desperate fight
+ensued, which ended in the rout of the Spaniards and the recovery of
+Maceo's body by the Cubans. When the defeated Spaniards got back to
+headquarters and reported that they had slain Maceo, they were not
+believed. It was not considered possible that he had crossed the trocha.
+But a little later convincing confirmation came to them from a Cuban
+source. This was furnished when Dr. Maximo Zertucha, who had been
+Maceo's surgeon-general and who was the only member of his staff who had
+survived the disastrous fight at Punta Brava, came to Spanish
+headquarters and surrendered himself. He explained that he did so
+because he had seen Maceo killed, and he regarded the loss of that
+leader as certainly fatal to the cause of the Cuban revolution. The
+Spanish authorities accepted his surrender and granted him full amnesty,
+a circumstance which caused many Cubans to suspect that he had betrayed
+his chief, by sending word of his whereabouts to the Spanish commander.
+Of this there appears, however, to have been no proof. Thus perished
+Antonio Maceo, who would have been the generalissimo of the Cuban forces
+but for the prudent fear that maligners might then have spread
+successfully the damaging libel that the revolution was nothing but a
+negro insurrection; a fear which he himself felt, and on account of
+which he insisted that Maximo Gomez should be the Commander in Chief of
+the Cuban Revolutionary armies. Thus perished Antonio Maceo, a soldier
+and a man without a superior in either of the contending armies, and a
+commander, indeed, who, in personal valor, in strategic skill, in
+resource, in resolution, in knowledge of the art of war, and in all the
+elements of military greatness, was worthy to be ranked among the great
+captains of all lands and of all time. The loss of him was irreparable.
+But it was not fatal to the Cuban cause. Thereafter the effort of every
+Cuban soldier and patriot was to increase his own efficiency to some
+degree, so that the aggregate would atone for the loss that had been
+sustained.
+
+While Maceo was thus baffling the Spanish in the far west of the island,
+Gomez and his lieutenants were more than holding their own in the other
+five provinces. Jose Maceo in April marched from Oriente all the way to
+the western side of Havana, where he was joined by Serafin Sanchez,
+Rodriguez, Lacret, Maso, Aguirre and others, until nearly 20,000 Cubans
+were gathered there. Gomez remained in Santa Clara, where the Spaniards
+had a precarious foothold at Cienfuegos, protected by their fleet.
+Colonel Gonzalez, commanding in the district of Remedios, routed the
+forces of General Oliver. Then, the Spanish power in the three great
+eastern provinces having been rendered negligible, a general movement
+westward was undertaken, following in the trail of the two Maceos. Gomez
+himself took supreme command, and Collazo, Calixto Garcia and others
+marched their forces to join him. Calixto Garcia, after only Maximo
+Gomez and Antonio Maceo, was the foremost chieftain of the patriots, and
+not unworthy to rank with them in a trinity of military prowess. He was
+now advanced in years, having been born in 1839, at Holguin, Oriente.
+From childhood a fervent patriot, at the outbreak of the Ten Years' War
+he took the field under Donato Marmol. His native bent for military
+achievement assured him advancement, and at Santa Rita and Baire he was
+a Brigadier General under Gomez. In 1871 he besieged Guisa and Holguin,
+and then, when Gomez marched westward into Camaguey, thence to force
+passage of the trocha between Jucaro and Moron, Garcia was left in
+supreme command in Oriente. In that capacity he was active, triumphing
+at Santa Maria, Holguin, Chaparra, the siege and capture of Manzanillo,
+and at Ojo de Agua de los Melones. Then came the incident which for the
+time ended his military career and which gave him that scar in the
+centre of his forehead which was ever after so conspicuous a feature. At
+San Antonio de Baja he and only twenty of his men were surprised and
+surrounded by a large force of Spaniards. Seeing that escape was
+impossible, and having vowed never to fall alive into the hands of
+Spain, he put the muzzle of a pistol beneath his chin and fired. The
+bullet passed through the tongue, the roof of his mouth, behind his
+nose, and out at the centre of his forehead. But not thus was he to die.
+The Spaniards took him to a hospital at Santiago, where he recovered,
+and then sent him to prison in Spain; whence he returned to Cuba after
+the Treaty of Zanjon. He was a leader in the "Little War"; then,
+enjoying the respect and friendship of Martinez Campos, he went back to
+Spain and for a time was a bank clerk at Madrid. Thus he was engaged
+when the War of Independence began. Suspected and watched, he was not
+able to escape until a year later. But on March 24, 1896, he landed at
+Baracoa with an important expedition, and thereafter he was a raging and
+consuming flame of war.
+
+The westward march was marked with victory. On May 14 Colonel Segura's
+whole battalion was captured. On June 9 and 10 near Najasa General
+Jiminez Castellanos was soundly beaten and forced to retreat to
+Camaguey. Then, hoping to bar the Cubans from Santa Clara, the Spanish
+reconstructed the eastern trocha, from Jucaro to Moron, and sent forces
+inland from Santiago and other coast towns to create a back fire in
+Oriente. Calixto Garcia turned upon these latter, and routed them on the
+Cauto River, at Venta de Casanova, and near Bayamo, and captured great
+stores of supplies. At Santa Ana several stubbornly contested battles
+occurred between Garcia and General Linares, in which the latter was
+finally worsted. At Loma del Gato on July 5 the Cubans under Jose Maceo
+and Perequito Perez defeated the forces of General Albert and Colonel
+Vara del Rey, but at the heavy cost of Maceo's death. Meanwhile Juan B.
+Zayas, Lacret and others penetrated Havana Province at will, in
+guerrilla warfare; but Zayas was finally killed in an engagement near
+Gabriel.
+
+During the rainy season there was comparatively little activity, but in
+the fall the advance westward began in earnest. Garcia captured
+Guaimaro, and Gomez pushed on to Camaguey, but left the place to be
+dealt with by Garcia and hastened on, with Rodriguez, Rabi, Bandera and
+Carrillo. He crossed the trocha with ease, penetrated Santa Clara, and
+was soon in Matanzas, where Aguirre joined them with 3,200 men. He put
+an end to sugar making throughout most of the province, and then
+encamped in the Cienaga de Zapata, leaving a number of active guerrilla
+bands to harass and menace Havana. In the latter province at the
+beginning of December Raoul Arango and Nicolas Valencia attacked the
+town of Guanabacoa, only five miles from Havana, and seized great
+stores of supplies. Beyond the western trocha Ruiz Rivera succeeded
+Antonio Maceo in command, and carried on his work with much success.
+Thus the second year of the war drew to a close with the patriots
+despite some heavy losses decidedly in the ascendant, and the Spanish
+campaign of ruthless severity no more successful than that of moderation
+and conciliation had been.
+
+One other incident of the year 1896 was highly significant. At the
+beginning of December the President of the United States, Mr. Cleveland,
+in his annual message to Congress, discussed the Cuban problem very
+fully and frankly. He practically reasserted the historic policy toward
+that island first enunciated by John Quincy Adams, as quoted in a
+preceding volume of this history. He reasserted the Monroe Doctrine. He
+made it clear that the United States had special interests in Cuba,
+which not only all other nations but also Spain herself must recognize
+and acknowledge. Concerning the war he said, most justly:
+
+"The spectacle of the utter ruin of an adjoining country, by nature one
+of the most fertile and charming on the globe, would engage the serious
+attention of the government and people of the United States in any
+circumstances. In point of fact, they have a concern with it which is by
+no means of a wholly sentimental or philanthropic character. It lies so
+near us as to be hardly separated from our territory. Our actual
+pecuniary interest in it is second only to that of the people and
+government of Spain. It is reasonably estimated that at least from
+$30,000,000 to $50,000,000 of American capital are invested in
+plantations and in railroad, mining and other business enterprises on
+the island. The volume of trade between the United States and Cuba,
+which in 1889 amounted to about $64,000,000, rose in 1893 to about
+$103,000,000, and in 1894, the year before the present insurrection
+broke out, amounted to nearly $96,000,000. Beside this large pecuniary
+stake in the fortunes of Cuba, the United States, finds itself
+inextricably involved in the present contest in other ways both
+vexatious and costly."
+
+Then he added, in words the purport of which was unmistakable:
+
+"When the inability of Spain to deal successfully with the insurrection
+has become manifest, and it is demonstrated that her sovereignty is
+extinct in Cuba for all purposes of its rightful existence, and when a
+hopeless struggle for its reestablishment has degenerated into a strife
+which means nothing more than the useless sacrifice of human life and
+the utter destruction of the very subject-matter of the conflict, a
+situation will be presented in which our obligations to the sovereignty
+of Spain will be superseded by higher obligations, which we can hardly
+hesitate to recognize and discharge."
+
+To those who knew Mr. Cleveland, and who appreciated the care with which
+he selected every word in all important addresses, this could have but
+one meaning. It meant that American intervention was inevitable. Note
+that he did not say "_If_ the inability of Spain _should_ ... a
+situation _would_ ..." as though the thing were still problematic. No;
+but he said plumply "When the inability of Spain _has_ become manifest
+... a situation _will_ be presented...." In his mind the thing was
+certain to come. It had already come, and only awaited disclosure and
+recognition. Remember, too, that of all men of his time Mr. Cleveland
+was one of the most opposed to "jingoism," and meddling with the affairs
+of other lands; while to any suggestion of conquest and annexation of
+Cuba to the United States he would have offered the most resolute
+opposition of which he was capable. In view of those facts, that
+utterance in his message was of epochal import. It foreshadowed
+precisely what did occur less than a year and a half later. It was in
+effect a declaration of intervention and of war with Spain in behalf of
+Cuban independence, made more than a year before the steamer _Maine_
+entered Havana harbor.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+
+We have said that the death of Antonio Maceo moved Cuban patriots to
+redouble their efforts to atone for the grievous loss which their cause
+had thus suffered. Unfortunately not all of them were capable of so
+doing, while those who did so were unable to make devotion and zeal take
+the place of consummate military genius. In consequence, despite the
+utmost efforts of Gomez and his colleagues matters went badly for the
+revolution through most of the following year. Gomez himself indeed felt
+that he had lost his right arm. He was at La Reforma, near Sancti
+Spiritus, at the beginning of 1897, and he summoned the other
+revolutionary leaders to meet him there, to concentrate their forces,
+and to plan a new campaign. They came promptly and eagerly, some of them
+unfortunately thus leaving without protection important strategic points
+and centers of revolutionist industry, which were pounced upon and
+captured by the Spanish. When the patriot forces were thus gathered it
+was expected that there would be immediately undertaken a general
+advance westward, into Matanzas and Havana; for which it was believed
+the Cuban army was strong enough, and which the Spanish were not
+believed to be able to resist.
+
+Instead, Gomez decided first to effect the reduction of Arroyo Blanco.
+This was a small and unimportant town in the Province of Camaguey, near
+the Santa Clara border; containing a Spanish garrison under Captain
+Escobar. Gomez first summoned Escobar to surrender, in order to avoid
+the destruction which would be caused by the bombardment of the place
+with a dynamite gun, which he threatened to begin forthwith. Escobar
+defied him, and the bombardment was undertaken, but proved ineffective,
+and before Gomez could capture the place strong Spanish reenforcements
+arrived and the attempt had to be abandoned. Thereafter Gomez contented
+himself with sending several strong bands westward, to conduct guerrilla
+warfare against the Spaniards wherever they could, while he himself
+remained near Sancti Spiritus, also engaging in irregular operations.
+
+There he was presently menaced by Weyler himself. That formidable foe
+had practically achieved the conquest of Pinar del Rio. After Maceo's
+death the Cuban forces in that province had largely dispersed, some
+abandoning the struggle altogether as hopeless, and others going to the
+east, to join themselves with Gomez, Garcia or other surviving leaders.
+Only a few roving bands remained. Accordingly Weyler announced that the
+western province was pacified. That was sufficiently true; but it was
+conspicuously true in the sense expressed by Tacitus, and Byron. They
+had made a solitude, and called it peace. Seldom had any comparable
+region been so thoroughly devastated and desolated. Then Weyler felt
+himself free to lead his army elsewhere.
+
+He set out from Havana with an imposing array of troops, and marched
+through the heart of the province and of Matanzas, into Santa Clara. On
+the way there was little fighting to do, not even to beat off guerrilla
+bands. His attention was given, therefore, to devastating the country,
+and to driving the inhabitants into "concentration camps," where they
+were doomed to starve to death by thousands. By the end of February he
+was triumphantly encamped at the foot of the Guamuhaya Mountains,
+between Santa Clara and Trinidad, and had the satisfaction of having
+wrought vast destruction upon the property of Cubans and upon the
+essential supplies of the Cuban army.
+
+A few weeks later Quintin Bandera with a small force came from Camaguey
+and, by wading through the shallow water of the Bay of Sabanabamar, got
+around the trocha and joined Gomez. The latter directed him to continue
+westward, and to harass the Spaniards with guerrilla attacks. This was
+done, and Bandera proceeded as far as Trinidad. Then failing to receive
+necessary support he turned back, and on July 4 was killed in a skirmish
+at Pelayo. East of the trocha Calixto Garcia continued his formidable
+career against such Spanish forces as remained in that region. He
+captured Las Tunas after forty-eight hours of almost incessant fighting.
+In Matanzas and Havana the revolutionary bands were badly broken up by
+the Spaniards, and they seemed to lack efficient leadership. Their
+leader, General Lacret, fell into an unfortunate controversy with Gomez
+over his treatment of Cubans who disregarded government orders,
+especially in their attitude toward the Spaniards. Gomez, remorseless,
+would have had them shot as traitors, but Lacret insisted upon more
+lenient treatment of them, realizing that they were almost literally
+"between the devil and the deep sea" and were therefore entitled to
+sympathetic consideration. The outcome was that Gomez relieved Lacret of
+his command and appointed Alexander Rodriguez in his place, in Matanzas.
+That officer failed to command the loyalty of his troops, and the result
+was that the latter generally deserted and dispersed. Mayia Rodriguez
+was then ordered to the scene, but was unable to collect a sufficient
+force, and remained in Santa Clara, hemmed in by the Spanish. General
+Jose Maria Aguirre, who died in December, 1896, was succeeded in command
+in the Province of Havana by Nestor Aranguren, who performed some
+creditable minor operations, particularly against Spanish railroad
+communications, but achieved nothing of real importance. His lieutenant,
+General Adolfo Castillo, in the southern part of the province, was
+killed in battle, in September, and was succeeded by Juan Delgado. The
+Spanish General Parrado in October marched without opposition as far as
+Los Palos, and there received the surrender of a small Cuban band; and
+in November General Pando with a powerful army made his way without
+serious opposition from Havana to the western part of Oriente.
+
+It was during this year that Weyler's ever infamous "concentration"
+policy, which was really a policy of extermination, reached its infernal
+climax and was then repudiated and abandoned. This system, as already
+related, was decreed on October 21, 1896. It required all Cubans, men,
+women and children, to leave their homes in the rural regions and enter
+concentration camps. These were simply huge pens, enclosed with fences
+and barbed wire and guarded by Spanish soldiers. There the hapless
+prisoners were huddled together, without shelter from the elements, and
+with little or no food save such as could be procured by stealth. There
+was none to be had within the enclosures, of course, and the prisoners
+could not go out to get any, even if any was to be found in the
+devastated country around them. Their friends outside seldom dared
+approach the camps to bring them food, because as they had not
+themselves surrendered as commanded by Weyler, they were liable to be
+shot at sight.
+
+Elsewhere Cubans by thousands were driven into towns and cities which
+were still under Spanish control, and were there kept prisoners within
+the Spanish lines. They were not quite so badly off as those in the
+concentration camps, though the difference was not great. They had no
+means of obtaining food, save as the municipal authorities, more
+merciful than Weyler, opened "soup kitchens" and thus in charity kept
+some of them from starvation. As it was the mortality from starvation,
+disease and exposure was appalling. As it was reported that many of
+these sufferers were American citizens, the President of the United
+States asked Congress to appropriate $50,000 for their relief. This was
+done, and the sum was sent to the Consul-General at Havana. He was,
+however, able to reach only a small proportion of the sufferers, and
+thus was presently compelled to report that he had been unable to expend
+more than a fraction of the sum at his disposal. This monstrous policy
+of waging war against non-combatants, including women and children, did
+more perhaps than anything else to crystallize public opinion throughout
+the United States against Weyler and against the Spanish government
+which he represented and which was responsible for him, and to
+strengthen the demand that was being made for intervention in behalf of
+humanity.
+
+This demand was made not merely by the "yellow press," which was
+inspired by sordid and sinister motives, but also by the most
+thoughtful, disinterested and upright men of America. Fitzhugh Lee, the
+highly competent and trustworthy consul-general at Havana, officially
+reported in December, 1897, that in the Province of Havana alone there
+had been 101,000 of the "reconcentrados," of which more than half had
+died. About 400,000 innocent and unoffending persons, chiefly women and
+children, had been transformed into imprisoned paupers, to be sustained
+by charity or to die of disease and famine. Senator Proctor, of Vermont,
+one of the foremost members of the United States Senate, made a personal
+tour of investigation in such parts of the island as were accessible,
+and reported to his colleagues that "It is not peace, nor is it war; it
+is desolation and distress, misery and starvation." The people of the
+United States thus came to the conclusion that the Spanish were unable
+to subdue the Cubans, and that the Cubans were unable to expel the
+Spanish, and that the war was therefore nothing but a campaign of
+destruction and extermination, which would end only when one side was
+exhausted or extirpated. It was impossible that a civilized and humane
+nation should regard such a spectacle at its very doors with
+indifference. We have hitherto quoted the significant remarks of
+President Cleveland on the subject in his message of December, 1896,
+clearly foreshadowing intervention. His successor, President McKinley,
+in his message of just a year later, in December, 1897, expressed in
+slightly different language the identical convictions and purposes. He
+said:
+
+[Illustration: WILLIAM MCKINLEY]
+
+"The near future will demonstrate whether the indispensable conditions
+of a righteous peace, just alike to the Cubans and to Spain, as well as
+equitable to all our interests so intimately involved in the welfare of
+Cuba, is likely to be attained. If not, the exigency of further and
+other action by the United States will remain to be taken. When that
+time comes, that action will be determined in the line of indisputable
+right and duty.... If it shall hereafter appear to be a duty imposed by
+our obligations to ourselves, to civilization, and to humanity, to
+intervene with force, it shall be without fault on our part, and only
+because the necessity for such action will be so clear as to command the
+support and approval of the civilized world."
+
+If McKinley, a less aggressive and more conciliatory man than Cleveland,
+spoke a little less positively than his predecessor, in that he employed
+the hypothetical form, the purport of his words was the same. The one a
+Democratic President, the other a Republican President, long before that
+incident of the _Maine_ which has incorrectly been regarded by some as
+the cause of the American war with Spain, openly and in the most
+explicit manner contemplated the prospect of forcible intervention in
+Cuba and of consequent war.
+
+Meantime Spain herself passed through a political crisis, which made a
+change in her Cuban administration. Loud protests were made there
+against the ruthless and inhuman policy of Weyler, but the Prime
+Minister, Canovas del Castillo, was deaf to them and persisted in
+retaining Weyler in command. But on August 8 Canovas was assassinated by
+an Anarchist, and was succeeded by General Azcarraga, Minister of War,
+who continued his policy unchanged. But on September 29 the whole
+Cabinet resigned, and on October 4 Sagasta, the Liberal leader, became
+Prime Minister. He promptly recalled Weyler and appointed General Ramon
+Blanco to be Captain-General of Cuba in his stead. Weyler departed,
+breathing wrath and hatred against Cuba and against America, and
+predicting failure for his successor, even as Campos had predicted it
+for Weyler himself.
+
+Blanco arrived at Havana on November 1, 1897, with the purpose, as he
+had announced before sailing, of putting sincerely into effect the
+reforms which Sagasta had outlined, reforms which would, he believed, be
+acceptable to the Cuban people. He found the condition of affairs in the
+island to be far worse than it had been reported, or than he had
+expected. The "reconcentrados" had been dying and were still dying by
+tens of thousands. The soldiers had not been paid for months and in
+consequence were disaffected and mutinous, and were looting to obtain
+food which they had no money to buy. Both the Spanish and the Cuban
+Autonomists were profoundly dissatisfied; while the Revolutionists,
+though making no progress, were as implacable as ever. He at once
+ordered the concentration camps to be abolished, saying that he would
+not make war upon women and children, and he secured a credit of
+$100,000 from the Spanish government to assist the Cuban peasantry in
+the rehabilitation of their ruined farms. All American citizens were
+released from prison, as were also many Cubans who were under sentence
+of death. Cuban refugees and exiles were invited to return home, and
+every facility possible was afforded for the resumption of sugar making
+and agriculture. He then undertook to put into effect a system of home
+rule which he fondly hoped would satisfy the Autonomists and would bring
+the masses of the Cuban people over to the side of that party.
+
+Let us review briefly the state of Cuba at this epochal time, the ending
+of 1897 and the beginning of 1898, the ultimate climax of four centuries
+of Cuban history. The War of Independence had been in progress less than
+three years. Five successively unsuccessful Captains-General had striven
+to conquer a brave people resolved to be free. No fewer than 52,000
+Spanish soldiers had lost their lives in battle or from disease, 47,000
+had been returned to Spain disabled, 42,000 were in hospitals unfit for
+duty, and 70,000 regulars and 16,000 irregulars still kept up the
+fatuous struggle. The infamies of Weyler had destroyed by starvation and
+disease 250,000 Cubans, the majority of them women and children,
+reducing the population of the island to 1,100,000 Cubans intent on
+independence and 150,000 Spaniards opposed to their having it. The Cuban
+army consisted of 25,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry, fairly well armed,
+with some artillery. Maximo Gomez was Commander in Chief. Major-General
+Calixto Garcia commanded in Camaguey and Oriente, with Pedro Perez,
+Jesus Rabi and Mario G. Menocal as his lieutenants. Major-General
+Francisco Carrillo commanded in Santa Clara, aided by Jose Rodriguez,
+Hijino Esquerra, Jose Miguel Gomez and Jose Gonzales. In the western
+three provinces Major-General Jose Maria Rodriguez commanded, with Pedro
+Betancourt, Alexandra Rodriguez, Pedro Vias and Juan Lorente as his
+chief aids. The civil government of the Republic had been changed
+somewhat, Bartolome Maso being President, Domingo Mendez Capote
+Vice-President and Secretary of War, Andreas Moreno Secretary of Foreign
+Affairs, Ernesto Fonts-Sterling Secretary of Finance, and Manuel Silva
+Secretary of the Interior. This organization, with its provincial and
+municipal subordinates, was performing the functions of government under
+great difficulties, yet much more efficiently and to a much wider extent
+throughout the island, than the Spanish administration.
+
+The uncompromising attitude of the Revolutionists, and the hopelessness
+of any attempt at amicable adjustment of affairs, was at this time
+strikingly shown in a tragic incident. It was in December, 1897. There
+was in Havana a young Spanish officer named Joaquin Ruiz, who had
+formerly served as a civil engineer, and had been intimately associated
+with Nestor Aranguren, another young engineer who had become a leader of
+the Revolutionists and had made himself particularly active and annoying
+to the Spanish in the Province of Havana. The two were close friends,
+and were both men of charming personality. The Spanish authorities in
+Havana determined to use this friendship in an attempt to seduce
+Aranguren into betraying or at least deserting the patriot cause. So
+Ruiz was directed to open a correspondence with Aranguren, with a view
+to securing a personal interview with him. Aranguren wrote to Ruiz that
+he would be glad to meet him personally, but could not do so if he came
+on any political errand; and he warned him that for him to come to the
+Cuban camp with any proposal of Cuban surrender or acceptance of
+autonomy would subject him to the penalty of death, which would
+infallibly be carried out. Despite this warning, and presumably against
+his own better judgment, Ruiz obeyed the orders of his superiors, and
+undertook the errand. He had no safe conduct. He bore no flag of truce.
+He went through no agreement between the commanding officers of the
+respective sides. He went in the circumstances and manner of a spy; and
+his purpose was to persuade, if possible, a Cuban officer to betray his
+trust and become a traitor to his own cause.
+
+When in these circumstances Ruiz reached Aranguren, the latter was so
+distressed that it is said he burst into tears and, embracing his old
+friend, exclaimed, "Why have you come? It will mean your certain death!
+I cannot save you!" And such indeed was the case. Aranguren was devoted
+to his friend, but still more to Cuba. Ruiz was taken before a court
+martial. He made no defence. He admitted the character and purpose of
+his errand. And he received the sentence of death with the fortitude of
+a brave man. An attempt was made by the Spanish authorities to exploit
+Ruiz as a martyr to Cuban savagery, but it recoiled upon their own
+heads. It was shown that they had unworthily employed a brave and
+devoted soldier in a discreditable errand, and that he had been dealt
+with according to the stern but just rules of war. It was also
+demonstrated that Cuban patriots were not thus to be corrupted. By a
+strange turn of fate, only a few weeks later Nestor Aranguren was killed
+by the Spanish during one of his daring raids against Havana. It was
+said that he was betrayed by a Spaniard who had become one of his
+followers for the purpose of avenging Ruiz. His body fell into the hands
+of the Spanish, and, despite their former assumed wrath over the
+execution of Ruiz, they treated it with all respect and interred it in
+the Columbus Cemetery at Havana, close to the grave of Ruiz.
+
+This was not the only incident of the sort. Only a few weeks after the
+death of Ruiz a civilian named Morales went to the camp of Pedro Ruiz,
+in the Province of Pinar del Rio, with proposals for compromise on the
+basis of autonomy. He was promptly taken before a court martial, tried,
+condemned, and put to death. Whether Blanco himself was responsible for
+this policy of sending emissaries to the Cuban camp with proposals which
+he would not venture to make openly in an accredited manner to the Cuban
+government, did not appear. The presumption, because of his known
+character, is that he was not, and indeed that he was not aware that
+they were being made. There is even reason for thinking that after the
+Morales case was brought to his attention, he prohibited any more such
+clandestine and illegal enterprises. Tragic as the incidents were, and
+especially regrettable as was the sacrifice of such a man as Ruiz, it
+was well to have it made unmistakably clear that the Cubans were not
+inclined to end the war by surrender or by compromise, but were intent
+upon fighting it out to the end.
+
+In such circumstances Blanco strove for the last time to defeat the
+Cuban national desire for independence. He probably realized in advance
+the certainty of failure. He had been Captain-General before, succeeding
+Campos after the Ten Years' War and during the Little War, and he must
+have known the temper of the Cuban people and the unwillingness of the
+great majority of them to accept the delusive scheme of autonomy which
+Spain was fitfully offering, and in which he himself never had any real
+faith and which, indeed, he had never favored. But he was a loyal
+Spanish soldier, of the better type, and he was personally as little
+odious to the Cubans as any Spanish Captain General could be, for he had
+never been notably tyrannical or cruel. The decree of autonomy was
+adopted by the Spanish government on November 25, 1897, largely because
+of the urgings--to use no stronger term--of the United States, and was
+promulgated by Blanco in Cuba early in December. The scheme provided for
+universal suffrage; a bi-cameral Legislature consisting of a Council of
+eighteen elected members and seventeen appointed by the crown, and a
+House containing one elected member for each 25,000 inhabitants. To this
+Legislature were nominally committed most of the functions of
+government. But it was provided that "The supreme government of the
+colony shall be exercised by a Governor-General." That was the crux of
+the whole matter. That made the Captain-General, or Governor-General as
+he was thereafter to be called, the practical dictator of the island.
+
+To this entirely illusive and delusive scheme, the remnant of the
+Autonomist party gave adherence with a devotion worthy of a better
+cause. The Reformist faction of the Spanish party also, though not so
+readily, approved it. The intransigent Constitutionalists would have
+none of it. Tenuous and futile as were its apparent concessions to the
+Cubans, they were far too much for these insular Bourbons to be willing
+to grant. They socially ostracised Blanco, and before the system was to
+go into effect they called a convention at Havana to protest and to
+foment against it. The president of the party, the Cuban-born Marquis de
+Apezteguia, was indeed in favor of giving autonomy a trial. But he could
+not control the party whose other members were almost unanimously
+against it. They had defeated and expelled Campos. Now they resolved to
+do the same with Blanco. At the convention Apezteguia was rebuked and
+repudiated, though left in office. A telegram of sympathy was sent to
+Weyler. Speeches were made denouncing the United States, its President
+and its Congress. A resolution was adopted condemning and opposing
+autonomy, and another declaring that Constitutionalists would not vote
+nor take any part in public affairs.
+
+[Illustration: ANTONIO GOVIN
+
+Antonio Govin, born at Matanzas in 1849 and deceased in Havana in 1914,
+was a jurist, publicist, orator and patriot of distinction. He was
+Professor of Administrative Law at the University of Havana, and was the
+author of a number of volumes on law and on Colonial history. He was one
+of the founders and strong advocates of the Autonomist party and a
+member of the Autonomist cabinet.]
+
+In the face of these circumstances, Blanco organized his Autonomist
+Cabinet. The date was January 1, 1898. The place was the historic throne
+room of the Captain-General's palace. There were present beside the
+Cabinet the various foreign consuls and the dignitaries of the Roman
+Catholic Church. A small crowd of the people gathered outside, but the
+public in general paid little attention to the event. Yet the Cabinet
+which then came into brief existence was a body of men that in other
+circumstances would have commanded most favorable attention. The nominal
+head, President of the Cabinet without portfolio, was Jose Maria Galvez,
+a lawyer and orator, the author of the Autonomist manifestoes of 1879
+and 1895. The real head, the most forceful and influential member, not
+only, indeed, of the Cabinet but of the whole Autonomist party, was Dr.
+Rafael Montoro, the "Cuban Castelar" as his friends used to call him. He
+had long been an advocate of real autonomy, he had been the chief
+founder of the Autonomist party, he had been a Cuban Deputy to the
+Spanish Cortes, he had signed the Autonomist manifestoes of 1879 and
+1895, and he had approved the insular reforms proposed by Canovas del
+Castillo. As lawyer, orator, scholar, writer, he had no superior if
+indeed a peer in Cuba. It was the inscrutable tragedy of a great career
+that he identified himself with the Autonomist movement. He was Minister
+of Finance. The Minister of Justice was Antonio Govin, also one of the
+original Autonomists, a man of great courage and ability, who on the
+failure of the Autonomist regime left Cuba and settled in the United
+States. Francisco Zayas, an accomplished educator, was made Minister of
+Instruction. Laureano Rodriguez, a Peninsular Spaniard, was Minister of
+Agriculture, Labor and Commerce. Eduardo Dolz, a Reformist, was also a
+member, who was supposed to be the special representative of the Spanish
+crown. Two other men, not Ministers but high in Autonomist councils,
+Senors Amblard and Giberga, were regarded by the Spanish party as
+traitors who were really in league with the Revolutionists. Blanco swore
+in these Ministers, addressed them with an exhortation to support
+autonomy and to suppress the revolution, and gave them as the watchword
+of their administration "Long live Cuba, forever Spanish!"
+
+For a few days the glamor and the illusion lasted. Some inconspicuous
+revolutionists yielded to Spanish blandishments and surrendered; to whom
+the honest and chivalrous Blanco granted in good faith the amnesty which
+he had promised. Some Cuban refugees returned from the United States.
+The Autonomists--the few who still remained; for the majority had by
+this time joined the Revolutionists, gone into exile, or been
+imprisoned--declared their adherence to the new order of affairs and
+professed satisfaction with it. Apparently they accepted at face value
+the explanations which were voluminously put forth by the government, to
+the effect that the system was practically identical with that of
+Canada, under which that country had long been contented, loyal and
+prosperous. Technically, no doubt, there was a tolerably close analogy
+between the two. It was quite true that the powers reserved to the
+Spanish crown in Cuba through the Governor-General were similar to those
+reserved to the British crown in Canada through the Viceroy. But the
+decisive factor in the case, which the Autonomists apparently ignored,
+was this, that while in Canada it was an unwritten but unbroken law
+that the crown did not exercise its powers save in accordance with the
+will of the people, it was morally certain that in Cuba the Spanish
+crown would exercise its powers to the full, whether the people liked it
+or not. The Cuban Autonomists in the United States, where many of them
+deemed it prudent to remain, did not suffer from the illusions of their
+compatriots in Cuba, and generally expressed dissatisfaction with the
+scheme, or at least reserved their judgment upon it.
+
+The Spanish Reformists in Cuba also approved the scheme. They had
+deserted and betrayed Campos, and had been ignored by Weyler. Now they
+struggled to return to public recognition and influence. True, they had
+never before wanted or approved autonomy. But they saw that now they
+must do so or remain in retirement. So they joined hands with the Cuban
+Autonomists, congratulated the Spanish government, and pledged their
+loyalty to Blanco. This gave the Spanish government ground for its
+exultant belief that these two parties had united in its support, and
+would probably control the island in behalf of autonomy.
+
+But there were still the Constitutionalists to be reckoned with. They
+were implacable. They had shown in their convention a few weeks before
+their hostility to autonomy. They had ostracised Blanco. Now they
+proceeded to further extremes. They organized riotous disturbances in
+Havana, and made violent demonstrations against Blanco and, which was in
+some respects more serious, against the American government and the
+American citizens in Cuba. So ominous did these disturbances become at
+the middle of January that the Consul-General, Fitzhugh Lee, was driven
+to request the sending of a war ship to Havana harbor for the protection
+of American citizens. In consequence, on January 24 the cruiser _Maine_
+was sent to Havana. This action was taken after consultation with the
+Spanish government, in which that government expressed great pleasure at
+the prospect of thus having a friendly visit of the American vessel to
+Cuban waters, and arranged to have its own cruiser the _Vizcaya_ make a
+return visit to New York.
+
+This was not satisfactory, however, to the Spanish Minister at
+Washington, Senor Dupuy de Lome, who having failed to bring President
+McKinley to his own point of view of Cuban affairs, showed plainly his
+animosity against that gentleman, and wrote a letter to a personal
+friend characterizing the President as a vacillating and time-serving
+politician. This letter through some clandestine means was placed in the
+hands of the United States Secretary of State, who at once sent for the
+Minister and asked him plumply if he had written it. The latter of
+course acknowledged that he had. Thereupon the Secretary cabled to the
+American Minister at Madrid to request the Spanish government to recall
+the offending envoy. This the Spanish government would doubtless have
+done, but for the fact that De Lome forestalled such action by cabling
+his resignation an hour before the dispatch of the Secretary of State
+reached Madrid. The Spanish government then sent Senor Polo y Bernabe to
+be its Minister at Washington.
+
+[Illustration: THE BAY AND HARBOR OF HAVANA
+
+The capital of Cuba is seated upon the shore of a spacious and beautiful
+bay, the entrance to which is between the two bold headlines crowned
+respectively by the Morro Castle and La Punta fortress, while the domes
+and spires of the great city have for a background the central mountain
+range of the island. The harbor of Havana is one of the most secure and
+commodious in the world, and in commercial importance, measured by
+tonnage of shipping, ranks among the foremost in the Western
+Hemisphere.]
+
+There next occurred the greatest and most mysterious tragedy of the
+entire revolutionary period. On the evening of February 15, at twenty
+minutes before ten o'clock, a violent explosion occurred under or in the
+forward portion of the _Maine_ as she lay in Havana harbor, sufficient
+to lift the hull some distance above its normal level. A few seconds
+later another and more violent explosion followed, which so completely
+destroyed the forward part of the ship that most of it could never
+be found. The remainder of the vessel almost immediately sank, in about
+six fathoms of water. Of the complement of 360, two officers and 264 men
+were killed, and of the remainder 60 were wounded. Captain Sigsbee,
+commander of the _Maine_, telegraphed to Washington that all judgment
+upon the matter should be suspended until after full investigation.
+Blanco telegraphed to Madrid that the catastrophe was doubtless due to
+an accident within the ship, and the Madrid government promptly
+expressed regret and sympathy.
+
+In the United States there was a great outburst of grief and rage. Even
+the most restrained and conservative could not help a degree of
+suspicion of foul play, though of course not on the part of the Spanish
+government. A semi-criminal faction, in the "yellow" press, clamored
+furiously for war, charging Spaniards, even the Spanish government, with
+direct and malicious responsibility for the tragedy, and even publishing
+the grossest of falsehoods for the sake of inflaming popular sentiment.
+Too large a proportion of the nation was swayed by these latter sordid
+and sinister influences. But at least the government kept its head, and
+acted with admirable discretion; though for so doing the President
+incurred the virulent animosity of the chief clamorer for war, an
+animosity which was persistently maintained until it culminated in the
+incitement of a criminal Anarchist to assassinate the President.
+
+When the explosion occurred, and Blanco learned what it was, it is said
+that he shed tears and exclaimed, "This is the beginning of the end!"
+Despite his message to his government, he probably feared that there had
+been foul play, and he realized what effect, in any case, the incident
+would have upon Spanish-American relations. As for the Cuban
+revolutionists, both in Cuba and in the United States, they were almost
+stunned by two emotions. The hideous atrocity of the thing was
+overwhelming, and they grieved at the loss of the American sailors as
+though they themselves had been Americans. At the same time they could
+not be blind nor insensible to the almost certain sequel. They felt
+that, as Blanco said, it was the beginning of the end, and that now
+American intervention was practically assured.
+
+The Spanish government proposed a joint investigation into the disaster,
+but the United States government declined and conducted a thorough
+investigation of its own, through a board of eminent official experts.
+The report was that the loss of the ship was not due to any accident or
+to any negligence on the part of the officers and crew. The first
+explosion was external to the hull, as if caused by a torpedo or mine,
+and it caused the second explosion, which was that of the ship's
+magazines. The Spanish government then conducted an investigation of its
+own, resulting in a report that both explosions were within the ship and
+were presumably purely accidental. It may be added that a final
+examination in after years, when a cofferdam was built about the hulk
+and it was floated and then taken out to sea and sunk in deep water,
+fully confirmed the report of the American investigating board.
+
+It is to be recalled that Ramon O. Williams, who had only a little while
+before retired from the office of American Consul-General at Havana, and
+was particularly well informed and judicious, earnestly warned the
+United States government against sending a ship to Havana, because the
+harbor was very elaborately mined, and there was a bitter and truculent
+feeling among the Spaniards against the United States; wherefore the
+danger of some untoward occurrence was too great to be incurred without
+a more pressing necessity than was then apparent. But despite his
+warning the _Maine_ was sent. She was conducted by a Spanish official
+pilot to her anchorage at a buoy between Regla and the old custom house.
+Whether a mine was attached to that buoy or not is unknown, though Mr.
+Williams was confident that one was. His theory was that some malignant
+Spanish officer, who had access to the keyboard of the mines, perhaps
+through connivance with some other fanatic, watched to see the tide
+swing the ship directly over the mine and then touched the key and
+caused the explosion. That would account for the enormous hole which was
+blown in the side of the ship, and which could not have been caused by
+any little mine or torpedo which might have been floated to the side of
+the ship, but must have been produced by a very large mine planted deep
+beneath the hull.
+
+The findings of the American board of investigation were reported
+officially to the Spanish government, and the President in a message to
+Congress expressed confidence that Spain would act in the matter
+according to the dictates of justice, honor and friendship. The Spanish
+government replied that it would certainly do so, and it presently
+proposed to submit the whole subject to investigation by impartial
+experts, and to determination by arbitration. But this proposal was not
+made until April 10, when so much else had occurred to strain relations
+between the two countries that it could not be entertained by the United
+States.
+
+Meantime the Autonomist government in Cuba, with a devotion that was
+pathetic to behold, persisted in its efforts to justify its existence.
+An electoral census was taken, though of course it could not cover more
+than a small fraction of the island, and on March 27 an "election" of
+Cuban Deputies to the Cortes was held. In fact there was no popular
+voting at all. A list was prepared of eligible candidates, twenty of
+them being Autonomists and Reformists, or supporters of the government,
+and ten representing the Constitutionalist opposition. The list was
+submitted to the Governor-General and approved by him, and the
+candidates were declared to have been duly elected. Jose Maria Galvez,
+the president of the Autonomist cabinet, reported to the President of
+the United States that the new government was satisfactorily performing
+its functions, and entreated him to give no encouragement to the
+revolutionists which would militate against its success. In April there
+was another "election" for members of the two houses of the Insular
+Legislature. On May 4 that Legislature met, chose Fernando del Casco as
+President of the Assembly, and confirmed the Autonomist cabinet in its
+place; and it continued patiently and valiantly to hold sessions, make
+laws, and act as though it were a real government, exercising real
+authority over the island, all through the period of the American war
+with Spain and the practical siege of the island by the American navy.
+When the Spanish forces yielded and a protocol for peace was signed, on
+August 12, the Legislature held its last meeting, and was declared
+dissolved by Blanco in October. The Autonomist Cabinet continued to
+exercise its functions, at least nominally, until the end of Spanish
+sovereignty in Cuba.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+
+There could be no greater mistake than that which has been too often and
+too persistently made, in regarding the destruction of the _Maine_ as
+the cause of American, intervention in Cuba. The declarations of policy
+which we have already quoted from the messages of President Cleveland
+and President McKinley, the former fourteen months and the latter two
+months before that vessel went to Havana, are ample indications of the
+purpose of the American government to intervene unless there were a
+satisfactory amelioration of Cuban affairs. But there was no such
+amelioration, and therefore war was declared. It unquestionably would
+have been declared just the same, perhaps at a later and perhaps at an
+earlier date, if there had been no _Maine_ at all.
+
+Beginning before the destruction of the _Maine_, and accelerated after
+that event, both sides were preparing for war. Nevertheless diplomatic
+negotiations continued, chiefly conducted by the American Minister,
+Stewart L. Woodford, at Madrid. In order to facilitate such
+negotiations, President McKinley withheld the report on the _Maine_ from
+Congress for a time. Spain asked that the pacification of Cuba, which
+the United States was urging, be left to the Autonomist Legislature,
+which was to meet on May 4. The United States, declaring that it did not
+want Cuba but did want peace in Cuba, proposed an armistice to begin at
+once and to last until October 1, itself meantime to act as mediator
+between the Cubans and Spain. Spain replied that an armistice would be
+granted, to last at the pleasure of the Spanish commander, if the Cubans
+would ask for it themselves; and that already General Blanco had
+abandoned the "concentration" system. This was of course regarded as
+entirely unsatisfactory to the United States, but the peace-loving
+President McKinley hesitated to report to Congress his dissatisfaction
+with it.
+
+Meantime the Pope semi-officially expressed to both governments his
+earnest desire for the maintenance of peace; but to no effect. The
+German government, strongly sympathizing with Spain and seeking to
+foment ill-feeling between the United States and Great Britain, had its
+Ambassador at Washington, Dr. Von Holleben, form a cabal of the chief
+members of the Diplomatic Corps, to call on the President with what
+amounted to a suggestion of mediation, maliciously persuading the
+British Ambassador to act as spokesman of the delegation, in order that
+any resentment or odium should fall upon him and his country; but the
+President with admirable temper and resolution declined with thanks all
+foreign meddling in a controversy which concerned only the United States
+and Spain. The Spanish government proclaimed on April 10 a suspension of
+hostilities, in deference to the wishes of the Pope and of the great
+European powers. It was reported officially to the United States
+government that this armistice was granted without conditions, though
+General Blanco's proclamation declared that it was to continue only at
+the pleasure of the Spanish commanders. The Cuban government, through
+Maximo Gomez, replied that it had not sought the armistice and would not
+accept it unless Spain agreed to evacuate Cuba.
+
+The President of the United States at last, on April 11, laid the whole
+matter before Congress in a message which for calm moderation in the
+presence of unspeakable provocation, for convincing logic, for lofty and
+unselfish benevolence, for keen and just perception of existing
+conditions, and for valorous resolution to deal with them in the only
+satisfactory way, must take high rank among the great historic state
+documents of the world. After reviewing the story of the Cuban
+revolution and the condition into which it had plunged the island, he
+said: "The war in Cuba is of such a nature that, short of subjugation or
+extermination, a military victory for either side seems impracticable."
+Then, recounting the efforts of the United States to effect a just
+settlement by negotiation, he added: "The only hope of relief and repose
+from a condition which can no longer be endured is the enforced
+pacification of Cuba. In the name of humanity, in the name of
+civilization, in behalf of endangered American interests which give us
+the right and duty to speak and to act, the war in Cuba must stop. In
+view of these facts and these considerations I ask the Congress to
+authorize and empower the President to take measures to secure a full
+and final termination of hostilities between the government of Spain and
+the people of Cuba, and to secure in the island the establishment of a
+stable government capable of maintaining order and observing its
+international obligations, insuring peace and tranquillity and the
+security of its citizens as well as our own, and to use the military and
+naval forces of the United States as may be necessary for these
+purposes."
+
+It is to be observed that the President spoke of the war "between the
+government of Spain and the Cuban people"--the Cuban people, not the
+Cuban government. There had as yet been no official recognition of the
+Cuban government, either as independent or as belligerent, and the
+President could therefore not properly refer to it. At the same time he
+spoke of "the Cuban people" and not of merely a part of them,
+recognizing by inference that fact that the Cuban people were
+substantially a unit in revolting against Spain and in demanding
+independence.
+
+Spain made it dear that she bitterly resented what she regarded as the
+unwarrantable meddling of the United States in Cuban affairs, and that
+she would prefer war to yielding to that meddling. France and Austria,
+at German suggestion, made one more effort at mediation by the great
+powers, but abandoned it when Great Britain refused to have anything to
+do with it and indicated clearly her sympathy with the United States.
+
+Finally, on April 20 President McKinley signed the act of Congress which
+was made in response to his message of April 11. That memorable act, the
+Magna Charta of the Cuban Republic, declared that the people of Cuba
+were and of right ought to be free and independent; that it was the duty
+of the United States to demand, and it accordingly did demand, that
+Spain should immediately relinquish her authority and government in Cuba
+and withdraw her military and naval forces from that island and its
+waters; that the President be authorized to employ the army and navy of
+the United States as might be necessary to carry these resolutions into
+effect; and that the United States disclaimed any disposition or
+intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction or control over Cuba,
+except for the pacification thereof, and asserted its determination,
+when that was accomplished, to leave the government and control of the
+island to its people.
+
+Before signing this act the President cabled its substance to General
+Woodford at Madrid, in an ultimatum to the Spanish government, giving
+Spain three days in which to comply with the demands. Before the three
+days expired the Spanish Minister at Washington asked for his passports
+and departed, and the Spanish government notified General Woodford that
+diplomatic relations between the two countries were at an end. He
+thereupon took his passports and departed. It should be added that on
+April 21 the Autonomist government of Cuba issued a proclamation to the
+people of the island, urging them to unite in support of the Spanish
+government in its resistance to the war of conquest which the United
+States was about to wage for the seizure and annexation of the island.
+The success of the United States, it added, would mean that Cuba would
+be subjugated, dominated and absorbed by an alien race, opposed to
+Cubans in temperament, traditions, language, religion and customs.
+
+Thus the War of Independence entered a new and final phase, with the
+armed might of the United States assisting that Cuban cause the success
+of which had already become practically certain. The Cuban army rapidly
+grew in numbers and improved in morale, and was of course abundantly
+supplied with arms and ammunition, while the sending of reenforcements
+and supplies to the Spaniards was interfered with by the United States
+navy. As soon as the state of war began three United States agents were
+sent to Cuba, to investigate the condition and strength of the
+revolutionary army, and to arrange for its reenforcement and for
+cooperation between it and the American troops. Lieutenant Henry Whitney
+was thus sent to visit Maximo Gomez in the centre of the island;
+Lieutenant A. S. Rowan was sent to Oriente, and Lieutenant-Colonel J. H.
+Dorst was sent to Pinar del Rio.
+
+Lieutenant Whitney reached the camp of Gomez in Santa Clara Province on
+April 28, found affairs in a most promising state, and arranged for the
+prompt forwarding of supplies and of a considerable company of Cubans
+who had been enlisted in the United States for the revolutionary army.
+Gomez had an effective force of 3,000 men, and reenforcements of 750
+under General Lacret, with supplies of food and munitions, were promised
+him. But the expeditions, in two steamers, failed to reach him, and
+after waiting for them on the coast for two weeks, until his supplies of
+food were exhausted, he was compelled to disband his army. Domingo
+Mendez Capote, Vice-President of the Cuban Republic, hastened to
+Washington, to explain to the government the urgent need of sending
+supplies, and as a result renewed efforts were made to land expeditions,
+but with little success.
+
+The mission of Lieutenant-Colonel Dorst to Pinar del Rio was similarly
+unsuccessful. A few United States troops were landed under protection of
+the fire of gunboats, on May 12, but an attempt to deliver a great cargo
+of rifles and cartridges to the Cubans was defeated by the Spaniards,
+and the American troops were compelled to return to their ship and
+depart.
+
+In Oriente Lieutenant Rowan was more successful, owing to the fact that
+few Spanish forces remained in that province. He found the Spanish,
+indeed, in possession of only the three towns of Santiago, Bayamo and
+Manzanillo, and the forts along the railroad; and on April 29 they
+evacuated Manzanillo, which was thereupon occupied by Calixto Garcia.
+Lieutenant Rowan reported to Washington that Garcia was able to put
+8,000 efficient troops in the field, and presently considerable supplies
+were sent to him with little difficulty.
+
+Perhaps the most significant information obtained by these American
+envoys, and particularly by Lieutenant Whitney in his visit to the Cuban
+Commander in Chief, was that the Cubans, while exulting in American
+intervention, did not welcome but rather deprecated American invasion
+of the island. Maximo Gomez said frankly that he would prefer that not a
+single American soldier should set foot on the island, unless it were a
+force of artillery, which was an arm in which the Cubans were sorely
+lacking. All he asked was that the United States should supply the
+Cubans with arms and ammunition, and prevent supplies from reaching the
+Spaniards. If that were done, the Cubans would do the rest, and would
+expel the Spanish from the island without the loss of a single drop of
+American blood.
+
+The reasons for this reluctance to have American troops invade the
+island were chiefly two. One was a certain praiseworthy pride in Cuban
+achievements and a desire to retain for Cubans the credit of winning
+their own independence. Gomez and his comrades had been fighting to that
+end for years, and they wanted the satisfaction of completing the job
+and of gaining for Cuba herself the glory of victory. The other reason
+was the very natural fear that American invasion and occupation of the
+island would mean American annexation, or at least perpetual American
+domination of Cuban affairs. It seemed contrary to human nature,
+contrary to all the experience and examples of the past, that it should
+not be so. Of course, there was the promise in the act of intervention,
+that the United States would leave the government of the island to its
+own people. But it is probable that only a very small percentage of
+Cubans ever so much as heard of it, while it would be surprising if more
+than a small minority of those who did know of it had any real
+confidence that it would be fulfilled. It will be recalled that a very
+considerable proportion of the people of the United States regarded that
+pledge as mere "buncombe" and declared unhesitatingly that it would not
+be permitted for one moment to stand in the way of the annexation of
+Cuba. Truly, it would have been miraculous if Cubans had esteemed the
+integrity of an American promise more highly than Americans themselves.
+
+[Illustration: ADMIRAL CERVERA]
+
+[Illustration: ADMIRAL SCHLEY]
+
+The first weeks of the war were confined chiefly to naval operations. A
+blockade of Cuban ports was established and pretty well maintained,
+beginning along the central and western part of the north coast on April
+22. A number of small Spanish vessels were captured, and there were some
+bombardments of shore towns and exchanges of shots with Spanish
+gunboats. Despite the vigilance of the American scouts and blockading
+squadrons, Admiral Cervera with several powerful Spanish warships,
+sailing from Cadiz on April 8 and touching at Martinique on May 11,
+succeeded in entering the harbor of Santiago on May 19. There he was
+soon besieged by a more powerful American fleet under the command of
+Commodore, afterward Admiral, Schley; who on June 1 was joined by
+Admiral Sampson, who thereafter took command. Lieutenant Victor Blue was
+sent ashore on June 11, to make a long detour to the hills back of the
+city, from which he was able to see and identify the Spanish ships.
+Meantime Lieutenant Richmond P. Hobson with seven picked men in the
+early morning of June 3 took the big coal hulk _Merrimac_ in to the
+narrowest part of the harbor entrance and there sunk it with a torpedo,
+hoping thus to block the passage and prevent Cervera's ships from coming
+out. The exploit was not entirely successful, the vessel not being sunk
+at quite the right point, though it did make exit much more difficult.
+Hobson and his comrades were taken prisoners by the Spaniards, but were
+treated with distinguished courtesy and consideration in recognition of
+their daring exploit. Thereafter the blockading fleet kept close watch
+day and night upon the harbor mouth, brilliantly illuminating it with
+searchlights all night, to prevent the escape of the Spanish fleet.
+
+Meanwhile General Nelson A. Miles, commander of the United States army,
+was preparing for an invasion of the island. The Fifth Army Corps was
+organized at Tampa, Florida, under the command of Major-General William
+R. Shafter, and on June 14 was embarked on a fleet of 37 transports.
+This fleet sailed around Cape Maysi to the southern coast of Cuba, and
+on June 21 was off Santiago. General Shafter and Admiral Sampson went
+ashore to confer with General Calixto Garcia at his camp at Acerradero,
+and found the situation by no means as encouraging as they had hoped.
+Garcia had only about 3,500 Cubans in his force, and they were not all
+well armed, and there were 1,000 more at Guantanamo. General Shafter's
+army numbered fewer than 16,000 men. Against these the Spaniards under
+General Linares numbered about 40,000.
+
+Averse as the Cubans had been to the landing of American troops, General
+Garcia accepted the inevitable, and promptly offered to place all his
+men under General Shafter's command. General Shafter accepted the offer,
+though he reminded General Garcia that he could exercise no control
+over the troops beyond what he, Garcia, authorized. He of course saw to
+it that they were abundantly supplied with arms and ammunition, Garcia's
+troops were then employed very effectively in protecting the landing of
+the American troops, at Daiquiri; 6,000 of them being put ashore on June
+22 and the remainder in the next two days. General Henry W. Lawton
+promptly led the advance to Siboney, from which the Spaniards were
+driven, being pursued after their evacuation by the Cubans under General
+Castillo.
+
+[Illustration: OLD FORT AT EL CANEY, WRECKED BY FIGHTING OF JULY, 1898]
+
+The next attack was made upon the Spaniards at Las Guasimas, an action
+in which material aid was rendered by Cubans, and which resulted in the
+Spaniards being driven back a mile or more. By June 25 the Americans
+were on the Ridge of Sevilla, looking down upon Santiago, only six miles
+away, and two days later their outposts were within three miles of the
+city. There followed on July 1 a desperate contest at the fortified
+village of El Caney, resulting in the capture of that place by storm,
+with great slaughter of the Spanish, who held their ground with stubborn
+valor. Simultaneously an attack was made by another part of the American
+forces upon Kettle Hill and San Juan Hill, where heavy losses were
+sustained on both sides. The climax of this engagement was a charge of
+Wheeler's division, the Tenth Cavalry, against the Spanish entrenched
+lines. The van of this division was occupied by the "Rough Riders"
+regiment, an organization recruited chiefly among western plainsmen and
+"cowboys" by Theodore Roosevelt, who had resigned the Assistant
+Secretaryship of the Navy thus to engage in active service. The charge
+was led by Colonel Roosevelt in person, though he was in fact second in
+command of the regiment, the chief command of which he had declined in
+favor of his friend Leonard Wood, who was destined to play one of the
+greatest parts in the establishment of Cuban independence. In this hot
+engagement the Americans were also completely victorious.
+
+[Illustration: THEODORE ROOSEVELT]
+
+General Pando was now rushing 8,000 Spanish troops from the west to
+reinforce General Linares at Santiago, and Calixto Garcia with his Cuban
+forces undertook to hold him in check, though he was greatly outnumbered
+by the Spanish. On July 2 fighting was resumed, the Spanish assuming the
+aggressive, and before the day was done the Americans, greatly
+outnumbered and exhausted by the incessant fighting and the heat of the
+weather, began seriously considering withdrawal from positions which
+they feared they would not be able to hold. General Shafter urged
+Admiral Sampson to aid him by making an attack upon the city with his
+fleet, but the latter demurred on account of the danger of entering a
+mined harbor. It was arranged that the two commanders should meet again
+for another council of war on the morning of July 3, and Admiral Sampson
+actually started up the coast toward Siboney for that purpose, when a
+dramatic event in a twinkling transformed the whole situation.
+
+[Illustration: MONUMENTS ON SAN JUAN HILL, NEAR SANTIAGO]
+
+This was the unexpected emergence of the Spanish fleet from the Santiago
+harbor, on the morning of July 3, in a desperate attempt to break
+through the American blockade and fight their way around to Havana. In
+Admiral Sampson's temporary absence the command devolved upon Admiral
+Schley, and orders instantly were given to close in and engage the
+Spanish ships. The latter were four in number, the _Maria Teresa_, the
+_Vizcaya_, the _Colon_ and the _Oquendo_, with two torpedo boats,
+_Pluton_ and _Terror_. Admiral Sampson quickly retraced his course but
+did not arrive until the close of the fight, which raged for hours,
+along the coast for fifty miles westward from Santiago. The result was
+the destruction of every one of the Spanish ships and the killing of
+one-third of their crews. Admiral Cervera with 1,200 men surrendered. On
+the American side only one man was killed and three were wounded, and
+not one of the ships was seriously damaged.
+
+[Illustration: ADMIRAL SAMPSON]
+
+The Spaniards now knew that Santiago was doomed, though they continued
+to hold out with stubborn valor. On the night of July 4 they sank a
+vessel in the harbor mouth, in emulation of Hobson's deed, to shut the
+American fleet out, but failed to get it in the right place.
+Preparations were made for a joint attack by army and fleet on July 9, a
+truce being arranged until that date, and thereafter more or less
+continuous fighting prevailed, without important results, for three
+days. On July 12 General Toral, who had taken the Spanish command in
+place of General Linares, who was wounded at San Juan Hill, entered into
+negotiations with General Miles and General Wheeler, and on July 17
+terms of surrender were adopted. All the Spanish troops in Oriente save
+10,000 at Holguin, were surrendered, about 22,000 in all. Some minor
+naval operations followed at Manzanillo and Nipe, but there was no more
+serious fighting. For all practical purposes the war was ended.
+
+[Illustration: PEACE TREE NEAR SANTIAGO, UNDER WHICH SPANISH COMMANDER
+OF SANTIAGO CAPITULATED JULY 16, 1898]
+
+The next step was taken in behalf of Spain by the French Ambassador at
+Washington, Spain having committed to the French government the care of
+her diplomatic interests in America. M. Cambon on July 26 inquired of
+President McKinley if he would consider negotiations for peace. The
+President replied on July 30 that he was willing to discuss peace on the
+basis of certain conditions, the first of which was that Spain should
+relinquish all claim of sovereignty over or title to the island of Cuba,
+and should immediately evacuate that island. That was significant. It
+indicated that the United States purposed to fulfil its pledge
+concerning the independence of Cuba. The next condition was that Spain
+should cede to the United States the island of Porto Rico. But there was
+no hint at her cession of Cuba to the United States. She was merely to
+renounce her own sovereignty. These conditions were accepted by the
+Spanish government through M. Cambon on August 12; the naval and
+military commanders on both sides were ordered to cease hostilities, the
+blockade of Cuba was discontinued; and the War of Independence was at a
+triumphant end.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+
+Following the protocol and the cessation of hostilities, two major tasks
+were to be performed. One was to remove the Spanish forces from the
+island and to establish permanent terms of peace, and the other was to
+organize and establish a permanent Cuban government.
+
+The former of these was promptly undertaken, by the governments of the
+United States and Spain. A joint commission arranged the details of
+evacuation, which was a formidable undertaking because of the number of
+persons to be transported and the paucity of shipping facilities at the
+command of the Peninsular government. The city of Havana was not
+evacuated until January 1, 1899, and the last Spanish troops were not
+removed from the island until the middle of February following. There
+were about 130,000 officers and soldiers transported, together with some
+15,000 military and civilian employes and their families.
+
+Simultaneously the task of treaty-making proceeded. President McKinley
+on August 26 appointed five Commissioners to conduct the negotiations.
+They were William R. Day, Secretary of State, Chairman; Cushman K.
+Davis, Senator; William P. Frye, Senator; Whitelaw Reid, Ambassador; and
+Edward D. White, Justice of the Supreme Court. Mr. White found himself
+unable to serve, and on September 9 George Gray, Senator, was appointed
+in his place. The Spanish government named as Commissioners five of
+Spain's foremost statesmen: Eugenio Montero Rios, Buenaventura
+d'Abarzuza, Jose de Garnica, Wenceslao Ramirez de Villa Urrutia, and
+Rafael Cerero. The Commissioners began their deliberations in Paris on
+October 1.
+
+The first question discussed was the disposition of Cuba, and over it
+strong disagreement arose on two major points. The Spanish Commissioners
+declined to recognize the existence of any Cuban government, and argued
+that as there was no such government, and as Spain in relinquishing
+sovereignty over the island could not let that sovereignty lapse but
+must transfer it to some other responsible and competent power, the
+United States should accept cession of Cuba to it; which Spain was
+willing to grant. The American Commissioners replied that the United
+States was pledged not to annex the island, and as a matter of fact did
+not intend to do so and therefore could not and would not accept cession
+of the island to itself. Spain in the protocol had agreed to renounce
+her sovereignty without any stipulations further, and by that
+arrangement she must abide. The United States would, however, make
+itself responsible for the due observance of international law in Cuba
+so long as its occupation of the island lasted. The Spaniards were
+reluctant to yield, as a matter of pride and sentiment preferring to
+give Cuba to the United States rather than to surrender it to the
+insurgent Cubans. But the American Commissioners were resolute, and on
+October 27 the first article of the treaty was adopted; to wit:
+
+"Spain relinquishes all claim of sovereignty over and title to Cuba.
+
+"And as the island is, on its evacuation by Spain, to be occupied by the
+United States, the United States will, so long as such occupation shall
+last, assume and discharge the obligations that may under international
+law result from the fact of its occupation for the protection of life
+and property."
+
+This was clear and unmistakable notice to the world that the American
+government intended to fulfil its pledge, not to annex Cuba but to
+render that island to the control and government of its own people.
+True, not yet were all convinced that this would be done. The Spaniards
+were courteously skeptical. A considerable faction in the United States,
+half "Jingo" and half sordid, insisted that the island must be annexed.
+The majority of Cubans, inclined to judge all governments by their
+bitter experiences with that of Spain, were frankly incredulous, not
+understanding how any government could be thus altruistic and
+self-denying.
+
+The second point of dispute was that of the Cuban debt. The Spanish
+government for years had been charging against Cuba the cost of
+maintaining an army for its subjugation and the costs of suppressing the
+various insurrections that had occurred, and the Commissioners proposed
+that all that enormous debt should be saddled upon the island and made a
+first charge upon its customs revenues. To this the American
+Commissioners demurred. Cuba had for centuries been "the milch cow of
+Spain," and had given to Spain far more than she had ever received in
+return. It would be monstrous injustice to burden a people with the cost
+of subjugating them and keeping them in slavery. In the end the Spanish
+Commissioners yielded, and no mention was made in the treaty of any debt
+resting upon Cuba.
+
+It was further agreed that both parties should release and repatriate
+all prisoners of war, and that the United States would undertake to
+obtain such release of all Spanish prisoners held by the Cubans. Each
+party relinquished all claims for indemnity of any and every kind which
+had arisen since the beginning of the Cuban war. Spain relinquished in
+Cuba all immovable property belonging to the public domain and to the
+crown of Spain; such relinquishment not impairing lawful property rights
+of municipalities, corporations or individuals. Spanish subjects were to
+be free to remain in Cuba or to remove therefrom, in either event
+retaining full property rights; and in the former case being free to
+become Cuban citizens or to retain their allegiance to Spain; and they
+were to be secured in the free exercise of their religion. There were
+various other stipulations, such as are customary in treaties, intended
+to assure Spain and Spaniards of equitable treatment and relationships
+in Cuba. It was added that the obligations of the United States in Cuba
+were to be limited to the period of its occupation of that island; but
+upon the termination of that occupation the United States promised to
+advise the succeeding Cuban government to assume the same obligations.
+The treaty was finally agreed to and signed on December 10, 1898, and it
+was ratified by the United States Senate on February 6, 1899.
+
+General Ramon Blanco meanwhile, on November 26, 1898, resigned the
+Governor-Generalship of Cuba and returned to Spain. To General Jiminez
+Castellanos was left the unwelcome duty of holding nominal sway for a
+few weeks and then surrendering the sovereignty of four centuries to an
+alien power. Already American troops were in actual occupation and
+control of nearly all the island. In the latter part of December, 1898,
+the Seventh Army Corps, commanded by Major-General Fitzhugh Lee, was
+brought into the outskirts of Havana in readiness for the final function
+which was to be performed on the first day of the new year.
+
+The end came. It was on January 1, 1899. Four hundred and six years, two
+months and three days before, the first Spaniard had landed upon Cuban
+soil and had planted there the quartered flag of Leon and Castile in
+token of sovereignty. Now, after all that lapse of time, largely, it
+must be confessed, ill spent and ill-improved, the Spanish flag was
+finally to be lowered and withdrawn, in token of the passing away of
+Spanish sovereignty forever from the soil of Cuba.
+
+[Illustration: PART OF OLD CITY WALL OF HAVANA, STILL STANDING]
+
+The ceremonies were brief and simple; far more brief and simple, we may
+well believe, than were those with which the imaginative and exuberant
+Admiral proclaimed possession of the island centuries before. The
+official representatives of Spain and the United States met at noon in
+the Hall of State in the Governor's Palace, the scene of so many proud
+and imperious events in Spanish colonial history. On the one side the
+chief was General Jiminez Castellanos, the last successor of Velasquez.
+On the other, Major-General John R. Brooke. The one was the last of a
+long, long line of Spanish Governors-General; the other was the first
+of a brief succession of American Military Governors who were soon to
+give way to an unending line of native Cuban Republican Presidents and
+Congresses. With a sad heart, with tear-suffused eyes, and with a hand
+that trembled to hold a pen far more than ever it had to wield a sword,
+General Jiminez Castellanos signed the document which abdicated and
+relinquished Spanish sovereignty in that Pearl of the Antilles which was
+nevermore to be known as the "Ever Faithful Isle." The crimson and gold
+barred banner of Spain descended. The Stars and Stripes rose in its
+place. The deed was done. The final settlement was made with Spain.
+
+For three hundred and eighty-seven years Spain had been the sovereign of
+Cuba, exercising her power through one hundred and thirty-six
+administrations, of which the first was one of the longest and the last
+was one of the shortest. It will be worth our while to recall the roll,
+which bears some of the noblest and some of the vilest names in Spanish
+history:
+
+   _No._      _Date_
+
+    1          1512    Diego Velasquez, Lieutenant-Governor
+
+    2          1524    Manuel de Rojas, Lieutenant-Governor, provisional
+
+    3          1525    Juan de Altamirano, Lieutenant-Governor
+
+    4          1526    Gonzalo de Guzman, Lieutenant-General
+
+    5          1532    Manuel de Rojas, Lieutenant-Governor, provisional
+
+    6          1535    Gonzalo de Guzman, Lieutenant-Governor
+
+    7          1538    Hernando de Soto, Governor-General
+
+    8          1544    Juan de Avila, Governor-General
+
+    9          1546    Antonio Chavez, Governor-General
+
+    10         1550    Gonzalo Perez de Angulo, Governor-General
+
+    11         1556    Diego de Mazariegos, Governor-General
+
+    12         1565    Francisco Garcia Osorio, Governor-General
+
+    13         1568    Pedro Menendez de Avilas, Governor-General
+
+    14         1573    Gabriel Montalvo, Governor-General
+
+    15         1577    Francisco Carreno, Governor-General
+
+    16         1579    Gaspar de Torres, Governor-General, provisional
+
+    17         1581    Gabriel de Lujan, Captain-General
+
+    18         1589    Juan de Tejada, Captain-General
+
+    19         1594    Juan Maldonado Balnuevo, Captain-General
+
+    20         1602    Pedro Valdes Balnuevo, Captain-General
+
+    21         1608    Gaspar Ruiz de Pereda, Captain-General
+
+    22         1616    Sancho de Alguizaz, Captain-General
+
+    23         1620    Geronimo de Quero, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    24         1620    Diego Vallejo, Captain-General
+
+    25   Aug. 14, 1620 Francisco de Venegas, Captain-General
+
+    26                 Juan Esquivil, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    27                 Juan Riva Martin, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    28         1624    Garcia Giron de Loaysa, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    29         1624    Cristobal de Aranda, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    30         1625    Lorenzo de Cabrera, Captain-General
+
+    31         1630    Juan Bitrian de Viamontes, Captain-General
+
+    32         1634    Francisco Riano de Gamboa, Captain-General
+
+    33         1639    Alvaro de Luna, Captain-General
+
+    34         1647    Diego de Villalba, Captain-General
+
+    35         1653    Francisco Xeldes, Captain-General
+
+    36         1655    Juan Montano, Captain-General
+
+    37         1658    Juan de Salamanca, Captain-General
+
+    38         1663    Rodrigo de Flores, Captain-General
+
+    39         1664    Francisco Dairle, Captain-General
+
+    40         1670    Francisco de Ledesma, Captain-General
+
+    41         1680    Jose Fernandez de Cordoba, Captain-General
+
+    42         1685    Andres Munibe, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    43                 Manuel Murguia, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    44         1687    Diego de Viana, Captain-General
+
+    45         1689    Severino de Manraneda, Captain-General
+
+    46         1695    Diego de Cordoba, Captain-General
+
+    47         1702    Pedro Benites de Lugo, Captain-General
+
+    48         1705    Nicolas Chirino, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    49         ....    Luis Chacon, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    50         1706    Pedro Alvares Villarin, Captain-General
+
+    51         1708    Laureano de Torres, Captain-General
+
+    52         1711    Luis Chacon, Captain-General
+
+    53         1713    Laureano de Torres, Captain-General
+
+    54         1716    Vicente Baja, Captain-General
+
+    55         1717    Gomez de Alvarez, Captain-General
+
+    56         1717    Gregorio Guazo, Captain-General
+
+    57         1724    Dionisio Martinez, Captain-General
+
+    58         1734    Juan F. Guemes, Captain-General
+
+    59         1745    Juan A. Tineo, Captain-General
+
+    60         1745    Diego Pinalosa, Captain-General
+
+    61         1747    Francisco Cagigal, Captain-General
+
+    62         1760    Pedro Alonso, Captain-General
+
+    63         1761    Juan de Prado Portocarrero, Captain-General
+
+    64   July 1, 1762   Ambrosio Villapando, Count of Riela,
+                           Captain-General
+
+    65    June, 1765    Diego Manrique, Captain-General
+
+    66    July, 1765    Pasual Jimenez de Cisners, Captain-General,
+                           provisional
+
+    67  March 19, 1766  Antonio M. Bucarely, Captain-General
+
+    68         1771     Marques de la Torre, Captain-General
+
+    69   June, 1777     Diego J. Navarro, Captain-General
+
+    70    May, 1781     Juan M. Cagigal, Captain-General
+
+    71         1782     Luis de Unzaga, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    72         1785     Bernardo Troncoso, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    73         ....     Jose Espeleta, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    74         ....     Domingo Cabello, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    75   Dec. 28, 1785  Jose Espeleta, Captain-General
+
+    76   Apr. 20, 1789  Domingo Cabello, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    77   July 8, 1790   Luis de las Casas, Captain-General
+
+    78   Dec. 6, 1796   Juan Bassecourt, Captain-General
+
+    79   May 13, 1799   Salvador de Muro, Captain-General
+
+    80   Apr. 14, 1812  Juan Ruiz de Apodaca, Captain-General
+
+    81   July 2, 1816   Jose Cienfuegos, Captain-General
+
+    82   Apr. 20, 1819  Juan M. Cagigal, Captain-General
+
+    83   Mar. 3, 1821   Nicolas de Mahy, Captain-General
+
+    84   July 2, 1823   Sebastian Kindelan, Captain-General, provisional
+
+    85   May 2, 1823    Dionisio Vives. Given absolute authority
+                                     by royal decree, 1821
+
+    86   May 2, 1832    Mariano Rocafort. Given
+                                     absolute authority by
+                                     royal decree, 1825
+
+    87   June 1, 1834   Miguel Tacon. Given absolute
+                                     authority by royal
+                                     decree of 1825
+
+    88     From June 1, 1834,    Lt.-Gen. Miguel Tacon y
+             to Apr. 16, 1838       Rosique, Captain-General
+
+    89     From Apr. 16, 1838,   Lieut. Gen. Joaquin Espeleta
+             to Feb., 1840          y Enrille
+
+    90     Feb., 1840, to May    Lieut. Gen. Pedro Tellez
+             10, 1841               de Gironm, Prince of
+                                    Anglona
+
+    91     From May 10, 1841,    Lieut. Gen. Geronimo Valdes
+             to Sept. 15, 1843      y Sierra
+
+    92     From Sept. 15, to     Lieut. Gen. of the Royal
+             Oct. 26, 1843          Navy, Francis Xavier de
+                                    Ulloa, provisional
+
+    93     From Oct. 26, 1843,   Lieut. Gen. Leopoldo
+             to Mar. 20, 1848       O'Donnell y Joris, Count
+                                    of Lucena.
+
+    94     From Mar. 20, 1848,   Lieut. Gen. Federico Roncali,
+             to Nov. 13, 1850       Count of Alcoy
+
+    95     From Nov. 13, 1850,   Lieut. Gen. Jose Gutierrez
+             to Apr. 22, 1852       de la Concha
+
+    96     From Apr. 22, 1852,   Lieut. Gen. Valentin Canedo
+             to Dec. 3, 1853        Miranda
+
+    97     From Dec. 3, 1853,    Lieut. Gen. Juan de la
+             to Sept. 21, 1854      Pezuela, Marquis of de
+                                    la Pezuela
+
+    98     From Sept. 14, 1854,  Lieut. Gen. Jose Gutierrez
+             to Nov. 24, 1859       de la Concha, Marquis
+                                    of Habana, second time
+
+    99     From Nov. 14, 1859,   Lieut. Gen. Francisco Serrano,
+             to Dec. 10, 1862       Duke de la Torre
+
+    100    From Dec. 10, 1862,   Lieut. Gen. Domingo Dulce
+              to May 30, 1866       y Garay
+
+    101    From May 20, 1866,    Lieut. Gen. Francisco Lersundi
+              to Nov. 3, 1866
+
+    102    From Nov. 3, 1866,    Lieut. Gen. Joaquin del
+              to Sept. 24, 1867     Manzano y Manzano
+              on which date he
+              died
+
+    103    From Sept. 24, 1867,  Lieut. Gen. Blas Villate,
+              to Dec. 12, 1867      Count of Valmaseda
+
+    104    From Dec. 13, 1867,   Lieut. Gen. Francisco Lersundi
+              to Jan. 4, 1869
+
+    105    From Jan. 4, 1869,    Lieut. Gen. Domingo Dulce
+              to June 2, 1869       y Garay, second time
+
+    106    From June 2, 1869,    Lieut. Gen. Felipe Ginoves
+              to June 28, 1869      del Espinar, provisional
+    107    From June 28, 1869,   Lieut. Gen. Antonio Fernandez
+              to Dec. 15, 1870      y Caballero de Rodas
+
+    108    From Dec. 15, 1870,   Lieut. Gen. Blas Villate,
+              to July 11, 1872      Count of Valmaseda
+
+    109    From July 11, 1872,   Lieut. Gen. Francisco Ceballos
+              to Apr. 18, 1873      y Vargas
+
+    110    From Apr. 18, 1873,   Lieut. Gen. Candido Pieltain
+              to Nov. 4, 1873       y Jove-Huelgo
+
+    111    From Nov. 4, 1873,    Lieut. Gen. Joaquin Jovellar
+              to Apr. 7, 1874       y Soler
+
+    112    From Apr. 7, 1874,    Lieut. Gen. Jose Gutierrez
+              to May 8, 1875        de la Concha, Marquis of
+                                    Habana
+
+    113    From May 8, 1875,     Lieut. Gen. Buenaventura
+             to June 8, 1875        Carbo, provisional
+
+    114    From June 8, 1875,    Lieut. Gen. Blas Villate,
+             to Jan. 18, 1876       Count of Valmaseda,
+                                    third time
+
+    115    From Jan. 18, 1876,   Lieut. Gen. Joaquin Jovellar
+             to June 18, 1878       y Soler. He was
+                                    under Martinez Campos,
+                                    who was the general in
+                                    chief
+
+    116    From Oct. 8, 1876,    Lieut. Gen. Arsenio Martinez
+             to Feb. 5, 1879        Campos
+
+    117    From Feb. 5, 1879,    Lieut. Gen. Cayetano Figueroa
+             to Apr. 17, 1879       y Garaondo, provisional
+
+    118    From Apr. 17, 1879,   Lieut. Gen. Ramon Blanco
+             to Nov. 28, 1881       y Erenas
+
+    119    From Nov. 28, 1881,   Lieut. Gen. Luis Prendergast
+             to Aug. 5, 1883        y Gordon, Marquis
+                                    of Victoria de las Tunas
+
+    120    From. Aug. 5, 1883,   Lieut. Gen. of Division
+             to Sept. 28, 1883      Tomas de Reyan y
+                                    Reyna, provisional
+
+    121    From Sept. 28, 1883,  Lieut. Gen. Ignacio Maria
+             to Nov. 8, 1884        del Castillo
+
+    122    From Nov. 8, 1884,    Lieut. Gen. Ramon Fajardo
+             to Mar. 25, 1886       e Izquierdo
+
+    123    From Mar. 25, 1886,   Lieut. Gen. Emilio Calleja
+             to July 15, 1887       e Isasi
+
+    124    From July 15, 1887,   Lieut. Gen. Saba Marin y
+             to Mar. 13, 1889       Gonzalez
+
+    125    From Mar. 13, 1889,   Lieut. Gen. Manuel Salamanca
+             died Feb. 6, 1890      y Begrete
+
+    126    From Mar. 13, 1889,   General of Division Jose
+             to Apr. 4, 1890        Sanchez Gomez, provisional
+
+    127    From Apr. 4, 1890,    Lieut. Gen. Jose Chinchilla
+             to Aug. 20, 1890       y Diez de Onate
+
+    128    From Aug. 20, 1890,   Lieut. Gen. Camilo Polavieja
+             to June 20, 1892       y del Castillo
+
+    129    From June 20, 1892;   Lieut. Gen. Alejandro Rodriguez
+             died July 15, 1893     Arias
+
+    130    From July 15, 1893,   General of Division Jose
+             to Sept. 5, 1893       Arderius y Garcia, provisional
+
+    131    From Sept. 5, 1893,   Lieut. Gen. Emilio Calleja
+             to Apr. 16, 1895       e Isasi
+
+    132    From Apr. 16, 1895,   Captain Gen. Arsenio Martinez
+             to Jan. 20, 1896       Campos
+
+    133    From Jan. 20, 1896,   Lieut. Gen. Savas Marin y
+             to Feb. 11, 1896       Gonzalez
+
+    134    From Feb. 11, 1896,   Lieut. Gen. Valeriano Weyler
+             to Oct. 31, 1897       y Nicolau
+
+    135    From Oct. 31, 1897,   Capt. Gen. Ramon Blanco
+             to Nov. 30, 1898       y Erenas
+
+    136    From Nov. 30, 1898,   Lieut. Gen. Adolfo Jimines
+             to Jan. 1, 1899,       Castellanos
+              at 12 noon.
+
+There must be added an unwelcome note. The Spaniards--not their high
+officials--left most ungraciously. It is not to be wondered at that they
+were sad, that they were sullen, that they were resentful; that they
+were fearful lest the Cubans should rise against them at the last moment
+and inflict upon them vengeance for the treasured wrongs of many years.
+But there was of course no such uprising. The Cubans wished to make the
+day an occasion of great public celebration, but the authorities--Cuban
+and American as well as Spanish--would not permit it. It was not
+courteous to exult over a beaten foe. Besides, any such celebration
+would have caused great danger of trouble. What was inexcusable,
+however, was the condition in which the Spanish left all public
+buildings. They looted and gutted them of everything that could be
+removed. They destroyed the plumbing and lighting fixtures. They broke
+or choked up the drains. They left every place in an indescribably
+filthy condition. There was nothing in all their record in Cuba more
+unbecoming than their manner of leaving it. Such was the last detail of
+the settlement with Spain.
+
+The settlement with Cuba came next. Indeed, it was concurrently
+undertaken. And it was by far the more formidable task of the two. It
+was necessary to arrange for the transfer of the temporary trust of the
+United States to a permanent Cuban authority, and to do so in
+circumstances and conditions which would afford the largest possible
+degree of assurance of success. It is said that when the American flag
+was raised at Havana in token of temporary sovereignty, on January 1,
+1899, an American Senator among the spectators exclaimed, "That flag
+will never come down!" There were also, doubtless, those among the Cuban
+spectators who thought and said that it should never have been raised,
+but that sovereignty should have been transferred directly from Spain to
+Cuba.
+
+Both were wrong; as both in time came to realize. It was necessary for
+the sake of good faith and justice that the American flag should in time
+come down and give place to the flag of Cuba. It was equally necessary
+for the sake of the welfare of Cuba and of its future prosperity and
+tranquillity that there should be a period of American stewardship
+preparatory to full independence.
+
+There was, as we have already indicated, some friction between Cubans
+and Americans at the time of intervention in the Spring of 1898. The
+Cubans thought that the American army should not enter Cuba at all, save
+with an artillery force to serve as an adjunct to the Cuban army. On the
+other hand, Americans were too much inclined to disregard the Cuban army
+and Provisional Government, to forget what the Cubans had already
+achieved, and to act as though the war were solely between the United
+States and Spain. When the actual landing of Shafter's army was made,
+however, the Cubans accepted the fact loyally and gracefully, and gave
+the fullest possible measure of helpful cooperation.
+
+The Provisional Government of the Cuban Republic, as soon as hostilities
+were ended and negotiations for peace had begun, decided to summon
+another National Assembly to determine what should be done during the
+interval which should elapse before the United States placed the
+destinies of Cuba in the hands of Cubans. This decision was made at a
+meeting at Santa Cruz on September 1, at which were present the
+President, Bartolome Maso; the Vice-President, Mendez Capote; and the
+three Secretaries, Aleman, Fonts-Sterling and Moreno de la Torre. It was
+felt, and not without reason, that the Insular government and its forces
+had not received the recognition which was their due. Calixto Garcia and
+Francisco Estrada had given valuable participation in the siege and
+capture of Santiago, yet they were not permitted by General Shafter to
+participate in the ceremony of the surrender of the Spanish forces, or
+even to be present on that exultant occasion. When the Americans thus
+took possession of Santiago and Oriente, the Cuban government, military
+and civil, was ignored, and General Leonard Wood was made Military
+Governor just as though there was no Cuban government in existence.
+
+[Illustration: OLD AND NEW IN HAVANA
+
+The architecture of Havana ranges from the sixteenth century to the
+twentieth, and specimens of all five centuries may in some places be
+found grouped within a single scene; with electric lights and telephones
+in buildings which were standing when Francis Drake threatened the city
+with conquest.]
+
+During the months of the American blockade of the island, moreover, the
+Cubans had suffered perhaps even more than the Spanish from lack of
+supplies. It was felt that while it was well thus to deprive the Spanish
+army of supplies, the Cuban people ought not to have been left to
+suffer. After the armistice affairs remained in a distressing condition.
+The Cuban army was without food and without pay with which to purchase
+food; and the Provisional Government was powerless to help it or to help
+the starving civilian population. It had no funds, and of course could
+not now raise any either by taxation or by loans. Late in November some
+relief was afforded by the sending of food from the United States, but
+on the whole the conditions were unsatisfactory, and did not conduce to
+cordial confidence between the Cubans and the Americans.
+
+The National Assembly which had been called on September 1 met at Santa
+Cruz on November 7, and resolved upon the disbandment of the Provisional
+Government, and the appointment of a special Commission to look after
+Cuban interests during the period of American occupation. This
+Commission consisted of Domingo Mendez Capote, President; Ferdinand
+Freyre de Andrade, Vice-President; and Manuel M. Coronado and Dr.
+Porfirio Caliente, Secretaries. The army organization was to be
+retained, for the present, with General Maximo Gomez as
+Commander-in-Chief.
+
+The real crux of the situation, at the moment, was the demobilization of
+the Cuban army. This could not be done--Gomez would not consider
+it--until the men could be paid, and there was no money with which to
+pay them. Among the 36,000 men on the rosters, there were said to be
+20,000 who had served two years or more, and who were entitled to pay.
+Gomez issued an appeal to the army and to the Cuban people generally to
+accept loyally the temporary American occupation and to cooperate with
+the Americans in the reestablishment of order and the development of
+governmental institutions, in order that at the earliest possible moment
+Cuba might be able to assume the whole task of self government. At the
+same time he urgently requested the United States government to advance
+money with which to pay off the soldiers, in order that the army might
+be disbanded and the men might return to their homes and their work, and
+thus restore the industrial prosperity of the island. For this purpose
+he suggested the sum of $60,000,000, not only for actual pay but also
+for compensation for the losses which the officers and men had suffered
+during the war. He was inclined to keep his men under arms until the
+United States should relinquish control of Cuba to the Cubans, or should
+fix a date for so doing; and toward the end of January, 1899, he
+mustered all his forces in the Province of Havana, and made his staff
+headquarters in the former palace of the Captain-General. Meantime the
+Commission of the Cuban National Assembly recommended that the men be
+granted furloughs, to enable them to go to work in response to the great
+demand for labor that was arising throughout the island. This course was
+pursued to a considerable extent.
+
+Ultimately the United States government granted the sum of $3,000,000
+for the purpose of paying off the soldiers. This was not a loan, to be
+repaid, but was an outright gift, being the remainder of the sum of
+$50,000,000 which had been voted to the President at the beginning of
+the war to use at his discretion. It was given on the conditions that
+every recipient should prove his service in the army and should
+surrender a rifle. To this latter requirement, which meant the disarming
+of the Cubans, General Gomez strongly objected, but in the end he
+acquiesced and agreed to carry out the plan as soon as the money was at
+hand. Thereupon some other Cuban officers disputed his right to commit
+the Cuban army to any such arrangement. They were dissatisfied with the
+small amount, and they insisted that only the Cuban Assembly had power
+to act upon the American offer. They added that they would refuse to
+obey the orders of General Gomez, and would look to the Assembly for
+justice. It should be added that these officers were not those who had
+been most active and efficient in the field.
+
+General Gomez ignored this mutinous demonstration, and proceeded with
+arrangements to receive and distribute the $3,000,000; whereupon the
+Assembly came together and on March 12 impeached General Gomez and
+removed him from office as Commander-in-Chief, the charge being that he
+had failed in his military duties and had disobeyed the orders of the
+Assembly. This scandalous performance was ignored by Gomez, and was
+condemned by the great majority of the Cuban people. It was also ignored
+by the American authorities. General Brooke continued his negotiations
+with Gomez, and finally reached an agreement. The terms were as follows:
+Every Cuban soldier who had been in service since before July 17, 1898,
+and who was not in receipt of salary from any public office, upon
+delivery of his arms and equipments was to receive $75 in United States
+gold. The arms and equipments were to be surrendered to municipal
+authorities, and to be placed and kept in armories, under the charge of
+armorers appointed by General Gomez, as memorials of the War of
+Independence. The Cuban Commissioners protested against and resisted
+this settlement, but finally yielded when they saw all the soldiers
+accepting it. They continued for some time, however, to manifest
+disaffection and distrust toward the United States, and to propagate
+doubt whether that country would ever fulfill its promise to make Cuba
+independent. Some agitators went so far as to try to provoke
+insurrections against the American administration. But all such things
+met with no encouragement from General Gomez or from any of the real
+leaders of the Cuban people, who expressed the fullest confidence in the
+good faith of the United States and did their utmost to lead the nation
+to take advantage of the unparalleled opportunity which had been placed
+before it. Day by day the magnitude of that opportunity became more
+apparent, as did the practical beneficence of the American
+administration.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+
+American occupation of Cuba, formal and complete, did not begin, as we
+have seen, until January 1, 1899, when the ceremonial transfer of
+sovereignty was effected at Havana. But nearly six months before that
+epochal date actual occupation and administration was begun on an
+extensive scale and in a most auspicious manner. With singular
+appropriateness this was effected at that city which nearly four
+centuries before had been the first capital and metropolis of the
+island, and in that Province which had been the scene of the first
+Spanish settlements in Cuba and which had been more perhaps than all the
+rest of the island the scene and the base of operations of the
+revolution for independence.
+
+The surrender of Santiago by General Toral on July 17, 1898, made the
+American army master of that city and practically of the Province of
+Oriente. Having the power and authority of government, the Americans had
+necessarily to assume the full responsibility of it; and this was
+promptly done. Even in advance of the date named, on July 13, the day
+after negotiations for the capitulation began, in anticipation of what
+was to occur President McKinley decreed that, pending further orders,
+existing Spanish laws should be maintained in the occupied territory. As
+soon as the protocol was signed on August 12, General Henry W. Lawton
+was appointed Military Governor of the Province of Oriente and commander
+in chief of the American forces. This was an honor due to that gallant
+officer, because of his leadership in the act of invasion and conquest.
+But Lawton was a soldier rather than an administrator, and his services
+were indispensable in the field. Accordingly, after brief but most
+honorable occupancy of the governorship, he was succeeded on September
+24 by a man who combined the qualities of soldier and administrator in a
+uniquely successful and triumphant degree, and whose advent in Cuba was
+auspicious of inestimable advantage to that country and to its relations
+with the United States and with the world. Indeed, though the fact was
+unrecognized at the time, it is not too much to say that Leonard Wood
+bore in his hand and mind and heart the destinies of Cuba. There might,
+it is true, have been found some other man who as a soldier would have
+pacified the island and would have held it firmly in the grasp of peace.
+There might have been found a sanitarian and physician who would free
+the island of pestilence. There were financiers who might have placed
+its fiscal interests upon a sound basis. There were jurists who could
+have revised its laws. There were statesmen who could have supervised
+and directed its general governmental affairs, both domestic and
+foreign. But there was need that all these qualities should be combined
+in and all these activities should be performed by one man.
+
+Leonard Wood was at this time still a young man, scarcely thirty-eight
+years of age. Born at Winchester, New Hampshire, the son of an eminent
+physician and a descendant of a Mayflower Pilgrim, he had in boyhood
+engaged in seafaring pursuits, and then had been thoroughly trained for
+the medical profession at Harvard University. Obeying the promptings of
+patriotism, perhaps with some unrecognized pre-intimation of the vast
+services which he was destined to render to his country and to the
+world, he turned away from prospects of professional preferment and
+profit to undertake the arduous and often thankless tasks of an army
+surgeon. He was appointed to that duty from the state of Massachusetts
+on January 5, 1886, as an Assistant Surgeon, and five years later was
+promoted to the rank of Captain. The nominal rank is, however, a slight
+indication of the merit of his services, for in the very first year of
+his army life he was credited with "distinguished conduct in campaign
+against Apache Indians while serving as medical and line officer of
+Captain Lawton's expedition"; for which he was later awarded the
+Congressional Medal of Honor.
+
+At the beginning of American intervention in the Cuban War of
+Independence, Theodore Roosevelt resigned the office of Assistant
+Secretary of the Navy, which he had filled with distinction and to the
+great profit of the country, in order to organize from among the cowboys
+and frontiersmen of the West his famous regiment of "Rough Riders." But
+he would not himself accept the supreme command of it. His unerring
+judgment of men led him to select Leonard Wood for the Colonelcy, under
+whom he was himself glad to serve as Lieutenant-Colonel. So it was that
+Wood first went to Cuba, as Colonel of the First Regiment of United
+States Cavalry Volunteers. There soon followed the achievements at
+Guasimas and at San Juan Hill, to which reference has already been made,
+in recognition of his services in which on July 8, 1898, he was promoted
+to be Brigadier General, and on December 7 following to be Major General
+of Volunteers. It may be added that he was promoted to these same ranks
+in the regular army respectively on February 4, 1901 and August 8, 1903.
+
+With these antecedents, on September 24 he entered upon the task of
+governing Santiago and the Province of Oriente. It was a position of
+unique responsibility and power. The President's order made it
+incumbent upon him to administer the existing municipal laws so far as
+in his own judgment they were properly applicable to the new state of
+affairs. That was all. Otherwise he was thrown absolutely upon his own
+resources, with no treaty obligations or government promises to bind
+him. He was simply a "benevolent despot," intent upon tranquillizing and
+rehabilitating that vast eastern province of Cuba by methods of his own
+devising. It was a region at once the most unruly and the most
+impoverished in Cuba, and it had for its capital a plague-smitten city.
+For six months he labored there, and in that short period he so far
+advanced the work of reconstruction that thereafter Oriente served as an
+example and a model for all the other provinces of Cuba. Sympathetic,
+alert, untiring, frank, without vanity or ostentation, resolute,
+diplomatic, and always supremely just, General Wood's personality stood
+to the people of Cuba for qualities seldom if ever before associated
+with the occupant of the governor's palace, while his energy in fighting
+disease, relieving distress, reviving industry and maintaining order
+revealed to them as the Spanish regime never had done the beneficence of
+enlightened government. It would be impossible to estimate too highly
+the value of his services during those few months at Santiago, in
+commending to Cubans the benevolent purposes and attitude of the
+Americans toward them and in disclosing to them the vast material and
+moral benefits which would accrue to them through self-government wisely
+administered.
+
+He began his work at Santiago in gruesome circumstances. An epidemic of
+smallpox and yellow fever was raging, and clouds of smoke hung over the
+city from the funeral pyres where were being burned many of the bodies
+for which burial was impossible. The city was reeking with filth. Half
+the people were threatened with starvation. Lawlessness and complaints
+of grievances were rife. He had to be at once sanitarian, steward and
+judge. He labored heroically at all three tasks, and performed them so
+well that in a few weeks Santiago seemed like a new city. Of course
+there was much to do in other places in the province. In Holguin there
+were three thousand cases of smallpox, of which he treated 1,200 in
+hospitals. He sent thither as nurses 600 thoroughly vaccinated immunes,
+not one of whom contracted the disease. Hundreds of infected buildings,
+of flimsy construction, were burned, while all others were thoroughly
+disinfected, and the epidemic was conquered.
+
+Early the next year General Wood sought a well earned rest in a brief
+visit to his former home in Boston, leaving, as he thought, affairs in
+Santiago in a securely satisfactory condition. But he was compelled to
+hasten back in July, 1899, to deal with another outbreak of disease. On
+his arrival he found both the city and his own army camp in the grip of
+malignant yellow fever. It was a time for heroic action, and that was
+what he performed. In a day he removed his troops to healthful places on
+the adjacent hills, and then subjected the city to such a cleansing and
+scientific sanitation as neither it nor any other Cuban city had ever
+known. The island and the world looked on with interest, to see if thus
+he could cope with and suppress the epidemic.
+
+He succeeded. Not yet had the theory of Dr. Carlos J. Finlay, that
+mosquitoes were the sole propagators of the disease, been practically
+tested and applied, though it had been propounded by that eminent Cuban
+physician many years before. That immortal achievement was postponed for
+Messrs. Reed, Carroll, Agramonte and Lazear to effect, under General
+Wood's subsequent administration at Havana. But even without it, by
+means of strenuous sanitation, the epidemic of July, 1899, was
+conquered, and Santiago was made clean and sound.
+
+Another achievement of General Wood's at Santiago in the latter part of
+1898 proved highly successful and was soon afterward extended to the
+other provinces of the island. This was the organization of the Rural
+Guards, a force which became invaluable for the policing of the rural
+portions of the island; just as Pennsylvania and some others of the
+United States are cared for by State Police. General Wood selected for
+this service officers and soldiers of the Cuban Army in the War of
+Independence who were recommended for their good character and
+efficiency. By the end of the year 1898 he had about 300 of these
+troopers patrolling the roads of Oriente, in the districts where such
+guardianship was most needed, with admirable results. The value of this
+service was observed and appreciated by the officers of the other
+provinces, and at the beginning of 1899 the system was introduced into
+all the provinces excepting Matanzas, where the same purpose was served
+by a mounted police force maintained by the larger municipalities. In
+the city of Havana the Military Governor, General Ludlow, held a
+conference with General Mario G. Menocal, of the Cuban Army, who had
+been invited to become Chief of Police in that city under the American
+administration, and with him worked out the details of the organization
+of Rural Guards in the suburbs of the capital and the rural portions of
+Havana Province. They formed a force of 350 men for service there, and
+thus quickly made all that region, even in the more or less disturbed
+period immediately following the war, noteworthy for its security and
+orderliness. When at the end of the American occupation the Rural Guards
+were transferred to the Cuban Government, they comprised 15 bodies,
+numbering 1,605 officers and men, stationed at 247 different posts.
+
+Meantime American occupation and administration were established
+throughout the island. Immediately upon the transfer of sovereignty on
+January 1, 1899, John R. Brooke, Major General commanding the Division
+of Cuba, and Military Governor, issued a proclamation to the people of
+the island. He told them that he came as the representative of the
+President, to give protection to the people and security to persons and
+property, to restore confidence, to build up waste plantations, to
+resume commercial traffic, and to afford full protection in the exercise
+of all civil and religious rights. To the attainment of those ends, all
+the efforts of the United States would be directed, in the interest and
+for the benefit of all the people of Cuba. The legal codes of the
+Spanish sovereignty were to be retained in force, with such changes and
+modifications as might from time to time be found necessary in the
+interest of good government. The people of Cuba, without regard to
+previous affiliations, were invited and urged to cooperate in these
+objects by the exercise of moderation, conciliation and good-will toward
+one another.
+
+The island was divided for administrative purposes into seven
+departments, corresponding with the provinces and with the city of
+Havana forming the seventh. The commanders of these departments, under
+General Brooke, were: Havana City, Gen. William Ludlow; Havana Province,
+Gen. Fitzhugh Lee; Pinar del Rio, Gen. George W. Davis; Matanzas, Gen.
+James H. Wilson; Santa Clara, Gen. John C. Bates; Camaguey, Gen. L. H.
+Carpenter; Oriente, Gen. Leonard Wood. A civil government was organized
+on January 12, by the appointment of the following Cubans as Ministers
+of State: Secretary of the Department of State and Government, Domingo
+Mendez Capote; Secretary of Finance, Pablo Desvernine; Secretary of
+Justice and Public Instruction, Jose Antonio Gonzalez Lanuza; Secretary
+of Agriculture, Commerce, Industries and Public Works, Adolfo Saenz
+Yanez. Later in the spring of that year the provinces of Havana and
+Pinar del Rio were united in one department, as were Matanzas and Santa
+Clara, and Camaguey and Oriente.
+
+[Illustration: GONZALEZ LANUZA
+
+A distinguished jurist, penologist, and man of letters, Gonzalez Lanuza,
+was born in Havana on July 17, 1865. He rose to eminence at the bar and
+on the bench, became professor of penal law in the University of Havana,
+and was the author of several important works on jurisprudence. He was
+an agent of the revolution in Havana in 1895, and Secretary of the Cuban
+Delegation in New York. During General Brooke's Governorship he was
+Secretary of Justice and Public Instruction, and during President
+Menocal's first term was Speaker of the House of Representatives. He was
+a delegate to the Pan-American Congress at Rio de Janeiro in 1906.]
+
+The problems which confronted the American military administrators and
+their Cuban colleagues of the civil government were manifold and grave.
+There was the work of sanitation, which was undertaken on lines similar
+to those which General Wood had pursued in Santiago. The city of Havana
+had the advantage of the services of General Ludlow, an expert engineer
+and sanitarian. Then there was the work of feeding a starving
+population. So vast had been the ravages of war, so great had been the
+destruction of resources, that one of the most fertile and productive
+countries in the world was unable for a time to provide food for its own
+inhabitants, although their numbers had been diminished by one-fourth
+by the horrors of war. In these circumstances the American government
+was compelled to establish a system of food distribution, on very
+liberal lines. In Havana alone more than 20,000 persons were dependent
+upon it to save them from actual starvation. So well was the system
+administered, however, and so vigorously did the Cubans themselves apply
+themselves to self-help that within five months it was found possible to
+abolish the general system of food supply, and to restrict such work to
+such cases of special need as are liable to occur in any community.
+
+In thus redeeming the island from threatened if not actual famine, the
+American government undoubtedly did much, but the Cuban people
+themselves did far more. Self-help and mutual aid were the order of the
+day. All who could do so hastened to secure employment, either upon
+their own property or on the land or in the establishments of others.
+Planters whose fields had been ravaged and whose buildings had been
+destroyed borrowed money wherever they could, when necessary, for
+rehabilitation. If they could not raise money to pay their employes,
+they pledged them an interest in the proceeds of the coming harvest. The
+small farmers, who had lost all their implements and had no money to buy
+others to replace them, worked almost without tools, or borrowed and
+loaned among themselves so that a single plow would serve for half a
+dozen, and even hoes and spades were similarly passed from garden to
+garden. In the absence of horses and mules, plows were actually drawn by
+teams of four or six men, in such cases doing, perhaps, little more than
+to scratch the surface of the soil, though even this was sufficient to
+enable the planting of seed.
+
+Reference has been made to the borrowing of money by the planters for
+the rehabilitation of their estates. This was no easy task, because of
+the extent to which they were already overburdened with debts. Nearly
+all the land in Cuba was mortgaged, for a large percentage of its value.
+The census which was taken by the American authorities in 1899 showed a
+total real estate valuation in the entire island of only $323,641,895.
+These amazingly low figures were due, of course, to the depreciation of
+values through the ravages of war. But upon that valuation there was an
+aggregate mortgage indebtedness of no less than $247,915,494; or more
+than 76 per cent. Obviously, the borrowing capacity of Cuban real estate
+had been exhausted. During the war, with the impairment of industry
+which then prevailed, it was impossible for farmers to pay off their
+mortgages, and accordingly the Spanish government, in May, 1896, decreed
+that all mortgages then maturing should be extended for a year, during
+which time all legal steps for collection of them should be halted. In
+Oriente and Camaguey, however, the grace thus granted was for only a
+month. Successive extensions of the grace carried it to April, 1899,
+when the American administration was in control. A final extension was
+then granted, to April, 1901.
+
+Still another problem, and one which proved peculiarly embarrassing, was
+that of local or municipal government. The island was divided into six
+provinces, thirty-one judicial districts, and one hundred and thirty-two
+municipalities, and these last named were each divided into
+sub-districts and these again into wards. These all had their local
+officials and local systems of finance, and these latter were found by
+the Americans to be in serious confusion. It was necessary to reform
+them, but in the doing of this almost endless friction arose. Such
+matters so closely touched the Cuban people that they were naturally
+jealous and resentful of alien interference and dictation. At the same
+time the Americans considered it necessary to supervise the
+reorganization of local government as a basis for satisfactory general
+government. Each side became more or less irritated against the other,
+with unfortunate results.
+
+An interesting personal factor at this time, whose influence was on the
+whole helpful to the American government, was found in General Maximo
+Gomez. There is no question that he felt himself somewhat ill-treated by
+the Americans, as Calixto Garcia had felt at the surrender of Santiago.
+During the first month of the American rule at the capital he held
+aloof, remaining at his home at Remedios. But in February he came to
+Havana and had such a reception as probably no other man in Cuban
+history had ever enjoyed. From Remedios to Havana he proceeded through
+an almost unbroken series of popular demonstrations of the most
+enthusiastic kind, and at the capital he was greeted as a conquering
+hero and as the unrivalled idol of the people whose independence he had
+won. The only discordant note came from a small body of politicians
+identified with that Assembly which both Gomez and the American
+government had declined to recognize, and which Gomez had strongly
+antagonized in the matter of paying off and demobilizing the Cuban army.
+But that opposition to him did not lessen the affection and reverence
+with which the great mass of the Cuban people regarded the grim and grey
+old champion of their wars. It is to be recorded, too, that while he was
+thus being received by the people, his own attitude toward them was no
+less significant. At every place through which he passed on his journey
+to Havana, and at every gathering at which he was entertained in that
+city, he spoke to the people, tersely and vigorously, as became a
+soldier; exhorting them to forget the differences of the past, even
+their righteous wrath against the Spaniards, and to unite and work
+together harmoniously and efficiently to complete in peace the great
+task for Cuba's welfare which had so far been advanced in war.
+
+The result, at least for a time, was marvellous. Cuban and Spaniard,
+Revolutionist, Autonomist and Constitutionalist, for a time joined
+hands. At one of the chief public receptions given to Gomez in Havana,
+the flags of Cuba, of the United States, and of Spain were equally
+displayed, and were all three greeted with applause. That spirit did
+not, it is true, always thereafter prevail. But it was of incalculable
+profit to Cuba to have it so strongly aroused and manifested at that
+crucial period in her history.
+
+During the administration of General Brooke the police force of Havana
+was completely reorganized, with the assistance of John B. McCullagh,
+formerly Superintendent of Police in New York. This was done as promptly
+as possible after the installation of American rule, and by the
+beginning of March, 1899, the peace and security of the Cuban capital
+were safeguarded by an admirable uniformed force of about a thousand
+men. Under the command of General Mario G. Menocal as Chief this body of
+men rendered Havana as efficient service, probably, as that in any
+American city of similar size. Police work in Havana, it should be
+understood, differs considerably from that in cities of the United
+States, for the reason that drunkenness and its attendant disorder and
+petty brawls are substantially unknown in the Cuban metropolis, and
+therefore one of the most prolific causes of arrests in American cities
+is there non-existent.
+
+When the American administration took charge of Cuban affairs it found
+the insular treasury quite empty. The departing Spaniards had seen to
+that. But a careful, honest and thrifty management of finances soon
+provided the island with a good working income. By the first of
+September, 1899, fully $10,000,000 had been received in revenue from
+different sources. Major E. F. Ladd of the United States army was made
+Treasurer and Disbursing Officer of the customs service, and a little
+later he was appointed Auditor and then Treasurer of the island. In
+those capacities he showed admirable efficiency and greatly ingratiated
+himself with the people; ranking as one of the most successful members
+of the American governing staff. His administration was the more
+appreciated by Cubans because of the welcome reform of the taxation
+system which was at that time effected. The old Spanish tax system had
+been abominable, and that of the short-lived Autonomist regime of
+1897-1898 changed it chiefly with the result of adding to the confusion.
+Early in 1899, therefore, radical reforms were undertaken. An order was
+issued on February 10 remitting all taxes due under the old Spanish law
+which had remained unpaid on January 1, with the exception of taxes on
+passengers and freight which had according to custom been collected and
+were held by the railroad companies. All taxes on the principal articles
+of food and fuel were abolished, as were also all municipal taxes on
+imports and exports. These taxes had formerly been very burden-some and
+were a source of much grievance and irritation, and their abolition was
+very gratifying to the Cuban people, who began to appreciate what it
+meant to have a government whose prime object was to serve them and not
+to plunder them.
+
+One tax was greatly increased, namely, the excise tax upon all alcoholic
+liquors, and this was made a part of the revenue of the municipalities
+instead of the state, thus compensating the municipalities for the loss
+of the tax on merchandise. Despite the temperate habits of the Cuban
+people, the very general consumption of some form of alcoholic drink
+made this impost amount to a considerable sum.
+
+A matter which urgently needed reform, but which unfortunately was
+reformed with more zeal than diplomacy, caused much dissension in that
+first year of American administration. That was the marriage law. Under
+Spanish government marriage was held to be exclusively a function,
+indeed, a sacrament, of the Roman Catholic church, and could not legally
+be performed by any other authority; though in later years there had
+been made a provision for the civil marriage of non-Catholics. But since
+to resort to the latter meant to incur a certain social reproach, few
+couples ever availed themselves of it. Of course loyal members of the
+church could not do so, the religious ceremony being imperative for
+them.
+
+With the departure of the Spanish government from the island a complete
+separation of church and state occurred, and it was held imperative to
+provide a new law of marriage. The old system had become odious, it may
+be explained, because of the large fees which many ecclesiastics charged
+for performance of the ceremony, and because, on account of those fees,
+many couples among the poorer elements of the population, decided to
+dispense with the marriage ceremony altogether; a practice not conducive
+to social order, and frequently causing serious embarrassment and
+litigation over the inheritance of property. Unfortunately in trying to
+reform the system the new government went too far toward the opposite
+extreme. The author of the new law was Senor Jose Antonio Gonzalez
+Lanuza, the Secretary of Justice, and it made civil marriage
+compulsory, though it permitted a supplementary religious ceremony at
+the pleasure of the parties. "Hereafter," it said, "only civil marriages
+shall be legally valid." It fixed the legal fee for marriages at one
+dollar.
+
+The intention of the law was doubtless good, and it might be argued that
+it should not have caused offence, since it did not interfere with
+religious marriage ceremonies. There is no doubt that it was very
+strongly favored by a large part of the Cuban nation. When it was
+proposed to repeal or to modify it materially the vast majority of
+municipal governments in the island, all of the judges of the Supreme
+Court, a majority of the judges of first instance, and half of the
+Provincial Governors, urged its retention unchanged. The clergy of the
+Roman Catholic church, however, opposed it vigorously and persistently,
+and it was finally deemed desirable to modify it so as to make either
+civil or religious marriage valid. The objection to it had been, of
+course, that by invalidating religious marriages it cast a certain slur
+upon the church. It is interesting to recall, however, that the law in
+its objectionable form was the work of a Cuban jurist, while in its
+amended and acceptable form it was the work of an American and conformed
+with the law in the United States, where civil and religious marriage
+ceremonies are equally legal and valid.
+
+In order to protect the island against undue exploitation by American
+speculators and "promoters," a law of the American Congress in February,
+1899, forbade the granting of franchises or concessions of any kind
+during the period of American occupation and control. It was not
+pretended that there was no need of any such grants, but it was
+prudently contended that they should wait until the Cubans themselves
+had full control of the insular government. The wisdom of this was
+apparent, and the law was generally approved, even by those who most
+clearly saw the desirability of developing the resources and industries
+of the island by the building of railroads, tramways, telegraph lines,
+etc. It was better for these to wait for a year or two than to incur the
+suspicion that an American administration had granted Cuban franchises
+to American promoters on terms which a Cuban government would not have
+approved.
+
+A most important enterprise during the Brooke administration was the
+taking of a thorough census of the island. This was ordered by President
+McKinley on August 17, 1899, and was taken early in the ensuing fall.
+The island was divided into 1,607 enumeration districts, and the work of
+canvassing was given chiefly to Cubans. Among the canvassers were 142
+women; the first women ever employed in government work in Cuba. The
+census was not a mere enumeration, but comprised a multiplicity of
+details concerning the age, nativity, citizenship, conjugal condition,
+literacy, etc., of the people, and also concerning agriculture and the
+other occupations in which they were engaged. The populations of the
+provinces were as follows, compared with the figures of the census of
+1887:
+
+    Provinces                          1899     1887
+
+    Pinar del Rio                    173,082    225,891
+    Havana                           424,811    451,928
+    Matanzas                         202,462    259,578
+    Santa Clara                      356,537    354,122
+    Camaguey                          88,237     67,789
+    Oriente                          327,716    272,379
+                                    --------    -------
+    Totals                          1,572,845  1,631,687
+
+These figures are significant. There should, of course, have been a
+considerable increase in population in those twelve years. Instead,
+there was a considerable decrease. The entire number of normal
+increase, plus the 58,842 actual decrease, may be taken as representing
+the loss through the war. It will also be observed that the loss of
+population was in the three western provinces, where the Spanish most
+held sway during the war, and that there was no loss but a considerable
+increase in the three eastern provinces, which were largely controlled
+by the Cubans. The population by sexes and race was as follows:
+
+    Male                   815,205
+    Female                 757,592
+
+    Native white           910,299
+    Foreign white          142,098
+
+    Negro                  234,738
+    Mixed                  270,805
+
+    Chinese                 14,857
+
+The report of citizenship was:
+
+    Cuban                1,296,367
+    Spanish                 20,478
+    In suspense            175,811
+    Other aliens            79,525
+    Unknown                    616
+
+The total number of illegitimate children, of all ages, was 185,030; a
+discreditably high number, attributed largely to the former expensive
+marriage system. The statistics of education were distressing. The
+number of children under ten years of age who were attending or had
+attended school was only 40,559, and the number who had not attended was
+316,428. The number of persons ten years old and over who could read and
+write was only 443,670; those who could neither read nor write were
+690,565--an appalling proportion of illiteracy, reflecting most
+discreditably upon the Spanish government of the island. The number of
+persons of "superior education" in the whole island was only 19,158.
+
+Nor were the statistics of industry much more satisfactory. The
+following were the totals for the island:
+
+    Agriculture, fisheries and mining     299,197
+    Trade and transportation               79,427
+    Manufactures and mechanics             93,074
+    Professional                            8,736
+    Domestic and personal                 141,936
+    No gainful occupation                 950,467
+
+Another supremely important measure which was adopted during the closing
+weeks of General Brooke's administration, though its complete working
+out was reserved for his successor, was suggested by some of the census
+figures which we have just quoted. It was realized that the need of
+education was of all Cuban popular needs the most urgent. Accordingly on
+November 2, 1899, General Brooke ordered the organization of a new
+bureau in the Department of Justice and Public Instruction, at the head
+of which should be a Superintendent of Schools. The first incumbent of
+that office was Alexis E. Frye, who drafted another order, promulgated
+by General Brooke on December 6 and practically constituting a new
+school law for Cuba. It provided for the formation of Boards of
+Education and the opening of primary and grammar schools in all
+communities by December 11, 1899, or as soon thereafter as possible.
+That was the beginning of the popular education of the Cuban people.
+
+After these things, General Brooke was on December 20 relieved of his
+command in Cuba. He issued a brief farewell proclamation to the people,
+calling attention to the progress which had been made in good
+government, and toward complete self-government and independence; every
+word of which was amply justified by facts. He was a soldier rather than
+an administrator, and he was nearing the age of retirement from active
+service. His administration had been beset with difficulties; it had
+made some mistakes, and it had done much good work. He was charged by
+some with having entrusted the powers of government too largely to his
+Cuban Secretaries; while others commended him for that very
+circumstance. His inclination was toward a bureaucracy, but it was a
+Cuban and not an alien bureaucracy. It cannot be denied that he laid
+much of the foundation of subsequent achievements and of successful
+Cuban government. It was under his governorship that General Ludlow
+cleansed the city of Havana, that the Customs service and the treasury
+were reorganized, and that provision was made for a comprehensive system
+of public schools.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+
+General Brooke was succeeded by General Leonard Wood. He had also in a
+measure been preceded by him. General Wood had at Santiago been the real
+pioneer in American administration in Cuba. He laid the first
+foundations there. General Brooke at Havana enlarged upon those
+foundations. Then came General Wood to Havana to complete the structure.
+It was with the fame and prestige of his great victory over pestilence
+at Santiago, and of all his other achievements in Oriente, that he came
+to Havana on December 20, 1899, to be Military Governor of all Cuba. He
+was received not alone with the fullest measure of formal ceremony and
+official salutation, from both Cubans and Americans, but also with such
+an outpouring of popular welcome as few men have received anywhere and
+as nobody save perhaps Maximo Gomez had ever received at Havana. The
+attitude and sentiment of the people toward him were well expressed by
+an editorial writer in the Havana journal _La Lucha_, who said:
+
+"General Wood has shown great capacity for government and management
+while in command of the eastern end of the island. In that mountainous
+and rugged district, where passions and impulsive characters
+predominate, in that country where a strong rebellious spirit has been
+agitated for a long time, General Wood knew how to calm that spirit, how
+to establish moral peace and to cheer the hearts of all. He has been
+seen to practise a policy of harmony and ample liberty. We saw him,
+first of all, promulgate the habeas corpus in the province he
+commanded, and he decreed that constitutional measure when the embers of
+the fire of domestic and international war were still smoking. In
+material things, General Wood cleansed the eastern cities and
+embellished them.... His government will prepare us for a broader life
+and give us the blessings of peace and liberty. As a man of clear mind
+and solid education, he will know how to study and to solve skilfully
+the economic and political problems that circumstances may introduce
+into the country. As he is a man of energy, he will be able to withstand
+every unhealthy influence. His policy will be eminently liberal, but at
+the same time it will be a guarantee for all who labor and produce. He
+will not associate himself with agitators but with statesmen."
+
+[Illustration: LEONARD WOOD
+
+Soldier, scientist, statesman, administrator, it has been the fortune of
+Leonard Wood to render invaluable services to two nations. Born at
+Winchester, New Hampshire, on October 9, 1860, and educated in medicine
+at Harvard University, he became first a surgeon and then an officer of
+the United States army. After a brilliant career in Indian fighting in
+the Southwest he went to Cuba in 1898 as colonel of the cavalry regiment
+of "Rough Riders" and did notable work in the battles around Santiago.
+He was Military Governor of Santiago and Oriente, and later Military
+Governor of Cuba, in which places he transformed the sanitary, economic
+and political conditions of the island, and ushered it into its career
+of independent self-government. Since then he has served the United
+States with great distinction in the Philippines, and as the foremost
+officer of the army at home; not the least of his benefactions to the
+nation being his great campaign of education and awakening in
+preparation for what he saw to be America's inevitable participation in
+the World War.]
+
+Such was the just estimate which Cuba placed upon her new Governor. Of
+his actual reception the same journal that we have quoted said:
+"Although promising nothing, he speaks volumes by his quiet democratic
+manner of taking charge of affairs. He has captivated everyone."
+
+The new Governor was welcomed on his arrival at Havana by an
+extraordinary and quite unprecedented gathering of representative men
+from all parts of the island; such a gathering as Havana had never seen
+before. He promptly entered into the fullest possible conference with
+them, to learn their views and to impart his own to them, and as a
+result of his intercourse with them he was able, on January 1, 1900, to
+gather about himself a noteworthy Cabinet, commanding in an exceptional
+measure the confidence of the Cuban people. It was thus composed:
+
+    Secretary of State and Government, Diego Tamayo.
+    Secretary of the Treasury, Jose Enrique Varona.
+    Secretary of Justice, Louis Estevez.
+    Secretary of Public Works, Jose Ramon Villalon.
+    Secretary of Education, Juan Bautista Barreiro.
+    Secretary of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, Ruiz Rivera.
+
+The selection of these men commanded the cordial approval of the Cuban
+people. Said _La Lucha_: "The new Cabinet contains men whose honest
+names are guarantees that the moral and material interests of the
+country are to be conserved." To this _La Patria_ added: "General Wood
+is obviously imbued with the best intentions. Although the council of
+Cubans convened by him is not an elected body, it does represent the
+wishes of the Cuban people."
+
+It will of course be observed that not one of General Brooke's cabinet
+was retained by General Wood. All were new men. Moreover, he increased
+their number by two, making a separate department of Education instead
+of lumping it with Justice, and making another of Public Works, instead
+of leaving it grouped with Agriculture, Industry and Commerce. This
+latter change was significant of two things. One was the increasing
+amount of actual governmental work that was devolving upon the
+administration. The other was the increased importance which, in General
+Wood's mind, attached to Education and Public Works. He rightly
+conceived them to be the two prime needs of Cuba. The cabinet did not
+remain as thus organized, however, very long. On May 1 Ruiz Rivera
+resigned the Secretaryship of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, and
+was succeeded by Perfecto Lacoste; and Louis Estevez resigned the
+portfolio of Justice and was succeeded by Juan Bautista Barreiro, who in
+turn was succeeded in the Department of Education by Jose Enrique
+Varona, while the last named was succeeded as Secretary of the Treasury
+by Leopoldo Cancio. Finally on August 11 Senor Barreiro retired
+altogether and was succeeded in the Department of Justice by Miguel
+Gener y Rincon.
+
+We have said that General Brooke was charged with letting his
+administration be controlled by his Secretaries. There was an
+inclination in some quarters to charge General Wood with exactly the
+reverse. He was not autocratic nor domineering. But he was Governor. He
+was the actual as well as the nominal head of the government. Realizing
+that he would be held personally responsible for everything that was
+done,--as he was,--he rightly determined to exercise his authority in
+everything that was done. Then, if he was blamed, he would not be blamed
+for the fault of somebody else.
+
+The significance which we have attributed to his Cabinet enlargement was
+promptly demonstrated. Of the three subjects to which he most devoted
+his attention, public education came first. He had deemed it worthy of a
+Cabinet Department all for itself. He at once set about organizing that
+department _de novo_. Mr. Frye had done good work as Superintendent of
+Schools; but he had also done much of dubious merit. He had organized
+too many schools too rapidly, and with too little system. Perhaps that
+was partly the fault of the law, which bade him on December 6 to get
+them all going by December 11, if possible. But then, he was responsible
+for the law. He opened hundreds of schools. But most of them were pretty
+poor affairs, with no proper text-books, no desks, no equipment and
+supplies; they were not graded nor classified, and they were conducted
+without proper system or order.
+
+Such schools General Wood regarded as of little value, and he took
+prompt measures, though at the cost of a somewhat acrimonious
+controversy with Mr. Frye, to improve the system under which they were
+being created. On January 24 he issued an order creating a Board of
+Superintendents of Schools, instead of leaving the work to one man, and
+he appointed as its members Mr. Frye, Esteban Borrero Echeverria, and
+Lincoln de Zayas. The Board continued to act under the law of December
+6, but applied it in a somewhat different way, with impressive results.
+It opened a great many more schools than Mr. Frye had done, and saw to
+it that they were better equipped than his had been. Within six months
+the number of schools was increased from 635 to 3,313. Indeed, on March
+3 it was found necessary to put on brakes, by issuing an order that no
+more new schools should be opened for the present. That year more than
+$4,000,000, or nearly a fourth of the total revenue of Cuba, was spent
+on public schools.
+
+[Illustration: EVELIO RODRIGUEZ LENDIAN
+
+One of the foremost educators of Cuba, Dr. Evelio Rodriguez Lendian, was
+born at Guanabacoa in 1860, and was educated at the University of
+Havana, where he is Professor of History and Dean of the Faculty of
+Science and Letters. He is also President of the Academy of History, and
+Director of the Athenaeum. He has written a number of books and has
+great repute as a public speaker.]
+
+In addition to primary and grammar schools, which were made universal,
+trade schools of various kinds were established. In the principal
+cities, especially in Havana, there were free schools of stenography and
+type-writing. These latter were designed partly to supply a competent
+and up-to-date clerical force to the various government offices, and
+partly to promote modern business methods in private concerns. Of course
+they provided profitable occupation to a large number of persons who
+otherwise might have been out of employment. The creation of the public
+schools also provided employment for several thousand persons, as
+teachers. These were almost entirely Cubans and, as in the United
+States, were very largely young women. Considering the paucity of
+numbers of those reported by the census as possessing "superior
+education" it was extraordinary that a sufficient staff of teachers
+could be obtained. Normal schools for the training of teachers in modern
+methods of education were established, and were largely attended by
+young Cubans eager to participate in the work of advancing the
+intellectual interests and indeed also the social and industrial
+interests of their country.
+
+An admirable impetus, of inestimable value, was given to the work of
+Cuban education in 1900 when Harvard University, General Wood's alma
+mater, invited Cuban teachers to the number of a thousand to spend the
+summer at that institution, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where a great
+summer school in pedagogy and other sciences was conducted. Recognizing
+the immense value of such a visit from many points of view, the American
+administration in Cuba agreed to pay each teacher one month's salary for
+the purpose of the excursion, and to provide transportation from their
+homes to Havana or other convenient ports, whence their further travel
+was provided for by the Quartermaster's Department of the United States.
+On arriving at Cambridge they were received and entertained during their
+stay by a committee specially appointed by Harvard. They were thus
+enabled to have without cost an extended and singularly interesting and
+enjoyable excursion, such as many of them had never had before, to
+receive stimulus, suggestion and instruction in the most approved
+methods of education and school management, and--perhaps most important
+of all--to come into direct touch with the people and institutions of
+the great northern republic with which their own country had and was
+destined always to have the closest of relations.
+
+The school system of the island was strictly removed from politics, both
+local and general, and was taken from the control of the municipalities
+and placed directly and solely under that of the national government.
+Thus was assured a fine degree of uniformity in the quality and methods
+of teaching. Thus also the poorer districts, which could with difficulty
+have maintained any kind of schools at all, were enabled to have as good
+service as the richest communities. The salaries paid to teachers were
+good, comparing favorably with those paid in the United States.
+
+[Illustration: THE UNIVERSITY OF HAVANA
+
+Cuba is enviably distinguished for providing not only elementary but
+higher education, even of the best university grade, practically without
+cost to the children of her citizens. The University of Havana, which is
+the crown of the whole educational system of the country, was founded in
+1728, and formerly was housed in the old convent of Santo Domingo. But
+in 1900 under the American administration of General Leonard Wood, it
+was removed to the fine site of the former Pirotecnica Militar, near El
+Principe.]
+
+There was, it must be confessed, some criticism of this elaborate and
+expensive educational establishment. It was urged by some that
+approximately one-fourth was entirely too large a proportion of the
+national revenue to devote to this purpose, and that it would be to the
+greater benefit of the island to spend less money on schools and more on
+public works of various kinds. It was also pointed out that the average
+cost of educating each pupil in the Cuban schools was more than $26,
+while the average cost in the whole United States was less than $23, and
+in the Southern States, with which it was assumed that Cuba was properly
+to be compared, it was less than $9. Of course there was involved in
+these criticisms a triple fallacy. One was the notion that public works
+were neglected or sacrificed for the schools. That, as we shall see, was
+not so; a comparably great system of such works proceeding _pari passu_
+with the development of the school system. Another was, that the cost
+was too high. Naturally the cost was much higher in the first year
+than it would be after the system was well established. It was in fact
+much lower than in those parts of the United States where the schools
+were efficient and the educational system was creditable. The third
+fallacy was in thinking that Cuba was to be compared with the Southern
+States, the backward condition of whose school systems had long been
+regarded as a reproach and a disgrace. In endowing Cuba with a school
+system it would have been indecent for the United States to take for the
+standard its own poorest and most discreditable systems. It was
+necessary that it should take rather the best that it had as an example
+to be emulated. It may be added that these criticisms were made chiefly
+by General Wood's American critics, and by those who ignorantly and
+arrogantly regarded Cuba as an inferior country for which an inferior
+system was good enough. The Cubans themselves with practical unanimity
+gave to the work their hearty and grateful approval.
+
+[Illustration: ANTONIO SANCHEZ DE BUSTAMENTE
+
+One of the most eminent jurists and orators of Cuba, Dr. Antonio Sanchez
+de Bustamente, was born on April 13, 1865, and was educated at the
+University of Havana. He is a Senator, President of the Cuban Society of
+International Law; President of the National Academy of Arts and
+Letters; Dean of the Havana College of Lawyers, and Professor of
+International, Public and Private Law in the University of Havana.]
+
+There was other work to do for the children of Cuba beside that of the
+ordinary schools. The war had been disastrous to domesticity. Thousands
+of homes had been entirely destroyed, the parents slain, the houses
+burned, the children left to wander as waifs. In that genial clime,
+amid that profusion of the fruits of nature, these orphans did not
+necessarily starve or perish. Many of them lived practically as wild
+creatures of the woods. Many of them also were cared for in some fashion
+by the families whose homes had not been destroyed, for it was not in
+the Cuban heart, even the most poverty-stricken, to turn a suppliant
+from the door. But it was not fitting that these children should be left
+as waifs and charges upon the people. Under General Brooke's
+administration an excellent Department of Charities was organized, which
+gathered up and cared for thousands of them, and this work was continued
+during General Wood's administration. The children were partly placed in
+families which were willing to receive them, or in asylums and schools.
+Seeing that there was among them a certain proportion of defectives and
+delinquents, and that many were in need of useful training, correctional
+and industrial schools for both boys and girls were opened, and did
+admirable work.
+
+The second object of General Wood's special interest was that of public
+works. Concerning that, two salient facts must be borne in mind. One is,
+that the prohibition of franchises and concessions during the American
+occupation materially militated against the making of many improvements;
+although it was on the whole a desirable restriction. The other is that
+many of the most urgent public works during the first year or two were
+those connected with sanitation and the renovation of public buildings,
+prisons, etc. During the first year of the intervention, under General
+Brooke, heroic work was done by General Ludlow in removing from the
+streets of Havana the accumulated filth of years. But that was only a
+beginning. In the next two years the work had to be continued and
+extended to every city and town on the island. Water supplies had to be
+provided, and sewer systems. Above all, there had to be an extensive,
+persistent and, in the very nature of the case expensive campaign
+against yellow fever and malaria, the two traditional scourges of Cuba.
+To these works General Wood addressed himself with efficient energy, and
+to them he devoted an appropriate proportion of the public funds.
+
+[Illustration: ALMENDARES RIVER, HAVANA]
+
+We have seen that the total cost of the schools in 1900 was more than
+$4,000,000. But as a considerable part of this was non-recurring expense
+for buildings, etc., the actual cost of maintenance was much less. The
+following figures show the apportionment of expenditures:
+
+    For Education, non-recurring          $   337,460
+    For Education, maintenance              3,672,000
+                                           ----------
+         Total for school system           $4,009,460
+
+    For Public Works construction          $1,786,700
+    For Sanitation                          3,029,500
+                                           ----------
+    Total for Public Works                 $4,816,200
+
+Despite the complaints of American critics that too much money was spent
+on schools in proportion to other things, therefore, it appears that
+much less was spent on them than on public works. Perhaps such
+complaints would have been less numerous and less bitter if General Wood
+had been willing or able to give profitable contracts and franchises to
+American speculators.
+
+Much attention was paid to port improvements, naturally, in order to
+facilitate and promote the commerce which was essential to the
+prosperity of the island. The lighthouse service was placed under the
+most competent charge of General Mario G. Menocal, who conducted it with
+approved efficiency until the needs of his personal affairs compelled
+him to retire from public office. A thoroughly organized postal service
+was established throughout the island and was so well managed that by
+the end of the period of intervention it was within ten per cent. of
+being self supporting, or as near to self supporting as that of the
+United States had generally been. This was certainly a remarkable
+achievement in view of the fact that so large a proportion of Cubans
+were illiterate and therefore unable to make use of postal facilities.
+
+For general purposes of public works the island was divided into six
+districts. At the head of each district was a Chief Superintendent of
+Public Works, with a staff of assistants. The principal undertakings,
+apart from sanitation, were the construction of roads and the building
+of bridges and culverts, and these were judiciously planned so as to
+unite the various districts of the island with improved highways, and to
+open up rich agricultural regions with transportation facilities.
+
+[Illustration: OLD TIME WATER MILL, HAVANA PROVINCE]
+
+These undertakings involved General Wood in the disposition of an
+unpleasant controversy which had been left over from General Brooke's
+administration, which in turn had received it from the old Spanish
+government. In 1894 the Spanish authorities of Havana decided to have
+that city largely repaved and re-sewered, and asked an American firm
+somewhat noted for its political influence, that of Michael J. Dady &
+Co., of Brooklyn, New York, to submit plans. A year later it accepted
+some of this firm's proposals, payment for the work to be made in bonds
+of the City of Havana. But the oncoming of the war caused postponement
+of the project, and it was not until December, 1898, just before the
+Spanish evacuation, that the corporation of Havana finally accepted the
+proposals and authorized the issue of bonds. The American authorities,
+however, who were about to take over the control of the city, protested
+against being thus saddled with a scheme of Spanish making, and
+accordingly the last Spanish Governor, General Castellanos, very
+properly declined to approve and sign the ordinance; declaring that it
+and all similar projects, which would have to be executed under American
+control, should await American approval.
+
+A few days later the transfer of sovereignty occurred, and General
+Ludlow, as Governor of Havana, decided to set aside the Dady proposals
+altogether and to proceed with the work himself. This was doubtless an
+economical and logical course to pursue. But under the old Spanish law,
+which was still in force, Dady & Co. claimed to have certain rights in
+the matter. The matter remained in suspense for the whole of General
+Brooke's administration, with a succession of engineers from the United
+States making and remaking plans for the work and with Dady & Co.'s
+interests undecided. Apparently the United States government--for the
+whole matter was controlled by the Engineering Bureau of the War
+Department at Washington--was reluctant to challenge Dady & Co. to a
+trial of their claims in court, and was unwilling to seek a compromise
+with them, but was seeking by interminable postponements, changes of
+plan and delays to tire them out and induce them voluntarily to
+withdraw. But that was something which that astute and resolute
+corporation showed no inclination to do. Meanwhile very important
+public works were at a stand-still.
+
+This was an intolerable state of affairs, and General Wood in the spring
+of 1901 determined to end it after the manner of Alexander's disposition
+of the Gordian knot. He paid Dady & Co. $250,000 in satisfaction of
+their claims, which was possibly less than the courts would have awarded
+them if the case had been carried before them, and then ordered bids to
+be solicited for the doing of the work. The only bid received was from
+Dady & Co., and the Washington authorities refused to sanction
+acceptance of it on the ground that it was too high. The plans were
+altered and new bids solicited, and the Havana Ayuntamiento voted to
+award the contract to the lowest bidders, McGivney & Rokeby. But before
+the contract was closed Dady & Co. on a plea of having misunderstood the
+plans offered a reduction of their bid below that of their competitors;
+whereupon the Ayuntamiento reconsidered its vote and ordered the
+contract to be made with Dady & Co. But the Washington authorities
+refused to sanction this change, apparently being averse to letting Dady
+& Co. have the job at any figure, and the result was that the whole
+matter remained at a deadlock until after the end of the American
+occupation.
+
+From some points of view the greatest achievement of General Wood's
+administration was that of the conquest of disease, and it was one in
+which he as a physician and man of science took peculiar interest. When
+he fought and temporarily overcame yellow fever at Santiago, there was
+no application of the immortal theory of Dr. Finlay, but it was supposed
+that the pestilence spontaneously arose from filth. The same was true of
+General Ludlow's subsequent cleansing of Havana; he supposing that by
+the removal of filth the sources of infection would be removed. But when
+he observed that the dreaded disease occurred where there was no filth,
+General Wood concluded that it must have another source, and decided to
+give Dr. Finlay's theory a practical test. In 1900 therefore a medical
+commission was formed, composed of Drs. Walter Reed, U. S. A., James
+Carroll, Aristides Agramonte, and Jesse W. Lazear, who, with the heroic
+cooperation of soldiers of the United States army, who were willing to
+risk their lives in experiments for the welfare of humanity, undertook
+an elaborate series of demonstrations which were epochal in the history
+not alone of Cuba but also of the whole world.
+
+Reed took the initiative. He applied to General Wood for permission to
+undertake the work, including the conducting of experiments on persons
+who were not immune against the fever, which of course was a most
+perilous venture. He also asked for a considerable sum of money with
+which to reward volunteers who would thus submit themselves to deadly
+peril. General Wood did not hesitate for a moment. He granted the
+permission, appropriated the money, and entered into the momentous
+enterprise with helpful sympathy and untiring zeal.
+
+[Illustration: CARLOS J. FINLAY
+
+Born at Camaguey on December 3, 1833, of English parents, and dying on
+August 20, 1915, Dr. Carlos J. Finlay left a name which greatly adorns
+the science of Cuba and which occupied a conspicuous place on the roster
+of the benefactors of humanity. He was educated in France and at the
+Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia, and rose to eminence in his
+profession. He first of all men propounded the theory that _Stegomiya
+fasciata_ mosquito was the active and sole agent in the communication of
+yellow fever, and personally, under the Governorship of Leonard Wood,
+demonstrated the correctness of that theory and thus freed Cuba from its
+most dreaded pestilence and blazed the way for a like achievement in all
+other lands. For this epochal service to the world many foreign
+governments bestowed distinctions and decorations upon him. Though
+technically retaining the British citizenship with which his father
+endowed him, he devoted his life to Cuba and filled with high efficiency
+the place of chief of the Bureau of Sanitation.]
+
+The scene of the drama--for it was one of the most dramatic and heroic
+performances in human history--was Camp Lazear, fittingly named for the
+brave man who was a martyr to the cause of health, a few miles from
+Quemados, in the outskirts of Havana. Before the work at the camp was
+begun, however, two experiments were made by members of the commission,
+who thus demonstrated their personal readiness to incur any peril which
+might confront the volunteers for whom they were calling. Dr. Carroll
+was first. He deliberately caused himself to be bitten by a mosquito
+which twelve days before had gorged itself with the blood of a
+yellow fever patient. Note that he did this with the expectation, indeed
+with the hope, that he would thus be infected with one of the deadliest
+of diseases. He sought to prove not that there was no danger in a
+mosquito bite, but on the contrary that there was the greatest possible
+danger. And his anticipations were fully realized. In due time after the
+bite he was stricken with yellow fever in a particularly severe form;
+from which, however, he happily recovered.
+
+Dr. Lazear came next. At about the same time with Carroll he made a
+similar experiment upon himself. Apparently the insect by which he
+caused himself to be bitten had not itself been infected. At any rate
+Lazear did not develop the disease. At this he was disappointed, and he
+determined to expose himself again. Accordingly he was thoroughly bitten
+by another mosquito, in the yellow fever ward of the hospital. He noted
+the fact and all its results most carefully, as though he had been
+experimenting upon some inanimate object. In due time the disease
+manifested itself in its most malignant form. Everything possible was of
+course done for him, but in vain. He died of the disease which he had
+voluntarily contracted for the sake of saving others from it; one of the
+world's great martyrs to the cause not merely of science but of
+humanity.
+
+So Camp Lazear was founded and was named after this hero. There were
+erected two large frame buildings, one for infected mosquitoes and one
+for infected clothing. The mosquito building was divided into two parts
+by a permanent wirecloth partition, impervious to even the smallest
+mosquito, but of course permitting free circulation of air. All the
+windows and doors were securely screened in like manner, so that it was
+impossible for mosquitoes to pass in or out. This building was
+ventilated in the most thorough manner. Three men entered it and lived
+there for a fortnight. One of them entered the compartment which was
+infested with fever-infected mosquitoes, and was bitten by them. The
+others remained in the other compartment which was free from mosquitoes
+but through which the same air circulated and in which all other
+conditions were identical with those in the insect room. The result was
+that the man who was bitten developed the fever, while the others,
+though fully as susceptible to it as he, showed no signs of it. Such was
+the convincing demonstration of the mosquito house.
+
+The clothing building was kept free from mosquitoes, but was well
+stocked with the clothing and bedding of yellow fever patients. There
+were the beds in which men had died of the fever, soiled with their
+vomit and other excreta. The room was purposely deprived of ventilation,
+so that its air should constantly be heavy with the reek of disease and
+death. Into that indescribably loathsome place brave men entered, and
+there they lived for weeks, wearing the soiled clothing and sleeping in
+the soiled beds of those who had died of the pestilence. But not one of
+them contracted the fever. Not one sickened. All emerged from the
+noisome place at the end of the experiment in perfect health. Such was
+the convincing demonstration of the infected clothing house.
+
+One thing more remained. There was one remote possibility that the men
+who had remained free from the fever, in the noninfected room of the
+mosquito house and in the infected clothing house, were in some
+unsuspected way immune against the disease. To determine this, one of
+each of the companies permitted himself to be bitten by an infected
+mosquito, with the result that he promptly developed the disease. That
+was the final, complete and crowning demonstration which made Camp
+Lazear forever famous in the annals of humanity. At a single stroke the
+pestilence which had been the haunting horror of the tropics was
+potentially conquered. Dr. Reed proclaimed to the world that the
+specific agent in the causation of yellow fever was a germ or toxin in
+the blood of a patient during only the first three days of the attack,
+which must be transmitted by the bite of a mosquito inflicted upon its
+victim at least twelve days after taking it from the blood of the first
+patient. In no other way was it possible to convey the infection. The
+notion that it was conveyed through the air, in the breath of patients,
+in their soiled clothing or the discharges of their bodies, was
+baseless.
+
+That historic achievement was alone sufficient to make that first year
+of General Wood's administration in Cuba forever gratefully famous. Of
+course the lesson thus learned was at once put into effect with all
+possible thoroughness. War was declared upon the death-dealing mosquito.
+In February, 1901, the campaign was begun by Major William C. Gorgas, U.
+S. A., the chief sanitary officer of Havana. Every case of yellow fever
+was immediately reported, and the patient was rigidly isolated during
+the three days in which his blood was infective. All the rooms of his
+house and the adjacent houses were closed to prevent the escape of
+possible infected mosquitoes, and were then thoroughly fumigated so as
+to destroy every insect within them. In this way the spread of the
+disease was prevented. At the same time measures were taken to
+exterminate the mosquitoes altogether, by depriving them of breeding
+places. It was ascertained that the insect required for propagation a
+certain amount of stagnant water, in which its eggs might be deposited
+and hatched. Steps were therefore taken to drain or otherwise get rid of
+all pools, or to apply to them a film of oil which would prevent the
+insects from using them, and to screen carefully all vessels and other
+receptacles in which water was necessarily kept. These were the same
+methods which Major--since Major General--Gorgas a few years later
+applied with distinguished success for the elimination of yellow fever
+from the Isthmus of Panama and thus rendered possible the construction
+of the interoceanic canal.
+
+[Illustration: STREET IN VEDADO, SUBURB OF HAVANA]
+
+Begun in February, 1901, this work in Havana was so vigorously and
+skilfully prosecuted that before summer every case of yellow fever had
+disappeared from that city and its environs. During the summer a few
+cases occurred, but the last of them was disposed of early in September.
+That was the last case of yellow fever to originate in a city which for
+a century and a half had annually been scourged by that disease. Since
+that date the only cases that have been known there have been a few
+which were imported from less sanitary ports--at one time Havana had to
+establish a fever quarantine against United States ports! Thus the
+island which had long suffered reproach as the especial home of one of
+the deadliest of diseases, as a veritable plague-spot, which American
+life insurance companies forbade their policy holders to visit, became
+noted for its freedom from that scourge and for its general salubrity.
+
+A similar campaign was also conducted against another variety of
+mosquito which, by a like series of experiments, had been proved to be
+the propagating medium of so-called malarial fevers; with highly
+gratifying results.
+
+Among the important reforms effected by General Wood was that of the
+entire system of law and justice. It began with the penal institutions.
+When the Americans assumed control, they found the old Spanish prison
+system still in existence. Most of the prisons were antiquated,
+unsanitary and inhuman structures, to enter which was ominous for the
+body, the mind and the soul. There was no segregation of prisoners
+according to age or degree of criminality. Mere boys, sentenced for some
+slight misdemeanor, were herded in with adult felons of the most
+hardened and incorrigible type. Many had been confined for months, even
+years, awaiting trial. They had been arrested, locked up in default of
+bail, and then practically forgotten. Of these many were innocent of
+any wrong-doing; while some of those who were probably guilty were kept
+in confinement awaiting trial for a much longer term than they could
+have been sentenced for under the law if they had been tried and found
+guilty.
+
+This shocking state of affairs was vigorously attacked during the first
+year of the American occupation, and it was thoroughly reformed before
+that occupation ended. There was a prompt disposal of all untried cases.
+Where it was possible, the prisoners were at once brought to trial. But
+in many cases there was nobody to appear against them; perhaps through
+lapse of time all the witnesses were dead; and it was impossible to make
+even a show of prosecuting them. Such persons simply had to be set at
+liberty. The system of jurisprudence was so modified as to assure prompt
+trials thereafter. The management of the prisons was made to aim at the
+reformation of the prisoners and not simply at their vindictive
+punishment. In some prisons schools were opened, to give the inmates
+instruction which would conduce to their right living after their
+release. Of course the buildings were renovated as far as possible, so
+as to make them sanitary and as comfortable as prisoners have a right to
+expect their prisons to be.
+
+This led, under General Wood's administration, to a general revision of
+the system of courts, court procedure and jurisprudence. In the first
+year of intervention, indeed, General Ludlow established a Police Court
+in Havana. This was not authorized by Governor Brooke, and was regarded
+as of doubtful legality. Nevertheless it remained in operation and
+undoubtedly served a good purpose in disposing promptly of most of the
+petty cases of arrest for misdemeanor. So valuable was it that General
+Wood, on becoming Governor, determined to place its legal status on the
+surest foundation possible, by issuing an official order for its
+creation and recognition. In this he did not himself escape criticism,
+not from Cubans but from Americans. The same people, or the same kind of
+people, who had blamed him for paying so much attention to Cuban
+education now declared that he had no business to meddle in any way with
+the judicial system of Cuba. That was not what America had intervened
+for. To such objections little attention was paid. General Wood rightly
+regarded it to be his business to do anything in any department of
+government that would promote the ends of justice and good government
+and the welfare of the Cuban nation.
+
+Police courts were therefore established not only in Havana but also in
+the other cities. The Department of Justice was moved to examine into
+the conduct of all the courts. When judges were found to be unjust,
+corrupt, incompetent, or otherwise unfit to serve, they were removed.
+Competent clerks were appointed, and they and all other court employes
+were put on fair salaries, the fee system which formerly prevailed and
+which was so susceptible of abuse, being abolished. Competent and
+trustworthy lawyers were employed at state expense to serve as counsel
+for those who were too poor to hire them.
+
+It was under General Wood, in his first year of administration and the
+second year of American intervention, that Cuban civil government was
+elaborated, that an election system was devised and put into effect, and
+that political parties had their rise. The Civil Governors of the
+Provinces were now all Cubans: Of Pinar del Rio, Dr. J. M. Quilez; of
+Havana, General Emilio Nunez; of Matanzas, General Pedro Betancourt; of
+Santa Clara, General Jose Miguel Gomez; of Camaguey, General R. Lopez
+Recio; of Oriente, General Demetrio Castillo. It was General Wood's wise
+and just policy to fill Cuban offices with Cubans to the fullest
+possible extent.
+
+Therefore it was determined in the spring of 1900 to hold an election
+for municipal officers throughout the island. An order was issued on
+April 18, appointing the election for June 16, for officers to be
+installed on July 1 for a term of one year. The officers to be chosen
+were Mayors, or Alcaldes; members of City Councils or Ayuntamientos;
+municipal treasurers and judges, and judges of the police courts.
+
+The preparations for the election were made and a new electoral law was
+drafted by a commission of fifteen members, appointed by General Wood.
+Of the fifteen, thirteen were Cubans and two were Americans. The Cubans
+were representative of the various political parties into which the
+people of the island were beginning to divide themselves. It cannot be
+said that the meetings and deliberations of the commission were
+particularly harmonious. In the end two reports were submitted to the
+Governor, of which he selected for adoption that presented by the
+minority. It comprised the new elections law, which he promulgated on
+April 18 in the proclamation calling for the election. This law provided
+that a voter must be a male Cuban, native of Cuba or born of Cuban
+parents while they were temporarily visiting abroad, or a Spaniard
+included within the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, who had not
+elected to retain his Spanish allegiance; he must be twenty-one years
+old, and must have lived in his municipality for at least thirty days
+immediately preceding registration; and he must be able to read and
+write; or own property worth $250 in American gold; or have served in
+the Cuban army prior to July 18, 1898, and have been honorably
+discharged therefrom. The ten consecutive days from May 6 to May 16 were
+appointed as days of registration.
+
+The total number of voters registered was 150,648, which was a little
+more than fifty per cent, of the total number of men of voting age,
+which had been shown by the census of 1899 to be 297,765. However, there
+were some thousands of adult males in the island who had elected to
+retain their allegiance to Spain, and therefore could not vote, so that
+the number registered was considerably more than one half of the
+possible voters. At the election on June 16 the total vote cast was
+110,816. There were some protests and complaints of fraud and illegal
+voting, and it is not improbable that there were some such abuses; as
+there have been known to be in other lands, even in the United States of
+America. On the whole the elections were probably reasonably fair and
+honest; they were peacefully and quietly conducted; and they gave much
+encouragement to the expectation that the people of Cuba would prove
+themselves worthy of the opportunity of self-government which was being
+placed before them.
+
+At this election there were three parties. The Union Democratic was
+composed of the more conservative element, including many of the old
+Autonomist party, and it was largely inclined toward annexation to the
+United States, or toward a permanent and efficient protectorate by that
+country. Its numbers were few, and it took little part in the election.
+The Nationals and the Republicans ranged from liberal to radical, and
+between the two in principle there was no perceptible difference. These
+parties did not long survive, but were transformed and merged into the
+Conservative and Liberal parties of later years.
+
+Political parties in Cuba had their origin about the time of American
+intervention in the war. That was an assurance that Cuba was to have her
+independence and become self-governing, and that made it seem worth
+while to form into parties. The full development did not come, however,
+until it was seen that the United States intended to keep its word by
+leaving the government and control of Cuba to the people of the island,
+and that conviction did not come to the general Cuban mind until some
+time after the United States entered the war. It first began to arise in
+considerable strength when the United States government forbade the
+granting of any franchises or concessions during the American
+occupation. That certainly looked as though the Americans expected to
+get out of the island at an early date. As the administration of General
+Wood went on, constantly increasing the participation of Cubans in the
+government, the confidence in American good faith increased, and of
+course the organization of parties became more complete.
+
+There were then, however, as there are now, no such differences between
+the parties on matters of political economy or administrative and
+legislative policy, as exist in other lands. They are simply the "Ins"
+and the "Outs." One party is in office and wants to stay in. The other
+is out and wants to get in. In their methods, however, the two differ
+widely. The Conservatives have been consistently in favor of
+constitutional and lawful measures, the maintenance of peace and the
+safeguarding of life and property. They have always been willing to
+accept and abide by the result of an election, even though it were
+against them. The Liberals, on the other hand, as we shall more
+convincingly see in the course of this narrative, have been in favor of
+practically any means which would enable them to gain control of
+affairs. They have on several occasions not hesitated to involve the
+island in revolution, provided that they would be able to profit from it
+by gaining office.
+
+In this first election for municipal officers there was little partisan
+rivalry, and indeed that did not rise to any great pitch until the end
+of the first intervention and the establishment of a purely Cuban
+government. The chief partisanship was really personal. Each important
+military or political leader had his own following. Such rivalries were
+not yet, however, acrimonious or sufficient to have any material effect
+upon the progress of public affairs.
+
+Reference has been made to the reform of the taxation system which
+included the abolition of a number of annoying and oppressive imposts.
+There followed a revision of the tariff on imports, for the dual
+purposes of promoting commerce and industry and of providing a revenue
+for the insular government. In December, 1898, the United States had
+ordered maintenance of the old Spanish tariff, with certain
+modifications, chiefly dictated by the change of relations between Cuba
+and the United States. Subsequently other modifications were made from
+time to time as the need or desirability of them became apparent through
+experience. But on June 15, 1900, an entirely new tariff law went into
+effect, framed chiefly by American experts and following pretty closely
+the general lines of the American tariff system. Naturally it was
+calculated to encourage commerce between Cuba and the United States,
+particularly by the admission of products of the latter country into
+Cuban markets at a minimum of cost. In view of the scarcity of food in
+Cuba and the devastated condition of much of the agricultural lands,
+American food products, both meats and breadstuffs, thus gained easy
+access to the Cuban market. This seemed anomalous, since Cuba was an
+agricultural country capable of producing a large surplus of food for
+export instead of needing imports of food. It was obvious, however, that
+this feature of the tariff would be merely temporary, and in fact it was
+materially modified by the increase of rates on such imports very soon
+after the establishment of the Cuban government.
+
+Despite the fact that during the year about three million dollars' worth
+of food was imported, the total of Cuban imports was less than in the
+preceding year; a circumstance due to the change in tariff rates. At the
+same time there was a very considerable increase in exports. It was an
+interesting circumstance, also, that there was a decrease in trade with
+the United States; a pretty effective reply to the complaint which some
+made that the new tariff had been improperly framed so as to give the
+United States a monopoly of Cuban trade. It did give the United States
+some advantages which that country had not enjoyed before, but on the
+whole it was probably as fair and impartial as it could well have been
+made. Commercial reports showed that Cuban imports from the United
+States were $26,513,613 in 1900 and $25,964,801 in 1901; and that Cuban
+exports to the United States were $31,371,704 in 1900 and $43,428,088 in
+1901. Thus Cuban purchases from the United States were decreasing
+slightly, while Cuban sales to the United States were greatly
+increasing, and the balance of trade was growing more and more largely
+in Cuba's favor.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+
+The supreme work of the Government of Intervention, from the political
+point of view, was to prepare Cuba for complete self-government and then
+to relinquish the control of the island to its own people. It was with
+that end in view that General Wood filled all possible offices with
+Cubans. It was also to the same end that the municipal election was held
+in June, 1900, under a new election law. Soon after that election there
+came a call for another, of vastly greater importance. On July 25, 1900,
+the President of the United States authorized General Wood as Military
+Governor of Cuba to issue a call for the election of a Cuban
+Constitutional Convention, which should be representative of the Cuban
+people and which should prepare the fundamental law of the independent
+insular government which was about to be erected.
+
+General Wood issued the call, fixing September 15 as the date of the
+election. This call repeated and reaffirmed the Congressional
+declaration of April 20, 1898, concerning the purpose of the United
+States not to annex Cuba but to "leave the government and control of the
+island to its people." It also called upon the people of Cuba, through
+their Constitutional Convention, not only to frame and adopt a
+Constitution, but also, "as a part thereof, to provide for and agree
+with the Government of the United States upon the relations to exist
+between that government and the Government of Cuba." That was a most
+significant thing. It made it quite clear that the United States
+expected and intended that some special relations should exist between
+the two countries, apart from those ordinarily provided in treaties.
+
+Comment, criticism and protest were provoked; some temperate, some
+intemperate. Most of the unfavorable comments, and by far the most
+severe, came from the United States and were obviously animated by
+political hostility to the President. In Cuba the chief objection was
+based upon the ground that the island was thus required to do something
+through a Constitutional Convention which that body was not intended to
+do but which should be done by the diplomatic department of the
+government; and also to put into the Constitution something which did
+not belong there but which should be determined in a treaty. In this
+there was obviously much logical and moral force, and that fact was
+appreciated by General Wood, and by the government at Washington, with
+the result that assurances were presently given that the order would be
+satisfactorily modified. On the strength of this assurance, which was
+given in undoubted good faith, Cubans generally prepared for the coming
+election and for the great work which lay beyond it. They had been so
+disturbed by the original form of the order that many had declared that
+they would not participate in the election or serve as delegates to the
+Convention. The promise of modification mollified them, and thereafter
+all went smoothly and auspiciously.
+
+The call for the election was issued on August 11. The qualifications
+for suffrage which were prescribed were the same as those in the
+preceding municipal election, and were generally accepted as fair and
+just. The election was held on September 15, and it passed off in very
+much the same fashion as its predecessor. Only a moderate degree of
+popular interest was manifested in it, and the vote cast was not a
+large one. The candidates were divided among the three parties already
+mentioned, but all save one were elected from the two radical
+organizations, the Nationals and the Republicans. Just one, Senor Eliseo
+Giberga, of Matanzas province, was returned by the Conservative Union
+Democrats. There were a few charges of fraud, but they were vague and
+general in terms and were not formulated nor pressed, and in the main
+the result of the polling was accepted in good part. The number of
+delegates from each province had been prescribed in the call for the
+election. The roll of the convention comprised the names of many of the
+foremost members of the Cuban nation, distinguished in war, in
+statecraft and in science, and was well representative of all parts and
+parties of the island.
+
+The convention met for the first time on November 5, 1900, at two
+o'clock in the afternoon. All the delegates were present, and a great
+multitude of the people gathered in and about the palace to witness the
+spectacle and to pay honor to the occasion. They were not alone from the
+capital, but from all parts of Cuba. Every province and almost every
+important municipality was represented. Expectant optimism prevailed.
+There was only one note of uncertainty. That was concerning the promised
+modification of the order concerning relations with the United States.
+The modification had not yet been announced. There were a few who began
+to doubt whether it would ever be; but most put faith in the Military
+Governor and were sure that he would keep his word.
+
+He did. At the appointed moment, when all were assembled, General Wood
+called the Convention to order and addressed it briefly.
+
+"It will," he said, "be your duty, first, to frame and adopt a
+Constitution for Cuba, and when that has been done, to formulate what,
+in your opinion, ought to be the relations between Cuba and the United
+States. The Constitution must be adequate to secure a stable, orderly
+and free government. When you have formulated the relations which, in
+your opinion, ought to exist between Cuba and the United States, the
+Government of the United States will doubtless take such action on its
+part as shall lead to a final and authoritative agreement between the
+people of the two countries to the promotion of their common good." He
+also reminded the Convention that it had no authority to take any part
+in the existing government of the island, or to do anything more than
+was prescribed in the order for its assembling. In thus speaking he was
+in fact reading to the Convention official instructions from Washington;
+in which the order concerning Cuban and American relations was
+materially modified. There was nothing in the revised version about
+making the agreement a part of the Constitution. The Convention was
+merely to express its opinion on the subject, to serve as a basis for
+further negotiations. General Wood emphasized this point distinctly, and
+it was received with entire satisfaction by the Convention and by the
+public.
+
+Having thus delivered to the Convention its instructions and having
+expressed his personal good will and wishes for its success, General
+Wood retired and the Convention was left to its own counsels and
+devices. Thereupon Pedro Llorente, the oldest of the delegates, took the
+chair by common consent as temporary president, and Enrique Villuendas,
+the youngest delegate, similarly occupied the desk of the secretary. A
+fitting oath of office was administered to all by the Chief Justice of
+the Supreme Court of the island; containing a formal renunciation of
+all other citizenship and allegiance than Cuban, because several
+delegates had become naturalized citizens of the United States and it
+was necessary for them thus to resume their status as Cubans. On the
+principle that "What was good enough for us when we were struggling in
+the field is good enough for us here," the rules of the Cuban
+Revolutionary Congress were adopted to govern the Convention. Finally
+Domingo Mendez Capote was elected permanent President of the Convention,
+and Alfredo Zayas and Enrique Villuendas permanent Secretaries.
+
+There followed the usual experience of such bodies: Divided counsels,
+cross purposes, and what not; all gradually working together toward a
+common end. A few public sessions were held, at which there was more
+speechmaking than work, but after a few weeks private sessions and a
+great deal of committee work became the rule. There was no division on
+party lines, and there was a lack of dominant leadership; both favorable
+circumstances. Much attention was given to studying and analyzing the
+constitutions of all other republics in the world, in order to learn
+their good features and to avoid their errors and weaknesses. The
+constitution of the United States was of course among those studied, but
+rather less regard was paid to it than to others, for two reasons. One
+was, a desire to avoid even the appearance of making Cuba a mere
+appanage to or imitation of its northern neighbor, and the other was the
+very practical thought that the constitutions of Latin republics might
+be better suited to the Latin republic of Cuba than that of an
+Anglo-Saxon republic.
+
+By January 21 the Constitution was drafted in form sufficiently complete
+to permit it to be read to the whole convention in a public session,
+and thereafter there were daily discussions of its various provisions.
+Differences of opinion ranged from mere verbal form to the substance of
+the most momentous principles. There was a characteristic passage of
+verbal arms over a phrase in the preamble. That paragraph after stating
+the purpose of the Convention and of the Constitution, closed by
+"invoking the favor of God." When this was read the venerable Salvador
+Cisneros, formerly President of the Republic, moved that the phrase be
+stricken out. Manuel Sanguilly made a long and dramatic speech, arguing
+with much passion that it really did not matter whether the phrase were
+included or not, but that it would best be left in, because that might
+please some and could hurt nobody. Then the dean of the convention,
+Pedro Llorente, made an impassioned appeal for the retention of the
+words, to prove to the world that the Cubans were not a nation of
+infidels and atheists. In the end the phrase was retained.
+
+Another animated debate arose over the question of religious freedom and
+the relations of church and state, which was ended by the adoption of an
+article guaranteeing freedom and equality for all forms of religion that
+were in accord with "Christian morality and public order," and decreeing
+separation of church and state and forbidding the subsidizing of any
+church. The question of suffrage was intensely controversial. There were
+those who dreaded the result of giving the ballot to tens of thousands
+of ignorant and illiterate men. Yet to disfranchise them would mean thus
+to debar thousands who had fought for Cuban independence in the late
+war, and it was not unreasonably feared that it would also cause
+dissatisfaction and resentment which would culminate in disorder and
+insurrection. In the end universal equal suffrage was adopted.
+
+The most bitter debate of all, however, was over the qualifications of
+the President of the Republic. A strong and persistent effort was made
+to imitate the Constitution of the United States by requiring him to be
+a native citizen. But that would have debarred Maximo Gomez, who was
+born in Santo Domingo. For that reason the proposed restriction was
+passionately opposed by all the friends of Gomez, and also by many who
+were not his friends and who would have opposed his candidacy for the
+Presidency but who felt that it would be disgraceful to put such a
+slight upon the gallant old hero of the two wars. On the other hand, the
+restriction was urged chiefly for that very reason, that it would debar
+Gomez; for, idolized as he was by the great mass of the Cuban people, he
+had a number of unrelenting enemies, especially among these politicians
+whom he had opposed and overruled in the matter of the Cuban Assembly
+and the payment of soldiers at the end of the war. After several days of
+acrimonious discussion the friends of Gomez won by a narrow margin, and
+the offensive proposal was rejected.
+
+There were many other controversial points, less personal and more
+worthy of debate in such a gathering on bases not of personality but of
+principle. The governmental powers of the Provinces gave rise to debates
+resembling those over state rights in America. The recognition of Cuban
+debts was a momentous matter. The method of electing Senators was also
+much discussed, as was the principle which the Military Administration
+had adopted of having the state and not the provinces or municipalities
+control public education. The right of the government to expel
+objectionable aliens was the theme of a long and spirited discussion.
+With all the animation, sentiment and rhetoric in which Latin debaters
+and orators more freely indulge than do the more phlegmatic
+Anglo-Saxons, all of these questions were very seriously considered
+according to their merits, and were disposed of on that same basis.
+There was no haste, and there was no undue delay; while everything was
+done "decently and in order." It took the Federal Convention of the
+United States four months of secret sessions to frame its Constitution,
+and its career was marked with many violent scenes, including the
+withdrawal of the representatives of one of the chief states from the
+Convention. The Cuban Convention had no incidents so unpleasant as that,
+and it completed its work in three months and a half.
+
+[Illustration: AURELIA CASTILLO DE GONZALEZ
+
+Aurelia Castillo de Gonzalez, poet and essayist, was born in Camaguey in
+1842, spent much time in European travel, and then settled in Havana.
+She first attracted literary attention by her elegy on "El Lugareno" in
+1866, and since that time has been an incessant contributor to Cuban
+literature in verse and prose. She is the author of a fine study of the
+Life and Works of Gertrudis Gomez de Avellaneda, of a volume of fables,
+and a number of satires. Her complete works (to date) were published in
+five volumes in 1913.]
+
+February 21, 1901 was the crowning day. Ten days before the draft of the
+Constitution, as yet unsigned, had been published in pamphlet form. On
+the date named the Convention was to give it validity by signing it. The
+public was admitted to view the scene, the consuls of foreign powers
+were in attendance as specially invited guests, and a fine military band
+discoursed patriotic and classical music. The Constitution, finally
+engrossed, was read aloud, and then one by one the delegates marched up
+to the President's desk and affixed their signatures. When the last name
+was written, all stood while the band played the national anthem of
+Cuba. The President of the Convention, Mendez Capote, made a graceful
+address of congratulation and good wishes; and the Convention adjourned,
+its work well ended.
+
+We have said that at the opening session, immediately after his
+introductory address, the American Military Governor left the hall. He
+did not revisit it, and neither he nor any American officer was ever
+present at any meeting of the Convention; nor was any American
+representative present at the closing function of the signing of the
+Constitution. The purpose of that abstention was obvious. It was to
+avoid so much as the appearance or the suspicion of American meddling or
+dictation in the work of the Convention. General Wood had told the
+Convention that it had nothing to do with his government of the island.
+Conversely he wished to show that he and his government had nothing to
+do with the work of the Convention.
+
+The Constitution thus auspiciously brought into existence declares Cuba
+to be a sovereign republic. The powers of government are much more
+centralized than those in the United States. The six Provinces have no
+such rights as have the states of America, though they have a liberal
+measure of local governmental power. They are not states or provinces,
+however, but mere departments--fractions of the whole instead of
+integral units. Each has a Governor and an elected Assembly. So each
+city and town has a mayor and a council. Municipalities have the power
+to levy taxes for local needs. The control of railroads and telegraphs
+is a national function, and the judicial system is also national. There
+is freedom of speech, of press and of worship. No prisoner may be held
+longer than twenty-four hours without judicial process. Congress
+consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives. There are six
+Senators from each department, elected by the municipalities for six
+years, one third retiring every two years. Representatives are elected
+from districts by the people for four years, there being one member to
+every 25,000 inhabitants. Senators and Representatives must be
+twenty-five years old, and if not native citizens must have been
+naturalized eight years. The President and Vice-President are elected
+for four years by the people through electoral colleges, with a
+provision for minority representation, each citizen voting for only
+two-thirds of the number of electors to which his district is entitled.
+Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed for life by the President
+with the ratification of the Senate. The civil law and constitutional
+guarantees can be suspended in case of emergency only by Congress when
+it is in session, but by the President when Congress is not in session.
+The House of Representatives may impeach the President, when the Senate
+may suspend him from office, try him, and upon conviction remove him
+permanently. Amendments of the Constitution must be voted by two-thirds
+of both Houses and ratified by a popular convention specially called for
+the purpose.
+
+There can be no question that this was a highly creditable production,
+and one which amply merited the qualified approval which was given to it
+by Elihu Root, Secretary of War of the United States, when he said: "I
+do not fully agree with the wisdom of some of the provisions of this
+Constitution. But it provides for a republican form of government; it
+was adopted after long and patient consideration and discussion; it
+represents the views of the delegates elected by the people of Cuba;
+and it contains no features which would justify the assertion that a
+government organized under it will not be one to which the United States
+may properly transfer the obligations for the protection of life and
+property under international law, assumed in the Treaty of Paris."
+
+The first part of the Convention's work was thus done. There remained
+the second part, the expression of Cuban opinion as to what ought to be
+the relations between that island and the United States. Over this a
+most unfortunate controversy arose, chiefly provoked and fomented,
+however, not by Cubans but by the partisan enemies of the President of
+the United States and of his policy, who did not scruple to intrigue
+against him in the affairs of foreign lands. It will be recalled that
+this hatred of him, provoked largely because of his insistence on
+fulfilling the pledge of Cuban freedom instead of seeking to serve
+certain sordid interests by forcibly annexing the island, culminated in
+the assassination of President McKinley at the incitement of his
+political foes. The opposition to him and to his policy in Cuba was
+continued unabated against his successor, President Roosevelt; and it
+was most unfortunate for both countries that the establishment of Cuban
+self-government and the determination of her relations to her northern
+neighbor, had to be effected in such circumstances.
+
+The United States government had to deal on the one hand with those who
+insisted that it should have no more special relations with Cuba than
+any other country had; and on the other with those who demanded the
+repudiation of the Congressional pledge and the forcible annexation of
+the island. In those circumstances it was not strange that many Cubans
+were disinclined to make any such arrangement as had been required in
+the call for the Convention. They recalled that the United States had
+declared that "Cuba is of right and ought to be free and independent,"
+and they were not disposed to look beyond that declaration.
+
+Three considerations were too much overlooked on both sides, save by the
+thoughtful American and Cuban statesmen who finally solved the problem.
+One was that the United States had for nearly a century exercised a
+certain degree of protection or supervision over Cuba. It had repeatedly
+forbidden European powers to meddle with the island, and had for many
+years guaranteed and protected Spain in her possession of it. It was
+held to be only reasonable that a similar degree of interest should be
+maintained in the island in its independent status. The second point was
+that in the Treaty of Paris in 1898 the United States had incurred a
+certain moral if not a legal responsibility for the future of Cuba. The
+third was the much less specific yet by no means negligible
+consideration that the United States had intervened in Cuba to put an
+end to conditions which had become intolerably offensive to it, and it
+was therefore equitably entitled to take all proper precautions against
+a recurrence of such conditions.
+
+In pursuance of the requirements of the call for the Convention, then,
+immediately after the signing of the Constitution, a committee was
+appointed to draft a project concerning relations with the United
+States. It consisted of Diego Tamayo, Gonzalo de Quesada, Juan Gualberto
+Gomez, Enrique Villuendas, and Manuel Ramon Silva. These gentlemen
+conferred with General Wood, to learn the wishes of President McKinley,
+and then drafted a scheme which they presented to the Convention and
+which that body adopted on February 27. Unfortunately between the
+President's wishes and the committee's project there were radical
+differences. The President, through his Secretary of War, Elihu Root,
+had on February 9 expressed with much circumstance and detail and a
+wealth of argument the relationship which the United States government
+regarded as essential. It amounted to this: That the Cuban government
+should never make any treaty or engagement which would impair its
+independence, nor make any special agreement with any foreign power
+without the consent of the United States; that it should contract no
+public debt in excess of the capacity of the ordinary revenues of the
+island; that the United States should have the right of intervention for
+the preservation of Cuban independence and the maintenance of a stable
+government; that all the acts of the American Military Administration
+should be validated; and that the United States should be permitted to
+acquire and to hold naval stations in Cuba at certain points.
+
+The Committee of the Convention reported that in its judgment some of
+these conditions were unacceptable, inasmuch as they impaired the
+independence of Cuba. So it proposed and the Convention adopted
+proposals to this effect: That Cuba should never impair her independence
+by any agreement with any power, not excepting the United States; that
+she should never permit her territory to be used as a base or war
+against the United States; that she accepted the obligations expressed
+and implied in the Treaty of Paris; that she should validate the acts of
+the Military Government "for the good government of Cuba"; and that the
+United States and Cuba should regulate their commercial relations by
+means of a reciprocity treaty.
+
+Obviously, there was a wide divergence between the two schemes. It was
+unfortunate that the American Congress was about to adjourn, on March
+4, and was reluctant to reassemble in special session, and also that the
+political passions to which we have referred were raging at so high a
+pitch. In more favorable circumstances the matter would have been
+settled diplomatically without friction or ill-feeling. There was,
+indeed, a very considerable conservative party in Cuba, probably
+comprising a majority of the substantial, well informed and orderly
+inhabitants, who favored some such scheme of American supervision and
+control as that which had been proposed, and if there had been a little
+more time for calm deliberation they would probably have won the
+Convention and the whole island to their point of view. Unhappily the
+government at Washington determined to finish the matter up before
+Congress adjourned on March 4, and in the short time which intervened
+the passionate voice of faction was much more in evidence man the
+thoughtful and measured voice of patriotic counsel.
+
+Senator Orville H. Platt, of Connecticut, one of the ablest and
+fairest-minded men in that body, was the Chairman of the Committee on
+Relations with Cuba. It was probably he who suggested the modification
+which was made in the instructions to the Convention. He now declared
+that--which was perfectly true--the United States Congress had no power
+to approve, reject, or in any way amend or modify the Cuban
+Constitution. Cuba was entitled to establish her own government without
+let or hindrance. But he also held that by virtue of the grounds of its
+intervention in Cuban affairs the United States possessed certain rights
+and privileges in that island above those of other powers, and that it
+was in duty bound, for the sake of both Cuba and itself, to provide in
+some assured way for the permanent safe-guarding of those special
+interests. These views were approved by the best thought of both
+countries, and ultimately prevailed.
+
+In accordance with the views thus expressed, Senator Platt prepared as
+an addendum to the Army Appropriation bill, on February 25, the historic
+measure known as the Platt Amendment. This, consisting of eight brief
+paragraphs, embodied the very points which the President had already
+made on February 9, with the addition of three more. One of these was,
+that the Cuban government should maintain the work of sanitation already
+so auspiciously begun, for the protection of its own people and also the
+people of the United States from epidemic pestilence; a requirement
+which was probably quite superfluous, seeing that the Cubans were as
+intent as the Americans upon the elimination of yellow fever and
+malaria. The second was, that the Isle of Pines should be omitted from
+the proposed constitutional boundaries of Cuba, the title thereto being
+left for future adjustment by treaty. This extraordinary demand was a
+bad blot upon the measure, and it is difficult to understand how it ever
+was permitted to be inserted at the behest of some unscrupulous and
+sordid scheme of exploitation. Happily, subsequent treaty agreements and
+court decisions defeated its purpose and confirmed Cuba in her title to
+the Isle of Pines. The third was the requirement that Cuba should make
+this Platt Amendment either a part of her Constitution or an ordinance
+under it and appended to it, and should also embody it in a permanent
+treaty with the United States.
+
+At this the storm broke. The great mass of the conservative and
+thoughtful people of Cuba, while they regretted the need of it,
+recognized the necessity of such an arrangement, and earnestly favored
+the acceptance of the Platt Amendment, even with the one or two
+objectionable features. But the radicals vigorously opposed it, and in
+their opposition were greatly encouraged by the factional enemies of the
+President in the United States, who broke all bounds of decency, and not
+only raged against him there but organized a propaganda in Cuba itself,
+to incite Cubans to oppose and resist the United States. In this the
+foremost of such agitators were doubly false. They were not only
+stirring up a foreign people against their own country, but they were
+doing so with the deliberate and malignant hope of precipitating an
+armed conflict between the two countries which would result in the
+conquest and forcible annexation of Cuba. While pretending to sympathize
+with Cuba and to resent the alleged American impairment of her
+sovereignty, they were really scheming for the utter destruction of
+Cuban independence.
+
+Agitation, discussion, proposals and counter proposals, upon none of
+which could the Convention agree, continued week after week. At the end
+of March the question arose of sending a Commission to Washington to see
+the President. This was opposed violently, chiefly at the incitement of
+American emissaries, who busied themselves in Cuba in urging the
+rejection of everything that promised a settlement of the controversy.
+On April 1 some unscrupulous intriguer caused a message to be
+telegraphed from Washington to the effect that if a Commission came it
+would not be received; and this was received in Havana just as the
+Convention was about to vote to send such a Commission. Naturally, the
+Commission was not sent. On April 9, having learned that the message was
+unofficial and mischievous, the Convention reconsidered the matter and
+by an overwhelming majority voted to send a commission. Again
+mysterious dispatches came from Washington, saying that the President
+was resolute in refusing to recognize any Cuban envoys, and in
+consequence the sending of the Commission was delayed.
+
+Then the proposal was made that the Convention should reject the Platt
+Amendment outright, and afterward send a Commission to Washington; and
+this was actually carried, though by mistake, some members voting
+exactly contrary to the way they intended. Then it was voted to send a
+Commission, with special instructions to try to secure the inclusion of
+a commercial treaty in the Platt Amendment. With this in view the
+Convention on April 15 designated five members of such a Commission.
+They were Mendez Capote, the President of the Convention; Diego Tamayo,
+Leopoldo Berriel, Pedro Gonzales Llorente, and Rafael Portuondo; but as
+Dr. Berriel could not go, General Pedro Betancourt was named in his
+place. The Commission sailed for Washington on April 20. General Wood
+also sailed on the same day, though on another steamer. The Cubans
+reached Washington four days later, and the next day, in contradiction
+to the false dispatches which had been sent, they were courteously
+received by President McKinley. After a brief interview he introduced
+them to the Secretary of War, to whose department Cuban affairs, under a
+Military governor, belonged. He received them most cordially. Indeed, he
+had strongly wished them to come to Washington for a conference. He told
+them frankly that the Platt Amendment must stand, just as it was, and
+that it must be accepted and adopted by Cuba before any further steps
+could be taken for the establishment of a Cuban government. Then, at
+their request, he gave a detailed explanation of what the United States
+government conceived to be the meaning, the purpose and the effect of
+each of the provisions of that instrument. He especially showed that it
+was merely a logical continuation of long established American policy;
+that it was intended not for the gain of the United States but for the
+protection of Cuba; and that it would in no way interfere with the
+domestic self-sovereignty of the Cuban people, or with the rank of Cuba
+as an independent nation among the nations of the world.
+
+The Committee returned to Havana and reported to the Convention the
+results of its mission, and the Convention resumed consideration of the
+American demands in the new light of Mr. Root's exposition of them.
+Faction was still furious. Enemies of the President in the United States
+went to Cuba or sent word thither, urging the radical element to hold
+out to the bitter end against the Platt Amendment, saying that it would
+need only a little longer resistance to compel the American government
+to abandon it altogether. Counsels were divided in the Convention, and
+numerous proposals of substitutes for the Amendment or for parts of it
+were made, but upon none of them could the Convention agree. Some of the
+most radical members suggested that the Convention adjourn without day.
+But on the whole wiser counsels prevailed. The Commission had been much
+impressed by Mr. Root's candid and cogent presentation of the case. It
+had also become convinced that if the Amendment were adopted a liberal
+reciprocity measure would be granted which would be of vast value to
+Cuban commerce and industry. Consideration of the subject continued
+until the latter part of May. On May 28 the question of adoption of the
+Platt Amendment with certain qualifications was presented to the
+Convention for a final vote. The Convention divided equally. There were
+fourteen ayes and fourteen nays. Thereupon the President, Mendez Capote,
+cast the deciding ballot. He voted aye. This caused a renewal of the
+storm. Diego Tamayo and Juan Gualberto Gomez were especially outspoken
+in their denunciation of all who had voted for the measure, and some of
+the former's remarks were so severe that their retraction was required.
+The qualified acceptance of the Amendment was not, however, satisfactory
+to the Washington government, and the Convention was promptly informed
+of that fact. In consequence the matter was reopened, and on June 12,
+after a brief and temperate debate, a final vote was taken on
+unconditional acceptance and adoption of the Platt Amendment. The result
+was sixteen ayes to eleven nays.
+
+That ended the matter. The Amendment had become a permanent addendum to
+the Cuban Constitution, and the relations between the island's future
+government and the United States was irrevocably determined. There was
+little further criticism. The American agitators and speculators who had
+been inciting the Cubans to resistance, in order thus to make them
+compass their own ruin, abandoned their execrable intrigues for other
+ventures elsewhere, while the Cubans who had been their dupes, relieved
+of their pernicious influence, soon began to appreciate the
+reasonableness of most of the provisions of the Amendment and the very
+material benefits which it would bestow upon Cuba.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+
+The concretion of Cuban history is in the Constitution of the Cuban
+Republic. In that document are realized the hopes of a patient but
+resolute people. In it are embodied the ideals for which Lopez fought
+and died; for which Cespedes strove; for which Marti pleaded and taught
+and planned; for which Maximo Gomez and Antonio Maceo battled against
+desperate odds; for which Estrada Palma gave the ripe statesmanship of a
+devoted life. There were provisional constitutions before, drafted in
+mountain camps in the intervals between battles, but they represented
+aspirations rather than achievements. It was reserved for the time of
+triumph, when the Spaniard was forever driven from the Cuban shores, and
+the Pearl of the Antilles was no more made to adorn an alien diadem, for
+the statesmanship of the island in calm deliberation to frame the
+instrument which was to confirm and safeguard for all time that which
+had been won with the blood of innumerable martyrs, and which was to
+erect the Cuban people into the Cuban Nation.
+
+[Illustration: THE CAPITOL
+
+The Capitol, the new government building at Havana, is one of the great
+public works of the administration of President Menocal. It occupies a
+fine site in the heart of the city, and will architecturally rank among
+the noteworthy government buildings of the world. In the contrast
+between it and ancient La Fuerza, its original predecessor, is suggested
+the whole span of Cuban history.]
+
+We shall profitably pause for a space in our narrative, to note what
+manner of Constitution it was that was thus adopted:
+
+We, the delegates of the people of Cuba, in national convention
+assembled for the purpose of framing and adopting the Fundamental Law
+under which Cuba is to be organized as an independent and sovereign
+State, and be given a government capable of fulfilling its
+international obligations, preserving order, securing liberty and
+justice, and promoting the general welfare, do hereby ordain, adopt, and
+establish, invoking the favor of God, the following Constitution:
+
+
+TITLE I
+
+THE NATION, ITS FORM OF GOVERNMENT, AND THE
+NATIONAL TERRITORY
+
+ARTICLE 1. The people of Cuba constitute themselves into a sovereign,
+independent State and adopt a republican form of government.
+
+ART. 2. The island of Cuba and the islands and islets adjacent thereto,
+which up to the date of the ratification of the treaty of Paris, of
+December 10, 1898, were under the sovereignty of Spain, form the
+territory of the Republic.
+
+ART. 3. The territory of the Republic shall be divided into the six
+provinces which now exist, each of which shall retain its present
+boundaries. The determination of their names corresponds to the
+respective provincial councils.
+
+The provinces may by resolution of their respective provincial councils
+and the approval of Congress annex themselves to other provinces, or
+subdivide their territory and form new provinces.
+
+
+TITLE II
+
+CUBANS
+
+ART. 4. Cuban nationality is acquired by birth or by naturalization.
+
+ART. 5. Cubans by birth are:
+
+1. All persons born of Cuban parents whether within or without the
+territory of the Republic.
+
+2. All persons born of foreign parents within the territory of the
+Republic, provided that on becoming of age they apply for inscription,
+as Cubans, in the proper register.
+
+3. All persons born in foreign countries of parents natives of Cuba who
+have forfeited their Cuban nationality, provided that on becoming of age
+they apply for their inscription as Cubans in the register aforesaid.
+
+ART. 6. Cubans by naturalization are:
+
+1. Foreigners who having served in the liberating army claim Cuban
+nationality within six months following the promulgation of this
+constitution.
+
+2. Foreigners domiciled in Cuba prior to January 1, 1899, who have
+retained their domicile, provided that they claim Cuban nationality
+within six months following the promulgation of this constitution, or if
+they are minors within a like period following the date on which they
+reach full age.
+
+3. Foreigners who after five years' residence in the territory of the
+Republic, and not less than two years after the declaration of their
+intention to acquire Cuban nationality have obtained naturalization
+papers according to law.
+
+4. Spaniards residing in the territory of Cuba on the 11th day of April,
+1899, who failed to register themselves as such in the corresponding
+register within one year thereafter.
+
+5. Africans who were slaves in Cuba, and those "emancipated" referred to
+in article 13 of treaty of June 28, 1835, between Spain and England.
+
+ART. 7. Cuban nationality is lost:
+
+1. By the acquisition of foreign citizenship.
+
+2. By the acceptance of employment or honors from another government
+without permission of the Senate.
+
+3. By entering the military service of a foreign nation without the said
+permission.
+
+4. In cases of naturalized Cubans, by their residence for five years
+continuously in the country of origin, except when serving an office or
+fulfilling a commission of the Government of the Republic.
+
+ART. 8. Cuban nationality may be reacquired in the manner to be provided
+by law.
+
+ART. 9. Every Cuban shall be bound:
+
+1. To bear arms in defense of his country in such cases and in such
+manner as may be determined by the laws.
+
+2. To contribute to the payment of public expenses in such manner and
+proportion as the laws may prescribe.
+
+
+TITLE III
+
+FOREIGNERS
+
+ART. 10. Foreigners residing within the territory of the Republic shall
+be on the same footing as Cubans:
+
+1. In respect to protection of their persons and property.
+
+2. In respect to the enjoyment of the rights guaranteed by Section first
+of the following title, excepting those exclusively reserved to
+citizens.
+
+3. In respect to the enjoyment of civil rights under the conditions and
+limitations prescribed in the law of aliens.
+
+4. In respect to the obligation of obeying the laws, decrees,
+regulations, and all other statutes that may be in force in the
+Republic, and complying with their provisions.
+
+5. In respect to submission to the jurisdiction and decisions of the
+courts of justice and all other authorities of the Republic.
+
+6. In respect to the obligation of contributing to the public expenses
+of the State, province, and municipality.
+
+
+TITLE IV
+
+RIGHTS GUARANTEED BY THIS CONSTITUTION
+
+SECTION FIRST
+
+INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS
+
+ART. 11. All Cubans are equal before the law. The Republic does not
+recognize any personal prerogatives.
+
+ART. 12. No law shall have retroactive effect, except when penal and
+favorable to the defendant.
+
+ART. 13. Obligations of a civil nature arising out of contracts or other
+acts or omissions shall not be nullified by either the legislative or
+the executive power.
+
+ART. 14. The penalty of death shall in no case be imposed for offenses
+of political character, said offenses to be defined by law.
+
+ART. 15. No person shall be detained except in the cases and in the
+manner prescribed by law.
+
+ART. 16. Every arrested person shall be set at liberty or placed at the
+disposal of the competent judge or court within twenty-four hours
+immediately following the arrest.
+
+ART. 17. All arrests shall be terminated, or turned into formal
+imprisonments, within seventy-two hours, immediately after the delivery
+of the arrested person to the judge or court of competent jurisdiction.
+Within the same time notice shall be served upon the interested party of
+the action taken.
+
+ART. 18. No person shall be imprisoned except by order of a competent
+judge or court.
+
+The order directing the imprisonment shall be affirmed or reversed, upon
+the proper hearing of the prisoner, within seventy-two hours next
+following the committal.
+
+ART. 19. No person shall be prosecuted or sentenced except by a
+competent judge or court, by virtue of laws in force, prior to the
+commission of the offense, and in the manner and form prescribed by said
+laws.
+
+ART. 20. Every person arrested or imprisoned without the formalities of
+law, or outside of the cases foreseen in this constitution or the laws,
+shall be set at liberty at his own request or that of any citizen.
+
+The law shall determine the form of summary proceedings to be followed
+in this case.
+
+ART. 21. No one shall be bound to testify against himself, neither shall
+he be compelled to testify against his consort, nor against his
+relatives within the fourth degree of consanguinity or second of
+affinity.
+
+ART. 22. The secrecy of correspondence and other private documents is
+inviolable, and neither shall be seized or examined except by order of a
+competent authority and with the formalities prescribed by the laws. In
+all cases matters therein contained not relating to the subject under
+investigation shall be kept secret.
+
+ART. 23. Domicile is inviolable; and therefore no one shall enter at
+night the house of another except by permission of its occupant, unless
+it be for the purpose of giving aid and assistance to victims of crime
+or accident; or in the daytime, except in the cases and in the manner
+prescribed by law.
+
+ART. 24. No person shall be compelled to change his domicile or
+residence except by virtue of an order issued by a competent authority
+and in the cases prescribed by law.
+
+ART. 25. Every one may freely express his ideas either orally or in
+writing, through the press, or in any other manner, without subjection
+to previous censorship; but the responsibilities specified by law, when
+attacks are made upon the honor of individuals, the social order, or the
+public peace, shall be properly enforced.
+
+ART. 26. The profession of all religions, as well as the practice of all
+forms of worship, is free, without any other restriction than that
+demanded by the respect for Christian morality and public order. The
+church shall be separated from the state, which in no case shall
+subsidize any religion.
+
+ART. 27. All persons shall have the right to address petitions to the
+authorities, to have them duly acted upon, and to be informed of the
+action taken thereon.
+
+ART. 28. All the inhabitants of the Republic have the right to assemble
+peacefully, without arms, and to associate with others for all lawful
+pursuits of life.
+
+ART. 29. All persons shall have the right to enter or leave the
+territory of the Republic, to travel within its limits, and to change
+their residence, without necessity of safe conducts, passports, except
+when otherwise provided by the laws governing immigration, or by the
+authorities, in cases of criminal prosecution.
+
+ART. 30. No Cuban shall be banished from the territory of the Republic
+or prohibited from entering it.
+
+ART. 31. Primary instruction shall be compulsory and gratuitous. The
+teaching of arts and trades shall also be gratuitous. Both shall be
+supported by the State, as long as the municipalities and Provinces,
+respectively, may lack sufficient funds to defray their expenses.
+
+Secondary and superior education shall be controlled by the State. All
+persons however, may, without restriction, learn or teach any science,
+art, or profession, and found and maintain establishments of education
+and instruction, but it pertains to the State to determine what
+professions shall require special titles, what conditions shall be
+required for their practice and for the securing of diplomas, as well as
+for the issuing thereof as established by law.
+
+ART. 32. No one shall be deprived of his property, except by competent
+authority, upon proof that the condemnation is required by public
+utility, and previous indemnification. If the indemnification is not
+previously paid, the courts shall protect the owners and, if needed,
+restore to them the property.
+
+ART. 33. In no case shall the penalty of confiscation of property be
+imposed.
+
+ART. 34. No person is bound to pay any tax or impost not legally
+established and the collection of which is not carried out in the manner
+prescribed by the laws.
+
+ART. 35. Every author or inventor shall enjoy the exclusive ownership of
+his work or invention for the time and in the manner determined by law.
+
+ART. 36. The enumeration of the rights expressly guaranteed by this
+Constitution does not exclude other rights based upon the principle of
+the sovereignty of the people and the republican form of Government.
+
+ART. 37. The laws regulating the exercise of the rights which this
+Constitution guarantees shall be null and void if said rights are
+abridged, restricted, or adulterated by them.
+
+SECTION SECOND
+
+RIGHT OF SUFFRAGE
+
+ART. 38. All Cubans of the masculine sex, over twenty-one years of age,
+have the right of suffrage, except the following:
+
+1. Those who are inmates of asylums.
+
+2. Those judicially declared to be mentally incapacitated.
+
+3. Those judicially deprived of civil rights on account of crime.
+
+4. Those serving in the land or naval forces of the Republic when in
+active service.
+
+ART. 39. The laws shall establish rules and methods of procedure to
+guarantee the intervention of the minorities in the preparation of the
+census of electors, and in all other electoral matters, and its
+representation in the House of Representatives and in the provincial and
+municipal councils.
+
+SECTION THIRD
+
+SUSPENSION OF CONSTITUTIONAL GUARANTIES
+
+ART. 40. The guaranties established in articles 15, 16, 17, 19, 22, 23,
+24, and 27, section first of this title, shall not be suspended either
+in the whole Republic, or in any part thereof, except temporarily and
+when the safety of the state may require it, in cases of invasion of the
+territory or of serious disturbances that may threaten public peace.
+
+ART. 41. The territory in which the guaranties mentioned in the
+preceding article are suspended shall be ruled during the period of
+suspension according to the law of public order which may have been
+previously enacted. But neither the said law, nor any other, shall order
+the suspension of other guaranties not mentioned in the said article.
+
+Nor shall any new offenses be created, or new penalties not established
+by the law which was in force at the time of the suspension, be ordered
+to be inflicted during the same.
+
+The executive power is hereby forbidden to exile or expel from the
+country any citizen thereof, or compel him to reside at any other place
+farther than one hundred and twenty kilometers from his domicile. Nor
+shall it detain any citizen for more than ten days, without delivering
+him to the judicial authorities, or repeat the detention during the time
+of the suspension of guaranties. The detained individuals shall be kept
+in special departments in the public establishments destined for the
+detention of prisoners charged with common offenses.
+
+ART. 42. The suspension of the guaranties specified in article 40 shall
+be ordered only and exclusively by means of a law, but if Congress is
+not in session, it can be ordered by a decree of the President of the
+Republic. But the President shall have no power to suspend the
+guaranties more than once during the period intervening between two
+sessions of Congress, or for an indefinite period of time, or for a
+period longer than thirty days, without calling at the same time
+Congress to meet. In all cases the President shall report the facts to
+Congress, in order that it may act as deemed proper.
+
+TITLE V
+
+THE SOVEREIGNTY AND THE PUBLIC POWERS
+
+ART. 43. The sovereignty is vested in the people of Cuba, and from the
+said people all the public powers emanate.
+
+
+TITLE VI
+
+THE LEGISLATIVE POWER
+
+SECTION FIRST
+
+THE LEGISLATIVE BODIES
+
+ART. 44. The legislative power is vested in two elective bodies, to be
+known as the Chamber of Representatives and the Senate; the two together
+constituting the Congress.
+
+
+SECTION SECOND
+
+THE SENATE, ITS MEMBERSHIP AND ITS POWERS
+
+ART. 45. The Senate shall consist of four Senators for each Province, to
+be elected in each one for a period of eight years by the provincial
+councilors, and by double that number of electors forming with the
+councilors an electoral college.
+
+One-half of the electors shall consist of citizens paying the greatest
+amount of taxes, and the other half shall possess the qualifications
+required by law. But it is necessary for all of them to be of full age
+and residents of the Province.
+
+The election of electors shall be made by the provincial voters one
+hundred days before that of the senators.
+
+The Senate shall be renewed by halves every four years.
+
+ART. 46. No one shall be a senator who has not the following
+qualifications:
+
+1. To be a Cuban by birth.
+
+2. To be over thirty-five years of age.
+
+3. To be in the full enjoyment of civil and political rights.
+
+ART. 47. The Senate shall have the following exclusive powers:
+
+1. To try, sitting as a tribunal of justice, the impeachment of the
+President of the Republic, upon charges made against him by the Chamber
+of Representatives, for crimes against the external security of the
+State, against the free exercise of the legislative or judicial powers,
+or for violation of the constitutional provisions.
+
+2. To try, sitting as a tribunal of justice, the impeachment of the
+secretaries of state, upon charges made against them by the Chamber of
+Representatives, for crimes against the external security of the State,
+the free exercise of the legislative or judicial powers, violation of
+the constitutional provision, or any other crime of political character
+determined by law.
+
+3. To try, sitting as a tribunal of justice, the impeachment of the
+governors of Provinces, upon charges made against them by the provincial
+councils or by the President of the Republic for any of the crimes named
+in the foregoing paragraph.
+
+When the Senate sits as a tribunal of justice, it shall be presided over
+by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and shall not impose any other
+penalty than that of removal from office, or removal from office and
+disqualification from holding any public office; but the infliction of
+any other penalty upon the convicted official shall be left to the
+courts declared by law to be competent for the purpose.
+
+4. To confirm the nominations made by the President of the Republic for
+the positions of Chief Justice and Associate Justices of the Supreme
+Court, diplomatic representatives and consular agents of the nation, and
+all other public officers whose nominations require the approval of the
+Senate in accordance with the law.
+
+5. To authorize Cuban citizens to accept employment or honors from
+foreign governments or to serve in their armies.
+
+6. To approve the treaties entered into by the President of the Republic
+with other nations.
+
+SECTION THIRD
+
+THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, ITS MEMBERSHIP AND ITS POWERS
+
+ART. 48. The House of Representatives shall consist of one
+representative for each twenty-five thousand inhabitants or fraction
+thereof over twelve thousand five hundred, elected for the period of
+four years by the direct vote of the people and in the manner provided
+by law.
+
+The House of Representatives shall be renewed by halves every two years.
+
+ART. 49. No one shall be a Representative who has not the following
+qualifications:
+
+1. To be a Cuban citizen by birth or by naturalization, provided in the
+latter case that the candidate has resided eight years in the Republic,
+to be counted from the date of his naturalization.
+
+2. To have attained to the age of twenty-five years.
+
+3. To be in full possession of all civil and political rights.
+
+ART. 50. The power to impeach before the Senate the President of the
+Republic and the cabinet ministers, in the cases prescribed in
+paragraphs first and second of article 47 corresponds to the House of
+Representatives. But the concurrence of two-thirds of the total number
+of Representatives, in secret session, shall be required to exercise
+this right.
+
+
+SECTION FOURTH
+
+PROVISIONS COMMON TO BOTH HOUSES OF CONGRESS
+
+ART. 51. The positions of Senator and Representative are incompatible
+with the holding of any other paid position of Government appointment,
+except a professorship in a Government institution, obtained by
+competitive examination prior to the election.
+
+ART. 52. Senators and Representatives shall receive from the State a
+pecuniary remuneration, alike for both positions, the amount of which
+may be changed at any time; the change shall not take effect until after
+the renewal of the legislative bodies.
+
+ART. 53. Senators and Representatives shall be inviolable for their
+votes and opinions in the discharge of their duties. Senators and
+Representatives shall only be arrested or indicted upon permission of
+the body to which they belong, if Congress is then in Session, except in
+case of flagrante delicto. In this case, and in the case of the arrest
+or indictment being made when Congress is not in session, the fact shall
+be reported, as soon as practicable, to the respective House for proper
+action.
+
+ART. 54. Both Houses of Congress shall open and close their sessions on
+the same day; they shall meet in the same city, and neither shall move
+to any other place, or adjourn for more than three days, except by
+common consent. Nor shall they begin to do business without two-thirds
+of the total number of their members being present, or continue their
+sessions without the attendance of an absolute majority.
+
+ART. 55. Each House shall be the judge of the election of its respective
+members and shall also pass upon their resignations. No Senator or
+Representative shall be expelled from the House to which he belongs,
+except upon grounds previously determined, and to the concurrence of at
+least two-thirds of the total number of its members.
+
+ART. 56. Each House shall frame its respective rules and regulations,
+and elect from among its members its president, vice-presidents and
+secretaries. But the president of the Senate shall not discharge his
+duties as such, except in case the Vice-President of the Republic is
+absent or acting as President.
+
+
+SECTION FIFTH
+
+CONGRESS AND ITS POWERS
+
+ART. 57. Congress shall assemble, without necessity of previous call,
+twice in each year, each session to last not less than forty working
+days. The first session shall begin on the first Monday in April and the
+second on the first Monday in November.
+
+It shall meet in extra session in such cases and in such manner as may
+be provided by its rules and regulations and when called to convene by
+the President of the Republic in accordance with the provisions of this
+Constitution. In both cases it shall only consider the express object or
+objects for which it assembles.
+
+ART. 58. Congress shall meet in joint session to proclaim, after
+counting and verifying the electoral vote, the President and
+Vice-President of the Republic.
+
+In this case the president of the Senate, and in his absence the
+president of the House of Representatives, as vice-president of the
+Congress, shall preside over the joint meeting.
+
+If upon counting the votes for President it is found that none of the
+candidates has an absolute majority of votes, or if the votes are
+equally divided, Congress, by the same majority, shall elect as
+President one of the two candidates having obtained the greatest number
+of votes.
+
+Should more than two candidates receive the highest number of votes--no
+one obtaining an absolute majority--two or more having secured the same
+number, Congress shall elect from said candidates.
+
+The method established in the preceding paragraph shall be also employed
+in the election of Vice-President of the Republic.
+
+The counting of the electoral vote shall take place prior to the
+expiration of the Presidential term.
+
+ART. 59. Congress shall have the following powers:
+
+1. To enact the national codes and the laws of a general nature; to
+determine the rules that shall be observed in the general, provincial,
+and municipal elections; to issue orders for the regulation and
+organization of all services pertaining to the administration of
+national, provincial, and municipal government; and to pass all other
+laws and resolutions which it may deem proper relating to other matters
+of public interest.
+
+2. To discuss and approve the budgets of the revenues and expenses of
+the Government. The said revenues and expenses, except such as will be
+mentioned hereafter, shall be included in annual budgets which shall be
+available only during the year for which they shall have been approved.
+
+The expenses of Congress, those of the administration of justice, and
+those required to meet the interest and redemption of loans, shall have,
+the same as the revenues with which they have to be paid, the character
+of permanent and shall be included in a fixed budget which shall remain
+in force until changed by special laws.
+
+3. To contract loans, with the obligation, however, of providing
+permanent revenues for the payment of the interest and redemption
+thereof.
+
+All measures relating to loans shall require the vote of two-thirds of
+the total numbers of the members of each House.
+
+4. To coin money, fixing the standard, weight, value, and denomination
+thereof.
+
+5. To regulate the system of weights and measures.
+
+6. To make provisions for regulating and developing internal and foreign
+commerce.
+
+7. To regulate the services of communications and railroads, roads,
+canals, and harbors, creating those required by public convenience.
+
+8. To levy such taxes and imposts of national character as may be
+necessary for the needs of the government.
+
+9. To establish rules and proceedings for obtaining naturalization.
+
+10. To grant amnesties.
+
+11. To fix the strength of the land and naval forces and provide for
+their organization.
+
+12. To declare war and approve treaties of peace negotiated by the
+President of the Republic.
+
+13. To designate, by means of a special law, the official who shall act
+as President of the Republic in case of death, resignation, removal, or
+supervenient inability of the President and Vice-President.
+
+ART. 60. Congress shall not attach to appropriation bills any provision
+tending to make changes or reforms in the legislation or in the
+administration of the Government; nor shall it diminish or abolish
+revenues of permanent character without creating at the same time new
+revenues to take their place, except in case that the decrease or
+abolition depend upon the decrease or abolition of the equivalent
+permanent expenses. Nor shall Congress appropriate for any service to be
+provided for in the annual budget a larger sum of money than that
+recommended in the estimates submitted by the Government; but Congress
+may by means of special laws create new services and reform or give
+greater scope to those already existing.
+
+SECTION SIXTH
+
+INITIATIVE, PREPARATION, APPROVAL,
+AND PROMULGATION OF LAWS
+
+ART. 61. The right to initiate legislation is vested without distinction
+in both houses of Congress.
+
+ART. 62. Every bill passed by the two houses, and every resolution of
+the same which has to be executed by the President of the Republic,
+shall be submitted to him for approval. If they are approved, they shall
+be signed at once by the President. If they are not approved, they shall
+be returned by the President, with his objections, to the house in which
+they originated, which shall enter said objections upon its journal and
+engage again in the discussion of the subject.
+
+If after this new discussion two-thirds of the total number of the
+members of the house vote in favor of the bill or resolution as
+originally passed, the latter shall be referred with the objections of
+the President, to the other house, where it shall be also discussed, and
+if the measure is approved there by the same majority it shall become
+law. In all these cases the vote shall be by yeas and nays.
+
+If within ten working days immediately following the sending of the bill
+or resolution to the President, the latter fails to return it, it shall
+be considered approved and shall become law.
+
+If within the last ten days of a session of Congress a bill is sent to
+the President of the Republic, and he wishes to take advantage of the
+whole time granted him in the foregoing paragraph for the purposes of
+approval or disapproval, he shall acquaint the Congress with his desire,
+so as to cause it to remain in session, if it so wishes, until the end
+of the ten days. The failure by the President to do so shall cause the
+bill to be considered approved and become law.
+
+No bill totally rejected by one house shall be discussed again in the
+same session.
+
+ART. 63. Every law shall be promulgated within ten days next following
+its approval by either the President or the Congress, as the case may
+be, under the provisions of the preceding article.
+
+
+TITLE VII
+
+THE EXECUTIVE POWER
+
+SECTION FIRST
+
+THE EXERCISE OF THE EXECUTIVE POWER
+
+ART. 64. The executive power shall be vested in the President of the
+Republic.
+
+SECTION SECOND
+
+THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC, HIS POWERS
+AND DUTIES
+
+ART. 65. To be President of the Republic the following qualifications
+shall be required.
+
+1. To be a Cuban by birth or naturalization, and in the latter case to
+have served in the Cuban armies in the wars of independence for at least
+ten years.
+
+2. To be over forty years of age.
+
+3. To be in the full enjoyment of civil and political rights.
+
+ART. 66. The President of the Republic shall be elected by presidential
+electors on the same day, in the manner provided by law.
+
+The term of office shall be four years, and no one shall be President
+for three consecutive terms.
+
+ART. 67. The President, before entering on the discharge of the duties
+of his office, shall take oath or affirmation before the supreme court
+of justice to faithfully discharge his duties and comply and cause
+others to comply with the constitution and the laws.
+
+ART. 68. The President of the Republic shall have the following powers
+and duties:
+
+1. To approve and promulgate the laws, and obey and cause others to obey
+their provisions. To enact, if Congress has not done so, such rules and
+regulations as may be necessary for the proper execution of the laws;
+and to issue all orders or decrees which may be conducive to the same
+purpose or to any other purposes of government and the administration
+thereof in the Republic, provided that in no case the said orders or
+decrees are at variance with the provisions of the law.
+
+2. To call Congress, or the Senate alone, to meet in extra session in
+the cases set forth in the constitution, or when in his opinion the
+meeting may be necessary.
+
+3. He shall adjourn Congress when no agreement can be reached between
+the two houses on the question of adjournment.
+
+4. To transmit to Congress at the beginning of each session, and
+whenever he may deem it advisable, a message relating to the acts of his
+administration, showing the general condition of the affairs of the
+Republic, and recommending the adoption of such laws and measures as he
+may deem necessary or advisable.
+
+5. To submit to Congress through either one of the Houses, before the
+15th of November, a draft of the annual budget.
+
+6. To furnish Congress all the information desired by it on every matter
+of business which does not require secrecy.
+
+7. To conduct all diplomatic negotiations and conclude treaties with
+foreign nations, provided that these treaties be submitted for approval
+of the Senate, without which requisite they shall be neither valid nor
+binding upon the Republic.
+
+8. To freely appoint and remove the Secretaries of State, giving
+Congress information of his action.
+
+9. To appoint, with the approval of the Senate, the Chief Justice and
+the Associate Justices of the Supreme Court, and the diplomatic and
+consular agents of the Republic. If the vacancy occurs at a time in
+which the Senate is not in session, he shall have power to make the
+appointment of said functionaries ad interim.
+
+10. To appoint all other public officers recognized by law, whose
+appointment is not entrusted to some other authority.
+
+11. To suspend the exercise of the rights enumerated in article 40 of
+the constitution in the cases and in the manner set forth in articles 41
+and 42.
+
+12. To suspend the resolutions passed by the provincial and municipal
+councils in the cases and in the manner set forth in this constitution.
+
+13. To order the suspension of the governors of provinces in case they
+exceed their powers or violate the laws; but in these cases he shall
+report the fact to the Senate, in the manner and form determined by law,
+for such action as may be proper.
+
+14. To prefer charges against the governors of provinces in the cases
+set forth in paragraph 3 of article 47.
+
+15. To grant pardons according to the provisions of the law, except in
+the case of public functionaries convicted for wrongs done in the
+exercise of their functions.
+
+16. To receive diplomatic representatives and admit consular agents of
+other nations.
+
+17. To dispose of the land and sea forces of the Republic as chief
+commander of the same. To provide for the defense of the national
+territory, reporting to Congress what he may have done on the subject.
+To provide for the preservation of peace and public order in the
+interior of the country. If there is danger of invasion or of any
+rebellion breaking out and gravely threatening the public safety,
+Congress not being in session at the time, the President shall call it
+to convene without delay for such action as may be deemed proper.
+
+ART. 69. The President shall not leave the territory of the Republic
+without the permission of Congress.
+
+ART. 70. The President shall be responsible before the Supreme Court for
+the common offense he may commit during his term of office, but he shall
+not be prosecuted without previous permission of the Senate.
+
+ART. 71. The President shall receive from the State a salary which may
+be changed at any time, but the change shall not go into effect until
+the next following presidential term.
+
+TITLE VIII
+
+THE VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC
+
+ART. 72. There shall be a Vice-President of the Republic, who shall be
+elected in the same manner and for the same period of time as the
+President, and jointly with him. To be Vice-President the same
+qualifications set forth in this constitution to be President shall be
+required.
+
+ART. 73. The Vice-President of the Republic shall be the President of
+the Senate, but he shall vote only in case that the votes of the
+Senators are equally divided.
+
+ART. 74. In case of temporary or permanent absence of the President of
+the Republic, the Vice-President shall act in his place. If the absence
+is permanent, the Acting President shall continue in office until the
+end of the presidential term.
+
+ART. 75. The Vice-President shall receive from the State a salary which
+may be changed at any time, but the change shall not go into effect
+until the next following presidential term.
+
+TITLE IX
+
+THE SECRETARIES OF STATE
+
+ART. 76. For the transaction of the executive business the President of
+the Republic shall have as many Secretaries of State as the law may
+determine, and no one shall be a Secretary of State who is not a Cuban
+citizen in the full enjoyment of his civil and political rights.
+
+ART. 77. All decrees, orders and decisions of the President of the
+Republic shall be counter-signed by the secretary of State to whom the
+matter corresponds. Without this signature no decree, order or decision
+of the President shall have binding force nor shall it be obeyed.
+
+ART. 78. The secretaries of state shall be personally responsible for
+the measures signed by them, and jointly and severally for the measures
+agreed upon or authorized by them at a cabinet meeting. This
+responsibility does not exclude the personal and direct responsibility
+of the President of the Republic.
+
+ART. 79. The secretaries of state shall be impeachable before the Senate
+by the House of Representatives in the cases mentioned in the second
+paragraph of article 47.
+
+ART. 80. The secretaries of state shall receive from the State a salary,
+which may be changed at any time, but the change shall not go into
+effect until the next following presidential term.
+
+TITLE X
+
+THE JUDICIAL POWER
+
+SECTION FIRST
+
+THE EXERCISE OF THE JUDICIAL POWER
+
+ART. 81. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court of Justice and
+in all the other tribunals which may be established by law. The law
+shall regulate the respective organization and powers of these
+tribunals, the manner of exercising their powers, and the qualifications
+required of the judicial functionaries.
+
+SECTION SECOND
+
+THE SUPREME COURT OF JUSTICE
+
+ART. 82. To be Chief Justice or Associate Justice of the Supreme Court
+the following qualifications shall be required:
+
+1. To be a Cuban by birth.
+
+2. To be over thirty-five years of age.
+
+3. To be in the full enjoyment of civil and political rights and not to
+have been condemned to any corporal punishment for common offenses.
+
+4. To have in addition to the foregoing qualifications any one of the
+following:
+
+To have practiced in Cuba, during ten years at least, the profession of
+lawyer; or have discharged for the same length of time judicial
+functions, or have taught law for the same number of years in an
+official establishment.
+
+The following persons are also eligible for the positions of Chief
+Justice or Associate Justices of the Supreme Court, even if not having
+the qualifications set forth in clauses 1, 2, and 3 of this article:
+
+(a) Those who have served in the judiciary of the time determined by law
+in a position of equal or immediately inferior category.
+
+(b) Those who, previous to the promulgation of this constitution, served
+as justices of the supreme court of the island of Cuba.
+
+The time of service in the judiciary shall be computed as time of
+practice of law for the purpose of qualifying the lawyers to be
+appointed justices of the supreme court.
+
+ART. 83. The Supreme Court shall have the following powers, in addition
+to those already vested or hereafter to be vested in it:
+
+1. To take cognizance of cases on a writ of error.
+
+2. To decide conflicts of jurisdiction between courts immediately
+inferior to it, or not having a common superior.
+
+3. To take cognizance of the cases to which the State on the one side
+and the provinces or municipalities on the other, are parties.
+
+4. To decide as to the constitutionality of the laws, decrees, and
+regulations when a question of that effect is raised by any party.
+
+SECTION THIRD
+
+GENERAL RULES REGARDING THE ADMINISTRATION
+OF JUSTICE
+
+ART. 84. Justice shall be administered gratuitously throughout the
+entire territory of the Republic.
+
+ART. 85. The courts shall take cognizance of all cases, whether civil,
+criminal, or between the Government and private parties.
+
+ART. 86. No judicial commissions or extraordinary tribunals, no matter
+under what name, shall ever be created.
+
+ART. 87. No functionary of the judicial order shall be suspended or
+removed from his office except for crime or any other grave cause, fully
+proven, and always after being heard. Nor shall he be transferred
+without his consent to any other place, unless it is for the manifest
+benefit of the public service.
+
+ART. 88. All judicial functionaries shall be personally responsible, in
+the manner and form determined by law, for the violations of law which
+they may commit.
+
+ART. 89. The salaries of judicial functionaries shall not be changed
+except at the end of periods of more than five years, and by means of a
+law. The law, however, shall not give different salaries to positions
+whose rank, category, and functions are equal.
+
+ART. 90. The courts for the forces of land and sea shall be governed by
+a special organic law.
+
+TITLE XI
+
+THE PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT
+
+SECTION FIRST
+
+GENERAL PROVISIONS
+
+ART. 91. A province consists of the municipal districts established
+within its limits.
+
+ART. 92. Each province shall have a governor and a provincial council
+elected directly by the people, in the manner and form established by
+law.
+
+The number of councilors in each province shall not be less than eight
+nor more than twenty.
+
+SECTION SECOND
+
+THE PROVINCIAL COUNCILS AND THEIR POWERS
+
+ART. 93. The provincial councils shall have the following powers:
+
+1. To resolve upon matters concerning the provinces which, under the
+constitution, treaties or laws, are not within the general jurisdiction
+of the State or the exclusive jurisdiction of the municipal councils.
+
+2. To frame the budget of their expenses, providing at the same time for
+the necessary revenue to meet them, provided that this is done in a
+manner not inconsistent with the system adopted by the State.
+
+3. To contract loans for public works of provincial interest, provided
+that at the same time sufficient revenue is raised to meet the payment
+of interest and principal when due.
+
+Such loans shall not be carried into effect unless they are approved by
+two-thirds of the municipal councils of the province.
+
+4. To impeach before the Senate the governor of their respective
+province, in the case set forth in paragraph 3 of article 47, when
+two-thirds of the total number of provincial councilors decide in secret
+session that this should be done.
+
+5. To appoint and remove, according to law, the provincial employes.
+
+ART. 94. The provincial councils shall have no power to diminish or
+abolish revenue of permanent character without creating at the same time
+other revenue to take its place, except in case that the decrease or
+suppression is due to the decrease or suppression of equivalent
+permanent expenses.
+
+ART. 95. The resolutions of the provincial councils shall be sent to the
+governor of the province. If approved, they shall be signed by him; if
+not, they shall be returned with his objections to the council, wherein
+the subject shall be again discussed. If after the second discussion the
+resolution is approved by two-thirds of the total number of councilors
+it shall become a law.
+
+If the governor does not return the resolution within ten days from the
+date of reference it shall be considered approved and shall become a
+law.
+
+ART. 96. The resolutions of the provincial councils may be suspended by
+the governor of the province or by the President of the Republic,
+whenever, in their opinion, they are contrary to the constitution, the
+laws, or any resolutions passed by the municipal councils in due
+exercise of their functions; but the right to take cognizance of and
+pass upon the claims which may arise out of the said suspension shall be
+reserved to the courts of justice.
+
+ART. 97. Neither the provincial councils not any section or committees,
+selected from their members or from persons not members thereof, shall
+intervene in matters belonging to any class of elections.
+
+ART. 98. The provincial councilors shall be personally responsible
+before the courts in the manner determined by law for whatever may be
+done by them in the exercise of their functions.
+
+SECTION THIRD
+
+THE GOVERNORS OF PROVINCES AND THEIR POWERS
+
+ART. 99. The governors of provinces shall have the following powers:
+
+1. To comply and cause others to comply, as far as their provinces are
+concerned, with the laws, decrees, and general rules and regulations of
+the nation.
+
+2. To publish such resolutions of the provincial councils as have force
+of law, and comply and cause others to comply with them.
+
+3. To issue orders, instructions, and rules for the proper execution of
+the resolutions of the provincial council, if the latter has not done so
+already.
+
+4. To call the provincial councils to convene in extra session whenever
+in his own judgment the same may be necessary. The subjects to be
+discussed in this session shall be set forth in the call.
+
+5. To suspend the resolutions of the provincial and municipal councils
+in the cases set forth in this constitution.
+
+6. To order the suspension of mayors, in case they have exceeded their
+powers, violated the constitution or the laws, acted in contravention to
+the resolutions of the provincial councils, or failed to do their duty.
+The suspension shall be reported to the provincial council in the manner
+and form established by law.
+
+7. To appoint and remove the employes of their offices in the manner
+provided by law.
+
+ART. 100. The governors shall be responsible before the Senate in the
+cases set forth in this constitution, and before the courts of justice,
+according to the provisions of the law, in all other classes of
+offenses.
+
+ART. 101. The governors shall receive from the provincial treasury a
+salary, which may be changed at any time, but the change shall not take
+effect until after a new governor's election is held.
+
+ART. 102. In case of temporary or permanent vacancy of the position of
+governor of the province, the president of the provincial council shall
+act in his place. If the vacancy is permanent, the acting governor
+shall continue in the discharge of his duties as such until the end of
+the term.
+
+TITLE XII
+
+THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT
+
+SECTION FIRST
+
+GENERAL PROVISIONS
+
+ART. 103. The municipal districts shall be governed by municipal
+councils, consisting of aldermen or councilors directly elected by the
+people, in the number and in the manner provided by law.
+
+ART. 104. There shall be in each municipal district a mayor elected by
+the people by direct vote in the manner and form established by law.
+
+SECTION SECOND
+
+THE MUNICIPAL COUNCILS AND THEIR POWERS
+
+ART. 105. The municipal councils shall have the following powers:
+
+1. To resolve on all matters exclusively relating to their own municipal
+districts.
+
+2. To prepare the budget of their expenses, providing at the same time,
+on condition, however, that this is done in a manner consistent with the
+general system of taxation of the Republic.
+
+3. To resolve on the negotiation of loans, providing at the same time
+the permanent revenue necessary to meet the interest and principal when
+due.
+
+In order that these loans may be carried into effect, they shall have to
+be approved by two-thirds of the electors of the municipal district.
+
+4. To appoint and remove the municipal employes in the manner
+established by law.
+
+ART. 106. The municipal councils shall not decrease or suppress any
+revenues of permanent character without establishing at the same time
+some other revenues which may take their place, except in case the
+decrease or suppression is due to the decrease or suppression of the
+equivalent permanent expense.
+
+ART. 107. The resolutions of the municipal councils shall be referred to
+the mayor. If approved by him, they shall be authorized with his
+signature; if not, they shall be returned, with his objections, to the
+municipal council, wherein they shall be again discussed. If, after a
+second discussion, two-thirds of the total number of councilors vote in
+favor of the resolution it shall become a law.
+
+When the mayor does not return the resolution, within ten days after the
+date of reference, it shall be considered approved and become a law.
+
+ART. 108. The resolutions of the municipal councils may be suspended by
+the mayor, the governor of the province, or the President of the
+Republic, when in their opinion they are contrary to the constitution,
+the treaties, the laws, or the resolutions passed by the provincial
+councils within the sphere of their powers. But the right to take
+cognizance and pass upon the claims which may arise out of said
+suspension shall be reserved to the courts of justice.
+
+ART. 109. The members of the municipal councils shall be personally
+responsible before the courts of justice, in the manner and form
+established by law, for the acts done by them in the performance of
+their duties.
+
+SECTION THIRD
+
+THE MAYORS AND THEIR POWERS AND DUTIES
+
+ART. 110. Mayors shall have power:
+
+1. To publish such resolutions of the municipal councils as may have
+force of law, and execute and cause the same to be executed.
+
+2. To administer the municipal affairs, issuing orders and instructions
+as well as rules for the better execution of the resolutions of the
+municipal councils, whenever the latter may fail to do so.
+
+3. To appoint and remove the employes of their respective offices in the
+manner provided by law.
+
+ART. 111. The Mayors shall be personally responsible before the courts
+of justice, in the manner prescribed by law, for all acts performed by
+them in the discharge of their functions.
+
+ART. 112. Each Mayor shall receive a salary, to be paid by the municipal
+treasury, which may be changed at any time; but such change shall not
+take effect until after a new election for Mayor has been held.
+
+ART. 113. In case of vacancy, either temporary or permanent, of the
+office of Mayor, the president of the municipal council shall act as
+Mayor.
+
+Should the absence be permanent, the substitute shall act until the end
+of the term for which the Mayor was elected.
+
+TITLE XIII
+
+THE NATIONAL TREASURY
+
+ART. 114. All property existing within the territory of the Republic not
+belonging to provinces, municipalities or private individuals or
+corporations, shall belong to the State.
+
+TITLE XIV
+
+AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION
+
+ART. 115. The Constitution shall not be amended, in whole or in part,
+except by resolution passed by two-thirds of the total number of members
+of each House of Congress.
+
+Six months after the resolution to amend the Constitution has been
+passed, a constitutional convention shall be called to assemble for the
+exclusive and specific purpose of either approving or rejecting the
+amendment. Each House shall, in the meantime, continue to perform its
+duties with absolute independence of the convention.
+
+Delegates to the said convention shall be elected by each province at
+the rate of one for every fifty thousand inhabitants, in the manner that
+may be provided by law.
+
+
+TRANSIENT PROVISIONS
+
+First. The Republic of Cuba does not recognize any other debts or
+obligations than those legitimately contracted in favor of the
+revolution by commanders of bodies of the liberating army, subsequent to
+the twenty-fourth day of February, eighteen hundred and ninety-five, and
+prior to the nineteenth day of September of the same year, on which date
+the Jimaguayu Constitution was promulgated; and the debts and
+obligations contracted afterward, by the revolutionary government,
+either by itself or through its legitimate representatives in foreign
+countries. Congress shall examine said debts and obligations and decide
+upon the payment of those which are found legitimate.
+
+Second. Persons born in Cuba, or children of native-born Cubans, who, at
+the time of the promulgation of this Constitution, are citizens of any
+foreign nation shall not enjoy the rights of Cuban nationality without
+first renouncing expressly the foreign citizenship.
+
+Third. The time of service of foreigners in the wars of independence of
+Cuba shall be counted as time of naturalization and residence, for the
+acquisition of the right granted to naturalized citizens in article 49.
+
+Fourth. The basis of population established in relation to the election
+of representatives in Congress, and of delegates to the constitutional
+convention, in articles 48 and 115, may be changed by law whenever, in
+the judgment of Congress, the change becomes necessary through the
+increase in the number of inhabitants, shown by censuses to be
+periodically taken.
+
+Fifth. At the time of the first organization of the Senate, the Senators
+shall be divided into two groups for the purpose of their renewal.
+
+Those forming the first group shall cease in their duties at the
+expiration of the fourth year, and those forming the second group at the
+expiration of the eighth year. It shall be decided by lot which of the
+two Senators from each province shall belong to either group.
+
+The law shall provide the method to be followed in the formation of the
+two groups into which the House of Representatives shall be divided for
+the purpose of its partial renewal.
+
+Sixth. Ninety days after the promulgation of the electoral law, which
+shall be framed and adopted by the constitutional convention, an
+election shall be held of the public functionaries provided by the
+Constitution, to whom the transfer of the Government of Cuba, in
+conformity with the provisions of Order No. 301 of Headquarters Division
+of Cuba, dated July twenty-fifth, nineteen hundred, is to be made.
+
+Seventh. All laws, decrees, regulations, orders and other provisions
+which may be in force at the time of the promulgation of this
+Constitution shall continue to be observed, in so far as they do not
+conflict with the said Constitution, until legally revoked or amended.
+
+Hall of sessions of the Constitutional Convention, Havana, February
+twenty-first, nineteen hundred and one.
+
+The Constitutional Convention, acting in conformity with the order of
+the Military Governor of the island, of July 25, 1900, by which it was
+called to assemble, resolves to attach, and does hereby attach to the
+Constitution of the Republic of Cuba adopted on February twenty-first
+ultimo, the following.
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+ARTICLE I. The Government of Cuba shall never enter into any treaty or
+other compact with any foreign power or powers which will impair or tend
+to impair the independence of Cuba, nor in any way authorize or permit
+any foreign power or powers to obtain by colonization or for military or
+naval purposes, or otherwise, lodgment in or control over any portion of
+said island.
+
+ART. II. That said Government shall not assume or contract any public
+debt to pay the interest upon which, and to make reasonable sinking-fund
+provision for the ultimate discharge of which, the ordinary revenues of
+the island, after defraying the current expenses of Government, shall be
+inadequate.
+
+ART. III. That the Government of Cuba consents that the United States
+may exercise the right to intervene for the preservation of Cuban
+independence, the maintenance of a government adequate for the
+protection of life, property, and individual liberty, and for
+discharging the obligations with respect to Cuba imposed by the Treaty
+of Peace on the United States, now to be assumed and undertaken by the
+Government of Cuba.
+
+ART. IV. That all acts of the United States in Cuba during its military
+occupancy thereof are ratified and validated, and all lawful rights
+acquired thereunder shall be maintained and protected.
+
+ART. V. That the Government of Cuba will execute, and, as far as
+necessary, extend the plans already devised, or other plans to be
+mutually agreed upon, for the sanitation of the cities of the island, to
+the end that a recurrence of epidemic and infectious diseases may be
+prevented, thereby assuring protection to the people and commerce of
+Cuba, as well as to the commerce of the southern ports of the United
+States and the people residing therein.
+
+ART. VI. That the Isle of Pines shall be omitted from the proposed
+constitutional boundaries of Cuba, the title thereto being left to
+future adjustment by treaty.
+
+ART. VII. That to enable the United States to maintain the independence
+of Cuba, and to protect the people thereof, as well as for its own
+defence, the Government of Cuba will sell or lease to the United States
+lands necessary for coaling or naval stations, at certain specified
+points, to be agreed upon with the President of the United States.
+
+ART. VIII. That, by way of further assurance, the Government of Cuba
+will embody the foregoing provisions in a permanent treaty with the
+United States.
+
+Hall of sessions, June twelfth, nineteen hundred and one.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+
+After the Constitution, the Government. On October 14, 1901, General
+Wood as Military Governor of Cuba issued an order for the holding of a
+general election throughout the island on December 31, that day to be a
+legal holiday. At that election there were to be chosen Presidential and
+Senatorial Electors, Members of the House of Representatives, Governors
+of Provinces or Departments, and members of Provincial Assemblies or
+Councils. At the same time it was announced that the election of
+President, Vice-President and Senators, by the electoral colleges, would
+take place on February 24, 1902. A provisional election law was also
+promulgated at that time.
+
+This order brought acutely to the fore the question of Presidential
+candidates. There were several of them, but none of them could be
+regarded as a party candidate for the reason that there were then
+practically no parties. The three which had existed had gradually
+dissolved, merged into each other, and left the Cuban people free to
+follow purely individual leaders again.
+
+Maximo Gomez was naturally looked to as the foremost candidate for the
+Presidency, and despite the bitterness of some politicians against him
+there is little doubt that if he had consented to be a candidate he
+would have stood alone and been elected practically without opposition.
+No man deserved the honor more than he. But it was more than an honor.
+It was a tremendously serious responsibility. Now Gomez was not the man
+to shirk responsibility. But he was not a man, either, to accept it
+rashly. He knew his own limitations. He knew, too, the requirements of
+the place. There was needed a scholar and statesman, rather than a
+"rough and ready" bushwhacking soldier. So he would not even consider
+the offer of the nomination. "I was never intended," he said, "to become
+the President of any country. I think too much of Cuba to become her
+President."
+
+Calixto Garcia, who after the death of Antonio Maceo stood second to
+Gomez as a commander, and who was General-in-Chief of the eastern half
+of the island, had won a splendid reputation for efficient work in
+Oriente and Camaguey, and was a man of great force and ability, and of
+much popularity among the Cuban people. But he died at Washington of
+pneumonia soon after the close of the war.
+
+With these two great chieftains of Cuba's wars thus out of the running,
+the choice by common consent fell upon Tomas Estrada Palma; and a better
+choice could not have been made. We have already seen something of his
+work as the head of the Cuban Junta in New York. He was now past the
+prime of life, having been born at Bayamo in 1837, but he was in full
+mastery of his ripe intellectual and physical powers. The son of a rich
+and distinguished family, he was sent in his youth to Seville to study
+law, and for a time practised it with much success in Cuba. But he was a
+patriot, and when the Ten Years' War began he entered the Cuban ranks
+and had a distinguished career in the field, as also in the councils of
+the Republic in the field. Unfortunately he was captured by the enemy
+and was sent to Spain, where he was a prisoner until the end of the war.
+Then he went to Honduras, became Postmaster-General of that country, and
+married the accomplished daughter of President Guardiola. Thence he
+went to the United States and for some years was the head of an
+admirable private school for boys at Central Valley, New York; most of
+his pupils being from Cuba and other Latin-American countries.
+
+At the outbreak of the War of Independence in 1895 the veteran patriot
+promptly offered himself for any service that he could perform. Though
+nearing the age of three score, he would gladly have taken up his rifle
+again and gone into the field. But there was more important and more
+profitable work for Cuba to be done than that would have been, and he
+entered upon it with zeal, as the head of the Cuban Junta in New York.
+Especially after the death of Marti, he was the guiding spirit of that
+organization, and as such, at least in the eyes of America and of the
+world at large, he was the actual head of the Cuban revolution, even
+more than the President of the Provisional Government in the patriot
+stronghold in the mountains of Cubitas. He was not merely the very
+active head of the working organization of the Junta, which supplied the
+Cuban army with the sinews of war, but he was the diplomatic
+representative of Cuba, though only informally recognized, at
+Washington. He was at this time still in the United States, and was
+making no effort whatever to secure the Presidential nomination.
+Doubtless he would have been quite content not to receive it, and would
+have given his heartiest and most efficient support to any other man who
+might have been chosen. But there was a spontaneous turning of all Cuban
+eyes and minds and hearts toward him as the man of all best fitted to
+inaugurate the independent republican sovereignty of the insular state
+as its first President. He was the choice of no party--parties were yet
+inchoate--but of the Cuban people.
+
+In similar fashion General Bartolome Maso was put forward for
+Vice-President. Of him we have already heard much in these pages; a
+stern old warrior patriot of Oriente, who had done inestimable service
+in the field in the two wars, and who had been President of the
+Revolutionary Government--its last President, in the mountains of
+Cubitas, at the time of the American intervention. A man of fine
+education, of unblemished integrity, of sterling patriotism, he
+commanded the respect and affection of all who knew him; though it must
+be confessed that he was personally little known at the capital or in
+the western half of the island.
+
+For a time there seemed every prospect that these two men, so admirably
+chosen, would be elected without contest. But at the end of October
+there was a schism. Estrada Palma was favorably inclined toward the
+Platt Amendment, while Bartolome Maso remained outspoken against it. The
+sequel was that all the politicians of whatever factions who were
+opposed to that instrument joined in putting Maso forward as a candidate
+not for the Vice-Presidency but for the Presidency, in opposition to
+Palma. On October 31 Maso issued an address announcing his candidacy,
+which, he said, he had been induced to accept "in order to preserve the
+nationalism and patriotism of the country"; and he added that the
+American intervention had been "perverted into a military occupation
+approaching a conquest." This was exaggeration, though entirely sincere;
+Maso lacking the broad international vision necessary to appreciate the
+relationships with the United States and the rest of the world upon
+which Cuba was about to enter. But it made a strong appeal to a number
+of diverse and incongruous elements, including some of the former
+Autonomists, many of the Spaniards, and a number of Negroes who were
+inclined to form a race party of their own.
+
+There followed an animated but orderly and amicable campaign of mass
+meetings and stump speeches, quite after the American style. At one time
+the followers of Maso appeared to be numerous, and claimed that they
+were sixty per cent. of the citizens of Cuba. But such claims were
+illusory. Nearly all important leaders, from Maximo Gomez down, were on
+the side of Estrada Palma, and before the actual trial of strength at
+the polls Maso withdrew from the campaign, leaving Palma alone in the
+field. The supporters of Maso explained that his candidacy was withdrawn
+because there was no prospect of a fair election. They objected to some
+provisions of the election law, and complained that they were not fairly
+represented on the boards of registration and election. They even
+alleged that frauds were being committed in the registration, and they
+asked that the election be postponed in order that there might be
+another registration over which they should have a larger measure of
+supervision. This request was refused, whereupon they withdrew from all
+participation in the election. A manifesto was issued, denouncing the
+Central Board of Elections as "a coalition of partisans" and declaring
+that "neither in official circles in the United States nor in Cuba does
+the intention exist to see that the elections are carried out with
+sufficient legality to reflect the real wishes of the Cubans." These
+imputations were unwarranted, and most regrettable; and were rightly
+regarded by the great majority of Cubans as a practical confession of
+the weakness of the Maso faction.
+
+The elections were duly held on the day appointed, and were conducted
+with admirable quiet, order and dignity. The unfortunate feature of them
+was that only a very light vote was polled. Not only did the supporters
+of Maso pretty generally abstain from voting, but many of Palma's
+followers, knowing that there was no real contest, did not take the
+trouble to go to the polls. Commenting upon the circumstances, General
+Wood reported: "I regret to state that a large portion of the
+conservative element, composed of property owners, and business and
+professional men, did not take such an interest in the elections as
+proper regard for the welfare of their country required, and
+consequently the representation of this element among the officials
+elected has not been proportionately as large as the best interests of
+the island demand." Despite the abstention of Maso's followers from
+voting, eight members of that faction were elected in the sixty-three
+members of the Electoral College. On February 24 the Electoral College
+met and elected Tomas Estrada Palma to be President and Luis Estevez to
+be Vice-President of the Republic of Cuba.
+
+President Roosevelt, in a message to the Congress of the United States
+on March 27, reported the progress of Cuba toward self-government, and
+recommended that provision be made for sending diplomatic and consular
+representatives thither, and the Secretary of War began preparations for
+withdrawing the Military Governor and all American officials and forces,
+and permitting the installation of the native government. It was
+arranged that the last-named event should occur on May 20, 1902, four
+years and a month after the American act of intervention.
+
+The closing weeks of the American occupation were made busy with the
+closing up of affairs preparatory to departure. Two new laws relating to
+railroads were promulgated on February 7 and March 3; laws which the
+Cubans on assuming the government of the island found so beneficent that
+they retained them unchanged. Another law on January 24 rearranged the
+municipalities of the island and abolished a considerable number of
+them, and still another on March 5 was intended to facilitate the
+determination of boundaries of estates. Still another, on April 12, was
+so vigorously opposed by Cubans that it was presently revoked, to the
+great loss of the island. This was practically an application of the
+merit system to a part of the civil service, declaring that officials in
+the judicial and public prosecution services should not be removed from
+their places without proof of adequate cause. Its revocation left those
+and all branches of the civil service to be the prey of the spoils
+system.
+
+In April and May there were promulgated orders for systematizing
+municipal finances, a manual for military tribunals, quarantine
+regulations, rules for the revenue cutter service, immigration laws,
+sanitary regulations, and some modifications of the Code of Civil
+Procedure. These were all practical measures, of undoubted benefit to
+the island, and all dealt with matters in which American experience was
+reasonably supposed to be of advantage to Cuba.
+
+General Wood on May 5 called the elected members of the Cuban Congress
+together at the Palace, in the name of the President of the United
+States, to welcome them and to wish them success in their coming work,
+and to have them examine and pass upon their own credentials and count
+and rectify the vote of the Electoral College for President and
+Vice-President. He also announced to them that the formal transfer of
+government, from the United States military authorities to the Cuban
+President and Congress, would take place at noon of May 20. Mendez
+Capote made a graceful and appreciative reply on behalf of himself and
+his colleagues, and the two Houses took possession of their respective
+halls and busied themselves with their credentials and with
+preparations for the serious work which lay just a little distance
+before them.
+
+[Illustration: SCENE IN VILLALON PARK, HAVANA]
+
+Meantime Tomas Estrada Palma was closing up his affairs in the land of
+which he had been a guest for many years and was preparing to return to
+the land of his birth to be its chief magistrate. He did not leave the
+United States until late in April. Instead of going directly to Havana
+he landed at Gibara, on the northern coast of Oriente, whence he went to
+Holguin, to Santiago, and then to his old home, which also was destined
+to be his last, at Bayamo. After a few days' visit there he proceeded to
+Havana, and arrived in that city on May 11. All the way through the
+island he was greeted with unbounded enthusiasm, and at every stopping
+place he was received and entertained with all possible social
+attention.
+
+Havana itself for a week preceding the installation of the government
+gave itself up to one incessant fiesta. Arches spanned the principal
+streets, flowers and bunting made the day brilliant with color, and
+fireworks illumined the night. The night of May 19 was such as the
+ancient city had never before known. From evening to morning it was one
+glare of rockets and illuminations, one roar of anticipatory and
+jubilant cheers and music. If one single inhabitant of the city slept,
+his name is not recorded. The riot of joy continued unabated until just
+before noon, when it slackened for a time, only as a mark of respect for
+the epochal ceremony which was being performed in the great State Hall
+of the Palace.
+
+There, in the very place where less than four years before General
+Castellanos had abdicated the power of Spain over the last of her
+American colonies, were gathered the members of the American Government
+of Intervention, about to retire; the members of the Cuban Government,
+about to assume authority; the representatives of various foreign
+powers; and a few private guests of distinction. The central figures
+were Leonard Wood and Tomas Estrada Palma. The former read a brief note
+from President Roosevelt, announcing the transfer which was about to be
+made, and expressing to the Cuban government the sincere friendship and
+good wishes of the United States, the most earnest hopes for the
+stability and success of the Cuban government, for the blessings of
+peace, justice and prosperity and ordered freedom among the people of
+Cuba and for enduring friendship between the United States and that
+Republic.
+
+[Illustration: TOMAS ESTRADA PALMA
+
+"The Franklin of Cuba," Tomas Estrada Palma, was born at Bayamo on July
+9, 1835, was educated in Havana and at the University of Seville, Spain,
+and began the practice of law at his native place. But realizing that
+under Spanish rule there was little administration of real justice in
+Cuba, he abandoned his profession, devoted himself to the management of
+his plantation, and when the Ten Years' War was planned entered the
+patriotic conspiracy with zeal. He freed his slaves, gave his fortune to
+the cause, and entered the army. His mother accompanied him to the camp,
+and in his absence was captured by the Spaniards, who murdered her
+through starvation and ill-treatment. He became Secretary of the
+Republic and in March, 1876, was elected President. Betrayed to the
+enemy, he was imprisoned in Morro Castle, Havana, and afterward in
+Spain. At the end of the war he went to Honduras, taught school and
+served as Postmaster-General, and then went to New York State, where he
+established a school for boys. At the beginning of the War of
+Independence he again gave himself to the Cuban cause, succeeded Marti
+as head of the Junta in New York, became first President of the
+Republic, was forced to resign through a traitorous insurrection and
+ill-planned intervention, and died on November 4, 1908.]
+
+General Wood then addressed the Cuban President and Congress, declaring
+that he transferred to them the government and control of the island,
+and that the American military occupation was ended. He reported the
+amount of public funds which he turned over to the new officials, and
+called attention to various plans for sewering, paving and other
+sanitary works which were in course of execution. President Palma
+responded, accepting the transfer of sovereignty, and expressing his and
+his countrymen's appreciation of the course which the American
+government had pursued.
+
+Thus the transcendent consummation was achieved, for which during so
+many weary and tragic years so many Cuban patriots had longed and for
+which so much treasure had been spent, so much blood had been shed, and
+so many lives had been sacrificed. "Cuba Libre" was an accomplished fact
+among the nations of the world.
+
+Leaving that memorable scene, General Wood telegraphed to the President
+of the United States:
+
+"I have the honor to report that, in compliance with instructions
+received, I have this day, at 12 o'clock sharp, transferred to the
+President and Congress of the Republic of Cuba the government and
+control of the island, to be held and exercised by them under the
+provisions of the Constitution of the Republic of Cuba."
+
+One other incident remained. As soon as the brief ceremony with the
+palace was completed, the American flag was hauled down from that and
+all other public buildings and the Cuban flag was raised in its place.
+It is not known whether the American Senator who had predicted that
+"That Flag will never be hauled down!" was there to see the sight.
+Certain it is that the people of Cuba were almost--and most
+pardonably--wild with joy to see their own beautiful emblem at last
+float in token of sovereignty over their island's capital. The Cuban
+flag flying over the Palace and over the Morro Castle was the supreme
+consummation of their patriotic dreams and visions.
+
+[Illustration: FLAG OF CUBA]
+
+The red, white and blue flag of Cuba, though then first raised in
+unchallenged sovereignty, was then by no means a new thing. It was
+already more than half a century old, and had been the guidon of brave
+men in three bloody wars. It was designed by the first great Cuban
+revolutionist, Narciso Lopez, and by his comrade, Miguel Teurbe Tolon,
+of Matanzas, a gifted poet and ardent patriot, and it was first
+displayed by Lopez in his raid upon and capture of the city of Cardenas,
+on May 19, 1850. The five bars, alternately blue and white, represented
+the five provinces into which the island was at that time divided; the
+red triangle represented the blood of patriots which was being shed in
+the cause of liberty; and the white star was the star of Cuba's hope.
+After the death of Lopez the flag disappeared. But when the Ten Years'
+War began many flags of that same design were made, the workroom being
+in a house on Warren Street in the City of New York, and thereafter it
+remained familiar to every Cuban patriot.
+
+[Illustration: COAT OF ARMS OF CUBA]
+
+The coat of arms of the Republic of Cuba displays the colors of the
+flag, and by their side the Royal Palm, perhaps the most notable of the
+trees in Cuba. The tree springs from a grassy plain, at the back of
+which is a mountain range; agriculture and mining being thus typified.
+Across the top of the shield extends a landscape-seascape, representing
+the ocean, with Florida at one side and Yucatan at the other, while
+between them lies the Key, Cuba. From the far horizon rises the sun.
+Above all is the Cap of Liberty, while around the shield are twined
+branches of oak and laurel.
+
+No more just and fitting estimate of the great work of intervention
+which thus, on May 20, 1902, was consummated, has ever been made than
+that which was uttered only a few weeks later by President Roosevelt, in
+speaking before a distinguished audience at Harvard University. He said:
+
+"Four years ago Leonard Wood went down to Cuba, has served there ever
+since, has rendered her literally invaluable service; a man who through
+these four years thought of nothing else, did nothing else, save to try
+to bring up the standard of political and social life in that island, to
+clean it physically and morally, to make justice even and fair in it, to
+found a school system which should be akin to our own, to teach the
+people after four centuries of misrule that there were such things as
+government righteousness and honesty and fair play for all men on their
+merits as men."
+
+That was the work which Leonard Wood did in Cuba; that was the work
+which the United States government did by and through him; the
+consummation of which was denoted in that unique act of withdrawing the
+American flag and raising the Cuban flag in its place. Fortunate was it,
+however, that the results of that work, the teachings of the American
+occupation, the meaning of the American flag, were not and could not be
+withdrawn when the Stars and Stripes came down. Just as the colors and
+indeed the essential pattern of the flag remained, in different
+arrangement, so the essential spirit of American republicanism remained,
+to be manifested not any longer by American interveners but by the Cuban
+people themselves.
+
+It was a marvellous achievement, that of those four years. It was such
+as the world had not seen equalled, at any other time or in any other
+place. It was creditable in the highest degree to the Cuban people
+themselves. It was creditable to the United States, for its intervention
+at its own great cost and for its scrupulous keeping of its faith. It
+was creditable to many individual actors in the great drama, both
+insular and continental, who displayed unsurpassed fidelity,
+self-sacrifice and heroism in the cause of Cuban liberation. But the
+simple truth and justice of history would be impaired if the chief
+credit were not given, _primus inter pares_, to the great American
+administrator, conquering soldier and constructive statesman, who from
+first to last was the guiding genius of Cuban rehabilitation.
+
+The works of Durham in Canada, and of Cromer in Egypt, form splendid
+passages in the history of benevolent colonial administration. But there
+was a more difficult work performed not for a dependent colony which
+would return compensation to the Mother Country or to the suzerain power
+but for an alien land and people, presently to become entirely
+independent of their benefactor. He found the Pearl of the Antilles
+war-ravaged and faction-rent; her fields desolated, her industries
+destroyed; her women widowed and her children orphaned; her treasury
+empty and her debts heavy and pressing; her government abolished and her
+laws inadequate; with famine, pestilence and hopelessness stalking
+throughout the land. It was his work to heal the wounds of war and to
+unite the people of all classes and parties for the common good; to
+assist the revival of agriculture and the rebuilding of industry; to
+care for the widowed and the orphaned; to replenish the public treasury
+and to discharge the debt of honor to the veterans of the War of
+Independence; to organize efficient government and out of his own
+constructive genius to conceive and to promulgate needed and beneficent
+laws; to feed the hungry until they could feed themselves, to banish
+pestilence until a lazar-house became a health resort, and to inspire
+with hope and faith triumphant a people who for a generation had striven
+with the demons of despair.
+
+With such a labor successfully achieved, through the exercise of a tact,
+a perseverance, a resourcefulness and an administrative genius not
+surpassed in his day and generation, we may not wonder that he was
+universally beloved by all the Cuban people regardless of class, of
+previous condition or of political predilections; that the only cloud
+resting upon the brilliance of the consummation of Cuban independence
+proceeded from the fact of his departure from the island and the people
+he had so greatly served; and that, not waiting for the slow tributes of
+remote posterity, the Cuban people of his own day hold in their
+supremest confidence, gratitude, respect and enduring affection the
+name, the memory and the vital personality of Leonard Wood.
+
+President Palma had already selected the members of his Cabinet on May
+17, three days before the transfer. It contained six members, chosen
+without regard to party, for the President was not a partisan. As a
+matter of fact, however, it contained representatives of all three of
+the old parties, which were at this time in course of dissolution and
+reorganization into the two which have since divided the Cuban people
+between them. Diego Tamayo was the Secretary of Government, having
+charge of the postal service, the signal service, sanitation, and the
+Rural Guard. Carlos Zaldo was Secretary of State and of Justice. Emilio
+Terry was Secretary of Agriculture. Manual Luciano Diaz was Secretary of
+Public Works; Eduardo Yero was Secretary of Public Instruction; and
+Garcia Montes was Secretary of Finance.
+
+The President presented his first message to Congress on May 28. He
+spoke with gratitude of the disinterested intervention and services of
+the United States, and with confidence of Cuba's ability to fulfil her
+duties as a sovereign State. He recommended care in the preparation of
+the budget, and the formulation of measures for the encouragement of
+cattle-raising and the growing of sugar and tobacco. Just then, owing
+to the great increase of European beet sugar growing the Cuban sugar
+trade was in an unsatisfactory state, but he hoped to improve it by
+securing a reciprocity treaty with the United States which would admit
+Cuban sugar to the markets of that country free of tariff duty. He also
+promised to promote the building of much-needed railroads. He urged the
+cultivation of cordial relations and commercial intercourse with all
+nations, but especially with the United States. As a special act of
+grace, a number of Americans who had justly been sentenced to terms in
+Cuban prisons under the Government of Intervention received pardons.
+These included three men, Rathbone, Neely and Reeves, who had been
+sentenced for ten years for frauds in the Cuban postoffice, the only
+serious scandal of the American administration.
+
+Two of the items in the Platt Amendment were soon taken up by the United
+States government, and were settled in a way eminently satisfactory to
+Cuba. One was the disposition of the Isle of Pines. It was decided by
+the State Department at Washington that when the American government was
+withdrawn from Cuba, control of the Isle of Pines was transferred to the
+Cuban government, to be held and exercised by it unless and until some
+other disposition should subsequently be effected. In time Cuban
+ownership of the isle was definitively confirmed by the government of
+the United States.
+
+The other point was that of American naval stations. A report was made
+by Rear-Admiral Bradford of the United States Navy, recommending the
+establishment of naval stations at Triscornia, in Havana Harbor; and at
+Guantanamo, east of Santiago; and the establishment of coaling stations
+at Nipe Bay and Cienfuegos. The Cubans were not inclined to object to
+any of these excepting the first-named, to which their objection was
+reasonable and convincing. It would not be agreeable, they thought, to
+have the flag of a foreign power flying right in front of their own
+capital and at the very gate of the harbor of that capital, so that
+foreign vessels would pass by it and salute it equally with the Cuban
+flag. This objection was recognized and respected by the United States
+government, which waived all claim to Triscornia, and on July 2, 1903,
+contented itself with land for naval stations at Guantanamo, one of the
+finest harbors in the world, on the south coast of Oriente, and Bahia
+Honda, another superb harbor, on the north coast of Pinar del Rio. Of
+these only Guantanamo has actually been utilized.
+
+The matter of reciprocity between the United States and Cuba was taken
+up, but it was long before anything was effected. General Wood had urged
+that a reduction of at least 33-1/3 per cent. should be made in the
+sugar duty in favor of Cuba, as absolutely essential to the prosperity
+of the island, and President Roosevelt urged upon Congress in the
+strongest possible manner the desirability of some such action, partly
+for the sake of Cuban prosperity, and partly for the fulfilment of
+America's moral duty toward that island. Indeed, such commercial
+relations had been promised to Cuba, and it was bad faith to withhold
+them. Of course the commercial interests of Europe, both in sugar and
+all other wares, were earnestly opposed to any such arrangement, and
+they had their governments exert all possible influence to prevent its
+being made. There were also large beet sugar interests in the United
+States which strenuously opposed any reduction of the tariff on Cuban
+sugar. President Roosevelt had a long and desperate battle with
+Congress over the matter, before he finally prevailed upon it grudgingly
+and imperfectly to make a reciprocity agreement, from which the United
+States would profit much more than Cuba. This was on March 29, 1903.
+Meantime, because of the American refusal to grant reciprocity, Cuba
+suffered acute economic depression approximating disaster. The insular
+treasury had scarcely enough money with which to pay current expenses,
+and the government was driven to the imposition of burden-some taxes
+upon many articles to save itself from bankruptcy.
+
+The reciprocity treaty was finally ratified by the American Senate on
+March 29, 1903. But it did not at once go into effect. There was needed
+Congressional legislation to make it effective, and this was not
+supplied. After discreditable delay on the part of the lawmakers,
+President Roosevelt called Congress together in special session on
+November 10, 1903, for the express purpose of having it take the needed
+action for putting the treaty into operation. "I deem," he said, "such
+legislation demanded not only by our interest but by our honor.... When
+the acceptance of the Platt Amendment was required from Cuba by the
+action of the Congress of the United States, this government thereby
+definitely committed itself to the policy of treating Cuba as occupying
+a unique position as regards this country. It was provided that when the
+island became a free and independent republic she should stand in such
+close relations with us as in certain respects to come within our system
+of international policy; and it necessarily followed that she must also
+to a certain degree become included within the lines of our economic
+policy.... We gave her liberty. We are knit to her by the memories of
+the blood and courage of our soldiers who fought for her in war; by the
+memory of the wisdom and integrity of our administrators who served her
+in peace and who started so well on the difficult path of
+self-government. We must help her onward and upward; and in helping her
+we shall help ourselves.... A failure to enact such legislation would
+come perilously near a repudiation of the pledged faith of the nation."
+
+Thus at last through such gallant urging a measure of justice was
+secured for Cuba. The unwillingness and delay of Congress formed the
+most discreditable chapter of the history of America's dealings with
+Cuba. But the real attitude, the real purpose, the real spirit of the
+United States toward Cuba, were unmistakably set forth not in the
+paltering and tergiversation of a sordid Congress, but in the lofty and
+inspiring words of the great American President.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+
+The result of the earnest and efficient work of all departments of the
+Palma administration, in spite of the fact that the employes had much to
+learn, and that mistakes were unavoidably made, was that Cuba began
+almost immediately to establish herself as a nation worthy of
+consideration, and respected among the other nations of the world. Her
+commerce and industries were started for the first time on a stable
+basis, and the general feeling of confidence, not only in the natural
+resources of the island, but in the protection that had been promised
+Cuba by her sister republic on the north, all tended to start the new
+republic along the right lines. In a very short time after reciprocity
+with the United States was secured funds began to accumulate in the
+treasury, and by the end of the first Palma administration over
+$20,000,000 had accrued to the credit of the country, and a large amount
+of constructive work had been undertaken in various parts of the island.
+Yet more than $4,000,000 had been spent on public works, and every
+village with 25 children had a school.
+
+It was the accumulation of this money in the treasury, and the rapid
+success along commercial and other lines that seemed to attend the
+republic during President Palma's administration, that served to excite
+desire and envy among the more or less restless and unscrupulous
+elements, who did not form a part of the Palma government. Some of these
+outsiders were men of much ability, and many of them were excellent
+orators. All of them were familiar with the methods in Latin American
+republics of securing control of the government through revolution,
+force and violence. It was then that parties began to be formed,
+although these were divided into many groups, each surrounding its own
+political hero, who, in these days, was necessarily a man with a
+supposed military record. They eventually resolved themselves into two
+groups, the Moderado, who were in many respects the parents of the
+present Conservative party now in power under President Menocal, and the
+Liberal, under the leadership of Dr. Alfredo Zayas, an able lawyer and a
+shrewd political leader.
+
+During the Palma administration and especially at the beginning of the
+electoral campaign of 1905, another aspirant for presidential honors
+suddenly appeared in the person of General Jose Miguel Gomez, a man with
+no very brilliant record as a soldier, although he had taken part in the
+Ten Years' War, but who had a strong local following as Governor, under
+President Palma, of the Province of Santa Clara. General Gomez was an
+astute, clever, farseeing, active politician, with a considerable degree
+of originality and ability. Another man intimately connected with the
+history of Cuba was Gomez's chief clerk when Governor of the Province of
+Santa Clara, Orestes Ferrara, a gentleman of Italian birth, of somewhat
+reckless tendencies, who emerged from the War of Independence as a Cuban
+patriot, and was recognized as such by the Liberal party. Mr. Ferrara
+was a lawyer, a writer, a finely educated diplomat and an excellent
+speaker. All of these qualities succeeded in making him an important
+factor in influencing the destinies of the republic in its early days.
+
+During the first years of the Palma administration, the Moderado and
+Liberal parties gradually shaped themselves into the present
+Conservative and Liberal parties; organizations which differ in
+political methods rather than in principles; if by principles we mean
+fundamental doctrines of political economy or statecraft, such as form
+the issues of division between parties in most other countries. They
+also differ largely in personnel. Throughout the agricultural regions
+the Conservatives prevail. That is because farmers, large and small,
+care little for office holding but do care a great deal for that
+tranquillity of the country which is essential to progress and
+prosperity. They have a material stake in the country's welfare, which
+is conserved by constitutional order rather than by revolution. On the
+other hand, in the cities may be found the great strength of the Liberal
+party; composed of men who own no real estate, and many of whom have no
+business or steady occupation of any kind, who have nothing to lose from
+economic and social disturbance but on the contrary may gain something
+by getting into public employment through a change of government. Such
+men are numerous in all cities of all countries, and they become the
+facile followers of designing and unscrupulous politicians. In the
+United States such men are described as "feeding at the public crib." In
+Cuba the corresponding phrase, equally expressive, is "nursing at the
+public bottle"--epitomised in the one word, "botella."
+
+It is not to be inferred that all Cuban Liberals are of this class, or
+that Conservatives are universally men of substance; but the dominant
+elements of the two parties are such as we have described. The restless
+and irresponsible Liberal masses have for leaders men of unquestioned
+ability, but unfortunately too often of more personal ambition of a
+sordid kind than sense of moral responsibility or sincere devotion to
+their country's best interests. It will thus be seen that on more than
+one occasion men who were intellectually qualified to serve the Republic
+in the most efficient manner prostituted their talents to catering to
+the passions of the ignorant and idle, and made tools of them for their
+own selfish advancement, to the great detriment and greater menace of
+the Republic. In this deplorable state of affairs have been the main
+springs of most of the troubles which the young Republic has thus far
+suffered in its political and governmental affairs.
+
+The Conservative party is confined very largely to the owners of
+property, men of good reputation and business standing. In other words,
+it consists of men who have nothing to gain through a revolution, and
+everything to lose during a period of upheaval which means destruction,
+not alone of actual property, but of the assets of the country,
+especially its credit and standing in the markets of the world. Small
+holders of property in the country districts, farmers, merchants,
+planters and stock raisers, are naturally allied with the Conservative
+party, or the party of law and order, as are the owners of the big sugar
+estates and the mills in which the staples are produced, since the cane
+fields become an immediate prey of those elements who wish to depose the
+government or bring about an intervention, through which they sometimes
+gain in the confusion that follows a change of government. To this party
+belong the majority of the professional men, the old Autonomistas, and
+those men who have a genuine interest in the welfare of Cuba, not only
+in her present, but in her future, and who realize that uprisings,
+strikes and all allied movements tend naturally to discourage
+investments in property, and to destroy credit and the good name of the
+island.
+
+Such, then, in general terms, was the development of political parties
+in Cuba which occurred as soon as it was realized that it was worth
+while to have them. As long as Cuba was under Spanish domination, there
+was no use in parties. So long as there was doubt concerning the
+intentions of the United States in Cuba, there was little encouragement
+to their formation. But the moment the Stars and Stripes actually went
+down from the Palace and from the Morro, the great fact dawned upon the
+Cuban mind that what many had scarcely dared to expect or to hope for
+was actually achieved. Cuba was independent. For that reason her
+political controversies were thereafter to be domestic, and there was
+opportunity, even perhaps desirability, of division of the population
+into parties.
+
+This indeed was well, in principle. There is nothing more stimulating to
+citizenship or more conducive to good government in a republic than a
+healthful and amicable division of the citizens into parties, on grounds
+of principle. In a monarchy, the opposition party is one of protest and
+revolt. In a republic both parties are devoted to the governmental
+system, and differ only as to the principles of economics or what not on
+which it should be conducted. The lamentable feature of the Cuban case
+was that--chiefly, no doubt, because of antecedent conditions, because
+of centuries of ruthless repression of all national or civic
+aspirations--there had been no development of theories and principles of
+government to serve as bases for party division. It could not be said,
+for example, that this party was for a protective tariff and that one
+was for free trade, that one was for state rights and the other for
+national sovereignty. Such distinctions did not exist, and party
+divisions without them were therefore on less creditable lines. We have
+said that there were no questions of principle. But there was one
+supreme question of principle, on which after all the division was made.
+But that was a question to which there was only one side for a worthy
+political party to take.
+
+At the beginning of Estrada Palma's administration, as we have
+indicated, he was not identified with any political party. He was
+broad-minded, and conceived himself to be not the leader of a party but
+the chief executive of the whole Cuban nation. He selected for his
+Cabinet the men whom he thought best fitted for the places, regardless
+of their political affiliations. He would probably have been glad to go
+through his entire administration as a non-partisan President, occupying
+in that respect a position similar to that of a constitutional
+sovereign, who traditionally "has no politics." Indeed, he maintained
+this independent and impartial attitude until the spring of 1905. Then
+he found it impossible to get measures passed by Congress, which he
+wanted and which the country needed, unless he affiliated with party
+leaders. The result was that he practically associated himself with the
+Moderados, or Conservatives as they are now known. This of course gave
+great umbrage to the Liberals, which was greatly increased when some of
+that party were removed from office because of their unsatisfactory
+service and their places were filled with Conservatives. And this was
+the beginning of the Liberal insurrection which led to the resignation
+and death of Estrada Palma.
+
+In the last days of President Palma's first term of office it was
+discovered that Jose Miguel Gomez had Presidential aspirations. He not
+only stated to the Moderate or Conservative party that he wanted to be
+President of the Republic of Cuba, but he declared that he proposed to
+succeed President Palma as such. This privilege was refused him on the
+ground that the President, owing to his fair administration of the
+government during the four years of his service, was entitled to a
+second term. To this argument, General Gomez replied that if the
+Conservative party to which he had pretended to belong would not make
+him its Presidential nominee, he would go to the opposition and seek the
+nomination. This he at once proceeded to do, and with the assistance of
+Mr. Ferrara he persuaded the Liberals that, controlling the votes of the
+Province of Santa Clara, he held the balance of power. He also prevailed
+upon Dr. Alfredo Zayas to retire as a Presidential candidate, and to
+acquiesce in his running for election on the Liberal ticket; promising
+at the same time that, no matter what the result of the election might
+be, Dr. Zayas should have the nomination and his support four years
+afterward. It is interesting to observe that this promise was never
+fully kept, and that the two Liberal leaders have ever since been bitter
+enemies.
+
+The Presidential nominees of the two parties, in November, 1906, on the
+part of the Conservatives, were Estrada Palma, the President of Cuba,
+and on the part of the Liberals, Jose Miguel Gomez, ex-leader of the
+Moderados of the Province of Santa Clara. The Liberals, a few days
+before the election, feeling apparently that it would go against them,
+began the old tactics so prevalent in some South American republics, and
+practised by Maso's followers in 1901, of proclaiming proposed election
+frauds on the part of their opponents, then in control of the
+government, and predicting all manner of illegal practices and
+intimidation.
+
+At ten o'clock on the morning of election day, telegrams, announcements,
+and orders from Liberal leaders were posted at all voting places in the
+various cities and country districts, directing members of that party
+to keep away from the polls, on the ground that the election frauds
+which had been arranged by the Conservatives could not possibly be
+overcome, and that the correct thing to do was to refuse to vote, as a
+protest against the government in power. These were obviously issued
+with a view of discrediting in advance an election which the Liberals
+could not hope to win. The Conservatives, of course, voted, and, as
+might be expected under those circumstances, the Palma government
+succeeded itself, with a few changes in the Cabinet, and everything
+seemed to promise well for the future.
+
+Within a year, however, threats of coming trouble, whispers of
+discontent, and reports of incipient uprisings could be heard in the
+cafes and public resorts throughout the island, and the agents of the
+secret service warned President Palma that a serious crisis was
+impending. This the President refused to credit, staging that there
+could be no possible reason for a revolution. The island was prosperous,
+work was plentiful for all who cared to labor; there were no conditions
+present to justify a revolution or uprising, and suspicions of anything
+of the kind must therefore be unjustified. In spite of President Palma's
+confidence, however, the plotting went on almost openly. His confidence
+in the people was known to all the Liberals, and they took advantage of
+it. The first real outbreak occurred before the slightest preparation
+had been made to deal with it. One night in the month of July, 1905, a
+group of thirty armed men suddenly appeared at the barracks of the Rural
+Guards, shot a dozen of them to death as they lay sleeping on their
+cots, seized their arms, ammunition and horses, and fled into the
+country, shouting the cry of "Revolution against the Palma government!"
+General Alejandro Rodriguez, a tried veteran of the War of
+Independence, and chief of the Rural Guards, gave an immediate order
+that they should be captured, dead or alive, and before ten o'clock the
+next morning nearly all of them had been taken and confined in the jails
+of Havana, where afterwards they were tried and convicted. These men in
+their defense claimed that the president of the Senate, Senor Moru
+Delgado, a prominent Liberal leader, had promised to meet them at
+daylight, on the morning of the assassination, with a body of three
+hundred armed and mounted Liberals, who were to start a revolution
+against President Palma; but did not fulfill his promise. The men who
+had been convicted were permitted to remain in jail until, as is too
+often the custom in some Latin American countries, they were freed by a
+general amnesty bill which had been forced through Congress by the
+Liberal party. The tendency to revolt against the Palma government
+apparently subsided with the arrest of these first disturbers, but,
+during the following January, 1906, reports of trouble in the extreme
+western portion of the island came to the notice of the officials. The
+leader was Pino Guerra, who, through his popularity as an accordion
+player at country dances, had secured election to the House of
+Representatives; and who with his taste for games of chance, at which he
+was generally unlucky, had got into debt to the amount of $7,000. His
+creditors in these debts were persistent, and this fact was given by him
+in a letter to General Fernando Freyre de Andrade, President of the
+House of Representatives, as an excuse for the revolution which he
+started. Pino Guerra indeed intimated that if someone would extend to
+him a little personal loan of $7,000 he would refrain from causing any
+trouble to the government. General Freyre de Andrade, being a politician
+who believed in compromise and that even a poor end would justify the
+means, suggested to Guerra that he knew of $3,000 that had been
+appropriated for some purpose and not used, which might possibly be
+turned over, if his creditors would take it on account. "General"
+Guerra, as he called himself, consulted with his creditors, and they
+concluded to accept the offer, if they could get the cash. So the embryo
+revolutionist was conducted to the presence of the President, where the
+whole matter was explained by General Freyre de Andrade. To their
+surprise, President Palma promptly refused to have any of the treasury
+funds used to buy--or to pay blackmail to--a revolutionist. So "General"
+Guerra retired to nurse his resentment and to plan mischief; until some
+six weeks later when he started the uprising that was locally known as
+"Mr. Taft's picnic," because the leaders asserted that the capturing of
+the Palma government would be nothing more than a picnic, and assured
+Mr. Taft on his arrival to straighten out affairs that they really had
+not intended to assassinate President Palma, although three or four
+distinct plots had been made for that purpose; that they only meant to
+capture him, put him on the government yacht, and carry him to some
+remote part of the country and give him just a "pleasant picnic."
+
+[Illustration: THE PRESIDENT'S HOME
+
+The new Presidential Palace, which replaces in its functions the old
+home of the Spanish Governors, is of striking architecture and
+impressive size, affording ample room for many other functions than the
+mere housing of the President and his family; and in completeness of its
+appointments and beauty of its furnishings and internal decorations must
+rank among the finest official residences in the world.]
+
+President Palma was repeatedly warned by the secret service, of which
+Pepe Jerez Varona was the chief, that serious trouble was coming through
+the propaganda of the Liberal party whose leaders had taken the position
+that the late election had been fraudulent and that the Liberals had
+been prevented from casting their votes, which they said was sufficient
+excuse for the uprising that was imminent. Local bands of the so-called
+"Constitutional Army" soon began to make their appearance throughout the
+central districts of the island. Each of these was headed by some
+prominent Liberal chieftain; among others, those at Havana by General
+Loinaz Castillo, in Pinar del Rio by Pino Guerra, and in Santa Clara by
+Orestes Ferrara, afterward President of the House of Representatives.
+The real promoters, instigators, and chiefs of the movement were General
+Jose Miguel Gomez, afterward President of the Republic; Carlos Garcia,
+later Minister to England; and Juan Gualberto Gomez, the trusted agent
+of Alfredo Zayas and leader of the negro Liberals of the island.
+Convincing proofs, in the form of documents over the signatures of these
+men, were found showing their treason to the republic. They did not
+actually lead the insurgent bands, because they were arrested and
+imprisoned just as they were setting out to do so. President Palma was
+advised that they should be tried and executed, but he protested against
+the courts taking such action, on the ground that he could not bring
+himself to sanction the execution of men, some of whom had in former
+days been his companions in arms.
+
+In the meantime, the revolutionary force swept through various parts of
+the island, seizing horses, mules, beef cattle and produce, breaking
+open groceries and general stores, helping themselves to anything that
+suited their fancy, occasionally giving in exchange what was known as
+_vale_, or a receipt, to the owner, and if the owner happened to be an
+able bodied man, they usually compelled him to join the so-called
+"Constitutional Army." Congress at that time happened to have a Liberal
+majority, and it refused to consider or vote upon the budget of the
+coming year, thus practically compelling President Palma to use as the
+basis of expenditures the budget of the preceding year. The Liberals
+boasted that they had thus compelled the President technically to
+violate the Constitution, and that they were therefore justified in
+calling themselves the Constitutional Party and in forcing him out of
+the Presidency.
+
+The Cuban republic at this time had an armed force of about two thousand
+men, scattered throughout the island. These were the Rural Guards, and
+they were efficient, and as a rule loyal to the Palma government; but
+they were not sufficient in number to protect the sugar estates, and
+other properties. As before, President Palma refused, until the last
+moment, to believe that a serious uprising or revolution against his
+government was possible, on the ground that Cuba, although a young
+republic, had been very prosperous, that money was plentiful, that work
+was abundant for any man who cared to occupy himself, and that there was
+no real reason that would justify or cause a revolution. He cited the
+history and motives of previous revolutions in Cuba, and of those that
+had occurred in many other countries, insisting that this uprising could
+not be serious, and that the people of Cuba would not support it.
+Unfortunately he was not a politician. He had lived too many years in
+the safe and sane atmosphere of the United States, and did not realize
+the intense desire on the part of some of the people in Latin American
+countries to get into office, regardless of their qualifications or the
+means employed to accomplish their sordid purposes.
+
+All of this resulted in a sad lack of preparation. President Palma's
+Secretary of Finance, Colonel Ernesto Fonts-Sterling, and General Rafael
+Montalvo, Secretary of Public Works, realized the threatening dangers
+and urged immediate action; and finally against the President's will,
+twenty machine guns were ordered from the United States, and shipped to
+Cuba, together with 1,000,000 rounds of ammunition. A call for
+volunteers was then issued, and in response numerous Americans from
+various parts of the island, and others from Texas, New Mexico and
+Arizona, in company with patriots of Cuba, came immediately to the side
+of the government. But the masses of the Cubans were very tired of war,
+and manifested a peculiar reluctance to assume responsibility, and to
+act in line with their consciences and best judgment, wherefore the call
+was not highly successful. Fourteen hundred veterans of the War of
+Independence, under the command of General Pedro Betancourt, of
+Matanzas, made response, and presented themselves in Havana for orders.
+A machine gun corps was formed, the gunners composed largely of
+Americans who had seen service in the war on the Mexican border, and who
+soon became excellent marksmen. Many of President Palma's counsellors
+urged immediate action to suppress the revolution with a firm hand. But
+he hesitated too long, hoping that some other way out of the difficulty
+would be discovered.
+
+In this emergency the United States Consul General, Mr. Frank Steinhart,
+suggested to President Palma that he should request the assistance of
+the United States, and urged that a commission of military men be sent
+from Washington, backed by a certain display of naval or military force
+sufficient to discourage the revolution and to convince the Liberal
+leaders that further wanton destruction of property would not be
+tolerated. Mr. Steinhart also assured him that he would see to it that
+such a commission would come with a full understanding of the situation,
+and with the power and spirit to assist him in maintaining peace and
+order. President Palma made this request to which the United States
+promptly responded by sending the gunboat _Bancroft_, and a company of
+marines who immediately came ashore at Havana. Following the _Bancroft_
+came other steamers, one of which brought the Secretary of War, William
+H. Taft, Robert Bacon, Assistant Secretary of State, and Major-General
+Frederick Funston, with several of his aides.
+
+In fuller explanation of these circumstances some official
+correspondence may pertinently be cited. On September 8, 1906, Consul
+General Steinhart sent the following confidential telegram to the State
+Department:
+
+"Secretary of State, Cuba, has requested me, in name of President Palma,
+to ask President Roosevelt to send immediately two vessels; one to
+Havana and other to Cienfuegos; they must come at once. Government
+forces are unable to quell revolution. The government is unable to
+protect lives and property. President Palma will convene Congress next
+Friday, and Congress will ask for our forcible intervention. It must be
+kept secret and confidential that Palma asked for vessels. No one here
+except President, Secretary of State and myself know about it. Very
+anxiously awaiting reply."
+
+The State Department at Washington replied to this on September 10th:
+
+"Your cable received. Two ships have been sent, due to arrive Wednesday.
+The President directs me to state that perhaps you had not yourself
+appreciated the reluctance with which this country would intervene.
+President Palma should be informed that in the public opinion here it
+would have a most damaging effect for intervention to be undertaken
+until the Cuban government has exhausted every effort in a serious
+attempt to put down the insurrection and has made this fact evident to
+the world. At present the impression certainly would be that there was
+no real popular support of the Cuban government, or else that the
+government was hopelessly weak. As conditions are at this moment we are
+not prepared to say what shape the intervention should take. It is, of
+course, a very serious matter to undertake forcible intervention, and
+before going into it we should have to be absolutely certain of the
+equities of the case and of the needs of the situation. Meanwhile we
+assume that every effort is being made by the Government to come to a
+working agreement which will secure peace with the insurrectos, provided
+they are unable to hold their own with them in the field. Until such
+efforts have been made, we are not prepared to consider the question of
+intervention at all."
+
+On September 10, Consul-General Steinhart cabled again:
+
+"Your cable received and directly communicated to the President, who
+asks ships remain for a considerable time to give security to foreigners
+in the island of Cuba and says that he will do as much as possible with
+his forces to put down the insurrection, but if unable to conquer or
+compromise, Cuban Congress will indicate kind of intervention desirable.
+He appreciates reluctance on our part to intervene, especially in view
+of Secretary Root's recent statements. Few, however, understand Cuban
+situation, and a less number are able to appreciate same. This, of
+course, without any reference to superior authority. Palma applied
+public funds in public work and public education, and not in purchase of
+war materials. Insurrectionists for a considerable time prepared for
+present condition, hence government's apparent weakness at the
+commencement. Yesterday's defeat of rebels gives Government hope.
+Attempts useless from start."
+
+On September 12, Consul-General Steinhart again cabled.
+
+"Secretary of State the Republic of Cuba at 3:40 to-day delivered to me
+memorandum in his own handwriting, a translation of which follows, and
+is transmitted notwithstanding the previous secret instructions on the
+subject. The rebellion is increasing in Provinces of Santa Clara, Habana
+and Pinar del Rio, and Cuban Government has no elements to contend with
+it, to defend the towns and prevent the rebels from destroying property.
+President Estrada Palma asks for American intervention and begs
+President Roosevelt to send to Habana with the greatest secrecy and
+rapidity 2,000 or 3,000 men to avoid any catastrophe in the capital. The
+intervention asked for should not be made public until American troops
+are in Habana. The situation is grave and any delay may produce massacre
+of citizens in Habana."
+
+The next day, Mr. Steinhart again cabled:
+
+"President Palma, the Republic of Cuba, through me officially asked for
+American intervention because he can not prevent rebels from entering
+cities and burning property. It is doubtful whether quorum when Congress
+assembles next Friday, tomorrow. President Palma has irrevocably
+resolved to resign and to deliver the government of Cuba to the
+representative whom the President of the United States will designate,
+as soon as sufficient American troops are landed in Cuba. This act on
+the part of President Palma to save his country from complete anarchy
+and imperative intervention come immediately. It may be necessary to
+land force of _Denver_ to protect American property. About 8,000 rebels
+outside Habana. Cienfuegos also at mercy of rebels. Three sugar
+plantations destroyed. Foregoing all resolved in Palace."
+
+On September 14, Consul-General Steinhart finally cabled:
+
+"President Palma has resolved not to continue at head of the government,
+and is ready to present his resignation even though present disturbances
+should cease at once. The Vice President has resolved not to accept the
+office. Cabinet ministers have declared that they will previously
+resign. Under these conditions it is impossible that Congress will meet
+for the lack of a proper person to convoke same to designate new
+President. The consequences will be the absence of legal power, and
+therefore the prevailing state of anarchy will continue unless
+government of the United States will adopt measures necessary to avoid
+this danger."
+
+On that day President Roosevelt wrote to Robert Bacon, the Assistant
+Secretary of State, enclosing a letter to Senor Gonzalo de Quesada, the
+Cuban minister to the United States for publication in the public press,
+in which he begged the Cuban patriots to band together, to sink all
+differences and personal ambitions, and to rescue the island from the
+anarchy of civil war; closing the letter as follows:
+
+"I am sending to Habana the Secretary of War, Mr. Taft, and the
+Assistant Secretary of State, Mr. Bacon, as special representatives of
+this Government, who will render such aid as is possible toward these
+ends. I had hoped that Mr. Root, the Secretary of State, could have
+stopped in Habana on his return from South America, but the seeming
+imminence of the crisis forbids further delay."
+
+Messrs. Taft and Bacon reached Cuba on September 19, 1906. Before
+leaving the ship they were informed that the Secretary of State and
+Justice of President Palma's cabinet would call at their convenience.
+They invited him on board at once and had a short talk with him. They
+were informed that immediately on publication of the President's
+message, President Palma had directed a cessation of hostilities on the
+part of the government forces, and that the insurgents had done
+likewise. Messrs. Taft and Bacon then called upon President Palma. They
+told him that they regarded themselves as intermediaries and Peace
+Commissioners, and did not wish to negotiate with rebels in arms without
+his permission. He suggested that negotiations be conducted between the
+two political parties, rather than between himself and the insurgents,
+and suggested that the Vice-President, Mendez Capote, for the Moderate
+party, and Senator Alfredo Zayas, head of the Liberal party, be the
+negotiators. He added that General Menocal on behalf of the veterans of
+the War of Independence had previously attempted, on September 8, to
+bring about a compromise, but without avail.
+
+[Illustration: William H. Taft]
+
+President Palma told Mr. Taft very earnestly and somewhat pathetically
+of his efforts to teach his people the knowledge of good government
+gained from his twenty years of residence in the United States, and his
+association with the American people, and called attention to his
+successful handling of Cuban finances, to the economy of expenditures of
+his government, to the fact that he had at all times encouraged the
+investment of foreign capital, and to the prosperity of his four years
+as President. He deplored what he regarded as a lack of patriotism on
+the part of the leaders of the insurrection, and cited a number of
+instances to prove that they were actuated by motives of greed and
+desire for office. His demeanor was dignified and earnest, and what he
+said made a deep impression.
+
+The Americans then went to the home of the American Minister at
+Marianao, a suburb of Havana, where the insurgents had outposts just
+across the bridge, about 1,000 yards from the minister's house. There
+they conferred, as President Palma had suggested, with Senors Capote and
+Zayas, with the Secretary of Government, General Rafael Montalvo, who
+had charge of mobilizing the forces of the government; with General
+Rodriguez, and with the American Consul General, Mr. Steinhart, who had
+been eight years in the island, understood its conditions, and spoke its
+language.
+
+It was explained to Mr. Taft that some of the leaders of the revolution
+had been apprehended, and at present were incarcerated in the
+penitentiary, but that they could be summoned to the home of the
+American Minister, if he so desired. He did desire it, and the Liberal
+leaders were brought from their prison. They included Jose Miguel Gomez,
+Gualberto Gomez, Carlos Garcia, and others of the group. Senator Alfredo
+Zayas remained present, and when Mr. Taft asked for a statement from the
+prisoners regarding the causes of the revolution and their purposes and
+demands, he acted as counsel and spokesman. Dr. Zayas stated that the
+election of the President and his government had been absolutely
+fraudulent; that armed soldiers had prevented the approach of the
+Liberals to the polls; that they had absolute proof that the votes would
+never be counted but that the whole proceeding would be a farce, and
+that, as a protest against such frauds and miscarriage of justice, they
+had deliberately refrained from going to the polls after ten o'clock in
+the morning; that the results of the election had been absurd and
+ridiculous; that the Liberals were greatly in the majority in the
+island, "as every one knew," and that the government, as constituted,
+was an imposition on the people, weak, inefficient and corrupt. He added
+that he and his compatriots wanted nothing more than that which they
+were in a position to enforce, and which they would have enforced had it
+not been for the suspension of hostilities which had been acquiesced in
+by the Liberals only out of deference to Mr. Taft and his commission.
+
+In other words, Dr. Zayas stated that they wished the immediate
+resignation of President Palma, his cabinet, and all members of Congress
+who had secured their seats at the last election; and he intimated that
+the judges of the courts who had been appointed by the Conservative
+party were corrupt and incompetent, and should be replaced by better
+men. In fact, they demanded the removal of the entire administration,
+and the annulment of the results of the last election.
+
+Against this Mr. Taft protested, stating that Dr. Zayas's suggestions
+were decidedly radical; that so far as Estrada Palma was concerned, he
+had been elected with at least the moral support of the United States
+government; that Washington knew and trusted him and had every reason to
+believe him a thoroughly honest man; and that he could not consent to
+any move so sweeping as that which Dr. Zayas suggested. Dr. Zayas
+immediately withdrew his objection to President Palma, stating that, on
+second thought, his retention as President would preserve the republican
+form of government, and save the island from a political change that
+should be avoided if possible. Therefore, Mr. Palma was more than
+welcome to remain as President of the Republic; but every other
+condition expressed with reference to Congress, the cabinet and the
+courts, must be enforced, and at once. That was the ultimatum given to
+Mr. Taft by the leaders of the Liberals.
+
+This ultimatum was conveyed at once to President Palma, together with
+the intimation that it was a bad mess all around, and that, since a
+force variously estimated at between twelve and twenty thousand men
+surrounded the City of Havana, and property was in danger, and since
+Orestes Ferrara had already notified the commission that if the demands
+were not acquiesced in, three of the large sugar plantations in the
+neighborhood of Cienfuegos would be given over to the torch at daylight
+the next morning, it was probably best to yield to the demands of the
+Liberals, and practically to let them have their way, in the interest of
+peace, brotherhood and conservation of the rights of property.
+
+This astounding and unworthy attitude on the part of the Commission
+deeply hurt President Palma, who had with good cause expected not only
+its moral aid but probably also the military support of the armed force
+that came to Cuba, at least as long as the policy of his government
+could be justified. This mental attitude was not however indicated by
+any word that came from his lips. With unmoved dignity he bowed in
+uncomplaining acquiescence, and said that he entirely understood the
+situation; that Mr. Taft would receive his resignation as President, by
+word of mouth and in writing, as quickly as it could be dictated to his
+secretary; and that he would retire at once from the Presidency of Cuba.
+Against this action Mr. Taft protested, though he himself had obviously
+made it necessary, and explained that arrangements had been made, at his
+suggestion, in which Dr. Zayas as leader of the Liberals had acquiesced,
+to the effect that Mr. Palma should remain as President of the Republic,
+although the Liberals demanded the expulsion of all other members of
+the administration. President Palma thanked Mr. Taft for his expression
+of faith in him personally, but absolutely refused to consider the
+withdrawal of his resignation, stating with impregnable logic, which Mr.
+Taft could not refute, that if his cabinet, his Congress and his courts
+were fraudulent, or held their positions illegally, he himself, having
+been elected at the same time, and in the same manner, was not the real
+President of Cuba. Therefore, he refused to remain longer in office. He
+added with punctilious courtesy that he would take the liberty of eating
+his supper in the palace with his family, since it was prepared, but he
+would not remain within its walls another day.
+
+When this attitude of the President was communicated to the members of
+the Cuban Congress, a meeting was at once called, at which, after a
+great deal of animated discussion, a joint committee was appointed,
+consisting of twenty-four men, to wait upon and expostulate with
+President Palma, but after several hours of pleading, they were
+unsuccessful in persuading him to change his mind.
+
+So came the fall of the Palma government, whereupon Secretary Taft
+assumed complete charge and control of the affairs of the Cuban
+Republic. The insurgent leaders signed a formal agreement to surrender,
+in which they promised to restore to their owners the horses and other
+property which they had seized, though as a matter of fact none of them
+did so; since, for good measure, perhaps, Mr. Taft through military
+decree gave to the rebels an absolute deed of ownership of the horses
+they had stolen from the stables and fields of their rightful owners. It
+took them nearly two weeks to disarm and disperse. Then Mr. Taft issued
+a proclamation granting "a full and complete amnesty and pardon to all
+persons who have directly or indirectly participated in the recent
+insurrection in Cuba, or who have given aid or comfort to persons
+participating therein, for offenses political in their nature and
+committed in the course of the insurrection and prior to disbandment."
+This amnesty, he added, was to be "considered and construed as covering
+offenses of rebellion, sedition or conspiracy to commit the same, and
+other related offenses."
+
+Finally, Mr. Taft announced on October 13 the turning over of the
+government of the island, with the full power which he himself had
+exercised, to Mr. Charles E. Magoon, and on that same date Mr. Magoon
+accepted and was installed in the office, thus beginning the second
+Government of Intervention. The general feeling of Cubans at that time
+was divided. The pessimistic elements rather suspected that the United
+States, having been called there a second time, might never leave. On
+the other hand, the thinking class, and those who had experienced the
+United States government and its various administrations in Cuba,
+especially under General Leonard Wood, were confident that it was only a
+temporary regime that circumstances had made necessary, and they hoped
+that out of it much good would come.
+
+Thus ended the most pathetic and tragic incident in the history of the
+Cuban Republic, and the one which was on the whole most discreditable to
+the United States. Nothing could have been more deplorable than that a
+statesman of the great ability, the lofty ideals and especially the
+generally judicial mind of Mr. Taft should thus weakly and illogically
+have yielded to a vile conspiracy, manifested through lawless threats
+and unproved clamor, against a Chief of State who in validity of title,
+in purity of character, in unselfish devotion to the public good, and in
+potential efficiency of enlightened administrationship, was not
+unworthy to be ranked even in the same category with the great President
+under whom Mr. Taft himself held his commission.
+
+Estrada Palma, according to Mr. Taft's intimation, had erred. History
+will forever record that he erred chiefly if not solely in assuming, in
+his own transparent integrity, that other men were as honest as himself.
+He was, his enemies asserted, weak. But intelligence and justice must
+discern and declare that his only weakness was in an over-confidence in
+the people to whose service he had given all the best of his life and in
+whose loyalty and support he imagined that he could securely trust. He
+could not, in the greatness of his own soul, bring himself to believe it
+possible for men, for men calling themselves Cuban patriots, to do such
+things as those which Jose Miguel Gomez and Alfredo Zayas and Orestes
+Ferrara and their coparceners did. He was not moved by weakness, but by
+a desire to protect Cuba from the ravages of sordid revolution and from
+the unscrupulous exploitation of bushwhacking bandits, and to preserve
+for the Cuban people and their Republic the good name which had been so
+fairly and as he thought fully established during the years of his first
+administration. His place in the annals of Cuba is secure. His rank
+among the constitutional executives of the world is enviably high. There
+has been in Cuba or elsewhere no more honest administration than his,
+and none that more intelligently, unselfishly and untiringly strove to
+fulfil its every duty to the state. Its untimely fall is not to be
+charged against any subjective fault of its own, but to the unscrupulous
+malice of sordid foes, the apathy of the people in whom too great
+confidence had been reposed, and to the inexplicable betrayal by those
+who should have supported and protected it but who instead consented to
+its destruction.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+
+Mr. Magoon came to Cuba but little known to Cubans and unfamiliar with
+what was before him. During this second American intervention there were
+some radical changes in the administration, and more public works were
+undertaken than President Palma had ventured upon. The consensus of
+opinion among American officers, all the officers who had accompanied
+Mr. Magoon, was that the Palma administration had made a mistake in
+allowing so much money to accumulate in the treasury. It had become a
+temptation to those who were not in power, and it would have been better
+to have the money expended along lines that would tend to advance the
+republic rather than to permit it to accumulate. So it was realized that
+if it was not expended during Mr. Magoon's administration, it would be
+spent, and probably largely wasted, if not actually misappropriated, by
+the Liberals if they should secure control of the government.
+
+The most unfortunate thing in connection with the visit of Mr. Taft, and
+therefore with the administration of Mr. Magoon, was that the Liberals
+had apparently gained their ends. The majority of thoughtful and
+patriotic Cubans had expected the intervention of the United States to
+result in the upholding of law, order and justice in the support of
+President Palma and his administration. They had expected that Mr. Taft
+would take time to investigate the case thoroughly, and that he would
+insist at the outset, as an indispensable preliminary to his entering
+into conference with them, that the Liberal insurgents should surrender
+their arms and ammunition, return the property which they had stolen,
+and submit themselves loyally to the constitutional government of the
+island; and that after that, but only after it, he would see to it that
+justice was done to them as to all parties and all people. That course
+was unfortunately not taken. Mr. Taft entered into conference with
+unrepentant and defiant rebels whose followers were at the moment in
+arms, threatening and preparing to make further criminal assaults upon
+property and life. He regarded or at least treated them as no less
+worthy of a hearing and of being taken into conference than the
+President himself; and despite his protests he concluded the sorry
+performance by practically ousting President Palma and his cabinet at
+the behest of these lawless insurgents.
+
+The sequel was tragedy. Estrada Palma died, not of pneumonia but of a
+broken heart. Nor was that all. Encouragement was given to the lawless
+and criminal elements of the island, and to those who resort to
+violence, insurrection and revolution as the means of attaining their
+political ends, which has been felt ever since and which has repeatedly
+given rise to attempts to repeat the performance which then was so
+successful. Recognition was given to the Liberals, through what were
+doubtless good but certainly were mistaken motives, and the Liberals
+insisted upon maintaining that recognition and profiting from it. So
+when a Council, or Consulting Board, of eleven members was formed with
+General Enoch H. Crowder as chairman, it contained only two
+Conservatives and one man of doubtful affiliations. Three members,
+Senors Garcia Kohly, Viondi and Carrera, did not belong to the August
+revolutionists but were members of the Moderado party, which had
+supported Estrada Palma. They acted as "Independents" on the
+Commission, though they were intimately associated with the Liberals,
+and as "Independents" they participated in the municipal elections. But
+later they joined the Liberals outright. All the rest of the Commission,
+or Consulting Board, were Liberals who had actually taken part in the
+rebellion. No appointment to office could be made without the sanction
+of that Board, and the result was that the Second Government of
+Intervention was packed with Liberal placeholders. Competent men, who
+had served the State well under President Palma's administration, were
+dismissed and replaced by incompetents whose sole recommendation was
+that they were Liberals. Now the voters of Cuba are as a rule easily
+impressed, and do not always appreciate the possibility, through hard
+work, of transforming a minority into a majority. They delight in being
+at once on the winning side, and therefore pay much attention to
+determining not so much which of two rival and contending parties is
+really right and deserving of support, as which side is going to win.
+The fact that the Liberal leaders, who previously had had almost no
+recognition, social, political or official, suddenly came to the front,
+and with the apparent acquiescence of the United States, or of the
+commission appointed in Washington, were exerting great influence,
+seemed a pretty sure indication, or at least was so interpreted, that
+the United States had changed its ideas with regard to the government in
+Cuba, and was favoring, and probably would continue to favor and sustain
+the Liberal party. That was one of the reasons why the Liberals won
+their next election. In fact they pointed to it as evidence of America's
+moral support, and frequently referred to and displayed an order, said
+to have been issued through mistake, which provided that every man who
+had stolen a horse, and who confessed his theft frankly, should have
+full proprietary title to that horse and need not surrender it to the
+owner. The order is still on the statute books, a memento of the
+American intervention. That was resented by the better citizens; it
+discouraged many people who had had great confidence in the United
+States, and it illustrates not the general policy of the second
+government of intervention, but some of the unfortunate things that took
+place under that intervention, that seemed to the better class in Cuba,
+as mistaken.
+
+Mr. Magoon spent the larger part of the money found in the treasury on
+public works, the building of roads, and various enterprises for the
+best interests of the island. It is claimed that in some instances the
+contracts became a source of graft, and that the roads were not built
+according to specifications. At any rate, they were built, and were
+sorely needed, and the results on the whole were excellent. Of the
+$26,000,000 left by the Palma administration nearly every dollar was
+expended at that time.
+
+Although the second Government of Intervention was theoretically and
+nominally, and doubtless meant to be actually, quite non-political and
+impartial as between the Cuban parties, the very circumstances of its
+origin made it appear to favor the Liberals. It had come into power by
+accepting the resignation of the Palma administration, which was
+practically Conservative, at the demand of the Liberals. The Liberals
+thus enjoyed all through its duration the prestige of victory, without
+having to bear any of the responsibility of being in office, or
+incurring any of the odium which is almost inevitable to every human
+government which has not learned to achieve the impossible task of
+pleasing everybody. There was no such foundation work to do as had been
+done under the first Intervention, and the American government busied
+itself principally with routine matters, and with making it possible for
+the Cubans to resume control of their own affairs.
+
+One of the most important undertakings at this time from a non-political
+point of view was the taking of a new census. This was not done on so
+elaborate a scale as the preceding census of 1899, but was more strictly
+an enumeration of the people, for purposes of apportionment, etc. It was
+taken under the direction of the American Government of Intervention in
+1907, the actual work on it being done by a staff of Cuban canvassers
+and statisticians, and it was believed to have been accurately and
+comprehensively done.
+
+The work of compiling the new census of Cuba which was taken in 1907 was
+continued in the early part of 1908 and was completed and results were
+published at the end of March of that year. The total population of the
+island was reported to be 2,048,980, and out of this number 419,342 were
+citizens and entitled to vote. It was then arranged to hold municipal
+and provincial elections on August 1, and a national election on
+November 14. These elections would be essential parts of the processes
+by which the United States government would bring its second
+intervention to a close and restore the island to the control and
+government of its own people. The electoral law under which they were to
+be conducted was promulgated for the August election on April 1 and for
+the November election on September 11, 1908.
+
+This law had three salient and characterizing features. The first was
+that it established a system of permanent election boards which were
+charged with the work of conducting the elections. In each municipality
+there was to be a board of three members. In each department or
+province there was to be a board of five members of whom two were to be
+representatives of the two principal political parties of the island
+while the other three were to be non-political members, officials of the
+courts or representatives of the education department. The second
+salient feature of the law was a system of compulsory registration. This
+provided for the making and keeping by the election boards of lists of
+all persons in the island who were entitled to vote. The basis of these
+lists was the census of 1907, and it was provided that the lists should
+be revised, corrected and amplified by the election boards every year.
+
+The third and perhaps the most important feature of the law was its
+provision for proportional representation. This secured minority
+representation, giving each of the important political parties
+membership in legislative bodies and also in the Electoral College
+representation in proportion to the number of votes polled.
+
+Under the constitution of Cuba the right of suffrage is guaranteed to
+every adult male in full enjoyment of his ordinary civil rights. This of
+course bestows the franchise upon a great number of illiterate persons.
+The commission which revised the electoral law in 1908 carefully
+considered the question of undertaking in some way to deal with the
+illiterate vote so that it would not be, as it seemed on the face to be,
+a potential menace to the state. It was finally decided however, that it
+would be impracticable and inadvisable to attempt in any way to modify
+the constitution. Provisions were, however, adopted whereby alien
+residents of the island, although not permitted to vote, were made
+eligible for election as members of municipal councils and also as
+associate members of municipal commissions.
+
+[Illustration: THE ACADEMY OF ARTS AND CRAFTS
+
+The Academy of Arts and Crafts is one of the notable institutions which
+make Havana an important centre of culture, both theoretical and
+applied. This great school of technology was opened in 1882, and
+occupies a fine building of dignified and impressive academic
+architecture.]
+
+The provincial and municipal elections occurred on August 1. There were
+in the field three major political parties, namely, the Conservatives,
+the Liberals and the Historical Liberals. The latter two were formed by
+a split which had occurred in the Liberal party. The principal faction
+was led by Jose Miguel Gomez, who claimed to be representative of the
+original and only simon pure Liberals, and who regarded the other
+faction as an illegitimate schism. The followers of Gomez accordingly
+called themselves the Historical Liberal Party, but were popularly known
+as the Miguelistas. The other faction was led by Alfredo Zayas and
+called itself simply the Liberal Party, being popularly known as the
+Zayistas. There was another insignificant faction which had been known
+as the National Independent Party but which now merged itself with the
+Zayistas. The third party was of course the Conservative.
+
+The result of the elections of August 1 was the polling of 269,132 votes
+or about 60 per cent. of the registration. The Conservatives elected
+their candidates for Governor in the three provinces of Pinar del Rio,
+Matanzas and Santa Clara. In the municipalities of the island the
+Conservatives elected twenty-eight mayors, the Miguelistas thirty-five
+and the Zayistas eighteen. The elections were conducted quietly and
+legally, no serious charges of intimidation or fraud were made, and the
+results were loyally accepted by men of all parties.
+
+The campaign for the Presidential election was then continued with much
+zeal. The results of the election of August 1 were taken deeply to heart
+by the various Liberal leaders as demonstrating to them that the split
+in their party would be fatal to them in the national election unless it
+were healed or at least some sort of a modus vivendi were established.
+Accordingly Jose Miguel Gomez and Alfredo Zayas "got together" and
+agreed upon a compromise of their claims. It was altogether apparent
+that Gomez was on the whole the stronger of the two candidates. Also he
+was the older of the two men. Therefore it was agreed that he should
+have the first chance at the Presidency of Cuba. He should be the
+candidate at the coming election of 1908, but if he was successful in
+being elected he should not seek a second term but at the end of his
+first should step aside and give his support to Zayas as his successor.
+With this understanding the party was reunited for the purposes of the
+campaign. Gomez was made the candidate for the Presidency and Zayas was
+nominated for the Vice-Presidency. The Conservatives nominated for the
+Presidency General Mario G. Menocal and for the Vice-Presidency Doctor
+Rafael Montoro.
+
+The campaign was conducted with much spirit and earnestness but
+generally in a dignified and law abiding manner. The chief stock in
+trade of the Liberals was abuse of the former administration of Estrada
+Palma, and of General Menocal as the inheritor of its traditions and
+policies. There were also many intemperate attacks upon Doctor Montoro
+because of his former association with the Autonomist party and the
+brief Autonomist Government during the later part of the War of
+Independence. How insincere this criticism of Dr. Montoro was appeared a
+little later when that statesman was appointed to a very important
+office under the Gomez administration.
+
+The election occurred on November 14, under the general supervision of
+the American Government of Intervention, and was conducted in a peaceful
+and legal manner, giving no cause for serious complaints on either side.
+The result of the polling was a decisive victory for the Liberal party.
+Of the 331,455 votes the Liberals polled 201,199 and the Conservatives
+130,256, there being thus a Liberal majority of 70,943. The Liberals
+carried all six provinces of the island, obtaining their largest
+majorities in Havana, Santa Clara and Oriente. Gomez and Zayas were
+assured of the entire electoral vote, though under the law of
+proportional representation for minorities the Conservatives elected
+thirty-two members of Congress to the Liberals' fifty-one.
+
+Various reasons were assigned for this decisive defeat of General
+Menocal. One was, that the Liberals were in the public eye as coming
+men. It was said that as their leaders had never been tried as directors
+of the Republic, it was time to give them an opportunity to show what
+they could do. The policy which the Liberals had outlined in advance was
+very attractive to certain classes of the population. They promised to
+abolish the law which General Wood had made, prohibiting cock-fighting.
+They even harked back to "Jack" Cade for inspiration, and promised that
+when they came into power there should be no necessity for men to work
+as hard as they had been doing. In token of these two promises they
+adopted as their pictorial emblem in the campaign a plow standing idle
+in a weed-grown field without plowman or oxen, and with a fighting cock
+perched upon its beam. Their campaign cry might therefore appropriately
+have been "Cockfighting and Idleness!" It is not agreeable to recall
+that such issues appealed to so large a proportion of the citizens of
+Cuba that upon them the election of 1908 was won.
+
+Much of the stock in trade of the Liberal campaign consisted also in
+denunciation of General Menocal. The Liberals declared that he was
+representative of the class and the regime that had practically been
+dismissed by the United States government in the Second Intervention,
+namely, the "silk-stocking" or intellectual class, which did not
+sympathize with the people and with the real cause of popular liberty.
+It was also pointed out as though it were an opprobrious fact that
+General Menocal had associated with himself as Vice-Presidential
+candidate Dr. Rafael Montoro, to whose character and ability not even
+the Liberals ventured to take exception, but who had been an Autonomist.
+When this reputed reason for his defeat was mentioned to General Menocal
+he declared that he was willing to accept it, though he did not believe
+it to be the true one; adding that after having been associated with Dr.
+Montoro during the campaign and having intimately exchanged ideas with
+him, he regarded him, Autonomist though he had been, as one of the best
+men Cuba had ever produced, and would more gladly be defeated with him
+than be victorious with the companion of his opponent.
+
+The various provincial and municipal officers who had been elected on
+August 1 took office and the new provincial laws went into effect on
+October 1, 1908. Because of the persistent failure of the Cuban Congress
+hitherto to enact new municipal legislation these were the first local
+officials chosen by the people since the municipal elections which were
+held under the first American Government of Intervention of 1901. Since
+1901 all vacancies occurring in municipal offices had been filled either
+by the votes of the municipal councils themselves or by appointment of
+the national government. This was because no provision had been made for
+their election by the people. Naturally this state of affairs gave great
+dissatisfaction and repeated demands were made by the Liberals for the
+removal of the holdover officials. It was also contended by the Liberals
+that the election of members of the provincial councils in 1905 had
+been illegal. Under the old law provincial governors and councilmen
+were elected for four years and half of the council was renewed every
+two years. Thus half of the council was elected in 1903 and these
+members took their seats in 1904, and half were again elected in 1905
+and took their seats in 1906. The contention of the Liberals was that
+this latter half, of 1905-1906, were illegal. On April 6, 1908, the
+terms of councilmen elected in 1903 and seated in 1904 expired, leaving
+in office only those who had been elected in 1905 and seated in 1906,
+whom the Liberals affected to regard as having been illegally elected,
+and who in any case were not sufficient for a legal quorum. The Liberals
+demanded therefore that all seats be declared vacant and that the powers
+of the provincial assemblies be vested for the time in the Provisional
+Government of Intervention. This was done, and the provincial governors
+were also required to resign. These latter vacancies were filled
+temporarily by the appointment of United States army officers, who
+served until October 1, 1908, when they were succeeded by men elected by
+the Cuban people.
+
+There was undoubtedly great need for a thorough revision of the laws of
+Cuba. Those existing at this time were for the most part a legacy of the
+old Spanish government and it was quite obvious that laws which had been
+enacted by a despotic government for the control of a subject colony
+were not suited for a free and independent republic. They were certainly
+not in harmony with the constitution which had been adopted. It was an
+anomalous state of affairs that after the adoption of the constitution
+Cuban municipalities should continue to be governed under the Spanish
+provincial and municipal code of 1878. This code gave the Central
+Government not only intimate supervision over but practical control of
+all municipal affairs, even to the smallest details, and naturally was
+very unsatisfactory to the people who were desirous of local home rule
+as well as of national independence. In fact the efforts of the national
+authorities to enforce these laws were regarded with displeasure and
+actually caused strong local antagonism to the national government.
+
+Under the second government of intervention, therefore, a commission was
+organized in 1907 consisting of both Cubans and Americans, the former
+being the majority, for the purpose of drafting elaborate codes of
+electoral, municipal, provincial, judiciary and civil service laws. This
+commission completed its work but all its recommendations were not
+adopted. Its provincial and municipal codes were however put into effect
+on October 1, 1908.
+
+The general condition of the island during the second American
+intervention was excellent so far as the maintenance of law and order
+was concerned. This was largely due to the efficient work of the Rural
+Guard, the operations of which were directed by a number of American
+officers detailed for that purpose. While brigandage was not wholly
+suppressed, it was much diminished and held in check.
+
+One of the chief controversies with which the government of intervention
+had to deal was that with the Roman Catholic church over various
+properties formerly belonging to it which had been confiscated by the
+Spanish government. There was some such property in the province of
+Oriente, a part of extensive estates once held by certain monastic
+orders. It had been taken by the Spanish government during the Ten
+Years' War, and at the end of that conflict the government refused to
+return it, but instead of doing so agreed to make an annual
+appropriation for the benefit of the church. Upon the separation of
+State and Church under American intervention in 1899 these
+appropriations were discontinued, whereupon the church claimed that the
+property should be restored to it. The validity of this claim was
+recognized by the American government, but instead of complying with it
+by actual restoration of the property that government purchased a part
+of the property from the church at a price mutually agreed upon as
+satisfactory. It was over the remainder of this property that the
+controversy was renewed, and it was settled by a similar purchase in
+1908. Another such controversy arose over valuable property in Havana,
+which had been taken from the church by the government for the custom
+house and other public offices; and it also was settled by fair purchase
+on July 12, 1907.
+
+After the installation of provincial and municipal officers on October
+1, 1908, and after the successful conduct of the national election on
+November 14 following, the American Government of Intervention busied
+itself chiefly with preparations for withdrawing from the island and
+returning the control and government to the representative of the Cuban
+people. This was finally effected on January 28, 1909, when Governor
+Magoon retired and Jose Miguel Gomez became President of Cuba. The total
+cost to Cuba of the second American intervention was estimated at about
+$6,000,000.
+
+The general feeling of the responsible people of Cuba concerning the
+second American intervention was one of extreme disappointment, owing to
+the fact that they compared it with the intervention under General Wood,
+or rather with the conduct of affairs under him. That first intervention
+was under the control of military officers, and when they made up their
+mind that a thing should be done, it was done, and as a rule well done,
+and the example which was set in directing affairs of the government,
+organizing public works, schools, in sanitation, and in auditing, made
+the second intervention suffer by comparison.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+
+Jose Miguel Gomez became President and Alfredo Zayas became
+Vice-President of the Republic of Cuba on January 28, 1909. With a
+substantial majority in Congress ready to do his will, and with the
+immeasurable prestige of success, first over the Palma Administration
+and later in the contest at the polls, the President was almost
+all-powerful to adopt and to execute whatever designs he had, either for
+the assumed welfare of Cuba or for the strengthening of his own
+political position. He selected a Cabinet of his own supporters, as
+follows:
+
+    Secretary of State, Senor Garcia Velez.
+    Secretary of Justice, Senor Divino.
+    Secretary of Government, Senor Lopez Leiva.
+    Secretary of the Treasury, Senor Diaz de Villegas.
+    Secretary of Public Works, Senor Chalons.
+    Secretary of Agriculture, Commerce and Labor, Senor Foyo.
+    Secretary of Public Instruction and Arts, Senor Meza.
+    Secretary of Sanitation and Charity, Senor Duque.
+    Secretary to the President, Senor Damaso Pasalodos.
+
+Not many of these men had hitherto been conspicuous in the affairs of
+the island, in either peace or war, and their capacity for service was
+untried. It cannot be said that they were regarded with any large degree
+of enthusiastic confidence by the nation at large. Yet there was
+indubitably a general purpose, even among the most resolute
+Conservatives, to give them a fair trial and to wish them success. Men
+who had the welfare of Cuba at heart cherished that welfare far above
+any mere personal or partisan ambitions.
+
+[Illustration: JOSE MIGUEL GOMEZ]
+
+It would not be easy to imagine a man much more different from the first
+President of Cuba than his successor, the second President; though
+indeed the latter was a man of no mean record, especially in war. Jose
+Miguel Gomez was born in Sancti Spiritus on July 6, 1858. He there
+obtained his earlier education, which he continued at the Institute of
+Havana, taking his degree of Bachelor of Arts and Sciences in 1875. He
+joined the revolutionary forces shortly before the end of the Ten Years'
+War. When, after the Zanjon Peace, the struggle broke out afresh, in the
+Little War, Gomez took once more to the field and attained the rank of
+Lieutenant Colonel. This outbreak having failed, he returned to his home
+and devoted himself to managing his father's estate in Sancti Spiritus.
+When once more the Cuban patriots resumed their struggle for the cause
+of independence in 1895, he again answered the call to arms. The action
+of Manajato won for him the rank of Colonel and the command of the
+Sancti Spiritus brigade. He was subsequently promoted to Brigadier
+General and then to the rank of Division General, after the battle of
+Santa Teresa where he was wounded. By the year 1898 he was at the head
+of the first division of the Fourth Army Corps which operated in Santa
+Clara Province. In this command he figured in most of the battles fought
+in that section at the time. The capture of the supposedly impregnable
+ingenio Canambo in the Trinidad Valley was one of the feats of this
+campaign. Also the attack and capture of Jibaro, a town defended by a
+strong contingent, and the operation of strategical importance conducted
+against Arroyo Blanco, are to the General's credit in this campaign, in
+which he was effectively assisted by a remarkable staff of young men,
+who won a reputation for their capability and courage. When the Santa
+Cruz del Sur Assembly met, at the close of the war against Spain,
+General Gomez was elected to represent Santa Clara. Shortly after, he
+formed part of a delegation which was sent to Washington on a diplomatic
+mission. On his return to Cuba he was appointed Civil Governor of the
+Province of Santa Clara on March 14, 1899; which position he held until
+September 27, 1905, when he resigned, having been nominated as the
+candidate of the Liberal party for the Presidency. His years of office
+as Governor of Santa Clara were interrupted by his attending the
+sessions of the Constitutional Convention at Havana, as a delegate from
+Santa Clara. When General Gomez was defeated by President Estrada Palma,
+who ran for re-election, conspiracies and agitations were organized
+which culminated in the revolt of August, 1906, against Estrada Palma's
+administration. Of this conspiracy and agitation Gomez was the organizer
+and leader. The Palma Government having proved its inability to quench
+the uprising, the American authorities intervened, and at the close of
+that intervention, on January 28, 1909, Gomez was installed as President
+of Cuba.
+
+Of different type entirely, yet not unsuited to work with Jose Miguel
+Gomez whenever their mutual interests made cooperation desirable, was
+the new Vice-President, Dr. Alfredo Zayas. He too was a man of
+conspicuous record, in the War of Independence and afterward, though it
+had not been made on the field of battle.
+
+Alfredo Zayas was born on February 21, 1861, and took his degree of
+licentiate in administrative law in 1882 at the University of Havana,
+and the following year in civil and canonic law. He soon acquired a
+reputation as a lawyer and in the world of letters. During the War of
+Independence he was the delegate in Havana of the revolutionary party.
+His activities in this connection having been discovered, he was
+imprisoned in September, 1896, and was sent to Spain and incarcerated at
+several of the prisons of the Spanish Government in Africa. After the
+War of Independence, Dr. Zayas led an active political life. He was the
+founder and Secretary of the Patriotic Committee, was a prominent member
+of the Constituent Convention, of which he acted as Secretary, and was
+foremost in organizing and leading the activities of the National,
+Liberal-National and Liberal parties. He served as Senator from the
+Province of Havana. He was one of the jurists who formed the
+Consultative Committee, appointed to draw up the organic laws of the
+executive and judicial powers, as well as the laws relating to the
+provincial and municipal institutions. At different times he occupied
+the posts of prosecuting attorney, municipal judge, and sub-secretary of
+Justice. During the revolutionary movement which took place in 1906
+against the Estrada Palma administration, Dr. Zayas was president of the
+revolutionary committee. After the provisional administration which
+followed the fall of President Palma, he was elected to the
+Vice-Presidency of the Republic.
+
+[Illustration: DR. ALFREDO ZAYAS]
+
+Dr. Zayas's life in the world of letters is no less interesting. From
+1890-93 he published various periodicals and collaborated in others. He
+has written several books on Cuban history and studies on the language
+of the primitive inhabitants of the Island, on bibliography, on
+questions relating to law and political economy, etc. He is a member of
+the Academy of History and for eleven years was President of the
+Sociedad Economica.
+
+The armed forces of the American government were of course withdrawn
+from Cuba on January 28, 1909, at the same time with the retirement of
+Governor Magoon and the second Government of Intervention, and the
+maintenance of order was left for a time entirely with the Rural Guard.
+That body of men had been very efficient during the American
+intervention and was considered by many to be quite ample for all the
+military purposes of the island. During 1909, however, President Gomez
+decided to organize a permanent Cuban army. To the chief command of this
+he appointed his friend Pino Guerra. The organization consisted of a
+general staff, a brigade of two regiments of infantry of three
+battalions each, amounting to about 2,500 officers and men; two
+batteries of light field artillery and four batteries of mounted
+artillery, amounting to about 800 officers and men; a machine gun corps
+of four companies comprising 500 officers and men; and a corps of coast
+artillery comprising 1,000 officers and men. This force was trained and
+equipped under the direction of officers of the United States army who
+were borrowed for the purpose by the Cuban government.
+
+The administration of President Gomez was marked with the enactment of
+many new laws, and of the undertaking of a number of enterprises. One
+law granted amnesty to all persons excepting those who had been
+convicted of certain peculiarly odious offenses. Another suspended the
+duty on the export of sugar, tobacco and liquors which had been imposed
+by the former Palma administration. On the other hand an additional tax
+was imposed upon all imports. Early in the administration a perpetual
+franchise was granted for telephone service throughout the entire
+Island, an act which was severely criticized on the ground that the
+President himself was believed to derive pecuniary profit from it. Laws
+were also enacted in 1909, legalizing cock fighting and establishing the
+national lottery.
+
+In 1910, the second year of this administration, President Gomez began
+to manifest marked sensitiveness toward the criticisms which were made
+of his administration, and on February 3, two editors were convicted of
+libelling him, because they had accused him of deriving profit from
+governmental activities, and they were sentenced to terms of
+imprisonment. In April, he appointed to a place in his cabinet Senor
+Morua, a negro, and the first member of that race to hold cabinet office
+in Cuba. In July an insurrection occurred in Oriente near the town of El
+Caney, which was suppressed by the Rural Guards with little difficulty.
+
+The active participation of government officers in party politics led to
+a disturbing incident at the beginning of August. At that time the
+Secretary of the Treasury, Senor Villegas, attended a convention of the
+Liberal party where he became involved in a violent quarrel. In
+consequence, the president ordered that thereafter no member of the
+Cabinet should be permitted to attend political meetings, or engage in
+active political work; whereupon Villegas resigned his place in the
+Cabinet.
+
+In November, congressional elections were held to elect half of the
+members of the House of Representatives. During the campaign the former
+quarrel in the Liberal party became acute. One faction started a violent
+agitation for the suppression of all religious orders in the Island, for
+the abolition of trusts in business, and for the prohibition of the
+holding of property in Cuba by foreign corporations. The other faction
+took for the chief plank in its platform the repudiation of the Platt
+Amendment. An attempt was also made by the negro members of the party to
+organize a third faction, comprising exclusively the members of their
+race. Because of these dissensions in the Liberal party the
+Conservatives made a somewhat better showing at the election than they
+had done in 1908, but the Liberals were generally successful and secured
+a majority in Congress.
+
+At the opening of the session, President Gomez urged revision of the
+tariff in order to provide fuller protection for certain manufacturing
+industries; the building of a new Palace of Justice; and the
+establishment at state expense of public libraries in the chief cities.
+During this year an attempt was made to assassinate General Pino Guerra,
+but it was unsuccessful. The would-be assassin was arrested and Guerra
+professed to recognize in him an officer of the police who had had some
+grudge against him. Alfredo Zayas and Frank Steinhart, the former United
+States Consul General, also made public complaints of attempts to
+assassinate them, and reported the matter to the Supreme Court, but that
+tribunal declined to investigate their charges. An attempt was made to
+connect the attempted assassination of General Guerra with a bill
+pending before Congress, which provided that the head of the army should
+not be removed excepting for cause. It was said that this bill was
+strongly opposed by the Commander of the Rural Guards, and that he had
+in consequence incited the attempt to assassinate Guerra. There was
+much public discussion and agitation of this matter, but nothing
+practical resulted from it.
+
+Charges continued to be made increasingly of the profligacy and
+corruption of the Gomez administration. It was charged, doubtless with
+much truth, that the number of public offices and office holders had
+been unnecessarily multiplied to a scandalous extent for the sake of
+giving profitable jobs to the friends of Liberal leaders. It was also
+intimated that the Government had subsidized the press to suppress the
+truth concerning these and other charges, and thus to avoid an open
+scandal which might result in a third American intervention. Taxation
+was declared to be excessive and oppressive, amounting in some cases to
+as much as 30 per cent. of the value of the property. Other charges were
+that public offices, executive, legislative and even judicial, were
+practically sold to the highest bidder for cash; that concessions for
+public utilities were similarly disposed of for the profit not of the
+public but of members of the Government, and that then extortionate
+prices were charged to the public for the service rendered; that the
+natural resources of Cuba were thus being parceled out to speculators
+for cash; that a bill purporting to be for the improvement of the ports
+had increased four-fold the expenses of those ports, for the enrichment
+of a speculative company, and that in general the functions of the
+government were being perverted to the uses and the personal enrichment
+of a ring of Liberal politicians.
+
+As the date of the electoral campaign of 1912 drew near, the conduct of
+the administration became such as to incur the menace of another
+intervention. In January of that year an arbitrary attempt was made by
+President Gomez to thwart the activities and impair the influence of the
+Veterans' Association, by forbidding army officers and members of the
+Rural Guard to attend any of its meetings, on the pretended ground that
+they were engaged in factional political agitation. As the organization
+was in no sense a partisan affair, but was composed of men of varying
+shades of political opinion who had the good of Cuba at heart, and who
+strove to avert the danger of further intervention by making and keeping
+the Cuban government above reproach, this decree of the President's was
+sharply resented and was openly disobeyed by many army officers. When on
+the evening of Sunday, January 14, 1912, many officers and Rural Guards
+attended a meeting of the National Council of the Veterans' Association,
+and were received with much enthusiasm, the situation caused so much
+disquiet that the United States government felt constrained to send a
+note of warning to President Gomez, stating that it was much concerned
+over the state of affairs in Cuba; that the laws must be enforced and
+order maintained; and that the President of the United States looked to
+the President and government of Cuba to see to it that there was no need
+of a third intervention.
+
+This note evoked from President Gomez the declaration that matters in
+Cuba were not in as bad a state as had been reported, and that he had
+the whole situation well in hand. General Emilio Nunez, the head of the
+Veterans' Association, declared that that organization would remain firm
+in its object to guarantee peace, to moralize the Administration, and to
+spread patriotism in the hearts of the people; and that it protested
+against that which might be a menace to the freedom and independence of
+Cuba, with confidence that the people of the United States would never
+regard its unselfish and patriotic campaign as an excuse for unwarranted
+intervention. He added that the Association had not sought to annul the
+law against participation in politics by the army, but resented the
+charge in the Presidents' decree that it was "playing politics."
+"Patriotically we shall make every sacrifice, but we shall never resign
+ourselves to be miserable slaves dominated by irresponsible power
+untrammelled by laws or principles."
+
+The leaders of the Liberal party were by no means a unit in attitude
+toward the crisis, the antagonism already mentioned between President
+Gomez and Vice-President Zayas flaming up anew. The newspaper organ of
+the Zayista faction openly declared: "We are on the brink of an abyss,
+whither we have been brought by the stubborn stupidity of a portion of
+the administration and by flagrant contempt for Congress and its
+enactments. These things have brought on all our existing ills." Orestes
+Ferrara, Speaker of the House of Representatives, much alarmed at the
+menace of intervention which might on this occasion have been as
+disastrous to the Liberals as the former intervention had been to the
+administration of Estrada Palma, declared that party differences must be
+dropped and that "We must resign our passions and ambitions to save Cuba
+from another shameful foreign domination."
+
+Meantime the masses of thoughtful, patriotic citizens, disgusted with
+what they regarded as governmental extravagance and corruption, held
+themselves in admirable restraint, hoping that the peril of intervention
+would be in some way avoided until they could have an opportunity of
+permanently averting it through the election of a government which would
+give the United States no further cause for anxiety or for even a
+thought of resuming control of Cuban affairs. The crisis was thus
+fortunately passed, and the settlement of the Cuban people with the
+administration of Jose Miguel Gomez was postponed, as was fitting, until
+the fall elections.
+
+There followed a little later another ominous incident, for which
+President Gomez was largely responsible, but which he repudiated and
+dealt with in an energetic and efficient manner. The attempt, already
+referred to, at the organization of a negro party in the election
+campaign of 1910 was followed in May, 1912, by the outbreak of what
+seemed to be a formidable negro revolt. The leaders of this movement
+were two negro friends of Gomez, General Estenoz and General Ivonnet.
+They had been officers in the War of Independence, and it was said that
+Gomez had promised them and their negro followers great rewards if they
+would support him in his campaign for the presidency. When these
+promises were unfulfilled, these two men went through the Island urging
+the negroes to organize a political party of their own, which would
+probably hold the balance of power between the Conservatives and
+Liberals. Because of their violent agitation to this end they were
+arrested and imprisoned for a time. Then they were released and treated
+with much consideration. Indeed, they were offered appointment to
+offices, which, however, they declined. Instead, they renewed their
+agitation, and on May 22 an open revolt under their leadership occurred.
+So serious did the situation appear that an appeal was made to the
+United States Government, and preparations were actually made to send a
+naval and military expedition to protect the lives and property of
+Americans in the Island. President Gomez, however, rallied his military
+forces with much energy, and on June 14 completely routed the main body
+of the insurgents, capturing all their supplies of ammunition and
+provisions. This practically ended the trouble. Estenoz was killed in
+the fighting, and Ivonnet was captured and then killed; "in an attempt
+to escape."
+
+Another embarrassment for the passing administration occurred in August,
+1912, when the United States government called upon President Gomez to
+make prompt settlement of certain claims which had been pending for two
+years, amounting to more than $500,000, and growing out of contracts for
+the waterworks and sanitation of the city of Cienfuegos. President Gomez
+protested that the Cuban treasury was without funds for the purpose, and
+that it would be necessary to wait until Congress could make a special
+appropriation. This reply was not convincing, seeing that payment of
+these identical claims had been made in a loan of $10,000,000 which the
+Cuban government had made in New York with the approval of the United
+States; and it was naturally assumed at Washington either that the money
+had been spent for other purposes or that it was being purposely
+withheld by President Gomez on some technicality or for some ulterior
+motive.
+
+As an incident of this controversy, in the closing days of August, the
+Liberal press of Havana conducted a campaign of vilification against
+Hugh S. Gibson, the American Charge d'Affaires in Cuba, which culminated
+in a personal assault upon that gentleman by Enrique Maza, a member of
+the staff of one of the papers. This outrage provoked a sharp protest
+from the Washington government, in terms which implied a menace of
+action if reparation were not made. This alarmed President Gomez, and
+caused him to make at least a show of punishing the offender, and to
+write a long message of apology and pleading to President Taft, in which
+he promised to deal with Maza and with the newspapers which had been
+slandering Mr. Gibson, to the full extent of the law, and begged for a
+reassuring statement of friendship from the United States government.
+Ultimately Maza was punished by imprisonment, and the penalty of the law
+was also applied to Senor Soto, the responsible editor of one of the
+papers which had most libelled the American Charge d'Affaires. The
+Cienfuegos claim was also paid; but because of it an attempt was made to
+enact a law excluding all foreign contractors from participation in
+Cuban public works!
+
+The Presidential election occurred on November 1, and resulted, as we
+shall hereafter see, in assurance that the Liberal party would be
+retired from power in May of the following year, and that the government
+of the island would be confided to the hands of those who had striven to
+uphold the wise and patriotic administration of Estrada Palma. In the
+few remaining months of his administration President Gomez pursued
+substantially the same policy that had marked the preceding years. In
+March, 1913, Congress enacted an Amnesty bill which would have meant a
+general jail delivery throughout the Island, and which President Gomez
+was strongly inclined to sign. He was restrained at the last moment from
+doing so, however, by the energetic protests of the United States
+government, which indeed were tantamount to an ultimatum; and instead
+returned the measure to Congress with his veto, and with a
+recommendation that it be revised so as to avoid the objections of the
+United States--though he did not directly mention the United States--and
+then repassed. This was done and the modified bill became a law at the
+middle of April.
+
+In addition to the general extravagance of the Gomez administration, the
+overcrowding of all government offices with superfluous and incompetent
+placeholders, and the expenditure of more than $140,000,000 within two
+and a half years, there were several specific performances which
+provoked severe censure. One of these was the installation of the
+National Lottery, which was done by vote of Congress at the dictation of
+the President. The pretext given for this was that Cubans loved to
+gamble, and that if they had no lottery of their own they would send
+their money to Madrid, for chances in the lottery there; and it was
+better to keep their money in Cuba than to have it sent to Spain.
+
+Another act of the administration which incurred strong censure and
+which was ultimately repealed by the government of President Menocal,
+with the approval of the courts, was what was commonly known as the
+"Dragado deal." This was the granting to a speculative corporation
+composed chiefly of Liberal politicians and called the Ports Improvement
+Company of Cuba, of an omnibus concession for the dredging of harbors,
+reclaiming of coastal swamp lands, and similar works; for which the
+corporation was authorized to collect port fees, including a heavy
+surtax on imported merchandise, of which a small proportion would go to
+the government and the remainder to the coffers of the corporation. This
+concession was granted by President Gomez in 1911, against the advice of
+the United States government, and against strong and widespread protests
+from the people and press of Cuba, by whom it was regarded as a
+monstrous piece of corrupt jobbery. While it was in force, this
+concession paid millions of dollars a year to its holders, with an
+almost undiscernible minimum of advantage to the nation.
+
+Following this came a bargain with the railroads centering in Havana, by
+which the arsenal grounds belonging to the Republic and comprising a
+large and valuable tract lying immediately on the Bay of Havana were
+given to those companies in exchange for two comparatively small plots
+which had been occupied by them as a terminal station and warehouse. In
+addition the railroad companies agreed to build, or to provide the money
+for building, a new Presidential Palace, which President Gomez hoped to
+have finished in time for his own occupancy. This exchange was, in
+itself, undoubtedly a good thing. It gave the railroads an admirable
+site for the great terminal which they needed and which is now one of
+the valuable assets of Havana and indeed of Cuba. But the manner in
+which the bargain was made, the exercise of political influence, and the
+strong and unrefuted suspicion of the corrupt employment of pecuniary
+considerations, brought upon the transaction strong reprobation. An
+ironic sequel was that the work which was done on the proposed new
+palace was so bad that it presently had all to be torn down.
+
+Fortunately there was no relaxation in the maintenance of sanitary
+measures for the prevention of epidemics, and while there was little or
+no road building or other such public works those already constructed
+were generally well maintained. The judgment of thoughtful and impartial
+men upon the administration of Jose Miguel Gomez was therefore that it
+had contained some good and much evil, and that even the good had been
+done too often in an unworthy if not an actually evil way. It had been
+the administration of an astute and not over-scrupulous politician, who
+sought to serve first his own interests, next those of his party and
+friends, and last those of the nation, and not that of an enlightened
+and patriotic statesman, seeking solely to promote the welfare of the
+people who had chosen him to be their chief executive.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+
+The fourth Presidential campaign in Cuba began in the spring of 1912.
+The Liberal administration had given the nation a thorough taste of its
+quality, with the result that there was a strong reaction against it on
+the part of many who had been its zealous upholders. The compact between
+Jose Miguel Gomez and Alfredo Zayas was, however, carried out, the
+former not seeking re-election but standing aside in favor of the
+latter, who accordingly received the Presidential nomination at the
+convention which was held on April 15. Before this, on April 7, the
+Conservative convention by unanimous vote and with great enthusiasm
+nominated General Mario G. Menocal for President, and Enrique Jose
+Varona for President. The campaign was conducted with much determination
+on both sides, but in a generally orderly fashion, and the election,
+which occurred on November 1, was also conducted in a creditable manner.
+Although the Liberals had made extravagant claims in advance, the result
+of the polling was a decisive victory for General Menocal, who easily
+carried every one of the six provinces. This result was due in part to
+the popular revulsion against the corruption of the Liberal
+administration, and partly to the immense popularity of the Conservative
+candidate and his admirable record as a useful public servant in various
+capacities.
+
+[Illustration: MARIO G. MENOCAL
+
+The third President of the Republic of Cuba, General Mario G. Menocal,
+comes of one of the most distinguished families in Latin America. He was
+born at Jaguey Grande, Cuba, on December 17, 1866, was educated at
+Cornell University, New York, and became associated in professional and
+business work with his uncle, Aniceto G. Menocal, the distinguished
+canal and railroad engineer. He entered the War of Independence at the
+beginning and served to the end with distinction. He was defeated for
+the Presidency in 1908, but was elected in 1912 and reelected in 1916.
+His history is the history of Cuba for the last seven years.]
+
+Mario G. Menocal, who was thus chosen to be the head of the Cuban
+Republic, came of an old Havana family, traditionally revolutionary, and
+was born in Jaguey Grande, Matanzas, in December, 1866. When his family
+emigrated, as a consequence of his father having taken part in the Ten
+Years' War, Mario Menocal began his education in the United States. He
+was graduated at Cornell University with the Class of 1888 and took his
+degree as Civil Engineer. No sooner was he graduated than his uncle,
+Aniceto G. Menocal, the distinguished engineer of the Isthmian Canals,
+summoned him to his side to work with him at Nicaragua. In 1893 he went
+to Cuba as engineer of a French Company to exploit a salt mine at Cayo
+Romano. He was working on the construction of the Santa Cruz railway in
+Camaguey when the War of Independence broke out in 1895. On June 5 of
+that year he joined the forces of Commander Alejandro Rodriguez as a
+private. At the attack on Fort Ramblazo he was promoted to sergeant, and
+it was not long before his military talents had won for him the rank of
+Lieutenant Colonel.
+
+[Illustration: BIRTHPLACE AND BOYHOOD HOME OF PRESIDENT MARIO G.
+MENOCAL, JAGUEY GRANDE, MATANZAS]
+
+When the Revolutionary Government was constituted on September 15, 1895,
+Colonel Menocal was appointed Assistant Secretary of War, and in that
+capacity assisted Generals Gomez and Maceo in organizing the "invasion"
+contingent. He later joined the Third Army Corps under Mayia Rodriguez,
+and remained with it until the beginning of 1896 when he was called by
+General Calixto Garcia, who had just reached the Island and who made
+Menocal his Chief of Staff. Thereafter his name was associated with
+Garcia's brilliant campaign in Oriente.
+
+Among the many battles in which Colonel Menocal took part were the
+hard-fought engagements of La Gloria, Bellezas, Moscones, Hierba de
+Guinea, and the great struggle at Guantanamo, in July, 1896, against two
+Spanish columns which were cut apart and were obliged to abandon the
+Ramon de las Yaguas zone. In August the agricultural regions of Holguin
+were invaded and the Loma de Heirro fort seized, artillery being used
+for the first time in the war. This feat caused his promotion to the
+rank of Colonel. He then was active in the Sierra Maestra Mountains to
+meet Mendez's expedition. In October, Menocal seized Guaimaro,
+conducting personally the assault on Fort Gonfan, having captured which,
+he was made Brigadier General.
+
+In November, 1896, he took part in the battles of Alta Conchita and
+Lugones against Gen. Pando. Later he was present at the siege of Jiguani
+(April 13, 1897) and at Tuaheque, Jacaibama and Jucaibanita against Vara
+del Rey and Nicolas Rey, and at Baire he fought at the battle of
+Ratonera. It was at this time that Gen. Calixto Garcia made him Chief of
+the 3rd Division of the 2nd Corps, which included the western part of
+Holguin and Tunas. At the head of these forces he organized the attack
+and capture of Tunas, which was achieved by Gen. Calixto Garcia, August
+30, 1897, Menocal having been wounded in a trench assault.
+
+This strategic success won for him an immediate promotion to Division
+General. In November, 1897, he attacked Fort Guamo on the Cauto River,
+one of the bloodiest events of the war, and took part in the battles of
+Cayamos, Monte Oscuro, Nabraga and Aguacatones, succeeding in this
+latter in seizing Tejeda's supply train.
+
+In March, 1898, he was appointed Chief of the 5th Army Corps, to join
+which he marched at the head of 200 select men, among whom were many
+prominent figures of the war--many still alive--as General Sartorius,
+Colonels Aurelio Hevea, Enrique Nunez, Federico Mendizabal, Pablo,
+Gustavo and Tomas Menocal, Rafael Pena, Carlos Manuel de Cespedes,
+Commander Manuel Secades, Miguel Coyula, Ignacio Weber, Alberto de
+Cardenas, Antonio Calzades and Domingo Herrera. With this brave
+contingent, and assisted by the forces of Gen. Agramonte, Gen. Menocal
+passed the Trocha at its most dangerous point between Ciego de Avila and
+Jucaro. After a fifty days' march from Holguin, they reached Havana,
+relieving Gen. Alejandro Rodriguez of his command as Chief of the 5th
+Army Corps.
+
+Gen. Menocal was in this command when the American Intervention came,
+and cooperated with the American authorities in maintaining public order
+in Havana while the evacuation of the Spanish troops took place. Then
+General Ludlow appointed him Chief of the Havana Police, which body he
+organized, giving posts under him to the most distinguished chiefs of
+the Province of Havana. In 1899 he was appointed Inspector of Light
+Houses and subsequently Inspector of Public Works, which offices he
+resigned to manage Central Chaparra, in June, 1899.
+
+It is difficult to speak without danger of apparent exaggeration of the
+incommensurable work of General Menocal at Chaparra, as a true "captain
+of industry." There what were formerly barren fields have been
+transformed by something more than the touch of a magician's wand into
+the greatest sugar-producing establishment in the world. Nor does it
+consist merely of the gigantic mills. Houses for homes, schools, stores,
+churches, surround it, forming a city of no fewer than 30,000 prosperous
+inhabitants, devoted to the manufacture of sugar. Of this unique
+community, General Menocal was the chief creator and for years the
+responsible head. Even it, however, did not monopolize his attention,
+for he organized and managed also great sugar mills at San Manuel, Las
+Delicias, and elsewhere.
+
+In 1903 General Menocal was appointed by President Palma to be one of a
+Commission for the negotiation of a loan for the payment of the soldiers
+of the army in the War of Independence, together with Gonzalo de Quesada
+and D. Mendez Capote. Three years later he was conspicuous and active in
+the Veteran movement which strove to avert the necessity of the second
+American intervention. In 1908, as we have seen, he was nominated for
+the Presidency, with Dr. Montoro for the Vice-Presidency, but was
+defeated. Again he was nominated for the Presidency, with Enrique Jose
+Varona as candidate for the Vice-Presidency, and was elected for the
+term of 1913-1917; at the expiration of which he was reelected, with
+General Emilio Nunez as Vice-President.
+
+[Illustration: ENRIQUE JOSE VARONA
+
+Poet, philosopher and statesman, Enrique Jose Varona y Pera was born in
+Camaguey in 1849. Before attaining his majority he had published a
+volume of poems. Later he was the author of "Philosophical Lectures,"
+"Commentaries on Spanish Grammar and Literature," "The Intellectual
+Movement in America," "Cain in Modern Literature," "Idealism" and
+"Naturalism." He was a Deputy from Cuba to the Spanish Cortes; editor of
+_The Cuban Review_ and _Patria_, the latter the organ of the
+patriots--in New York--in the War of Independence; Secretary of Finance
+and Public Instruction during the Governorship of Leonard Wood; and
+Vice-President of the Republic during the first administration of
+President Menocal, in 1913-1917. For many years he has been Professor of
+Philosophy in the University of Havana.]
+
+Enrique Jose Varona, who thus became Vice-President of Cuba in 1913,
+ranked as one of the foremost scholars and writers of the nation. He was
+born in Camaguey on April 13, 1849, and in early life adopted the career
+of a man of letters in addition to serving the public in political
+matters. He was at once an orator of rare eloquence, a philosopher of
+profound learning, and a poet of exceptional charm. He served,
+before the War of Independence, as a Deputy in the Spanish Cortes from
+Cuba; he wrote the famous plea for Cuban independence entitled "Cuba
+contra Espana," which was translated into a number of languages; and
+under the administration of General Wood was Secretary of Public
+Instruction and of the Treasury. He was once President of the
+Anthropological Society of Cuba, and was a Member of the Academy of
+History. He has written numerous books, comprising philosophical
+disquisitions, essays on nature and art, and lyrical poetry.
+
+Dr. Rafael Montoro, who was refused election to the Vice-Presidency in
+1908, has since that date been kept in the service of his country in
+highly important capacities, and now, as Secretary to the Presidency, is
+most intimately associated with President Menocal, and exerts an
+exceptional degree of usefulness in many directions to the national
+welfare of the Cuban Republic.
+
+Rafael Montoro was born in Havana on October 24, 1852. He received his
+primary education in Havana and in his tenth year was taken to Europe
+and to the United States. He was a pupil of the Charlier Institute in
+New York until 1865. Having returned to Havana he took up his
+preparatory studies at the school of San Francisco de Asis. In 1867 he
+returned to Europe with his family, which settled in Madrid. Here he
+spent his youth until 1878, devoting himself to literary and
+intellectual activities; he contributed to various periodicals, was
+editor of the "Revista Contemporanea"; second secretary of the Ateneo de
+Madrid; vice president of the Moral and Political Sciences Section of
+that institution; second secretary of the Spanish Writers' and Artists'
+Association, etc. On his return to Cuba he took an active part in
+constituting and organizing the Liberal Party, which seized the first
+opportunity to uphold the cause of Colonial Autonomy, calling itself the
+Autonomist Liberal Party. In 1879 he was elected a member of the Central
+Junta of the party and in the first elections after Cuba had been
+granted the right of representation at the Cortes took place, he was
+elected a Deputy from the province of Havana. Later he continued working
+for his party as editor of its organ _El Triunfo_, which became _El
+Pais_, and as an orator in meetings and assemblies. In 1886 he was
+reelected Deputy to the Cortes from the province of Camaguey and yearly
+went to Spain during the period of the Legislature, being a member of
+the Autonomist minority headed by Rafael Maria de Labra. The Sociedad
+Economica de Amigo del Pais appointed Dr. Montoro a Special Delegate to
+the Junta de Information which met at Madrid in 1890, the principal
+economic institutions of Cuba having been previously invited by the
+Spanish Colonial Department. The purpose of this Junta was to report on
+the tariff regime of the Island and on the proposed commercial treaty
+with the United States, as suggested by the famous McKinley Bill of
+1890. Towards the middle of 1895 he returned to his activities in Havana
+as editorial writer of _El Pais_ and member of the Central Junta of the
+Party.
+
+When autonomy was granted in 1898, he formed part, as Secretary of the
+Treasury, of the Cabinet organized by Jose Maria Galvez, the head of the
+party since its foundation in 1878. When Spanish rule came to an end, as
+a consequence of the war and of the American intervention, and the
+Autonomist Government ceased, Dr. Montoro retired to private life. In
+1900 and 1901 he was appointed to but did not accept the professorship
+of philosophy and history in the University of Havana. He was a member
+of the Committee which was to undertake the reform of the Municipal
+suffrage legislation under Governor Brooke and of the Committee charged
+by General Wood with the revision of the legislation on the importation
+tariff.
+
+In 1902 Dr. Montoro was appointed by the Palma administration as Envoy
+Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the Court of St. James. In
+1904 he was appointed also Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
+Plenipotentiary in Germany, which caused him to reside alternately in
+both countries until 1906 when he was appointed with Gonzalo de Quesada
+and Gonzales Lanuza a delegate of the Republic to the Third Pan-American
+International Conference held at Rio de Janeiro. In the same year he was
+confirmed in both his posts, at London and Berlin, by Governor Magoon,
+as were the other members of the diplomatic and consular corps, but
+later he was appointed a member of the Consultive Committee on Laws. In
+1907 he was one of the founders of the National Conservative Party, of
+which he was appointed second vice-president, and was nominated as the
+Party's candidate for the Vice-Presidency of the Republic, with General
+Menocal as Presidential Candidate.
+
+When General Jose M. Gomez took possession of the Government as
+President, Dr. Montoro was confirmed in his posts as Minister at Berlin
+and London, returning to Europe to remain there until 1910, in which
+year he was appointed by President Gomez a delegate to the Fourth
+Pan-American International Conference, which took place at Buenos Aires.
+At this Conference he was elected to preside over the seventh section of
+Consular documents, Tariff regulations, Census and Commercial
+Statistics.
+
+In 1910 and 1911, respectively, he ceased his posts as Minister at
+Berlin and London to become Diplomatic Advisor of the State Department.
+In 1913 he was appointed Secretary of the Presidency under General
+Menocal to which post he gave an importance which it had lacked
+theretofore. In this capacity he still is an assiduous and valuable
+collaborator of the Menocal Administration.
+
+Of Dr. Montoro's writings the following have been collected in book
+form: "Political and Parliamentary Speeches; Reports and Dissertations"
+(1878-1893), Philadelphia, 1894. "Elements of Moral and Civic
+Instruction" (1903).
+
+Dr. Montoro is a member of the National Academy of Arts and Letters of
+which he was elected Director in 1812. He was President of the Executive
+Committee at Havana of the 2nd Pan-American Scientific Congress (1915)
+and was a member of the High Committee for Cuba of the Pan-American
+Financial Congress (1917) and of the American Institute of International
+Law (1916).
+
+President Menocal gathered about himself a Cabinet of representative
+Cubans, selected for their ability rather than on grounds of personal
+favor or political advantage; two of them, the Secretaries of Justice
+and Education, being members of the Liberal party. The places were
+filled as follows:
+
+    Secretary of Government, Cosimo de la Torriente.
+    Secretary of the Interior, Aurelio Hevea.
+    Secretary of the Treasury, Leopoldo Cancio.
+    Secretary of Health and Charities, Enrique Nunez.
+    Secretary of Justice, Cristobal de la Guardia.
+    Secretary of Agriculture, Emilio Nunez.
+    Secretary of Public Works, Jose Villalon.
+    Secretary of Education, Ezequiel Garcia.
+
+[Illustration: RAFAEL MONTORO
+
+Called by Cabrera "Our Great Montoro" and by others the "Cuban
+Castelar," Dr. Rafael Montoro has long been eminent in the public life
+of Cuba as a scholar, writer, orator, statesman, diplomat,
+administrator, and unwavering and resolute patriot The record of his
+services to Cuba, as Ambassador to the foremost courts of Europe, as
+Secretary to the Presidency, and in other distinguished capacities at
+home and abroad, forms a brilliant passage elsewhere in this History of
+Cuba.]
+
+The spirit in which the new President began his work, and the spirit
+which animated his associates in the government, was admirably expressed
+by him soon after his election and before his inauguration, in a frank,
+informal but very serious personal conversation. "What," he was asked,
+"does Cuba need? And what do you expect to accomplish as her President?"
+
+"Cuba," replied General Menocal, "needs an honest administration of its
+governmental affairs; and that is what I can give it and will give it.
+But more than that, Cuba needs more citizens anxious to develop its
+marvellous resources and fewer citizens anxious to hold office. I was
+not elected as a politician, and I have no ambition to succeed as a
+politician."
+
+[Illustration: DR. JUAN GUITERAS
+
+One of the foremost physicians and scientists of Cuba, Dr. Juan Guiteras
+is the son of the distinguished educator Eusebio Guiteras, and was born
+at Matanzas on January 4, 1852. He collaborated with Dr. Carlos J.
+Finlay in the discovery and demonstration of the transmission of yellow
+fever by mosquitoes, and contributed much to the eradication of that and
+other pestilences from Cuba. Under President Menocal's administration he
+was made Director of Sanitation. He was a delegate to the second
+Pan-American Scientific Congress at Washington in 1916.]
+
+Reference being made to the menace of revolution, President Menocal
+said, with emphasis:
+
+"There will be no revolution under my administration. There may be
+outbreaks headed by disappointed politicians or military adventurers,
+but they will be crushed and their leaders will be punished. The day is
+past when men of this class can arrest the orderly processes of
+government. I shall have back of me not only a loyal army, but also a
+loyal people who are determined to show to the United States and to the
+world that Cuba realizes her responsibilities and is capable of
+self-government. I shall appoint honest men, and will guarantee that
+they honestly administer their duties. I shall urge the passage of
+honest taxation laws, and have faith that the people will respond by
+electing men who will assist me to make Cuba worthy of the favors which
+God has lavished upon her."
+
+With such purposes and with such expectations he entered upon his great
+work. Unfortunately there was not a majority upon which he could depend
+in Congress to enact the measures which were needed for the welfare of
+Cuba. Indeed, there was a hostile majority, as we shall see, which
+deliberately set itself to embarrass and thwart him in his undertakings.
+But that had merely the effect which obstacles usually have upon men who
+are really brave and strong. It indeed made his work more difficult, but
+it did not turn him from his purpose nor defeat his efforts. Rather did
+it give him all the greater credit and honor, to have achieved so much
+in the face of so much opposition.
+
+General Mario G. Menocal became President and Senor Enrique Jose Varona
+became Vice-President of Cuba on May 20, 1913, the tenth anniversary of
+the establishment of the independent Cuban Government. The President
+delivered his first message to Congress on the following day. It was an
+eminently practical, statesman-like and businesslike document, in which
+he modestly promised a wise and prudent administration of his office,
+and especially an immediate reform of the finances of the Government,
+which was notoriously much needed. As a small beginning of this reform,
+he offered to do away with the usual appropriation of $25,000 for
+Presidential secret service. Many debts had been left over by the former
+administration and he purposed to address himself to the liquidation of
+these, so far as they had been honestly contracted. The notorious
+Dragado concession was repealed on August 4, and a commission was
+appointed to investigate the methods of the company. As a result of this
+and other investigations, the former Secretary of Public Works, and
+Auditor were indicted for misappropriation of public funds, and various
+other officers were prosecuted.
+
+The President desired to obtain a loan of $15,000,000 with which to pay
+off the debts which had been left to him by his predecessor, and also
+for urgent road work, and the paving and sewering of the streets of
+Havana. This was, however, refused him by Congress, and that body, under
+the domination of the Liberals, refused to pass any budget whatever.
+President Menocal was therefore compelled to declare the budget of the
+preceding year still in force, pending the adoption of new financial
+provisions. Hoping to persuade or to compel Congress to perform its
+constitutional duty, he called that body together in special session in
+July and again in October, but on both occasions the Liberals all
+absented themselves and thus prevented the securing of a quorum. These,
+it will be observed, were similar to the tactics which the same party in
+Congress had employed against President Palma in their malignant
+campaign for the overthrow of his administration. But President Menocal
+was not thus to be overthrown. When the Liberals in October, a second
+time, refused to perform their duty he issued a manifesto in which he
+seriously criticized them and made it plain that no such methods would
+be permitted to interfere with the legitimate work of Government. Rumors
+were indeed current that he would resort to compulsion if persuasion
+failed. The Liberals attempted to reply with a countermanifesto
+protesting against his action as a usurpation of congressional
+authority, declaring their opposition to the making of the proposed
+loan, and pretending that it would be illegal to hold the special
+session which he had called for October.
+
+The President exercised patience and waited until November 2, when the
+regular session of Congress opened, and the Liberals took their seats.
+At this time the Liberals practically stultified themselves by agreeing
+to discuss and finally to approve the loan project which they had
+formerly opposed. After transacting this and some other business,
+Congress adjourned in December.
+
+Among the reforms which President Menocal promptly undertook to effect
+was the abolition of the national lottery which had been established
+during the Gomez administration. In his messages and through the
+influence of all legitimate presidential influence he strove to abolish
+this form of legalized gambling. His arguments were that the low price
+of the tickets, only 25c, and the appeal which was thus made to the poor
+and ignorant, to servants and working women as well as to men, had
+caused great injury and had brought about a certain degree of moral
+decline among the masses of the people. It had induced many individuals
+to borrow money and even to steal in order to purchase lottery tickets,
+in the delusive hope of winning one of the large prizes, which ran up to
+$100,000, and thus exempting themselves from the necessity of work for
+the rest of their lives. The lottery, it is true, yielded a considerable
+revenue each year for the government, but General Menocal regarded this
+as far more than counter-balanced by the social and moral evil which it
+wrought, and by the reproach which it brought upon the good name of the
+Republic. He was unable, however, to persuade Congress to abolish it,
+partly because of the popular love of gambling which so largely pervades
+Latin American countries, and partly--perhaps chiefly--because the
+privilege of selling tickets at wholesale, at a handsome profit, was
+farmed out to many members of Congress.
+
+At the beginning of his administration, President Menocal found all the
+Government offices crowded with the appointees of the former
+administration. A great many of them were entirely superfluous and a
+great many of them were also entirely incompetent to fill their places.
+There was, therefore, a considerable clearing out of placeholders. There
+might have been, of course, what is known in America as a "clean sweep,"
+and this was urged by a few of the President's friends. But General
+Menocal would listen to no such proposition. A Civil Service law had
+indeed been formulated by the Consulting Commission presided over by
+General Crowder, and had been in force since 1907, and while an
+unscrupulous executive might have evaded its provisions, General Menocal
+was a believer in the merit system, and in secure tenure of office for
+men who were doing their duty. He therefore refused positively to remove
+a single man merely because of his political affiliations. So far as
+placeholders were dismissed, they were dismissed because of incompetence
+or dishonesty, or because their services were superfluous. As a result
+of this enlightened policy, it is true, President Menocal was compelled
+to conduct his administration through the agency of a staff, the
+majority of which was composed of his political opponents. He even
+appointed two Liberals to his cabinet, while nearly all the foreign
+ministers and consuls and important officers of the various departments
+were members of that party, holding over from the Gomez administration.
+It cannot be said that this policy was in all cases appreciated by those
+who personally profited from it, for some of these officeholders did not
+scruple to engage in intrigues against the President whose generosity
+retained them in their places.
+
+The United States Government retained a certain supervision over some of
+the acts of the Cuban Government. Thus, as hitherto stated, in March,
+1913, an amnesty bill had been passed at the instance of the Gomez
+administration, which would have set at liberty several hundred
+political and other prisoners, but it was objected to by Mr. Bryan, the
+Secretary of State of the United States, and was accordingly vetoed. It
+was again posed in a modified form on April 25, and was again similarly
+vetoed. In November, 1913, it was once more taken up and revised so as
+to extend the pardon to those who had participated in the negro
+insurrection, and to some former officeholders of the Gomez
+administration who had been indicted. It was also intended that it
+should extend amnesty to General Ernesto Asbert, Governor of the
+Province of Havana, to Senator Vidal Morales, and to Representative
+Arias, who had been indicted for the murder of the Chief of Police of
+Havana, General Armando Riva; a tragedy which occurred during a police
+raid on a club, on the evening of July 7. This attempt to extend amnesty
+to these men caused an acute and prolonged controversy. But on December
+9, 1914, the bill was finally passed in a form which granted amnesty to
+General Asbert, but not to Senator Arias. In this form the United States
+Government sanctioned its enactment because of the belief that the real
+burden of guilt rested upon the latter rather than upon the former.
+
+This controversy over amnesty to General Asbert meanwhile had serious
+political effects in Cuba. For a time the so-called Asbert faction of
+the Liberal party allied itself with the Conservatives in Congress in
+support of President Menocal and thus gave him a majority in that body.
+But in the summer of 1914 this faction became reunited with the rest of
+the Liberal party, and Conservative control of Congress was lost. The
+Speaker of the House of Representatives, Senor Gonzales Lanuza, a
+Conservative, resigned and was succeeded by Senor Urquiaga, a Liberal,
+on August 31. When at last in February, 1915, the act of amnesty for
+General Asbert was completed, and he was released and fully
+rehabilitated, there was a great popular celebration of the event in the
+City of Havana.
+
+The first attempt at insurrection in President Menocal's administration
+occurred on November 9, 1913, when Crecencio Garcia, a mulatto,
+undertook to lead a revolt in the province of Santa Clara. It was
+promptly suppressed by the Rural Guard in a manner which augured well
+for the promise which the President had made, that there would be no
+revolutions during his administration; and there were no more such
+attempts until the great treason of ex-President Gomez.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+
+The fifth Presidential campaign of the Republic of Cuba occurred in
+1916. The Conservative candidate for President was General Mario G.
+Menocal, who was thus seeking reelection, and the candidate for
+Vice-President was General Emilio Nunez, of whom we have already heard
+as the leader of the Veterans' Association in its legitimate and orderly
+resistance to the corruption and despotism of the Gomez administration,
+who had had a distinguished career in the Liberating Army in the War of
+Independence, and who was at this time serving as Secretary of
+Agriculture, Industry and Commerce in the cabinet of President Menocal.
+
+[Illustration: GEN. D. EMILIO NUNEZ]
+
+On the Liberal side, in accordance with the compact formerly made
+between him and Jose Miguel Gomez, the Presidential candidate was Dr.
+Alfredo Zayas, and the Vice-Presidential candidate was Carlos Mendieta,
+a journalist and Representative in Congress, who had long been
+conspicuous in the practical management of the Liberal Party.
+
+The general prosperity which Cuba had been enjoying under the
+administration of President Menocal excited the envy and cupidity of the
+Liberal place-seekers and roused them to extraordinary efforts to regain
+possession of the government. A shameless attempt was made to force a
+bill through Congress disqualifying a President for reelection unless he
+resigned his office at least sixty days before the election; but it
+failed of success. Long in advance of the actual contest a vigorous
+propaganda was started all over the island on lines similar to those
+which had been successful in causing the overthrow of Estrada Palma.
+While few ventured to asperse the character of President Menocal
+himself, his administration was vilified as corrupt and inefficient. It
+was charged that he did not, like Gomez, "divide the spoils" with his
+party followers, that he was both selfish and weak, and that his fatal
+weakness in office had been more than amply demonstrated, and would
+justify them in overthrowing his government. The Liberal newspapers
+asserted that at least three quarters of the inhabitants of the island
+were not in sympathy with the Conservative position and with the
+President, but had been deluded into voting for him; that they did not
+approve of his persistent acquiescence in every little hint and
+suggestion that might come from the United States; and that having been
+graduated from an American University, he was more American in his ideas
+and ideals than he was true Cuban, and deserved defeat at the next
+election.
+
+This was largely for the purpose of preparing the public for the claim,
+which was made before the polls had been open two hours, that the
+Liberals were sweeping the country, and that the Conservatives could
+make no possible or effective showing in the election. In pursuance of
+this propaganda, it was so arranged that the local boards of the larger
+towns and cities, where there was an excess of the rank and file of the
+Liberal party, should rush in their returns. These records were sent in
+immediately and seemed to indicate a sweeping victory for the Liberal
+party. The country districts, where were registered the votes of the
+farmers, the sugar planters, and the people of property who believed in
+work and the maintenance of law and order, being remote from the
+capital, came in much later, and in many instances, owing to distance
+and the uncertainty of travel, reliable returns from these districts
+were delayed until the next day, so that at midnight it looked as though
+the election had been carried by the Liberal party. On the following
+day, however, as the returns began to arrive from the remote districts,
+a decided change in the aspect of the situation became apparent, and by
+that night it was seen that a very closely contested election had taken
+place, and that the result would probably be in doubt, as it was in the
+United States, for several days.
+
+This delay gave occasion for charges and accusations of fraud on both
+sides, and each prepared itself for a hard struggle. It was discovered
+that the matter would have to be settled by electoral boards and courts
+established for that purpose. In the meantime, the Liberals demanded
+that General Menocal acknowledge his defeat and proclaimed the election
+of Dr. Zayas on all sides, and openly demanded to have the government
+immediately turned over to them, or there would be serious trouble in
+store for the Conservatives and the country. In the meantime, pressure
+was brought to bear on the United States government, and protection was
+asked by the Liberals against the manifest danger that they would be
+cheated of their success at the polls. Threats were also heard that a
+revolution would undoubtedly follow as a protest against the usurpation,
+as it was termed, of their legitimate right to take control of the
+government, and Dr. Alfredo Zayas, in a private conversation with the
+American minister, hinted at this, and predicted that if a revolution
+should become necessary, it would undoubtedly be successful, since he
+knew that two-thirds of the army was with him in sympathy, and would
+follow the Liberal command to overthrow the Menocal government if he
+should see fit to give such a command.
+
+General Menocal stated very frankly that the determination of the
+contest must be left to the local boards and to the courts for decision,
+and whatever that might be, regardless of any injustice that might be
+imposed upon him and his party, he would acquiesce, and would be the
+first man to shake the hand of the successful candidate. A similar
+statement was never made by the Liberals. They continued the cry of
+fraud, and openly stated that if they did not succeed a revolution would
+follow. The judges of the courts, excepting the chief justice of the
+Supreme Court, Senor Pichardo, had been appointed by Gomez, and
+naturally great pressure was brought to bear on them to "save the
+constitution," as it was called, for the Liberals. In the decisions that
+followed, the Conservatives stated frankly that they believed this
+pressure was producing manifestly unfair decisions, but made at no time
+any attempt to ignore them or set them aside.
+
+The court decided that in two districts, Victoria de las Tunas, in the
+province of Oriente, and another town in Santa Clara, new elections must
+be held. In the first one the Liberals had, at four o'clock in the
+morning previous to the day of election, set fire to the town hall,
+burning all of the electoral lists, so that an election was absolutely
+impossible. This was probably due to the fact that Victoria de las Tunas
+held General Menocal in great esteem, since, owing to his personal valor
+in leading the charges against the Spanish army, when in command of that
+town, the Cubans had been victorious. In the city of Santa Clara
+province, the frauds claimed by both sides rendered it so impossible to
+determine the true result of the election that a second election was
+deemed necessary. According to the records of the Liberal party, the
+vote of these two towns, or possibly either one of them, would determine
+the election, and Dr. Alfredo Zayas felt quite confident that he would
+be the successor of General Menocal, and openly so stated.
+
+The Conservatives, on the other hand, said, "We can only await and abide
+by the decisions of the courts, and will surrender nothing until such
+decisions are handed down." The supporters of Dr. Zayas stated that the
+soldiers, who had been sent there to maintain order, had been sent there
+for the sole purpose of preventing the Liberals from approaching the
+polls. At this General Nunez, the Vice Presidential candidate, invited
+Dr. Zayas, the Liberal leader, to accompany him thither and to point out
+any Liberal in that district who wished to vote, promising that he would
+furnish a machine and any protection that might be necessary to see that
+he and every Liberal in the district deposited his vote, and that they
+together would witness the count.
+
+Dr. Zayas never had an opportunity to bring this matter to a decision,
+owing to the fact that General Gomez, who hated Dr. Zayas bitterly, and
+who had opposed him in public print more strongly than any other man,
+saw immediately the possibility of riding into power as the man of the
+hour, as the real, dominating force of the republic, and as the only
+man, as he expressed it, able to save the electoral campaign from
+becoming one of protracted discord and dispute. So he forbade Dr. Zayas
+to go to the town where the election was to be held, or to accept
+General Nunez's invitation, and stated that he was himself tired of the
+whole thing, and that he was going to take his yacht and go on a fishing
+trip, which he did, leaving at midnight with about thirty trusted
+friends, including all of the prominent Liberal leaders. Passing around
+Cape San Antonio, the yacht anchored off the coast near Tunas de Zaza,
+and there met a group of men by previous arrangement, and started a
+revolution or a "popular uprising," as he termed it, against the Menocal
+government.
+
+In the meantime, a carefully laid plot, that had been planned months
+before, for seizing control of the armed forces of the island was put
+into execution. On Saturday night, February 14, 1917, without warning,
+two companies of men stationed at the Columbia barracks, at a previously
+arranged signal of two shots, jumped from their beds, grabbed their arms
+and ammunition, and started across the parade ground for the open
+country, of the west. Although the details of this plot were known,
+other loyal companies at the command of their officers were called into
+immediate action, charged the Liberals and captured more than half of
+them and killed a few of the remainder, who at first had succeeded in
+escaping. This was the only apparent disloyalty in the western end of
+the island. Matanzas, Pinar del Rio and Havana remained loyal to the
+government. Among the forces stationed at the City of Santiago, far
+removed from the immediate control of the commanding generals of the
+army, seeds of sedition, which consisted largely of promises of
+immediate promotion of all officers, were planted. Every sergeant was to
+be made a captain, every captain a colonel, every lieutenant a major,
+with promises of increased pay, and the incidental rewards that come to
+the successful revolutionist. This was also true of the Province of
+Camaguey, where, at almost the same hour that the uprising took place in
+Camp Columbia barracks, several companies of men seized control, made
+prisoners of their comrades who were loyal to the government or shot
+them dead, captured and imprisoned the civil governors, intimidated the
+police, or made them prisoners, and took charge of the customhouse and
+the accumulated funds, and all moneys deposited in banks, belonging to
+either the state or the federal government. Incidentally all moneys that
+were accessible were seized at the same time, which belonged to said
+banks, on the ground that there was no time to discriminate. In the City
+of Santiago several millions of dollars were thus seized by the three or
+four Liberal leaders in command. These men, when the failure of the
+revolution became apparent, escaped from the island, carrying some two
+or three millions in United States currency and Cuban gold with them,
+and landed in Santo Domingo, where some of them were afterward captured,
+while the others escaped to the United States.
+
+Securing control of Santiago de Cuba, and having access to the cables,
+the rebels immediately wired to the revolutionary headquarters in New
+York, which had been established by Dr. Orestes Ferrara, one of the
+moving figures in the previous uprising of 1906, in company with Dr.
+Raimundo Cabrera, for the dissemination of news favorable to the Liberal
+side. Matter was issued, to be used in the American papers, for the
+purpose of preparing the United States for the usurpation of the
+government of Cuba by General Gomez, and defending such action on the
+ground that it was the only solution of a bad electoral muddle, and that
+the real choice of the people was General Gomez, who should have been,
+and was ultimately, the leader of their party. It was said that Dr.
+Zayas, without justification, had usurped and endeavored to maintain the
+permanent control of the Liberal party, and that his lack of popularity
+had been indicated by his defeat four years before. The entire island
+was represented, and especially the army, as having voluntarily gone
+over to the side of the Liberals. General Gomez was pictured as having
+landed and by previous arrangement placed himself at the head of 12,000
+men, who were marching upon the City of Havana; while the President of
+the republic was variously reported as having been shot, and afterward
+as having fled in abject fear from the palace, and as having at last
+found shelter in the home of the American minister, Mr. William E.
+Gonzales. It was added that Havana was under the control of the
+Liberals, as was the remainder of the island, and that all that was
+necessary was the triumphant march of General Gomez into the capital,
+where he would assume authority as Liberal Dictator until the island
+should assume its normal and peaceful condition, when another election
+would be called, in which the people would have an opportunity to choose
+and place the power in the hands of the only real man of destiny,
+General Gomez.
+
+In the Province of Camaguey, the insurgents followed the same program as
+did those in Oriente, intimidating the police, by firing two volleys
+into police headquarters and assassinating those men who were forming a
+council, the civil government and various other officers having been
+imprisoned. They took immediate control of the railroads, and the
+rolling stock, placed Liberal or disloyal troops on trains, and started
+them across the border to Santa Clara, where they joined General Gomez,
+who, with his men, was marching north to the railroad.
+
+In the meantime, General Menocal and the loyal troops of the island, in
+the west, started a vigorous campaign to prevent the island from falling
+into the hands of the rebels. Officers whose loyalty was beyond question
+were placed in command of troops, and sent at once into Santa Clara,
+Camaguey and Oriente, and one of Cuba's gunboats, with a company of 300
+men, was dispatched to the City of Santiago de Cuba, to drive the
+disloyal element from that place. Colonel Pujol was sent to take
+measures to restore order in Camaguey. Colonel Collazo and Lieutenant
+Colonel Lozama and other officials known for their courage, efficiency
+and valor were placed in command of three separate bodies of troops,
+with orders to surround Gomez, and give him and his supporters immediate
+battle, and capture or annihilate them. These men were equipped with
+machine guns, well armed and prepared for a campaign of extermination,
+if necessary. In the meantime, the Secretary of Government, Colonel
+Hevea, who, according to the Cuban law has control over and is
+responsible for order in the interior districts, traveled by locomotive
+and automobile, day and night, reporting to the President all that
+occurred, and giving those orders which seemed wise for suppressing the
+uprising. The American Minister, representing the sentiment of the
+United States, which seriously deprecated Cuba's falling into the
+revolutionary habit, visited the palace every day, with his military
+aide, then Major Wittemeyer, kept in close touch with Washington, and
+reported every change in the drama that was being presented in Cuba. In
+the meantime, one of the Cuban officials had effectively thwarted
+General Gomez in his proposed triumphant march into Havana, by blowing
+up the large bridge over the Zaza river, thus preventing the
+insurrectionists from gaining control of the railroads in the western
+half of the island.
+
+Realizing the grave danger that threatened Cuba in the destruction of
+the cane through fire, which had already begun on a large scale, and in
+the stealing, and killing of both cattle and horses on the part of the
+insurrectionists, Major Wittemeyer, with the authority of the War
+Department in Washington, communicated to President Menocal the fact
+that the United States government would gladly land whatever force was
+deemed necessary to assist in the maintenance of order and the
+protection of property. This offer the President refused, stating that
+he believed that there was a sufficient force absolutely loyal to his
+government to control the situation, adding that he was thoroughly aware
+of the plans of the Liberals, that he was in close touch with his own
+command and was confident that his officers would succeed in quelling
+the insurrection in a comparatively short time. He added that he thought
+it wise for the government of Cuba to demonstrate its ability to
+maintain itself, and to suppress any uprising that might occur of that
+nature, and thus avoid the rather unpleasant task, on the part of the
+United States, of being compelled to interfere with the personal and
+political affairs of their sister republic.
+
+That General Menocal's prediction was based on sound logic was
+demonstrated by the fact that within twenty-three days the forces of
+ex-President Gomez were surrounded, defeated and captured. The General,
+his son, his aides and his entire staff were taken prisoners and brought
+to Havana and placed in the penitentiary on Principe Hill. In General
+Gomez's saddle bags were found military orders instructing his chiefs to
+burn every sugar plantation on the Island not known to be the property
+of Liberals, and tear up every mile of railroad, together with
+information demonstrating that he was preparing to blow up every bridge
+through the island, thus attempting to prevent the government from
+sending forces against him. This work of destruction, in so far as
+possible before the capture, had been carried out to the letter. The
+railroads along which the revolutionists had control were out of
+commission for several months, and much valuable property was
+destroyed.
+
+The disappointment in the Liberal ranks consequent upon the capture of
+General Gomez and his staff, and the inevitable failure of the movement,
+was general and profound, but the last desperate hope seemed to inspire
+them to continue the struggle under the leadership of Carlos Mendieta,
+who had been their candidate for Vice-President. The plan adopted by
+them was to revert to the desperate methods of some former wars. In
+brief, it was to divide into small bands, who were to carry on a reign
+of terror and destruction throughout the island, the purpose of which
+was solely to bring about another American intervention; the argument
+was used that they had succeeded in doing this in 1906, and thus had
+secured a tacit recognition of the Liberal party, and their ultimate
+control of the government. "We were successful," they argued, "and since
+the commercial, industrial and political relations between the two
+republics are so intimate and the Platt Amendment authorizes the United
+States to enter Cuba at any time when, in their estimation, the
+circumstances justify such action, if we continue long enough, burn
+enough, destroy enough, and succeed in keeping up this state of turmoil
+long enough, the American authorities will, sooner or later, be
+compelled to come here, and put an end to affairs that will undoubtedly
+bring about the resignation of Menocal. His life will be made
+intolerable and our several plans for his assassination, that have
+heretofore met with misfortune, if followed, will later bear fruit."
+
+At the middle of March, Carlos Mendieta, as leader of this bushranging
+rebellion, issued a manifesto threatening the destruction of foreign
+property and declaring that there would be no guarantee for the safety
+of American lives unless the United States undertook the supervision of
+the elections in Santa Clara and Oriente provinces.
+
+In their manifesto the rebels promised to lay down their arms if the
+government would hold new elections in Santa Clara Province. If the
+government refused to hold such elections the rebels threatened to
+continue the revolution and to proclaim Mendieta Provisional President.
+
+The activities of the revolutionary conspirators and propagandists in
+the United States, under the direction of Orestes Ferrara in New York,
+meanwhile became so offensive that the United States government felt
+compelled to take action. Accordingly on March 25, the State Department
+at Washington warned Dr. Ferrara that unless he ceased his pernicious
+operations he and his associate, Raimundo Cabrera, would be placed under
+arrest. This had the result of tempering somewhat the zeal of the
+conspirators, though their propaganda was still furtively maintained.
+
+In passing, it may be stated that a part of the general plan--indeed the
+first step in the proposed uprising--was to assassinate General Menocal,
+while on his way from the palace to his estate, eight miles distant,
+known as El Chico. The mayor of the suburb of Marianao, together with
+the chief of police of that village, and four soldiers, who had agreed
+for a consideration to take part in the assassination, were stationed at
+a point carefully selected, with orders to fire a charge of buckshot
+into the President's back from the step of his automobile, and then
+behind the screen of trees and underbrush which lined the roadside to
+make their escape. It was proposed to assassinate the chauffeurs and all
+others who might be in the car in order to prevent immediate pursuit.
+Since General Menocal was in the habit of going to his country home
+every afternoon between five and six, the plan probably would have
+succeeded, had it not been for an attack of conscience on the part of
+one of the soldiers, who, after agreeing, lost heart, and a few hours
+before the departure of the machine hastened to the palace and insisted
+upon seeing the President, to whom he gave all the details of the plot.
+The betrayal of the plot by the soldier, who was suspected when he did
+not make his appearance in company with the others, and the machine not
+leaving the palace at the usual hour, which was to have been telephoned
+to the plotters, convinced them that discovery was more than probable.
+The mayor, with the chief of police, and the others, immediately fled
+from Marianao. Pursuit was given, in spite of which they resisted
+capture for several days. Exhausted and wounded, they were finally taken
+in an old sugar mill near Bahia Honda, in the Province of Pinar del Rio.
+
+Not discouraged by this failure, numerous other plans for the
+assassination of the President were arranged, among others the
+manufacture of a highly explosive bomb, and an arrangement by which four
+Liberals agreed to attempt to place or throw it under the President's
+desk. In order to make this plan work, it was necessary to have some man
+who could gain access to the palace, and to the office of the President,
+and this could be done through the assistance of some one of the
+soldiers who had been stationed on guard duty on the upper floor of the
+executive mansion. After several months of careful study, one of these
+soldiers was selected, and after another conference, the matter was
+settled, and the man was intrusted with the bomb, which was delivered to
+him at the appointed hour, and with which he ascended the palace stairs
+and eventually succeeded in reaching the President, to whom he delivered
+the bomb, with his evidence and the whole story. Of course, this second
+betrayal of the plans of the conspirators brought about their capture,
+and they were tried and condemned to various terms in prison. Various
+other plots were formed, none of which was successful.
+
+[Illustration: JOSE LUIS AZCARATA SECRETARY OF JUSTICE]
+
+As a natural result of the revolution started a few days before, the two
+additional elections ordered by the Supreme Court, were necessarily
+postponed, since the island had been thrown into a turmoil by the action
+of General Gomez. They were, however, afterwards held, and resulted in
+decided Conservative majorities, which were carried by the electoral
+boards to the Central Electoral Junta, presided over by the Chief
+Justice of the Supreme Court, Senor Pichardo, and justified that body in
+announcing the election of General Menocal to a second term as
+President. In spite of this decision of the courts, which General
+Menocal had previously agreed to abide by, the insurrectionary elements
+of the Liberal party still insisted that General Menocal's second term
+was secured through deliberate and carefully planned frauds and
+intimidation of the voters at the polls. The fact is that the election
+laws of Cuba forbid and prevent any soldier from standing even in the
+doorway of a polling place. He cannot approach nearer than the corner of
+the building in which the votes are being deposited, nor can he leave
+his post and come closer to the polls, unless some serious disturbance,
+where lives are threatened, occurs, with which the police of the
+district cannot cope. Since the minority is represented during the time
+of voting, and during the count by a man selected for that purpose, no
+fraud could well be perpetrated without the consent of someone
+responsible to the opposition.
+
+The army officers who had been led by Jose Miguel Gomez to revolt, had
+been captured with arms in their hands, fighting to overthrow the
+constitutional government of the island; a purpose of which they had
+made no secret. They were therefore guilty of sedition and treason, and
+were subject to trial by court martial and to capital punishment upon
+conviction of their crime. They were thus tried, and some were condemned
+to death and others to long terms of imprisonment; but the extreme
+sentence was never executed upon one of them, while many of the prison
+sentences were shortened and some of the men were pardoned outright.
+This generous action of President Menocal's was performed through the
+same spirit of magnanimity that moved Estrada Palma to like clemency,
+years before; and it was as ill requited. Some of the men whom he had
+thus saved from the gallows or the firing squad promptly resumed
+criminal conspiracies against him; while the Liberal party as a whole
+demanded that the pardoned officers should be at once reinstated in the
+army with full rank and back pay for the time which they had spent in
+insurrection and in prison, and railed against President Menocal for not
+granting that additional act of grace!
+
+The government of the United States is naturally always on the side of
+law and order among its neighbors, and while it of course scrupulously
+refrains from meddling in their affairs unless under intolerable
+provocation, as in the case of Cuba in 1898, it has always given and
+doubtless will always give its sympathy and moral support to those who
+are striving for peace and progress and the security of life and
+property. Toward Cuba its attitude is more marked than toward other
+states, because of the special relations which exist between the two
+countries. We have seen how it intervened in Cuban affairs for what it
+supposed to be the restoration of tranquillity in 1906. While
+unfortunately its influence was on that occasion made to appear as
+though given to the revolutionary rather than the legitimate side, its
+intent was unmistakable. In spite of the advantage which they took of
+its intervention at that time, the Liberal leaders in Cuba have since
+felt much aggrieved at it for standing in the way of their designs on
+more than one occasion when they wished to revolt against constitutional
+order.
+
+The United States did not intervene in 1917. It was not, as President
+Menocal confidently assured it, necessary for it to do so. But it is
+pleasant to recall that it stood ready to do so, and there is of course
+no possible doubt as to what the purport of its intervention would have
+been. During that episode no fewer than five messages were addressed to
+the people of Cuba by the government of the United States, warning them
+against any attempt at forcible revolution. They breathed the spirit of
+the epigram of John Hay in 1903: "Revolutions have gone out of fashion
+in our neighborhood." Thus on February 19, 1917, the United States made
+it known to the Cuban government and through it to the Cuban people
+that--
+
+"The American Government has in previous declarations defined its
+attitude respecting the confidence and support it gives the
+constitutional governments and the policy it has adopted toward any
+disturbers of the peace through revolutionary ventures. The American
+government again wishes to inform the Cuban people of the attitude it
+has assumed in view of the present events:
+
+"First--The government of the United States gives its support to and
+stands by the Constitutional Government of the Republic of Cuba.
+
+"Second--The present insurrection against the Constitutional Government
+of Cuba is regarded by the American Government in the light of an
+anti-constitutional and illegal act, which it will not tolerate.
+
+"Third--The leaders of the revolt will be held responsible for the
+damages which foreigners may suffer in their persons or their property.
+
+"Fourth--The government of the United States will examine attentively
+what attitude it will adopt respecting those concerned in the present
+disturbance of the peace in Cuba, or those who are actually
+participating in it."
+
+At the beginning of March American Marines and Bluejackets were landed
+at Santiago, Guantanamo, Manzanillo, Nuevitas, and El Cobre, for patrol
+duty for the protection of American interests.
+
+Again, on March 24 the American government sent a note saying:
+
+"It has come to the knowledge of the United States Government that in
+Cuba propaganda persists that in response to efforts of agents against
+the constitutional government the United States is studying the adoption
+of measures in their favor."
+
+It was quite true. The remaining insurgents--Gomez and the other
+principal leaders had already been captured--were declaring that just as
+in 1906 American intervention had meant the success of the revolution,
+so now the United States was about to intervene again to the same
+effect. Wherefore this American note continued:
+
+"The constitutional government of Cuba has been and will continue to be
+sustained and backed by the government of the United States in its
+efforts to reestablish order throughout the territory of the republic.
+
+"The United States government, emphasizing its condemnation of the
+reprehensible conduct of those rising against the constitutional
+government in an effort to settle by force of arms controversies for
+which existing laws establish adequate legal remedies, desires to make
+known that until those in rebellion recognize their duties as Cuban
+citizens, lay down their arms and return to legality, the United States
+can hold no communication whatever with any of them and will be forced
+to regard them as outside the law and unworthy of its consideration."
+
+That was plain talk, and it had its effect. But the climax was yet to
+come in a final message which stated that if destruction of property,
+disturbance of public order and deliberate attempts to overthrow the
+established government were continued, Cuba being an ally of the United
+States, the United States would be compelled to regard the doers of such
+deeds as enemies and to proceed against them as such. At that time both
+the United States and Cuba were at war with Germany, and were therefore
+allies in offense and defense, and it was quite logical for one ally to
+regard as its enemy any enemy of the other ally. In brief, any one
+waging war against the Cuban government was in effect waging war against
+the government of the United States. That stern logic put a quietus upon
+the attempted insurrection. "Our last recourse," said one of the rebel
+leaders, "has been taken from us. There is no use in starting a
+revolution if it is to be doomed to failure before it begins."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+
+Cuba entered the Great War. That fact was the supreme seal to her
+title-deeds to a place as peer among the nations; placing her in
+blood-brotherhood with her neighbors. She entered the war almost
+simultaneously with the United States, though with less delay than that
+country. At Washington the President addressed Congress on April 2,
+advising a declaration of war against Germany, and the declaration was
+made on April 6. At Havana the President delivered his war message on
+April 6, and on April 7 war was declared. In that impressive and epochal
+message, the most momentous and solemn that any chief of state can ever
+utter, President Menocal reviewed in dispassionate detail the criminal
+record of Germany in her unrestricted submarine warfare, and then
+continued:
+
+"The government of the United States, to which country we are bound by
+the closest ties, had during the last two years incessantly formulated
+energetic protests and claims based on the most elemental principles of
+justice in defence of its citizens who were victims on many occasions of
+attacks by German submarines; of the liberty of the seas and the respect
+due the lives and property of neutrals; and revindicating the right to
+navigate and engage in commerce freely, without restrictions save those
+sanctioned by international law, by treaties, and by the universal
+practise of civilized nations.
+
+"Since February 1 submarines have attacked and sunk without mercy. Such
+acts of war without quarter, directed against all nations, to close
+down the world's commerce under terrible penalties, cannot be tolerated
+without accepting them as legitimate to-day and always.
+
+"Cuba cannot appear indifferent to such violations, which at any moment
+may be carried out at the cost of the lives and interests of its own
+citizens. Nor can it, without loss of dignity and decorum, show
+indifference to the noble attitude assumed by the United States, to
+which we are bound by ties of gratitude and by treaties. Cuba cannot
+remain neutral in this supreme conflict, because a declaration of
+neutrality would compel it to treat alike all belligerents, denying them
+with equal vigor entrance to our ports and imposing other restrictions
+which are contrary to the sentiment of the Cuban people and which
+inevitably in the end would result in conflict with our friend and ally.
+
+"In full and firm consciousness that I am fulfilling one of my most
+sacred duties, although with profound sentiment, because I am about to
+propose a resolution which will plunge our country into the dangers of
+the greatest conflagration in history, but without casting odium upon,
+or without animosity toward, the German people, but convinced that we
+are compelled to take this step by our international obligations and the
+principles of justice and liberty, I appeal to the honorable Congress in
+the use of its executive faculties, with full knowledge of all the
+antecedents in the case and with the mature deliberation of its
+important claim, to resolve, as a result of these unjustifiable and
+repeated acts of aggression by submarines, notwithstanding the protests
+of neutral governments, among them Cuba, that there has been created and
+exists a state of war between Cuba and the imperial German government,
+and adopt all measures necessary, which I reserve to myself the right to
+recommend at the proper moment, for the maintenance of our rights; to
+defend our territory; to provide for our security, and to cooperate
+decidedly to these ends with the United States government, lending it
+what assistance may be in our power for the defence of the liberty of
+the seas, of the rights of neutrals, and of international justice."
+
+The next day the Cuban Congress adopted the declaration of war, in the
+exact words of the President's message. A resolution was at the same
+time introduced and adopted, authorizing the President to organize and
+to place at the disposal of the President of the United States a
+contingent of 10,000 men, for military service in Europe.
+
+It would be superfluous to dwell upon the causes which led Cuba thus
+promptly and heartily to commit herself to the side of the Allies in the
+war. They were largely identical with those which impelled other nations
+to the same course. There was a resolution to vindicate the sanctity of
+treaties and the majesty of international law. There was an abhorrence
+of the infamous practices of the German government and the German army.
+There was resentment against the gross violation of neutral rights of
+which Germany had been guilty. There was recognition of the grave menace
+to popular governments the world over which was presented by the
+voracious and unscrupulous ambitions of Prussian militarism. There was a
+feeling that as the war had first been directed against two small
+nations, on the principle that small states had no rights that large
+ones were bound to respect, it was incumbent upon other small states to
+protest against that arrogant attitude. There was a desire to show that
+Cuba, youngest and one of the smallest of the nations, was ready to take
+her full part as a nation among nations, in war as well as in peace.
+There was, also, no doubt a legitimate feeling that in this matter it
+would be appropriate for Cuba--though of course under no compulsion--to
+align herself with the great northern neighbor with whom she sustained
+such close relations.
+
+At the same time, backed undoubtedly by German money, and as a part of
+the German propaganda, financial interests, banks and houses of long
+standing in Cuba, all of which were eventually placed on a black list,
+exerted a very strong influence among their customers and through their
+connections, commercial, social and political, in favor of Germany. They
+did succeed in influencing and directing the editorial policy of some
+prominent newspapers, but the chief result of their pernicious
+activities was to get themselves and their sympathizers into trouble.
+One of the foremost bankers of Havana, where he had lived for many years
+and was personally much liked and esteemed in society, while not openly
+espousing the cause of Germany, after Cuba had declared war, was known
+to be thoroughly in sympathy with Germany. He with over a hundred other
+Germans was interned, or kept _incommunicado_, and in his house
+documents were found demonstrating that he was not only an agent in
+distributing German propaganda, but also a distributor of funds intended
+to promote the cause of Germany in Cuba and the West Indies.
+
+Another very strong influence that was exerted in Cuba against the
+attitude of President Menocal and his government was that of many of the
+clergy of the Roman Catholic church, who openly spoke to their
+congregations in favor of Germany and against the cause of the Allies.
+Nor was the Liberal party by any means as loyal to the Allies as the
+unanimous vote in Congress might seem to suggest. Many of its members
+either openly or secretly gave their sympathy and influence to the
+German side. This was partly because of their inveterate opposition to
+anything advocated by the Conservative government; and partly because of
+the aid which German interests in Cuba had given, morally, politically
+and pecuniarily, to the insurrection of Jose Miguel Gomez in 1917. It
+was proved in trials in the courts of Cuba, which were held in
+consequence of the damages wrought by that uprising, that Germans and
+men of German parentage had conspired to give information to the rebels
+and to supply them with munitions, and in other ways strove to aid that
+movement in overthrowing the government. But these seditious and
+disloyal elements in Cuba were probably no stronger in Cuba than in the
+United States or other countries.
+
+Cuba did not suffer from incendiarism and similar German outrages as did
+the United States. On the other hand, the Cuban government was fully as
+strict as that of the United States in taking possession of German
+property, and in blacklisting all firms and individuals known to be in
+sympathy with Germany. All trading of any kind with such parties was
+forbidden; an arrangement being made by which open accounts with them
+could be closed. A Custodian of Alien Property was also appointed.
+
+Even before the declaration of war the Cuban government took strenuous
+means to prevent violations of neutrality. A few weeks before the
+declaration of war German agents fitted up a steamer in Havana harbor as
+a commerce-destroying cruiser, and watched for an opportunity to take
+her out to the high seas. Learning of these plans, the Cuban government
+stationed a cruiser alongside that vessel, with guns trained upon her,
+to prevent the purposed escape. Immediately upon the declaration of war
+the four German ships which were lying interned in Havana harbor were
+seized by the Cuban government. It was found that the German crews had
+seriously damaged the machinery of the vessels, as they did at New York
+and elsewhere; but the Cuban government had repairs made and then turned
+the vessels over to the United States.
+
+In what we may call the non-military activities of the war, Cuba was
+notably energetic and efficient. There was close cooperation with the
+United States government in the matter of food conservation and supply.
+Cuba was naturally looked to for an increased supply of sugar, for which
+there was great need; and as a result of inquiries by Mr. Hoover, the
+United States Food Commissioner, as to what the island could do in that
+respect, the Cuban Department of Agriculture sent the chief of its
+Bureau of Information, Captain George Reno, to Washington to confer with
+Mr. Hoover and to formulate plans for the exercise of the most efficient
+cooperation possible between Cuba and the United States. Recognizing the
+desirability if not the necessity that Cuba should not only be able to
+feed herself during the war but should also export as much food as
+possible, the insular government took steps at once for the increase of
+food production to the highest attainable degree, and also for the
+practice of thrift and economy. In consequence Cuba endured cheerfully
+the same system of wheatless days and meatless days and rationing in
+various articles of food that prevailed in the United States; with
+excellent results.
+
+President Menocal also made preparations, at the suggestion of and in
+conjunction with the United States War Department, for the provision of
+a detachment of troops for service either in Europe or in any part of
+the world that the Department at Washington might deem expedient. The
+best officers of the Cuban army accepted an invitation from the
+military authorities of the United States to receive instruction in
+modern military tactics, which had been brought out by the war, and
+Senator Manuel Coronado patriotically gave a sum sufficient for the
+building of a number of airplanes, to be used by Cuban aviators.
+Volunteers for this division were easily secured and the instruction
+began under the direction of Cuban aviators who had been in the service
+of France. The War Department of the United States notified the Republic
+of Cuba that owing to the severe exposure of the men to the freezing
+water and mud of the trenches of Belgium and France, it was doubtful
+whether soldiers of tropical countries could withstand the strain upon
+their health necessarily endured during the winter campaign in Europe,
+intimating that their services would be far more useful in taking the
+place of other troops stationed in warmer climates, as the Porto Ricans
+were taking the place of the marines that were stationed in the Panama
+Canal Zone. This was a rather severe disappointment to General Pujol and
+the other officers, who were very anxious to take their places in the
+line of fire.
+
+Noteworthy and most admirable were the achievements of Cuba in the
+financial operations of the war. Subscriptions were eagerly made to
+every one of the Liberty Loans, and to the final Victory Loan, with the
+result that in every case the amount allotted to Cuba was far exceeded.
+The quota for the third loan was subscribed twice over within five days.
+In this work not only did banks and commercial houses take part, as a
+matter of business, but also many private citizens volunteered as
+canvassers; though indeed the eagerness of people to subscribe made
+canvassing perfunctory and urging superfluous.
+
+[Illustration: SENORA MENOCAL
+
+It is not alone through the felicitous circumstance of her being the
+wife of President Mario G. Menocal that Senora Marienita Seva de Menocal
+is entitled to the distinction--never more appropriate than in her
+case--of being the "first lady of the land." Her title rests equally
+upon personal charm, the graces of social hospitality, and womanly
+leadership of the most efficient kind in philanthropic and patriotic
+endeavor for the advancement of the public welfare and the confirmation
+of the integrity and promotion of the prosperity of the Republic; while
+her indefatigable labors in the great war invested her name with
+affectionate and grateful distinction in the camps and among the peoples
+of the Allied nations.]
+
+A similar interest was manifested in Red Cross contributions and Red
+Cross work, with equally gratifying results. In both of these activities
+a leading and most efficient part was taken by the women of Cuba. In
+subscribing to the loans they were most generous; in canvassing for
+subscriptions from others and in collecting and working for the Red
+Cross they were indefatigable and irresistible. They made it a point of
+patriotic honor, and almost a condition of social acceptability, to
+respond in the fullest possible manner to every such call of the war. In
+Cuba's domestic struggles, the women had suffered cruelly, and their
+sympathies sprang spontaneously and generously toward the lands of
+Europe where womanhood was suffering a thousand martyrdoms. Thus as the
+manhood of Cuba with a unanimity which the few exceptions only
+emphasized rallied to the call of the President to throw the material
+and militant might of the Republic on the side of law, of civilization
+and of democracy, the womanhood of Cuba, with no less unanimity and
+zeal, followed Senora Menocal in the equally necessary and grateful
+tasks of the campaign which women even better than men could perform.
+
+No tribute could be too high to render to these devoted women, who were
+always ready to make personal sacrifices of time, of strength, of money,
+of work, for the cause of humanity. Amid all its historic fiestas and
+pageants, Havana has seen no fairer or more inspiring spectacle than
+that of the Red Cross women, Senora Menocal at their head, marching in
+stately procession through her streets to manifest their devotion to the
+cause and to arouse others to equal earnestness. The magnitude of the
+sums raised by the women of Cuba for the war loans and for the Red
+Cross, and for Cuban hospital units at the front, and the amount of
+bandages and other hospital supplies and clothing prepared by them for
+the armies "over there," made proud items in Cuban statistics of the
+Great War.
+
+Thitherto Cuba had often been engaged in war, but it was always in what
+may be termed selfish war, for her own defence against an alien enemy or
+for her own liberation from oppressors who, at first kin, had become
+alien. Now for the first time it was her privilege to engage in a
+greater struggle than any before, and one which was for her own
+interests only to the extent to which those interests were involved with
+and were practically identical with the interests of all civilized
+nations and of world-wide humanity. Said Thomas Jefferson on a memorable
+occasion, referring to the relations between America and Great Britain:
+
+"Nothing would more tend to knit our affections than to be fighting once
+more, side by side, in the same cause."
+
+Thus we must reckon that affection and confidence between Cuba and the
+United States were greatly strengthened and confirmed by the fact that
+they were at least potentially and indeed to some degree actually
+fighting side by side in the same cause, and that cause not exclusively
+their own but that of the whole world. Nor was the event without a
+comparable effect upon Cuba's relations to the world at large. Her
+sympathies were broadened; her recognition by other powers was extended;
+and as once she had been a mere pawn in the international game, now she
+became a vital and potent factor in international affairs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+
+"A revolution which comprehends the responsibilities incumbent upon the
+founders of nations." Those were almost the last words of Jose Marti,
+epigrammatically expressive of his purpose in fomenting the ultimate and
+triumphant revolution of 1895-1898, and of the purpose of those devoted
+men who caught the standard of liberty from his dying hand and through
+labors and perils and tragedies incommensurable bore it on to victory.
+How well that purpose has been served in these scarcely twenty years of
+the independent Republic of Cuba, how true to Marti's transcendent ideal
+his successors in Cuban leadership have been, the record which we have
+briefly rehearsed must tell. On the whole, the answer to the implied
+interrogatory is gratifying and reassuring.
+
+The real leaders of the Cuban nation have comprehended the
+responsibilities, unspeakably profound and weighty, that rest upon the
+founders of a nation, and no less upon those who direct the affairs of a
+nation after its foundation, to the last chapter in its age-long annals.
+We should go far, very far, before we could find a statesman more
+appreciative of that responsibility than Tomas Estrada Palma, or one who
+more manfully strove to discharge its every duty with scrupulous
+fidelity and with all the discretion and wisdom with which he had
+himself been plenteously endowed and which he could summon to his
+council board from among his loyal compatriots.
+
+We must regard it as the supreme reproach of Jose Miguel Gomez that,
+with all his ability and energy, he lacked that supreme quality, the
+sense of civic responsibility, which Marti prescribed for Cuba and for
+Cubans. His shameful and unpardonable treason--a double treason, to his
+own party partner as well as to the government of his country--was not
+inspired by the genius of Marti. It did not comprehend the gigantic
+responsibilities which it so lightly sought to assume, but was marked
+with the irresponsibility which has characterized so many revolutions in
+other Latin American countries, and which has brought upon those lands
+disaster and measureless reproach.
+
+Under the third Presidency which Cuba has enjoyed that responsibility is
+happily comprehended in complete degree. Not even Estrada Palma
+possessed a higher sense of duty to the state and to the world than
+Mario G. Menocal, nor gave to it more tangible and efficient exposition.
+Nor shall we incur reproach of lack of reverence for a great name if we
+perceive that in certain essential and potent particulars Cuba's third
+President is even more capable of discharging that responsibility than
+was the first. The younger, alert, practical man of affairs, expert in
+the duties of both peace and war, has the advantage over the elder sage
+whose life for many years had been cloistered in academic calm.
+
+We might not inappropriately gauge the extent of Cuba's discharge of her
+responsibilities as a sovereign nation by the measure of her progress in
+various paths of human welfare. This is not the place for a
+comprehensive census of the island, or for a conspectus of its
+statistics. _Ex pede Herculem._ From a few items we may estimate the
+whole. In the days of unembarrassed Spanish rule, before that
+sovereignty was challenged by revolutions, the island had a population
+of a million souls. It had between two hundred and three hundred
+teachers, and--in 1841--9,082 children enrolled in schools. That was one
+schoolchild in every 110 of the population. To-day the island has a
+population of 2,700,000, and it has 350,000 children enrolled in its
+schools. That is one child in every eight of the population. The
+contrast between one-eighth and one-one hundred and tenth is one valid
+and expressive measure of Cuba's discharge of her responsibility.
+
+Under the administration of President Menocal the annual appropriation
+for public education is more than $10,000,000. There are six great
+normal schools to train the 5,500 teachers who are needed to care for
+the 350,000 pupils; and as the national government conducts all the
+schools there is no discrimination between poor places and wealthy
+communities, but an equal grade of teaching is maintained in all. Nor
+does the state stop with primary education, but provides practically
+free secondary and university education for all who desire it.
+
+[Illustration: FRANCISCO DOMINGUEZ ROLDAN SECRETARY OF PUBLIC
+INSTRUCTION]
+
+Shall we take public health as another measure of progress? In the half
+dozen years just before the War of Independence the death rate in Havana
+was 33 to the 1,000. By 1902 it was reduced to 22, or only a little more
+than in New York. To-day, under President Menocal, the death rate for
+all Cuba is only 11.2. In the registration area of the United States it
+is 14. In the United Kingdom it is 14.2, and Britain vaunts herself
+upon its lowness. In France it is 19.6; in Argentina it is 21.6; in
+Chili it is 31.1. There are only three countries in the world with lower
+rates of mortality than Cuba; and they are New Zealand, with 9.5,
+Newfoundland with 10.5, and Australia with 10.6.
+
+Again, consider what is still the chief industry of Cuba. Before the
+administration of President Menocal, these were the yearly sugar crops,
+in tons:
+
+    1908      961,958
+    1909    1,513,582
+    1910    1,804,349
+    1911    1,480,217
+    1912    1,893,687
+
+Compare or contrast those figures with these, under the administration
+of a President who comprehends his responsibilities:
+
+    1913    2,429,240
+    1914    2,596,567
+    1915    2,583,845
+    1916    3,006,624
+    1917    3,019,936
+    1918    3,444,605
+    1919    4,000,000
+
+No less impressive and significant are the figures which indicate the
+volume of trade between Cuba and the United States. The imports of
+American goods into Cuba in 1903 were only $23,000,000; in 1908 they
+were $48,577,000; in 1917 they were $189,875,000. The exports of Cuban
+goods to the United States were in 1908 only $78,869,000, and in 1917
+they were $225,275,000, and in 1919 more than $500,000,000. The balance
+of trade is thus heavily in Cuba's favor. Small as Cuba is in
+comparison with some of her neighbors, her commerce with the United
+States far exceeds theirs. Thus in 1917 the commerce, in both
+directions, of Brazil with the United States was $180,000,000; of Chili,
+$205,000,000; of Argentina, $305,000,000; of Mexico, $248,000,000; and
+of Cuba, $415,150,000.
+
+[Illustration: BONEATO ROAD, ORIENTE
+
+No country in the world, probably, is more amply equipped with good
+road--for both industrial and pleasure purposes, than Cuba. Radiating
+from the capital and other important cities splendid automobile highways
+give access to all parts of the island, leading not only to cities and
+ports but also for hundreds of miles through enchanting scenery. Of such
+highways the Boneato Road, winding through the mountains of Santiago, in
+the Province of Oriente, is a superb example.]
+
+Financially, the administration of President Menocal is to be credited
+with the cancellation of the heavy and largely unnecessary debts which
+were left to it by the preceding administration; an achievement which
+contributed greatly to the improvement of Cuba's international credit.
+The foreign claims of Great Britain, France and Germany, which had been
+an embarrassing problem for several years, have been so satisfactorily
+adjusted that their complete settlement will be effected at a time
+convenient to all parties concerned. The grave fiscal and economic
+crisis which followed the beginning of the war of 1914, in practically
+all the markets of the world was avoided in Cuba by the Economic Defense
+Bill, and the establishment of a Cuban national monetary system has
+facilitated exchange and all manner of transactions in Cuba, and has
+redeemed the country from the reproach of being ridden by and dependent
+upon foreign coin as its medium of exchange.
+
+[Illustration: JOSE A. DEL CUETO PRESIDENT OF SUPREME COURT]
+
+The sanitary redemption of Cuba was indeed effected under the
+administration of Leonard Wood in the first American Government of
+Intervention. But the fortunate condition then attained has been not
+only fully maintained but constantly and materially bettered through
+the activity of the public health department of the Menocal
+administration. New problems in sanitation have arisen, only to be met
+with promptness, thoroughness and success. One of the most severe tests
+of the efficiency of the organization against disease occurred when the
+dreaded bubonic plague was imported; and that efficiency was amply
+vindicated by the complete eradication of that pestilence within a few
+weeks.
+
+[Illustration: DR. FERNANDO MENDEZ-CAPOTE, SECRETARY OF SANITATION]
+
+[Illustration: GEN. JOSE MARTI, SECRETARY OF WAR]
+
+Shortly after his accession to the Presidency, General Menocal effected
+a complete reorganization of the military system. It was not his purpose
+to burden the country with unnecessary armaments, but he realized the
+necessity of a certain degree of militant preparation for emergencies
+and therefore provided it with a small but efficient army and navy,
+commensurate with the necessities of the country, and entirely subject,
+of course, to the control and direction of the people through their
+civil government. The efficiency of this arm of the Government was well
+demonstrated at the time already described in these pages when, early in
+1917, a widespread revolution was attempted for the purpose of
+overthrowing the constitutional and legal government of the country. At
+that time the President showed the same triumphant ability as a military
+strategist that he had displayed as a civil administrator, in directing
+the movements of the Government troops from the Palace in Havana. It was
+due to his vigilance and energy in directing the campaign, as well, of
+course, as to the able assistance of his staff, that the rebel forces
+were promptly surrounded and captured and thus a death blow was struck
+at what we may hope will prove to have been the last attempt at
+revolution in Cuba.
+
+No less remarkable than his energy in war was the President's
+magnanimity in dealing with his vanquished enemies when peace had been
+restored, though sometimes against the will of many of his foremost
+advisers. He led the movement of opinion favorable to harmony and
+reconciliation, which was finally confirmed by a law of congress
+granting full amnesty to all civilians who participated in that ill
+advised insurrection. Instead of using persecution, bitterness and
+vindictive oppression against his enemies, President Menocal restored
+good will through the Island by his magnanimous generosity and abundant
+acts of grace.
+
+We have already spoken of President Menocal's admirable course in
+pointing out where the duty of his country lay in the great crisis of
+the European war, and in confirming the traditional friendship between
+Cuba and the United States by making the insular republic an ally of its
+great northern neighbor in that world-wide conflict. His recommendation
+of a declaration of war was immediately and unanimously adopted by the
+Cuban Congress, and thereafter the policy of the republic, under his
+direction, was one of close cooperation with the United States, and of
+placing all the resources and energies of the Island at the disposal of
+the Allied cause. It is worthy of record that the French Government
+showed its appreciation, not only of his spirit and purpose but of his
+actual achievements in the war, by conferring upon him the Grand Cross
+of the Legion of Honor.
+
+During these last few years the agricultural, industrial and economical
+resources of Cuba have been developed to an extent hitherto unknown and
+undreamed of in the history of the country. Industries have been
+immensely stimulated, great new enterprises have been created, and an
+expansion of foreign trade has been attained which makes Cuba in
+proportion to its size the foremost commercial country of the world.
+
+[Illustration: EUGENIO SANCHEZ AGRAMONTE
+
+Bearing a name which has been identified with many high achievements in
+medical and other science, Dr. Eugenio Sanchez Agramonte has added new
+lustre to it by his own achievements for the health of humanity and for
+the welfare of his fatherland. He was born in Camaguey on April 17,
+1865, and had already attained enviable rank as a physician and
+sanitarian when, still a young man, he entered the War of Independence.
+His chief services were rendered as Director of the Sanitary Department
+of the Army of Liberation, in which place he had the rank of General. He
+was also Director of the great Casa de Beneficia. After the war he took
+an active interest in civic affairs, and became the president of the
+Conservative party. With the election of General Menocal to the
+Presidency of the Cuban Republic, General Agramonte was elected
+president of the Senate, which position he held until 1917, when
+President Menocal appointed him Secretary of Agriculture, Commerce and
+Labor.]
+
+According to recent data the foreign trade of Cuba is $800,000,000.
+Reckoning the population of the Island at about 2,700,000, that means a
+foreign trade of more than $296 per capita. In the year immediately
+preceding the outbreak of the European war, and before the great
+disturbance of commerce caused by that conflict, the foreign trade of
+the United States of America amounted to only $39 per capita, and even
+that of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland to only $170.
+
+Before the enraptured vision of Columbus, Cuba baffled appreciation. To
+the more discriminating vision of to-day, her future equally baffles
+while it piques imagination. Louis Napoleon, meditating upon the
+possibilities of an American Isthmian canal, once said:
+
+"The geographical position of Constantinople rendered her the Queen of
+the ancient world. Occupying, as she does, the central point between
+Europe, Asia and Africa, she could become the entreport of the commerce
+of all those countries, and obtain over them immense preponderance; for
+in politics, as in strategy, a central position always commands the
+circumference."
+
+Then he pointed out the similarity of position of Nicaragua, where he
+hoped to construct a canal, and argued that it similarly might obtain a
+like status in the Western World. It needs little suggestion to point
+out that Cuba fulfils those conditions in a supreme degree. It was not
+vainly that Spaniards centuries ago called Havana the Key of the Gulf,
+of the Caribbean, of the Indies, of the Western World. The position of
+Cuba is unique and incomparable, with relation to the United States,
+Mexico, Central America and South America, and the two enclosed seas
+which form the Mediterranean of the American Continents. Of old the
+treasure fleets of Spain passed by her coasts, and visited her harbors.
+To-day she is similarly visited by the fleets which ply between North
+America and South America, and between the Atlantic and the Pacific
+oceans. Reckoned by routes of traffic on the charted seas, she is the
+commercial centre of the world.
+
+[Illustration: ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, HAVANA]
+
+It is not with ambition for conquest or for political ascendancy that
+Cuba exults in that proud position, but merely that she may in the
+words of her President "show herself worthy of the favors which God has
+lavished upon her," and make herself a joy unto herself and a
+convenience and a benefaction to the peaceful world. It is into such an
+estate that she has now found the sure way to enter, and is indeed
+confidently and triumphantly entering, through achievements which,
+though embraced in only half a dozen years, are worthy of a generation
+of progress and are auspicious of immeasurable generations of progress
+yet to come; achievements toward which her present Chief of State has
+greatly and indispensably contributed.
+
+The story of Cuba is from Velasquez to Menocal. That is the story which
+we have tried to tell. But that is by no means the whole history of
+Cuba. Even of that portion of it we have been able here to give only an
+outline of the essential facts. But surely the span of four hundred and
+seven years must not be reckoned as a finality. It is only the beginning
+of the annals of a land and a people whose place among the nations of
+the world in honorable perpetuity is now assured as far as it can be
+assured by human purpose and achievement.
+
+These pages are, then, in fact, merely the prologue to records of
+progress and attainment which shall honor the name of Cuba and adorn the
+story of the world, "far on, in summers that we shall not see."
+
+From Velasquez to Menocal. The span is tremendous, in character as well
+as in lapse of time. It is a span from the fanatical and ruthless
+conqueror seeking only his own and his country's advantage, selfish and
+sordid, to the broad-minded and altruistic statesman and philanthropist,
+seeking the advantage and the advancement of his fellow men. It is a
+span, in brief, from the Sixteenth Century age of force to the Twentieth
+Century age of law.
+
+Nevertheless, the span and the contrast involve a certain analogy. It
+was the work of Velasquez, masterful man of vision that he was, to begin
+the transformation of a land of aboriginal barbarians into at least a
+semblance of civilization; the transformation from the primitive,
+scarcely more than animal, existence of the Cuban autochthones, to the
+strenuous if sophisticated life of Spain. It has been and is the work of
+President Menocal and his accomplished and patriotic colleagues to
+induct the land and people from the discredited remnants of a false
+colonial system into the clearer light, the fuller life and the
+immeasurably more spacious and elevated opportunities of a free and
+independent people who "comprehend the responsibilities incumbent upon
+the founders of nations."
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+    Abarzuza, Sr. proposes reforms for Cuba, IV, 6.
+
+    Abreu. Marta and Rosalie, patriotism of, IV, 25.
+
+    Academy of Sciences, Havana, picture of, IV, 364.
+
+    Adams, John Quincy, enunciates American policy toward Cuba, II, 258;
+      portrait, 259;
+      on Cuban annexation, 327.
+
+    Aglona, Prince de. Governor, II, 363.
+
+    Agramonte, Aristide, in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172.
+
+    Agramonte, Enrique, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12.
+
+    Agramonte, Eugenio Sanchez, sketch and portrait, IV, 362.
+
+    Agramonte, Francisco, IV, 41.
+
+    Agramonte, Ignacio, portrait, facing. III, 258.
+
+    Agriculture, early attention to, I, 173, 224;
+      progress, 234;
+      II, 213;
+      absentee landlords, 214;
+      statistics, 223;
+      discussed in periodicals, 250;
+      rehabilitation of after War of Independence, IV, 147.
+
+    Aguayo, Geronimo de, I, 161.
+
+    Aguero, Joaquin de, organizes revolution, III, 72;
+      final defeat, 87.
+
+    Aguiar, Luis de, II, 60.
+
+    Aguiera, Jose, I, 295.
+
+    Aguila, Negra, II, 346.
+
+    Aguilera, Francisco V., sketch and portrait, III, 173.
+
+    Aguirre, Jose Maria, filibuster, IV, 55;
+      death, 85.
+
+    Albemarle, Earl of, expedition against Havana, II, 46;
+      occupies Havana, 78;
+      controversy with Bishop Morell, 83.
+
+    Alcala, Marcos, I, 310.
+
+    Aldama, Miguel de, sketch and portrait, III, 204.
+
+    Aleman, Manuel, French emissary, II, 305.
+
+    Algonquins, I, 7.
+
+    Allen, Robert, on "Importance of Havana," II, 81.
+
+    Almendares River, tapped for water supply, I, 266;
+      view on, IV, 167.
+
+    Almendariz, Alfonso Enrique, Bishop, I, 277.
+
+    Alquiza, Sancho de, Governor, I, 277.
+
+    Altamarino, Governor, I, 105;
+      post mortem trial of Velasquez, 107;
+      attacked by the Guzmans, 109;
+      removed, 110.
+
+    Altamirano, Juan C., Bishop, I, 273;
+      seized by brigands, 274.
+
+    Alvarado, Luis de, I, 147.
+
+    Alvarado, Pedro de, in Mexico, I, 86.
+
+    Amadeus, King of Spain, III, 260.
+
+    America, relation of Cuba to, I, 1;
+      II, 254. See UNITED STATES.
+
+    American Revolution, effect of upon Spain and her colonies, II, 138.
+
+    American Treaty, between Great Britain and Spain, I, 303.
+
+    Andrea, Juan de, II, 9.
+
+    Angulo, Francisco de, exiled, I, 193.
+
+    Angulo, Gonzales Perez de, Governor, I, 161;
+      emancipation proclamation, 163;
+      quarrel with Havana Council, 181;
+      flight from Sores, 186;
+      end of administration, 192.
+
+    Anners, Jean de Laet de, quoted, I, 353.
+
+    Annexation of Cuba to United States, first suggested, II, 257, 326;
+      campaign for, 380;
+      sought by United States, III, 132, 135;
+      Marcy's policy, 141;
+      Ostend Manifesto, 142;
+      Buchanan's efforts, 143;
+      not considered in War of Independence, IV, 19.
+
+    Antonelli, Juan Bautista, engineering works in Cuba, I, 261;
+      creates water supply for Havana, 266.
+
+    Apezteguia. Marquis de, Autonomist leader, IV, 94.
+
+    Apodaca, Juan Ruiz, Governor, II, 311.
+
+    Arana, Martin de, warns Prado of British approach, II, 53.
+
+    Arana, Melchior Sarto de, commander of La Fuerza, I, 237.
+
+    Arana, Pedro de, royal accountant, I, 238.
+
+    Aranda, Esquival, I, 279.
+
+    Arango, Augustin, murder of, III, 188.
+
+    Arango, Napoleon, treason of, III, 226.
+
+    Arango y Pareno, Francisco, portrait, frontispiece, Vol. II;
+      organizes Society of Progress, II, 178;
+      leadership in Cuba, 191;
+      attitude toward slavery, 208;
+      his illustrious career, 305 et seq.
+
+    Aranguren, Nestor, revolutionist, IV, 85;
+      death, 92.
+
+    Araoz, Juan, II, 181.
+
+    Arias, A. R., Governor, III, 314.
+
+    Arias, Gomez, I, 145.
+
+    Arignon, Villiet, quoted, II, 26, 94.
+
+    Armona, Jose de, II, 108.
+
+    Army, Cuban, organization of, III, 178;
+      reorganized, 263;
+      under Jose Miguel Gomez, IV, 301.
+
+    Army, Spanish, in Cuba, III, 181, 295.
+
+    Aroztegui, Martin de, II, 20.
+
+    Arrate, Jose Martin Felix, historian, II, 17, 179.
+
+    Arredondo, Nicolas, Governor at Santiago, II, 165.
+
+    Asbert, Gen. Ernesto, amnesty case, IV, 326.
+
+    "Assiento" compact on slavery, II, 2.
+
+    Assumption, Our Lady of the, I, 61.
+
+    Astor, John Jacob, aids War of Independence, IV, 14.
+
+    Asylums for Insane, II, 317.
+
+    Atares fortress, picture, II, 103.
+
+    Atkins, John, book on West Indies, II, 36.
+
+    Atrocities, committed by Spanish, III, 250;
+      Cespedes's protest against, 254;
+      "Book of Blood," 284;
+      Spanish confession of, 286;
+      war of destruction,
+      295;
+      Weyler's "concentration" policy, IV, 85.
+
+    Attwood's Cay. See GUANAHANI.
+
+    Autonomist party, III, 305;
+      IV, 34;
+      attitude toward Campos in War of Independence, 59;
+      Cabinet under Blanco, 94;
+      earnest efforts for peace, 101;
+      record of its government, 102.
+
+    Avellanda, Gertrudis Gomez de, III, 331;
+      portrait, facing, 332.
+
+    Avila, Alfonso de, I, 154.
+
+    Avila, Juan de, Governor, I, 151;
+      marries rich widow, 154;
+      charges against him, 157;
+      convicted and imprisoned, 158.
+
+    Avila. See DAVILA.
+
+    Aviles, Pedro Menendez de, See MENENDEZ.
+
+    Ayala, Francisco P. de, I, 291.
+
+    Ayilon, Lucas V. de, strives to make peace between Velasquez
+      and Cortez, I, 98.
+
+    Azcarata, Jose Luis, Secretary of Justice, sketch and portrait,
+      IV, 341.
+
+    Azcarate, Nicolas, sketch and portrait, III, 251, 332.
+
+    Azcarraga, Gen., Spanish Premier, IV, 88.
+
+
+    "Barbeque" sought by Columbus, I, 18.
+
+    Bachiller, Antonio, sketch and portrait, III, 317.
+
+    Bacon, Robert, Assistant Secretary of State of U. S., intervenes
+      in revolution, IV, 272.
+
+    Bahia Honda, selected as U. S. naval station, IV, 256.
+
+    Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, I, 55, 91.
+
+    Bancroft, George, quoted, I, 269;
+      II, 1, 24, 41, 117, 120, 159.
+
+    Banderas, Quintin, revolutionist, IV, 34;
+      raid, 57;
+      death, 84.
+
+    Baracoa, Columbus at, I, 18;
+      Velasquez at, 60;
+      picture, 60;
+      first capital of Cuba, 61, 168.
+
+    Barreda, Baltazar, I, 201.
+
+    Barreiro, Juan Bautista, Secretary of Education, IV, 160.
+
+    Barrieres, Manuel Garcia, II, 165.
+
+    Barrionuevo, Juan Maldonado, Governor, I, 263.
+
+    Barsicourt, Juan Procopio. See SANTA CLARA, Conde.
+
+    Bayamo, founded by Velasquez, I, 68, 168;
+      Cuban Republic organized there, III, 157.
+
+    Bayoa, Pedro de, I, 300.
+
+    Bay of Cortez, reached by Columbus, I, 25.
+
+    Bees, introduced by Bishop Morell, II, 104;
+      increase of industry, 132.
+
+    "Beggars of the Sea," raid Cuban coasts, I, 208.
+
+    Bells, church, controversy over, II, 82.
+
+    Bembrilla, Alonzo, I, 111.
+
+    Benavides, Juan de, I, 280.
+
+    Berrea, Esteban S. de, II, 6.
+
+    Betancourt, Pedro, Civil Governor of Matanzas, IV, 179;
+      loyal to Palma, 271.
+
+    Betancourt. See CISNEROS.
+
+    "Bimini," Island of, I, 139.
+
+    Bishops of Roman Catholic Church in Cuba, I, 122.
+
+    "Black Eagle," II, 346.
+
+    _Black Warrior_ affair, III, 138.
+
+    Blanchet, Emilio, historian, quoted, II, 9, 15, 24;
+      on siege of Havana, 57, 87.
+
+    Blanco, Ramon, Governor, IV, 88;
+      undertakes reforms, 89;
+      plans Cuban autonomy, 93;
+      on destruction of _Maine_, 99;
+      resigns, 121.
+
+    Blue, Victor, observations at Santiago, IV, 110.
+
+    Bobadilla, F. de, I, 54.
+
+    Boca de la Yana, I, 18.
+
+    "Bohio" sought by Columbus, I, 18.
+
+    Bolivar, Simon, II, 333;
+      portrait, 334;
+      "Liberator," 334 et seq.;
+      influence on Cuba, 341;
+      "Soles de Bolivar," 341.
+
+    Bonel, Juan Bautista, II, 133.
+
+    "Book of Blood," III, 284.
+
+    Bourne, Edward Gaylord, quoted, on slavery, II, 209;
+      on Spanish in America, 226.
+
+    Brinas, Felipe, III, 330.
+
+    British policy toward Spain and Cuba, I, 270;
+      aggressions in West Indies, 293;
+      slave trade, II, 2;
+      war of 1639, 22;
+      designs upon Cuba, 41;
+      expedition against Havana, 1762, 46;
+      conquest of Cuba, 78;
+      relinquishment to Spain, 92. See GREAT BRITAIN.
+
+    Broa Bay, I, 22.
+
+    Brooke, Gen. John R., receives Spanish surrender of Cuba, IV, 122;
+      proclamation to Cuban people, 145;
+      retired, 157.
+
+    Brooks, Henry, revolutionist, IV, 30.
+
+    Buccaneers, origin of, I, 269.
+
+    Buccarelli, Antonio Maria, Governor, II, 110;
+      retires, 115.
+
+    Buchanan, James, on U. S. relations to Cuba, II, 263;
+      III, 135;
+      Minister to Great Britain, 142;
+      as President seeks annexation of Cuba to U. S., 143.
+
+    Bull-fighting, II, 233.
+
+    Burgos, Juan de, Bishop, I, 225.
+
+    Burtnett, Spanish spy against Lopez, III, 65.
+
+    Bustamente, Antonio Sanchez de, jurist, sketch and portrait, IV, 165.
+
+
+    Caballero, Jose Agustin, sketch and portrait, III, 321.
+
+    Caballo, Domingo, II, 173.
+
+    Cabanas, defences constructed, II, 58;
+      Laurel Ditch, view, facing, 58.
+
+    Caballero, Diego de, I, 111.
+
+    Cabezas, Bishop, I, 277.
+
+    Cabrera, Diego de, I, 206.
+
+    Cabrera, Luis, I, 198.
+
+    Cabrera, Lorenzo de, Governor, I, 279;
+      removed, 282.
+
+    Cabrera, Rafael, filibuster, IV, 70.
+
+    Cabrera, Raimundo, conspirator in New York, IV, 334;
+      warned, 339.
+
+    Cadreyta, Marquis de, I, 279.
+
+    Cagigal, Juan Manuel de, Governor, II, 154;
+      defence of Havana, 155;
+      removed and imprisoned, 157.
+
+    Cagigal, Juan Manuel, Governor, II, 313;
+      successful administration, 315.
+
+    Cagigal de la Vega, Francisco, defends Santiago, II, 29;
+      Governor, 32;
+      Viceroy of Mexico, 34.
+
+    Caguax, Cuban chief, I, 63.
+
+    Calderon, Gabriel, Bishop, I, 315.
+
+    Calderon, Garcia, quoted, II, 164, 172.
+
+    Calderon de la Barca, Spanish Minister,
+      on _La Verdad_, III, 19;
+      on colonial status, 21;
+      negotiations with Soule, 140.
+
+    Calhoun, John C., on Cuba, III, 132.
+
+    Calleja y Isisi, Emilio, Governor, III, 313;
+      proclaims martial law, IV, 30;
+      resigns, 35.
+
+    Camaguey. See PUERTO PRINCIPE, I, 168.
+
+    Campbell, John, description of Havana, II, 14.
+
+    Campillo, Jose de, II, 19.
+
+    Campos, Martinez de, Governor, III, 296;
+      proclamations to Cuba, 297, 299;
+      makes Treaty of Zanjon and ends Ten Years War, 299;
+      in Spanish crisis, IV, 36;
+      Governor again, 37;
+      establishes Trocha, 44;
+      defeated by Maceo, 46;
+      conferences with party leaders, 59, 63;
+      removed, 63.
+
+    Cancio, Leopoldo, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 161, 320.
+
+    Canizares, Santiago J., Minister of Interior, IV, 48.
+
+    Canning, George, policy toward Cuba, II, 257;
+      portrait, 258.
+
+    Canoe, of Cuban origin, I, 10.
+
+    Canon, Rodrigo, I, 111.
+
+    Canovas del Castillo, Spanish Premier, IV, 36;
+      assassinated, 88.
+
+    Cape Cruz, Columbus at, I, 20.
+
+    Cape Maysi, I, 4.
+
+    Cape of Palms, I, 17.
+
+    Capote, Domingo Menendez. Vice-President, IV, 90;
+      Secretary of State, 146;
+      President of Constitutional Convention. 189.
+
+    Carajaval, Lucas, defies Dutch, I, 290.
+
+    Cardenas, Lopez lands at, III, 49.
+
+    Caribs, I, 8.
+
+    Carillo, Francisco, filibuster, IV, 55.
+
+    Carleton, Sir Guy, at Havana, II, 47.
+
+    Carranza, Domingo Gonzales, book on West Indies, II, 37.
+
+    Carrascesa, Alfonso, II, 6.
+
+    Carreno, Francisco, Governor, I, 219;
+      conditions at his accession, 228;
+      dies in office, 229;
+      work in rebuilding Havana, 231.
+
+    Carroll, James, in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172.
+
+    Casa de Beneficienca, founded, I, 335;
+      II, 177.
+
+    Casa de Resorgiamento, founded, II, 31.
+
+    Casares, Alfonso, codifies municipal ordinances, I, 207.
+
+    Castellanos, Jovellar, last Spanish Governor of Cuba, IV, 121;
+      surrenders Spanish sovereignty, 123.
+
+    Castillo, Demetrio, Civil Governor of Oriente, IV, 180.
+
+    Castillo, Ignacio Maria del, Governor, III, 314.
+
+    Castillo, Loinaz, revolutionist. IV, 269.
+
+    Castillo, Pedro del, Bishop, I, 226.
+
+    Castro, Hernando de, royal treasurer, I, 115.
+
+    Cathcart Lord, expedition to West Indies, II, 28.
+
+    Cathedral of Havana, picture, facing I, 36;
+      begun, I, 310.
+
+    Cat Island. See GUANAHANI.
+
+    Cayo, San Juan de los Remedios del, removal of, I, 319.
+
+    Cazones, Gulf of, I, 21.
+
+    Cemi, Cuban worship of, I, 55.
+
+    Census, of Cuba, first taken, by Torre, II, 131;
+      by Las Casas, 176;
+      of slaves, 205;
+      of 1775, 276;
+      of 1791, 277;
+      Humboldt on, 277;
+      of 1811, 280;
+      of 1817, 281;
+      of 1827, 283;
+      of 1846, 283;
+      of 1899, IV, 154;
+      of 1907, 287.
+
+    Cespedes, Carlos Manuel, III, 157;
+      portrait, facing 158;
+      in Spain, 158;
+      leads Cuban revolution, 158;
+      President of Republic, 158;
+      proclamation, 168;
+      negotiations with Spain, 187;
+      removed from office, 275.
+
+    Cespedes, Carlos Manuel, filibuster, IV, 55.
+
+    Cespedes, Enrique, revolutionist, IV, 30.
+
+    Cervera, Admiral, brings Spanish fleet to Cuba, IV, 110;
+      portrait, 110;
+      surrenders, 114.
+
+    Chacon, Jose Bayoma, II, 13.
+
+    Chacon, Luis, I, 331, 333.
+
+    Chalons, Sr., Secretary of Public Works, IV, 297.
+
+    Chamber of Commerce founded, II, 307.
+
+    Charles I, King, I, 74;
+      denounces oppression of Indians, 128.
+
+    Chaves, Antonio, Governor, I, 157;
+      prosecutes Avila, 157;
+      ruthless policy toward natives, 159;
+      controversy with King, 160;
+      dismissed from office, 161.
+
+    Chaves, Juan Baton de, I, 331.
+
+    Chilton, John, describes Havana, I, 349.
+
+    Chinchilla, Jose, Governor, III, 314.
+
+    Chinese, colonies in America, I, 7;
+      laborers imported into Cuba, II, 295.
+
+    Chorrera, expected to be Drake's landing place, I, 248.
+
+    Chorrera River, dam built by Antonelli, I, 262.
+
+    Christianity, introduced into Cuba by Ojeda, I, 55;
+      urged by King Ferdinand, 73.
+
+    Church, Roman Catholic, organized and influential in Cuba, I, 122;
+      cathedral removed from Baracoa to Santiago, 123;
+      conflict with civil power, 227;
+      controversy with British during British occupation, II, 84;
+      division of island into two dioceses, 173;
+      attitude toward War of Independence, IV, 26;
+      controversy over property, 294.
+
+    Cienfuegos, Jose, Governor, II, 311.
+
+    Cimmarones, "wild Indians," I, 126;
+      revolt against De Soto, 148.
+
+    Cipango, Cuba identified with, by Columbus, I, 5.
+
+    Cisneros, Gaspar Betancourt, sketch and portrait, II, 379.
+
+    Cisneros, Pascal Jiminez de, II, 110, 127.
+
+    Cisneros, Salvador, III, 167;
+      sketch and portrait, 276;
+      President of Cuban Republic, 277;
+      President of Council of Ministers, IV, 48;
+      in Constitutional Convention, 190.
+
+    Civil Service, law, IV, 325;
+      respected by President Menocal, 325.
+
+    Clay, Henry, policy toward Cuba, II, 261.
+
+    Clayton, John M., U. S. Secretary of State, issues proclamation
+      against filibustering, III, 42.
+
+    Cleaveland, Samuel, controversy over church bells, II, 83.
+
+    Cleveland, Grover. President of United States, issues warning against
+      breaches of neutrality, IV, 70;
+      reference to Cuba
+      in message of 1896, 79;
+      its significance, 80.
+
+    Coat of Arms of Cuba, picture, IV, 251;
+      significance, 251.
+
+    Cobre, copper mines, I, 173, 259.
+
+    "Cockfighting and Idleness" campaign, IV, 291.
+
+    Coffee, cultivation begun, II, 33, 113.
+
+    Coinage, reformed, II, 142;
+      statistics of, 158.
+
+    Collazo, Enrique, filibuster, IV, 55.
+
+    Coloma, Antonio Lopez, revolutionist, IV, 30.
+
+    Colombia, designs upon Cuba, II, 262;
+      III, 134;
+      attitude toward Cuban revolution, 223.
+
+    Columbus, Bartholomew, recalled to Spain, I, 57.
+
+    Columbus, Christopher, portrait, frontispiece, Vol. I;
+      discoverer of America, I;
+      i;
+      first landing in America, 2;
+      monument on Watling's Island, picture, 3;
+      arrival in Cuba, 11;
+      question as to first landing place, 12;
+      first impressions of Cuba and intercourse with natives, 14;
+      exploration of north coast, 16;
+      end of first visit, 18;
+      second visit, 19;
+      exploration of south coast, 21;
+      at Bay of Cortez, 25;
+      turns back from circumnavigation, 26;
+      at Isle of Pines, 26;
+      final departure from Cuba, 27;
+      diary and narrative, 28 et seq.;
+      death and burial, 33;
+      tomb in Havana cathedral, 34;
+      removal to Seville, 36;
+      removal from Santo Domingo to Havana, II, 181;
+      epitaph, 182.
+
+    Columbus, Diego, plans exploration and colonization of Cuba, I, 57;
+      attempts mediation between Velasquez and Cortez, 97;
+      replaces Velasquez with Zuazo, 100;
+      rebuked by King, 100.
+
+    Comendador, Cacique, I, 55.
+
+    Commerce, begun by Velasquez, I, 68;
+      rise of corporations, II, 19;
+      after British occupation, 98;
+      under Torre, 132;
+      reduction of duties, 141;
+      extension of trade, 163;
+      Tribunal of Commerce founded, 177;
+      Real Compania de Havana, 199;
+      restrictive measures, 200;
+      Chamber of Commerce founded, 307;
+      commerce with United States, III, 2;
+      during American occupation, IV, 184;
+      present, 358.
+
+    Compostela, Diego E. de, Bishop, I, 318;
+      death, 332.
+
+    Concepcion, Columbus's landing place, I, 3.
+
+    Concessions, forbidden under American occupation, IV, 153.
+
+    Concha, Jose Gutierrez de la, Governor, III, 62, 290.
+
+    Conchillos, royal secretary, I, 59.
+
+    Congress, Cuban, welcomed by Gen. Wood, IV, 246;
+      turns against Palma, 269;
+      friendly to Gomez, 303;
+      hostile to Menocal, 323;
+      protects the lottery, 324.
+
+    Constitution: Cuban Republic of 1868, III, 157;
+      of 1895, IV, 47;
+      call for Constitutional Convention, 185;
+      meeting of Convention, 187;
+      draft completed, 192;
+      salient provisions, 193;
+      Elihu Root's comments, 194;
+      Convention discusses relations with United States, 197;
+      Platt
+      Amendment, 199;
+      amendment adopted, 203;
+      text of Constitution, 304 et seq.;
+      The Nation, 205;
+      Cubans, 205;
+      Foreigners, 207;
+      Individual Rights, 208;
+      Suffrage, 211;
+      Suspension of Guarantees, 212;
+      Sovereignty, 213;
+      Legislative Bodies, 214;
+      Senate, 214;
+      House of Representatives, 216;
+      Congress, 218;
+      Legislation, 221;
+      Executive, 222;
+      President, 222;
+      Vice-President, 225;
+      Secretaries of State, 226;
+      Judiciary, 227;
+      Supreme Court, 227;
+      Administration of Justice, 228;
+      Provincial Governments, 229;
+      Provincial Councils, 230;
+      Provincial Governors, 231;
+      Municipal Government, 233;
+      Municipal Councils, 233;
+      Mayors, 235;
+      National Treasury, 235;
+      Amendments, 236;
+      Transient Provisions, 237;
+      Appendix (Platt Amendment), 238.
+
+    "Constitutional Army," IV, 268.
+
+    Contreras, Andres Manso de, I, 288.
+
+    Contreras, Damien, I, 278.
+
+    Convents, founded, I, 276;
+      Nuns of Santa Clara, 286.
+
+    Conyedo, Juan de, Bishop, II, 35.
+
+    Copper, discovered near Santiago, I, 173;
+      wealth of mines, 259;
+      reopened, II, 13;
+      exports, III, 3.
+
+    Corbalon, Francisco R., I, 286.
+
+    Cordova de Vega, Diego de, Governor, I, 239.
+
+    Cordova, Francisco H., expedition to Yucatan, I, 84.
+
+    Cordova Ponce de Leon, Jose Fernandez, Governor, I, 316.
+
+    Coreal, Francois, account of West Indies, quoted, I, 355.
+
+    Coronado, Manuel, gift for air planes, IV, 352.
+
+    Cortes, Spanish, Cuban representation in, II, 308;
+      excluded, 351;
+      lack of representation, III, 3;
+      after Ten Years' War, 307.
+
+    Cortez, Hernando, Alcalde of Santiago de Cuba, I, 72;
+      sent to Mexico by King, 74;
+      agent of Velasquez, 86;
+      early career, 90;
+      portrait, 90;
+      quarrel with Velasquez, 91;
+      marriage, 92;
+      commissioned by Velasquez to explore Mexico, 92;
+      sails for Mexico, 94;
+      final breach with Velasquez, 96;
+      denounced as rebel, 97;
+      escapes murder, 99.
+
+    Cosa, Juan de la, geographer, I, 6, 53.
+
+    Councillors, appointed for life, I, 111;
+      conflict with Procurators, 113.
+
+    Creoles, origin of name, II, 204.
+
+    Crittenden, J. J., protests against European intervention in Cuba,
+      III, 129.
+
+    Crittenden, William S., with Lopez, III, 96;
+      captured, 101;
+      death, 105.
+
+    Crombet, Flor, revolutionist, IV, 41, 42.
+
+    Crooked Island. See ISABELLA.
+
+    Crowder, Gen. Enoch H., head of Consulting Board, IV, 284.
+
+    Cuba: Relation to America, I, 1;
+      Columbus's first landing, 3;
+      identified with Mangi or Cathay, 4;
+      with Cipango, 5;
+      earliest maps, 6;
+      physical history, 7, 37 et seq.;
+      Columbus's discovery, 11 et seq.;
+      named Juana, 13;
+      other names, 14;
+      Columbus's account of, 28;
+      geological history, 37-42;
+      topography, 42-51;
+      climate, 51-52;
+      first circumnavigation, 54;
+      colonization, 54;
+      Velasquez at Baracoa, 60;
+      commerce begun, 68;
+      government organized, 69;
+      named Ferdinandina, 73;
+      policy of Spain toward, 175;
+      slow economic progress, 215;
+      land legislation, 232;
+      Spanish discrimination against, 266;
+      divided into two districts, 275;
+      British description in 1665, 306;
+      various accounts, 346;
+      turning point in history, 363;
+      close of first era, 366;
+      British conquest, II, 78;
+      relinquished to Spain, 92;
+      great changes effected, 94;
+      economic condition, 98;
+      reoccupied by Spain, 102;
+      untouched by early revolutions, 165;
+      effect of revolution in Santo Domingo, 190;
+      first suggestion of annexation to United States, 257;
+      "Ever Faithful Isle," 268;
+      rise of independence, 268;
+      censuses, 276 et seq.;
+      representation in Cortes, 308;
+      "Soles de Bolivar," 341;
+      representatives rejected from Cortes, 351;
+      transformation of popular spirit, 383;
+      independence proclaimed, III, 145;
+      Republic organized, 157;
+      War of Independence, IV, 15;
+      Spanish elections held during war, 67;
+      Blanco's plan of autonomy, 93;
+      sovereignty surrendered by Spain, 123;
+      list of Spanish Governors, 123. See REPUBLIC OF CUBA.
+
+    Cuban Aborigines;
+      I, 8;
+      manners, customs and religion, 8 et seq.;
+      Columbus's first intercourse, 15, 24;
+      priest's address to Columbus, 26;
+      Columbus's observations of them, 29;
+      hostilities begun by Velasquez, 61;
+      subjected to Repartimiento system, 70;
+      practical slavery, 71;
+      Key Indians, 125;
+      Cimmarones, 126;
+      new laws in their favor, 129;
+      Rojas's endeavor to save them, 130;
+      final doom, 133;
+      efforts at reform, 153;
+      oppression by Chaves, 159;
+      Angulo's emancipation proclamation, 163.
+
+    "Cuba-nacan," I, 5.
+
+    "Cuba and the Cubans," quoted, II, 313.
+
+    "Cuba y Su Gobierno," quoted, II, 354.
+
+    Cuellar, Cristobal de, royal accountant, I, 59.
+
+    Cushing, Caleb, Minister to Spain, III, 291.
+
+    Custom House, first at Havana, I, 231.
+
+
+    Dady, Michael J., & Co., contract dispute, IV, 169.
+
+    Davila, Pedrarias, I, 140.
+
+    Davis, Jefferson, declines to join Lopez, III, 38.
+
+    Del Casal, Julian, sketch and portrait, IV, 6.
+
+    Del Cueta, Jose A., President of Supreme Court, portrait, IV, 359.
+
+    Delgado, Moru, Liberal leader, IV, 267.
+
+    Del Monte, Domingo, sketch, portrait, and work, II, 323.
+
+    Del Monte, Ricardo, sketch and portrait, IV, 2.
+
+    Demobilization of Cuban army, IV, 135.
+
+    Desvernine, Pablo, Secretary of Finance, IV, 146.
+
+    Diaz, Bernal, at Sancti Spiritus, I, 72;
+      in Mexico, 86.
+
+    Diaz, Manuel, I, 239.
+
+    Diaz, Manuel Luciano, Secretary of Public Works, IV, 254.
+
+    Diaz, Modeste, III, 263.
+
+    Divino, Sr., Secretary of Justice, IV, 297.
+
+    Dockyard at Havana, established, II, 8.
+
+    Dolz, Eduardo, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 96.
+
+    Dominguez, Fermin V., Assistant Secretary of Foreign Affairs, IV, 50.
+
+    Dorst, J. H., mission to Pinar del Rio, IV, 107.
+
+    "Dragado" deal, IV, 310.
+
+    Drake, Sir Francis, menaces Havana, I, 243;
+      in Hispaniola, 246;
+      leaves Havana unassailed, 252;
+      departs for Virginia, 255.
+
+    Duany, Joaquin Castillo, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12;
+      Assistant Secretary of Treasury, 50;
+      filibuster, 70.
+
+    Dubois, Carlos, Assistant Secretary of Interior, IV, 50.
+
+    Duero, Andres de, I, 93, 115.
+
+    Dulce y Garay, Domingo, Governor, III, 190, 194;
+      decree of confiscation, 209;
+      recalled, 213.
+
+    Dupuy de Lome, Sr., Spanish Minister at Washington, IV, 40;
+      writes offensive letter, 98;
+      recalled, 98.
+
+    Duque, Sr., Secretary of Sanitation and Charity, IV, 297.
+
+    Durango, Bishop, I, 225.
+
+    Dutch hostilities, I, 208, 279;
+      activities in West Indies, 283 et seq.
+
+
+    Earthquakes, in 1765, I, 315;
+      II, 114.
+
+    Echeverria, Esteban B., Superintendent of Schools, IV, 162.
+
+    Echeverria, Jose, Bishop, II, 113.
+
+    Echeverria, Jose Antonio, III, 324.
+
+    Echeverria, Juan Maria, Governor, II, 312.
+
+    Education, backward state of, II, 244;
+      progress under American occupation, IV, 156;
+      A. E. Frye, Superintendent, 156;
+      reorganization of system, 162;
+      Harvard University's entertainment of teachers, 163;
+      achievements under President Menocal, 357.
+
+    Elections: for municipal officers under American occupation, IV, 180;
+      law for regulation of, 180;
+      result, 181;
+      for Constitutional Convention, 186;
+      for general officers, 240;
+      result, 244;
+      Presidential, 1906, 265;
+      new law, 287;
+      local elections under Second Intervention, 289;
+      Presidential, 290;
+      for Congress in 1908, 303;
+      Presidential, 1912, 309;
+      Presidential, 1916, disputed, 330, result confirmed, 341.
+
+    Enciso, Martin F. de, first Spanish writer about America, I, 54.
+
+    Epidemics: putrid fever, 1649, I, 290;
+      vaccination introduced, II, 192;
+      small pox and yellow fever, III, 313;
+      at Santiago, IV, 142;
+      Gen. Wood applies Dr. Finlay's theory of yellow fever, 171;
+      success, 176;
+      malaria, 177.
+
+    Escudero, Antonio, de, II, 10.
+
+    Espada, Juan Jose Diaz, portrait, facing II, 272.
+
+    Espagnola. See HISPANIOLA.
+
+    Espeleta, Joaquin de, Governor, II, 362.
+
+    Espinosa, Alonzo de Campos, Governor, I, 316.
+
+    Espoleto, Jose de, Governor, II, 169.
+
+    Estenoz, Negro insurgent, IV, 307.
+
+    Estevez, Luis, Secretary of Justice, IV, 160;
+      Vice-President, 245.
+
+    Evangelista. See ISLE OF PINES.
+
+    Everett, Edward, policy toward Cuba, III, 130.
+
+    "Ever Faithful Isle," II, 268, 304.
+
+    Exquemeling, Alexander, author and pirate, I, 302.
+
+
+    "Family Pact," of Bourbons, effect upon Cuba, II, 42.
+
+    Felin, Antonio, Bishop, II, 172.
+
+    Fels, Cornelius, defeated by Spanish, I, 288.
+
+    Ferdinand, King, policy toward Cuba, I, 56;
+      esteem for Velasquez, 73.
+
+    Ferdinandina, Columbus's landing place, I, 3;
+      name for Cuba, 73.
+
+    Ferrara, Orestes, Liberal leader, IV, 260;
+      revolutionist, 269;
+      deprecates factional strife, 306;
+      revolutionary conspirator in New York, 334;
+      warned by U. S. Government, I, 239.
+
+    Ferrer, Juan de, commander of La Fuerza, I, 239.
+
+    Figueroa, Vasco Porcallo de, I, 72;
+      De Soto's lieutenant, 142;
+      returns from Florida in disgust, 145.
+
+    Figuerosa, Rojas de, captures Tortuga, I, 292.
+
+    Filarmonia, riot at ball, III, 119.
+
+    Filibustering, proclamation of United States against, III, 42;
+      after Ten Years' War, 311, in War of Independence, IV, 20;
+      expeditions intercepted, 52;
+      many successful expeditions, 69;
+      warnings, 70.
+
+    Fine Arts, II, 240.
+
+    Finlay, Carlos G., theory of yellow fever successfully applied
+      under General Wood, IV, 171;
+      portrait, facing, 172.
+
+    Fish, Hamilton, U. S. Secretary of State, prevents premature
+      recognition of Cuban Republic, III, 203;
+      protests against Rodas's decree, 216;
+      on losses in Ten Years' War, 290;
+      seeks British support, 292;
+      states terms of proposed mediation, 293.
+
+    Fish market at Havana, founder for pirate, II, 357.
+
+    Fiske, John, historian, quoted, I, 270.
+
+    Flag, Cuban, first raised, III, 31;
+      replaces American, IV, 249;
+      picture, 250;
+      history and significance, 250.
+
+    Flores y Aldama, Rodrigo de, Governor, I, 301.
+
+    Florida, attempted colonization by Ponce de Leon, I, 139;
+      De Soto's expedition, 145. See MENENDEZ.
+
+    Fonseca, Juan Rodriguez de, Bishop of Seville, I, 59.
+
+    Fonts-Sterling, Ernesto, Secretary of Finance, IV, 90;
+      urges resistance to revolution, 270.
+
+    Fornaris, Jose, III, 230.
+
+    Forestry, attention paid by Montalvo, I, 223;
+      efforts to check waste, II, 166.
+
+    Foyo, Sr., Secretary of Agriculture, Commerce and Labor, IV, 297.
+
+    France, first foe of Spanish in Cuba, I, 177;
+      "Family Pact," II, 42;
+      interest in Cuban revolution, III, 126.
+
+    Franquinay, pirate, at Santiago, I, 310.
+
+    French refugees, in Cuba, II, 189;
+      expelled, 302.
+
+    French Revolution, effects of, II, 184.
+
+    Freyre y Andrade, Fernando, filibuster,
+      IV, 70;
+      negotiations with Pino Guerra, 267.
+
+    Frye, Alexis, Superintendent of Schools, IV, 156;
+      controversy with General Wood, 162.
+
+    Fuerza, La: picture, facing I, 146;
+      building begun by De Soto, I, 147;
+      scene of Lady Isabel's tragic vigil, 147, 179;
+      planned and built by Sanchez, 194;
+      work by Menendez, and Ribera, 209;
+      slave labor sought, 211;
+      bad construction, 222;
+      Montalvo's recommendations, 223;
+      Luzan-Arana quarrel, 237;
+      practical completion, 240;
+      decorated by Cagigal, II, 33.
+
+
+    Galvano, Antony, historian, quoted, I, 4.
+
+    Galvez, Bernardo, seeks Cuban aid for Pensacola, II, 146;
+      Governor, 168;
+      death, 170.
+
+    Galvez, Jose Maria, head of Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95.
+
+    Garaondo, Jose, I, 317.
+
+    Garay, Francisco de, Governor of Jamaica, I, 102.
+
+    Garcia, Calixto, portrait, facing III, 268;
+      President of Cuban Republic, III, 301;
+      joins War of Independence, IV, 69;
+      his notable career, 76 et seq.;
+      joins with Shafter at Santiago, 111;
+      death, 241.
+
+    Garcia, Carlos, revolutionist, IV, 269.
+
+    Garcia, Esequiel, Secretary of Education, IV, 320.
+
+    Garcia, Marcos, IV, 44.
+
+    Garcia, Quintiliano, III, 329.
+
+    Garvey, Jose N. P., II, 222.
+
+    Gastaneta, Antonio, II, 9.
+
+    Gelder, Francisco, Governor, I, 292.
+
+    Gener y Rincon, Miguel, Secretary of Justice, IV, 161.
+
+    Geraldini, Felipe, I, 310.
+
+    Germany, malicious course of in 1898, IV, 104;
+      Cuba declares war against, 348;
+      property in Cuba seized, 349;
+      aid to Gomez, 350.
+
+    Gibson. Hugh S., U. S. Charge d'Affaires, assaulted, IV, 308.
+
+    Giron. Garcia, Governor, I, 279.
+
+    Godoy, Captain, arrested at Santiago, and put to death, I, 203.
+
+    Godoy, Manuel, II, 172.
+
+    Goicouria, Domingo, sketch and portrait, III, 234.
+
+    Gold, Columbus's quest for, I, 19;
+      Velasquez's search, 61;
+      the "Spaniards' God," 62;
+      early mining, 81;
+      value of mines, 173.
+
+    Gomez, Jose Antonio, II, 18.
+
+    Gomez, Jose Miguel, Civil Governor of Santa Clara, IV, 179;
+      aspires to Presidency, 260, 264;
+      turns from Conservative to Liberal party, 265;
+      compact with Zayas, 265;
+      starts revolution, 269;
+      elected President, 290;
+      becomes President, 297;
+      Cabinet, 297;
+      sketch and portrait, 298;
+      acts of his administration, 301;
+      charged with corruption, 304;
+      conflict with Veterans' Association, 304;
+      quarrel with Zayas, 306;
+      suppresses Negro revolt, 307;
+      amnesty bill, 309;
+      National Lottery, 310;
+      "Dragado" deal, 310;
+      railroad deal, 310;
+      estimate of his administration, 311;
+      double treason in 1916, 332;
+      defeated and captured, 337;
+      his orders for devastation, 337;
+      aided by Germany, 350.
+
+    Gomez, Juan Gualberto, revolutionist, IV, 30;
+      captured and imprisoned, 52;
+      insurgent, 269.
+
+    Gomez, Maximo, III, 264;
+      succeeds Gen. Agramonte, 275;
+      makes Treaty of Zanjon with Campos, 299;
+      in War of Independence, IV, 15;
+      commander in chief, 16, 43;
+      portrait, facing 44;
+      plans great campaign of war, 53;
+      controversy with Lacret, 84;
+      opposed to American invasion, 109;
+      appeals to Cubans to accept American occupation, 136;
+      impeachment by National Assembly ignored, 137;
+      influence during Government of Intervention, 149;
+      considered by Constitutional Convention, 191;
+      proposed for Presidency, 240;
+      declines, 241.
+
+    Gonzalez, Aurelia Castillo de, author, sketch and portrait, IV, 192.
+
+    Gonzales, William E., U. S. Minister to Cuba, IV, 335;
+      watches Gomez's insurrection, 336.
+
+    Gorgas, William C., work for sanitation, IV, 175.
+
+    Government of Cuba: organized by Velasquez, I, 69;
+      developed at Santiago, 81;
+      radical changes made, 111;
+      revolution in political status of island, 138;
+      codification of ordinances, 207;
+      Ordinances of 1542, 317;
+      land tenure, II, 12;
+      reforms by Governor Guemez, 17;
+      reorganization after British occupation, 104;
+      great reforms by Torre, 132;
+      budget and tax reforms, 197;
+      authority of Captain-General, III, 11;
+      administrative and judicial functions, 13 et seq.;
+      military and naval command, 16;
+      attempted reforms, 63;
+      concessions after Ten Years' War, 310.
+
+    Governors of Cuba, Spanish, list of, IV, 123.
+
+    Govin, Antonio, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95;
+      sketch and portrait, 95.
+
+    Grammont, buccaneer, I, 311.
+
+    Gran Caico, I, 4.
+
+    Grand Turk Island. See GUANAHANI.
+
+    Grant, U. S., President of United States, III, 200;
+      inclined to recognize Cuban Republic, 202;
+      prevented by his Secretary of State, 203;
+      comments in messages, 205, 292.
+
+    Great Britain, interest in Cuban revolution, III, 125;
+      protection sought by Spain, 129;
+      declines cooperation with United States, 294;
+      requires return of fugitives, 310.
+
+    Great Exuma. See FERDINANDINA.
+
+    Great Inagua, I, 4.
+
+    Great War, Cuba enters, IV, 348;
+      offers 10,000 troops, 348;
+      German intrigues and propaganda, 349;
+      attitude of Roman Catholic clergy, 349;
+      ships seized, 350;
+      cooperation with Food Commission, 351;
+      military activities, 352;
+      liberal subscriptions to loans, 352;
+      Red Cross work, 352;
+      Senora Menocal's inspiring leadership, 353.
+
+    Grijalva, Juan de, I, 65;
+      expedition to Mexico, 66;
+      names Mexico New Spain, 97;
+      unjustly recalled and discredited, 88.
+
+    Guajaba Island, I, 18.
+
+    Guama, Cimmarron chief, I, 127.
+
+    Guanabacoa founded, II, 21.
+
+    Guanahani, Columbus's landing place, I, 2.
+
+    Guanajes Islands, source of slave trade, I, 83.
+
+    Guantanamo, Columbus at, I, 19;
+      U. S. Naval Station, IV, 256.
+
+    Guardia, Cristobal de la, Secretary of Justice, IV, 320.
+
+    Guazo, Gregorio, de la Vega, Governor, I, 340;
+      stops tobacco war, 341;
+      warnings to Great Britain and France, 342;
+      military activity and efficiency, II, 5.
+
+    Guemez y Horcasitas, Juan F., Governor, II, 17;
+      reforms, 17;
+      close of administration, 26.
+
+    Guerra, Amador, revolutionist, IV, 30.
+
+    Guerra, Benjamin, treasurer of Junta, IV, 3.
+
+    Guerro, Pino, starts insurrection, IV, 267, 269;
+      commander of Cuban army, 301;
+      attempt to assassinate him, 303.
+
+    Guevara, Francisco, III, 265.
+
+    Guiteras, Juan, physician and scientist, sketch and portrait, IV, 321.
+
+    Guiteras, Pedro J., quoted, I, 269;
+      II, 6;
+      42;
+      207.
+
+    Guzman, Gonzalez de, mission from Velasquez to King Charles I, I, 85;
+      vindicates Velasquez, 108;
+      Governor of Cuba, 110;
+      marries rich sister-in-law, 116;
+      litigation over estate, 117;
+      tremendous indictment by Vadillo, 120;
+      appeals to King and Council for Indies, 120;
+      seeks to oppress natives, 128;
+      second time Governor, 137;
+      makes more trouble, 148;
+      trouble with French privateers, 178.
+
+    Guzman, Nunez de, royal treasurer, I, 109;
+      death and fortune, 115.
+
+    Guzman, Santos, spokesman of Constitutionalists, IV, 59.
+
+
+    Hammock, of Cuban origin, I, 10.
+
+    Hanebanilla, falls of, view, facing III, 110.
+
+    Harponville, Viscount Gustave, quoted, II, 189.
+
+    Harvard University, entertains Cuban teachers, IV, 163.
+
+    Hatuey, Cuban chief, leader against Spaniards, I, 62;
+      death, 63.
+
+    Havana: founded by Narvaez, I, 69;
+      De Soto's home and capital, 144;
+      rise in importance, 166;
+      Governor's permanent residence, 180;
+      inadequate defences, 183;
+      captured by Sores, 186;
+      protected by Mazariegos, 194;
+      sea wall proposed by Osorio, 202;
+      fortified by Menendez, 209;
+      "Key of the New World," 210;
+      commercial metropolis of West Indies, 216;
+      first hospital founded, 226;
+      San Francisco church, picture, facing 226;
+      building in Carreno's time, 231;
+      custom house, 231;
+      threatened by Drake, 243;
+      preparations for defence, 250;
+      officially called "city," 262;
+      coat of arms, 202;
+      primitive conditions, 264;
+      first theatrical performance, 264;
+      capital of western district, 275;
+      great fire, 277;
+      attacked by Pit Hein, 280;
+      described by John Chilton, 349;
+      first dockyard established, II, 8;
+      attacked by British under Admiral
+      Hosier, 9;
+      University founded, 11;
+      described by John Campbell, 14;
+      British expedition against in 1762, 46;
+      journal of siege, 54;
+      American troops engaged, 66;
+      surrender, 69;
+      terms, 71;
+      British occupation, 78;
+      great changes, 94;
+      description, 94;
+      view from Cabanas, facing, 96;
+      reoccupied by Spanish, 102;
+      hurricane, 115;
+      improvements in streets and buildings, 129;
+      view in Old Havana, facing 130;
+      street cleaning, and market, 169;
+      slaughter house removed, 194;
+      shopping, 242;
+      cafes, 243;
+      Tacon's public works, 365;
+      view of old Presidential Palace, facing III, 14;
+      view of the Prado, facing IV, 16;
+      besieged in War of Independence, 62;
+      view of bay and harbor, facing, 98;
+      old City Wall, picture, 122;
+      view of old and new buildings, facing 134;
+      General Ludlow's administration, 146;
+      Police reorganized, 150;
+      view of University, facing 164;
+      view of the new capitol, facing 204;
+      view of the President's home, facing 268;
+      view of the Academy of Arts and Crafts, facing 288;
+      new railroad terminal, 311.
+
+    Hay, John, epigram on revolutions, IV, 343
+
+    Hayti. See HISPANIOLA.
+
+    Hein, Pit, Dutch raider, I, 279.
+
+    Henderson, John, on Lopez's expedition, III, 64.
+
+    _Herald_, New York, on Cuban revolution, III, 89.
+
+    Heredia, Jose Maria. II, 274;
+      exiled, 344;
+      life and works, III, 318;
+      portrait, facing 318.
+
+    Hernani, Domingo, II, 170.
+
+    Herrera, historian, on Columbus's first landing, I, 12;
+      on Hatuey, 62;
+      description of West Indies, 345.
+
+    Herrera, Geronimo Bustamente de, I, 194.
+
+    Hevea, Aurelio, Secretary of Interior, IV, 320.
+
+    Hispaniola, Columbus at, I, 19;
+      revolution in, II, 173;
+      186;
+      effect upon Cuba, 189.
+
+    Hobson, Richmond P., exploit at Santiago, IV, 110.
+
+    Holleben, Dr. von, German Ambassador at Washington, intrigues of,
+      IV, 104.
+
+    Home Rule, proposed by Spain, IV, 6;
+      adopted, 8.
+
+    Horses introduced into Cuba, I, 63.
+
+    Hosier, Admiral, attacks Havana, I, 312;
+      II, 9.
+
+    Hospital, first in Havana, I, 226;
+      Belen founded, 318;
+      San Paula and San Francisco, 195.
+
+    "House of Fear," Governor's home, I, 156.
+
+    Humboldt, Alexander von, on slavery, II, 206;
+      on census, 277;
+      282;
+      on slave trade, 288.
+
+    Hurricanes, II, 115, 176, 310.
+
+    Hurtado, Lopez, royal treasurer, I, 116;
+      has Chaves removed, 162.
+
+
+    Ibarra, Carlos, defeats Dutch raiders, I, 288.
+
+    Incas, I, 7.
+
+    Independence, first conceived, II, 268;
+      326;
+      first revolts for, 343;
+      sentiment fostered by slave trade, 377;
+      proclaimed by Aguero, III, 72;
+      proclaimed by Cespedes at Yara, 155;
+      proposed by United States to Spain, 217;
+      War of Independence, IV, 1;
+      recognized by Spain, 119. See WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.
+
+    Intellectual life of Cuba, I, 360;
+      lack of productiveness in Sixteenth Century, 362;
+      Cuban backwardness, II, 235;
+      first important progress, 273;
+      great arising and splendid achievements, III, 317.
+
+    Insurrections. See REVOLUTIONS, and SLAVERY.
+
+    Intervention, Government of: First, established, IV, 132;
+      organized, 145;
+      Cuban Cabinet, 145;
+      saves island from famine, 146;
+      works of rehabilitation and reform, 148;
+      marriage law, 152;
+      concessions forbidden, 153;
+      census, 154;
+      civil governments of provinces, 179;
+      municipal elections ordered, 180;
+      electoral law 180;
+      final transactions, 246;
+      Second Government of Intervention, 281;
+      C. E. Magoon, Governor, 281;
+      Consulting Board, 284;
+      elections held, 289, 290;
+      commission for revising laws, 294;
+      controversy over church property, 294.
+
+    Intervention sought by Great Britain and France, III, 128;
+      by United States, IV, 106.
+
+    Iroquois, I, 7.
+
+    Irving, Washington, on Columbus's landing place, I, 12.
+
+    Isabella, Columbus's landing place, I, 3.
+
+    Isabella, Queen, portrait, I, 13.
+
+    Isidore of Seville, quoted, I, 4.
+
+    Islas de Arena, I, 11.
+
+    Isle of Pines, I, 26;
+      recognized as part of Cuba, 224;
+      status under Platt Amendment, IV, 255.
+
+    Italian settlers in Cuba, I, 169.
+
+    Ivonnet, Negro insurgent, IV, 307.
+
+
+    Jamaica, Columbus at, I, 20.
+
+    Japan. See CIPANGO.
+
+    Jaruco, founded, II, 131.
+
+    Jefferson, Thomas, on Cuban annexation, II, 260;
+      III, 132.
+
+    Jeronimite Order, made guardian of Indians, I, 78;
+      becomes their oppressor, 127.
+
+    Jesuits, controversy over, II, 86;
+      expulsion of, 111.
+
+    Jordan, Thomas, joins Cuban revolution, III, 211.
+
+    Jorrin, Jose Silverio, portrait, facing III, 308.
+
+    Jovellar, Joachim, Governor, III, 273;
+      proclaims state of siege, 289;
+      resigns, 290.
+
+    Juana, Columbus's first name for Cuba, I, 13.
+
+    Juan Luis Keys, I, 21.
+
+    Judiciary, reforms in, II, 110;
+      under Navarro, 142;
+      under Unzaga, 165;
+      under Leonard Wood, IV, 177.
+
+    Junta, Cuban, in United States, III, 91;
+      New York, IV, 2;
+      branches elsewhere, 3;
+      policy in enlisting men, 19.
+
+    Junta de Fomento, II, 178.
+
+    Juntas of the Laborers, III, 174.
+
+
+    Keppel, Gen. See ALBEMARLE.
+
+    Key Indians, I, 125;
+      expedition against, 126.
+
+    "Key of the New World and Bulwark of the Indies," I, 210.
+
+    Kindelan, Sebastian de, II, 197, 315.
+
+
+    Lacoste, Perfecto, Secretary of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce,
+      IV, 160.
+
+    Land tenure, II, 12;
+      absentee landlords, 214.
+
+    Lanuza, Gonzalez, Secretary of Justice, IV, 146;
+      portrait, 146.
+
+    Lares, Amador de, I, 93.
+
+    La Salle, in Cuba, I, 73.
+
+    Las Casas, Bartholomew, Apostle to the Indies, arrival in Cuba, I, 63;
+      portrait, 64;
+      denounces Narvaez, 66;
+      begins campaign against slavery, 75;
+      mission to Spain, 77;
+      before Ximenes, 77.
+
+    Las Casas, Luis de, Governor, II, 175;
+      portrait, 175;
+      death, 182.
+
+    Lasso de la Vega, Juan, Bishop, II, 17.
+
+    Lawton, Gen. Henry W., leads advance against Spanish, IV, 112;
+      Military Governor of Oriente, 139.
+
+    Lazear, Camp, established, IV, 172.
+
+    Lazear, Jesse W., hero and martyr in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172.
+
+    Ledesma, Francisco Rodriguez, Governor, I, 310.
+
+    Lee, Fitzhugh, Consul General at Havana, IV, 72;
+      reports on "concentration" policy of Weyler, 86;
+      asks for warship to protect Americans at Havana, 97;
+      _Maine_ sent, 98;
+      commands troops at Havana, 121.
+
+    Lee, Robert Edward, declines to join Lopez, III, 39.
+
+    Legrand, Pedro, invades Cuba, I, 302.
+
+    Leiva, Lopez, Secretary of Government, IV, 297.
+
+    Lemus, Jose Morales, III, 333.
+
+    Lendian, Evelio Rodriguez, educator, sketch and portrait, IV, 162.
+
+    Liberal Party, III, 306;
+      triumphant through revolution, IV, 285;
+      dissensions, 303;
+      conspiracy against election, 329.
+
+    Liberty Loans, Cuban subscriptions to, IV, 352.
+
+    Lighthouse service, under Mario G. Menocal, IV, 168.
+
+    Linares, Tomas de, first Rector of University of Havana, II, 11.
+
+    Lindsay, Forbes, quoted, II, 217.
+
+    Linschoten, Jan H. van, historian, quoted, I, 351.
+
+    Liquor, intoxicating, prohibited in 1780, II, 150.
+
+    Literary periodicals: _El Habanero_, III, 321;
+      _El Plantel_, 324;
+      _Cuban Review_, 325;
+      _Havana Review_, 329.
+
+    Literature, II, 245;
+      early works, 252;
+      poets, 274;
+      great development of activity, III, 315 et seq.
+
+    Little Inagua, I, 4.
+
+    Llorente, Pedro, in Constitutional Convention, IV, 188, 190.
+
+    Lobera, Juan de, commander of La Fuerza, I, 182;
+      desperate defence against Sores, 185.
+
+    Lolonois, pirate, I, 296.
+
+    Long Island. See FERDINANDINA.
+
+    Lopez, Narciso, sketch and portrait, III, 23;
+      in Venezuela, 24;
+      joins the Spanish
+      army, 26;
+      marries and settles in Cuba, 30;
+      against the Carlists in Spain, 31;
+      friend of Valdez, 31;
+      offices and honors, 33;
+      plans Cuban revolution, 36;
+      betrayed and fugitive, 37;
+      consults Jefferson Davis and Robert E. Lee, 38;
+      first American expedition, 39;
+      members of the party, 40;
+      activity in Southern States, 43;
+      expedition starts, 45;
+      proclamation to his men, 46;
+      lands at Cardenas, 49;
+      lack of Cuban support, 54;
+      reembarks, 56;
+      lands at Key West, 58;
+      arrested and tried, 60;
+      second expedition organized, 65;
+      betrayed, 67;
+      third expedition, 70;
+      final expedition organized, 91;
+      lands in Cuba, 98;
+      defeated and captured, 112;
+      death, 114;
+      results of his works, 116.
+
+    Lorenzo, Gen., Governor at Santiago, II, 347.
+
+    Lorraine, Sir Lambton, III, 280.
+
+    Los Rios, J. B. A. de, I, 310.
+
+    Lottery, National, established by Jose Miguel Gomez, IV, 310.
+
+    Louisiana, Franco-Spanish contest over, II, 117;
+      Ulloa sent from Cuba to take possession, 118;
+      O'Reilly sent, 123;
+      Uznaga sent, 126.
+
+    Louverture, Toussaint, II, 186.
+
+    Luaces, Joaquin Lorenzo, sketch and portrait, III, 330.
+
+    Ludlow, Gen. William, command and work at Havana, IV, 144.
+
+    Lugo, Pedro Benitez de, Governor, I, 331.
+
+    Luna y Sarmiento, Alvaro de, Governor, I, 290.
+
+    Luz y Caballero, Jose de la, "Father of the Cuban Revolution,"
+      III, 322;
+      great work for patriotic education, 323;
+      Portrait, frontispiece, Vol III.
+
+    Luzan, Gabriel de, Governor, I, 236;
+      controversy over La Fuerza, 237;
+      feud with Quinones, 241;
+      unites with Quinones to resist Drake, 243;
+      energetic action, 246;
+      tenure of office prolonged, 250;
+      end of term, 260.
+
+
+    Macaca, province of, I, 20.
+
+    Maceo, Jose Antonio, proclaims Provisional Government, IV, 15;
+      leader in War of Independence, 41;
+      commands Division of Oriente, 43;
+      defeats Campos, 46;
+      plans great campaign, 53;
+      invades Pinar del Rio, 61;
+      successful campaign, 73;
+      death, 74;
+      portrait, facing 74.
+
+    Maceo, Jose, IV, 41;
+      marches through Cuba, 76.
+
+    Machado, Eduard, treason of, III, 258.
+
+    Machete, used in battle, IV, 57.
+
+    Madison, James, on status of Cuba, III, 132.
+
+    Madriaga, Juan Ignacio, II, 59.
+
+    Magoon, Charles E., Provisional Governor, IV, 281;
+      his administration, 283;
+      promotes public works, 286;
+      takes census, 287;
+      election law, 287;
+      retires, 295.
+
+    Mahy, Nicolas, Governor, II, 315.
+
+    Mail service established, II, 107;
+      under American occupation, IV, 168.
+
+    Maine sent to Havana, IV, 98;
+      destruction of, 98;
+      investigation, 100.
+
+    Maldonado, Diego, I, 146.
+
+    Mandeville, Sir John, I, 20.
+
+    Mangon, identified with Mangi, I, 20.
+
+    Manners and Customs, II, 229 et seq.;
+      balls, 239;
+      shopping, 242;
+      relations of black and white races, 242;
+      cafes, 243;
+      early society, 248.
+
+    Monosca, Juan Saenz, Bishop, I, 301.
+
+    Manrique, Diego, Governor, II, 109.
+
+    Manzaneda y Salines, Severino de, Governor, I, 320.
+
+    Manzanillo, Declaration of Independence issued, III, 155.
+
+    Maraveo Ponce de Leon, Gomez de, I, 339.
+
+    Marco Polo, I, 4, 20.
+
+    Marcy, William L., policy toward Cuba, III, 136.
+
+    Mar de la Nuestra Senora, I, 18.
+
+    Mariguana. See GUANAHANI.
+
+    Marin, Sabas, succeeds Campos in command, IV, 63.
+
+    Markham, Sir Clements, on Columbus's first landing, I, 12.
+
+    Marmol, Donato, III, 173, 184.
+
+    Marquez, Pedro Menendez, I, 206.
+
+    Marriage law, reformed under American occupation, IV, 152;
+      controversy over, 153.
+
+    Marti, Jose, portrait, frontispiece, Vol IV;
+      leader of War of Independence, IV, 2;
+      his career, 9;
+      in New York, 11;
+      organizes Junta, 11;
+      goes to Cuba, 15;
+      death, 16;
+      his war manifesto, 17;
+      fulfilment of his ideals, 355.
+
+    Marti, Jose, secretary of War, portrait, IV, 360.
+
+    Marti, the pirate, II, 357.
+
+    Martinez Campos. See Campos.
+
+    Martinez, Dionisio de la Vega, Governor, II, 8;
+      inscription on La Punta, 14.
+
+    Martinez, Juan, I, 192.
+
+    Martyr, Peter, I, 53.
+
+    Maso, Bartolome, revolutionist, IV, 34;
+      rebukes Spotorno, 35;
+      President of Cuban Republic, 43;
+      Vice President of Council, 48;
+      President of Republic, 90;
+      candidate for Vice President, 242;
+      seeks Presidency, 243.
+
+    Mason, James M., U. S. Minister to France, III, 141.
+
+    Masse, E. M., describes slave trade, II, 202;
+      rural life, 216;
+      on Spanish policy toward Cuba, 227;
+      social morals, 230.
+
+    Matanzas, founded, I, 321;
+      meaning of name, 321.
+
+    Maura, Sr., proposes Cuban reforms, IV, 5.
+
+    McCullagh, John B., reorganizes Havana Police, IV, 150.
+
+    McKinley, William, President of United States, message of 1897
+      on Cuba, IV, 87;
+      declines European mediation, 103;
+      message for war, 104.
+
+    Maza, Enrique, assaults Hugh S. Gibson, IV, 308.
+
+    Mazariegos, Diego de, Governor, I, 191;
+      a scandalous moralist, 193;
+      defences against privateering, 193;
+      takes charge of La Fuerza, 195;
+      controversy with Governor of Florida, 196;
+      replaced by Sandoval, 197.
+
+    Medina, Fernando de, I, 111.
+
+    Mendez-Capote, Fernando, Secretary of Sanitation, portrait, IV, 360.
+
+    Mendieta, Carlos, candidate for Vice President, IV, 328;
+      rebels, 338.
+
+    Mendive, Rafael Maria de, III, 328.
+
+    Mendoza, Martin de, I, 204.
+
+    Menendez, Pedro de Aviles, I, 199;
+      commander of Spanish fleet, 200;
+      clash with Osorio, 201;
+      Governor of Cuba, 205;
+      dealing with increasing enemies, 208;
+      fortifies Havana, 209;
+      recalled to Spain, 213;
+      conflict with Bishop Castillo, 226.
+
+    Menocal, Aniceto G., portrait, IV, 50.
+
+    Menocal, Mario G., Assistant Secretary of War, IV, 49;
+      Chief of Police at Havana, 144, 150;
+      in charge of Lighthouse Service, 168;
+      candidate for President, 290;
+      slandered by Liberals, 291;
+      elected President, 312;
+      biography, 312;
+      portrait, facing 312;
+      view of birthplace, 313;
+      Cabinet, 320;
+      opinion of Cuba's needs, 321;
+      first message, 322;
+      conflict with Congress, 323;
+      important reforms, 324;
+      suppresses rebellion, 327;
+      candidate for reelection, 328;
+      vigorous action against Gomez's rebellion, 335;
+      declines American aid, 337;
+      escapes assassination, 339;
+      reelection confirmed, 341;
+      clemency to traitors, 342;
+      message on entering Great War, 346;
+      fulfilment of Marti's ideals, 355;
+      estimate of his administration, 356;
+      achievements for education, 357;
+      health, 357;
+      industry and commerce, 358;
+      finance, 359;
+      "from Velasquez to Menocal," 365.
+
+    Menocal, Senora, leadership of Cuban womanhood in Red Cross and
+      other work, IV, 354;
+      portrait, facing 352.
+
+    Mercedes, Maria de las, quoted, II, 174;
+      on slave insurrection, 368.
+
+    Merchan, Rafael, III, 174;
+      patriotic works, 335.
+
+    Merlin, Countess de. See MERCEDES.
+
+    _Merrimac_, sunk at Santiago, IV, 111.
+
+    Mesa, Hernando de, first Bishop, I, 122.
+
+    Mestre, Jose Manuel, sketch and portrait, III, 326.
+
+    Meza, Sr., Secretary of Public Instruction and Arts, IV, 297.
+
+    Mexico, discovered and explored from Cuba, I, 87;
+      designs upon Cuba, II, 262;
+      Cuban expedition against, 346;
+      warned off by United States, III, 134;
+      fall of Maximilian, 150.
+
+    Milanes, Jose Jacinto, sketch, portrait and works, III, 324.
+
+    Miles, Gen. Nelson A., prepares for invasion of Cuba, IV, 111.
+
+    Miranda, Francisco, II, 156;
+      with Bolivar, 335.
+
+    Miscegenation, II, 204.
+
+    Molina, Francisco, I, 290.
+
+    Monastic orders, I, 276.
+
+    Monroe Doctrine, foreshadowed, II, 256;
+      promulgated, 328.
+
+    Monroe, James, interest in Cuba, II, 257;
+      promulgates Doctrine, 328;
+      portrait, 329.
+
+    Monserrate Gate, Havana, picture, II, 241.
+
+    Montalvo, Gabriel, Governor, I, 215;
+      feud with Rojas family, 218;
+      investigated and retired, 219;
+      pleads for naval protection for Cuba, 220.
+
+    Montalvo, Lorenzo, II, 89.
+
+    Montalvo, Rafael, Secretary of Public Works, urges resistance
+      to revolutionists, IV, 270.
+
+    Montanes, Pedro Garcia, I, 292.
+
+    Montano See VELASQUEZ, J. M.
+
+    Montes, Garcia, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 254.
+
+    Montesino, Antonio, I, 78.
+
+    Montiel, Vasquez de, naval commander, I, 278.
+
+    Montoro, Rafael, Representative in Cortes, III, 308;
+      spokesman of Autonomists, IV, 59;
+      in Autonomist Cabinet, 95;
+      candidate for Vice President, 290;
+      attacked by Liberals, 291;
+      biography, 317;
+      portrait, facing 320.
+
+    Morales case, IV, 92.
+
+    Morales. Pedro de, commands at Santiago, I, 299.
+
+    Morals, strangely mixed with piety and vice, II, 229.
+
+    Morell, Pedro Augustino, Bishop, II, 53;
+      controversy with Albemarle, 83;
+      exiled, 87;
+      death, 113.
+
+    Moreno, Andres, Secretary of Foreign Affairs, IV, 90.
+
+    Moret law, abolishing slavery, III, 243.
+
+    Morgan, Henry, plans raid on Havana, I, 297;
+      later career, 303.
+
+    Morro Castle, Havana, picture, facing I, 180;
+      site of battery, 180;
+      tower built by Mazariegos, 196;
+      fortified against Drake, 249;
+      planned by Antonelli, 261;
+      besieged by British, II, 55.
+
+    Morro Castle, Santiago, built, I, 289;
+      picture, facing 298.
+
+    Mucaras, I, 11.
+
+    Muenster, geographer, I, 6.
+
+    Mugeres Islands, I, 84.
+
+    Munive, Andres de, I, 317.
+
+    Murgina y Mena, A. M., I, 317.
+
+    Music, early concerts at Havana, II, 239.
+
+
+    Nabia, Juan Alfonso de, I, 207.
+
+    Nancy Globe, I. 6.
+
+    Napoleon's designs upon Cuba, II, 203.
+
+    Naranjo, probable landing place of Columbus, I, 12.
+
+    Narvaez, Panfilo de, portrait, I, 63;
+      arrival in Cuba, 63;
+      campaign against natives, 65;
+      explores the island, 67;
+      errand to Spain, 77;
+      sent to Mexico to oppose Cortez, 98;
+      secures appointment of Councillors for life, 111.
+
+    Naval stations, U. S., in Cuba, IV, 255.
+
+    Navarrete, quoted, I, 3, 12.
+
+    Navarro, Diego Jose, Governor, II, 141, 150.
+
+    Navy, Spanish, in Cuban waters, III, 182, 225.
+
+    Negroes, imported as slaves, I, 170;
+      treatment of, 171;
+      slaves and free, increasing numbers of, 229. See SLAVERY.
+
+    New Orleans, anti-Spanish outbreak, III, 126.
+
+    New Spain. See MEXICO.
+
+    Newspapers: _Gazeta_, 1780, II, 157;
+      _Papel Periodico_, 179;
+      246;
+      publications in Paris, Madrid and New York, 354;
+      El Faro Industrial, III, 18;
+      Diario de la Marina, 18;
+      La Verdad, 18;
+      La Vos de Cuba, 260;
+      La Vos del Siglo, 232;
+      La Revolucion, 333;
+      El Siglo, 334;
+      El Laborante, 335.
+
+    Norsemen, American colonists, I, 7.
+
+    Nougaret, Jean Baptiste, quoted, II, 26.
+
+    Nunez, Emilio, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12;
+      in war, 57;
+      Civil Governor of Havana, 179;
+      head of Veterans' Association, 305;
+      Secretary of Agriculture, 320;
+      candidate for Vice President, 328;
+      election confirmed, 341.
+
+    Nunez, Enrique, Secretary of Health and Charities, IV, 320.
+
+
+    Ocampo, Sebastian de, circumnavigates Cuba, I, 54.
+
+    O'Donnell, George Leopold, Governor, II, 365;
+      his wife's sordid intrigues, 365.
+
+    Oglethorpe, Governor of Georgia, hostile to Spain, II, 24, 30.
+
+    O'Hara, Theodore, with Lopez, III, 46.
+
+    Ojeda, Alonzo de, I, 54;
+      introduces Christianity to Cuba, 55.
+
+    Olid, Christopher de, sent to Mexico, I, 88.
+
+    Olney, Richard. U. S. Secretary of State, attitude toward War
+      of Independence, IV, 71.
+
+    Oquendo, Antonio de, I, 281.
+
+    Orejon y Gaston, Francisco Davila de, Governor, I, 301, 310.
+
+    O'Reilly, Alexandre, sent to occupy Louisiana, II, 123;
+      ruthless rule, 125.
+
+    Orellano, Diego de, I, 86.
+
+    Ornofay, province of, I, 20.
+
+    Ortiz, Bartholomew, alcalde mayor, I, 146;
+      retires, 151.
+
+    Osorio, Garcia de Sandoval, Governor, I, 197;
+      conflict with Menendez, 199, 201;
+      retired, 205;
+      tried, 206.
+
+    Osorio, Sancho Pardo, I, 207.
+
+    Ostend Manifesto, III, 142.
+
+    Ovando, Alfonso de Caceres, I, 214;
+      revises law system, 233.
+
+    Ovando, Nicolas de, I, 54.
+
+
+    Palma, Tomas Estrada, head of Cuban Junta in New York, IV, 3;
+      Provisional President of Cuban Republic, 15;
+      Delegate at Large, 43;
+      rejects anything short of independence, 71;
+      candidate for Presidency, 241;
+      his career, 241;
+      elected President, 245;
+      arrival in Cuba, 247;
+      portrait, facing 248;
+      receives transfer of government from General Wood, 248;
+      Cabinet, 254;
+      first message, 254;
+      prosperous administration, 259;
+      non-partisan at first, 264;
+      forced toward Conservative party, 264;
+      reelected, 266;
+      refuses to believe insurrection impending, 266;
+      refuses to submit to blackmail, 268;
+      betrayed by Congress, 269;
+      acts too late, 270;
+      seeks American aid, 271;
+      interview with W. H. Taft, 276;
+      resigns Presidency, 280;
+      estimate of character and work, 282;
+      death, 284.
+
+    Palma y Romay, Ramon, III, 327.
+
+    Parra, Antonio, scientist, II, 252.
+
+    Parra, Maso, revolutionist, IV, 30.
+
+    Parties, political, in Cuba, IV, 59;
+      origin and characteristics of Conservative and Liberal, 181, 261.
+
+    Pasalodos, Damaso, Secretary to President, IV, 297
+
+    Pasamonte, Miguel, intrigues against Columbus, I, 58.
+
+    Paz, Dona de, marries Juan de Avila, I, 154.
+
+    Paz, Pedro de, I, 109.
+
+    Penalosa, Diego de, Governor, II, 31.
+
+    Penalver. See PENALOSA.
+
+    Penalver, Luis, Bishop of New Orleans, II, 179.
+
+    "Peninsulars," III, 152.
+
+    Pensacola, settlement of, I, 328;
+      seized by French, 342;
+      recovered by Spanish, II, 7;
+      defended by Galvez, 146.
+
+    Pereda, Gaspar Luis, Governor, I, 276.
+
+    Perez, Diego, repels privateers, I, 179.
+
+    Perez, Perico, revolutionist, IV, 15, 30, 78.
+
+    Perez de Zambrana, Luisa, sketch and portrait, III, 328.
+
+    Personal liberty restricted, III, 8.
+
+    Peru, good wishes for Cuban revolution, III, 223.
+
+    Philip II, King, appreciation of Cuba, I, 260.
+
+    Pieltain, Candido, Governor, III, 275.
+
+    Pierce, Franklin, President of United States, policy toward
+      Cuba, III, 136.
+
+    Pina, Severo, Secretary of Finance, IV, 48.
+
+    Pinar del Rio, city founded, II, 131;
+      Maceo invades province, IV, 61;
+      war in, 73.
+
+    Pineyro, Enrique, III, 333;
+      sketch and portrait, 334.
+
+    Pinto, Ramon, sketch and portrait, III, 62.
+
+    "Pirates of America," I, 296.
+
+    Pizarro, Francisco de, I, 54, 91.
+
+    Platt, Orville H., Senator, on relations of United States
+      and Cuba, IV, 198;
+      Amendment to Cuban Constitution, 199;
+      Amendment adopted, 203;
+      text of Amendment, 238.
+
+    Pococke, Sir George, expedition against Havana, II, 46.
+
+    Poey, Felipe, sketch and portrait, III, 315.
+
+    Point Lucrecia, I, 18.
+
+    Polavieja, Gen., Governor, III, 314.
+
+    Police, reorganized, II, 312;
+      under American occupation, IV, 150;
+      police courts established, 171.
+
+    Polk, James K., President of the United States, policy toward
+      Cuba, III, 135.
+
+    Polo y Bernabe, Spanish Minister at Washington, IV, 98.
+
+    Ponce de Leon, in Cuba, I, 73;
+      death, 139.
+
+    Ponce de Leon, of New York, in Cuban Junta, IV, 13.
+
+    Pope, efforts to maintain peace, between United States and
+      Spain, IV, 104.
+
+    Porro, Cornelio, treason of, III, 257.
+
+    Port Banes, I, 18.
+
+    Port Nipe, I, 18.
+
+    Port Nuevitas, I, 3.
+
+    Portuguese settlers, I, 168.
+
+    Portuondo, Rafael, Secretary for Foreign Affairs, IV, 48;
+      filibuster, 70.
+
+    Prado y Portocasso, Juan, Governor, II, 49;
+      neglect of duty, 52;
+      sentenced to degradation, 108.
+
+    Praga, Francisco de, I, 282.
+
+    Presidency, first candidates for, IV, 240;
+      Tomas Estrada Palma elected, 245;
+      Jose Miguel Gomez aspires to, 260;
+      candidates in 1906, 265;
+      Palma's resignation, 280;
+      Jose Miguel Gomez elected, 290;
+      fourth campaign, 312;
+      Mario G. Menocal elected, 312;
+      fifth campaign, 328;
+      General Menocal reelected, 341.
+
+    Prim, Gen., Spanish revolutionist, III, 145.
+
+    Printing, first press in Cuba, II, 245.
+
+    Privateers, French ravage Cuba, I, 177;
+      Havana and Santiago attacked, 178;
+      Havana looted, 179;
+      Jacques Sores, 183;
+      Havana captured, 186;
+      Santiago looted, 193;
+      French raids, 220, et seq.
+
+    Proctor, Redfield, Senator, investigates and reports on condition
+      of Cuba in War of Independence, IV, 87.
+
+    Procurators, appointment of, I, 112.
+
+    Protectorate, tripartite, refused by United States, II, 261;
+      III, 130, 133.
+
+    Provincial governments organized, IV, 179, confusion in, 292.
+
+    Public Works, promoted by General Wood, IV, 166;
+      by Magoon, 286.
+
+    Puerto Grande. See GUANTANAMO.
+
+    Puerto Principe, I, 18, 167.
+
+    Punta, La, first fortification, I, 203;
+      strengthened against Drake, 249;
+      fortress planned by Antonelli, 261;
+      picture, IV, 33.
+
+    Punta Lucrecia, I, 3.
+
+    Punta Serafina, I, 22.
+
+
+    Queen's Gardens, I, 20.
+
+    Quero, Geronimo, I, 277.
+
+    Quesada, Gonzalo de, Secretary of Cuban Junta, IV, 3;
+      Minister to United States, 275.
+
+    Quesada, Manuel, sketch and portrait, III, 167;
+      proclamation, 169;
+      death, 262.
+
+    Quezo, Juan de, I, 113.
+
+    Quilez, J. M., Civil Governor of Pinar del Rio, IV, 179.
+
+    Quinones, Diego Hernandez de, commander of fortifications at
+      Havana, I, 240;
+      feud with Luzan, 241;
+      unites with Luzan to resist Drake, 243.
+
+    Quinones, Dona Leonora de, I, 117.
+
+
+    Rabi, Jesus, revolutionist, IV, 34, 42.
+
+    Railroads, first in Cuba, II, 343.
+
+    Raja, Vicente, Governor, I, 337.
+
+    Ramirez, Alejandro, sketch and portrait, II, 311.
+
+    Ramirez, Miguel, Bishop, partisan of Guzman, I, 120;
+      political activities and greed, 124.
+
+    Ramos, Gregorio, I, 274.
+
+    Ranzel, Diego, I, 295.
+
+    Recio, R. Lopez, Civil Governor of Camaguey, IV, 180.
+
+    Recio, Serafin, III, 86.
+
+    Reciprocity, secured by Roosevelt for Cuba, IV, 256.
+
+    "Reconcentrados," mortality among, IV, 86.
+
+    Red Cross, Cuban activities, IV, 353.
+
+    Redroban, Pedro de, I, 201.
+
+    Reed, Walter, in yellow fever campaign, IV, 172.
+
+    Reformists, Spanish, support Blanco's Autonomist policy, IV, 97.
+
+    Reggio, Andreas, II, 32.
+
+    Reno, George, in War of Independence, IV, 12;
+      running blockade, 21;
+      portrait, 21;
+      services in Great War, 351.
+
+    Renteria, Pedro de, partner of Las Casas, I, 75;
+      opposes slavery, 76.
+
+    Repartimiento, I, 70.
+
+    Republic of Cuba: proclaimed and organized, III, 157;
+      first representative Assembly, 161;
+      Constitution of 1868, 164;
+      first House of Representatives, 176;
+      Judiciary, 177;
+      legislation, 177;
+      army, 178;
+      fails to secure recognition, 203;
+      Government reorganized, 275;
+      after Treaty of Zanjon, 301;
+      reorganized in War of Independence, IV, 15;
+      Maso chosen President, 43;
+      Conventions of Yara and Najasa, 47;
+      Constitution adopted, 47;
+      Government reorganized, Cisneros President, 48;
+      capital at Las Tunas, 56;
+      removes to Cubitas, 72;
+      exercises functions of government, 72;
+      reorganized in 1897, 90;
+      after Spanish evacuation of island, 134;
+      disbanded, 135;
+      Constitutional Convention called, 185;
+      Constitution completed, 192;
+      relations with United States, 195;
+      Platt Amendment, 203;
+      enters Great War, 346.
+
+    Revolutions: Rise of spirit, II, 268;
+      in South America, 333;
+      "Soles de Bolivar," 341;
+      attempts to revolt, 344;
+      "Black Eagle," 346;
+      plans of Lopez, III, 36;
+      Lopez's first invasion, 49;
+      Aguero's insurrection, 72;
+      comments of New York _Herald_, 89;
+      Lopez's last expedition, 91;
+      results of his work, 116;
+      European interest, 125;
+      beginning of Ten Years' War. 155;
+      end of Ten Years' War, 299;
+      insurrection renewed, 308, 318;
+      War of Independence, IV, 1;
+      Sartorius Brothers, 4;
+      end of War of Independence, 116;
+      revolt against President Palma, 266;
+      ultimatum, 278;
+      government overthrown, 280;
+      Negro insurrection, 307;
+      conspiracy against President Menocal, 327;
+      great treason of Jose Miguel Gomez, 332;
+      Gomez captured, 337;
+      warnings from United States Government, 338;
+      revolutions denounced by United States, 343.
+
+    Revolutionary party, Cuban, IV, 1, 11.
+
+    Rey, Juan F. G., III, 40.
+
+    Riano y Gamboa, Francisco, Governor, I, 287.
+
+    Ribera, Diego de, I, 206;
+      work on La Fuerza, 209.
+
+    Ricafort, Mariano, Governor, II, 347.
+
+    Ricla, Conde de, Governor, II, 102;
+      retires, 109.
+
+    Rio de la Luna, I, 16.
+
+    Rio de Mares, I, 16.
+
+    Riva-Martiz, I, 279.
+
+    Rivera, Juan Ruiz, filibuster, IV, 70;
+      succeeds Maceo, 79.
+
+    Rivera, Ruiz, Secretary of Agriculture, Commerce and Industry, IV, 160.
+
+    Roa, feud with Villalobos, I, 323.
+
+    Rodas, Caballero de, Governor, III, 213;
+      emancipation decree, 242.
+
+    Rodney, Sir George, expedition to West Indies, II, 153.
+
+    Rodriguez, Alejandro, suppresses revolt, IV, 266.
+
+    Rodriguez, Laureano, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95.
+
+    Rojas, Alfonso de, I, 181.
+
+    Rojas, Gomez de, banished, I, 193;
+      Governor of La Fuerza, 217;
+      rebuilds Santiago, 258.
+
+    Rojas, Hernando de, expedition to Florida, I, 196.
+
+    Rojas, Juan Bautista de, royal treasurer, I, 218.
+
+    Rojas, Juan de, aid to Lady Isabel de Soto, I, 145;
+      commander at Havana, 183.
+
+    Rojas, Manuel de, Governor, I, 105;
+      adopts policy of "Cuba for the Cubans," 106;
+      second Governorship, 121;
+      dealings with Indians, 126;
+      noble endeavors frustrated, 130;
+      resigns, 135;
+      the King's unique tribute to him, 135.
+
+    Roldan, Francisco Dominguez, Secretary of Public Instruction,
+      sketch and portrait, IV, 357.
+
+    Roldan, Jose Gonzalo, III, 328.
+
+    Roloff, Carlos, revolutionist, IV, 45;
+      Secretary of War, 48;
+      filibuster, 70.
+
+    Romano Key, I, 18.
+
+    Romay, Tomas, introduces vaccination, II, 192;
+      portrait, facing 192.
+
+    Roncali, Federico, Governor, II, 366;
+      on Spanish interests in Cuba, 381.
+
+    Roosevelt, Theodore, at San Juan Hill, IV, 113;
+      portrait, 113;
+      President of United States, on relations with Cuba, 245;
+      estimate of General Wood's work in Cuba, 251;
+      fight with Congress for Cuban reciprocity, 256;
+      seeks to aid President Palma against revolutionists, 275;
+      letter to Quesada, 275.
+
+    Root, Elihu, Secretary of War, on Cuban Constitution, IV, 194;
+      on Cuban relations with United States, 197;
+      explains Platt Amendment, 201.
+
+    Rowan, A. S., messenger to Oriente, IV. 107.
+
+    Rubalcava, Manuel Justo, II, 274.
+
+    Rubens, Horatio, Counsel of Cuban Junta, IV, 3.
+
+    Rubios, Palacios, I, 78.
+
+    Ruiz, Joaquin, spy, IV, 91;
+      death, 92. See ARANGUREN.
+
+    Ruiz, Juan Fernandez, filibuster, IV, 70.
+
+    Rum Cay. See CONCEPTION.
+
+    Rural Guards, organized by General Wood, IV, 144;
+      efficiency of, 301.
+
+    Ruysch, geographer, I, 6.
+
+
+    Saavedra, Juan Esquiro, I, 278.
+
+    Sabinal Key, I, 18.
+
+    Saco, Jose Antonio, pioneer of Independence, II, 378;
+      portrait, facing 378;
+      literary and patriotic work, III, 325, 327.
+
+    Sagasta, Praxedes, Spanish Premier, proposes Cuban reforms, IV, 6;
+      resigns, 36.
+
+    Saint Augustine, expedition against, I, 332.
+
+    Saint Mery, M. de, search for tomb of Columbus, I, 34.
+
+    Salamanca, Juan de, Governor, I, 295;
+      promotes industries, 300.
+
+    Salamanca y Negrete, Manuel, Governor, III, 314.
+
+    Salaries, some early, I, 263.
+
+    Salas, Indalacio, IV, 21.
+
+    Salazar. See SOMERUELOS.
+
+    Salcedo, Bishop, controversy with Governor Tejada, I, 262.
+
+    Sama Point, I, 4.
+
+    Samana. See GUANAHANI.
+
+    Sampson, William T., Admiral, in Spanish-American War, IV, 110;
+      at Santiago, 114;
+      portrait, 115.
+
+    Sanchez, Bartolome, makes plans for La
+      Fuerza, I, 194;
+      begins building, 195;
+      feud with Mazariegos, 197.
+
+    Sanchez, Bernabe, II, 345.
+
+    Sancti Spiritus, founded by Velasquez, I, 68, 168.
+
+    Sandoval, Garcia Osorio, Governor, I, 197. See OSARIO.
+
+    Sanitation, undertaken by Guemez, II, 18;
+      vaccination introduced by Dr. Romay. 192;
+      bad conditions, III, 313;
+      General Wood at Santiago, IV, 142;
+      achievements under President Menocal, 357.
+
+    Sanguilly, Julio, falls in leading revolution, IV, 29, 55.
+
+    Sanguilly, Manuel, in Constitutional Convention, IV, 190.
+
+    San Lazaro watchtower, picture, I, 155;
+      fortified against Drake, 248.
+
+    San Salvador. See GUANAHANI.
+
+    Santa Clara, Conde de, Governor, II, 194, 300.
+
+    Santa Crux del Sur, I, 20.
+
+    Santa Cruz, Francisco, I, 111.
+
+    Santiago de Cuba, Columbus at, I, 19;
+      founded by Velasquez, 68;
+      second capital of island, 69;
+      seat of gold refining, 80;
+      site of cathedral, 123;
+      condition in Angulo's time, 166;
+      looted by privateers, 193;
+      fortified by Menendez, 203;
+      raided and destroyed by French, 256;
+      rebuilt by Gomez de Rojas, 258;
+      capital of Eastern District, 275;
+      Morro Castle built, 289;
+      captured by British, 299;
+      attacked by Franquinay, 310;
+      attacked by Admiral Vernon, II, 29;
+      literary activities, 169;
+      great improvements made, 180;
+      battles near in War of Independence, IV, 112;
+      naval battle, 114;
+      General Wood's administration, 135;
+      great work for sanitation, 142.
+
+    Santiago, battle of, IV, 114.
+
+    Santiago, sunset scene, facing III, 280.
+
+    Santillan, Diego, Governor, I, 205.
+
+    Santo Domingo See HISPANIOLA.
+
+    Sanudo, Luis, Governor, I, 336.
+
+    Sarmiento. Diego de, Bishop, makes trouble, I, 149, 152.
+
+    Saunders, Romulus M., sounds Spain on purchase of Cuba, III, 135.
+
+    Sartorius, Manuel and Ricardo, revolutionists, IV, 4.
+
+    Savine, Albert, on British designs on Cuba, II, 40.
+
+    Schley, Winfield S., Admiral, in Spanish-American War, IV, 110;
+      portrait, 110;
+      at Santiago, 114.
+
+    Schoener's globe, I, 5.
+
+    Schools, backward condition of, II, 174, 244, 312. See EDUCATION.
+
+    Shafter, W. R., General, leads American army into Cuba, IV, 111.
+
+    Shipbuilding at Havana, II, 8, 33, 113, 300.
+
+    Sickles, Daniel E., Minister to Spain, offers mediation, III, 217.
+
+    Silva, Manuel, Secretary of Interior, IV, 90.
+
+    Slave Insurrection, II, 13;
+      III, 367, et seq.
+
+    Slavery, begun in Repartimiento system, I, 70;
+      not sanctioned by King, 82;
+      slave trading begun, 83;
+      growth and regulation, 170;
+      oppressive policy of Spain, 266;
+      the "Assiento," II, 2;
+      great growth
+      of trade, 22;
+      gross abuses, 202;
+      described by Masse, 202;
+      census of slaves, 204;
+      rise of emancipation movement, 206;
+      rights of slaves defined by King, 210;
+      African trade forbidden, 285;
+      Negro census, 286;
+      early records of trade, 288;
+      Humboldt on, 288;
+      statistics of trade, 289 et seq.;
+      domestic relations of slaves, 292;
+      dangers of system denounced, 320;
+      official complicity in illegal trade, 366;
+      slave insurrection, 367;
+      inhuman suppression by government, 374 et seq.;
+      emancipation by revolution of 1868, 159;
+      United States urges Spain to abolish slavery, 242;
+      Rodas's decrees, 242;
+      Moret law, 243.
+
+    Smith, Caleb. publishes book on West Indies, II, 37.
+
+    Smuggling, II, 133.
+
+    "Sociedad de Amigos," II, 169.
+
+    "Sociedad Patriotica," II, 166.
+
+    "Sociedad Patriotica y Economica," II, 178.
+
+    Society of Progress, II, 78.
+
+    Solano, Jose de, naval commander, II, 147.
+
+    "Soles de Bolivar," II, 341;
+      attempts to suppress, 343.
+
+    Solorzano, Juan del Hoya, I, 337;
+      II, 10.
+
+    Someruelos, Marquis of, Governor, II, 196, 301.
+
+    Sores, Jacques, French raider, II, 183;
+      attacks Havana, 184;
+      captures city, 186.
+
+    Soto, Antonio de, I, 292.
+
+    Soto, Diego de, I, 109, 217.
+
+    Soto, Hernando de, Governor and Adelantado, I, 140;
+      portrait, 140;
+      arrival in Cuba, 141;
+      tour of island, 142;
+      makes Havana his home, 144;
+      chiefly interested in Florida, 144;
+      sails for Florida, 145;
+      his fate in Mississippi, 147;
+      trouble with Indians, 148.
+
+    Soto, Lady Isabel de, I, 141;
+      her vigil at La Fuerza, 147;
+      death, 149.
+
+    Soto, Luis de, I, 141.
+
+    Soule, Pierre, Minister to Spain, III, 137;
+      Indiscretions, 138;
+      Ostend Manifesto, 142.
+
+    South Sea Company, II, 21, 201.
+
+    Spain: Fiscal policy toward Cuba, I, 175;
+      wars with France, 177;
+      discriminations against Cuba, 266, 267;
+      protests against South Sea Company, II, 22;
+      course in American Revolution, 143;
+      war with Great Britain, 151;
+      attitude toward America, 159;
+      peace with Great Britain, 162;
+      restrictive laws, 224;
+      policy under Godoy, 265;
+      decline of power, 273;
+      seeks to pawn Cuba to Great Britain for loan, 330;
+      protests to United States against Lopez's expedition, III, 59;
+      seeks British protection, 129;
+      refuses to sell Cuba, 135;
+      revolution against Bourbon dynasty, 145 et seq.;
+      rejects suggestion of American mediation in Cuba, 219;
+      seeks American mediation, 293;
+      strives to placate Cuba, IV, 5;
+      crisis over Cuban affairs, 35;
+      attitude toward War of Independence, 40;
+      considers Autonomy, 71;
+      Cabinet crisis of 1897, 88;
+      proposes joint investigation of Maine disaster, 100;
+      at war with United States, 106;
+      makes Treaty of Paris, relinquishing Cuba, 118.
+
+    Spanish-American War: causes of, IV, 105;
+      declared, 106;
+      blockade of Cuban coast, 110;
+      landing of American army in Cuba, 111;
+      fighting near Santiago, 112;
+      fort at El Caney, picture, 112;
+      San Juan Hill, battle, 113;
+      San Juan Hill, picture of monument, 114;
+      naval battle of Santiago, 115;
+      peace negotiations, 116;
+      "Peace Tree," picture, 116;
+      treaty of peace, 118.
+
+    Spanish literature in XVI century, I, 360.
+
+    Spotorno, Juan Bautista, seeks peace, rebuked by Maso, IV, 35.
+
+    Steinhart, Frank, American consul, advises President Palma to
+      ask for American aid, IV, 271;
+      correspondence with State Department, 272.
+
+    Stock raising, early attention to, I, 173, 224;
+      development of, 220.
+
+    Stokes, W. E. D., aids War of Independence, IV, 14.
+
+    Students, murder of by Volunteers, III, 260.
+
+    Suarez y Romero, Anselmo, III, 326.
+
+    Sugar, Industry begun under Velasquez, I, 175, 224;
+      growth of industry, 265;
+      primitive methods, II, 222;
+      growth, III, 3;
+      great development under President Menocal, IV, 358.
+
+    "Suma de Geografia," of Enciso, I, 54.
+
+    Sumana, Diego de, I, 111.
+
+
+    Tacon, Miguel, Governor, II, 347;
+      despotic fury, 348;
+      conflict with Lorenzo, 349;
+      public works, 355;
+      fish market, 357;
+      melodramatic administration of justice, 359.
+
+    Taft, William H., Secretary of War of United States, intervenes
+      in revolution, IV, 272;
+      arrives at Havana, 275;
+      negotiates with President Palma and the revolutionists, 276;
+      portrait, 276;
+      conveys ultimatum of revolutionists to President Palma, 279;
+      accepts President Palma's resignation, 280;
+      pardons revolutionists, 280;
+      unfortunate policy, 283.
+
+    Tainan, Antillan stock, I, 8.
+
+    Tamayo, Diego, Secretary of State, IV, 159;
+      Secretary of Government, 254.
+
+    Tamayo, Rodrigo de, I, 126.
+
+    Tariff, after British occupation, II, 106;
+      reduction, 141;
+      oppressive duties. III, 5;
+      under American occupation, IV, 183.
+
+    Taxation, revolt against, II, 197;
+      "reforms," 342;
+      oppressive burdens, III, 6;
+      increase in Ten Years' War, 207;
+      evasion of, 312;
+      under American intervention, IV, 151.
+
+    Taylor, Hannis, American Minister at Madrid, IV, 33.
+
+    Tejada, Juan de, Governor, I, 261;
+      great works for Cuba, 262;
+      resigns, 263.
+
+    Teneza, Dr. Francisco, Protomedico, I, 336.
+
+    Ten Years' War, III, 155 et seq.;
+      first battles, 184;
+      aid from United States, 211;
+      offers of American mediation, 217;
+      rejected, 219;
+      campaigns of destruction, 222;
+      losses reported, 290;
+      end in Treaty of Zanjon, 299;
+      losses, 304.
+
+    Terry, Emilio, Secretary of Agriculture, IV, 254.
+
+    Theatres, first performance in Cuba, I, 264;
+      first theatre built, II, 130, 236.
+
+    Thrasher, J. S., on census, II, 283.
+
+    Tines y Fuertes, Juan Antonio, Governor, II, 31.
+
+    Tobacco, early use, I, 9;
+      culture promoted, 300;
+      monopoly, 334;
+      "Tobacco War," 338;
+      effects of monopoly, II, 221.
+
+    Tobar, Nunez, I, 141, 143.
+
+    Tolon, Miguel de, III, 330.
+
+    Toltecs, I, 7.
+
+    Tomayo, Esteban, revolutionist, IV, 34.
+
+    Torquemada, Garcia de, I, 239;
+      investigates Luzan, 241.
+
+    Torre, Marquis de la, Governor, II, 127;
+      work for Havana, 129;
+      death, 133.
+
+    Torres Ayala, Laureano de, Governor, I, 334;
+      reappointed, 337.
+
+    Torres, Gaspar de, Governor, I, 234;
+      conflict with Rojas family, 235;
+      absconds, 235.
+
+    Torres, Rodrigo de, naval commander, II, 34.
+
+    Torriente, Cosimo de la, Secretary of Government, IV, 320.
+
+    Toscanelli, I, 4.
+
+    Treaty of Paris, IV, 118.
+
+    Tres Palacios, Felipe Jose de, Bishop, II, 174.
+
+    Tribune, New York, describes revolutionary leaders, III, 173.
+
+    Trinidad, founded by Velasquez, I, 68, 168;
+      great fire, II, 177.
+
+    Trocha, begun by Campos, IV, 44;
+      Weyler's, 73.
+
+    Troncoso, Bernardo, Governor, II, 168.
+
+    Turnbull, David, British consul, II, 364;
+      complicity in slave insurrection, 372.
+
+
+    Ubite, Juan de, Bishop, I, 123.
+
+    Ulloa, Antonio de, sent to take possession of Louisiana, II, 118;
+      arbitrary conduct, 120.
+
+    Union Constitutionalists, III, 306.
+
+    United States, early relations with Cuba, II, 254;
+      first suggestion of annexation, 257;
+      John Quincy Adams's policy, 258;
+      Jefferson's policy, 260;
+      Clay's policy, 261;
+      representations to Colombia and Mexico, 262;
+      Buchanan's policy, 263;
+      Monroe Doctrine, 328;
+      consuls not admitted to Cuba, 330;
+      Van Buren's policy, 331;
+      growth of commerce with Cuba, III, 22;
+      President Taylor's proclamation against filibustering, 41;
+      course toward Lopez, 60;
+      attitude toward Cuban revolutionists, 123;
+      division of sentiment between North and South, 124;
+      policy of Edward Everett, 130;
+      overtures for purchase of Cuba, 135;
+      end of Civil War, 151;
+      new policy toward Cuba, 151;
+      recognition denied to revolution, 172;
+      aid and sympathy given secretly, 195;
+      Cuban appeals for recognition, 200;
+      recognition denied, 203;
+      protests against Rodas's decrees, 216;
+      offers of mediation, 217;
+      rejected by Spain, 219;
+      increasing interest and sympathy with revolutionists, 273;
+      warning to Spanish Government, 291;
+      effect of reciprocity upon Cuba, 313;
+      attitude toward War of Independence, IV, 27, 70;
+      Congress favors recognition, 70;
+      tender of good
+      offices, 71;
+      President Cleveland's message of 1896, 79;
+      appropriation for relief of victims of "concentration" policy, 86;
+      President McKinley's message of 1897, 87;
+      sensation at destruction of _Maine_, 99;
+      declaration of war against Spain, 106;
+      Treaty of Paris, 118;
+      establishment of first Government of Intervention, 132;
+      relations with Republic of Cuba, 195;
+      protectorate to be retained, 196;
+      Platt Amendment, 199;
+      mischief-making intrigues, 200;
+      naval stations in Cuba, 255;
+      reciprocity, 256;
+      second Intervention, 281;
+      warning to Jose Miguel Gomez, 305;
+      asks settlement of claims, 308;
+      Charge d'Affaires assaulted, 308;
+      supervision of Cuban legislation, 326;
+      warning to revolutionists, 339;
+      attitude toward Gomez revolution, 343.
+
+    University of Havana, founded, II, 11.
+
+    Unzaga, Luis de, Governor, II, 157.
+
+    Urrutia, historian, quoted, I, 300.
+
+    Urrutia, Sancho de, I, 111.
+
+    Utrecht, Treaty of, I, 326;
+      begins new era, II, 1.
+
+    Uznaga, Luis de, sent to rule Louisiana, II, 126;
+      reforms, 165.
+
+
+    Vaca, Cabeza de, I, 140.
+
+    Vadillo, Juan, declines to investigate Guzman, I, 118;
+      temporary Governor, 119;
+      tremendous indictment of Guzman, 120;
+      retires after good work, 121;
+      clash with Bishop Ramirez, 124.
+
+    Valdes, historian, quoted, II, 175.
+
+    Valdes, Gabriel de la Conception, III, 325.
+
+    Valdes, Jeronimo, Bishop, I, 335.
+
+    Valdes, Pedro de, Governor, I, 202, 272;
+      retires, 276.
+
+    Valdes, Geronimo, Governor, II, 364.
+
+    Valdueza, Marquis de, I, 281.
+
+    Valiente, Jose Pablo, II, 170, 180.
+
+    Valiente, Juan Bautista, Governor of Santiago, II, 180.
+
+    Vallizo, Diego, I, 277.
+
+    Valmaseda, Count, Governor, proclamation against revolution, III,
+      171, 270;
+      recalled for barbarities, 273.
+
+    Van Buren, Martin, on United States and Cuba, II, 331.
+
+    Vandeval, Nicolas C., I, 331, 333.
+
+    Varela, Felix, sketch and portrait, III, 320;
+      works, 321.
+
+    Varnhagen, F. A. de, quoted, I, 2.
+
+    Varona, Bernabe de, sketch and portrait, III, 178.
+
+    Varona, Jose Enrique, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 159;
+      Vice President, 312;
+      biography, 316;
+      portrait, facing 316.
+
+    Varona, Pepe Jerez, chief of secret service, IV, 268.
+
+    Vasquez, Juan, I, 330.
+
+    Vedado, view in, IV, 176.
+
+    Vega, Pedro Guerra de la, I, 243;
+      asks fugitives to aid in defence against Drake, 248.
+
+    Velasco, Francisco de Aguero, II, 345.
+
+    Velasco, Luis Vicente, defender of Morro against British, II, 58;
+      signal valor, 61;
+      death, 67.
+
+    Velasquez, Antonio, errand to Spain, I, 77
+
+    Velasquez, Bernardino, I, 115.
+
+    Velasquez, Diego, first Governor of Cuba, I, 59;
+      portrait, 59;
+      colonizes Cuba, 60;
+      hostilities with natives, 61, explores the island, 67;
+      marriage and bereavement, 68;
+      founds various towns, 68;
+      begins Cuban commerce, 68;
+      organizes government, 69;
+      favored by King Ferdinand, 73;
+      appointed Adelantado, 74;
+      seeks to rule Yucatan and Mexico, 85;
+      recalls Grijalva, 88;
+      quarrels with Cortez, 91;
+      sends Cortez to explore Mexico, 92, 94;
+      seeks to intercept and recall Cortez, 97;
+      sends Narvaez to Mexico, 98;
+      removed from office by Diego Columbus, 100;
+      restored by King, 102;
+      death and epitaph, 103;
+      posthumous arraignment by Altamarino, 107;
+      convicted and condemned, 108.
+
+    Velasquez, Juan Montano, Governor, I, 293.
+
+    Velez Garcia, Secretary of State, IV, 297.
+
+    Velez y Herrera, Ramon, III, 324.
+
+    Venegas, Francisco, Governor, I, 278.
+
+    Vernon, Edward, Admiral, expedition to Darien, II 27;
+      Invasion of Cuba, 29.
+
+    Viamonte, Bitrian, Governor, I, 286.
+
+    Viana y Hinojosa, Diego de, Governor, I, 317.
+
+    Victory loan, Cuban subscriptions to, IV, 353.
+
+    Villa Clara, founded, I, 321.
+
+    Villafana, attempts to assassinate Cortez, I, 99.
+
+    Villafana, Angelo de, Governor of Florida, controversy with
+      Mazariegos, I, 196.
+
+    Villalba y Toledo, Diego de, Governor, I, 290.
+
+    Villalobos, Governor, feud with Roa, I, 323.
+
+    Villalon, Jose Ramon, in Cuban Junta, IV, 13;
+      Secretary of Public Works, 160, 330.
+
+    Villalon Park, scene in, IV, 247.
+
+    Villanueva, Count de, II, 342.
+
+    Villapando, Bernardino de, Bishop, I, 225.
+
+    Villarin, Pedro Alvarez de, Governor, I, 333.
+
+    Villaverde, Cirillo, III, 327.
+
+    Villaverde, Juan de, Governor of Santiago, I, 276.
+
+    Villegas, Diaz de, Secretary of Treasury, IV, 297;
+      resigns, 302.
+
+    Villuendas, Enrique, in Constitutional Convention, IV, 188;
+      secretary, 189.
+
+    Virginius, capture of, III, 277;
+      butchery of officers and crew, 278 et seq.;
+      British intervention, 280;
+      list of passengers, 281;
+      diplomatic negotiations over, 283.
+
+    Vives, Francisco, Governor, II, 317;
+      despotism, 317;
+      expedition against Mexico, 346.
+
+    Viyuri, Luis, II, 197.
+
+    Volunteers, organized, III, 152;
+      murder Arango, 188;
+      have Dulce recalled, 213;
+      cause murder of Zenea, 252;
+      increased activities, 260;
+      murder of students, 261.
+
+
+    War of Independence, IV, i, 8;
+      circumstances of beginning, 9;
+      finances, 14;
+      Republic of Cuba proclaimed, 15;
+      attitude of Cuban people, 22;
+      actual outbreak, 29;
+      martial law proclaimed, 30;
+      Spanish forces in Cuba, 31;
+      arrival and policy of Martinez Campos, 38;
+      Gomez and Maceo begin great campaign, 53;
+      Spanish defeated, and reenforced, 55;
+      campaign of devastation, 60;
+      entire island involved, 61;
+      fall of Campos, 63;
+      Weyler in command, 66;
+      destruction by both sides, 68;
+      losses, 90;
+      entry of United States, 107;
+      attitude of Cubans toward American intervention, 108;
+      end of war, 116.
+
+    Watling's Island. See GUANAHANI.
+
+    Wax, development of Industry, II, 132.
+
+    Webster, Daniel, negotiations with Spain, III, 126.
+
+    Weyler y Nicolau, Valeriano, Governor, IV, 65;
+      portrait, 66;
+      harsh decree, 66;
+      conquers Pinar del Rio. 83;
+      "concentration" policy, 85;
+      recalled, 88.
+
+    Wheeler, Gen. Joseph, at Santiago, IV, 113, 115.
+
+    White, Col. G. W., with Lopez, III, 40.
+
+    Whitney, Henry, messenger to Gomez, IV, 107.
+
+    Williams, Ramon O., United States consul at Havana, IV, 32;
+      acts in behalf of Americans in Cuba, 72;
+      opposes sending _Maine_ to Havana, 100.
+
+    Wittemeyer, Major, reports on Gomez revolution to Washington
+      government, IV, 336;
+      offers President Menocal aid of United States, 337.
+
+    Wood, General Leonard, at San Juan Hill, IV, 113;
+      Military Governor of Santiago, 135;
+      his previous career, 140;
+      unique responsibility and power, 141;
+      dealing with pestilence, 142;
+      organizes Rural Guards, 144;
+      portrait, facing 158;
+      Military Governor of Cuba, 158;
+      well received by Cubans, 158;
+      estimate of _La Lucha_, 158;
+      his Cabinet, 159;
+      comments on his appointments, 160;
+      reorganization of school system, 161;
+      promotes public works, 166;
+      Dady contract dispute, 171;
+      applies Finlay's yellow fever theory with great success, 171;
+      reform of jurisprudence, 177;
+      organizes Provincial governments, 179;
+      holds municipal elections, 180;
+      promulgates election law, 181;
+      calls Constitutional Convention, 185;
+      calls for general election, 240;
+      his comments on election, 245;
+      announces end of American occupation, 246;
+      surrenders government of Cuba to
+      Cubans, 249;
+      President Roosevelt's estimate of his work, 251;
+      view of one of his mountain roads, facing 358.
+
+    Woodford, Stewart L., United States Minister to Spain, IV, 103;
+      presents ultimatum and departs, 106.
+
+
+    Xagua, Gulf of, I, 21.
+
+    Ximenes, Cardinal and Regent, gives Las Casas hearing on Cuba, I, 77.
+
+
+    Yanez, Adolfo Saenz, Secretary of Agriculture and Public Works,
+      IV, 146.
+
+    Yellow Fever, first invasion, II, 51;
+      Dr. Finlay's theory applied by General Wood, IV, 171;
+      disease eliminated from island, 176.
+
+    Yero, Eduardo, Secretary of Public Instruction, IV, 254.
+
+    Ynestrosa, Juan de, I, 207.
+
+    Yniguez, Bernardino, I, 111.
+
+    Yucatan, islands source of slave trade, I, 83;
+      explored by Cordova, 84.
+
+    Yznaga, Jose Sanchez, III, 37.
+
+
+    Zaldo, Carlos, Secretary of State, IV, 254.
+
+    Zambrana, Ramon, III, 328.
+
+    Zanjon, Treaty of, III, 299.
+
+    Zapata, Peninsula of, visited by Columbus, I, 22.
+
+    Zarraga, Julian, filibuster, IV, 70.
+
+    Zayas, Alfredo, secretary of Constitutional Convention, IV, 189;
+      compact with Jose Miguel Gomez, 265;
+      spokesman of revolutionists against President Palma, 277;
+      elected Vice President, 290;
+      becomes Vice President, 297;
+      sketch and portrait, 300;
+      quarrel with Gomez, 306;
+      candidate for President, 328;
+      hints at revolution, 330.
+
+    Zayas, Francisco, Lieutenant Governor, I, 205;
+      resigns, 206.
+
+    Zayas, Francisco, in Autonomist Cabinet, IV, 95.
+
+    Zayas, Juan B., killed in battle, IV, 78.
+
+    Zayas, Lincoln de, in Cuban Junta, IV, 12;
+      Superintendent of Schools, 162.
+
+    Zenea, Juan Clemente, sketch and portrait, III, 252;
+      murdered, 253;
+      his works, 332.
+
+    Zequiera y Arango, Manuel, II, 274.
+
+    Zipangu. See CIPANOO.
+
+    Zuazo, Alfonso de, appointed second Governor of Cuba, I, 100;
+      dismissed by King, 102.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Cuba, vol. 4, by
+Willis Fletcher Johnson
+
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