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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/33830-8.txt b/33830-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..38db6e3 --- /dev/null +++ b/33830-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4211 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Fur Farming, by A. R. Harding + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Fur Farming + A book of Information about Fur Bearing Animals, Enclosures, + Habits, Care, etc. + +Author: A. R. Harding + +Release Date: October 2, 2010 [EBook #33830] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FUR FARMING *** + + + + +Produced by Peter Vachuska, Chuck Greif, Josephine Paolucci +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net. + + + + + + + + +FUR FARMING. + +[Illustration: SOME YOUNG BLACK AND SILVER FOX.] + + + + +FUR FARMING + +A BOOK OF INFORMATION ABOUT FUR BEARING ANIMALS, ENCLOSURES, HABITS, +CARE, ETC. + +_BY_ + +A. R. HARDING + +Published By + +A. R. HARDING PUBLISHING CO. +Columbus, Ohio. + + +Copyright, 1909 + +By A. R. HARDING PUB. CO. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +CHAPTER. PAGE + +I. SUPPLY AND DEMAND 15 + +II. WHAT ANIMALS TO RAISE 27 + +III. ENCLOSURES 38 + +IV. BOX TRAP TRAPPING 53 + +V. FOX RAISING 63 + +VI. SKUNK RAISING 83 + +VII. MINK RAISING 97 + +VIII. OPOSSUM RAISING 107 + +IX. MUSKRAT RAISING 115 + +X. RACCOON RAISING 129 + +XI. THE BEAVER AND OTTER 137 + +XII. KILLING, SKINNING AND STRETCHING 146 + +XIII. DEER FARMING 152 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + + PAGE + +Some Young Black and Silver Fox Frontispiece + +Enclosure in Thick Woods 32 + +Corner of Enclosure 39 + +Fence with Wire Turned in at Top 41 + +Fence Showing Sheet Tin 43 + +Plan for Combined Enclosures 46 + +Box Trap for Catching Animals Alive 55 + +Box Trap with Swing Gate 58 + +Barrel Trap for Catching Animals Alive 60 + +Another Box Trap 62 + +Northwestern Fox Skins 66 + +Map Showing Where Fox Farming is Feasible 72 + +Plan for Arrangement of Fox Yards 74 + +Box Shelter for Female and Young 75 + +Corner of Fox Yard 77 + +Fox Yard, Showing Outer Fence 78 + +Yards of a Maine Fox Farm 81 + +Corner of an Ohio Skunk Farm 90 + +Mink Enclosure in Detail 103 + +Ideal Location for an Opossum Farm 112 + +Fur Farm Near a Farmhouse 117 + +Muskrat House in a Marsh 122 + +Barrel Shelter for Female and Young 134 + +Fur Farm on Open Ground 135 + +Elk in Enclosure 163 + +Tame Deer Eating Watermelon 178 + + +[Illustration: [G. R. Harding.]] + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +Ever since Columbus discovered America, furs have been an important +article of commerce, but at the rate of the catch during recent years, +the supply drawn from the natural sources--forest, field and +stream--will soon prove inadequate if not entirely depleted in some +species. + +Less than 30 years ago, there were countless thousands of Buffalo upon +the Western Plains. Where are they today? In the 70's and early 80's +they were slain by tens of thousands by hide and robe hunters. Does or +does not such a condition face some of the American fur bearing animals +at the present time? Many hunters and trappers must think that the +supply will not long be equal to the demand, judging from the hundreds +of letters written the Editor of HUNTER-TRADER-TRAPPER, asking +information about raising fur bearing animals. + +This work has been hastily gotten out to meet this demand, yet the +sources of information from which the work has been gathered, are +authentic. Much of the habits, nature, etc., of the various animals has +been furnished by Mr. E. Kreps, a trapper of wide experience. Facts have +also been furnished by those that have to a certain extent followed "Fur +Farming" and as well some information has been added from the United +States Government Bulletins. + +A. R. HARDING. + +Columbus, Ohio, April 1, 1909. + + + + +FUR FARMING. + + + + +CHAPTER 1. + +SUPPLY AND DEMAND. + + +For years there has been a belief that the supply of fur-bearing animals +would soon be inadequate to the demand. This belief is well founded and +is apparent when the fact is known that the natural haunts and homes of +the fur-producing animals are becoming less each year. The draining of +swamps and marshes is destroying the homes and breeding places of +muskrat and to a certain extent coon and mink. The saw mill and clearing +of the land is rapidly lessening the natural resorts of coon, bear, wild +cat and opossum in the South and Central States, while in the North, +marten, fisher and lynx are being deprived of their natural homes. + +Beaver and otter do not like civilization and leave on signs of man and +his works. This is especially true of beaver; otter linger in waters +fringed with timber longer even if settled. + +Some animals, it is true, do well in fairly thickly-settled sections. +Among animals of this kind are red fox, skunk, mink and muskrat. Yet no +fur bearer can hold its numbers against the ever-increasing number of +trappers and the persistency with which they now seek the fur producers. + +North America furnishes a large per cent. of the furs of the +world--foxes, mink, otter, beaver, skunk, marten, lynx, coon, opossum, +muskrat, wolves, etc. Considerable quantities of fine furs are still +secured in parts of Russia, in Europe and Siberia in Asia; Australia +furnishes great quantities of opossum, while from parts of South +America, the trade in chinchilla is large. Yet North America has been +for centuries, the great fur-producing continent and now that trapping +is being pressed harder than ever and the natural haunts of the animals +are becoming less each year, the question is,--where will the future +supply come from? + +In this connection the following article on The Fur Markets is +reproduced from the April issue of _The Hunter-Trader-Trapper_: + +The Spring or March London Sales began March 22 and ended April 2. +During that time American Raw Furs were offered by Hudson's Bay Company; +C. M. Lampson & Co., and A. & W. Nesbitt. In face of the fact that +prices on some articles have advanced so materially that American +manufacturers have bought sparingly, the outcome of the sales was +awaited with much interest by the trade. + +A year ago in giving the quantity of goods offered by the Hudson's Bay +Company, this magazine said: "The quantity seems to be decreasing as the +offering this year is less than 1907, and 1907 less than 1906." The +offerings this year are still less than 1908, and for ready comparison +the Hudson's Bay Company offerings at the March Sales for three years +are given: + + 1909 1908 1907 + + Otter 5,341 4,968 6,933 + Fisher 2,671 3,224 3,228 + Cross Fox 1,445 2,678 4,490 + Red Fox 2,987 6,598 10,200 + Silver Fox 344 526 896 + Blue Fox 14 63 88 + White Fox 2,058 6,703 11,409 + Marten 21,577 29,808 43,798 + Mink 10,966 13,091 32,817 + Ermine 15,314 14,280 20,737 + Lynx 8,856 31,892 56,611 + Wolf 3,756 4,207 2,771 + Wolverine 718 865 734 + Skunk 1,478 5,023 11,430 + Bear, Black 3,943 3,740 4,042 + Bear, Brown 387 353 432 + Bear, Grey 108 123 94 + Bear, White 89 59 137 + Badger 125 169 322 + Raccoon 140 243 600 + +The combined offerings of C. M. Lampson & Co., and A. & W. Nesbitt were +as follows at the Spring Sales in 1907, 1908 and 1909: + + 1909 1908 1907 + + Mink 82,575 134,200 75,600 + Skunk 545,284 416,000 615,900 + Muskrat 1,238,257 1,015,000 1,018,000 + Raccoon 203,155 316,000 69,726 + Opossum 225,671 267,000 225,350 + Marten 8,168 15,000 18,600 + Lynx 1,500 7,550 11,727 + Fox, Red 25,600 36,660 31,870 + Fox, Cross 1,585 5,021 5,080 + Fox, Silver 539 728 1,015 + Fox, Grey 13,600 23,270 8,961 + Fox, Kitt 1,670 388 655 + Fox, White 3,310 14,000 4,785 + Fox, Blue 3,630 2,600 3,600 + Otter 5,211 9,000 2,916 + Fisher 2,914 3,440 1,705 + Beaver 14,282 6,800 11,900 + Bear 7,240 6,980 5,770 + Badger 4,070 4,475 5,905 + Cat, Wild 6,925 5,800 7,072 + Cat, House 20,344 15,800 17,000 + Wolf 21,365 24,150 12,100 + Wolverine 350 450 323 + Ermine 77,600 77,000 100,580 + Civet 19,200 33,000 53,800 + +The noticeable falling off in the Hudson's Bay Company offerings can be +accounted for from the fact that more "free traders," as the Great +Company calls them, are yearly encroaching upon their territory. + +The offerings of Lampson and Nesbitt is short of a year ago with the +exceptions of beaver, muskrat and skunk. The advanced price of muskrat, +no doubt, caused more trapping of these animals than ever before. Again +the fact of the dry fall in many localities bunched the rats, so that +they were much easier caught. The rats offered at the recent sales are +largely fall and winter. From reports, the collection of spring rats +will be very light--in many localities not more than one-fourth of an +average collection. + +While the offerings now show some 200,000 in excess of March, 1908, and +also March, 1907, indications are that before the year 1909 ends there +will be a shortage in the total rat catch for the year. Considerable +anxiety is felt regarding skunk, as the number offered was 545,280 +compared with 416,000 in March, 1908, which is nearly 130,000 more. This +is hardly a fair test. The offerings at March Sales 1908 were light from +the fact that skunk were not in demand at the beginning of the fall +season of 1907, when a good per cent. of skunk are caught for the +following March Sales. Go back another year, that is March, 1907, and +see what the offerings of skunk were; you perhaps will be surprised to +learn that it was 615,900 or 70,000 more than at this spring's sale. The +offerings of beaver were larger than a year ago, but with these +exceptions, there appears a decided falling off--note the quantity of +fox, coon, marten, lynx--all much less. + +Furs are fashionable throughout the entire civilized world, and the +catch seems inadequate on many articles. This is probably responsible +for the high prices. At any rate, some articles have advanced beyond all +previous high record. Prices for wolf, fox, lynx, wild cat and muskrat +are very high, as well as many other American raw furs. Skunk reached a +price that no one expected the past season. Since early in March or +shortly after, too late to get goods into the London Sales, prices were +lowered on skunk, opossum, raccoon and some grades of mink, especially +Southern and Southwestern, but at the same time it should be taken into +consideration that the quality is not so desirable as during the +midwinter months. + +Many believe that by far the most of the furs come from the Far North. +This is erroneous. It is true that the most valuable furs, such as +silver, black and cross foxes, lynx and marten, come from that section. +Some of the best otter, red fox and mink are also secured in the far +northern country. Yet fully one-half of the value of the American catch +of raw furs is comprised in the three following articles--skunk, mink +and muskrat. + +In the Far North there will be foxes, otter, mink, and marten for some +time to come. But what about that part of the country, say south of the +Great Lakes, west of the Allegheny Mountains, north of the Tennessee and +Arkansas Rivers and east of the Rocky Mountains?--a section which has +been producing about half of the furs. + +This section is the great skunk producing one and as well as one of the +best mink and muskrat sections. It also furnishes from the Southern +States within the area outlined, great quantities of coon and opossum. +When those interested in the fur business consider that half the value +of the annual catch is skunk, mink, and muskrat and that the best +producing section has hitherto been the section as outlined, one can +easily see that the supply will not long be equal to the demand. + +During recent years, owing to persistent trapping, the fur producers +have been greatly reduced and if not practically exterminated in parts +of the country, are destined to become nearly so. The fact that skunk, +mink and muskrat have been so greatly reduced in the past few years has +caused those interested in the fur industry to ask,--"what of the +future?" with the settlement of the country and the draining of the +swamps, clearing of the forests, etc., which deprives many species of +fur producers of their natural homes, how can it be expected that the +supply will last? + +That skunk, mink and muskrat do well in settled sections, there is no +question, but since their pelts are so valuable, more trappers are after +them than ever before. In addition, magazines and books on the subject +are more plentiful than in former years, so that the inexperienced +hunter and trapper has far better success than in past years. + +There is always a cash market for raw furs and since the discovery of +America, raw furs have been an important article of commerce. In the +early days, beaver was the leading article and even at this date +thousands of skins are secured annually by the professional trapper in +the swamps of the south and along the streams and lakes of the north. +Scattered thruout the South, Rocky Mountain sections, Northern Canada +and parts of the East, are several thousand professional hunters and +trappers whose annual catch amounts to several hundred dollars each. The +aggregate of these men, footing up to perhaps $3,000,000 or $4,000,000. +In the settled sections are tens of thousands of boys and amateur +trappers with here and there a professional. The annual catch of these +foot up to perhaps $6,000,000 to $8,000,000, or double the catch of the +professionals who leave civilization in September and are not seen again +until May or June. + +It is this class (boys and amateurs) that secures the greatest +quantities of fur and as the number of trappers is so large and the +grounds necessarily limited, here is where the animals are rapidly +decreasing and at the present rate are in danger of extermination. In +some sections there has been a wonderful falling off in the catch of +late years, altho the number of trappers is larger. + +An industry paying the hunter and trapper probably $15,000,000 yearly is +one that should receive attention. At the present rate of extermination, +some of the fur bearers are destined to soon follow in the wake of the +buffalo. The demand for furs is increasing as the population of the +world is becoming more and more. Again furs are being put to more uses +than ever. While the demand for furs are increasing, what of the supply? +The day, perhaps, is not far in the distance when the demand will call +for two or three times as many furs as today. Where are they to come +from? The natural supply is surely diminishing. + +The matter of 'Supply and Demand' is one that there is considerable +difference of opinion upon. Hunters and trappers, as a rule, are of one +opinion and that is that the number of pelts secured upon a certain +territory is becoming less each year. Trappers going over their lines +are surely the ones who know whether the fur is holding out or not. + +The number of persons seeking fur is larger each year. In localities +furnishing as much fur as ever, the chances are that the number of +animals left for breeding is less each year. If such is true the day +when these localities will show a falling off in the receipts is not far +in the distance. + +Until recently, many dealers and manufacturers believed that the supply +of wild fur-bearing animals was practically inexhaustible--that when +wanted, trappers would go out into the "wilds," catch, skin and send the +pelts to market. These people are beginning to awaken to the true +situation and while they send out price lists, circulars, and traveling +buyers after raw furs, they say it is much harder to secure the goods +wanted than formerly. + +A well known dealer in Minneapolis in sizing up the situation, says: +"With the vast fund of information about trapping being sent out and +with improved traps for catching and the great stimulus to trapping +owing to high prices, in five to ten years, there will not be one-fourth +to one-half the fur bearers that there are now, unless stringent laws +are enacted to curtail the trapping." + +"Under proper conditions, with intelligent care, no doubt, raising fur +animals can be made to pay. The raiser starting on a small scale and +increasing as their knowledge increases. Most all successful business is +built up by starting small." + +The dealer who wrote the above advertises quite extensively for furs. +The territory tributary to that city has always been considered a good +fur producing one. During recent years, the supply has fallen off +materially in face of the fact of improved trapping methods and a +greatly increased number of persons seeking the fur bearers. The same +conditions are true to a greater or less degree in many parts of the +country. + +The American people, however, can be depended upon to meet all +emergencies. They have already set about to provide for the future raw +fur supply by raising the animals. As early as 1884, experiments were +made at raising foxes on the islands in the Northern Pacific Ocean, +along the coast of British Columbia and Alaska. The experiments, as a +rule, proved successful and there has been for years a number of +successful fox raisers on the islands of the North Pacific. More will be +said about them elsewhere. + +In various parts of North America, experiments have been made, +principally with skunk, altho a few have tried mink and other animals +but only in a small way, or by men who expected to get rich quick and +who did not give the enterprise the care and attention that is necessary +to make a success at any business. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +WHAT ANIMALS TO RAISE. + + +There is a bright future to "Fur Farming." The person who knows +something of the habits of the animal or animals that they expect to +raise, will be the successful ones. A person who has always lived in the +city would not be apt to make a success at general farming or fruit +raising. The same applies to "fur farming." The person who has followed +hunting and trapping or the farmer who has given attention to fur +bearing animals are the ones most apt to be successful. + +Foxes, no doubt, will be the animals that the majority would like to +begin with, especially the more valuable species, as black, silver and +cross. These for breeding purposes of course can be secured, but the +present raisers do not seem to care to sell any of their stock unless at +good round figures. They want to further increase their own numbers. + +A good many attempts were made at raising skunk a few years ago, most of +which were failures. Some entered the business on a large scale, knowing +nothing of the animal, and of course failed; others "penned up" a few +skunk and as they were not properly cared for resulted in failures. + +The recent advanced price for skunk skins has caused a revival in their +raising. This time, an entirely different class of people are taking up +their raising, and they are going to succeed, why? Because they know +something of the animal and are going at the business in a calm and +business-like way. + +Mink, at present prices, look good to the fur-farmer. They are small +animals but yield a pelt worth from $3 to $7, depending upon the size +and color. Raccoon and opossum are compared with many fur-bearing +animals as producers of cheap furs. This is true, but at the same time, +they offer the most promising future for the fur-farmer in many +localities. They are easily raised, and in addition to their fur, the +carcass finds a ready sale in most cities. + +Opossum and coon will not dig deep seeking escape, but are good climbers +and considerable precaution should be taken to see that the wire netting +is either extended in several feet at the top, or that a strip of tin a +couple of feet wide is fastened to the posts some three feet from the +ground. + +The "fur-farmer," should the market be low for certain animals, can keep +over; or the better plan would no doubt be to kill off the surplus +males and perhaps some females. At such times do not make the mistake of +killing off too closely, as some will do, claiming that the fur is low +and that there is no need of trying to increase. Nine times in ten, this +is the time to raise as many as possible, for by another season, that +particular article is apt to be in demand. + +To illustrate: skunk were low in 1907, yet had the raisers gone ahead, +they would have had a supply to kill during the Winter of 1908-9, at +prices that were indeed satisfactory. + +Had the opossum raiser, during the low prices for this fur in 1907 and +1908, sold off his breeding stock at low prices, as he would have been +compelled to do, he would not had a supply when the prices advanced in +January, 1909. + +Some farmers make the mistake of selling off all their stock when prices +ease up, expecting to go into the raising again when a reaction takes +place. This is not the way to make the most money; when a reaction +comes, other farmers who have continued raising this certain animal, +reap the harvest, selling to the market or to their neighbors at high +prices. + +The prices paid for the various articles shows about what the grower may +expect for his "crop." The demand, of course, will have much to do with +the price. Fashion is constantly changing but indications are that +owing to diminishing supply and increased consumption, prices will be on +a fairly high level always. Trappers and hunters often catch fur too +early and as a consequence have blue pelts which are graded down. In the +spring shedders and rubbed skins are secured which are sold as No. 2 or +lower. With the "fur farmer," there will be no early caught blue skins +or late caught spring and shedders. The animals will be killed when +"prime," and will bring best prices. + +Some reports from those that have experimented in a small way at raising +fur animals is to the effect that they do not fur properly. This is true +in regard skunk, when kept in a box or a small enclosure for weeks and +fed largely on meat. The writer when a fur buyer has bought skunk that +had been kept in a "pen" or small enclosure for weeks and in addition to +being thinly furred, the hide was much thicker than it should have been. + +Indians and professional hunters and trappers of the north say that they +can notice a difference in the fur of foxes, lynx, marten, etc., when +the food supply is abundant. The fur is thicker and has a healthier, +silkier and glossier appearance. The secret, no doubt, is to give the +animals plenty of room and feed should be varied. Here is where the +person who knows the habits of the animal or animals he is raising is +valuable. When cattle, sheep and hogs are fed properly they take on fat +readily and produce a healthy coat of hair or wool. The same applies to +the fur bearing animals. + +What animals offer the best inducement to raise? This is a question that +each individual going into the business must largely decide. The place +you have in view for the starting of the "farm" will have much to do +with this. Is the location one best adapted to skunk, mink, coon, fox, +muskrat or some other fur bearer? Again, your experience should be taken +into consideration,--what fur bearers you are most familiar with. If you +live near a large city which offers a market for coon and opossum +carcasses, this should be considered as these animals are easy to raise +and opossum especially are very prolific, producing from six to twelve +at a litter. While the fur of coon and opossum will never be very +valuable, yet, as both fur and carcass have a cash value, they will +prove greater money makers than many believe. Muskrat are another animal +that should not be overlooked as they increase rapidly and their flesh +is now being sold in many of the larger cities. + +Marten and silver fox should not be raised in the south, as these are +animals that do best in the cold sections. Otter and mink are two +animals that the sun fades the fur and as the darker the fur, the more +valuable, it is important that as little sun as possible shines upon +them. For this reason it is advisable to have the enclosure for these +animals in the woods or thicket. In fact some trees should be in +enclosures for all animals. If raising coon or opossum, they will be "at +home" in the trees while other animals will enjoy the shade in the +summer and will make use of the leaves in the dens for winter. + +[Illustration: Enclosure in thick woods.] + +There are some animals such as marten, fisher, wild cat, weasel, badger +and wolves that do not seem promising to us to raise for various +reasons. Marten do best in the high mountain sections; fisher and wild +cat would be hard to keep in an inclosure; weasel and badger are not +valuable and would both be difficult to keep in; wolves are not valuable +for fur and would require considerable attention and food, hence, not +desirable to raise. In most states there is a bounty on wolf and coyote +scalps but the raising of them for the purpose of the bounty would not +work--the bounty would not be paid if county officials knew from what +source they came. + +Among the animals promising the best for raising are the black, silver, +cross and red fox, skunk, mink, coon, opossum and muskrat. The otter, +beaver, bear and lynx under certain conditions may be well worth +considering, especially lynx at present value. + +Do you think present prices for furs will continue? Generally speaking, +yes. In fact, some articles are liable to go higher. On the other hand +some furs may go lower but are sure to sooner or later react. The +chances are that raw furs will not soon sell at the low figures of past +years. + +Suppose thousands engaged in the business of raising fox, skunk, mink, +coon, opossum and muskrat, what effect would it have upon the market? +Would they overstock it? How many hundreds of thousands of persons are +today raising cotton and wool to furnish clothing to the millions of +people and there has always been a market. The same will be the case +with fur. In fact, unless thousands engage in the fur raising business, +the demand is going to far exceed the supply at no distant day. + +Furs in the north are a necessity as no cloth will repel the piercing +winds. Teamsters and others much out of doors wear fur overcoats, caps +and use fur laprobes. Farther south, say in the latitude of New York, +Pittsburg, Denver, etc., while furs are not an absolute necessity, yet +they are much worn for comfort. In all the cities of the north, furs are +worn eight or nine months in the year; in the central sections perhaps +six months; while in the south only a few months. In addition to this, +American furs are worn in all civilized countries of the world. + +The farmer or stock raiser, as a rule, who is making the most money, is +the one who raises not horses, cattle, sheep or swine alone, but often +two or more of them. The same can be applied to fur farming. Suppose an +enclosure of a few acres is made for skunk, why not take in a pond and +raise muskrat, coon, fish and frogs. There is a ready market in all +cities for fresh fish and frogs. + +The farmer that raises sheep not only sells the wool but fattens and +sells some of the lambs, wethers or old ewes from time to time. The +farmer is in the business to make the most out of it and such will be +the case with the fur farmer. In the cities there is a demand for the +carcasses of coon and opossum at prices ranging from 25 to 75 cents for +coon and 10 to 50 cents for opossum, depending upon the size of the +carcass, as well as the city in which you are marketing. In New York, +Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, there is a ready sale for all coon and +opossum carcasses at good prices. Other cities that use large quantities +are Buffalo, Cleveland, Pittsburg, Detroit, Chicago, and Milwaukee. +There is no city of any size north of the Ohio River but offers a +market. St. Louis, Louisville and other southern cities being near the +coon and opossum producing sections does not offer so good a market. +Muskrat are now served as "marsh rabbit" in Baltimore and other cities. +The trapper realizing from 5 to 10 cents each. + +With the exception of muskrat, fur bearing animals breed only once a +year, unless the first litter are killed or die, when another is +sometimes born and it might be said, such is frequently the case. The +number that the various animals produce at a litter is given in the +chapter dealing with that animal. + +It is not all that are successful bee raisers who have gone into that +business, yet how few failures are there among men who began in a small +way, learning more of the business and gradually increasing the number +of hives in their apiary. + +One thing is important and that is, get the animals accustomed to their +keeper as soon as possible. The old will be wild for some time but the +young soon become tame. Skunk and coon are easily tamed and even beaver, +otter and mink have become so tame when secured young, that children +have safely handled them. + +A man who has been in the "fur farming" industry for years, in response +to the inquiry, "Will the business pay," says: "Yes, it will pay the +right man big dividends on the capital invested." The right man is one +who has "natural aptitude" for this sort of work, and who is "cut out" +for "fur farming." If he has an "inkling" for this sort of work, he will +study the nature and requirements of the animals and attend carefully to +their every want. + +Fur farming as an industry is only in its infancy, in fact, not begun. +The future looks bright to those who engage in the business in a +business way. To those who expect to make a fortune at the business in a +year or two, we predict failure, but to all who are willing to go at the +industry, building a substantial enclosure, paying the same careful +attention to the feed and care of their fur animals, that they would to +other "stock," to get best results, far more than ordinary profits +should result. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +ENCLOSURES. + + +This is indeed, one of the important things in connection with +"fur-farming." Some of the first experimenters in raising skunk and +other fur animals, dug a trench from 2 to 3 feet deep, putting in rocks +or boards edgewise to keep them from digging out, on top of which they +constructed an upright fence of boards from 4 to 7 feet. On top of this +fence was fastened a wide board to keep the animals from climbing out. + +The enclosure should be an acre in extent and 2 to 5 would be better. +The "ranch" should be located where the water will drain off quickly, so +that the dens will be dry, making a good place to burrow. The ground +should not be level, or at any rate, should have good drainage. Skunk +and perhaps other animals are liable to disease, if kept in damp and +crowded quarters, such as sore throat or similar diseases, which may +cause death. + +[Illustration: Corner of enclosure, showing sheet tin at top and stones +at bottom.] + +Galvanized wire, No. 14 or 16, with about one-inch mesh, seems to be the +proper material for fencing. Posts should be of locust, cedar, or some +other long lasting wood. They should be fully 10 feet long and put in +the ground 3 feet or more, depending upon how firm the earth is; they +should be set about 8 feet or not more than ten apart, as your fence +should be about 7 feet above ground. A trench two feet deep is dug, into +which your wire is put. From this it will be seen that you need woven +wire 9 feet high to make your fence 7 feet above ground, as two feet are +under. + +After your wire is in place, fill up the trench with dirt, or if there +are flat stones, it would be well to place a layer about a foot wide, +extending inward from the fence or bottom of wire. Should any of the +animals dig downward from the bottom of the wire, striking the stone +they would become discouraged and give up, as the stone would cause them +to dig in the wrong direction to escape. On top of the wire fence, a +sheet of tin roofing about 18 inches wide, should extend around the +enclosure, on the inside, to keep the animals from climbing out, for +skunk as well as coon can easily climb out of your enclosure. + +Instead of placing the tin around the top some turn the fence in as +shown in the illustration. If this is done to make the fence 7 feet +high, a 10-1/2 foot meshed wire is required as two feet are under ground +and at least 18 inches should be used for turning in--2 feet would be +best. + +[Illustration: Showing Fence with Wire Turned in at Top.] + +The "turning in" method has some advantages over the tin; one being that +dogs cannot get in so easily, and another is that the fence will stand +up better; the wide strip of tin or sheet-iron catching wind or snow +which helps to sag the wire or cause the fence to lean. The tin or +sheet-iron, however, seems to be the best in preventing any animal's +escape. + +The enclosure can be enlarged at any time, but do not make the mistake +of beginning with too small an enclosure, as some have. Also have your +fence about 7 feet high to keep dogs out, as well as to keep the +fur-bearers in. Just how much the enclosure will cost depends upon +several things: The cost of 9 foot, 1 inch mesh No. 16 galvanized wire +is about $1.50 per rod. This price, of course, will vary some, depending +upon where you are located. In some of the smaller cities you perhaps +cannot get the kind you want and will be compelled to send to some of +the larger cities or catalogue houses. Perhaps you can not get wider +than 5 feet. If such is the case buy in two widths--5 feet and 4 feet. +This will give you the desired height. + +Posts as already mentioned should be of locust or some other long +lasting wood, as cedar, and should be thoroughly seasoned before putting +in the ground. The posts should be fully 6 inches in diameter. If from +larger locust and split, so much the better, as the older the tree the +longer it will last. The cutting and setting of the posts, putting up of +the fence, can be done by the "fur-farmer" in those sections where +locust and cedar grow, so that all the cash outlay necessary in building +the enclosure, will be for galvanized wire, some staples and sheet tin +for the top. Instead of placing the tin around the top, it may be +fastened on the inside of the wire (as shown), about four feet from the +ground. + +The corner posts should be two or three times larger than the others; +they should be set more firmly in the ground, five feet being about +right. This will necessitate these posts being two feet longer than the +rest. They should be firmly braced in both ways. + +[Illustration: Fence with Sheet Tin Four Feet from Ground.] + +The cost of fencing an acre, varies, of course. An acre contains 160 +square rods or about 12-1/2 rods each side--equal to 50 rods of fence. +If the wire costs $1.50 a rod, and posts 40 cents each, the cost of +material required to enclose an acre will be $95.00. We are figuring on +two posts to the rod. Add to this staples, gates, etc., and the cost +will perhaps be about $100.00. Of course a much cheaper wire could be +used, poorer posts, etc., so that the cost would be greatly reduced--but +it generally pays to do a thing well. + +To enclose a certain amount of ground with the smallest number of rods +of fencing possible, the plat or ground to be enclosed should be in a +square. The additional cost to enclose an acre, say 20 rods long by 8 +wide, would be material for 6 additional rods. To fully illustrate, an +acre fenced in a square would be 12-1/2 rods on each side, or 50 rods; +if 20 rods long, the two sides would be 40 rods, and the ends 8 each or +16 rods, making a total of 56 rods. + +While the cost of enclosing an oblong piece of ground would be a few +dollars more than if square, this should not stand in the way if the +oblong piece of ground would make a better home for your fur-bearing +animals. + +The persons who expect to make "fur-farming" a business, can begin in a +small way and same need not interfere with other work to a great extent. +Year after year, as they learn more of the business, they can enlarge, +etc. Trappers, hunters and others who from experience know much of the +animals, will no doubt be the most successful from the start. One party +writes to know if skunk, fox, opossum and mink can be successfully +raised in the same enclosure. If he means allowed to run together, they +can not. If he means the same outside enclosure, with separate +apartments for the various animals, there is no reason why such a place +should not be successful as there will be advantages in such a plan. + +First, an enclosure of four acres can be built much cheaper than four +separate enclosures of one acre each. To enclose four one-acre +enclosures would require 200 rods of fencing--50 rods for each. The four +acres in one enclosure would be only about half or 100 rods. A square 25 +rods on each side would be almost 4 acres. Should the fur-farmer wish to +subdivide this into four tracts, a fence thru the middle each way would +take 25 rods additional or 50 rods for both ways. This fencing need not +be so high or so secure as the outside one. Should animals manage to get +into another part of the four-acre enclosure, they would still not be at +liberty, altho they might kill or injure some of the other species +before being discovered by the owner. + +If possible have a small stream of running water in the enclosure. + +[Illustration: Plan for Combined Enclosures.] + +Without labor the cost of material will vary from $2.00 to $3.00 per +rod. The greatest variation in expense will be for posts. Those living +where posts can be had, having considerable the advantage. This estimate +being for galvanized one-inch mesh wire No. 14, per rod, smaller wire of +course being cheaper. This is by far the best material in making +enclosures, yet found. Some of the first experimenters used boards, but +where there were cracks, or the sap or bark on edges rotted, affording +the animals a place to gnaw, they soon found a way out. This had to be +guarded against where the boards extended into the ground they often +rotted so that there was always danger of the animals escaping. Where +stones were set up edgewise or cement used, it was rather expensive and +as galvanized wire lasts well either in the ground, where not exposed to +the air, or being galvanized, it stands the elements well, it seems to +meet the requirements of the fur farmer for fencing or enclosure +purposes. + +Where is the farmer who would expect to make a success at raising +horses, cattle or sheep, by keeping them in a small pen and feeding them +foods not to their liking or nature? Yet, such has been the case with +some of those who tried "fur animal raising." They made a failure of it +and no one who is at all familiar with fur-bearing animals is surprised. +Those who will be successful at "fur-farming" are trappers, hunters and +farmers who know something of the animal or animals they expect to +raise--those who love the animal and have a desire for the business. + +The ox, horse and sheep were all wild at one time, but have become +domesticated. Why not the same with the fur-bearers? This is exactly +what should be done. Skunk, especially, are very easily domesticated, +and other fur-bearers, such as coon, mink and opossum, soon lose much of +their fear. + +When the raiser learns this and furnishes a large enclosure with dens +and food similar to their wild state, they will be on the road to +success. As one raiser says: "They do well in a semi-wild state." If the +enclosure is too small, fleas, seed ticks, and other parasites are a +great enemy to the animals. In a large enclosure the animals are more +"at home" although at first they are restless and will walk around +seeking a way to escape; that is they try to escape at night. They are +seldom, if ever, seen during the day when first let loose in the +enclosure; they generally go in the first den that has been prepared for +them. + +Water is important. If you are raising skunk, fox or opossum, water for +drinking is all that they require; the same is the case with the coon, +although they will do best where they have water to wade, play and +search for food. Muskrat, otter, beaver and mink must have water to swim +and play in, as well as to drink or they cannot be raised. The enclosure +for mink and muskrat should include a stream of running water if +possible, or a pond of pure water. The same conditions apply to otter +and beaver, but of course the wire should be of larger size than for +mink and muskrat. Several different species of fur-bearers can be +successfully raised in the same enclosure. Coon, opossum, and skunk will +all do well together. Beaver and otter, apparently, live peaceably for +weeks in the same beaver lodge or house. + +The thousands of small lakes, ponds, etc., offer a splendid opportunity +for the successful raising of muskrat. While many owners of such, today, +in their natural condition, or without any fence, are reaping a +profitable and furry harvest; yet there are additional hundreds that by +building a fence around, would soon have a muskrat lake or pond worth a +great deal. Muskrat are fond of their homes and often remain at the same +location for years. If a wire fence three feet high were built around +this lake or pond, (with one foot underground), it would keep the rats +at home, as some would leave, especially as soon as the increase became +large. Such a fence would also keep out mink, which kill muskrat, often. + +Muskrat, in their wild or natural homes, seldom leave the water more +than a rod or two, so that a pond a considerable distance from any +stream, would be a comparatively safe place to raise them, without any +enclosure. The danger would be, mainly, that after the animals became +quite plentiful, some would perhaps leave, for instinct seems to teach +them that some should seek homes not so crowded. This has happened in +their natural breeding places where they became very plentiful. + +How large and where to build enclosures for fur farming, must be decided +by each individual. One party may have a creek, pond or lake, perhaps a +swamp, already inhabited by muskrat, and all that is necessary is to +keep other hunters and trappers off. On navigable rivers or lakes having +an inlet and outlet, we believe in most states any one can trap so long +as he is upon the water. In other words, the water does not belong to +the land owner and he cannot keep others off; but any small lake or pond +may be enclosed. On this point it would be well to see some lawyer in +your county, as different states may have different laws. + +A wooded bluff containing some den trees for coon, and hollow logs, +stumps, etc., for opossum and skunk, would be an ideal place for a +fur-farm. The location of the farm should be within sight of the home of +the raiser, in case a dog should get within or a thief should visit the +farm. To guard against stealing at night your dog would give the alarm, +or you could have an electric appliance connect the farm with the +house. + +Islands in large lakes offer a splendid place to begin raising +fur-bearing animals, and especially those that do not like to get their +"fur wet" or that naturally are not swimmers. In this class are the +various kinds of foxes, skunk and opossum; marten, it is true, are not +included in the swimming class, but the successful marten raiser perhaps +will be found, if at all, in the higher altitudes where the snow gets +several feet deep during the winter months, and the ground is covered +with snow eight or nine months each year--such is the ideal and natural +home of the marten. + +Skunk and opossum are two animals that do not travel much in extreme +cold weather, so that an island in a lake or large river, could be used +with no fencing. It perhaps would be best to put up a wire fence but it +need not be so substantial as if it were not surrounded by water. Of +course islands in rivers that overflow, would not be suitable. There +are, however, islands in the Great Lakes and elsewhere, that can be used +for raising both skunk and opossum with little or no cash outlay at the +start. + +If islands are used for foxes (except in salt water where the water does +not freeze), the same precaution in fencing must be taken as elsewhere. +Foxes travel during all kinds of weather and the first night the ice +formed sufficient to bear their weight, they would be very apt to +leave. + +Coon could not be successfully raised on an island. They do not travel +much during severe weather, but unless the island happened to be some +distance from the mainland, they would likely swim to shore. Mink would +be at home on an island where there was fish, frogs, etc., with drift +and log piles to wander through, but as they are good swimmers, there +would be nothing gained by starting with this animal on an island. + +Skunk and opossum seem to be the only animals that can be safely raised +on an island without the same precaution taken in fencing and enclosing, +as upon the mainland. These two animals, while not the highest priced +furred ones, for various reasons will prove to be as profitable, or more +so, where conditions favor, than many other fur-bearers. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +BOX TRAP TRAPPING. + + +I was born in Central Pennsylvania and spent the greater part of my +early life among the mountains of that part of our country, writes Mr. +A. C. Williams, a well known trapper. From my early boyhood, I had a +decided liking for the wilder class of literature, and took special +interest in tales of hunting and trapping adventures; but at that time, +did not know that there were many who still followed hunting and +trapping for profit. When I did learn of it, I naturally became even +more interested, and tried to find a partner among my boy friends, +intending, if I could find some person to accompany me, to make an +extended hunting and trapping trip into some one of the wilder portions +of the West or North. + +Of course I was no more fitted for such a trip than any other country +boy of the same age, and knew nothing of the wilderness; but being a +boy, and having read so many tales of boy hunters traversing the +wilderness as they would their own back yards, I naturally thought that +life in the forests was a very simple thing, and that there was no +reason why I should not go. As I grew older I learned that there was +still some fur to be found in Pennsylvania, and not only that but that +there were parties who made trapping a business, in season. + +I was interested, and decided to try my hand on the fur-bearing animals +found near my own home, before going farther, but I had no traps and +knew nothing about the various sizes and grades; as a consequence, I +sought out one of the trappers that I had heard of, and asked his advice +regarding different traps for the various animals. He gave me the +desired information, very willingly, and also remarked that he had been +very successful in trapping mink and other small animals with box-traps. +After he had mentioned it, I remembered that my father had, on one +occasion, caught a mink in a box trap, after it had been paying nightly +visits to our chicken coop for a week or more, killing a hen each night; +but for all of that I did not know that these traps could be used +successfully when trapping for profit. It was not very long after my +conversation with this trapper, that I had an opportunity of examining +one of these wooden traps and studying its construction. I will give +here a description of the trap used in that section: + +A plain box, size 10 by 10 by 24 inches, is made of one-inch lumber, +hardwood preferred, and is left open on one end and the top (see A) +another part (B) the cover, is fitted in top and end, and hinged at back +by driving a nail in each side, being careful to get both nails same +distance from the end of board. This cover should work freely, and when +dropped down in place, should fill the opening neatly, leaving no cracks +for the captured animal to gnaw at. + +[Illustration: Box Trap for Catching Animals Alive.] + +Now nail two strips (CC) on opposite sides of the box and about three +inches from the mouth of the trap. These strips should extend about ten +inches above the top of the box, and should have the tops notched to +hold stick (D). Stick (E) is tied at one end to a nail driven in the end +of cover, and at the other end, is attached the trigger (F). One end of +this trigger fits into a notch cut into the end of the box, and the +other end fits into a similar notch cut in the bait-stick (G). The +bait-stick, as will be noticed in the drawing, is slipped through a hole +in the end of the box, just below the trigger notch, and is kept in +place by means of a nail driven through on the inside of the box. A +small trip board (H), rests under the bait-stick on the inside of the +trap. This trip board doubles the value of the trap, as by its use many +an animal which merely enters the trap to smell at the bait, will be +caught; which would not occur if the board were not used. + +To complete the trap, a snap catch (I) is fastened to one side of the +trap in front of upright strip (C) and its purpose is to catch and hold +the cover when the trap is sprung. This snap is made of springy wood, +beveled on the top, and the falling cover presses it outward; but as +soon as the trap is fully closed, it springs back to the original +position holding the cover securely. In making this trap it is +advisable, always, to use old, weather-beaten lumber. + +As a result of my investigation, I made a number of these traps and was +successful with them, from the start. In that part of the country there +had been many saw-mills and logging camps, at one time or another and at +such places I could always find old boards from which to construct the +traps. The only tools required being a saw, a hatchet, and a half-inch +auger, I would go to these places during the summer, whenever I had a +day to spare, and make a few traps, hiding them near the places where I +wished to set them. + +The trap described above is of the size used for mink, skunk and +opossum, but I made most of mine on a larger scale, and by baiting with +fish, I caught many coons. On one occasion I caught three coons in one +night, with only three traps set, and in another trap, set by the side +of a small stream, in a gap of the mountains, I caught three mink and +two coons in one fall season. At another time I caught a large bob-cat +in such a trap. + +As I said before I baited with fish when I could get them; but those +trappers who used them for mink alone, never used bait, but attracted +the mink into the trap by means of mink musk rubbed on the trip board. + +I caught quite a lot of skunks in box traps, and it is a nice way to +catch these animals, for the trap may be carried to the nearest water +and the catch drowned by holding the trap beneath the surface. It is +advisable always, to place a weight--a few stones or wet chunks--on the +cover, as this will make it more certain in its action. + +These traps are specially suitable for catching animals alive and +uninjured, for breeding purposes, and now, that so many people are +interested in raising fur-bearing animals, there is a ready sale for +live animals, and this matter should be given attention. + +[Illustration: Box Trap with Swing Gate.] + +I have used another style of box-trap for muskrats, but is not intended +for catching the animals alive, and the muskrats are always drowned. It +is a simple box or square tube of boards, 6 x 6 x 24 or 26 inches, open +at both ends. A wire screen is fastened over one end, and a loosely +hinged gate of pointed wires is hung in the other end. I used for the +gate, pieces of umbrella ribs, cut about eight inches long and the ends +filed sharp. With the wires cut this length the gate will hang at an +angle of forty-five degrees, or more, and will push in easily, allowing +the animal to enter the trap without effort; but once inside, escape is +impossible, as the gate cannot be pushed out, and even if the captured +animal should raise the gate and attempt to creep under it, the pointed +wires will catch in its back and prevent escape. + +They are set in the dens, under water, and if the mouth of the den is +too large, the space around the trap should be closed with sods. Set in +this way, it will catch any muskrat that attempts to leave the den, and +I have caught three at one time in such a trap. + +While muskrats caught in this way are always drowned, other animals, +such as: mink, skunk and opossum, may be taken alive by setting the trap +in the mouth of the den, blocking up all side openings. The width of the +trap as shown in the cut, is considerably out of proportion, when +compared with its length--it being drawn this way to show more clearly +the working of the swing gate. + +A very effective skunk trap may be made from an old barrel. The barrel +is pivoted to a pair of stakes, driven firmly into the ground along a +bank or hillside, where skunks are found, and the bait is fastened on +the bottom of the inside of the barrel. This trap is shown plainly in +the illustration. It will be apparent to all that when the skunk, in +approaching the bait, passes the center, where it is hinged to the +stakes, the barrel tips over, and it will be impossible for the animal +to escape. + +Muskrats are sometimes taken with a wire net. To hunt them successfully +in this way, two persons are required. While one holds the net over the +mouth of the den, the other hunter drives the inmates from the burrow by +prodding the ground with a pointed pole. A wire cage with a cover must +be used to carry the captured animals, and each individual must be +shaken into the cage as soon as captured, and the cage closed +immediately to prevent their escape. + +[Illustration: Barrel Trap for Catching Animals Alive.] + +When box traps are used, no difficulty whatever will be encountered in +transporting the animals, as trap and catch may be carried into the +enclosure before the animal is liberated. Even the skunk may be carried +along in this way without any danger of scenting. The trap should be +handled carefully--not thrown about. + +Muskrats may be handled with perfect safety if grasped by the end of the +tail and held at arm's length. + +Trappers, as a rule, know just what time of year the young of each +species of animal are born and I would advise, when trapping animals for +breeding purposes, to catch them before this time, or at such a length +of time after the birth of the young, that there will be no danger of +their starving in case they are not captured along with the mother. Even +if the very young animals are taken from the den, there is danger of +them suffering from careless handling, or from not receiving proper +care. It is better to catch the female animals before the young are +born. + + * * * * * + +Another box trap that is a good one, is described by an Illinois trapper +as follows: + +"I here enclose a sketch for making a trap for catching mink which I +have used for years, and think it can't be beat. Make a box 22 inches +long, 5 inches wide, and 6 inches high out of inch lumber; bore a hole +at the back for the string (D) to pass through, which is tied to a bait +at (E) and fastened at the other end to a heavy wire (C), on top of the +box, which holds the sliding door (A), when set. A couple of strips (B) +are nailed on each side to hold the door in place. This is a good trap +for mink that are afraid of steel traps. For bait use a rabbit's head +tied securely to the string, also a few drops of good scent put on the +bait, and set near the mouth of some tiles or wherever mink abound." + +[Illustration: Another Box Trap.] + +This trap, as well as all the box-traps in this chapter, are recommended +for catching such animals as skunk, coon, mink, and opossum, alive and +uninjured, for stocking "fur-farms." + +Muskrat can be caught in these traps by baiting and setting where they +feed, or on runways from one pond to another. + +Animals caught in these traps can be carried with safety to both catcher +and animal, to the enclosure, before taking out of the trap. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +FOX RAISING. + + +The foxes of North America are divided by naturalists into only three +distinct groups or species, namely, the red, the gray and the Arctic +foxes. Of these, the red species is divided into a number of varieties, +among which are the Nova Scotia Red Fox, the Newfoundland Red Fox and +the Western Kit or Swift Fox, etc. + +The black, cross and silver foxes are commonly supposed to be only color +varieties of the red, there being no difference whatever, except in the +fur. While naturalists all agree on this subject there is considerable +difference of opinion among others who give as proof that they are of a +different species, the fact that the black, cross and silver are only +found in the northern districts while the red variety is found well down +into the south. There are, however, certain facts which go to prove that +they are all of the same variety or if different that they interbreed, +the most convincing of these being the fact that the various colors are +sometimes found in the same litter. But, be this as it may, the matter +is of little importance to the prospective fox breeder as it has become +a well known fact that the red color can be entirely eliminated by +careful breeding. + +The red fox is found throughout the greater part of Canada and the +United States except in the far south where it is replaced by the gray +species and in the extreme northern portions of Canada and Alaska, where +it gives place to the Arctic fox, also they are not found in the far +western states nor on the Pacific coast, being replaced here by the +gray. They are perhaps most abundant in the New England States, +Newfoundland and the eastern provinces of Canada, but are also found in +good numbers in parts of New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia +and the mountainous and hilly sections of the South. + +The silver and black foxes are found but rarely in the most northern +tier of states and are probably found in the greatest numbers in +Newfoundland, Labrador, northern Quebec and northern Ontario, but an odd +specimen is occasionally met with in all parts of Canada. They appear +also to be quite plentiful in the interior of Alaska and the Yukon +Province of Canada. The range of the cross fox is the same as that of +the silver and black except that it probably extends somewhat farther +southward into the United States. + +Of the gray foxes, several varieties are recognized, all however, being +very much alike. They are found throughout the Southern and South +Central States--in the east being found as far north as Connecticut and +on the Pacific Coast are found in California and Oregon. + +The Arctic fox, also known as the blue fox and the white fox, is found +only in northern Canada and Alaska. In the most northern parts of their +range they are a bluish color in summer, changing to white in winter, +but in the lower latitudes they retain the blue color throughout the +year. + +There is an immense difference in the value of the various varieties of +foxes. While the fur of the gray variety is seldom worth more than a +dollar or a dollar and a half, that of the fine silver and black foxes +will range from several hundred to a thousand dollars, and more if the +skin is an exceptionally fine one. The Arctic fox comes next in value to +the silver, while the cross is as a rule of less value, depending mostly +on color, and the red variety sells for from three to five dollars each +and upwards for prime skins. + +[Illustration: Northwestern Fox Skins--Silver, Cross and Red.] + +The various members of the red fox family are practically the same as +regards habits, being influenced to a certain extent by environments, +differences in climate and food, etc., but on the whole very much alike. +They are all of a cunning, wary and suspicious nature and it is owing to +this fact alone that they have been enabled to live and thrive in the +face of the persistent hunting and trapping. They are hardy animals and +while they generally have a den somewhere on the side of a gravelly or +sandy hill, they spend comparatively little of their time in the dens +and prefer to spend the day in a bunch of grass or weeds, a clump of +brush, or, curled up on top of a stump. + +In their search for food they sometimes start out quite early in the +evening, but are probably most active in the early morning when all +animal life is on the move. Then it is that the rabbits and other +nocturnal animals are seeking their places of rest and the birds, etc., +are commencing to move about and the fox stands a better chance of +securing some article of food. + +Their food consists principally of small animals and birds, such as +rabbits, partridge, quail, chipmunks and mice, but they also eat fruit, +such as apples, wild grapes and nuts. However, they are more strictly +carnivorous than the gray fox. They are fond of eggs and often rob the +nests of ground building birds, of eggs and young, and in the settled +sections have acquired a decided liking for poultry of all kinds. + +The food of the gray fox is practically the same as that of the red +variety but they are more given to eating fruit and feed extensively on +grapes, apples, etc., and in some sections they feed on green corn. All +foxes will eat fish with a relish when they can get them and will refuse +scarcely anything in the line of flesh, being especially fond of +muskrat, skunk and opossum. In captivity they take very kindly to a +vegetable diet. + +The Arctic foxes live chiefly on lemmings, small animals which are found +quite plentifully in the far north, but in captivity they thrive on fish +and cooked corn meal. + +The mating season of the red fox comes mainly in February and the +beginning of March and the young, from five to eight or nine, are born +in April or early in May. The young of the gray fox are born in May, the +mating season of this species being somewhat later than that of the red +fox. The breeding dens of the fox are usually located on some gravelly +hillside but in places where the country is broken and rocky. They use +natural dens in the rocks. It is only during the breeding season and +while the young foxes are still quite small that these dens are +regularly inhabited. At other times they may spend an occasional day +there or seek safety in the dens when hard pressed by hounds, but for +the most part they prefer to rest out of doors. + +Foxes prefer the rough hilly countries and are usually found in good +numbers in the hilly farming sections where there are old pastures and +an occasional patch of woodland. The gray fox is most at home in the +wooded districts but the red species, including the silver, cross and +black prefer the more open stretches of country. In the north they will +be found most plentiful in the barrens and sections where second-growth +timber prevails. + +The two species do not appear to be on very friendly terms and not given +to mixing one with the other. In some sections where red foxes were once +numerous and the gray variety were unknown, the grays now predominate, +having driven out the red variety. In other parts the reds have +supplanted the grays. This, however, is only in the central and southern +districts, as the gray fox is never found far north. + +FOX FARMING.--Fox farming has been attempted by various parties from +time to time and those who have given the business considerable study +and have persevered have generally been successful. Many of the parties, +however, were men who have had practically no knowledge of nature, +having gone into the business too deeply in the start and being +ignorant of the nature and habits of the animals when found in a wild +state, have as a consequence, failed. Very few of those who have made a +success of breeding the valuable silver foxes have gone into this +business in the start, but have first experimented with the less +valuable red fox, and as the silver and red foxes are of the same +variety their nature and habits are also the same, and the knowledge of +their habits gained by experimenting with one is of equal value as +applied to the other. + +The Arctic foxes are being raised successfully on many of the islands +off the coast of Alaska. As the seas never freeze over there, no +enclosures are necessary and the business has proved comparatively easy +from the start. Such islands are not within the reach of the average fox +farmer and other means must be resorted to. The breeding of silver foxes +has, thus far, been carried on mainly in the Canadian Maritime Provinces +and the state of Maine, but it has also been undertaken to some extent +in Michigan, Alaska, Labrador and Newfoundland. + +We are certain that if one will give the matter sufficient study, learn +the habits and nature of the animals thoroughly and act accordingly, +success is sure to follow and that the red, cross and silver foxes may +be bred and raised successfully. Experiments should be conducted on a +small scale, for otherwise failure would mean a great loss. We would +advise that the amateur conduct his experiments with red foxes, learning +their habits thoroughly before attempting the breeding of the valuable +silver-gray. + +FAVORABLE LOCALITIES.--It is a well known fact that the finest furs are +produced in northern localities and fox farming should not be attempted +in the far south. The accompanying map, which is taken from the bulletin +of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, will show the area most suitable +for silver fox farming. The plainly lined portions show the most +suitable country, and conditions in those parts are most excellent and +the cross-hatched parts show the area where silver fox raising is +possible and conditions favorable. The red fox will do well somewhat +farther south, but as before stated, the warm climate of the south is +detrimental to fine furs, and it will be wise to not locate too far +south of the shaded portions shown on the map. + +[Illustration: Map of life zones in which fox farming is feasible in the +United States, showing the Canadian zone where conditions are excellent, +and the Transition zone, in parts of which conditions are favorable.] + +Having decided on a favorable section of country the next step is to +find a suitable location. It is not necessary or even advisable to have +a large enclosure. For the beginner a half-acre to an acre will be +sufficient, and a space of four or five acres is ample for extensive +operations. If the enclosure is too large the animals will be wild and +unmanageable, and on the other hand if too small they will become +nervous and restless and will not breed well, and it is advised also +that the foxes be not disturbed by visitors and be allowed to live as +quietly as possible. A sandy soil is recommended, and there should be +some trees for shade, but a thick woods is not desirable. + +ENCLOSURES.--Fences should be made of galvanized woven wire of two-inch +mesh,--number 14 or 16 wire being best. The fence should be ten feet in +height and should be sunk in the ground two feet and turned in two feet +at the top. The overhang at the top is easily adjusted by means of cross +strips on the top of the posts. Care in making the fences is essential, +and if there is much snow in winter the drifts must not be allowed to +become high enough to allow the animals to leap over. It is advisable to +have a set of inside enclosures, and as it is necessary that the animals +are not annoyed by visitors. It is a good plan to have the space between +the inside and outside fences filled with trees and clumps of brush so +as to obstruct the view. The inner enclosures are small and designed for +single animals and pairs and should be about thirty or forty feet in +size. There should also be several larger enclosures for the males and +females, for, except during the breeding season it will do no harm to +allow the males to run together. Each separate enclosure should be +provided with a gate so that it will be an easy matter to remove the +foxes from one enclosure to another. The plan for the arrangement of the +yards as shown here is a good one and is taken from the Government +Bulletin. + +[Illustration: Plan for Arrangement of Fox Yards.] + +Each compartment should be provided with small kennels, for although the +fox will usually dig a den, the nature of the ground is not always +suitable and they take kindly to these artificial dens. They are usually +made four or five feet square and two or three feet high. If desired, +shelters may be made of boxes as shown in the cut. No bedding is +required, as the old foxes will do well without or will provide one +themselves. + +[Illustration: Box Shelter for Female and Young.] + +FEEDING.--Many fox raisers have failed to recognize the fact that the +fox is almost omnivorous and give a strictly meat diet according. While +this does not always have disastrous results, it is better to give them +a mixed food, including besides meat, table scraps, bread and milk, etc. +Overfeeding is a common trouble and should be avoided. Of course they +must have sufficient, but should not be allowed to become too fat, as +this spoils them for breeding purposes; also feeding should be at +regular intervals. The weight of a healthy fox is from six to nine +pounds, and when an animal weighs more than ten pounds it is almost +certain that it is too fat. When a number of animals are kept together +in one enclosure the boldest and strongest will usually get more than +its share of the food. Of course fresh drinking water must be provided +regularly. + +One of the most successful breeders feeds a quarter of a pound of meat +and a quart of skim milk daily. A quarter of a pound of meat and a +handful of scraps is a fair daily allowance. Another fox farmer feeds +along with the meat a hoecake made of corn meal and sour milk. + +Beef, mutton, fish, horseflesh, etc., are all good food for the fox. Old +worn-out animals may be secured in any rural district, but it is +absolutely necessary that the animals be healthy and the meat should be +kept on ice. One breeder claims that if everything were purchased, his +foxes would not cost him more than one cent each a day, but as he feeds +considerable table scraps the cost is even less. + +BREEDING.--In the wild state the male fox mates with a single female but +in captivity one male will answer for two or even three females but it +is best to have all animals in pairs. It has been found best to place +the male with the female in December or January and leave them in +company until the last of March when the males should be removed. The +females should be kept in the small enclosures continuously and the +young foxes removed when weaned. They breed the first season, when less +than a year old, but as a rule the litters are small. + +[Illustration: Corner of Fox Yard showing Stones to Prevent Escape by +Digging.] + +As before stated it is absolutely necessary to prevent the animals from +becoming nervous from too frequent visits of strangers. This nervousness +has a bad effect on their breeding qualities. It is especially bad +after the young foxes are born, as the mother fearing for the safety of +her young, will move them about continuously until they are badly +injured or die of exposure. The keeper also should not disturb the young +but should keep away from them as much as possible. In raising silver +foxes, only the most perfect specimens should be kept for breeding +purposes. However, if there is a tendency to show some red among the fur +this may be bred out entirely by using care in selecting the breeding +stock. + +[Illustration: Fox Yards, Showing Detail of Outer Fence.] + +As there is considerable difference in the disposition of individuals +this should also be kept in mind and those animals showing the least +aversion to man should be selected, providing, of course, that they are +prolific and otherwise perfect. + +A party in Ohio who has been raising foxes for some time writes as +follows: + +Two years ago I added foxes to my game preserve and last spring my red +gave birth to five young foxes. My black male fox got to the young and +killed the three males. I now have three cross foxes, one black and four +red. I expect to have a big increase in the spring. Should I get a lot +of black pups next spring I will surely do well with my foxes. + +I find that foxes are not strictly carnivorous (flesh eating) animals. I +feed them stale bread, milk and any kind of a dead fowl, rats, mice, +stale meats, muskrat, coon or any other carcass. I aim to give them all +they will eat, yet I often have thought that I feed them too much at one +time and not enough at other times. + +I think foxes should be fed morning and evening only about what they +will eat. They should be given fresh water twice a day during the summer +months and the water should not be given them in a shallow vessel, +nothing lower than an ordinary bucket. They are sure to foul the water +if they can get over or in it. + +Allow me to suggest to any one who contemplates raising foxes that one +of the essential things to do is to first build a kennel in such a way +that they will not gnaw or dig out. A safe fox pen can be built by +putting a stone wall or concrete two feet down, setting posts first, +then build wall around posts. Don't use any netting over two-inch mesh +and the poultry netting should be made of No. 17 wire. Fox will tear the +ordinary two-inch poultry netting as fast as you can put it on. + +My kennel is 50 feet by 25 feet and 7 feet high, covered over the top +with ordinary poultry netting. One of the essential things to do after +kennel is built is to see that it is properly underdrained and to see +that plenty of dry leaves are put in kennel. Straw will do if leaves +cannot be gotten. A mound of earth would be an excellent thing in each +apartment of your kennels. Foxes are great to be constantly digging in +the ground. Keep plenty of boxes in your kennel with a nice smooth hole +in each box, as a rough hole destroys their fur. + +[Illustration: Yards of a Successful Maine Fox Farm.] + +A summary of the whole shows that the points most necessary of +consideration for success is in proper feeding, in giving particular +attention to the animals during the breeding season, in using special +care to prevent them from being frightened and in the keeper winning the +confidence of the captive animals. A careful study of their nature is +advised and it should always be kept in mind that foxes are wild animals +and therefore should have far more attention than is necessary with +domestic animals. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +SKUNK RAISING. + + +There are but two species of skunk found in North America, namely, the +common striped skunk and the small spotted skunk of the Central +States,--commonly known as the "civet cat." This latter name is wrong as +the real civet cat is an entirely different animal. + +It is with the true skunk that this article has to deal, and of this +animal naturalists recognize several varieties, the only difference +being in size and markings. + +They are found in all parts of the United States, with the exception of +the bunch-grass plains and the mountainous district of the West. They +occur again to the west of the mountain ranges and also are found in +most parts of Southern Canada. They are found in the prairie country and +in the hilly and mountainous districts of the East, and are at home in +the "wilds" as well as in the thickly settled districts, however, they +seem to thrive best in the farming sections and especially if the +country is of a hilly nature. Their dens are located along the gravelly +hillsides, quite often under the roots of trees and stumps but in the +prairie they den along the washouts and creek banks. In thickly settled +sections they frequently make their home under houses and outbuildings, +showing practically no fear of man and often appropriate the den of the +woodchuck. + +They are nocturnal animals and as a rule do not wander far from the den +but in the fall they travel farther, looking for a good den in which to +spend the winter. Again, in early spring during the mating season, the +males travel considerably. While they are not a hibernating animal, they +stay in the dens during cold weather, also when the snow is loose and +deep, but are sure to be out on the first nice night. + +The mating season of this animal is in February and early March and the +young are born mostly in May, although some will be born in April. There +are usually from four to ten young in a litter but occasionally there +will be a larger number. + +The value of a skunk skin depends mainly on its size and markings, they +being graded by the buyers entirely by the amount of black fur, +providing, of course, that the skin is prime and well handled. There is +a considerable difference in respect to sizes and markings of the +average catches of the various sections. From some parts of the country +they will run quite large, in other parts small, and while in one +section they will run perhaps ninety per cent. long stripes, in other +parts of the country the black and short stripe grade predominates. Of +course the skunks of the South are not as well furred as those found +farther north. + +Being slow moving animals, they can not catch the more active animals +and birds as do the other members of the weasel family and their food +consists mainly of mice, insects and grubs, also on the eggs and young +of such birds as nest on the ground. They are very fond of poultry and +frequently visit the poultry houses, killing the young birds. They also +feed on carrion. When they can get it they will eat almost any kind of +animal food. Even in the wild state the skunk is not, strictly speaking, +a carnivorous animal as they will eat and in fact are fond of sweet corn +when in a milky state, also sweet potatoes, melons and wild fruits. + +They have no means of defense other than their scent, but this is +sufficient in many cases and the majority of people will give them a +wide berth. This scent is only used when alarmed or frightened and in +captivity there is no trouble whatever from this source as they soon +learn that there is no occasion for alarm and become quite tame. + +PAST EXPERIMENTS.--Beyond all doubt the skunk has been given more +consideration by raisers of fur-bearers than any other animal, with the +exception of the fox. There are many who have tried raising these +animals with more or less success and where the experimenters have used +good judgment and have given the subject all of the attention it +deserves, they have been reasonably successful. Most of these people +have started in on a small scale, having perhaps only a dozen or two of +skunks to start with; in fact, nowhere has the business been carried on +as extensively as some newspaper articles would lead one to believe; the +majority of these parties having at the most only two or three hundred +animals. One of the largest ranches was located in Eastern Pennsylvania, +but for various reasons this venture was a failure. + +It is the smaller experimenters, in other words, those who have begun on +a small scale, who have been most successful. They are for the most part +trappers who had even before venturing into the business a fair +knowledge of the nature and habits of the skunk and therefore were more +qualified for making the business a successful one. Trappers naturally +take an interest in all nature and are most likely to give the proper +amount of attention to the animals, also learn their habits readily and +act accordingly and these qualities are absolutely necessary for the +successful raising of all fur-bearing animals. + +The most successful stock breeders are those who make a special study of +their animals and take a great interest in them and those who do not are +almost certain to fail and really deserve failure. If so much care is +necessary in breeding domestic animals, how much more important the care +in handling the wild creatures, knowing so little of them as the average +man does. But even handicapped by lack of knowledge the experimenters +have been fairly successful from the start if they were the right men +for the business. Without exception they all report that the animals +breed well in captivity and are easily kept; in a short time becoming +quite tame and losing their fear of man. + +The skunk is an animal which is despised and feared by many people +because of its readiness to make use of its powerful scent, the only +means of defense with which nature has provided it, but it is only when +frightened that it uses this scent and once they have become tame and +learn that they will not be harmed they are practically harmless. We +will say, however, to those who are afraid of the scent do not attempt +to raise skunks, but devote your time to some other calling for which +you are more fitted. + +It is true that the scent glands may be removed from the young animals +but many of them will die from the operation and there is practically +nothing gained; therefore, this practice is not advised. + +Those who have failed were for the most part people who knew nothing +regarding the habits of the animal and its care when in captivity. They +were men with capital, who began on a large scale expecting to make a +fortune in a short time, but in this they were mistaken, for many of +them lost all that they invested. These parties have had trouble from +the older animals killing and eating the young, also from depredations +of owls, but mainly from the first reason. It is our opinion that this +cannibalistic tendency is caused by improper feeding, as those parties +who have used care in that respect have had no trouble whatever. + +To those who are thinking of embarking in the business of skunk farming, +we would say,--start on a small scale with only a small number of +animals, say two dozen females and six males. Give them every possible +attention and study them under all conditions. Do not expect to make a +fortune in a short time. + +ENCLOSURES.--After you have decided on this business the first thing is +to find the proper location and make a suitable enclosure. There should +be a spring on, or a small stream crossing the ground to be inclosed, +but at the same time the ground must not be wet; in fact, it should be +of rather dry nature, so that there will not be too much dampness in the +dens. There should be banks of earth for the animals to den in and the +ground should have a gradual slope so that it will drain readily. If it +is of a sandy nature it will be all the better. Some who have tried +skunk farming have located the yards on the shore of a small lake or +pond and have included a portion of the pond in the enclosure. This is a +good idea and it will not be necessary to extend the fence very deep +into the water, as the skunk is not a water animal and will not dive +under; however, where the fence crosses a stream of running water the +fence should reach to the bed of the stream as the water will fall +considerably during dry weather. + +The enclosures should be large. When the animals are inclosed in small +yards or pens they become infested with fleas, ticks, etc., and they do +not do well. Such small enclosures will answer for a short time but as +soon as possible they should be placed in a large roomy yard. For +fencing material, galvanized wire netting of one-inch mesh is advised, +as the young animals will escape through a two-inch mesh. The fence +should be seven feet in height. Under ordinary conditions the skunk +would not escape over a four-foot fence, but there is danger in winter +from drifting snow, and dogs and other animals must be kept out at all +times; therefore, the fence should be of the height mentioned and it +must be turned in at the top or a sheet of tin placed along the edge to +prevent the animals from climbing out. + +[Illustration: Corner of an Ohio Skunk Farm.] + +The interior of the enclosure should be divided into compartments, using +the same material for the fences but they need not be so high. The +largest compartment would be for the females and there should be a +smaller one for the males, also one for the young animals after they +have become large enough to take care of themselves. Some also make +small yards in which to place the females, two or three together, after +the young animals are born. The most of those who have tried skunk +breeding, however, have not found this necessary, but there should +always be a separate enclosure for the males. When the number of animals +increases it will be necessary to have a few small breeding yards, large +enough for ten or twelve animals. One need not, however, make such an +elaborate enclosure in the start but can enlarge it as needed, adding +more compartments. + +In each compartment a number of dens should be made by digging a trench +and covering afterwards. While the animals will dig dens if necessary, +they prefer even while in a wild state to use dens already made. Boxes, +barrels or pens with board floors should not be used. Some of the +successful ones claim that this has a tendency to cause a thick pelt and +thin fur and say that it is absolutely necessary that they have natural +dens in the ground. The dens should be made quite deep so that there +will be no danger from frost in winter. + +FEEDING.--Skunks should have plenty of food especially during the summer +and they should be fed at regular intervals, giving just enough for a +meal each time. It is advisable to give a mixed diet, partly animal and +partly vegetable. They will eat almost all kinds of flesh and fish, +table scraps, fruits, especially if very ripe, melons, sweet potatoes, +berries, etc. One of the most satisfactory foods is bread and milk, but +it is considered too expensive by some people. However, it could be +given occasionally. They are very fond of carrion, but such food should +not be given, for it is likely to cause disease. If near a slaughter +house one can get plenty of offal and in the country one can buy old, +worn-out horses, etc., but one should remember that the skunk will +consume an amazing amount of food. One party claims that three hundred +skunk will eat two horses in a week. In the fall especially, when they +are laying on fat for winter, they should have plenty of food. In +winter they do not require so much. + +It should be remembered that it is a lack of food that causes them to +eat their young and one should feed well during the spring and summer. + +Skunks feed largely on insects, grubs, etc., and it is to be regretted +that one can not supply this food. They are fond of eggs, either fresh +or spoiled, and should be given a feed of this kind occasionally if +possible. They also have a fondness for poultry of all kinds. + +The matter of providing sufficient food is not as difficult as it would +appear at first glance. If the farm is located near a large town or +city, hotel and restaurant keepers will generally save table scraps, +stale bread, etc., on request, if one will make a regular habit of +calling for it. Even in the country the neighbors will help out. The +farmers will be only too glad to have you take the dead stock, poultry, +etc., thus saving them the time and labor of otherwise disposing of it. + +BREEDING.--As before stated the mating season comes late in February and +in March and the young animals make their appearance in May. The period +of gestation being about nine weeks. + +One male animal will easily serve eight or ten females and he should be +left in their company a number of days. After that he should be removed +and to make certain, another male should be installed for a few days. +Two males should never be allowed with the females at one time or they +will fight and one or both may be seriously injured. This is the plan +which is used by the most successful skunk farmers and is recommended. + +Great care should be exercised in the selection of the males for +breeding stock. Only the large and healthy animals of good color should +be used and all others should be killed and their skins marketed while +they are in good condition. + +While the animals do not always breed strictly true to color, the white +markings may be greatly reduced and the general stock improved by +selected breeding. One should, each year secure fresh breeding stock +from other localities and related animals should not be allowed to breed +together or in a few years the result will be disastrous. One can not be +too careful in this respect for it is very important. + +After the mating season the females should be separated, placing three +or four together in small enclosures and they should be well fed or +otherwise they may kill and eat the young. They should be allowed to +remain in these small enclosures until the young animals are large +enough to take care of themselves, when they should be separated and +the females may again be placed in the large enclosure. + +GENERAL INFORMATION.--From the commencement of the breeding season until +late in the fall the animals require a larger amount of food than during +the winter and especially during the breeding season and while the +mother is still nursing the young they will require plenty of nourishing +food. They require fresh drinking water at all times and the enclosures +should be so arranged that each compartment will be supplied. + +As before stated one should use care in selecting animals for breeding +purposes as it is in this way that the quality of the fur will be +improved and the business made to be a profitable one. All small and +weak animals and those showing considerable white fur, especially males +should be killed off while the fur is in good condition. If you wish to +increase the number of animals do not be tempted for the sake of the +higher prices realized for the finer skins to kill off animals that +should be kept for breeding. + +The animals should never be allowed to become frightened by the +intrusion of dogs into the enclosure--dogs should be kept away at all +times. + +The skunk raiser must watch closely at all times to see that the +enclosure fences are in good shape so that the animals do not escape. If +they are found digging holes near the fence, these holes should be +filled up so as to discourage the workers. + +Fleas and other parasites are likely to bother the animals and they +should have plenty of room so that they can change dens when the old +habitations become infested with vermin. + +On the whole, one should study the habits of the animals on every +opportunity and attend to their wants. If one will give the proper +attention to the animals and take an interest in them there is no reason +why he should not succeed. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +MINK RAISING. + + +There is only one species of mink found in North America, altho there +are a number of varieties differing in size, color and quality of fur. +Thus we find in Northern Maine and New Brunswick a very small variety +having a fine silky fur of a very dark shade; farther west and south a +somewhat larger variety, paler in color, and thruout the Mississippi +valley and parts of the south, also parts of Western Canada, a very +large mink is found, but running quite pale, and the fur somewhat +coarser than the northeastern varieties. + +Again, on parts of the Pacific Coast, a very small and poorer quality +are found, and the mink from the lower Yukon River of Alaska are said to +be of very poor quality. One or more varieties are found in almost every +part of the United States, Canada and Alaska. Wherever there is running +water their tracks may be seen; but they seem to prefer the smaller +streams, as a rule, and they will be found as plentiful in the thickly +settled parts as in the wilderness. + +Mink are great travelers, but each individual animal has his regular +route and seldom ventures far out of his course. While they travel +streams and lake shores as much as possible, they do not hesitate to +leave the stream and cut across country in order to reach some other +water-course. During the mating season they also wander away from the +streams more than at other times. While they are always found in the +neighborhood of fresh water, they are not a water animal, and in +following a stream, always run on the bank, but usually as near to the +water as possible. + +In the thickly settled districts where the most valuable fur-bearing +animals, such as the silver foxes, otters, etc., are not to be found, +the mink is the most valuable and is eagerly sought by the trappers. The +fur is at its best during the first two months after it becomes prime, +which in the north will be about November 1st, and in the south perhaps +a month later. After the first two months, the fur commences to fade, +especially where the country is open and the animal is exposed to the +bright light, for the mink is not, strictly, a nocturnal animal. The +darkest skins come, as a rule, from the timbered parts of the country. +While the female is smaller than the male, she is also darker, and the +skins have about an equal value. + +The food of the mink consists mostly of rabbits, partridges, quail, +squirrels, muskrats, mice, fish, frogs, birds' eggs, etc. While they +will eat stale meat, if hungry, they prefer strictly fresh food. +Occasionally they will pay a visit to the poultry house, for like most +animals of the weasel family, they have a decided liking for the +domesticated birds. They are very fond of fish, and when same may be +secured easily, they will kill large numbers, merely for the sake of +killing. + +They are active and hardy little animals, apparently almost tireless, as +they will travel long distances in a night. They are perhaps most active +during the fall months, and in the north they travel very little during +the cold part of winter. + +The burrow or den of the mink is usually located in the high bank of +some stream, but they frequently inhabit deserted dens of other animals, +but always near the water. It is in these dens that the female and her +offspring spend the summer months, never straying far from home. + +The first two weeks of March is the minks' season for mating, and the +young--from four to six--are born about six weeks later. When confined +in enclosures where the diet, water and temperature are similar with +each animal, there is so little difference in the time of mating and +bearing their young, that five or six litters may make their appearance +within twelve hours of each other. + +The young are blind from four to five weeks, but are very active and as +playful as kittens. The mother weans them when they are eight or ten +weeks old. At about four weeks the mother begins to feed them meat, and +they learn to suck at it before they have teeth to eat it. The young are +fed by the mother on frogs, fish, mice, etc., until they are three or +four months old, when she leaves them to shift for themselves. The young +soon separate and do their hunting alone. They do not pair and the male +is a rover and "free lover." + +Mink are extremely cleanly and as soon as the den becomes foul, the +mother moves the family to some other nest. + +MINK BREEDING.--There are a great many readers of the H-T-T who live in +the city, that long for some way to profitably spend their idle time. I +will give a successful way of breeding mink, according to Mr. Boughton's +Guide: + +"Wild adult mink are almost untamable, but young ones readily submit to +handling and are easily domesticated. The time to secure young mink is +in May or June when they begin to run with their dams. The streams must +be quietly watched for mink trails, and these, if possible, tracked to +the nest. When they leave the hole, the young ones may be secured, or +they may be dug out. Those who own a breeding stock of mink ask very +high prices for them, but if the aforesaid plan is carried out, it is an +easy matter to get the young wild ones. + +"MANAGEMENT OF MINK.--Mink being by nature solitary, wandering animals, +being seldom seen in company except in mating season, it is impossible +to rear them successfully if large numbers are kept together constantly; +therefore, their enclosure should be a large one. The male and the +female should be permitted to be together frequently from the middle of +February until the middle of March. At all other times keep them +entirely separate. + +"About this season the mink should be allowed plenty of fine grass, +which they will carry into their boxes to make their nests out of. A box +3 or 4 feet long and 18 inches wide is the shape they prefer. It should +be placed as far as possible from the water to prevent the mink from +carrying mud and water into it. The young mink, when first born, are +small and delicate, destitute of any kind of fur and much resemble young +rats. If the old mink is tame, the young ones may be taken out of the +nest and handled when they are three weeks old. They will soon learn to +drink milk, and may be fed every day. At three weeks of age they may be +taken from their mother and put into a pen by themselves, and then they +will soon become very playful, are pretty, and make much better mothers +than they would if allowed to run with the old one." + +The shelter should be in the shape of a long box, 5 or 6 feet wide and 3 +or 4 feet high, set upon legs, with a good floor and roof. Divide into +separate apartments 6 feet long (longer would be better), the front of +each apartment to be furnished with a swinging door of strong screen +wire, with hinges at the top, and a latch on the bottom. A trough 6 +inches square, should run the entire length of pen at rear side; one end +of the trough should be made several inches lower than the other, so +that the water could be drawn off. With this arrangement the water can +be turned in at one end of trough, and be drawn off and changed as often +as desired. The lower end of the trough should be a little deeper than +the other end to prevent the water from running over. Each apartment is +furnished with a box 3 feet long and 13 inches wide. On one side of the +box, and near one end is made a round hole about 4 inches in diameter, +and provided with a sliding cover, so by means of a stick it can be +opened or closed from the outside. This is so the mink can be closed up +while the pen is being cleaned. + +[Illustration: Mink Enclosure in Detail.] + +On the top of the box and at the other end should be a door large enough +to put in grass, straw, etc., for the nest, and take out young. It is +necessary that they have an abundance of pure soft water, fresh air, +desirable shade and plenty of exercise. These conditions secure for the +mink a good quality of dark fur and good health. Brush, weeds, etc., are +allowed to grow up in the yard, but not near enough to the fence to +admit of their climbing up and out. + +The fence for the enclosure should be of poultry netting of one-inch +mesh. If of larger mesh the young animals will escape. The general plan +for the fence should be the same as described under the heading, +"Enclosures." There should be separate apartments for the males and +females, and also some smaller breeding pens. As it is not advisable to +attempt handling the animals, each compartment should be provided with a +small gate so that the animals may be driven from one pen to the other. +During the breeding season, and afterwards, while the young animals are +under the care of the mother, the same general methods of handling as is +recommended in skunk raising, should be adopted. + +At all times, plenty of fresh water must be provided, and the enclosures +should be so arranged that the water will be distributed to all parts. +While the mink is always found near the water, it is not a water animal, +as is the muskrat, and a large body of same is not needed. A spring or a +small stream is all that is needed; and a pond may be dug in each of the +large enclosures. + +Careful and regular feeding is advised. The mink is strictly a +carnivorous animal, and always prefers fresh food. The matter of +supplying sufficient food will be more difficult than in the case of +the skunk and muskrat. As they are fond of fish, if one is near a place +where they may be obtained, the feeding will be comparatively easy. They +should not, however, be fed on fish alone. An occasional fowl will be +acceptable, also rabbit, muskrat, etc. + +The natural home and breeding place of the mink is near the water. Their +den is often under an old stump, tree or in some drift pile. The nest +where the young are born generally being in the ground. When the animals +become tame enough, the raiser should provide dens similar to those used +in their wild state. These can be made by burying tile in the ground and +in other ways making artificial burrows. A few hollow logs placed in the +enclosure would be enjoyed by the animals. + +Many report that the males kill the young. This should be guarded +against by keeping the males separate. Some hesitate about starting a +"minkery" for fear that the animals will not fur properly. There is no +danger on that point if properly fed, watered and given homes in keeping +with those they lived in when roving at their own free will. This only +brings out more forcibly the fact that those who are going to be the +most successful mink raisers should have a natural aptitude for the +business--trappers, hunters, animal lovers, etc. Who has made the +greatest success at raising stock in your neighborhood--the man who +loves stock or someone who thought they saw a fortune in the business +but neither loved animals or knew anything about them? We venture the +answer, without fear of contradiction, that it has been the party who +loves and delights in stock. Remember, this applies to fur animals as +well as horses, sheep and cattle. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +OPOSSUM RAISING. + + +The opossum is a southern animal and is found in abundance in most parts +of the Southern States. In late years they have been moving farther +northward and are now found, though not numerous, as far north as +Central Pennsylvania; but are found most plentifully in the wooded +portions of the South, where they are such a common animal as to be well +known to all. + +They are slow moving and inoffensive, having no means of defense +whatever. When approached, they make a great show by opening the mouth, +and present a rather fierce appearance, but when touched by man or +animal, they pretend to be dead, and this very characteristic habit has +given rise to the expression, "playing 'possum." + +While the opossum is a nocturnal animal, it is sometimes seen in +daylight, but this is of rare occurrence. They do not hibernate but will +remain in the dens during cold weather, and do not like to roam about +when the leaves are dry and rustly. + +The dens are, as a rule, located in the ground, under a rock, log or +tree, and are quite shallow; the nest at the extremity being lined with +leaves or grass. They also den in hollow logs and stumps occasionally, +and in natural openings in rock bluffs. + +The young of this animal are born in the last half of April and the +beginning of May, the number of young varying from six to twelve, and +sometimes even more. When born they are very small and imperfectly +formed and are immediately placed by the mother in the pouch on her +belly, where they remain until they have attained a perfect form and +have become large enough to walk about. After being placed in the pouch, +they attach themselves to the teats of the mother, and remain in that +condition until they have become large enough to move about. + +On leaving the pouch, they quite often ride about, when tired, on the +mother's back, holding fast by winding their tails about that of the +parent. They will reach their full growth within a year, if the +conditions are favorable--that is, if they have plenty of food, etc. In +captivity, when well cared for, they attain considerable size by +midwinter. + +The opossum is omnivorous, feeding alike on animal and vegetable food, +but it prefers flesh to fruit. They feed on carrion, and on any small +animal which their slow movements will allow of capturing, also on eggs +and young birds, for they are good climbers. They are quite fond of wild +fruits, such as persimmons, polk berries, apples and paw-paws; also of +certain vegetables, especially onions. They also eat mice, insects, etc. + +Opossums are hunted extensively in the South, and when pursued they +usually climb the nearest tree, unless they are close to the den. As an +article of food they are highly esteemed, especially by the colored +people, and find a ready sale in the market. + +While the fur of this animal is not, strictly speaking, a valuable one, +to the prospective fur-farmer it is well worth considering, especially +if located near a market. At present prices the young animals by +midwinter, will average a dollar each in value, when selling both the +skin and carcass. The ease with which they may be raised is also an +important factor, so that on the whole, in many sections, they will be +found to be a profitable animal to handle. + +Opossums are fairly good climbers and the enclosure should have a wide +strip of tin around, as described elsewhere in the chapter on +Enclosures. They will also gnaw out of wooden enclosures if there is a +crack or any chance to get a start. They will readily climb out of the +enclosure if made of wood unless covered or at least partially covered. +There has been no better or cheaper material found for constructing +fences for opossum raising purposes than galvanized wire. + +They are not much given to digging and the wire need not be buried very +deep in the earth. If the ground is solid, 18 inches will be deep +enough. The animals, if properly fed, watered and cared for, will soon +become accustomed to their quarters, and make little or no effort to +escape. The young will become tame and quite playful. + +The natural home of the opossum can be described as south of a line +drawn west from New York City through Pennsylvania, Northern Ohio and +Indiana, south of Chicago, through Iowa near Des Moines, and into +Nebraska near Omaha, extending about half way into Nebraska, then South +through Kansas, all of Oklahoma and the lowlands or the Eastern half of +Texas. The opossum is not a cold weather animal, and in its wild state +would freeze if it inhabited territory much farther north than the +northern boundary of the line shown. A severe winter a few years ago, is +said to have frozen large numbers in their dens in Southern Ohio, +Pennsylvania, and parts of West Virginia, Indiana and Illinois. + +In their natural or wild state, they often hole up in shallow dens, old +logs, trees, etc., and while they are endowed with the instinct of +"playing 'possum" when injured, their instinct along other lines seems +very shallow, as they do not always know enough to "get in out of the +cold;" in other words, on the approach of severe winter weather, they do +not all seek deep dens where the ground does not freeze. + +While the natural home of the opossum is in the section as outlined, +there is no reason why they cannot be successfully raised hundreds of +miles north of their northern limit. The thing to guard against will be +freezing. The raiser must see that they have good and deep burrows--deep +enough that the ground will never freeze to their nest. They should have +plenty of leaves in their nest. If the enclosure is in a thicket, and +there are trees within and leaves near, the animals will no doubt carry +an abundance of leaves into their dens for nests. If there are no trees +in the enclosure, see that a supply is furnished each den before +freezing weather in the Fall. + +The opossum is going to become one of the important animals in +fur-farming for various reasons: They are prolific breeders, bringing +forth from 6 to 12 at a litter; grow rapidly; are easily fed and eat a +great variety of food. + +[Illustration: Ideal Spot for an Opossum or Raccoon Fur Farm.] + +The opossum raiser has two sources of revenue--fur and carcass. There is +a ready market for the carcasses in all cities. The grower should make +arrangements with butchers and others to take so many carcasses on a +certain date. The fur is at its best from about Thanksgiving to the +middle of February. Thanksgiving, Christmas and New Years are three +holidays when the fur will be prime and the meat in demand. In cities +like New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Pittsburg, Buffalo, +Cleveland, Detroit, Columbus, Cincinnati, Indianapolis, Chicago, +Milwaukee, Omaha, Des Moines, Kansas City, St. Louis, etc., a market can +be had in each for large quantities at each of these holidays, as well +as considerable quantities each week during the winter months. In the +smaller places, from 5000 up, there will be found a demand for the meat, +so that the market for the carcasses as well as fur, is one that will +always be open. Prices at which the carcasses sell will of course vary, +depending to some extent upon the supply of other meats, as well as the +times, etc. + +When it is taken into consideration that the litters are large; that +they eat cheap food; their growth is rapid and that the pelt is extra, +does not this animal promise to lead as a money maker over some of the +other and higher priced fur-producers? + +In the latitude of West Virginia, the young are born about the middle of +April. In two months, or by June fifteenth, they are about the size of +rats and always "gaining." Six months later, or December fifteenth, if +well fed and cared for, they will weigh from nine to fifteen pounds. By +this it will be seen that at only eight months old--born April fifteenth +and killed December fifteenth--they have attained sizes ranging from +medium to large. + +The males should be kept by themselves, at least from the time the young +are born, until they are two months of age or older. The female, with +her large family, should be given plenty of food from the time the young +are a few days old until weaned, as she requires a great deal of food to +satisfy her cravings and to supply the numerous young. + +As the severe weather is over by the time the young are born, very good +places for the old can be made in boxes, old logs and the like. These +should be so placed and constructed that food can be given to the female +handily, so as not to disturb her and the young more than necessary. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +MUSKRAT RAISING. + + +The muskrat is one of our most common fur-bearing animals and is found +in greater numbers than any other animal, notwithstanding its fur is +very popular and is gradually increasing in value. + +Muskrats are found throughout the greater part of the United States and +Canada, but for various reasons are more plentiful in certain sections. +Being water animals they are found in greater numbers in marshy places, +on ponds and lakes and sluggish rivers, but also thrive and are found in +fair numbers on the smaller and more rapid streams. They are very +plentiful in Western Canada and especially in the marshy country lying +west of Hudson's Bay. In the salt water marshes of Delaware and Maryland +they are probably found in greater numbers than in any other part of the +world. There, hundreds of the houses of these little creatures may be +seen in every direction. + +It is said that the value of the catch from Dorchester County, Md., will +usually run to $20,000 a year and in some seasons reaches almost to +$50,000. The number of animals required to reach such a figure must +necessarily be very large and the number of muskrats found in that +locality may be judged from the fact that the open season for these +animals and the only time of year when they are trapped, is during the +months of January, February and March. They are also very plentiful in +the marshes along the western shore of Lake Erie and about Lake +Champlain. They are not found on parts of the Pacific Coast and portions +of the South and never range south of the State of Arizona. + +While there is only one species of the muskrat, naturalists find several +varieties differing mainly in size and color. For instance, there is the +southern muskrat, which is comparatively small and is dull sooty in +color, found in the lower Mississippi Valley and along the coasts of +Mississippi and Alabama; then there is the Dismal Swamp Muskrat of the +Dismal Swamp, Va., which is larger, darker and richer colored than the +common variety and has larger teeth. In Labrador a small and very dark +variety is found. + +The muskrat of the Northwest, while of the same variety as those of the +Central and Eastern districts, are small and thin skinned and as a +consequence are less valuable. What causes this difference in size is +not known, but it is supposed to be due either to the presence of alkali +in most of the Northwestern waters or to the scanty and poor quality of +its natural food. + +[Illustration: Fur Farm on Open Ground near a Farmhouse.] + +The popularity of muskrat fur is on the increase, while large numbers +are exported to foreign countries, it is being more and more used in the +United States and Canada. At present it is much used for lining ladies +coats and its rich appearance when used in this way seems certain to +increase its popularity. It is also dyed and is then known as electric +seal and French seal. + +The great demand for the fur during the past two seasons has resulted in +such persistent hunting and trapping that the number of animals in many +sections has decreased visibly and as a consequence the spring catch has +been comparatively light. + +Just before this book went to press, considerable inquiry was made about +the supply of raw fur the past season. The general report was that the +catch of Spring Rats in 1909 was perhaps not more than 25% what it was +the year prior. The fall catch of 1908 and the winter catch of 1908-9 +was quite heavy. + +From this it appears that the high prices of muskrat during the months +of October, November and December, 1908, caused an unusual number of +hunters and trappers to seek these animals. The consequence being that +they were caught off much closer than ever before. + +To further bear this out, dealers say that in many of the Central States +where last year they collected 20,000 during March and April, this year +they only secured 4000 or 5000. Trappers say that there are very few +muskrats left in certain localities. This shows that continued trapping +will practically exterminate the muskrat. + +Along the Atlantic Coast south from New York for hundreds of miles the +marshes along the coast, bays, rivers and creeks are literally alive +with muskrats. The marsh owners farm out the "rat catching" privileges, +usually on the halves. The State of Delaware protects the rats some +eight or nine months each year. There are laws in several other states +protecting these animals. A few states prohibit the destroying of rat +houses at all times. + +While hundreds of people follow rat catching along the marshes the +owners and state see that enough are left for breeding and replenishing +the marshes. They get their food from the flags and other weeds largely, +which flourish in these swamps. Fifty acres of "swamp" has been known to +furnish 2000 rats or fifty per acre year after year. + +In this section black muskrats are not uncommon, the catch some seasons +running as high as 40% black, but as a rule it is lower. What causes +this strange color phase is unknown. Black muskrats are met with +occasionally in other sections but nowhere is the proportion as large as +along the East Coast. + +What nature in a way does for the muskrat in the Eastern swamps, fur +raisers can help to accomplish in hundreds of localities throughout +America. There are scores of ponds, small lakes, swamps, etc., in +practically all states where the muskrat is found that can be made to +yield large profits from muskrats. They are easily raised, in fact, will +raise themselves if given "half a chance." + +There is no doubt whatever that the fur of this animal will steadily +increase in value. While there will be fluctuations as in the past, we +do not believe that prices will ever go as low as they were some years +ago. Our conclusions in this are based on the fact that the catch is +growing smaller and the popularity of furs for wearing apparel and +especially muskrat fur, is steadily increasing, also the population of +all countries grows larger each year and there is bound to be a steady +demand for furs. + +Another thing worthy of consideration is the fact that the flesh of the +muskrat has become a very popular dish in many of the Eastern cities and +there is a market for the carcass of the animal. The trappers of +Maryland and Delaware find ready sale for the flesh. + +The muskrats found on the East Coast as well as those found in the +marshes and the shallow lakes and ponds of other parts of the country +are of the house building kind. It should be understood, however, that +the muskrat living in houses and those living in burrows in the banks of +streams are the same variety, their different, styles of habitation +being due to the different conditions of their respective locations. +Where streams are swift or where there is danger of the houses being +carried away by freshets, they dig burrows in the bank, making the +entrance below the surface of the water. + +These burrows extend sometimes twenty-five or thirty feet into the bank +and the interior chamber is sometimes quite large. Along the streams of +the farming sections, much damage is done by muskrats because of these +burrows. + +The houses of the marsh-dwellers are composed of grass and flags, grass +roots, mud, etc. They are of cone shaped structure and to those +unacquainted with the animals, they are simply piles of grass and weeds +in the water, for that is what they resemble. The entrances to these +houses are always deep under water. It is said that the muskrats build +their houses with thicker walls when they feel instinctively that an +unusually severe winter is approaching. + +[Illustration: Muskrat House in a Marsh.] + +In addition to the house the animals build small feeding places near by. +These feed beds as they are called, are constructed in the same way as +the houses, but only rise to the level of the water. These beds are the +dining rooms of the muskrats, for to them they bring all of their food +so that they may have a place to rest while they are enjoying their +meal. They also have like the raccoon, a habit of washing their food +before they will eat it. + +The muskrat is a vegetarian and seldom eats any animal food. In the wild +state their natural food is grass and roots, fruit, grain and clams or +mussels. They are also fond of parsnips, carrots, artichokes, white flag +roots, wild rice, pond lily roots, sweet corn and pumpkin, and will eat +almost all kinds of vegetables. + +It will be seen that in captivity the food problem would be easily +solved. They are very fond of wild rice, and those who have ponds +suitable for muskrats and are contemplating the raising of these animals +would do well to sow them with wild rice. The rice may be obtained from +almost any of the seed houses and it will grow in six or eight feet of +water. They are also fond of pumpkins and it is a cheap and satisfactory +food. + +Some of them will lay up stores of food for winter, but they do not all +do this. Where the streams are rapid they can get out to hunt for food +at almost all times, and where they are located on lakes and marshes +that freeze over in winter they can find plenty of food in the water +under the ice. This food is taken to the feed bed to be eaten. + +In early spring the warmth from their bodies will sometimes thaw a hole +through the ice over the bed and the muskrat stops this hole with grass +roots, etc. The trapper is looking for just such places and it is the +bunch of grass roots on the ice that gives them away. The steel trap is +soon in place, awaiting the coming of the animal, and many of them are +trapped in this way. + +The breeding habits of the muskrat are different from those of other +fur-bearing animals, as they will have three litters in a season. The +first are born in April, and there will be from six to nine young. It is +claimed that the female of the first litter will also bear young that +season and this accounts for the small rats, or kits, caught during the +fall season. + +It would appear from this that the animals should increase in numbers +very rapidly, but they have many enemies other than man, and perhaps +one-half of the muskrats born in a season never reach maturity. With the +exception of man, their greatest enemies are the birds of prey, such as +owls, hawks, buzzards, etc., but chiefly the owl, as it is a nocturnal +bird and has a fine opportunity to capture the unwary. The fox +frequently makes a capture, as does also the mink and otter. + +It is a deplorable fact that there is a large proportion of small +animals in the trapper's catch. These are the young muskrats, for while +they grow rapidly the first summer, it requires several years for them +to attain full size, yet they class as No. 1 the first season. The old +animals are larger and their fur is more valuable than that of the +young. For those who raise the animals there would be less trouble from +catching young and immature rats. + +Muskrats do not become fully prime until midwinter and many of them are +not strictly number one until March. When fully prime the skin will be +of a cream or pink color, with no dark spots showing. Winter caught +skins will have a number of dark spots, while those taken in the fall +have a very pronounced stripe or two on the back. + +Along the Atlantic Coast for many years land owners have rented the rat +catching privileges to "ratters" on shares, which is generally one-half +of the catch. The "ratters" only trap when the fur is at its best, so +that the supply is holding out. On lands "free for all" the rats are +thinned out. + +During recent years, property owners in various rat producing sections +have awakened to the fact that their "swampy land" is of more value for +the animal fur harvest than for any other purpose. + +Muskrats are easily raised and increase rapidly. They often make their +homes in the banks of canals, fish ponds, etc., coming from nearby +waters of their own accord. These places seem to be ideal places for +muskrats and instead of their leaving they remain year after year, even +though they are trapped and the property owners resort to other means +endeavoring to get rid of them. Muskrats are not afraid of civilization, +and do well in thickly settled sections where there are rivers, creeks, +lakes, ponds, marshes, etc. They seem to do well in their natural state +where they have water and feed and on some ponds hundreds are caught +annually. + +As already mentioned, these animals need little care. If the waters +where the animals are is naturally productive of muskrat food, the +animals will take care of themselves unless the numbers are too large +and they consume the entire food supply. The raisers should guard +against this by feeding, as the natural supply should be protected so as +to help furnish the food supply year after year. + +Lakes, ponds, etc., that abound in wild rice, flags, lilies, etc., make +an ideal home for muskrats, as they are fond of both the wild rice seed +and roots, as well as the roots of flags and lilies, on which they feed +when the surface is frozen over. Artichokes should also be started, as +muskrats are fond of them. + +Those who expect to raise this fur-bearer should take into consideration +that little or no fencing is required on lakes, ponds and creeks if +proper feed grows there. If the feed is not there the prospective raiser +should see that it is started at once by sowing wild rice seed, +transplanting some flags and lily roots to his muskrat waters. In fact, +the prospective muskrat raiser should have the food supply well under +way before the rats are brought or secured or they will destroy it. + +There are no doubt hundreds of places that can be converted into ideal +"muskrat preserves" by a little work. Low, marshy land on which the +water is not deep enough to be dammed. Such a place would require a wire +fence around it. Perhaps the best way would be to place the fence +several rods back from the water, as there would then be no danger of +the animals burrowing under. The fence should be of five-foot wire, one +foot in the ground. Where the fence crosses any inlets or outlets, the +wire should be put much deeper for two rods or more on each side and it +would be well to place flat stones in the bottom of the trench, as shown +and described in the chapter on Enclosures. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +RACCOON RAISING. + + +The raccoon is closely allied to the bears, although much smaller. Like +them it possesses an omnivorous appetite, is plantigrade, and hibernates +during cold weather. It is found throughout the Southern, Central and +Eastern States, and in Southern Ontario and Nova Scotia. It is also +found in good numbers on the Pacific coast, northward into British +Columbia; but they are found in greatest numbers in the extreme South of +the United States, and especially in Florida, Louisiana and the lowlands +of Arkansas and Texas. + +Their natural home is in the heavily timbered parts, but they are also +found in the sparsely wooded bottom lands of the Central States. + +They den, as a rule, in hollow trees, well up from the ground, and +seldom if ever in a tree which has a continuous hollow and an opening at +the bottom, preferring a hollow, broken off limb, or a hole in the +trunk, high up on the tree. In some places they den in natural caves in +the rocks, and in the western part of their range, it is said that they +sometimes occupy dens in some high and dry bank of earth. During the +mating season the males travel considerably, and will, when daylight +approaches, seek a place of rest in any hollow tree that is to be found, +or failing to find this, may spend the day in a hollow log or under a +stump. + +The mating season comes mainly, late in February or early in March, and +the young, from four to six in number, are born in April and the +beginning of May. They remain with the parents for some time during the +summer, but will find a den for themselves as soon as possible. However, +they will be found, the first season, in the near vicinity of the +parents' den. + +The food of the coon is variable, to conform with conditions of +different sections, but wherever found, they feed on both vegetable and +animal food. Fish, frogs, crawfish, clams, eggs of birds, and turtles; +water snails, wild fruits, such as grapes and berries, nuts, acorns, +etc., are all eaten with a relish. They are especially fond of corn when +in the milky state, and in late summer they feed on it extensively. They +are fond of poultry, also of honey, and will dig out the nests of bumble +bees when they find them, for the sake of the little bit of "sweet" +which is found therein. + +They are nocturnal animals and are seldom seen by daylight. In their +travels they follow the streams mostly, and catch fish by feeling under +the stones in shallow water. Whenever possible, they wash their food +before eating. + +The raccoon has a peculiar cry, which is heard sometimes, on still +nights, during the summer. It is a quavering note somewhat resembling +that of the screech owl, but lower and softer, and seems to come from a +distance, though really close by. To one inexperienced in the ways of +this animal, the cry would not be recognized. + +The fur of the raccoon meets with ready sale at fair prices, and there +is also sale for the flesh in many markets. There is considerable +difference in color in individual animals, some of them being very dark, +and others quite pale. Of course the northern animals are more heavily +furred than those of the south. + +The darker and larger specimens, as a rule, are secured in the northern +states--New York, Pennsylvania, Northern Ohio, Northern Indiana, +Northern Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and the Northwest. The +greatest numbers, but smaller and lighter colored, are secured from the +southern states, those bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, Tennessee, +Arkansas, Missouri, and Kentucky. + +While raccoon can be raised in nearly all parts of America, the best +furred specimens can only be raised where the climate is productive of +good fur,--say north of 40 degrees. This would be on a line passing +through Philadelphia, south of Pittsburg, just north of Columbus, +through Central Indiana and Illinois, northern Missouri, boundary +between Kansas and Nebraska, north of Denver, and on to the Pacific +Ocean. + +It is not meant that coon cannot be profitably raised south of this line +indicated, for they can. The chances, however, are that far south of the +line mentioned, the skins would not be as valuable and being nearer the +coon-producing section, there would not be as ready a market for the +carcasses. + +The coon raiser should secure good dark males and females for breeding +purposes, from northern sections. If unable to do this, a good male or +two crossed with the females, would help to produce larger and darker +animals. This is important, as the larger and darker the pelt, the more +valuable, and the larger the carcass the more it brings. + +That raccoons do well in captivity is well known from the many kept in +zoos, parks, etc. Countless numbers have been caught while young, when +they soon become tame and interesting pets. Even those caught when +grown, soon become accustomed to their owners and keepers. They can be +handled and become amusing pets. They know strangers and will often put +their paws over their eyes and look between their toes, thinking +perhaps, that the stranger cannot see them, while their paws are over +their eyes. + +Large numbers of raccoons could be raised by fencing in a piece of +woods, embracing a few acres, with a creek running through. If the fence +was considerable distance from the edge of the woods, it is doubtful if +the animals would make much effort to escape. The places they would be +apt to frequent the most, would be where the stream entered and left the +enclosure. At these places the fence should be extra high, strong and +secure. + +The raccoon and opossum farmer have a double advantage where their +"farm" is situated near a city. First, if the fur farm is one containing +a large number of animals, the supplying of food will be quite a problem +and the city offers a means of plenty and cheap food for your animals, +such as offals from slaughter houses and other feed. Second, the city +offers a market for the meat at "killing time". + +While raccoon will eat decayed meat to some extent, it should be +furnished them fresh, in which condition it is much better for them. +Most animals will eat carrion, yet it is doubtful if it is advisable to +feed when in such condition. Putrid flesh is unhealthy and some claim, +causes fur-bearing animals to become affected with mange. + +Raccoon are naturally a clean animal, and in their wild state are +particular that their food is clean. They seldom, if ever, eat left-over +food or flesh that has become tainted. + +[Illustration: Barrel Shelter for Female and Young.] + +That raccoon raising promises well is borne out from the fact that they +are easily handled, eat a variety of food easily secured, and their fur +and meat both have a ready cash market. The pelt of a full grown and +dark raccoon is worth from $1.00 to $2.00, depending upon the section; +to this add from 40c to 75c for the carcass and it will be seen that the +raccoon brings to its owner $1.40 to $2.50 or upwards. This price is for +the better grade. The smaller and lighter colored skins from the more +southerly sections, will perhaps only bring two-thirds as much--75 cents +to $1.50 for the pelts and 25 to 50 cents for the carcass. + +At what other "branch of farming" is there greater profit? No one is +going to become immensely rich "at coon raising" in a few years, but if +they enter the business and give the same attention and care to it that +they would to poultry, sheep, horses and cattle, there is reason to +believe that the profits will be as large if not larger. Again, the +person who loves the handling of fur-bearing animals will be making his +living at the business he enjoys most. + +[Illustration: Fur Farm on Open Ground.] + +Those who expect to raise coon in a small enclosure, should have the +wire turned in several feet at the top, or the chances are they will +follow along the under side to the edge and thus escape. In the +enclosure for raccoon, the strip of tin around the fence some three or +four feet high is strongly recommended. There should be some logs, dens, +and low, branchy trees for the animals to play in is to their liking. +The more homelike their enclosure, the sooner they become contented. +This means that they grow faster, which is all to the financial interest +of the coon raiser. + +An enclosure of several acres for coon, taking in trees suitable for +dens, could be used for fox raising as well. The coon would raise their +young in the "den trees" and therefore would not bother the foxes, as +those having young would be in pens. The male foxes having access to the +entire enclosure might steal the feed for the female coon left at the +roots of the den trees. Should there be trouble on this point, the food +could be placed on a platform against the body of the tree out of reach +of the foxes. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +THE BEAVER AND OTTER. + + +These two very important fur-bearing animals were once quite numerous +throughout practically the whole of the United States and Canada, but +because of the persistency with which they were hunted, have become rare +in many of the sections where they were once found in abundance. +Especially is this true of the beaver. Almost all of the states in which +beavers are still found, as well as the various provinces of Canada, +have made laws to protect these animals, but they are still hunted and +trapped, and the day is not far distant when the beaver will be extinct. + +The otter is a more wary animal than the beaver, and as a consequence +will linger within the bounds of civilization long after the beaver has +disappeared, but for all this they are becoming very rare in most of the +settled sections. As these animals both belong to different orders and +their habits are entirely different, it will be necessary to take up +each separately. + +THE BEAVER.--As before mentioned, the beaver has become extinct in many +sections where it was once found, and at present they are practically +confined to Canada, Alaska, the Northern States and the Western mountain +regions. A few are still found in the more isolated portions of the +South, but there they are quite rare except in a few small sections. +Thruout the Central and many of the Eastern and Southern States, they +have entirely disappeared. There is only one species of the beaver, but +there are several varieties, all of which are very much alike in +appearance and the habits of all are the same, except where it is +changed because of difference in food, climate, etc. + +The beaver has always been an interesting animal, not only to those +directly interested in furs, but to all others, and practically +everybody knows something regarding the habits of the animal. One of +their most remarkable habits is that of building dams on the stream, or +at the outlet of the pond or lake on which they are located. These dams +are intended to regulate the height of the water. They will vary from +two to five feet in height, and from twenty to one hundred yards in +length, according to the size of the stream and the nature of the +shores. + +The dams are composed of sticks and chunks of wood, stones, sods, etc. +They always watch the dam closely and keep it in repair, and each fall +it is strengthened by adding new material. In addition to the main dam +there are, as a rule, one or more smaller dams built lower down stream. +What these small dams are for is not known for a certainty, but +sometimes, when the lower dam backs the water up to the large one, the +beavers will, in the fall after the ice has formed, dig a passage +through the upper dam, which allows the water to fall and leaves an air +space between the water and the ice, and it is perhaps for this reason +that the smaller dams are constructed. + +Somewhere on the edge of the pool where the water is not too deep, the +beavers make their lodge, or house. These houses sometimes rise eight +feet above the water and will measure fifteen feet in diameter. They are +constructed of the same materials as used for the dam, and are always +repaired and strengthened before freezing weather comes. There are two +entrances to the house and they are always located deep under water. + +The food of the beaver consists principally of bark of poplar, birch, +willow, cottonwood, alder and wild cherry. They are also fond of the +roots of the water lily. In the South it is said that they quite often +feed on corn, when located near the farms. They would doubtless eat many +kinds of roots and vegetables if same could be procured. In some few +sections, where the nature of the stream is such that houses and dams +are not a success, the beavers live in holes in the bank of the stream +and are called "bank beavers"; however, they are the same variety as the +house building kind. + +In the Northern districts, where the ponds are covered with ice six +months of the year, the beavers spend the entire winter under the ice. +For this long period of imprisonment they must lay up a large store of +food. This food consists of small, green saplings and brush, cut into +suitable lengths and stored under water, in front of the house. They eat +only the bark and the peeled sticks are used to repair the house and +dam. The young beavers are born in April and May and there are usually +only two at a birth, but sometimes there will be three. These young +animals remain two years with the parents, so that a full family will +consist of the two old ones, two or three medium size and two or three +small beavers. However, there are "bachelor beavers", old males who +always live alone, and have a small house somewhere along the shore of a +stream or pond. + +It was the beaver that was most sought by the early trappers, for the +fur was more in demand than the fur of any other animal. At present it +is not as popular as in days of old, but we do not believe that its +value will decrease, as the catch becomes lighter each succeeding year. +The skins do not become prime as early as those of some other animals, +but are in good condition in advance of the muskrat. The fur of the +beaver, otter, muskrat and bear remains in good condition until late in +the spring. + +During the summer months many of the beavers travel about on the streams +and if a house is found at this time it may be deserted, or at the best, +only one or two animals will be found there. As fall approaches, they +all return to the lodge and from that time until the water is frozen +they will be hard at work laying up the winter's store of food. + +THE OTTER.--The otter is occasionally met with in almost all parts of +North America, in some places fairly plentiful, in others very rare, but +they are found in greatest numbers in the swamps of some of the Southern +States, and in the wilder portions of Canada, Alaska and Newfoundland. +There are two species, the common otter and the sea otter, which latter +is only found in the North Pacific and is now quite rare. Of the common +otter there are some three or four varieties, differing only in size and +color. The habits of the otter are very little known by the average man, +and many of the trappers know little about this animal. They are +rambling animals, traveling the streams and lakes for great distances. +They will travel sometimes ten or fifteen miles to visit some certain +lake and perhaps will only stay there over night. Again, if undisturbed, +they may remain for a month or more on some small pond. + +They are on very friendly terms with the beaver and will frequently +spend several weeks or months with a beaver family, apparently living in +the same house. If an otter knows the location of two or more families +of beavers, it will spend practically all of its time with one or other +of the beaver families, or may make frequent visits from one to the +other. + +The otter is an exceedingly active animal and is so much at home in the +water that it is able to catch fish with ease, and they are its +principal food. Where fish are plentiful, they will kill them merely for +pleasure, and what they can not eat, they will store up in some little +bay or inlet along the shore. These, however, are not placed there for +future use, as the otter will only eat food that is strictly fresh. +Besides fish, they also eat large numbers of frogs, which are easily +secured. They also eat muskrats and sometimes surprise these animals by +coming up into the houses from below, thus preventing the inmates from +escaping. + +The otter does not travel much on land, except when crossing country +from one lake or stream to another. Their bodies being long and their +legs short, walking is, for them, rather difficult and their mode of +locomotion is a series of plunging leaps. On the snow or ice they move +along rapidly by throwing themselves forward, sliding on their bellies. +They are very playful animals and sometimes amuse themselves by sliding +down a slippery bank. They also have landing places where they go to +roll in the leaves and grass. In the spring they often lay for hours on +some old log by the side of the stream, basking in the warm sun. They +can remain a long time under water, and in winter travel long distances +under the ice,--in fact, they prefer to travel this way whenever +possible. + +The home of the otter is a burrow in the bank of a stream, the entrance +under water. At the end of the burrow is a nest lined with leaves and +grass. They also, sometimes, den in hollow logs and the trunks of hollow +trees. The dens are always located in the most secluded places, as far +as possible removed from danger of discovery. The young are born in +April or May and the number is from two to four. + +With regard to raising the beaver and otter for profit, we will say that +there has been comparatively few attempts at the business and we are +unable to get any authentic data with regard to these experiments. +However, the animals do well in captivity, in zoos, and when kept by +private individuals, as pets, and it is our opinion that if one will but +go slowly and learn the habits and nature of the animals, a fair degree +of success may be attained. It should be understood that conditions must +be favorable and the animals should be given a range as nearly like +their natural home as possible. Of course, one could not make a success +of raising beavers in an open field. They must have wooded land where +their natural food, quaking aspen (sometimes poplar), birch, willow, +cottonwood, alder, is plentiful. A pool on some quiet little stream, +bordered by a large tract of forest, would be the proper place. Beavers +are not given to roaming, except during the summer months, and in such +cases they always return to their home before cold weather comes. + +We believe that the animals could not be raised successfully by any of +the plans recommended for the rearing of other fur-bearing animals, but +should simply be placed in a large enclosure, in the proper location, +and allowed to take care of themselves. The animals will breed perfectly +without any attention and there will be no danger of them killing their +offspring, as is the case with other fur bearers. There is no doubt that +the beaver and the otter will do well in the same enclosure, for in the +wild state they are very sociable and are fond of one another's company. + +If otters are kept in an enclosed pond, it will be necessary to keep +them supplied with food, and perhaps the best way would be to keep the +ponds stocked with live fish and frogs. With the beaver the matter of +providing food is more simple, as it will only be necessary to make the +enclosure where their natural food is found in abundance. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +KILLING, SKINNING AND STRETCHING. + + +When "killing time" comes, care should be taken to not frighten the +animals left for breeding purposes more than is absolutely necessary. +All animals that are tame enough should be driven into a separate +enclosure and out of sight of the others before being killed. Perhaps as +good a method of killing as any is to use a good club, striking on the +head just over the eyes or ears. + +The above method is not for skunk, as they should be killed without the +enclosure becoming so strongly scented. A pole several feet long with a +strong loop on the end can be slipped over their head and well back on +the neck. The animal can now be lifted clear off the ground and carried +wherever the killing is desired. If the killer does not mind a little +perfume he knocks them on the head, or if a barrel of water is handy +they can be drowned and few scent. The drowning, however, is not +recommended, as it takes the fur hours to dry and is therefore extra +work. Some even claim that the water spoils the luster of the fur to a +certain extent. + +Some animals, such as coon and skunk, do not leave their dens during +severe weather, so that it is advisable to begin selecting those that +are to be killed days and even weeks in advance of the time decided +upon. These should be placed in an enclosure or pen by themselves so +that the remaining ones will not be disturbed. + +Even those animals that come out to their feed regularly during the cold +days should be handled in a similar manner so as not to disturb those to +be kept. + +The animals that are to be kept for breeding purposes need not be fed so +heavily during the winter months or after those that were intended for +market have been killed. Of course in the spring after the females have +young, they must be fed heavily. + +Some raisers, as soon as the young are weaned, select those that are to +be killed the coming winter, keeping them separate from the breeding +stock so that they can be fed properly. That is a great saving of food, +as those for market should be fed much more than the breeders at this +season--say during the months of September, October and November. + +Much importance should be attached to the skinning and stretching of all +kinds of skins so as to command the highest commercial value. The otter, +foxes, marten, mink, opossum, civet and skunk should be cased, that is, +taken off whole. + +Commence with the knife in the center of one hind foot and slit up the +inside of the leg, up to and around the vent and down the other leg in a +like manner. Cut around the vent, taking care not to cut the lumps or +glands in which the musk of certain animals is secreted; then strip the +skin from the bone of the tail with the aid of a split stick gripped +firmly in the hand while the thumb of the other hand presses against the +animal's back just above. Make no other slits in the skin, except in the +case of the skunk or otter, whose tails require to be split, spread, and +tacked on a board. + +Turn the skin back over the body, leaving the pelt side out and the fur +side inward, and by cutting a few ligaments, it will peel off very +readily. Care should be taken to cut closely around the nose, ears and +lips, so as not to tear the skin. + +The beaver and raccoon should be skinned open; that is, ripped up the +belly from vent to chin after the following manner: Cut across the hind +leg as if to be "cased" and then rip up the belly. The skin can then be +removed by flaying as in skinning a beef. + +Many inexperienced trappers stretch coon skins too long and draw out the +head and neck. This can be avoided. Coon can be cased but most dealers +prefer to have them stretched open. + +You should have about three sizes of stretching boards for mink and fox. +For mink they should be 4-1/2 inches down to 3 inches and for fox from +6-1/4 inches down to 5 inches wide; in length the fox boards may be 4 +feet and the mink boards 3 feet. + +The boards should taper slightly down to within 8 inches of the end for +fox, and then rounded up to a round point. The mink boards should be +rounded at 4 or 5 inches from this point. You will vary the shape of the +board in proportion to the width. Stretching boards should not be more +than 3/8 inch thick. Have the boards smooth and even on the edges. Other +stretching boards should be made in proportion to the size and shape of +the animal whose skin is to be stretched. + +You should not fail to remove all the fat and flesh from the skin +immediately after the skin is on the board. If a skin is wet when taken +from the animal, it should be drawn lightly on a board until the fur is +quite dry. Then turn the skin flesh side out and stretch. + +Do not dry skins at a fire nor in the sun, nor in smoke. It often burns +them, when they will not dress and are of no value. Dry in a +well-covered shed or tent where there is a free circulation of air, and +never use any preparation, such as alum and salt, as it only injures +them for market. Never stretch the noses out long, as some trappers are +inclined to do, but treat them as above described, and they will command +better values. Fur buyers and dealers are inclined to class long nosed +skins as "southern" and pay a small price for them, as southern skins +are so much lighter than those of the north, in fur. + +Foxes of the various kinds should be cased and put on boards fur side in +for a few days, or until dry. As the pelt is thin, they soon dry, when +they must be taken off and should be turned fur side out. In shipping, +see that they are not packed against furs flesh side out. + +Skunk should be cased fur side in, and stretched on boards for several +days. The white stripe cut out, blackened, etc., reduces the value. + +Mink should be cased fur side in and stretched on boards for several +days or until dry. + +Muskrat should be stretched fur side in, and a few days on the board +will be sufficient. They are left as taken off, that is, fur side in. +Cut the tails off when skinning--they are worthless. + +Opossum are stretched on boards fur side in and are left in that +condition after removing the boards. Cut the tails off when +skinning--they have no value. + +Raccoon should be stretched open (ripped up the belly), and nailed on +boards or the inside of a building. Some dealers allow as much for coons +cased, from any section, while others prefer that only Southern coon, if +any, be cased. + +Otter are cased and stretched fur side in. The pelt being thick and +heavy, takes several days to dry properly. They are shipped flesh side +out. + +Beaver are split but stretched round and should be left in the hoop or +stretcher for several days. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +DEER FARMING. + + +This chapter is from Farmers' Bulletin 330, issued July 28, 1908, by +United States Department of Agriculture and written by D. E. Lantz, +Assistant, Biological Survey. + +The term "deer" is here used in its general sense, in which it includes +the elk, the reindeer or caribou, the moose and other species, besides +those usually referred to as deer. + + U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, + BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY, + _Washington, D. C., June 3, 1908._ + + SIR: I have the honor to transmit the accompanying + manuscript on the subject of Deer Farming in the United + States, and to recommend its publication as Farmers' + Bulletin No. 330. As a result of the growing scarcity of + game animals in this country the supply of venison is wholly + inadequate to the demand, and the time seems opportune for + developing the industry of deer farming, which may be made + profitable alike to the state and the individuals engaged + therein. The raising of venison for market is as legitimate + a business as the growing of beef and mutton, and state + laws, when prohibitory, as many of them are, should be so + modified as to encourage the industry. Furthermore, deer and + elk may be raised to advantage in forests and on rough, + brushy ground unfitted for either agriculture or stock + raising, thus utilizing for profit much land that is now + waste. An added advantage is that the business is well + adapted to landowners of small means. + + Respectfully, + + C. HART MERRIAM, + _Chief Biological Survey._ + + HON. JAMES WILSON, + _Secretary of Agriculture._ + + +INTRODUCTION. + +The present bulletin discusses briefly the economic possibilities of +raising deer and elk in the United States. It is believed that when the +restrictions now imposed by State laws are removed this business may be +made an important and highly profitable industry, especially since it +will be the means of utilizing much otherwise unproductive land. The +raising of venison should be, and is naturally, as legitimate a business +as the growing of beef or mutton, and State laws should be so modified +as to permit the producer, who has stocked a preserve with deer at +private expense, to dispose of his product at any time, under reasonable +regulations, either for breeding purposes or for food. + +The growing scarcity of game mammals and birds in the United States and +the threatened extinction of some of them over large parts of their +present ranges make the preservation of the remnant highly important. +Very important also is the increase of this remnant so as to make game +once more abundant. It is believed that by means of intelligent game +propagation, both by the states and by private enterprise, many of our +depleted ranges can be restocked with big game. + + +IMPORTANCE OF THE DEER FAMILY. + +The members of the deer family (Cervidæ) rank next to the cattle and +sheep family (Bovidæ) in general utility, and are the most important of +the big game animals of America. + +Wherever obtainable in quantity the flesh of deer of different kinds has +always been a staple article of diet, and under present market +conditions it is hardly necessary to say that venison is perhaps the +most important game, being a favorite with epicures and also having a +wide use as a substitute for beef and mutton, which meats it resembles +in texture, color, and general characteristics. Its flavor is +distinctive, though it suggests mutton rather than beef. In chemical +composition it is very similar to beef, though, judging from available +data, it is not so fat as stall-fed cattle. The following figures show +how it compares with beef and mutton: A lean venison roast before +cooking has been found to contain on an average 75 per cent of water, 20 +per cent of protein or nitrogenous material, and 2 per cent of fat; a +lean beef rump, some 65 to 70 per cent of water, 20 to 23 per cent of +protein, and 5 to 14 per cent of fat; a lean leg of mutton, 67 per cent +of water, 19 per cent of protein, and 13 per cent of fat. + +Venison, beef, and other common meats are very thoroughly digested, +whatever the method of cooking. Venison may be roasted, broiled, +pan-broiled, or used for making stews, in much the same way as beef. +Venison, particularly steak, to be at its best, should be eaten as soon +as possible after it is cooked. + +The general popularity of venison is so great and the demand for it so +widespread that over-production is improbable. The other products of the +deer--skins and horns--are of considerable importance, and in countries +where deer are abundant and especially where large herds are kept in +semi-domestication, the commerce in both is very extensive. + + +THE DOMESTICATION OF DEER. + +A number of species of the deer family have been proved to be +susceptible to domestication. The reindeer, however, is the only one +that has been brought fully under the control of man. The fact that the +European red deer and the fallow deer have been bred in parks for +centuries without domestication does not prove that they are less +susceptible to the process than the reindeer. The purposes for which +they have been held captive and the environment given them have been +markedly different. It must be remembered, also, that few attempts have +been made to rear and domesticate deer under intelligent management. The +work has been largely a matter of chance experiment. If they had been as +long under careful management as cattle, they would now, probably, be +equally plastic in the hands of a skillful breeder. + +But raising deer for profit does not necessarily imply their complete +domestication. They may be kept in large preserves with surroundings as +nearly natural as possible and their domestication entirely ignored. +Thus the breeder may reap nearly all the profit that could be expected +from a domestic herd, while the animals escape most of the dangers +incident to close captivity. But the breeder who aims at the ultimate +domestication of the animals, and whose herd approaches nearest to true +domesticity, will in the end be most successful. + + +SPECIES TO BE SELECTED FOR BREEDING. + +The number of species of deer suited for breeding in inclosures in the +United States is great, though the chances for success are by no means +the same for all. As a rule those native to America are to be preferred, +since they are already acclimated. In selecting any species, similarity +between its natural habitat and that to which it is to be transferred +must be considered. Important, also, is its adaptability to varied +conditions, as shown by former attempts to acclimatize it. + +Unless they have shown a peculiar adaptability to such change, deer +should not be taken from arid parts of the United States to humid parts. +To a disregard of this principle are probably due many of the failures +that have attended experiments in breeding the American antelope, the +Columbia blacktail deer, the moose, and other animals in places +differing widely from their natural ranges. + +The history of attempts to acclimatize the several kinds of deer shows +that some readily adapt themselves to a great variety of conditions, and +efforts to introduce them into new countries have been almost uniformly +successful. Such has been the experience with the axis deer, the +Japanese and Pekin sikas, the red and the fallow deer of Europe, and +especially with the wapiti, or Rocky Mountain elk, and the Virginia +deer. While experiments with the foreign species named offer every +promise of success to the owners of American preserves, there are +obvious reasons for recommending the two native animals just mentioned +as best suited for the production of venison in the United States. + + +THE WAPITI, OR ROCKY MOUNTAIN ELK. + +The Wapiti (_Cervus canadensis_), including two related species and a +geographic race, and known in America as the elk, is, next to the moose, +the largest of our deer. It was once abundant over the greater part of +the United States, whence its range extended northward to about latitude +60° in the Peace River region of the interior of Canada. In the United +States the limits of its range eastward were the Adirondacks, western +New Jersey, and eastern Pennsylvania; southward it reaches the southern +Alleghenies, northern Texas, southern Mexico, and Arizona; and westward +the Pacific Ocean. + +For the practical purposes of this bulletin all the forms of the wapiti +are treated as a single species. At the present time the range of these +animals has so far diminished that they occur only in a few scattered +localities outside of the Yellowstone National Park and the mountainous +country surrounding it, where large herds remain. Smaller herds still +occur in Colorado, western Montana, Idaho, eastern Oregon, Manitoba, +Alberta, British Columbia, and the coast mountains of Washington, +Oregon, and northwestern California. A band of the small California +valley elk still inhabits the southern part of the San Joaquin Valley. + +The herds that summer in the Yellowstone National Park and in winter +spread southward and eastward in Wyoming are said to number about 30,000 +head, and constitute the only large bands of this noble game animal that +are left. Although protected in their summer ranges and partially +safeguarded from destruction in winter by the State of Wyoming, there is +yet great danger that these herds may perish from lack of food in a +succession of severe winters. Partial provision for winter forage has +been made within the National Park, but the supply is inadequate for the +large number of animals. Further safeguards are needed to place the +Wyoming elk herds beyond the reach of winter starvation. + +In addition to the wild herds, there are a considerable number of elk in +private game preserves and parks, as well as in nearly all the public +zoological parks and gardens of this country. The herds in captivity +form the nucleus from which, under wise management, some of the former +ranges of this animal may be restocked and from which a profitable +business of growing elk venison for market may be developed. At the +present time this species affords a most promising field for ventures in +breeding for profit. + + +_Habits of Elk._ + +The elk is both a browsing and a grazing animal. While it eats grasses +freely and has been known to subsist entirely upon pasture, it seems to +prefer a mixture of grass and browse. + +The elk is extremely polygamous. The adult bulls shed their antlers +annually in March or April, and new ones attain their full size in about +ninety days. The "velvet" adheres until about August. While the horns +are growing the bulls usually lead solitary lives; but early in +September, when the horns are fully matured, the rutting season begins. +Fights for supremacy then take place, and the victor takes charge of as +many cows as he can round up and control. The period of gestation is +about 8-1/2 months. The female does not usually breed until the third +year, and produces but one calf at a time. + +Although the elk is less prolific than the common deer and some other +species that have been bred in parks, it increases fully as rapidly as +the common red deer of Europe. Moreover, it makes up for any lack of +fecundity by its superior hardiness and ease of management. It has been +acclimatized in many parts of the world, and shows the same vigor and +hardiness wherever it has been transplanted. In Europe it has been +successfully crossed with Altai wapiti and the red deer, and in both +instances the offspring were superior in size and general stamina to the +native stock. + + +_Elk Venison._ + +The flesh of the elk, although somewhat coarse, is superior in flavor to +most venison. That of the bulls is in its best condition about the time +the velvet is shed. By the time the rut is over, in October, their flesh +is in the poorest condition. As the open season for elk is usually in +October and November, and only bulls are killed, it follows that +hunters often obtain the venison when it is poorest. The meat is not +best when freshly killed, but should be left hanging for four or five +days before it is used. Of course fat elk are better eating than lean, +and it is said that venison from castrated bulls is superior to any +other. + + +_Domestication of Elk._ + +With few exceptions the early attempts to domesticate elk were made by +men who were wealthy enough to disregard all thought of profit in +raising them. They were usually placed under the care of servants and +the bucks were left uncastrated until they became old and unmanageable. +Soon the serious problem of controlling them outweighed the novelty of +their possession, and one by one attempts at domestication were +abandoned. + +A desire to preserve this important game animal has caused a renewal of +attempts to breed it in confinement, and at present there are small +herds under private ownership in many places in the United States. The +Biological Survey has recently obtained much information from owners of +herds in regard to their experience in breeding and rearing the animals, +and also their opinions as to the possibility of making the business of +raising them profitable. Of about a dozen successful breeders, nearly +all are of the opinion that raising elk for market can be made +remunerative if present laws as to the sale of the meat are modified. + +[Illustration: Elk in Enclosure. Shelter in Background.] + +One especially important fact has been developed by the reports from +breeders. It is that the elk readily adapts itself to almost any +environment. Even within the narrow confines of the paddocks of the +ordinary zoological park the animal does well and increases so that +periodically the herds have to be reduced by sales. + +The fullest reports that have been received by the Department of +Agriculture from breeders of elk are from George W. Russ, of Eureka +Springs, Ark., through H. N. Vinall, of the Bureau of Plant Industry. + +Mr. Russ has a herd of 34 elk. They have ample range in the Ozarks on +rough land covered with hardwood forest and abundant underbrush. The +animals improve the forest by clearing out part of the thicket. They +feed on buds and leaves to a height of 8 feet, and any growth under this +is liable to be eliminated if the range is restricted. If not closely +confined, elk do not eat the bark from trees, nor do they eat +evergreens. In clearing out underbrush from thickets they are more +useful than goats, since they browse higher. Goats, however, eat closer +to the ground; and as the two animals get along well together, Mr. Russ +recommends the use of both for clearing up brushy land and fitting it +for tame grasses. + +The increase of elk under domestication is equal to that of cattle. +Fully 90 per cent. of the females produce healthy young. An adult male +elk weighs from 700 to 1,000 pounds; a female from 600 to 800 pounds. +The percentage of dressed meat is greater than with cattle, but, owing +to hostile game laws, experience in marketing it is very limited. An +offer of 40 cents a pound for dressed meat was received from St. Louis, +but the law would not permit its export. Mr. Russ says: + +"From the fact that as high as $1.50 per pound has been paid for this +meat in New York City and Canada, and that the best hotels and +restaurants pronounce it the finest of all the meats of mammals, we are +of the opinion that if laws were such that domesticated elk meat could +be furnished it would be many years before the supply would make the +price reasonable compared with other meats. Elk meat can be produced in +many sections of this country at less cost per pound than beef, mutton, +or pork." + +Mr. Russ thinks that large areas of rough lands in the United States not +now utilized, especially in localities like the Ozarks and the +Alleghanies, could be economically used to produce venison for sale, +and he regards the elk as especially suited for this purpose. + +Another feature of Mr. Russ's report is of more than passing interest. +He says: + +"We find from long experience that cattle, sheep, and goats can be +grazed in the same lots with elk, providing, however, that the lots or +inclosures are not small; the larger the area the better. We know of no +more appropriate place to call attention to the great benefit of a few +elk in the same pasture with sheep and goats. An elk is the natural +enemy of dogs and wolves. We suffered great losses to our flocks until +we learned this fact; since then we have had no loss from that cause. A +few elk in a thousand-acre pasture will absolutely protect the flocks +therein. Our own dogs are so well aware of the danger in our elk park +that they can not be induced to enter it." + +Judge Caton, in his Antelope and Deer of America, also remarks on the +animosity of elk toward dogs, and says that the does always lead in the +chase of dogs that get into the elk park. If elk will attack and +vanquish dogs and coyotes and thus help to protect domestic animals +grazing in the same pastures, a knowledge of the fact may be of great +advantage to stockmen who desire to give up herding sheep and resort to +fenced pastures instead. The addition of a few elk in the pasture may +be an efficient protection from dogs, coyotes, and wolves. However, +outside of fenced pastures elk do not always show themselves hostile to +dogs and coyotes. + + +_Management of Elk in Inclosures._ + +Lorenzo Stratton, of Little Valley, Cattaraugus County, N. Y., began +experiments in breeding elk about sixty years ago. His plan of +management consisted essentially in taming the calves when very young +and continuing the petting process with the entire herd. He visited the +animals daily in the pasture and always carried dainties to feed them. +As the bulls became old and developed signs of viciousness, they were +castrated, younger animals being used for breeding. He thus developed a +thoroughly domesticated herd. + +For economic reasons, it is not always possible to follow Mr. Stratton's +plan. Those who grow the animals for venison and in large preserves +would find it impracticable to tame all the calves. However, if elk or +deer are grown for stocking parks or private preserves, the tamer they +are the easier it will be to handle and ship them. + +RANGE.--In choosing a range for elk, the natural food supply is +important. They thrive best in preserves having a variety of food +plants--grasses, bushes, and trees. Rough lands, well watered with clear +streams and having some forested area, are well adapted to their needs. +About as many elk can be kept on such a range as cattle on an equal area +of fair pasture. There should be thickets enough to furnish winter +browse, but this should be supplemented by a supply of winter forage. + +FOOD.--Except when deep snows cover the ground, elk will keep in good +condition on ordinary pasture and browse; but a system of management +that provides other food regularly will be found more satisfactory. Hay +and corn fodder are excellent winter forage; but alfalfa hay has proved +to be the best dry food for both elk and deer. A little oats or +corn--whole or chopped--may be fed each day. Elk are fond of corn, and +feeding it affords excellent opportunities for winning their confidence +and taming them. The same may be said of salt, which should be furnished +liberally to all deer kept in inclosures. Running water, although not +essential, is of great importance in maintaining elk in good condition. + +FENCE.--Elk are much less nervous than ordinary deer, and less disposed +to jump fences. When they escape from an enclosure they usually return +of their own accord. If tame, they may be driven like cattle. +Ordinarily, a 5-foot fence of any kind will confine elk. Henry Binning, +of Cora, Wyo., writes us that a 4-foot woven-wire fence is ample for +these animals. A small enclosure in which a vicious bull elk is to be +kept should be higher and of stronger material. Mr. Russ's report, +already partly quoted, states that where lumber for posts is cheap a +good elk fence may be built for $200 a mile. But the actual cost will, +of course, vary greatly according to style, price of labor, nearness to +market, and other circumstances. + +COST OF STOCK.--The cost of stocking an elk preserve is not great. +Usually surplus stock from zoological parks or small private preserves +may be obtained at low cost, varying with the immediate demand for the +animals. At times they have sold for less than $20 a head, and with the +present restrictions on sale, low prices are likely to continue. A few +years ago T. J. Wilson, of Lewisburg, Ohio, paid $165 for three animals. +A Michigan breeder recently offered to deliver a dozen head, sex and age +not given, all fine specimens, for $500. This is, of course, a low +price, not more than cattle would bring and less than the venison would +be worth if it could be sold. If restrictions on the sale and shipment +of venison from private preserves were removed, prices of the stock +would, of course, soon advance, and necessitate a greater outlay in +starting the business. + +VICIOUS MALE ELK.--The male elk is ordinarily docile, but in the rutting +season the older ones often become ill-tempered and dangerous. Several +tragedies connected with attempts to domesticate elk are matters of +history. One was recorded by Judge Caton in his Antelope and Deer of +America as having occurred in his own park. Another took place at Bull +City, Osborne County, Kans., in October 1879, and resulted in the +instant death of Gen. H. C. Bull, the mortal wounding of two other men, +and the serious injury of another, from the attacks of an infuriated +bull elk that had previously been regarded as extremely gentle. + +Wild and unconfined deer and elk flee from man under nearly all +circumstances, but when wounded and closely pressed they have been known +to attack hunters. It is unlikely that, even in the rutting season, a +wild bull elk would attack a human being. But the tame or partially tame +animals that have become familiar with man are to be feared and should +not be approached in that season without extreme caution. A male elk or +deer that has once shown viciousness can not again be trusted. + +The remedy for viciousness in the male elk is castration. It is unsafe +to keep an uncastrated male elk over 4 years old, unless he is in a +strongly fenced inclosure from which visitors are excluded. The effects +of castration are to make the animal docile and to greatly enhance his +value for venison. This is in accord with observed results in the +production of beef, pork, and mutton. Venison grown in domestication +under a system in which the male animals intended for slaughter are +castrated should be uniformly of the highest grade and far superior to +that obtained in the wild state during the usual open season for +hunting. This consideration is of the greatest importance in fixing the +final status of venison grown under domestication. + + +_Breeding the Virginia Deer._ + +The Virginia, or whitetail deer (_Odocoileus virginianus_) is the common +deer of the United States. Including the half dozen geographic races +that occur within our borders, it is distributed over most of the +country, except Nevada and the major portions of Utah, Arizona, +Washington, Oregon, and California. It is extinct in Delaware and +practically so in a number of States in the Middle West. South of our +borders a number of closely related species occur. + +In view of the wide natural range of the whitetail deer, its +adaptability to nearly all sections of the United States can not be +doubted. Testimony as to its hardiness in parks and preserves is not so +unanimous as that concerning the wapiti; but the general experience of +breeders is that with suitable range, plenty of good water, and +reasonable care in winter, raising this deer for stocking preserves or +for venison may be made as profitable as any other livestock industry. +Not only do deer thrive on land unsuited for cattle or horses, but, like +elk, they may be raised to great advantage in brushy or timbered +pastures fully stocked with cattle or horses, as the food of deer rarely +includes grass. + +Advocates of the Angora goat industry state that within the United +States there are 250,000,000 acres of land not suited to tillage or to +the pasture of horses, cattle, or sheep, which are well adapted to +goats. Much of this land is suited also to deer and elk, and can be +utilized for these animals with less injury to the forest cover than +would result from its browsing by goats. + +The whitetail deer has often been the subject of experiments in +domestication. The beauty of these animals, especially the fawns, +appeals to every admirer of wild life, and early settlers of the country +soon learned how easily they could be tamed and how promptly they +attached themselves to the persons who fed them. The dangerous character +of the same pets, especially the males, when grown up was soon learned +also. It followed that the domesticating process usually ended with the +maturity of the first subject, which was soon disposed of or banished to +a safe inclosure. + +The propagation of the Virginia deer has seldom been undertaken in a +systematic way. The animals have often been bred in parks for pleasure +or in large preserves for sport, but the economic possibilities in +raising them have received little attention. Recently breeders have +recognized the fact that they are profitable under proper management and +would be much more so were conditions for marketing live animals and +venison more favorable. + + +_Experiences of Breeders._ + +The Biological Survey has reports of successful experience in raising +Virginia deer from more than a dozen persons, located in different parts +of the country, who are now engaged in the business. The management of +the herds varies slightly with the surroundings and the object for which +they are kept. + +Thomas Blagden, of Washington, D. C., began raising deer in 1874. After +an experience of over a third of a century he is confident that the +business can be made profitable. In his own herds he has carefully +avoided in-breeding by securing new bucks from time to time. His stock +is vigorous and of the large size characteristic of the Adirondack and +other northern deer. Consequently the animals are in demand for breeding +purposes, the bucks bringing $50 each and the does, $75. He feeds grain, +using corn and a mixture of bran and meal, and during the summer cuts as +much wild forage as possible. He finds that the animals prefer the +rankest weeds to the choicest grass. Of the various kinds of hay, they +prefer alfalfa. He provides abundant water at all times. + +John W. Griggs, of Goodell, Iowa, writes that he has been engaged in +raising deer for about fourteen years. Until two years ago he sold all +his surplus stock for parks, but since then has disposed of about half +of it for venison. For park purposes he gets $20 to $30 a head, but they +bring fully as much or more when fattened for venison. As to management +of deer, Mr. Griggs writes: + +"In raising a large herd the park should be divided into two or three +lots, and one plowed each year and sown to red clover, mustard, rape, +and seeds of different kinds of weeds. Bluegrass and timothy are +useless. Corn is the principal grain I feed. I feed it winter and +summer. In winter I feed also clover hay, oat straw, and weedy wild hay. +Deer when rightly handled are very prolific, and from 50 does one can +count on 75 fawns. They can be raised profitably for venison--very +profitably until overdone; but I would not advise one to go into it on a +large scale without previous experience with deer." + +The report received from C. H. Roseberry, of Stella, Mo., although less +enthusiastic than others, is quoted because his herd approaches more +nearly a state of true domestication. Under date of January 13, 1908, +Mr. Roseberry wrote as follows: + +"My experience in breeding the common or Virginia deer covers a period +of seventeen years, beginning in March, 1891, when, as a boy of 16, I +built a small inclosure of 1-1/2 acres to confine a single doe that was +captured as a fawn in the neighboring forest. + +"A buck and other does were secured from year to year, until in 1900, by +purchase and natural increase, my herd numbered 25 head of all ages. + +"From 1891 to 1901 I lost every year from disease an average of 20 per +cent. The climax came in the drought year of 1901, when my loss was 50 +per cent from the disease known as "black tongue." + +"I am convinced that, like cholera in swine, individuals recovering from +this disease are immune from further attack. Apparently all of my herd +were afflicted. The survivors and their progeny constitute my present +breeding stock. I have made no purchases since 1901, nor have I suffered +any loss from disease. + +"For the last seven years my herd has averaged 70 per cent increase, all +of which I have sold at satisfactory prices. I began selling at $20 per +pair of fawns at 4 months of age and $30 per pair of adults. I now get +$40 and $60, respectively. I sell almost exclusively for pets and for +propagating purposes, although a few surplus bucks have been sold for +venison, averaging me 15 cents per pound gross weight. + +"If we except the goat, I know of no domestic animal common to the farm +that requires so little feed and attention as the deer. My herd has a +range of only 15 acres, two-thirds of which are set to white clover, +bluegrass, and orchard grass. I provide also a small plat of wheat or +rye for winter pasture. With the above provision, in this latitude, no +feed is required between April 15 and November 15. During the rest of +the year a ration of corn, bran, or other mill feed somewhat smaller +than that required for sheep, in connection with a stack of clover or +pea hay to which they have free access, is sufficient to keep them in +good condition. Deer eat with relish nearly all of the common coarse +weeds, and for clearing land of brush they are, I think, second only to +the common goat. + +"Probably the greatest expense connected with the business of raising +deer is the fencing. Another item of trouble and expense, when the +animals are raised for pets, requiring that they be handled and shipped +alive, is the fact that the fawns must be taken from the does when 10 +days old and raised by hand on cow's milk. They are quite easily raised +in this way, with but slight percentage of loss, but require frequent +and careful attention for the first month. When they are allowed to run +with the does their natural wildness can not be overcome, no matter how +gentle the does may be. + +"I have found the business profitable on the lines indicated. I believe +they could be profitably bred for venison alone--certainly with less +trouble and expense, since the fawns could be reared by the does and the +trouble and expense of raising by hand would be eliminated. + +"My experience does not coincide with that of some other breeders in +respect to the weakening of reproductive powers of deer by the +confinement in parks. I have no barren does. Usually they produce a +single fawn at two years of age; afterwards twins, and in rare cases +triplets." + + +[Illustration: Tame Deer Eating Watermelon.] + +_Management of Virginia Deer._ + +As to the management of deer little need be added to the statements from +practical breeders already given. Virginia deer are polygamous, like +cattle; the rutting season is in November; the period of gestation is +about seven months, and the fawns are born in May or June. Young does +usually breed when about 17 months old and have but one fawn the first +time; afterwards they commonly produce twins. The fawns are spotted +until the first shedding of the hair in the fall. + +While deer are chiefly browsing animals, in captivity they eat nearly +every kind of vegetation, including most kinds of garden stuff. They are +fond of acorns, beechnuts, chestnuts, and other mast. Lily pads, leaves, +lichens, and mosses are freely eaten. With plenty of range and an +abundant variety of plants there need be, therefore, no apprehension +concerning the deer's food. A good supply of running water must be +provided, and the animals should have access to rock salt. If the browse +and pasturage are scant, a small ration of grain should be fed. Of the +grains, corn is generally recommended as a food; there is no waste, as +the deer pick up every grain. Coarse hay full of weeds is preferable to +timothy or other tame hays, except alfalfa. Of clover hay, deer usually +eat the blossom heads greedily, but waste the other parts. In winter +feeding is necessary everywhere, and in the northern half of the United +States shelter of some kind should be provided. + +The remarks about castrating elk apply as well to the common deer. A +number of vigorous bucks, however, must be kept with any considerable +herd of does, for a single buck can not serve an unlimited number. +Frequent changes of blood by introducing new bucks should be practiced +to avoid in-breeding. + + +_Wild Deer in Private Game Preserves._ + +Individual owners, as well as associations, have established large +private preserves in many parts of the country and stocked them with +deer and other big game. The objects have been to preserve the animals +and to provide sport for the owners. In the free life under the +protected conditions generally provided, deer do remarkably well, the +increase being even more rapid than in small parks. There can be no +doubt of the success of ventures in propagating the Virginia deer under +natural conditions as wild game, as is proved by the experience of a +large number of hunting clubs and private owners. + +Deer in Buckwood Park, a New Jersey preserve of 4,000 acres, belonging +to Charles S. Worthington, increased in the ten years between 1892 and +1903 from 19 to about 400 head, and the number was then lessened because +it was thought too large for the permanent sustaining capacity of the +park. The St. Louis Park and Agricultural Company have about 1,000 deer +and 400 elk in their 5,000-acre preserve in Taney County, Mo. The +Otzinachson Rod and Gun Club six years ago placed about 90 deer, mostly +does, in their 4,000 acre park in Clinton County, Pa. These have +multiplied to nearly 2,000 head, and a further increase of about a +thousand fawns is expected during the present season (1908). Doubtless +these experiences are not exceptional. + +The good effect of such preserves on the supply of game in the State +should not be overlooked. While they may temporarily restrict the +hunting privileges of a few citizens, they ultimately become a source of +game supply secondary in importance only to State preserves or game +refuges. Already a number of private reserves have become overstocked, +and game has escaped or been turned over to the State to become the +property of the people. The success of private enterprise in propagating +large game in inclosures has thus become an object lesson for State game +commissioners and others, and suggests the feasibility of the State's +undertaking a similar work for the people. + + +GAME LAWS IN RELATION TO DEER FARMING. + +The chief obstacle to profitable propagation of deer in the United +States is the restrictive character of State laws governing the killing, +sale, and transportation of game. Many of the States, following +precedent, lay down the broad rule that all the game animals in the +State, whether resident or migratory, are the property of the State. A +few States except game animals that are "under private ownership legally +acquired." A few others encourage private ownership by providing a way +in which wild animals--deer and the like--may be captured for +domestication. Generally, when private ownership of game is recognized +by law, the right to kill such game is granted, but the owner is +hampered by the same regulations as to season, sale, and shipment that +apply to wild game. One by one, however, State legislatures are coming +to recognize the interests of game propagators, and game laws are +gradually being modified in accordance with the change of view. + +The chief source from which deer and elk may be obtained for stocking +preserves is from animals already in captivity. These must be +transported from place to place or there can be no commerce in them, yet +the laws of many States absolutely forbid their shipment. The laws as to +possession and transportation of deer carcasses make the shipping of +venison also illegal. General export of venison is legal from only six +of the States, and three of these have no wild deer left to protect. + +The laws concerning the season for killing and the sale of deer are +often equally embarrassing to those who would produce venison for +profit. The owner of domesticated deer can not legally kill his animals +except in open season. Owners of private preserves are similarly +restricted and are limited to the killing of one or two animals in a +season. More than half the States and territories absolutely forbid the +sale of venison. A few forbid the sale of venison produced within the +State, but permit the sale of that imported from other States, a most +unjust discrimination against home industry. + +The following States have recently modified their laws so as to provide, +under regulations, for the sale of deer from private preserves. +Transportation and even export are included in some of them. + +ARKANSAS.--Possession, sale, and shipment of deer or fawns is permitted +when they have been raised in captivity for domestic purposes and are +accompanied by an affidavit from the raiser. + +COLORADO.--Owners of private preserves under a license are permitted to +sell and ship deer or other quadrupeds that are accompanied by an +invoice. A fee is required for each animal sold. + +ILLINOIS.--Any person who raises deer for market may kill and sell them +at any time in the same manner as other domestic animals. + +INDIANA.--The provisions of the law as to possession and sale do not +apply to persons who have under ownership or control any deer raised in +a deer park. + +MASSACHUSETTS.--The owner may sell his own tame deer kept on his own +grounds. + +MINNESOTA.--Persons who desire to domesticate deer, moose, elk, or +caribou may secure a permit to do so from the State board of game and +fish commissioners by paying a fee of 50 cents for each animal in +captivity and a like fee for each animal added later by natural increase +or otherwise. The animals kept in captivity may be sold or shipped +within or without the State, by permission of the commissioners. + +MISSOURI.--Deer or elk, alive or dead, may be shipped from any private +preserve and sold in the markets of the State when accompanied by a tag +furnished by the game warden of the county, showing whose property it +is, where killed and to whom shipped. + +NEW HAMPSHIRE.--The Blue Mountain Forest Association may kill elk, deer, +or moose in their preserve for one month after the open season, and at +any time may transport them outside the State. + +NEW YORK.--Deer may be sold during the open season; and moose, elk, +caribou, and antelope from private parks may be sold during the same +period. Common carriers may transport animals into the State for +breeding purposes, but may not transport venison unless it is +accompanied by the owner. + +NORTH CAROLINA.--Seventeen counties permit the owner and keeper of an +inclosed game preserve, who raises deer for use or sale, to kill, sell, +or use those raised or kept in said inclosure. + +PENNSYLVANIA.--Owners of game preserves who hold a game propagating +certificate may sell and transport deer or fawn alive for propagating +purposes only, after securing the written consent of the president of +the board of game commissioners. + +In three or four other States game "under private ownership, legally +acquired," is supposed to be exempt from general provisions of the game +law; but in a test case as to its sale or export it is doubtful whether +the courts would so hold without more specific provision legalizing such +commerce. + + +SUMMARY. + +The domestication of deer and elk offers an interesting field for +experiment, as well as remunerative returns for the investment of +capital. + +The wapiti and the Virginia deer can be raised successfully and cheaply +under many different conditions of food and climate. The production of +venison and the rearing of both species for stocking parks may be made +profitable industries in the United States. + +Instead of hampering breeders by restrictions, as at present, State laws +should be so modified as to encourage the raising of deer, elk, and +other animals as a source of profit to the individual and to the State. + +Safeguards against the destruction and sale of wild deer in place of +domesticated deer are not difficult to enforce. For this purpose a +system of licensing private parks, and of tagging deer or carcases sold +or shipped, so that they may be easily identified, is recommended. + +It is believed that with favorable legislation much otherwise waste land +in the United States may be utilized for the production of venison so as +to yield profitable returns, and also that this excellent and nutritious +meat, instead of being denied to 99 per cent of the population of the +country, may become as common and as cheap in our markets as mutton. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: The above illustration shows the front cover of +Hunter-Trader-Trapper, a monthly magazine, published by The A. R. +Harding Publishing Co., Columbus, Ohio, who are also publishers of books +on Trapping and Out-o-Door Sports, bringing out new ones continually. +Their latest booklet descriptive of their magazine and books published +will be sent free upon application. See following pages.] + + * * * * * + +Hunter Trader Trapper + + +As its Name Indicates is a Magazine of Information for Hunters, Traders, +Trappers and Out-o-Door People. + +If you are interested in hunting, trapping, raw furs, ginseng, raising +wild animals, taxidermy, etc., you will find this magazine of interest +and value. The magazine is published monthly and treats on the following +subjects: Steel Traps, Where and How to Set; Baits and Scents; Proper +Season to Trap; How to Skin, Stretch and Handle Furs; New Ways to +Capture Mink, Fox, Wolf, Marten, Beaver, Otter and Other Shy Animals; +Raising Fur Bearing Animals; Growing Ginseng and Golden Seal; Training +Night Hunting Dogs; Leading Fur Markets; London Raw Fur Sales; Fox +Hunting and Hounds; Coon Hunting; Letters From Old Hunters and Trappers, +etc. + +The Editor is a man of long experience in handling raw furs and +trapping. The articles published and photos used are largely from those +who have had actual experience with trap, gun and dog--you will enjoy +them. + +The magazine contains from 128 to 200 pages each month, averaging about +160 each month or 2000 pages a year. About 700 illustrations are used +each year. The magazine is printed on good quality paper and the +subscription price is only + +$1.00 a Year + +Single Copy + +TEN CENTS + +A. R. Harding Publishing Co., Columbus, O. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: GINSENG PLANT. + +Showing Root, Stock, Leaves and Seed.] + +This is only one of about 75 illustrations shown in "Ginseng and Other +Medicinal Plants" as described on opposite page. The illustrations are +of actual "gardens," as well as some fifty of the most valuable +medicinal plants true to life. After reading this book and looking +closely at the illustrations you should be able to distinguish the +various plants. The paper used is of good quality so that the +illustrations are clear and distinct. + + * * * * * + +Ginseng and Other Medicinal Plants + + +This book contains about 300 pages and 75 illustrations (see opposite +page for one of them) with chapters on the following: The Story of +Ginseng; Something About Ginseng; Cultivation of Ginseng; Marketing +Ginseng; Seeds and Roots; Letters From Ginseng Growers; Government +Reports; Ginseng in China; General Information; Habits of Ginseng; +Ginseng Prices; Diseases of Ginseng; Medicinal Qualities; Golden Seal +Cultivation; Plants as a Source of Revenue; List of Plants Having +Medicinal Value; Gigantic Mint Farm in Michigan. + +The publishers say--A Book of Valuable Information for Growers and +Collectors of Wild Medicinal Plants--Tells How to Grow, Medicinal Uses, +Value, Etc. + +Much additional information is also given about other Plants which +furnish Root Drugs, such as: Male Fern; Wild Turnip; Skunk Cabbage; +Sweet Flag; Helonias; American Hellebore; Aletris; Bethroot; Wild Yam; +Blue Flag; Lady's Slipper; Crawley Root; Canada Snakeroot; Serpentaria +(Southern Snakeroot); Yellow Dock; Pokeweed; Soapwort; Goldthread; Black +Cohosh; Oregon Grape; Blue Cohosh; Twinleaf; Mayapple; Canada Moonseed; +Bloodroot; Hydrangea; Indian Physic; Wild Indigo; Crane's Bill; Seneca +Snakeroot; Stillingia; Wild Sarsaparilla; Water Eryngo; American +Angelica; Yellow Jasmine; Pinkroot; American Colombo; Black Indian Hemp; +Pleurisy Root; Comfrey; Stoneroot; Culvers Root; Dandelion; +Queen-of-the-Meadow; Elecampane; Echinacea; Burdock. + +A good photograph of each of these is shown with the description. +Considerable money can be made collecting and preparing for the market. +This book explains in detail. + +Price, cloth bound, postpaid, $1.00 + + * * * * * + +Land Cruising and Prospecting + + +Is a valuable book for homesteaders, hunters, trappers, guides, etc. The +writer--Mr. A. F. Wallace, an experienced surveyor, land cruiser and +prospector--in his introduction says: "To the men who follow the +compass, the trap and the trail this work is inscribed. It is not +intended for the "Professors" who can tell you all about things after +they are done (by somebody else)." + +The publishers say: A book of Valuable Information for hunters, +trappers, land cruisers, prospectors and men of the trail--tells how to +locate one's self on the map, etc. + +This book contains about 200 pages 5 × 7 inches, is printed on good +quality paper, with nearly 40 illustrations and contains 20 chapters as +follows: + + I. Maps. + II. The Compass. + III. Examining and Locating. + IV. Early Surveys. + V. Corner Marks. + VI. Miscellaneous Information. + VII. Points for Homesteaders. + VIII. Prospecting for Gold. + IX. Sampling Ore. + X. How to Locate a Claim. + XI. Poor Man's Ore Mill. + XII. Prospecting for Fur. + XIII. Prospecting for Pearls. + XIV. Prospecting for Bees. + XV. Rations and Camp Cookery. + XVI. Camp Kits. + XVII. Guns, Axes and Pack-straps. + XVIII. Building Cabins, Tanning, Etc. + XIX. Getting Lost. + XX. The Red River Trapper. + +This book is practical and may be worth many times the price to you. +Remember it is written by one who has had many, many years of +experience. + +Price, Cloth Bound, Postpaid, 60 Cents + +A. R. Harding Publishing Co. Columbus, Ohio + + * * * * * + +Bee Hunting + + +A BOOK OF VALUABLE INFORMATION FOR BEE HUNTERS. Tells How to Line Bees +to Trees, Etc. + +_The following is taken from the Author's Introduction to BEE HUNTING_ + +[Illustration] + +Many books on sports of various kinds have been written, but outside of +an occasional article in periodicals devoted to bee literature, but +little has been written on the subject of Bee Hunting. Therefore, I have +tried in this volume--Bee Hunting for Pleasure and Profit--to give a +work in compact form, the product of what I have learned along this line +during the forty years in nature's school room. + +Brother, if in reading these pages, you find something that will be of +value to you, something that will inculcate a desire for manly pastime +and make your life brighter, then my aim will have been reached. + +_The book contains 13 chapters as follows_: + + I. Bee Hunting. + II. Early Spring Hunting. + III. Bee Watering--How to Find Them. + IV. Hunting Bees from Sumac. + V. Hunting Bees from Buckwheat. + VI. Fall Hunting. + VII. Improved Mode of Burning. + VIII. Facts About Line of Flight. + IX. Baits and Scents. + X. Cutting the Tree and Transferring. + XI. Customs and Ownership of Wild Bees. + XII. Benefactors and Their Inventions. + XIII. Bee Keeping for Profit. + +_This book contains 80 pages, paper cover._ + +_Price, postpaid, only 25 cents._ + +A. R. Harding Pub. Co., Columbus, Ohio + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Fur Farming, by A. R. Harding + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FUR FARMING *** + +***** This file should be named 33830-8.txt or 33830-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/8/3/33830/ + +Produced by Peter Vachuska, Chuck Greif, Josephine Paolucci +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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Harding. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .tocnum {position: absolute; top: auto; right: 15%;} + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + + + .center {text-align: center;} + .right {text-align: right;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 1em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Fur Farming, by A. R. Harding + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Fur Farming + A book of Information about Fur Bearing Animals, Enclosures, + Habits, Care, etc. + +Author: A. R. Harding + +Release Date: October 2, 2010 [EBook #33830] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FUR FARMING *** + + + + +Produced by Peter Vachuska, Chuck Greif, Josephine Paolucci +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net. + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + +<h1>FUR FARMING.</h1> + +<p><a name="front" id="front"></a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 640px;"> +<img src="images/fig1.jpg" width="640" height="447" alt="Some Young Black and Silver Fox." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Some Young Black and Silver Fox.</span> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h1>FUR FARMING</h1> + +<h3>A BOOK OF INFORMATION ABOUT FUR BEARING ANIMALS, ENCLOSURES, HABITS, +CARE, ETC.</h3> + +<h4><i>BY</i></h4> + +<h2>A. R. HARDING</h2> + +<p class="center"> +Published By<br /> +<br /> +A. R. HARDING PUBLISHING CO.<br /> +Columbus, Ohio.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Copyright, 1909<br /> +<br /> +By A. R. HARDING PUB. CO. +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p> +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> + + +<p> +<span class="smcap">Chapter.</span> <span class="tocnum">Page</span><br /> +<br /> +I. <span class="smcap">Supply and Demand</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_15'>15</a></span><br /> +<br /> +II. <span class="smcap">What Animals to Raise</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_27'>27</a></span><br /> +<br /> +III. <span class="smcap">Enclosures</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_38'>38</a></span><br /> +<br /> +IV. <span class="smcap">Box Trap Trapping</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_53'>53</a></span><br /> +<br /> +V. <span class="smcap">Fox Raising</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_63'>63</a></span><br /> +<br /> +VI. <span class="smcap">Skunk Raising</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_83'>83</a></span><br /> +<br /> +VII. <span class="smcap">Mink Raising</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_97'>97</a></span><br /> +<br /> +VIII. <span class="smcap">Opossum Raising</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_107'>107</a></span><br /> +<br /> +IX. <span class="smcap">Muskrat Raising</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_115'>115</a></span><br /> +<br /> +X. <span class="smcap">Raccoon Raising</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_129'>129</a></span><br /> +<br /> +XI. <span class="smcap">The Beaver and Otter</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_137'>137</a></span><br /> +<br /> +XII. <span class="smcap">Killing, Skinning and Stretching</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_146'>146</a></span><br /> +<br /> +XIII. <span class="smcap">Deer Farming</span> <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_152'>152</a></span><br /> +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p> +<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> + + +<p> +<span class="tocnum">Page</span><br /> +<br /> +Some Young Black and Silver Fox <span class="tocnum"><a href="#front">Frontispiece</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Enclosure in Thick Woods <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_32'>32</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Corner of Enclosure <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_39'>39</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Fence with Wire Turned in at Top <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_41'>41</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Fence Showing Sheet Tin <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_43'>43</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Plan for Combined Enclosures <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_46'>46</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Box Trap for Catching Animals Alive <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_55'>55</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Box Trap with Swing Gate <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_58'>58</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Barrel Trap for Catching Animals Alive <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_60'>60</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Another Box Trap <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_62'>62</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Northwestern Fox Skins <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_66'>66</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Map Showing Where Fox Farming is Feasible <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_72'>72</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Plan for Arrangement of Fox Yards <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_74'>74</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Box Shelter for Female and Young <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_75'>75</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Corner of Fox Yard <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_77'>77</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Fox Yard, Showing Outer Fence <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_78'>78</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>Yards of a Maine Fox Farm <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_81'>81</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Corner of an Ohio Skunk Farm <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_90'>90</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Mink Enclosure in Detail <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_103'>103</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Ideal Location for an Opossum Farm <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_112'>112</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Fur Farm Near a Farmhouse <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_117'>117</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Muskrat House in a Marsh <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_122'>122</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Barrel Shelter for Female and Young <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_134'>134</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Fur Farm on Open Ground <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_135'>135</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Elk in Enclosure <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_163'>163</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tame Deer Eating Watermelon <span class="tocnum"><a href='#Page_178'>178</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 339px;"> +<img src="images/fig2.jpg" width="339" height="534" alt="G. R. Harding." title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p> +<h2>INTRODUCTION.</h2> + + +<p>Ever since Columbus discovered America, furs have been an important +article of commerce, but at the rate of the catch during recent years, +the supply drawn from the natural sources—forest, field and +stream—will soon prove inadequate if not entirely depleted in some +species.</p> + +<p>Less than 30 years ago, there were countless thousands of Buffalo upon +the Western Plains. Where are they today? In the 70's and early 80's +they were slain by tens of thousands by hide and robe hunters. Does or +does not such a condition face some of the American fur bearing animals +at the present time? Many hunters and trappers must think that the +supply will not long be equal to the demand, judging from the hundreds +of letters written the Editor of <span class="smcap">Hunter-Trader-Trapper</span>, asking +information about raising fur bearing animals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p> + +<p>This work has been hastily gotten out to meet this demand, yet the +sources of information from which the work has been gathered, are +authentic. Much of the habits, nature, etc., of the various animals has +been furnished by Mr. E. Kreps, a trapper of wide experience. Facts have +also been furnished by those that have to a certain extent followed "Fur +Farming" and as well some information has been added from the United +States Government Bulletins.</p> + +<p class="right"> +<span class="smcap">A. R. Harding.</span><br /> +<br /> +Columbus, Ohio, April 1, 1909.<br /> +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p> +<h2>FUR FARMING.</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>CHAPTER 1.</h2> + +<h3>SUPPLY AND DEMAND.</h3> + + +<p>For years there has been a belief that the supply of fur-bearing animals +would soon be inadequate to the demand. This belief is well founded and +is apparent when the fact is known that the natural haunts and homes of +the fur-producing animals are becoming less each year. The draining of +swamps and marshes is destroying the homes and breeding places of +muskrat and to a certain extent coon and mink. The saw mill and clearing +of the land is rapidly lessening the natural resorts of coon, bear, wild +cat and opossum in the South and Central States, while in the North, +marten, fisher and lynx are being deprived of their natural homes.</p> + +<p>Beaver and otter do not like civilization and leave on signs of man and +his works. This is especially true of beaver; otter linger in waters +fringed with timber longer even if settled.</p> + +<p>Some animals, it is true, do well in fairly thickly-settled sections. +Among animals of this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> kind are red fox, skunk, mink and muskrat. Yet no +fur bearer can hold its numbers against the ever-increasing number of +trappers and the persistency with which they now seek the fur producers.</p> + +<p>North America furnishes a large per cent. of the furs of the +world—foxes, mink, otter, beaver, skunk, marten, lynx, coon, opossum, +muskrat, wolves, etc. Considerable quantities of fine furs are still +secured in parts of Russia, in Europe and Siberia in Asia; Australia +furnishes great quantities of opossum, while from parts of South +America, the trade in chinchilla is large. Yet North America has been +for centuries, the great fur-producing continent and now that trapping +is being pressed harder than ever and the natural haunts of the animals +are becoming less each year, the question is,—where will the future +supply come from?</p> + +<p>In this connection the following article on The Fur Markets is +reproduced from the April issue of <i>The Hunter-Trader-Trapper</i>:</p> + +<p>The Spring or March London Sales began March 22 and ended April 2. +During that time American Raw Furs were offered by Hudson's Bay Company; +C. M. Lampson & Co., and A. & W. Nesbitt. In face of the fact that +prices on some articles have advanced so materially that American +manufacturers have bought sparingly,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> the outcome of the sales was +awaited with much interest by the trade.</p> + +<p>A year ago in giving the quantity of goods offered by the Hudson's Bay +Company, this magazine said: "The quantity seems to be decreasing as the +offering this year is less than 1907, and 1907 less than 1906." The +offerings this year are still less than 1908, and for ready comparison +the Hudson's Bay Company offerings at the March Sales for three years +are given:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>1909</td><td align='right'>1908</td><td align='right'>1907</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Otter</td><td align='right'>5,341</td><td align='right'>4,968</td><td align='right'>6,933</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fisher</td><td align='right'>2,671</td><td align='right'>3,224</td><td align='right'>3,228</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cross Fox</td><td align='right'>1,445</td><td align='right'>2,678</td><td align='right'>4,490</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Red Fox</td><td align='right'>2,987</td><td align='right'>6,598</td><td align='right'>10,200</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Silver Fox</td><td align='right'>344</td><td align='right'>526</td><td align='right'>896</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Blue Fox</td><td align='right'>14</td><td align='right'>63</td><td align='right'>88</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>White Fox</td><td align='right'>2,058</td><td align='right'>6,703</td><td align='right'>11,409</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Marten</td><td align='right'>21,577</td><td align='right'>29,808</td><td align='right'>43,798</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mink</td><td align='right'>10,966</td><td align='right'>13,091</td><td align='right'>32,817</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ermine</td><td align='right'>15,314</td><td align='right'>14,280</td><td align='right'>20,737</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lynx</td><td align='right'>8,856</td><td align='right'>31,892</td><td align='right'>56,611</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wolf</td><td align='right'>3,756</td><td align='right'>4,207</td><td align='right'>2,771</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wolverine</td><td align='right'>718</td><td align='right'>865</td><td align='right'>734</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Skunk</td><td align='right'>1,478</td><td align='right'>5,023</td><td align='right'>11,430</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bear, Black</td><td align='right'>3,943</td><td align='right'>3,740</td><td align='right'>4,042</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bear, Brown</td><td align='right'>387</td><td align='right'>353</td><td align='right'>432</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bear, Grey</td><td align='right'>108</td><td align='right'>123</td><td align='right'>94</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bear, White</td><td align='right'>89</td><td align='right'>59</td><td align='right'>137</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Badger</td><td align='right'>125</td><td align='right'>169</td><td align='right'>322</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Raccoon</td><td align='right'>140</td><td align='right'>243</td><td align='right'>600</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p> + +<p>The combined offerings of C. M. Lampson & Co., and A. & W. Nesbitt were +as follows at the Spring Sales in 1907, 1908 and 1909:</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='right'>1909</td><td align='right'>1908</td><td align='right'>1907</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mink</td><td align='right'>82,575</td><td align='right'>134,200</td><td align='right'>75,600</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Skunk</td><td align='right'>545,284</td><td align='right'>416,000</td><td align='right'>615,900</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Muskrat</td><td align='right'>1,238,257</td><td align='right'>1,015,000</td><td align='right'>1,018,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Raccoon</td><td align='right'>203,155</td><td align='right'>316,000</td><td align='right'>69,726</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Opossum</td><td align='right'>225,671</td><td align='right'>267,000</td><td align='right'>225,350</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Marten</td><td align='right'>8,168</td><td align='right'>15,000</td><td align='right'>18,600</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lynx</td><td align='right'>1,500</td><td align='right'>7,550</td><td align='right'>11,727</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fox, Red</td><td align='right'>25,600</td><td align='right'>36,660</td><td align='right'>31,870</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fox, Cross</td><td align='right'>1,585</td><td align='right'>5,021</td><td align='right'>5,080</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fox, Silver</td><td align='right'>539</td><td align='right'>728</td><td align='right'>1,015</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fox, Grey</td><td align='right'>13,600</td><td align='right'>23,270</td><td align='right'>8,961</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fox, Kitt</td><td align='right'>1,670</td><td align='right'>388</td><td align='right'>655</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fox, White</td><td align='right'>3,310</td><td align='right'>14,000</td><td align='right'>4,785</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fox, Blue</td><td align='right'>3,630</td><td align='right'>2,600</td><td align='right'>3,600</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Otter</td><td align='right'>5,211</td><td align='right'>9,000</td><td align='right'>2,916</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fisher</td><td align='right'>2,914</td><td align='right'>3,440</td><td align='right'>1,705</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beaver</td><td align='right'>14,282</td><td align='right'>6,800</td><td align='right'>11,900</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bear</td><td align='right'>7,240</td><td align='right'>6,980</td><td align='right'>5,770</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Badger</td><td align='right'>4,070</td><td align='right'>4,475</td><td align='right'>5,905</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cat, Wild</td><td align='right'>6,925</td><td align='right'>5,800</td><td align='right'>7,072</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cat, House</td><td align='right'>20,344</td><td align='right'>15,800</td><td align='right'>17,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wolf</td><td align='right'>21,365</td><td align='right'>24,150</td><td align='right'>12,100</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wolverine</td><td align='right'>350</td><td align='right'>450</td><td align='right'>323</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ermine</td><td align='right'>77,600</td><td align='right'>77,000</td><td align='right'>100,580</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Civet</td><td align='right'>19,200</td><td align='right'>33,000</td><td align='right'>53,800</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The noticeable falling off in the Hudson's Bay Company offerings can be +accounted for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> from the fact that more "free traders," as the Great +Company calls them, are yearly encroaching upon their territory.</p> + +<p>The offerings of Lampson and Nesbitt is short of a year ago with the +exceptions of beaver, muskrat and skunk. The advanced price of muskrat, +no doubt, caused more trapping of these animals than ever before. Again +the fact of the dry fall in many localities bunched the rats, so that +they were much easier caught. The rats offered at the recent sales are +largely fall and winter. From reports, the collection of spring rats +will be very light—in many localities not more than one-fourth of an +average collection.</p> + +<p>While the offerings now show some 200,000 in excess of March, 1908, and +also March, 1907, indications are that before the year 1909 ends there +will be a shortage in the total rat catch for the year. Considerable +anxiety is felt regarding skunk, as the number offered was 545,280 +compared with 416,000 in March, 1908, which is nearly 130,000 more. This +is hardly a fair test. The offerings at March Sales 1908 were light from +the fact that skunk were not in demand at the beginning of the fall +season of 1907, when a good per cent. of skunk are caught for the +following March Sales. Go back another year, that is March, 1907, and +see what the offerings<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> of skunk were; you perhaps will be surprised to +learn that it was 615,900 or 70,000 more than at this spring's sale. The +offerings of beaver were larger than a year ago, but with these +exceptions, there appears a decided falling off—note the quantity of +fox, coon, marten, lynx—all much less.</p> + +<p>Furs are fashionable throughout the entire civilized world, and the +catch seems inadequate on many articles. This is probably responsible +for the high prices. At any rate, some articles have advanced beyond all +previous high record. Prices for wolf, fox, lynx, wild cat and muskrat +are very high, as well as many other American raw furs. Skunk reached a +price that no one expected the past season. Since early in March or +shortly after, too late to get goods into the London Sales, prices were +lowered on skunk, opossum, raccoon and some grades of mink, especially +Southern and Southwestern, but at the same time it should be taken into +consideration that the quality is not so desirable as during the +midwinter months.</p> + +<p>Many believe that by far the most of the furs come from the Far North. +This is erroneous. It is true that the most valuable furs, such as +silver, black and cross foxes, lynx and marten, come from that section. +Some of the best otter, red fox and mink are also secured in the far<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +northern country. Yet fully one-half of the value of the American catch +of raw furs is comprised in the three following articles—skunk, mink +and muskrat.</p> + +<p>In the Far North there will be foxes, otter, mink, and marten for some +time to come. But what about that part of the country, say south of the +Great Lakes, west of the Allegheny Mountains, north of the Tennessee and +Arkansas Rivers and east of the Rocky Mountains?—a section which has +been producing about half of the furs.</p> + +<p>This section is the great skunk producing one and as well as one of the +best mink and muskrat sections. It also furnishes from the Southern +States within the area outlined, great quantities of coon and opossum. +When those interested in the fur business consider that half the value +of the annual catch is skunk, mink, and muskrat and that the best +producing section has hitherto been the section as outlined, one can +easily see that the supply will not long be equal to the demand.</p> + +<p>During recent years, owing to persistent trapping, the fur producers +have been greatly reduced and if not practically exterminated in parts +of the country, are destined to become nearly so. The fact that skunk, +mink and muskrat have been so greatly reduced in the past few years has +caused those interested in the fur industry<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> to ask,—"what of the +future?" with the settlement of the country and the draining of the +swamps, clearing of the forests, etc., which deprives many species of +fur producers of their natural homes, how can it be expected that the +supply will last?</p> + +<p>That skunk, mink and muskrat do well in settled sections, there is no +question, but since their pelts are so valuable, more trappers are after +them than ever before. In addition, magazines and books on the subject +are more plentiful than in former years, so that the inexperienced +hunter and trapper has far better success than in past years.</p> + +<p>There is always a cash market for raw furs and since the discovery of +America, raw furs have been an important article of commerce. In the +early days, beaver was the leading article and even at this date +thousands of skins are secured annually by the professional trapper in +the swamps of the south and along the streams and lakes of the north. +Scattered thruout the South, Rocky Mountain sections, Northern Canada +and parts of the East, are several thousand professional hunters and +trappers whose annual catch amounts to several hundred dollars each. The +aggregate of these men, footing up to perhaps $3,000,000 or $4,000,000. +In the settled sections are tens of thousands of boys<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> and amateur +trappers with here and there a professional. The annual catch of these +foot up to perhaps $6,000,000 to $8,000,000, or double the catch of the +professionals who leave civilization in September and are not seen again +until May or June.</p> + +<p>It is this class (boys and amateurs) that secures the greatest +quantities of fur and as the number of trappers is so large and the +grounds necessarily limited, here is where the animals are rapidly +decreasing and at the present rate are in danger of extermination. In +some sections there has been a wonderful falling off in the catch of +late years, altho the number of trappers is larger.</p> + +<p>An industry paying the hunter and trapper probably $15,000,000 yearly is +one that should receive attention. At the present rate of extermination, +some of the fur bearers are destined to soon follow in the wake of the +buffalo. The demand for furs is increasing as the population of the +world is becoming more and more. Again furs are being put to more uses +than ever. While the demand for furs are increasing, what of the supply? +The day, perhaps, is not far in the distance when the demand will call +for two or three times as many furs as today. Where are they to come +from? The natural supply is surely diminishing.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p> + +<p>The matter of 'Supply and Demand' is one that there is considerable +difference of opinion upon. Hunters and trappers, as a rule, are of one +opinion and that is that the number of pelts secured upon a certain +territory is becoming less each year. Trappers going over their lines +are surely the ones who know whether the fur is holding out or not.</p> + +<p>The number of persons seeking fur is larger each year. In localities +furnishing as much fur as ever, the chances are that the number of +animals left for breeding is less each year. If such is true the day +when these localities will show a falling off in the receipts is not far +in the distance.</p> + +<p>Until recently, many dealers and manufacturers believed that the supply +of wild fur-bearing animals was practically inexhaustible—that when +wanted, trappers would go out into the "wilds," catch, skin and send the +pelts to market. These people are beginning to awaken to the true +situation and while they send out price lists, circulars, and traveling +buyers after raw furs, they say it is much harder to secure the goods +wanted than formerly.</p> + +<p>A well known dealer in Minneapolis in sizing up the situation, says: +"With the vast fund of information about trapping being sent out and +with improved traps for catching and the great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> stimulus to trapping +owing to high prices, in five to ten years, there will not be one-fourth +to one-half the fur bearers that there are now, unless stringent laws +are enacted to curtail the trapping."</p> + +<p>"Under proper conditions, with intelligent care, no doubt, raising fur +animals can be made to pay. The raiser starting on a small scale and +increasing as their knowledge increases. Most all successful business is +built up by starting small."</p> + +<p>The dealer who wrote the above advertises quite extensively for furs. +The territory tributary to that city has always been considered a good +fur producing one. During recent years, the supply has fallen off +materially in face of the fact of improved trapping methods and a +greatly increased number of persons seeking the fur bearers. The same +conditions are true to a greater or less degree in many parts of the +country.</p> + +<p>The American people, however, can be depended upon to meet all +emergencies. They have already set about to provide for the future raw +fur supply by raising the animals. As early as 1884, experiments were +made at raising foxes on the islands in the Northern Pacific Ocean, +along the coast of British Columbia and Alaska. The experiments, as a +rule, proved successful and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> there has been for years a number of +successful fox raisers on the islands of the North Pacific. More will be +said about them elsewhere.</p> + +<p>In various parts of North America, experiments have been made, +principally with skunk, altho a few have tried mink and other animals +but only in a small way, or by men who expected to get rich quick and +who did not give the enterprise the care and attention that is necessary +to make a success at any business.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2> + +<h3>WHAT ANIMALS TO RAISE.</h3> + + +<p>There is a bright future to "Fur Farming." The person who knows +something of the habits of the animal or animals that they expect to +raise, will be the successful ones. A person who has always lived in the +city would not be apt to make a success at general farming or fruit +raising. The same applies to "fur farming." The person who has followed +hunting and trapping or the farmer who has given attention to fur +bearing animals are the ones most apt to be successful.</p> + +<p>Foxes, no doubt, will be the animals that the majority would like to +begin with, especially the more valuable species, as black, silver and +cross. These for breeding purposes of course can be secured, but the +present raisers do not seem to care to sell any of their stock unless at +good round figures. They want to further increase their own numbers.</p> + +<p>A good many attempts were made at raising skunk a few years ago, most of +which were failures. Some entered the business on a large scale, knowing +nothing of the animal, and of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> course failed; others "penned up" a few +skunk and as they were not properly cared for resulted in failures.</p> + +<p>The recent advanced price for skunk skins has caused a revival in their +raising. This time, an entirely different class of people are taking up +their raising, and they are going to succeed, why? Because they know +something of the animal and are going at the business in a calm and +business-like way.</p> + +<p>Mink, at present prices, look good to the fur-farmer. They are small +animals but yield a pelt worth from $3 to $7, depending upon the size +and color. Raccoon and opossum are compared with many fur-bearing +animals as producers of cheap furs. This is true, but at the same time, +they offer the most promising future for the fur-farmer in many +localities. They are easily raised, and in addition to their fur, the +carcass finds a ready sale in most cities.</p> + +<p>Opossum and coon will not dig deep seeking escape, but are good climbers +and considerable precaution should be taken to see that the wire netting +is either extended in several feet at the top, or that a strip of tin a +couple of feet wide is fastened to the posts some three feet from the +ground.</p> + +<p>The "fur-farmer," should the market be low for certain animals, can keep +over; or the better<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> plan would no doubt be to kill off the surplus +males and perhaps some females. At such times do not make the mistake of +killing off too closely, as some will do, claiming that the fur is low +and that there is no need of trying to increase. Nine times in ten, this +is the time to raise as many as possible, for by another season, that +particular article is apt to be in demand.</p> + +<p>To illustrate: skunk were low in 1907, yet had the raisers gone ahead, +they would have had a supply to kill during the Winter of 1908-9, at +prices that were indeed satisfactory.</p> + +<p>Had the opossum raiser, during the low prices for this fur in 1907 and +1908, sold off his breeding stock at low prices, as he would have been +compelled to do, he would not had a supply when the prices advanced in +January, 1909.</p> + +<p>Some farmers make the mistake of selling off all their stock when prices +ease up, expecting to go into the raising again when a reaction takes +place. This is not the way to make the most money; when a reaction +comes, other farmers who have continued raising this certain animal, +reap the harvest, selling to the market or to their neighbors at high +prices.</p> + +<p>The prices paid for the various articles shows about what the grower may +expect for his "crop." The demand, of course, will have much to do with +the price. Fashion is constantly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> changing but indications are that +owing to diminishing supply and increased consumption, prices will be on +a fairly high level always. Trappers and hunters often catch fur too +early and as a consequence have blue pelts which are graded down. In the +spring shedders and rubbed skins are secured which are sold as No. 2 or +lower. With the "fur farmer," there will be no early caught blue skins +or late caught spring and shedders. The animals will be killed when +"prime," and will bring best prices.</p> + +<p>Some reports from those that have experimented in a small way at raising +fur animals is to the effect that they do not fur properly. This is true +in regard skunk, when kept in a box or a small enclosure for weeks and +fed largely on meat. The writer when a fur buyer has bought skunk that +had been kept in a "pen" or small enclosure for weeks and in addition to +being thinly furred, the hide was much thicker than it should have been.</p> + +<p>Indians and professional hunters and trappers of the north say that they +can notice a difference in the fur of foxes, lynx, marten, etc., when +the food supply is abundant. The fur is thicker and has a healthier, +silkier and glossier appearance. The secret, no doubt, is to give the +animals plenty of room and feed should be varied. Here is where the +person who knows the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> habits of the animal or animals he is raising is +valuable. When cattle, sheep and hogs are fed properly they take on fat +readily and produce a healthy coat of hair or wool. The same applies to +the fur bearing animals.</p> + +<p>What animals offer the best inducement to raise? This is a question that +each individual going into the business must largely decide. The place +you have in view for the starting of the "farm" will have much to do +with this. Is the location one best adapted to skunk, mink, coon, fox, +muskrat or some other fur bearer? Again, your experience should be taken +into consideration,—what fur bearers you are most familiar with. If you +live near a large city which offers a market for coon and opossum +carcasses, this should be considered as these animals are easy to raise +and opossum especially are very prolific, producing from six to twelve +at a litter. While the fur of coon and opossum will never be very +valuable, yet, as both fur and carcass have a cash value, they will +prove greater money makers than many believe. Muskrat are another animal +that should not be overlooked as they increase rapidly and their flesh +is now being sold in many of the larger cities.</p> + +<p>Marten and silver fox should not be raised in the south, as these are +animals that do best in the cold sections. Otter and mink are two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +animals that the sun fades the fur and as the darker the fur, the more +valuable, it is important that as little sun as possible shines upon +them. For this reason it is advisable to have the enclosure for these +animals in the woods or thicket. In fact some trees should be in +enclosures for all animals. If raising coon or opossum, they will be "at +home" in the trees while other animals will enjoy the shade in the +summer and will make use of the leaves in the dens for winter.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 218px;"> +<img src="images/fig3.jpg" width="218" height="230" alt="Enclosure in thick woods." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Enclosure in thick woods.</span> +</div> + +<p>There are some animals such as marten, fisher, wild cat, weasel, badger +and wolves that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> do not seem promising to us to raise for various +reasons. Marten do best in the high mountain sections; fisher and wild +cat would be hard to keep in an inclosure; weasel and badger are not +valuable and would both be difficult to keep in; wolves are not valuable +for fur and would require considerable attention and food, hence, not +desirable to raise. In most states there is a bounty on wolf and coyote +scalps but the raising of them for the purpose of the bounty would not +work—the bounty would not be paid if county officials knew from what +source they came.</p> + +<p>Among the animals promising the best for raising are the black, silver, +cross and red fox, skunk, mink, coon, opossum and muskrat. The otter, +beaver, bear and lynx under certain conditions may be well worth +considering, especially lynx at present value.</p> + +<p>Do you think present prices for furs will continue? Generally speaking, +yes. In fact, some articles are liable to go higher. On the other hand +some furs may go lower but are sure to sooner or later react. The +chances are that raw furs will not soon sell at the low figures of past +years.</p> + +<p>Suppose thousands engaged in the business of raising fox, skunk, mink, +coon, opossum and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> muskrat, what effect would it have upon the market? +Would they overstock it? How many hundreds of thousands of persons are +today raising cotton and wool to furnish clothing to the millions of +people and there has always been a market. The same will be the case +with fur. In fact, unless thousands engage in the fur raising business, +the demand is going to far exceed the supply at no distant day.</p> + +<p>Furs in the north are a necessity as no cloth will repel the piercing +winds. Teamsters and others much out of doors wear fur overcoats, caps +and use fur laprobes. Farther south, say in the latitude of New York, +Pittsburg, Denver, etc., while furs are not an absolute necessity, yet +they are much worn for comfort. In all the cities of the north, furs are +worn eight or nine months in the year; in the central sections perhaps +six months; while in the south only a few months. In addition to this, +American furs are worn in all civilized countries of the world.</p> + +<p>The farmer or stock raiser, as a rule, who is making the most money, is +the one who raises not horses, cattle, sheep or swine alone, but often +two or more of them. The same can be applied to fur farming. Suppose an +enclosure of a few acres is made for skunk, why not take in a pond and +raise muskrat, coon, fish and frogs.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> There is a ready market in all +cities for fresh fish and frogs.</p> + +<p>The farmer that raises sheep not only sells the wool but fattens and +sells some of the lambs, wethers or old ewes from time to time. The +farmer is in the business to make the most out of it and such will be +the case with the fur farmer. In the cities there is a demand for the +carcasses of coon and opossum at prices ranging from 25 to 75 cents for +coon and 10 to 50 cents for opossum, depending upon the size of the +carcass, as well as the city in which you are marketing. In New York, +Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, there is a ready sale for all coon and +opossum carcasses at good prices. Other cities that use large quantities +are Buffalo, Cleveland, Pittsburg, Detroit, Chicago, and Milwaukee. +There is no city of any size north of the Ohio River but offers a +market. St. Louis, Louisville and other southern cities being near the +coon and opossum producing sections does not offer so good a market. +Muskrat are now served as "marsh rabbit" in Baltimore and other cities. +The trapper realizing from 5 to 10 cents each.</p> + +<p>With the exception of muskrat, fur bearing animals breed only once a +year, unless the first litter are killed or die, when another is +sometimes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> born and it might be said, such is frequently the case. The +number that the various animals produce at a litter is given in the +chapter dealing with that animal.</p> + +<p>It is not all that are successful bee raisers who have gone into that +business, yet how few failures are there among men who began in a small +way, learning more of the business and gradually increasing the number +of hives in their apiary.</p> + +<p>One thing is important and that is, get the animals accustomed to their +keeper as soon as possible. The old will be wild for some time but the +young soon become tame. Skunk and coon are easily tamed and even beaver, +otter and mink have become so tame when secured young, that children +have safely handled them.</p> + +<p>A man who has been in the "fur farming" industry for years, in response +to the inquiry, "Will the business pay," says: "Yes, it will pay the +right man big dividends on the capital invested." The right man is one +who has "natural aptitude" for this sort of work, and who is "cut out" +for "fur farming." If he has an "inkling" for this sort of work, he will +study the nature and requirements of the animals and attend carefully to +their every want.</p> + +<p>Fur farming as an industry is only in its infancy, in fact, not begun. +The future looks<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> bright to those who engage in the business in a +business way. To those who expect to make a fortune at the business in a +year or two, we predict failure, but to all who are willing to go at the +industry, building a substantial enclosure, paying the same careful +attention to the feed and care of their fur animals, that they would to +other "stock," to get best results, far more than ordinary profits +should result.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2> + +<h3>ENCLOSURES.</h3> + + +<p>This is indeed, one of the important things in connection with +"fur-farming." Some of the first experimenters in raising skunk and +other fur animals, dug a trench from 2 to 3 feet deep, putting in rocks +or boards edgewise to keep them from digging out, on top of which they +constructed an upright fence of boards from 4 to 7 feet. On top of this +fence was fastened a wide board to keep the animals from climbing out.</p> + +<p>The enclosure should be an acre in extent and 2 to 5 would be better. +The "ranch" should be located where the water will drain off quickly, so +that the dens will be dry, making a good place to burrow. The ground +should not be level, or at any rate, should have good drainage. Skunk +and perhaps other animals are liable to disease, if kept in damp and +crowded quarters, such as sore throat or similar diseases, which may +cause death.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 517px;"> +<img src="images/fig4.jpg" width="517" height="353" alt="Corner of enclosure, showing sheet tin at top and stones +at bottom." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Corner of enclosure, showing sheet tin at top and stones +at bottom.</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p> + +<p>Galvanized wire, No. 14 or 16, with about one-inch mesh, seems to be the +proper material for fencing. Posts should be of locust, cedar, or some +other long lasting wood. They should be fully 10 feet long and put in +the ground 3 feet or more, depending upon how firm the earth is; they +should be set about 8 feet or not more than ten apart, as your fence +should be about 7 feet above ground. A trench two feet deep is dug, into +which your wire is put. From this it will be seen that you need woven +wire 9 feet high to make your fence 7 feet above ground, as two feet are +under.</p> + +<p>After your wire is in place, fill up the trench with dirt, or if there +are flat stones, it would be well to place a layer about a foot wide, +extending inward from the fence or bottom of wire. Should any of the +animals dig downward from the bottom of the wire, striking the stone +they would become discouraged and give up, as the stone would cause them +to dig in the wrong direction to escape. On top of the wire fence, a +sheet of tin roofing about 18 inches wide, should extend around the +enclosure, on the inside, to keep the animals from climbing out, for +skunk as well as coon can easily climb out of your enclosure.</p> + +<p>Instead of placing the tin around the top some turn the fence in as +shown in the illustration. If this is done to make the fence 7 feet +high, a 10-1/2 foot meshed wire is required as two feet are under ground +and at least 18 inches<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> should be used for turning in—2 feet would be +best.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 443px;"> +<img src="images/fig5.jpg" width="443" height="365" alt="Showing Fence with Wire Turned in at Top." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Showing Fence with Wire Turned in at Top.</span> +</div> + +<p>The "turning in" method has some advantages over the tin; one being that +dogs cannot get in so easily, and another is that the fence will stand +up better; the wide strip of tin or sheet-iron catching wind or snow +which helps to sag the wire or cause the fence to lean. The tin or +sheet-iron, however, seems to be the best in preventing any animal's +escape.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p> + +<p>The enclosure can be enlarged at any time, but do not make the mistake +of beginning with too small an enclosure, as some have. Also have your +fence about 7 feet high to keep dogs out, as well as to keep the +fur-bearers in. Just how much the enclosure will cost depends upon +several things: The cost of 9 foot, 1 inch mesh No. 16 galvanized wire +is about $1.50 per rod. This price, of course, will vary some, depending +upon where you are located. In some of the smaller cities you perhaps +cannot get the kind you want and will be compelled to send to some of +the larger cities or catalogue houses. Perhaps you can not get wider +than 5 feet. If such is the case buy in two widths—5 feet and 4 feet. +This will give you the desired height.</p> + +<p>Posts as already mentioned should be of locust or some other long +lasting wood, as cedar, and should be thoroughly seasoned before putting +in the ground. The posts should be fully 6 inches in diameter. If from +larger locust and split, so much the better, as the older the tree the +longer it will last. The cutting and setting of the posts, putting up of +the fence, can be done by the "fur-farmer" in those sections where +locust and cedar grow, so that all the cash outlay necessary in building +the enclosure, will be for galvanized wire, some staples and sheet tin +for the top. Instead of placing the tin around the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> top, it may be +fastened on the inside of the wire (as shown), about four feet from the +ground.</p> + +<p>The corner posts should be two or three times larger than the others; +they should be set more firmly in the ground, five feet being about +right. This will necessitate these posts being two feet longer than the +rest. They should be firmly braced in both ways.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 441px;"> +<img src="images/fig6.jpg" width="441" height="294" alt="Fence with Sheet Tin Four Feet from Ground." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fence with Sheet Tin Four Feet from Ground.</span> +</div> + +<p>The cost of fencing an acre, varies, of course. An acre contains 160 +square rods or about 12-1/2 rods each side—equal to 50 rods of fence. +If the wire costs $1.50 a rod, and posts 40 cents each, the cost of +material required to enclose<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> an acre will be $95.00. We are figuring on +two posts to the rod. Add to this staples, gates, etc., and the cost +will perhaps be about $100.00. Of course a much cheaper wire could be +used, poorer posts, etc., so that the cost would be greatly reduced—but +it generally pays to do a thing well.</p> + +<p>To enclose a certain amount of ground with the smallest number of rods +of fencing possible, the plat or ground to be enclosed should be in a +square. The additional cost to enclose an acre, say 20 rods long by 8 +wide, would be material for 6 additional rods. To fully illustrate, an +acre fenced in a square would be 12-1/2 rods on each side, or 50 rods; +if 20 rods long, the two sides would be 40 rods, and the ends 8 each or +16 rods, making a total of 56 rods.</p> + +<p>While the cost of enclosing an oblong piece of ground would be a few +dollars more than if square, this should not stand in the way if the +oblong piece of ground would make a better home for your fur-bearing +animals.</p> + +<p>The persons who expect to make "fur-farming" a business, can begin in a +small way and same need not interfere with other work to a great extent. +Year after year, as they learn more of the business, they can enlarge, +etc. Trappers, hunters and others who from experience know much of the +animals, will no doubt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> be the most successful from the start. One party +writes to know if skunk, fox, opossum and mink can be successfully +raised in the same enclosure. If he means allowed to run together, they +can not. If he means the same outside enclosure, with separate +apartments for the various animals, there is no reason why such a place +should not be successful as there will be advantages in such a plan.</p> + +<p>First, an enclosure of four acres can be built much cheaper than four +separate enclosures of one acre each. To enclose four one-acre +enclosures would require 200 rods of fencing—50 rods for each. The four +acres in one enclosure would be only about half or 100 rods. A square 25 +rods on each side would be almost 4 acres. Should the fur-farmer wish to +subdivide this into four tracts, a fence thru the middle each way would +take 25 rods additional or 50 rods for both ways. This fencing need not +be so high or so secure as the outside one. Should animals manage to get +into another part of the four-acre enclosure, they would still not be at +liberty, altho they might kill or injure some of the other species +before being discovered by the owner.</p> + +<p>If possible have a small stream of running water in the enclosure.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 489px;"> +<img src="images/fig7.jpg" width="489" height="447" alt="Plan for Combined Enclosures." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Plan for Combined Enclosures.</span> +</div> + +<p>Without labor the cost of material will vary from $2.00 to $3.00 per +rod. The greatest variation in expense will be for posts. Those living +where posts can be had, having considerable the advantage. This estimate +being for galvanized one-inch mesh wire No. 14, per rod, smaller wire of +course being cheaper. This is by far the best material in making +enclosures, yet found. Some of the first experimenters used boards,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> but +where there were cracks, or the sap or bark on edges rotted, affording +the animals a place to gnaw, they soon found a way out. This had to be +guarded against where the boards extended into the ground they often +rotted so that there was always danger of the animals escaping. Where +stones were set up edgewise or cement used, it was rather expensive and +as galvanized wire lasts well either in the ground, where not exposed to +the air, or being galvanized, it stands the elements well, it seems to +meet the requirements of the fur farmer for fencing or enclosure +purposes.</p> + +<p>Where is the farmer who would expect to make a success at raising +horses, cattle or sheep, by keeping them in a small pen and feeding them +foods not to their liking or nature? Yet, such has been the case with +some of those who tried "fur animal raising." They made a failure of it +and no one who is at all familiar with fur-bearing animals is surprised. +Those who will be successful at "fur-farming" are trappers, hunters and +farmers who know something of the animal or animals they expect to +raise—those who love the animal and have a desire for the business.</p> + +<p>The ox, horse and sheep were all wild at one time, but have become +domesticated. Why not the same with the fur-bearers? This is exactly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +what should be done. Skunk, especially, are very easily domesticated, +and other fur-bearers, such as coon, mink and opossum, soon lose much of +their fear.</p> + +<p>When the raiser learns this and furnishes a large enclosure with dens +and food similar to their wild state, they will be on the road to +success. As one raiser says: "They do well in a semi-wild state." If the +enclosure is too small, fleas, seed ticks, and other parasites are a +great enemy to the animals. In a large enclosure the animals are more +"at home" although at first they are restless and will walk around +seeking a way to escape; that is they try to escape at night. They are +seldom, if ever, seen during the day when first let loose in the +enclosure; they generally go in the first den that has been prepared for +them.</p> + +<p>Water is important. If you are raising skunk, fox or opossum, water for +drinking is all that they require; the same is the case with the coon, +although they will do best where they have water to wade, play and +search for food. Muskrat, otter, beaver and mink must have water to swim +and play in, as well as to drink or they cannot be raised. The enclosure +for mink and muskrat should include a stream of running water if +possible, or a pond of pure water. The same conditions apply to otter +and beaver, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> of course the wire should be of larger size than for +mink and muskrat. Several different species of fur-bearers can be +successfully raised in the same enclosure. Coon, opossum, and skunk will +all do well together. Beaver and otter, apparently, live peaceably for +weeks in the same beaver lodge or house.</p> + +<p>The thousands of small lakes, ponds, etc., offer a splendid opportunity +for the successful raising of muskrat. While many owners of such, today, +in their natural condition, or without any fence, are reaping a +profitable and furry harvest; yet there are additional hundreds that by +building a fence around, would soon have a muskrat lake or pond worth a +great deal. Muskrat are fond of their homes and often remain at the same +location for years. If a wire fence three feet high were built around +this lake or pond, (with one foot underground), it would keep the rats +at home, as some would leave, especially as soon as the increase became +large. Such a fence would also keep out mink, which kill muskrat, often.</p> + +<p>Muskrat, in their wild or natural homes, seldom leave the water more +than a rod or two, so that a pond a considerable distance from any +stream, would be a comparatively safe place to raise them, without any +enclosure. The danger would be, mainly, that after the animals became<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +quite plentiful, some would perhaps leave, for instinct seems to teach +them that some should seek homes not so crowded. This has happened in +their natural breeding places where they became very plentiful.</p> + +<p>How large and where to build enclosures for fur farming, must be decided +by each individual. One party may have a creek, pond or lake, perhaps a +swamp, already inhabited by muskrat, and all that is necessary is to +keep other hunters and trappers off. On navigable rivers or lakes having +an inlet and outlet, we believe in most states any one can trap so long +as he is upon the water. In other words, the water does not belong to +the land owner and he cannot keep others off; but any small lake or pond +may be enclosed. On this point it would be well to see some lawyer in +your county, as different states may have different laws.</p> + +<p>A wooded bluff containing some den trees for coon, and hollow logs, +stumps, etc., for opossum and skunk, would be an ideal place for a +fur-farm. The location of the farm should be within sight of the home of +the raiser, in case a dog should get within or a thief should visit the +farm. To guard against stealing at night your dog would give the alarm, +or you could have an electric appliance connect the farm with the +house.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p> + +<p>Islands in large lakes offer a splendid place to begin raising +fur-bearing animals, and especially those that do not like to get their +"fur wet" or that naturally are not swimmers. In this class are the +various kinds of foxes, skunk and opossum; marten, it is true, are not +included in the swimming class, but the successful marten raiser perhaps +will be found, if at all, in the higher altitudes where the snow gets +several feet deep during the winter months, and the ground is covered +with snow eight or nine months each year—such is the ideal and natural +home of the marten.</p> + +<p>Skunk and opossum are two animals that do not travel much in extreme +cold weather, so that an island in a lake or large river, could be used +with no fencing. It perhaps would be best to put up a wire fence but it +need not be so substantial as if it were not surrounded by water. Of +course islands in rivers that overflow, would not be suitable. There +are, however, islands in the Great Lakes and elsewhere, that can be used +for raising both skunk and opossum with little or no cash outlay at the +start.</p> + +<p>If islands are used for foxes (except in salt water where the water does +not freeze), the same precaution in fencing must be taken as elsewhere. +Foxes travel during all kinds of weather and the first night the ice +formed sufficient to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> bear their weight, they would be very apt to +leave.</p> + +<p>Coon could not be successfully raised on an island. They do not travel +much during severe weather, but unless the island happened to be some +distance from the mainland, they would likely swim to shore. Mink would +be at home on an island where there was fish, frogs, etc., with drift +and log piles to wander through, but as they are good swimmers, there +would be nothing gained by starting with this animal on an island.</p> + +<p>Skunk and opossum seem to be the only animals that can be safely raised +on an island without the same precaution taken in fencing and enclosing, +as upon the mainland. These two animals, while not the highest priced +furred ones, for various reasons will prove to be as profitable, or more +so, where conditions favor, than many other fur-bearers.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2> + +<h3>BOX TRAP TRAPPING.</h3> + + +<p>I was born in Central Pennsylvania and spent the greater part of my +early life among the mountains of that part of our country, writes Mr. +A. C. Williams, a well known trapper. From my early boyhood, I had a +decided liking for the wilder class of literature, and took special +interest in tales of hunting and trapping adventures; but at that time, +did not know that there were many who still followed hunting and +trapping for profit. When I did learn of it, I naturally became even +more interested, and tried to find a partner among my boy friends, +intending, if I could find some person to accompany me, to make an +extended hunting and trapping trip into some one of the wilder portions +of the West or North.</p> + +<p>Of course I was no more fitted for such a trip than any other country +boy of the same age, and knew nothing of the wilderness; but being a +boy, and having read so many tales of boy hunters traversing the +wilderness as they would their own back yards, I naturally thought that +life in the forests was a very simple thing, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> that there was no +reason why I should not go. As I grew older I learned that there was +still some fur to be found in Pennsylvania, and not only that but that +there were parties who made trapping a business, in season.</p> + +<p>I was interested, and decided to try my hand on the fur-bearing animals +found near my own home, before going farther, but I had no traps and +knew nothing about the various sizes and grades; as a consequence, I +sought out one of the trappers that I had heard of, and asked his advice +regarding different traps for the various animals. He gave me the +desired information, very willingly, and also remarked that he had been +very successful in trapping mink and other small animals with box-traps. +After he had mentioned it, I remembered that my father had, on one +occasion, caught a mink in a box trap, after it had been paying nightly +visits to our chicken coop for a week or more, killing a hen each night; +but for all of that I did not know that these traps could be used +successfully when trapping for profit. It was not very long after my +conversation with this trapper, that I had an opportunity of examining +one of these wooden traps and studying its construction. I will give +here a description of the trap used in that section:</p> + +<p>A plain box, size 10 by 10 by 24 inches, is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> made of one-inch lumber, +hardwood preferred, and is left open on one end and the top (see A) +another part (B) the cover, is fitted in top and end, and hinged at back +by driving a nail in each side, being careful to get both nails same +distance from the end of board. This cover should work freely, and when +dropped down in place, should fill the opening neatly, leaving no cracks +for the captured animal to gnaw at.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 337px;"> +<img src="images/fig8.jpg" width="337" height="205" alt="Box Trap for Catching Animals Alive." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Box Trap for Catching Animals Alive.</span> +</div> + +<p>Now nail two strips (CC) on opposite sides of the box and about three +inches from the mouth of the trap. These strips should extend about ten +inches above the top of the box, and should have the tops notched to +hold stick (D). Stick (E) is tied at one end to a nail driven in the end +of cover, and at the other end, is attached the trigger (F). One end of +this trigger fits into a notch cut into the end of the box, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +other end fits into a similar notch cut in the bait-stick (G). The +bait-stick, as will be noticed in the drawing, is slipped through a hole +in the end of the box, just below the trigger notch, and is kept in +place by means of a nail driven through on the inside of the box. A +small trip board (H), rests under the bait-stick on the inside of the +trap. This trip board doubles the value of the trap, as by its use many +an animal which merely enters the trap to smell at the bait, will be +caught; which would not occur if the board were not used.</p> + +<p>To complete the trap, a snap catch (I) is fastened to one side of the +trap in front of upright strip (C) and its purpose is to catch and hold +the cover when the trap is sprung. This snap is made of springy wood, +beveled on the top, and the falling cover presses it outward; but as +soon as the trap is fully closed, it springs back to the original +position holding the cover securely. In making this trap it is +advisable, always, to use old, weather-beaten lumber.</p> + +<p>As a result of my investigation, I made a number of these traps and was +successful with them, from the start. In that part of the country there +had been many saw-mills and logging camps, at one time or another and at +such places I could always find old boards from which to construct the +traps. The only tools required<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> being a saw, a hatchet, and a half-inch +auger, I would go to these places during the summer, whenever I had a +day to spare, and make a few traps, hiding them near the places where I +wished to set them.</p> + +<p>The trap described above is of the size used for mink, skunk and +opossum, but I made most of mine on a larger scale, and by baiting with +fish, I caught many coons. On one occasion I caught three coons in one +night, with only three traps set, and in another trap, set by the side +of a small stream, in a gap of the mountains, I caught three mink and +two coons in one fall season. At another time I caught a large bob-cat +in such a trap.</p> + +<p>As I said before I baited with fish when I could get them; but those +trappers who used them for mink alone, never used bait, but attracted +the mink into the trap by means of mink musk rubbed on the trip board.</p> + +<p>I caught quite a lot of skunks in box traps, and it is a nice way to +catch these animals, for the trap may be carried to the nearest water +and the catch drowned by holding the trap beneath the surface. It is +advisable always, to place a weight—a few stones or wet chunks—on the +cover, as this will make it more certain in its action.</p> + +<p>These traps are specially suitable for catching<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> animals alive and +uninjured, for breeding purposes, and now, that so many people are +interested in raising fur-bearing animals, there is a ready sale for +live animals, and this matter should be given attention.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;"> +<img src="images/fig9.jpg" width="330" height="191" alt="Box Trap with Swing Gate." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Box Trap with Swing Gate.</span> +</div> + +<p>I have used another style of box-trap for muskrats, but is not intended +for catching the animals alive, and the muskrats are always drowned. It +is a simple box or square tube of boards, 6 x 6 x 24 or 26 inches, open +at both ends. A wire screen is fastened over one end, and a loosely +hinged gate of pointed wires is hung in the other end. I used for the +gate, pieces of umbrella ribs, cut about eight inches long and the ends +filed sharp. With the wires cut this length the gate will hang at an +angle of forty-five degrees, or more, and will push in easily, allowing +the animal to enter the trap without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> effort; but once inside, escape is +impossible, as the gate cannot be pushed out, and even if the captured +animal should raise the gate and attempt to creep under it, the pointed +wires will catch in its back and prevent escape.</p> + +<p>They are set in the dens, under water, and if the mouth of the den is +too large, the space around the trap should be closed with sods. Set in +this way, it will catch any muskrat that attempts to leave the den, and +I have caught three at one time in such a trap.</p> + +<p>While muskrats caught in this way are always drowned, other animals, +such as: mink, skunk and opossum, may be taken alive by setting the trap +in the mouth of the den, blocking up all side openings. The width of the +trap as shown in the cut, is considerably out of proportion, when +compared with its length—it being drawn this way to show more clearly +the working of the swing gate.</p> + +<p>A very effective skunk trap may be made from an old barrel. The barrel +is pivoted to a pair of stakes, driven firmly into the ground along a +bank or hillside, where skunks are found, and the bait is fastened on +the bottom of the inside of the barrel. This trap is shown plainly in +the illustration. It will be apparent to all that when the skunk, in +approaching the bait, passes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> the center, where it is hinged to the +stakes, the barrel tips over, and it will be impossible for the animal +to escape.</p> + +<p>Muskrats are sometimes taken with a wire net. To hunt them successfully +in this way, two persons are required. While one holds the net over the +mouth of the den, the other hunter drives the inmates from the burrow by +prodding the ground with a pointed pole. A wire cage with a cover must +be used to carry the captured animals, and each individual must be +shaken into the cage as soon as captured, and the cage closed +immediately to prevent their escape.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 361px;"> +<img src="images/fig10.jpg" width="361" height="280" alt="Barrel Trap for Catching Animals Alive." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Barrel Trap for Catching Animals Alive.</span> +</div> + +<p>When box traps are used, no difficulty whatever will be encountered in +transporting the animals,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> as trap and catch may be carried into the +enclosure before the animal is liberated. Even the skunk may be carried +along in this way without any danger of scenting. The trap should be +handled carefully—not thrown about.</p> + +<p>Muskrats may be handled with perfect safety if grasped by the end of the +tail and held at arm's length.</p> + +<p>Trappers, as a rule, know just what time of year the young of each +species of animal are born and I would advise, when trapping animals for +breeding purposes, to catch them before this time, or at such a length +of time after the birth of the young, that there will be no danger of +their starving in case they are not captured along with the mother. Even +if the very young animals are taken from the den, there is danger of +them suffering from careless handling, or from not receiving proper +care. It is better to catch the female animals before the young are +born.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>Another box trap that is a good one, is described by an Illinois trapper +as follows:</p> + +<p>"I here enclose a sketch for making a trap for catching mink which I +have used for years, and think it can't be beat. Make a box 22 inches +long, 5 inches wide, and 6 inches high out of inch lumber; bore a hole +at the back for the string (D) to pass through, which is tied to a bait +at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> (E) and fastened at the other end to a heavy wire (C), on top of the +box, which holds the sliding door (A), when set. A couple of strips (B) +are nailed on each side to hold the door in place. This is a good trap +for mink that are afraid of steel traps. For bait use a rabbit's head +tied securely to the string, also a few drops of good scent put on the +bait, and set near the mouth of some tiles or wherever mink abound."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 352px;"> +<img src="images/fig11.jpg" width="352" height="189" alt="Another Box Trap." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Another Box Trap.</span> +</div> + +<p>This trap, as well as all the box-traps in this chapter, are recommended +for catching such animals as skunk, coon, mink, and opossum, alive and +uninjured, for stocking "fur-farms."</p> + +<p>Muskrat can be caught in these traps by baiting and setting where they +feed, or on runways from one pond to another.</p> + +<p>Animals caught in these traps can be carried with safety to both catcher +and animal, to the enclosure, before taking out of the trap.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2> + +<h3>FOX RAISING.</h3> + + +<p>The foxes of North America are divided by naturalists into only three +distinct groups or species, namely, the red, the gray and the Arctic +foxes. Of these, the red species is divided into a number of varieties, +among which are the Nova Scotia Red Fox, the Newfoundland Red Fox and +the Western Kit or Swift Fox, etc.</p> + +<p>The black, cross and silver foxes are commonly supposed to be only color +varieties of the red, there being no difference whatever, except in the +fur. While naturalists all agree on this subject there is considerable +difference of opinion among others who give as proof that they are of a +different species, the fact that the black, cross and silver are only +found in the northern districts while the red variety is found well down +into the south. There are, however, certain facts which go to prove that +they are all of the same variety or if different that they interbreed, +the most convincing of these being the fact that the various colors are +sometimes found in the same litter. But, be this as it may,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> the matter +is of little importance to the prospective fox breeder as it has become +a well known fact that the red color can be entirely eliminated by +careful breeding.</p> + +<p>The red fox is found throughout the greater part of Canada and the +United States except in the far south where it is replaced by the gray +species and in the extreme northern portions of Canada and Alaska, where +it gives place to the Arctic fox, also they are not found in the far +western states nor on the Pacific coast, being replaced here by the +gray. They are perhaps most abundant in the New England States, +Newfoundland and the eastern provinces of Canada, but are also found in +good numbers in parts of New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia +and the mountainous and hilly sections of the South.</p> + +<p>The silver and black foxes are found but rarely in the most northern +tier of states and are probably found in the greatest numbers in +Newfoundland, Labrador, northern Quebec and northern Ontario, but an odd +specimen is occasionally met with in all parts of Canada. They appear +also to be quite plentiful in the interior of Alaska and the Yukon +Province of Canada. The range of the cross fox is the same as that of +the silver and black except that it probably<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> extends somewhat farther +southward into the United States.</p> + +<p>Of the gray foxes, several varieties are recognized, all however, being +very much alike. They are found throughout the Southern and South +Central States—in the east being found as far north as Connecticut and +on the Pacific Coast are found in California and Oregon.</p> + +<p>The Arctic fox, also known as the blue fox and the white fox, is found +only in northern Canada and Alaska. In the most northern parts of their +range they are a bluish color in summer, changing to white in winter, +but in the lower latitudes they retain the blue color throughout the +year.</p> + +<p>There is an immense difference in the value of the various varieties of +foxes. While the fur of the gray variety is seldom worth more than a +dollar or a dollar and a half, that of the fine silver and black foxes +will range from several hundred to a thousand dollars, and more if the +skin is an exceptionally fine one. The Arctic fox comes next in value to +the silver, while the cross is as a rule of less value, depending mostly +on color, and the red variety sells for from three to five dollars each +and upwards for prime skins.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 643px;"> +<img src="images/fig12.jpg" width="643" height="453" alt="Northwestern Fox Skins—Silver, Cross and Red." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Northwestern Fox Skins—Silver, Cross and Red.</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p> + +<p>The various members of the red fox family are practically the same as +regards habits, being influenced to a certain extent by environments, +differences in climate and food, etc., but on the whole very much alike. +They are all of a cunning, wary and suspicious nature and it is owing to +this fact alone that they have been enabled to live and thrive in the +face of the persistent hunting and trapping. They are hardy animals and +while they generally have a den somewhere on the side of a gravelly or +sandy hill, they spend comparatively little of their time in the dens +and prefer to spend the day in a bunch of grass or weeds, a clump of +brush, or, curled up on top of a stump.</p> + +<p>In their search for food they sometimes start out quite early in the +evening, but are probably most active in the early morning when all +animal life is on the move. Then it is that the rabbits and other +nocturnal animals are seeking their places of rest and the birds, etc., +are commencing to move about and the fox stands a better chance of +securing some article of food.</p> + +<p>Their food consists principally of small animals and birds, such as +rabbits, partridge, quail, chipmunks and mice, but they also eat fruit, +such as apples, wild grapes and nuts. However, they are more strictly +carnivorous than the gray fox. They are fond of eggs and often rob the +nests of ground building birds, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> eggs and young, and in the settled +sections have acquired a decided liking for poultry of all kinds.</p> + +<p>The food of the gray fox is practically the same as that of the red +variety but they are more given to eating fruit and feed extensively on +grapes, apples, etc., and in some sections they feed on green corn. All +foxes will eat fish with a relish when they can get them and will refuse +scarcely anything in the line of flesh, being especially fond of +muskrat, skunk and opossum. In captivity they take very kindly to a +vegetable diet.</p> + +<p>The Arctic foxes live chiefly on lemmings, small animals which are found +quite plentifully in the far north, but in captivity they thrive on fish +and cooked corn meal.</p> + +<p>The mating season of the red fox comes mainly in February and the +beginning of March and the young, from five to eight or nine, are born +in April or early in May. The young of the gray fox are born in May, the +mating season of this species being somewhat later than that of the red +fox. The breeding dens of the fox are usually located on some gravelly +hillside but in places where the country is broken and rocky. They use +natural dens in the rocks. It is only during the breeding season and +while the young foxes are still quite small that these dens are +regularly inhabited. At other times they may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> spend an occasional day +there or seek safety in the dens when hard pressed by hounds, but for +the most part they prefer to rest out of doors.</p> + +<p>Foxes prefer the rough hilly countries and are usually found in good +numbers in the hilly farming sections where there are old pastures and +an occasional patch of woodland. The gray fox is most at home in the +wooded districts but the red species, including the silver, cross and +black prefer the more open stretches of country. In the north they will +be found most plentiful in the barrens and sections where second-growth +timber prevails.</p> + +<p>The two species do not appear to be on very friendly terms and not given +to mixing one with the other. In some sections where red foxes were once +numerous and the gray variety were unknown, the grays now predominate, +having driven out the red variety. In other parts the reds have +supplanted the grays. This, however, is only in the central and southern +districts, as the gray fox is never found far north.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fox Farming.</span>—Fox farming has been attempted by various parties from +time to time and those who have given the business considerable study +and have persevered have generally been successful. Many of the parties, +however, were men who have had practically no knowledge of nature, +having gone into the business too<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> deeply in the start and being +ignorant of the nature and habits of the animals when found in a wild +state, have as a consequence, failed. Very few of those who have made a +success of breeding the valuable silver foxes have gone into this +business in the start, but have first experimented with the less +valuable red fox, and as the silver and red foxes are of the same +variety their nature and habits are also the same, and the knowledge of +their habits gained by experimenting with one is of equal value as +applied to the other.</p> + +<p>The Arctic foxes are being raised successfully on many of the islands +off the coast of Alaska. As the seas never freeze over there, no +enclosures are necessary and the business has proved comparatively easy +from the start. Such islands are not within the reach of the average fox +farmer and other means must be resorted to. The breeding of silver foxes +has, thus far, been carried on mainly in the Canadian Maritime Provinces +and the state of Maine, but it has also been undertaken to some extent +in Michigan, Alaska, Labrador and Newfoundland.</p> + +<p>We are certain that if one will give the matter sufficient study, learn +the habits and nature of the animals thoroughly and act accordingly, +success is sure to follow and that the red, cross and silver foxes may +be bred and raised successfully.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> Experiments should be conducted on a +small scale, for otherwise failure would mean a great loss. We would +advise that the amateur conduct his experiments with red foxes, learning +their habits thoroughly before attempting the breeding of the valuable +silver-gray.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Favorable Localities.</span>—It is a well known fact that the finest furs are +produced in northern localities and fox farming should not be attempted +in the far south. The accompanying map, which is taken from the bulletin +of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, will show the area most suitable +for silver fox farming. The plainly lined portions show the most +suitable country, and conditions in those parts are most excellent and +the cross-hatched parts show the area where silver fox raising is +possible and conditions favorable. The red fox will do well somewhat +farther south, but as before stated, the warm climate of the south is +detrimental to fine furs, and it will be wise to not locate too far +south of the shaded portions shown on the map.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 599px;"> +<img src="images/fig13.jpg" width="599" height="382" alt="Map of life zones in which fox farming is feasible in the +United States, showing the Canadian zone where conditions are excellent, +and the Transition zone, in parts of which conditions are favorable." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Map of life zones in which fox farming is feasible in the +United States, showing the Canadian zone where conditions are excellent, +and the Transition zone, in parts of which conditions are favorable.</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p> + +<p>Having decided on a favorable section of country the next step is to +find a suitable location. It is not necessary or even advisable to have +a large enclosure. For the beginner a half-acre to an acre will be +sufficient, and a space of four or five acres is ample for extensive +operations. If the enclosure is too large the animals will be wild and +unmanageable, and on the other hand if too small they will become +nervous and restless and will not breed well, and it is advised also +that the foxes be not disturbed by visitors and be allowed to live as +quietly as possible. A sandy soil is recommended, and there should be +some trees for shade, but a thick woods is not desirable.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Enclosures.</span>—Fences should be made of galvanized woven wire of two-inch +mesh,—number 14 or 16 wire being best. The fence should be ten feet in +height and should be sunk in the ground two feet and turned in two feet +at the top. The overhang at the top is easily adjusted by means of cross +strips on the top of the posts. Care in making the fences is essential, +and if there is much snow in winter the drifts must not be allowed to +become high enough to allow the animals to leap over. It is advisable to +have a set of inside enclosures, and as it is necessary that the animals +are not annoyed by visitors. It is a good plan to have the space between +the inside and outside fences filled with trees and clumps of brush so +as to obstruct the view. The inner enclosures are small and designed for +single animals and pairs and should be about thirty or forty feet in +size. There should also be several larger enclosures for the males and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +females, for, except during the breeding season it will do no harm to +allow the males to run together. Each separate enclosure should be +provided with a gate so that it will be an easy matter to remove the +foxes from one enclosure to another. The plan for the arrangement of the +yards as shown here is a good one and is taken from the Government +Bulletin.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 570px;"> +<img src="images/fig14.jpg" width="570" height="601" alt="Plan for Arrangement of Fox Yards." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Plan for Arrangement of Fox Yards.</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p> + +<p>Each compartment should be provided with small kennels, for although the +fox will usually dig a den, the nature of the ground is not always +suitable and they take kindly to these artificial dens. They are usually +made four or five feet square and two or three feet high. If desired, +shelters may be made of boxes as shown in the cut. No bedding is +required, as the old foxes will do well without or will provide one +themselves.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 426px;"> +<img src="images/fig15.jpg" width="426" height="219" alt="Box Shelter for Female and Young." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Box Shelter for Female and Young.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Feeding.</span>—Many fox raisers have failed to recognize the fact that the +fox is almost omnivorous and give a strictly meat diet according. While +this does not always have disastrous results, it is better to give them +a mixed food, including besides meat, table scraps, bread and milk, etc. +Overfeeding is a common trouble and should be avoided. Of course they +must have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> sufficient, but should not be allowed to become too fat, as +this spoils them for breeding purposes; also feeding should be at +regular intervals. The weight of a healthy fox is from six to nine +pounds, and when an animal weighs more than ten pounds it is almost +certain that it is too fat. When a number of animals are kept together +in one enclosure the boldest and strongest will usually get more than +its share of the food. Of course fresh drinking water must be provided +regularly.</p> + +<p>One of the most successful breeders feeds a quarter of a pound of meat +and a quart of skim milk daily. A quarter of a pound of meat and a +handful of scraps is a fair daily allowance. Another fox farmer feeds +along with the meat a hoecake made of corn meal and sour milk.</p> + +<p>Beef, mutton, fish, horseflesh, etc., are all good food for the fox. Old +worn-out animals may be secured in any rural district, but it is +absolutely necessary that the animals be healthy and the meat should be +kept on ice. One breeder claims that if everything were purchased, his +foxes would not cost him more than one cent each a day, but as he feeds +considerable table scraps the cost is even less.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Breeding.</span>—In the wild state the male fox mates with a single female but +in captivity one male will answer for two or even three females<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> but it +is best to have all animals in pairs. It has been found best to place +the male with the female in December or January and leave them in +company until the last of March when the males should be removed. The +females should be kept in the small enclosures continuously and the +young foxes removed when weaned. They breed the first season, when less +than a year old, but as a rule the litters are small.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 371px;"> +<img src="images/fig16.jpg" width="371" height="342" alt="Corner of Fox Yard showing Stones to Prevent Escape by +Digging." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Corner of Fox Yard showing Stones to Prevent Escape by +Digging.</span> +</div> + +<p>As before stated it is absolutely necessary to prevent the animals from +becoming nervous from too frequent visits of strangers. This nervousness +has a bad effect on their breeding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> qualities. It is especially bad +after the young foxes are born, as the mother fearing for the safety of +her young, will move them about continuously until they are badly +injured or die of exposure. The keeper also should not disturb the young +but should keep away from them as much as possible. In raising silver +foxes, only the most perfect specimens should be kept for breeding +purposes. However, if there is a tendency to show some red among the fur +this may be bred out entirely by using care in selecting the breeding +stock.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 377px;"> +<img src="images/fig17.jpg" width="377" height="262" alt="Fox Yards, Showing Detail of Outer Fence." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fox Yards, Showing Detail of Outer Fence.</span> +</div> + +<p>As there is considerable difference in the disposition of individuals +this should also be kept in mind and those animals showing the least +aversion to man should be selected, providing, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> course, that they are +prolific and otherwise perfect.</p> + +<p>A party in Ohio who has been raising foxes for some time writes as +follows:</p> + +<p>Two years ago I added foxes to my game preserve and last spring my red +gave birth to five young foxes. My black male fox got to the young and +killed the three males. I now have three cross foxes, one black and four +red. I expect to have a big increase in the spring. Should I get a lot +of black pups next spring I will surely do well with my foxes.</p> + +<p>I find that foxes are not strictly carnivorous (flesh eating) animals. I +feed them stale bread, milk and any kind of a dead fowl, rats, mice, +stale meats, muskrat, coon or any other carcass. I aim to give them all +they will eat, yet I often have thought that I feed them too much at one +time and not enough at other times.</p> + +<p>I think foxes should be fed morning and evening only about what they +will eat. They should be given fresh water twice a day during the summer +months and the water should not be given them in a shallow vessel, +nothing lower than an ordinary bucket. They are sure to foul the water +if they can get over or in it.</p> + +<p>Allow me to suggest to any one who contemplates raising foxes that one +of the essential things to do is to first build a kennel in such a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> way +that they will not gnaw or dig out. A safe fox pen can be built by +putting a stone wall or concrete two feet down, setting posts first, +then build wall around posts. Don't use any netting over two-inch mesh +and the poultry netting should be made of No. 17 wire. Fox will tear the +ordinary two-inch poultry netting as fast as you can put it on.</p> + +<p>My kennel is 50 feet by 25 feet and 7 feet high, covered over the top +with ordinary poultry netting. One of the essential things to do after +kennel is built is to see that it is properly underdrained and to see +that plenty of dry leaves are put in kennel. Straw will do if leaves +cannot be gotten. A mound of earth would be an excellent thing in each +apartment of your kennels. Foxes are great to be constantly digging in +the ground. Keep plenty of boxes in your kennel with a nice smooth hole +in each box, as a rough hole destroys their fur.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 735px;"> +<img src="images/fig18.jpg" width="735" height="407" alt="Yards of a Successful Maine Fox Farm." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Yards of a Successful Maine Fox Farm.</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p> + +<p>A summary of the whole shows that the points most necessary of +consideration for success is in proper feeding, in giving particular +attention to the animals during the breeding season, in using special +care to prevent them from being frightened and in the keeper winning the +confidence of the captive animals. A careful study of their nature is +advised and it should always be kept in mind that foxes are wild animals +and therefore should have far more attention than is necessary with +domestic animals.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2> + +<h3>SKUNK RAISING.</h3> + + +<p>There are but two species of skunk found in North America, namely, the +common striped skunk and the small spotted skunk of the Central +States,—commonly known as the "civet cat." This latter name is wrong as +the real civet cat is an entirely different animal.</p> + +<p>It is with the true skunk that this article has to deal, and of this +animal naturalists recognize several varieties, the only difference +being in size and markings.</p> + +<p>They are found in all parts of the United States, with the exception of +the bunch-grass plains and the mountainous district of the West. They +occur again to the west of the mountain ranges and also are found in +most parts of Southern Canada. They are found in the prairie country and +in the hilly and mountainous districts of the East, and are at home in +the "wilds" as well as in the thickly settled districts, however, they +seem to thrive best in the farming sections and especially if the +country is of a hilly nature. Their dens are located along the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> gravelly +hillsides, quite often under the roots of trees and stumps but in the +prairie they den along the washouts and creek banks. In thickly settled +sections they frequently make their home under houses and outbuildings, +showing practically no fear of man and often appropriate the den of the +woodchuck.</p> + +<p>They are nocturnal animals and as a rule do not wander far from the den +but in the fall they travel farther, looking for a good den in which to +spend the winter. Again, in early spring during the mating season, the +males travel considerably. While they are not a hibernating animal, they +stay in the dens during cold weather, also when the snow is loose and +deep, but are sure to be out on the first nice night.</p> + +<p>The mating season of this animal is in February and early March and the +young are born mostly in May, although some will be born in April. There +are usually from four to ten young in a litter but occasionally there +will be a larger number.</p> + +<p>The value of a skunk skin depends mainly on its size and markings, they +being graded by the buyers entirely by the amount of black fur, +providing, of course, that the skin is prime and well handled. There is +a considerable difference in respect to sizes and markings of the +average catches of the various sections. From some parts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> of the country +they will run quite large, in other parts small, and while in one +section they will run perhaps ninety per cent. long stripes, in other +parts of the country the black and short stripe grade predominates. Of +course the skunks of the South are not as well furred as those found +farther north.</p> + +<p>Being slow moving animals, they can not catch the more active animals +and birds as do the other members of the weasel family and their food +consists mainly of mice, insects and grubs, also on the eggs and young +of such birds as nest on the ground. They are very fond of poultry and +frequently visit the poultry houses, killing the young birds. They also +feed on carrion. When they can get it they will eat almost any kind of +animal food. Even in the wild state the skunk is not, strictly speaking, +a carnivorous animal as they will eat and in fact are fond of sweet corn +when in a milky state, also sweet potatoes, melons and wild fruits.</p> + +<p>They have no means of defense other than their scent, but this is +sufficient in many cases and the majority of people will give them a +wide berth. This scent is only used when alarmed or frightened and in +captivity there is no trouble whatever from this source as they soon +learn that there is no occasion for alarm and become quite tame.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Past Experiments.</span>—Beyond all doubt the skunk has been given more +consideration by raisers of fur-bearers than any other animal, with the +exception of the fox. There are many who have tried raising these +animals with more or less success and where the experimenters have used +good judgment and have given the subject all of the attention it +deserves, they have been reasonably successful. Most of these people +have started in on a small scale, having perhaps only a dozen or two of +skunks to start with; in fact, nowhere has the business been carried on +as extensively as some newspaper articles would lead one to believe; the +majority of these parties having at the most only two or three hundred +animals. One of the largest ranches was located in Eastern Pennsylvania, +but for various reasons this venture was a failure.</p> + +<p>It is the smaller experimenters, in other words, those who have begun on +a small scale, who have been most successful. They are for the most part +trappers who had even before venturing into the business a fair +knowledge of the nature and habits of the skunk and therefore were more +qualified for making the business a successful one. Trappers naturally +take an interest in all nature and are most likely to give the proper +amount of attention to the animals, also learn their habits readily and +act accordingly and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> these qualities are absolutely necessary for the +successful raising of all fur-bearing animals.</p> + +<p>The most successful stock breeders are those who make a special study of +their animals and take a great interest in them and those who do not are +almost certain to fail and really deserve failure. If so much care is +necessary in breeding domestic animals, how much more important the care +in handling the wild creatures, knowing so little of them as the average +man does. But even handicapped by lack of knowledge the experimenters +have been fairly successful from the start if they were the right men +for the business. Without exception they all report that the animals +breed well in captivity and are easily kept; in a short time becoming +quite tame and losing their fear of man.</p> + +<p>The skunk is an animal which is despised and feared by many people +because of its readiness to make use of its powerful scent, the only +means of defense with which nature has provided it, but it is only when +frightened that it uses this scent and once they have become tame and +learn that they will not be harmed they are practically harmless. We +will say, however, to those who are afraid of the scent do not attempt +to raise skunks, but devote your time to some other calling for which +you are more fitted.</p> + +<p>It is true that the scent glands may be removed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> from the young animals +but many of them will die from the operation and there is practically +nothing gained; therefore, this practice is not advised.</p> + +<p>Those who have failed were for the most part people who knew nothing +regarding the habits of the animal and its care when in captivity. They +were men with capital, who began on a large scale expecting to make a +fortune in a short time, but in this they were mistaken, for many of +them lost all that they invested. These parties have had trouble from +the older animals killing and eating the young, also from depredations +of owls, but mainly from the first reason. It is our opinion that this +cannibalistic tendency is caused by improper feeding, as those parties +who have used care in that respect have had no trouble whatever.</p> + +<p>To those who are thinking of embarking in the business of skunk farming, +we would say,—start on a small scale with only a small number of +animals, say two dozen females and six males. Give them every possible +attention and study them under all conditions. Do not expect to make a +fortune in a short time.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Enclosures.</span>—After you have decided on this business the first thing is +to find the proper location and make a suitable enclosure. There should +be a spring on, or a small stream<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> crossing the ground to be inclosed, +but at the same time the ground must not be wet; in fact, it should be +of rather dry nature, so that there will not be too much dampness in the +dens. There should be banks of earth for the animals to den in and the +ground should have a gradual slope so that it will drain readily. If it +is of a sandy nature it will be all the better. Some who have tried +skunk farming have located the yards on the shore of a small lake or +pond and have included a portion of the pond in the enclosure. This is a +good idea and it will not be necessary to extend the fence very deep +into the water, as the skunk is not a water animal and will not dive +under; however, where the fence crosses a stream of running water the +fence should reach to the bed of the stream as the water will fall +considerably during dry weather.</p> + +<p>The enclosures should be large. When the animals are inclosed in small +yards or pens they become infested with fleas, ticks, etc., and they do +not do well. Such small enclosures will answer for a short time but as +soon as possible they should be placed in a large roomy yard. For +fencing material, galvanized wire netting of one-inch mesh is advised, +as the young animals will escape through a two-inch mesh. The fence +should be seven feet in height. Under ordinary conditions the skunk +would not escape over a four-foot fence, but there is danger in winter +from drifting snow, and dogs and other animals must be kept out at all +times; therefore, the fence should be of the height mentioned and it +must be turned in at the top or a sheet of tin placed along the edge to +prevent the animals from climbing out.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/fig19.jpg" width="550" height="422" alt="Corner of an Ohio Skunk Farm." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Corner of an Ohio Skunk Farm.</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p> + +<p>The interior of the enclosure should be divided into compartments, using +the same material for the fences but they need not be so high. The +largest compartment would be for the females and there should be a +smaller one for the males, also one for the young animals after they +have become large enough to take care of themselves. Some also make +small yards in which to place the females, two or three together, after +the young animals are born. The most of those who have tried skunk +breeding, however, have not found this necessary, but there should +always be a separate enclosure for the males. When the number of animals +increases it will be necessary to have a few small breeding yards, large +enough for ten or twelve animals. One need not, however, make such an +elaborate enclosure in the start but can enlarge it as needed, adding +more compartments.</p> + +<p>In each compartment a number of dens should be made by digging a trench +and covering afterwards. While the animals will dig dens<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> if necessary, +they prefer even while in a wild state to use dens already made. Boxes, +barrels or pens with board floors should not be used. Some of the +successful ones claim that this has a tendency to cause a thick pelt and +thin fur and say that it is absolutely necessary that they have natural +dens in the ground. The dens should be made quite deep so that there +will be no danger from frost in winter.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Feeding.</span>—Skunks should have plenty of food especially during the summer +and they should be fed at regular intervals, giving just enough for a +meal each time. It is advisable to give a mixed diet, partly animal and +partly vegetable. They will eat almost all kinds of flesh and fish, +table scraps, fruits, especially if very ripe, melons, sweet potatoes, +berries, etc. One of the most satisfactory foods is bread and milk, but +it is considered too expensive by some people. However, it could be +given occasionally. They are very fond of carrion, but such food should +not be given, for it is likely to cause disease. If near a slaughter +house one can get plenty of offal and in the country one can buy old, +worn-out horses, etc., but one should remember that the skunk will +consume an amazing amount of food. One party claims that three hundred +skunk will eat two horses in a week. In the fall especially, when they +are laying on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> fat for winter, they should have plenty of food. In +winter they do not require so much.</p> + +<p>It should be remembered that it is a lack of food that causes them to +eat their young and one should feed well during the spring and summer.</p> + +<p>Skunks feed largely on insects, grubs, etc., and it is to be regretted +that one can not supply this food. They are fond of eggs, either fresh +or spoiled, and should be given a feed of this kind occasionally if +possible. They also have a fondness for poultry of all kinds.</p> + +<p>The matter of providing sufficient food is not as difficult as it would +appear at first glance. If the farm is located near a large town or +city, hotel and restaurant keepers will generally save table scraps, +stale bread, etc., on request, if one will make a regular habit of +calling for it. Even in the country the neighbors will help out. The +farmers will be only too glad to have you take the dead stock, poultry, +etc., thus saving them the time and labor of otherwise disposing of it.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Breeding.</span>—As before stated the mating season comes late in February and +in March and the young animals make their appearance in May. The period +of gestation being about nine weeks.</p> + +<p>One male animal will easily serve eight or ten females and he should be +left in their company a number of days. After that he should be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> removed +and to make certain, another male should be installed for a few days. +Two males should never be allowed with the females at one time or they +will fight and one or both may be seriously injured. This is the plan +which is used by the most successful skunk farmers and is recommended.</p> + +<p>Great care should be exercised in the selection of the males for +breeding stock. Only the large and healthy animals of good color should +be used and all others should be killed and their skins marketed while +they are in good condition.</p> + +<p>While the animals do not always breed strictly true to color, the white +markings may be greatly reduced and the general stock improved by +selected breeding. One should, each year secure fresh breeding stock +from other localities and related animals should not be allowed to breed +together or in a few years the result will be disastrous. One can not be +too careful in this respect for it is very important.</p> + +<p>After the mating season the females should be separated, placing three +or four together in small enclosures and they should be well fed or +otherwise they may kill and eat the young. They should be allowed to +remain in these small enclosures until the young animals are large +enough to take care of themselves, when they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> should be separated and +the females may again be placed in the large enclosure.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">General Information.</span>—From the commencement of the breeding season until +late in the fall the animals require a larger amount of food than during +the winter and especially during the breeding season and while the +mother is still nursing the young they will require plenty of nourishing +food. They require fresh drinking water at all times and the enclosures +should be so arranged that each compartment will be supplied.</p> + +<p>As before stated one should use care in selecting animals for breeding +purposes as it is in this way that the quality of the fur will be +improved and the business made to be a profitable one. All small and +weak animals and those showing considerable white fur, especially males +should be killed off while the fur is in good condition. If you wish to +increase the number of animals do not be tempted for the sake of the +higher prices realized for the finer skins to kill off animals that +should be kept for breeding.</p> + +<p>The animals should never be allowed to become frightened by the +intrusion of dogs into the enclosure—dogs should be kept away at all +times.</p> + +<p>The skunk raiser must watch closely at all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> times to see that the +enclosure fences are in good shape so that the animals do not escape. If +they are found digging holes near the fence, these holes should be +filled up so as to discourage the workers.</p> + +<p>Fleas and other parasites are likely to bother the animals and they +should have plenty of room so that they can change dens when the old +habitations become infested with vermin.</p> + +<p>On the whole, one should study the habits of the animals on every +opportunity and attend to their wants. If one will give the proper +attention to the animals and take an interest in them there is no reason +why he should not succeed.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VII.</h2> + +<h3>MINK RAISING.</h3> + + +<p>There is only one species of mink found in North America, altho there +are a number of varieties differing in size, color and quality of fur. +Thus we find in Northern Maine and New Brunswick a very small variety +having a fine silky fur of a very dark shade; farther west and south a +somewhat larger variety, paler in color, and thruout the Mississippi +valley and parts of the south, also parts of Western Canada, a very +large mink is found, but running quite pale, and the fur somewhat +coarser than the northeastern varieties.</p> + +<p>Again, on parts of the Pacific Coast, a very small and poorer quality +are found, and the mink from the lower Yukon River of Alaska are said to +be of very poor quality. One or more varieties are found in almost every +part of the United States, Canada and Alaska. Wherever there is running +water their tracks may be seen; but they seem to prefer the smaller +streams, as a rule, and they will be found as plentiful in the thickly +settled parts as in the wilderness.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p> + +<p>Mink are great travelers, but each individual animal has his regular +route and seldom ventures far out of his course. While they travel +streams and lake shores as much as possible, they do not hesitate to +leave the stream and cut across country in order to reach some other +water-course. During the mating season they also wander away from the +streams more than at other times. While they are always found in the +neighborhood of fresh water, they are not a water animal, and in +following a stream, always run on the bank, but usually as near to the +water as possible.</p> + +<p>In the thickly settled districts where the most valuable fur-bearing +animals, such as the silver foxes, otters, etc., are not to be found, +the mink is the most valuable and is eagerly sought by the trappers. The +fur is at its best during the first two months after it becomes prime, +which in the north will be about November 1st, and in the south perhaps +a month later. After the first two months, the fur commences to fade, +especially where the country is open and the animal is exposed to the +bright light, for the mink is not, strictly, a nocturnal animal. The +darkest skins come, as a rule, from the timbered parts of the country. +While the female is smaller than the male, she is also darker, and the +skins have about an equal value.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p> + +<p>The food of the mink consists mostly of rabbits, partridges, quail, +squirrels, muskrats, mice, fish, frogs, birds' eggs, etc. While they +will eat stale meat, if hungry, they prefer strictly fresh food. +Occasionally they will pay a visit to the poultry house, for like most +animals of the weasel family, they have a decided liking for the +domesticated birds. They are very fond of fish, and when same may be +secured easily, they will kill large numbers, merely for the sake of +killing.</p> + +<p>They are active and hardy little animals, apparently almost tireless, as +they will travel long distances in a night. They are perhaps most active +during the fall months, and in the north they travel very little during +the cold part of winter.</p> + +<p>The burrow or den of the mink is usually located in the high bank of +some stream, but they frequently inhabit deserted dens of other animals, +but always near the water. It is in these dens that the female and her +offspring spend the summer months, never straying far from home.</p> + +<p>The first two weeks of March is the minks' season for mating, and the +young—from four to six—are born about six weeks later. When confined +in enclosures where the diet, water and temperature are similar with +each animal, there is so little difference in the time of mating and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> +bearing their young, that five or six litters may make their appearance +within twelve hours of each other.</p> + +<p>The young are blind from four to five weeks, but are very active and as +playful as kittens. The mother weans them when they are eight or ten +weeks old. At about four weeks the mother begins to feed them meat, and +they learn to suck at it before they have teeth to eat it. The young are +fed by the mother on frogs, fish, mice, etc., until they are three or +four months old, when she leaves them to shift for themselves. The young +soon separate and do their hunting alone. They do not pair and the male +is a rover and "free lover."</p> + +<p>Mink are extremely cleanly and as soon as the den becomes foul, the +mother moves the family to some other nest.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mink Breeding.</span>—There are a great many readers of the H-T-T who live in +the city, that long for some way to profitably spend their idle time. I +will give a successful way of breeding mink, according to Mr. Boughton's +Guide:</p> + +<p>"Wild adult mink are almost untamable, but young ones readily submit to +handling and are easily domesticated. The time to secure young mink is +in May or June when they begin to run with their dams. The streams must +be quietly watched for mink trails, and these, if possible,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> tracked to +the nest. When they leave the hole, the young ones may be secured, or +they may be dug out. Those who own a breeding stock of mink ask very +high prices for them, but if the aforesaid plan is carried out, it is an +easy matter to get the young wild ones.</p> + +<p>"<span class="smcap">Management of Mink.</span>—Mink being by nature solitary, wandering animals, +being seldom seen in company except in mating season, it is impossible +to rear them successfully if large numbers are kept together constantly; +therefore, their enclosure should be a large one. The male and the +female should be permitted to be together frequently from the middle of +February until the middle of March. At all other times keep them +entirely separate.</p> + +<p>"About this season the mink should be allowed plenty of fine grass, +which they will carry into their boxes to make their nests out of. A box +3 or 4 feet long and 18 inches wide is the shape they prefer. It should +be placed as far as possible from the water to prevent the mink from +carrying mud and water into it. The young mink, when first born, are +small and delicate, destitute of any kind of fur and much resemble young +rats. If the old mink is tame, the young ones may be taken out of the +nest and handled when they are three weeks old. They will soon learn to +drink milk, and may be fed every day.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> At three weeks of age they may be +taken from their mother and put into a pen by themselves, and then they +will soon become very playful, are pretty, and make much better mothers +than they would if allowed to run with the old one."</p> + +<p>The shelter should be in the shape of a long box, 5 or 6 feet wide and 3 +or 4 feet high, set upon legs, with a good floor and roof. Divide into +separate apartments 6 feet long (longer would be better), the front of +each apartment to be furnished with a swinging door of strong screen +wire, with hinges at the top, and a latch on the bottom. A trough 6 +inches square, should run the entire length of pen at rear side; one end +of the trough should be made several inches lower than the other, so +that the water could be drawn off. With this arrangement the water can +be turned in at one end of trough, and be drawn off and changed as often +as desired. The lower end of the trough should be a little deeper than +the other end to prevent the water from running over. Each apartment is +furnished with a box 3 feet long and 13 inches wide. On one side of the +box, and near one end is made a round hole about 4 inches in diameter, +and provided with a sliding cover, so by means of a stick it can be +opened or closed from the outside. This is so the mink can be closed up +while the pen is being cleaned.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 527px;"> +<img src="images/fig20.jpg" width="527" height="521" alt="Mink Enclosure in Detail." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Mink Enclosure in Detail.</span> +</div> + +<p>On the top of the box and at the other end should be a door large enough +to put in grass, straw, etc., for the nest, and take out young. It is +necessary that they have an abundance of pure soft water, fresh air, +desirable shade and plenty of exercise. These conditions secure for the +mink a good quality of dark fur and good health. Brush, weeds, etc., are +allowed to grow up in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> the yard, but not near enough to the fence to +admit of their climbing up and out.</p> + +<p>The fence for the enclosure should be of poultry netting of one-inch +mesh. If of larger mesh the young animals will escape. The general plan +for the fence should be the same as described under the heading, +"Enclosures." There should be separate apartments for the males and +females, and also some smaller breeding pens. As it is not advisable to +attempt handling the animals, each compartment should be provided with a +small gate so that the animals may be driven from one pen to the other. +During the breeding season, and afterwards, while the young animals are +under the care of the mother, the same general methods of handling as is +recommended in skunk raising, should be adopted.</p> + +<p>At all times, plenty of fresh water must be provided, and the enclosures +should be so arranged that the water will be distributed to all parts. +While the mink is always found near the water, it is not a water animal, +as is the muskrat, and a large body of same is not needed. A spring or a +small stream is all that is needed; and a pond may be dug in each of the +large enclosures.</p> + +<p>Careful and regular feeding is advised. The mink is strictly a +carnivorous animal, and always prefers fresh food. The matter of +supplying<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> sufficient food will be more difficult than in the case of +the skunk and muskrat. As they are fond of fish, if one is near a place +where they may be obtained, the feeding will be comparatively easy. They +should not, however, be fed on fish alone. An occasional fowl will be +acceptable, also rabbit, muskrat, etc.</p> + +<p>The natural home and breeding place of the mink is near the water. Their +den is often under an old stump, tree or in some drift pile. The nest +where the young are born generally being in the ground. When the animals +become tame enough, the raiser should provide dens similar to those used +in their wild state. These can be made by burying tile in the ground and +in other ways making artificial burrows. A few hollow logs placed in the +enclosure would be enjoyed by the animals.</p> + +<p>Many report that the males kill the young. This should be guarded +against by keeping the males separate. Some hesitate about starting a +"minkery" for fear that the animals will not fur properly. There is no +danger on that point if properly fed, watered and given homes in keeping +with those they lived in when roving at their own free will. This only +brings out more forcibly the fact that those who are going to be the +most successful mink raisers should have a natural aptitude for the +business—trappers,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> hunters, animal lovers, etc. Who has made the +greatest success at raising stock in your neighborhood—the man who +loves stock or someone who thought they saw a fortune in the business +but neither loved animals or knew anything about them? We venture the +answer, without fear of contradiction, that it has been the party who +loves and delights in stock. Remember, this applies to fur animals as +well as horses, sheep and cattle.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VIII.</h2> + +<h3>OPOSSUM RAISING.</h3> + + +<p>The opossum is a southern animal and is found in abundance in most parts +of the Southern States. In late years they have been moving farther +northward and are now found, though not numerous, as far north as +Central Pennsylvania; but are found most plentifully in the wooded +portions of the South, where they are such a common animal as to be well +known to all.</p> + +<p>They are slow moving and inoffensive, having no means of defense +whatever. When approached, they make a great show by opening the mouth, +and present a rather fierce appearance, but when touched by man or +animal, they pretend to be dead, and this very characteristic habit has +given rise to the expression, "playing 'possum."</p> + +<p>While the opossum is a nocturnal animal, it is sometimes seen in +daylight, but this is of rare occurrence. They do not hibernate but will +remain in the dens during cold weather, and do not like to roam about +when the leaves are dry and rustly.</p> + +<p>The dens are, as a rule, located in the ground,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> under a rock, log or +tree, and are quite shallow; the nest at the extremity being lined with +leaves or grass. They also den in hollow logs and stumps occasionally, +and in natural openings in rock bluffs.</p> + +<p>The young of this animal are born in the last half of April and the +beginning of May, the number of young varying from six to twelve, and +sometimes even more. When born they are very small and imperfectly +formed and are immediately placed by the mother in the pouch on her +belly, where they remain until they have attained a perfect form and +have become large enough to walk about. After being placed in the pouch, +they attach themselves to the teats of the mother, and remain in that +condition until they have become large enough to move about.</p> + +<p>On leaving the pouch, they quite often ride about, when tired, on the +mother's back, holding fast by winding their tails about that of the +parent. They will reach their full growth within a year, if the +conditions are favorable—that is, if they have plenty of food, etc. In +captivity, when well cared for, they attain considerable size by +midwinter.</p> + +<p>The opossum is omnivorous, feeding alike on animal and vegetable food, +but it prefers flesh to fruit. They feed on carrion, and on any small +animal which their slow movements will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> allow of capturing, also on eggs +and young birds, for they are good climbers. They are quite fond of wild +fruits, such as persimmons, polk berries, apples and paw-paws; also of +certain vegetables, especially onions. They also eat mice, insects, etc.</p> + +<p>Opossums are hunted extensively in the South, and when pursued they +usually climb the nearest tree, unless they are close to the den. As an +article of food they are highly esteemed, especially by the colored +people, and find a ready sale in the market.</p> + +<p>While the fur of this animal is not, strictly speaking, a valuable one, +to the prospective fur-farmer it is well worth considering, especially +if located near a market. At present prices the young animals by +midwinter, will average a dollar each in value, when selling both the +skin and carcass. The ease with which they may be raised is also an +important factor, so that on the whole, in many sections, they will be +found to be a profitable animal to handle.</p> + +<p>Opossums are fairly good climbers and the enclosure should have a wide +strip of tin around, as described elsewhere in the chapter on +Enclosures. They will also gnaw out of wooden enclosures if there is a +crack or any chance to get a start. They will readily climb out of the +enclosure if made of wood unless covered or at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> least partially covered. +There has been no better or cheaper material found for constructing +fences for opossum raising purposes than galvanized wire.</p> + +<p>They are not much given to digging and the wire need not be buried very +deep in the earth. If the ground is solid, 18 inches will be deep +enough. The animals, if properly fed, watered and cared for, will soon +become accustomed to their quarters, and make little or no effort to +escape. The young will become tame and quite playful.</p> + +<p>The natural home of the opossum can be described as south of a line +drawn west from New York City through Pennsylvania, Northern Ohio and +Indiana, south of Chicago, through Iowa near Des Moines, and into +Nebraska near Omaha, extending about half way into Nebraska, then South +through Kansas, all of Oklahoma and the lowlands or the Eastern half of +Texas. The opossum is not a cold weather animal, and in its wild state +would freeze if it inhabited territory much farther north than the +northern boundary of the line shown. A severe winter a few years ago, is +said to have frozen large numbers in their dens in Southern Ohio, +Pennsylvania, and parts of West Virginia, Indiana and Illinois.</p> + +<p>In their natural or wild state, they often<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> hole up in shallow dens, old +logs, trees, etc., and while they are endowed with the instinct of +"playing 'possum" when injured, their instinct along other lines seems +very shallow, as they do not always know enough to "get in out of the +cold;" in other words, on the approach of severe winter weather, they do +not all seek deep dens where the ground does not freeze.</p> + +<p>While the natural home of the opossum is in the section as outlined, +there is no reason why they cannot be successfully raised hundreds of +miles north of their northern limit. The thing to guard against will be +freezing. The raiser must see that they have good and deep burrows—deep +enough that the ground will never freeze to their nest. They should have +plenty of leaves in their nest. If the enclosure is in a thicket, and +there are trees within and leaves near, the animals will no doubt carry +an abundance of leaves into their dens for nests. If there are no trees +in the enclosure, see that a supply is furnished each den before +freezing weather in the Fall.</p> + +<p>The opossum is going to become one of the important animals in +fur-farming for various reasons: They are prolific breeders, bringing +forth from 6 to 12 at a litter; grow rapidly; are easily fed and eat a +great variety of food.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 681px;"> +<img src="images/fig21.jpg" width="681" height="520" alt="Ideal Spot for an Opossum or Raccoon Fur Farm." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Ideal Spot for an Opossum or Raccoon Fur Farm.</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p> + +<p>The opossum raiser has two sources of revenue—fur and carcass. There is +a ready market for the carcasses in all cities. The grower should make +arrangements with butchers and others to take so many carcasses on a +certain date. The fur is at its best from about Thanksgiving to the +middle of February. Thanksgiving, Christmas and New Years are three +holidays when the fur will be prime and the meat in demand. In cities +like New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Pittsburg, Buffalo, +Cleveland, Detroit, Columbus, Cincinnati, Indianapolis, Chicago, +Milwaukee, Omaha, Des Moines, Kansas City, St. Louis, etc., a market can +be had in each for large quantities at each of these holidays, as well +as considerable quantities each week during the winter months. In the +smaller places, from 5000 up, there will be found a demand for the meat, +so that the market for the carcasses as well as fur, is one that will +always be open. Prices at which the carcasses sell will of course vary, +depending to some extent upon the supply of other meats, as well as the +times, etc.</p> + +<p>When it is taken into consideration that the litters are large; that +they eat cheap food; their growth is rapid and that the pelt is extra, +does not this animal promise to lead as a money maker over some of the +other and higher priced fur-producers?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the latitude of West Virginia, the young are born about the middle of +April. In two months, or by June fifteenth, they are about the size of +rats and always "gaining." Six months later, or December fifteenth, if +well fed and cared for, they will weigh from nine to fifteen pounds. By +this it will be seen that at only eight months old—born April fifteenth +and killed December fifteenth—they have attained sizes ranging from +medium to large.</p> + +<p>The males should be kept by themselves, at least from the time the young +are born, until they are two months of age or older. The female, with +her large family, should be given plenty of food from the time the young +are a few days old until weaned, as she requires a great deal of food to +satisfy her cravings and to supply the numerous young.</p> + +<p>As the severe weather is over by the time the young are born, very good +places for the old can be made in boxes, old logs and the like. These +should be so placed and constructed that food can be given to the female +handily, so as not to disturb her and the young more than necessary.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER IX.</h2> + +<h3>MUSKRAT RAISING.</h3> + + +<p>The muskrat is one of our most common fur-bearing animals and is found +in greater numbers than any other animal, notwithstanding its fur is +very popular and is gradually increasing in value.</p> + +<p>Muskrats are found throughout the greater part of the United States and +Canada, but for various reasons are more plentiful in certain sections. +Being water animals they are found in greater numbers in marshy places, +on ponds and lakes and sluggish rivers, but also thrive and are found in +fair numbers on the smaller and more rapid streams. They are very +plentiful in Western Canada and especially in the marshy country lying +west of Hudson's Bay. In the salt water marshes of Delaware and Maryland +they are probably found in greater numbers than in any other part of the +world. There, hundreds of the houses of these little creatures may be +seen in every direction.</p> + +<p>It is said that the value of the catch from Dorchester County, Md., will +usually run to $20,000 a year and in some seasons reaches almost<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> to +$50,000. The number of animals required to reach such a figure must +necessarily be very large and the number of muskrats found in that +locality may be judged from the fact that the open season for these +animals and the only time of year when they are trapped, is during the +months of January, February and March. They are also very plentiful in +the marshes along the western shore of Lake Erie and about Lake +Champlain. They are not found on parts of the Pacific Coast and portions +of the South and never range south of the State of Arizona.</p> + +<p>While there is only one species of the muskrat, naturalists find several +varieties differing mainly in size and color. For instance, there is the +southern muskrat, which is comparatively small and is dull sooty in +color, found in the lower Mississippi Valley and along the coasts of +Mississippi and Alabama; then there is the Dismal Swamp Muskrat of the +Dismal Swamp, Va., which is larger, darker and richer colored than the +common variety and has larger teeth. In Labrador a small and very dark +variety is found.</p> + +<p>The muskrat of the Northwest, while of the same variety as those of the +Central and Eastern districts, are small and thin skinned and as a +consequence are less valuable. What causes this difference in size is +not known, but it is supposed to be due either to the presence of alkali +in most of the Northwestern waters or to the scanty and poor quality of +its natural food.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 723px;"> +<img src="images/fig22.jpg" width="723" height="349" alt="Fur Farm on Open Ground near a Farmhouse." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fur Farm on Open Ground near a Farmhouse.</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p> + +<p>The popularity of muskrat fur is on the increase, while large numbers +are exported to foreign countries, it is being more and more used in the +United States and Canada. At present it is much used for lining ladies +coats and its rich appearance when used in this way seems certain to +increase its popularity. It is also dyed and is then known as electric +seal and French seal.</p> + +<p>The great demand for the fur during the past two seasons has resulted in +such persistent hunting and trapping that the number of animals in many +sections has decreased visibly and as a consequence the spring catch has +been comparatively light.</p> + +<p>Just before this book went to press, considerable inquiry was made about +the supply of raw fur the past season. The general report was that the +catch of Spring Rats in 1909 was perhaps not more than 25% what it was +the year prior. The fall catch of 1908 and the winter catch of 1908-9 +was quite heavy.</p> + +<p>From this it appears that the high prices of muskrat during the months +of October, November and December, 1908, caused an unusual number of +hunters and trappers to seek these animals. The consequence being that +they were caught off much closer than ever before.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span></p> + +<p>To further bear this out, dealers say that in many of the Central States +where last year they collected 20,000 during March and April, this year +they only secured 4000 or 5000. Trappers say that there are very few +muskrats left in certain localities. This shows that continued trapping +will practically exterminate the muskrat.</p> + +<p>Along the Atlantic Coast south from New York for hundreds of miles the +marshes along the coast, bays, rivers and creeks are literally alive +with muskrats. The marsh owners farm out the "rat catching" privileges, +usually on the halves. The State of Delaware protects the rats some +eight or nine months each year. There are laws in several other states +protecting these animals. A few states prohibit the destroying of rat +houses at all times.</p> + +<p>While hundreds of people follow rat catching along the marshes the +owners and state see that enough are left for breeding and replenishing +the marshes. They get their food from the flags and other weeds largely, +which flourish in these swamps. Fifty acres of "swamp" has been known to +furnish 2000 rats or fifty per acre year after year.</p> + +<p>In this section black muskrats are not uncommon, the catch some seasons +running as high as 40% black, but as a rule it is lower. What causes +this strange color phase is unknown.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> Black muskrats are met with +occasionally in other sections but nowhere is the proportion as large as +along the East Coast.</p> + +<p>What nature in a way does for the muskrat in the Eastern swamps, fur +raisers can help to accomplish in hundreds of localities throughout +America. There are scores of ponds, small lakes, swamps, etc., in +practically all states where the muskrat is found that can be made to +yield large profits from muskrats. They are easily raised, in fact, will +raise themselves if given "half a chance."</p> + +<p>There is no doubt whatever that the fur of this animal will steadily +increase in value. While there will be fluctuations as in the past, we +do not believe that prices will ever go as low as they were some years +ago. Our conclusions in this are based on the fact that the catch is +growing smaller and the popularity of furs for wearing apparel and +especially muskrat fur, is steadily increasing, also the population of +all countries grows larger each year and there is bound to be a steady +demand for furs.</p> + +<p>Another thing worthy of consideration is the fact that the flesh of the +muskrat has become a very popular dish in many of the Eastern cities and +there is a market for the carcass of the animal. The trappers of +Maryland and Delaware find ready sale for the flesh.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p> + +<p>The muskrats found on the East Coast as well as those found in the +marshes and the shallow lakes and ponds of other parts of the country +are of the house building kind. It should be understood, however, that +the muskrat living in houses and those living in burrows in the banks of +streams are the same variety, their different, styles of habitation +being due to the different conditions of their respective locations. +Where streams are swift or where there is danger of the houses being +carried away by freshets, they dig burrows in the bank, making the +entrance below the surface of the water.</p> + +<p>These burrows extend sometimes twenty-five or thirty feet into the bank +and the interior chamber is sometimes quite large. Along the streams of +the farming sections, much damage is done by muskrats because of these +burrows.</p> + +<p>The houses of the marsh-dwellers are composed of grass and flags, grass +roots, mud, etc. They are of cone shaped structure and to those +unacquainted with the animals, they are simply piles of grass and weeds +in the water, for that is what they resemble. The entrances to these +houses are always deep under water. It is said that the muskrats build +their houses with thicker walls when they feel instinctively that an +unusually severe winter is approaching.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/fig23.jpg" width="550" height="376" alt="Muskrat House in a Marsh." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Muskrat House in a Marsh.</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p> + +<p>In addition to the house the animals build small feeding places near by. +These feed beds as they are called, are constructed in the same way as +the houses, but only rise to the level of the water. These beds are the +dining rooms of the muskrats, for to them they bring all of their food +so that they may have a place to rest while they are enjoying their +meal. They also have like the raccoon, a habit of washing their food +before they will eat it.</p> + +<p>The muskrat is a vegetarian and seldom eats any animal food. In the wild +state their natural food is grass and roots, fruit, grain and clams or +mussels. They are also fond of parsnips, carrots, artichokes, white flag +roots, wild rice, pond lily roots, sweet corn and pumpkin, and will eat +almost all kinds of vegetables.</p> + +<p>It will be seen that in captivity the food problem would be easily +solved. They are very fond of wild rice, and those who have ponds +suitable for muskrats and are contemplating the raising of these animals +would do well to sow them with wild rice. The rice may be obtained from +almost any of the seed houses and it will grow in six or eight feet of +water. They are also fond of pumpkins and it is a cheap and satisfactory +food.</p> + +<p>Some of them will lay up stores of food for winter, but they do not all +do this. Where the streams are rapid they can get out to hunt for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> food +at almost all times, and where they are located on lakes and marshes +that freeze over in winter they can find plenty of food in the water +under the ice. This food is taken to the feed bed to be eaten.</p> + +<p>In early spring the warmth from their bodies will sometimes thaw a hole +through the ice over the bed and the muskrat stops this hole with grass +roots, etc. The trapper is looking for just such places and it is the +bunch of grass roots on the ice that gives them away. The steel trap is +soon in place, awaiting the coming of the animal, and many of them are +trapped in this way.</p> + +<p>The breeding habits of the muskrat are different from those of other +fur-bearing animals, as they will have three litters in a season. The +first are born in April, and there will be from six to nine young. It is +claimed that the female of the first litter will also bear young that +season and this accounts for the small rats, or kits, caught during the +fall season.</p> + +<p>It would appear from this that the animals should increase in numbers +very rapidly, but they have many enemies other than man, and perhaps +one-half of the muskrats born in a season never reach maturity. With the +exception of man, their greatest enemies are the birds of prey, such as +owls, hawks, buzzards, etc., but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> chiefly the owl, as it is a nocturnal +bird and has a fine opportunity to capture the unwary. The fox +frequently makes a capture, as does also the mink and otter.</p> + +<p>It is a deplorable fact that there is a large proportion of small +animals in the trapper's catch. These are the young muskrats, for while +they grow rapidly the first summer, it requires several years for them +to attain full size, yet they class as No. 1 the first season. The old +animals are larger and their fur is more valuable than that of the +young. For those who raise the animals there would be less trouble from +catching young and immature rats.</p> + +<p>Muskrats do not become fully prime until midwinter and many of them are +not strictly number one until March. When fully prime the skin will be +of a cream or pink color, with no dark spots showing. Winter caught +skins will have a number of dark spots, while those taken in the fall +have a very pronounced stripe or two on the back.</p> + +<p>Along the Atlantic Coast for many years land owners have rented the rat +catching privileges to "ratters" on shares, which is generally one-half +of the catch. The "ratters" only trap when the fur is at its best, so +that the supply is holding out. On lands "free for all" the rats are +thinned out.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p> + +<p>During recent years, property owners in various rat producing sections +have awakened to the fact that their "swampy land" is of more value for +the animal fur harvest than for any other purpose.</p> + +<p>Muskrats are easily raised and increase rapidly. They often make their +homes in the banks of canals, fish ponds, etc., coming from nearby +waters of their own accord. These places seem to be ideal places for +muskrats and instead of their leaving they remain year after year, even +though they are trapped and the property owners resort to other means +endeavoring to get rid of them. Muskrats are not afraid of civilization, +and do well in thickly settled sections where there are rivers, creeks, +lakes, ponds, marshes, etc. They seem to do well in their natural state +where they have water and feed and on some ponds hundreds are caught +annually.</p> + +<p>As already mentioned, these animals need little care. If the waters +where the animals are is naturally productive of muskrat food, the +animals will take care of themselves unless the numbers are too large +and they consume the entire food supply. The raisers should guard +against this by feeding, as the natural supply should be protected so as +to help furnish the food supply year after year.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p> + +<p>Lakes, ponds, etc., that abound in wild rice, flags, lilies, etc., make +an ideal home for muskrats, as they are fond of both the wild rice seed +and roots, as well as the roots of flags and lilies, on which they feed +when the surface is frozen over. Artichokes should also be started, as +muskrats are fond of them.</p> + +<p>Those who expect to raise this fur-bearer should take into consideration +that little or no fencing is required on lakes, ponds and creeks if +proper feed grows there. If the feed is not there the prospective raiser +should see that it is started at once by sowing wild rice seed, +transplanting some flags and lily roots to his muskrat waters. In fact, +the prospective muskrat raiser should have the food supply well under +way before the rats are brought or secured or they will destroy it.</p> + +<p>There are no doubt hundreds of places that can be converted into ideal +"muskrat preserves" by a little work. Low, marshy land on which the +water is not deep enough to be dammed. Such a place would require a wire +fence around it. Perhaps the best way would be to place the fence +several rods back from the water, as there would then be no danger of +the animals burrowing under. The fence should be of five-foot wire, one +foot in the ground. Where the fence crosses any inlets or outlets, the +wire should be put<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> much deeper for two rods or more on each side and it +would be well to place flat stones in the bottom of the trench, as shown +and described in the chapter on Enclosures.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER X.</h2> + +<h3>RACCOON RAISING.</h3> + + +<p>The raccoon is closely allied to the bears, although much smaller. Like +them it possesses an omnivorous appetite, is plantigrade, and hibernates +during cold weather. It is found throughout the Southern, Central and +Eastern States, and in Southern Ontario and Nova Scotia. It is also +found in good numbers on the Pacific coast, northward into British +Columbia; but they are found in greatest numbers in the extreme South of +the United States, and especially in Florida, Louisiana and the lowlands +of Arkansas and Texas.</p> + +<p>Their natural home is in the heavily timbered parts, but they are also +found in the sparsely wooded bottom lands of the Central States.</p> + +<p>They den, as a rule, in hollow trees, well up from the ground, and +seldom if ever in a tree which has a continuous hollow and an opening at +the bottom, preferring a hollow, broken off limb, or a hole in the +trunk, high up on the tree. In some places they den in natural caves in +the rocks, and in the western part of their range, it is said that they +sometimes occupy dens in some high and dry bank of earth. During the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +mating season the males travel considerably, and will, when daylight +approaches, seek a place of rest in any hollow tree that is to be found, +or failing to find this, may spend the day in a hollow log or under a +stump.</p> + +<p>The mating season comes mainly, late in February or early in March, and +the young, from four to six in number, are born in April and the +beginning of May. They remain with the parents for some time during the +summer, but will find a den for themselves as soon as possible. However, +they will be found, the first season, in the near vicinity of the +parents' den.</p> + +<p>The food of the coon is variable, to conform with conditions of +different sections, but wherever found, they feed on both vegetable and +animal food. Fish, frogs, crawfish, clams, eggs of birds, and turtles; +water snails, wild fruits, such as grapes and berries, nuts, acorns, +etc., are all eaten with a relish. They are especially fond of corn when +in the milky state, and in late summer they feed on it extensively. They +are fond of poultry, also of honey, and will dig out the nests of bumble +bees when they find them, for the sake of the little bit of "sweet" +which is found therein.</p> + +<p>They are nocturnal animals and are seldom seen by daylight. In their +travels they follow the streams mostly, and catch fish by feeling<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> under +the stones in shallow water. Whenever possible, they wash their food +before eating.</p> + +<p>The raccoon has a peculiar cry, which is heard sometimes, on still +nights, during the summer. It is a quavering note somewhat resembling +that of the screech owl, but lower and softer, and seems to come from a +distance, though really close by. To one inexperienced in the ways of +this animal, the cry would not be recognized.</p> + +<p>The fur of the raccoon meets with ready sale at fair prices, and there +is also sale for the flesh in many markets. There is considerable +difference in color in individual animals, some of them being very dark, +and others quite pale. Of course the northern animals are more heavily +furred than those of the south.</p> + +<p>The darker and larger specimens, as a rule, are secured in the northern +states—New York, Pennsylvania, Northern Ohio, Northern Indiana, +Northern Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and the Northwest. The +greatest numbers, but smaller and lighter colored, are secured from the +southern states, those bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, Tennessee, +Arkansas, Missouri, and Kentucky.</p> + +<p>While raccoon can be raised in nearly all parts of America, the best +furred specimens can only be raised where the climate is productive of +good fur,—say north of 40 degrees. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> would be on a line passing +through Philadelphia, south of Pittsburg, just north of Columbus, +through Central Indiana and Illinois, northern Missouri, boundary +between Kansas and Nebraska, north of Denver, and on to the Pacific +Ocean.</p> + +<p>It is not meant that coon cannot be profitably raised south of this line +indicated, for they can. The chances, however, are that far south of the +line mentioned, the skins would not be as valuable and being nearer the +coon-producing section, there would not be as ready a market for the +carcasses.</p> + +<p>The coon raiser should secure good dark males and females for breeding +purposes, from northern sections. If unable to do this, a good male or +two crossed with the females, would help to produce larger and darker +animals. This is important, as the larger and darker the pelt, the more +valuable, and the larger the carcass the more it brings.</p> + +<p>That raccoons do well in captivity is well known from the many kept in +zoos, parks, etc. Countless numbers have been caught while young, when +they soon become tame and interesting pets. Even those caught when +grown, soon become accustomed to their owners and keepers. They can be +handled and become amusing pets. They know strangers and will often<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> put +their paws over their eyes and look between their toes, thinking +perhaps, that the stranger cannot see them, while their paws are over +their eyes.</p> + +<p>Large numbers of raccoons could be raised by fencing in a piece of +woods, embracing a few acres, with a creek running through. If the fence +was considerable distance from the edge of the woods, it is doubtful if +the animals would make much effort to escape. The places they would be +apt to frequent the most, would be where the stream entered and left the +enclosure. At these places the fence should be extra high, strong and +secure.</p> + +<p>The raccoon and opossum farmer have a double advantage where their +"farm" is situated near a city. First, if the fur farm is one containing +a large number of animals, the supplying of food will be quite a problem +and the city offers a means of plenty and cheap food for your animals, +such as offals from slaughter houses and other feed. Second, the city +offers a market for the meat at "killing time".</p> + +<p>While raccoon will eat decayed meat to some extent, it should be +furnished them fresh, in which condition it is much better for them. +Most animals will eat carrion, yet it is doubtful if it is advisable to +feed when in such condition. Putrid flesh is unhealthy and some claim, +causes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> fur-bearing animals to become affected with mange.</p> + +<p>Raccoon are naturally a clean animal, and in their wild state are +particular that their food is clean. They seldom, if ever, eat left-over +food or flesh that has become tainted.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 440px;"> +<img src="images/fig24.jpg" width="440" height="194" alt="Barrel Shelter for Female and Young." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Barrel Shelter for Female and Young.</span> +</div> + +<p>That raccoon raising promises well is borne out from the fact that they +are easily handled, eat a variety of food easily secured, and their fur +and meat both have a ready cash market. The pelt of a full grown and +dark raccoon is worth from $1.00 to $2.00, depending upon the section; +to this add from 40c to 75c for the carcass and it will be seen that the +raccoon brings to its owner $1.40 to $2.50 or upwards. This price is for +the better grade. The smaller and lighter colored skins from the more +southerly sections, will perhaps only bring two-thirds as much—75 cents +to $1.50 for the pelts and 25 to 50 cents for the carcass.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p> + +<p>At what other "branch of farming" is there greater profit? No one is +going to become immensely rich "at coon raising" in a few years, but if +they enter the business and give the same attention and care to it that +they would to poultry, sheep, horses and cattle, there is reason to +believe that the profits will be as large if not larger. Again, the +person who loves the handling of fur-bearing animals will be making his +living at the business he enjoys most.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 380px;"> +<img src="images/fig25.jpg" width="380" height="221" alt="Fur Farm on Open Ground." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fur Farm on Open Ground.</span> +</div> + +<p>Those who expect to raise coon in a small enclosure, should have the +wire turned in several feet at the top, or the chances are they will +follow along the under side to the edge and thus escape. In the +enclosure for raccoon, the strip of tin around the fence some three or +four feet high is strongly recommended. There should be some logs, dens, +and low, branchy trees for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> animals to play in is to their liking. +The more homelike their enclosure, the sooner they become contented. +This means that they grow faster, which is all to the financial interest +of the coon raiser.</p> + +<p>An enclosure of several acres for coon, taking in trees suitable for +dens, could be used for fox raising as well. The coon would raise their +young in the "den trees" and therefore would not bother the foxes, as +those having young would be in pens. The male foxes having access to the +entire enclosure might steal the feed for the female coon left at the +roots of the den trees. Should there be trouble on this point, the food +could be placed on a platform against the body of the tree out of reach +of the foxes.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XI.</h2> + +<h3>THE BEAVER AND OTTER.</h3> + + +<p>These two very important fur-bearing animals were once quite numerous +throughout practically the whole of the United States and Canada, but +because of the persistency with which they were hunted, have become rare +in many of the sections where they were once found in abundance. +Especially is this true of the beaver. Almost all of the states in which +beavers are still found, as well as the various provinces of Canada, +have made laws to protect these animals, but they are still hunted and +trapped, and the day is not far distant when the beaver will be extinct.</p> + +<p>The otter is a more wary animal than the beaver, and as a consequence +will linger within the bounds of civilization long after the beaver has +disappeared, but for all this they are becoming very rare in most of the +settled sections. As these animals both belong to different orders and +their habits are entirely different, it will be necessary to take up +each separately.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Beaver.</span>—As before mentioned, the beaver has become extinct in many +sections<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> where it was once found, and at present they are practically +confined to Canada, Alaska, the Northern States and the Western mountain +regions. A few are still found in the more isolated portions of the +South, but there they are quite rare except in a few small sections. +Thruout the Central and many of the Eastern and Southern States, they +have entirely disappeared. There is only one species of the beaver, but +there are several varieties, all of which are very much alike in +appearance and the habits of all are the same, except where it is +changed because of difference in food, climate, etc.</p> + +<p>The beaver has always been an interesting animal, not only to those +directly interested in furs, but to all others, and practically +everybody knows something regarding the habits of the animal. One of +their most remarkable habits is that of building dams on the stream, or +at the outlet of the pond or lake on which they are located. These dams +are intended to regulate the height of the water. They will vary from +two to five feet in height, and from twenty to one hundred yards in +length, according to the size of the stream and the nature of the +shores.</p> + +<p>The dams are composed of sticks and chunks of wood, stones, sods, etc. +They always watch the dam closely and keep it in repair, and each fall +it is strengthened by adding new material.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> In addition to the main dam +there are, as a rule, one or more smaller dams built lower down stream. +What these small dams are for is not known for a certainty, but +sometimes, when the lower dam backs the water up to the large one, the +beavers will, in the fall after the ice has formed, dig a passage +through the upper dam, which allows the water to fall and leaves an air +space between the water and the ice, and it is perhaps for this reason +that the smaller dams are constructed.</p> + +<p>Somewhere on the edge of the pool where the water is not too deep, the +beavers make their lodge, or house. These houses sometimes rise eight +feet above the water and will measure fifteen feet in diameter. They are +constructed of the same materials as used for the dam, and are always +repaired and strengthened before freezing weather comes. There are two +entrances to the house and they are always located deep under water.</p> + +<p>The food of the beaver consists principally of bark of poplar, birch, +willow, cottonwood, alder and wild cherry. They are also fond of the +roots of the water lily. In the South it is said that they quite often +feed on corn, when located near the farms. They would doubtless eat many +kinds of roots and vegetables if same could be procured. In some few +sections, where<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> the nature of the stream is such that houses and dams +are not a success, the beavers live in holes in the bank of the stream +and are called "bank beavers"; however, they are the same variety as the +house building kind.</p> + +<p>In the Northern districts, where the ponds are covered with ice six +months of the year, the beavers spend the entire winter under the ice. +For this long period of imprisonment they must lay up a large store of +food. This food consists of small, green saplings and brush, cut into +suitable lengths and stored under water, in front of the house. They eat +only the bark and the peeled sticks are used to repair the house and +dam. The young beavers are born in April and May and there are usually +only two at a birth, but sometimes there will be three. These young +animals remain two years with the parents, so that a full family will +consist of the two old ones, two or three medium size and two or three +small beavers. However, there are "bachelor beavers", old males who +always live alone, and have a small house somewhere along the shore of a +stream or pond.</p> + +<p>It was the beaver that was most sought by the early trappers, for the +fur was more in demand than the fur of any other animal. At present it +is not as popular as in days of old, but we do not believe that its +value will decrease,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> as the catch becomes lighter each succeeding year. +The skins do not become prime as early as those of some other animals, +but are in good condition in advance of the muskrat. The fur of the +beaver, otter, muskrat and bear remains in good condition until late in +the spring.</p> + +<p>During the summer months many of the beavers travel about on the streams +and if a house is found at this time it may be deserted, or at the best, +only one or two animals will be found there. As fall approaches, they +all return to the lodge and from that time until the water is frozen +they will be hard at work laying up the winter's store of food.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Otter.</span>—The otter is occasionally met with in almost all parts of +North America, in some places fairly plentiful, in others very rare, but +they are found in greatest numbers in the swamps of some of the Southern +States, and in the wilder portions of Canada, Alaska and Newfoundland. +There are two species, the common otter and the sea otter, which latter +is only found in the North Pacific and is now quite rare. Of the common +otter there are some three or four varieties, differing only in size and +color. The habits of the otter are very little known by the average man, +and many of the trappers know little about this animal. They are +rambling<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> animals, traveling the streams and lakes for great distances. +They will travel sometimes ten or fifteen miles to visit some certain +lake and perhaps will only stay there over night. Again, if undisturbed, +they may remain for a month or more on some small pond.</p> + +<p>They are on very friendly terms with the beaver and will frequently +spend several weeks or months with a beaver family, apparently living in +the same house. If an otter knows the location of two or more families +of beavers, it will spend practically all of its time with one or other +of the beaver families, or may make frequent visits from one to the +other.</p> + +<p>The otter is an exceedingly active animal and is so much at home in the +water that it is able to catch fish with ease, and they are its +principal food. Where fish are plentiful, they will kill them merely for +pleasure, and what they can not eat, they will store up in some little +bay or inlet along the shore. These, however, are not placed there for +future use, as the otter will only eat food that is strictly fresh. +Besides fish, they also eat large numbers of frogs, which are easily +secured. They also eat muskrats and sometimes surprise these animals by +coming up into the houses from below, thus preventing the inmates from +escaping.</p> + +<p>The otter does not travel much on land, except<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> when crossing country +from one lake or stream to another. Their bodies being long and their +legs short, walking is, for them, rather difficult and their mode of +locomotion is a series of plunging leaps. On the snow or ice they move +along rapidly by throwing themselves forward, sliding on their bellies. +They are very playful animals and sometimes amuse themselves by sliding +down a slippery bank. They also have landing places where they go to +roll in the leaves and grass. In the spring they often lay for hours on +some old log by the side of the stream, basking in the warm sun. They +can remain a long time under water, and in winter travel long distances +under the ice,—in fact, they prefer to travel this way whenever +possible.</p> + +<p>The home of the otter is a burrow in the bank of a stream, the entrance +under water. At the end of the burrow is a nest lined with leaves and +grass. They also, sometimes, den in hollow logs and the trunks of hollow +trees. The dens are always located in the most secluded places, as far +as possible removed from danger of discovery. The young are born in +April or May and the number is from two to four.</p> + +<p>With regard to raising the beaver and otter for profit, we will say that +there has been comparatively few attempts at the business and we are +unable to get any authentic data with regard<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> to these experiments. +However, the animals do well in captivity, in zoos, and when kept by +private individuals, as pets, and it is our opinion that if one will but +go slowly and learn the habits and nature of the animals, a fair degree +of success may be attained. It should be understood that conditions must +be favorable and the animals should be given a range as nearly like +their natural home as possible. Of course, one could not make a success +of raising beavers in an open field. They must have wooded land where +their natural food, quaking aspen (sometimes poplar), birch, willow, +cottonwood, alder, is plentiful. A pool on some quiet little stream, +bordered by a large tract of forest, would be the proper place. Beavers +are not given to roaming, except during the summer months, and in such +cases they always return to their home before cold weather comes.</p> + +<p>We believe that the animals could not be raised successfully by any of +the plans recommended for the rearing of other fur-bearing animals, but +should simply be placed in a large enclosure, in the proper location, +and allowed to take care of themselves. The animals will breed perfectly +without any attention and there will be no danger of them killing their +offspring, as is the case with other fur bearers. There is no doubt that +the beaver and the otter will do<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> well in the same enclosure, for in the +wild state they are very sociable and are fond of one another's company.</p> + +<p>If otters are kept in an enclosed pond, it will be necessary to keep +them supplied with food, and perhaps the best way would be to keep the +ponds stocked with live fish and frogs. With the beaver the matter of +providing food is more simple, as it will only be necessary to make the +enclosure where their natural food is found in abundance.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XII.</h2> + +<h3>KILLING, SKINNING AND STRETCHING.</h3> + + +<p>When "killing time" comes, care should be taken to not frighten the +animals left for breeding purposes more than is absolutely necessary. +All animals that are tame enough should be driven into a separate +enclosure and out of sight of the others before being killed. Perhaps as +good a method of killing as any is to use a good club, striking on the +head just over the eyes or ears.</p> + +<p>The above method is not for skunk, as they should be killed without the +enclosure becoming so strongly scented. A pole several feet long with a +strong loop on the end can be slipped over their head and well back on +the neck. The animal can now be lifted clear off the ground and carried +wherever the killing is desired. If the killer does not mind a little +perfume he knocks them on the head, or if a barrel of water is handy +they can be drowned and few scent. The drowning, however, is not +recommended, as it takes the fur hours to dry and is therefore extra +work. Some even claim that the water spoils the luster of the fur to a +certain extent.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p> + +<p>Some animals, such as coon and skunk, do not leave their dens during +severe weather, so that it is advisable to begin selecting those that +are to be killed days and even weeks in advance of the time decided +upon. These should be placed in an enclosure or pen by themselves so +that the remaining ones will not be disturbed.</p> + +<p>Even those animals that come out to their feed regularly during the cold +days should be handled in a similar manner so as not to disturb those to +be kept.</p> + +<p>The animals that are to be kept for breeding purposes need not be fed so +heavily during the winter months or after those that were intended for +market have been killed. Of course in the spring after the females have +young, they must be fed heavily.</p> + +<p>Some raisers, as soon as the young are weaned, select those that are to +be killed the coming winter, keeping them separate from the breeding +stock so that they can be fed properly. That is a great saving of food, +as those for market should be fed much more than the breeders at this +season—say during the months of September, October and November.</p> + +<p>Much importance should be attached to the skinning and stretching of all +kinds of skins so as to command the highest commercial value. The otter, +foxes, marten, mink, opossum, civet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> and skunk should be cased, that is, +taken off whole.</p> + +<p>Commence with the knife in the center of one hind foot and slit up the +inside of the leg, up to and around the vent and down the other leg in a +like manner. Cut around the vent, taking care not to cut the lumps or +glands in which the musk of certain animals is secreted; then strip the +skin from the bone of the tail with the aid of a split stick gripped +firmly in the hand while the thumb of the other hand presses against the +animal's back just above. Make no other slits in the skin, except in the +case of the skunk or otter, whose tails require to be split, spread, and +tacked on a board.</p> + +<p>Turn the skin back over the body, leaving the pelt side out and the fur +side inward, and by cutting a few ligaments, it will peel off very +readily. Care should be taken to cut closely around the nose, ears and +lips, so as not to tear the skin.</p> + +<p>The beaver and raccoon should be skinned open; that is, ripped up the +belly from vent to chin after the following manner: Cut across the hind +leg as if to be "cased" and then rip up the belly. The skin can then be +removed by flaying as in skinning a beef.</p> + +<p>Many inexperienced trappers stretch coon skins too long and draw out the +head and neck.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> This can be avoided. Coon can be cased but most dealers +prefer to have them stretched open.</p> + +<p>You should have about three sizes of stretching boards for mink and fox. +For mink they should be 4-1/2 inches down to 3 inches and for fox from +6-1/4 inches down to 5 inches wide; in length the fox boards may be 4 +feet and the mink boards 3 feet.</p> + +<p>The boards should taper slightly down to within 8 inches of the end for +fox, and then rounded up to a round point. The mink boards should be +rounded at 4 or 5 inches from this point. You will vary the shape of the +board in proportion to the width. Stretching boards should not be more +than 3/8 inch thick. Have the boards smooth and even on the edges. Other +stretching boards should be made in proportion to the size and shape of +the animal whose skin is to be stretched.</p> + +<p>You should not fail to remove all the fat and flesh from the skin +immediately after the skin is on the board. If a skin is wet when taken +from the animal, it should be drawn lightly on a board until the fur is +quite dry. Then turn the skin flesh side out and stretch.</p> + +<p>Do not dry skins at a fire nor in the sun, nor in smoke. It often burns +them, when they will not dress and are of no value. Dry in a +well-covered shed or tent where there is a free circulation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> of air, and +never use any preparation, such as alum and salt, as it only injures +them for market. Never stretch the noses out long, as some trappers are +inclined to do, but treat them as above described, and they will command +better values. Fur buyers and dealers are inclined to class long nosed +skins as "southern" and pay a small price for them, as southern skins +are so much lighter than those of the north, in fur.</p> + +<p>Foxes of the various kinds should be cased and put on boards fur side in +for a few days, or until dry. As the pelt is thin, they soon dry, when +they must be taken off and should be turned fur side out. In shipping, +see that they are not packed against furs flesh side out.</p> + +<p>Skunk should be cased fur side in, and stretched on boards for several +days. The white stripe cut out, blackened, etc., reduces the value.</p> + +<p>Mink should be cased fur side in and stretched on boards for several +days or until dry.</p> + +<p>Muskrat should be stretched fur side in, and a few days on the board +will be sufficient. They are left as taken off, that is, fur side in. +Cut the tails off when skinning—they are worthless.</p> + +<p>Opossum are stretched on boards fur side in and are left in that +condition after removing the boards. Cut the tails off when +skinning—they have no value.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p> + +<p>Raccoon should be stretched open (ripped up the belly), and nailed on +boards or the inside of a building. Some dealers allow as much for coons +cased, from any section, while others prefer that only Southern coon, if +any, be cased.</p> + +<p>Otter are cased and stretched fur side in. The pelt being thick and +heavy, takes several days to dry properly. They are shipped flesh side +out.</p> + +<p>Beaver are split but stretched round and should be left in the hoop or +stretcher for several days.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XIII.</h2> + +<h3>DEER FARMING.</h3> + + +<p>This chapter is from Farmers' Bulletin 330, issued July 28, 1908, by +United States Department of Agriculture and written by D. E. Lantz, +Assistant, Biological Survey.</p> + +<p>The term "deer" is here used in its general sense, in which it includes +the elk, the reindeer or caribou, the moose and other species, besides +those usually referred to as deer.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="right"> +<span class="smcap">U. S. department of agriculture,<br /> +bureau of biological survey</span>,<br /> +<i>Washington, D. C., June 3, 1908.</i><br /> +</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: I have the honor to transmit the accompanying +manuscript on the subject of Deer Farming in the United +States, and to recommend its publication as Farmers' +Bulletin No. 330. As a result of the growing scarcity of +game animals in this country the supply of venison is wholly +inadequate to the demand, and the time seems opportune for +developing the industry of deer farming, which may be made +profitable alike to the state and the individuals engaged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +therein. The raising of venison for market is as legitimate +a business as the growing of beef and mutton, and state +laws, when prohibitory, as many of them are, should be so +modified as to encourage the industry. Furthermore, deer and +elk may be raised to advantage in forests and on rough, +brushy ground unfitted for either agriculture or stock +raising, thus utilizing for profit much land that is now +waste. An added advantage is that the business is well +adapted to landowners of small means.</p> + +<p class="right"> +Respectfully,<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">C. Hart Merriam</span>,<br /> +<i>Chief Biological Survey.</i><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Hon. James Wilson</span>,<br /> +<i>Secretary of Agriculture.</i><br /> +</p> +</div> + + +<h3>INTRODUCTION.</h3> + +<p>The present bulletin discusses briefly the economic possibilities of +raising deer and elk in the United States. It is believed that when the +restrictions now imposed by State laws are removed this business may be +made an important and highly profitable industry, especially since it +will be the means of utilizing much otherwise unproductive land. The +raising of venison should be, and is naturally, as legitimate a business +as the growing of beef or mutton, and State<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> laws should be so modified +as to permit the producer, who has stocked a preserve with deer at +private expense, to dispose of his product at any time, under reasonable +regulations, either for breeding purposes or for food.</p> + +<p>The growing scarcity of game mammals and birds in the United States and +the threatened extinction of some of them over large parts of their +present ranges make the preservation of the remnant highly important. +Very important also is the increase of this remnant so as to make game +once more abundant. It is believed that by means of intelligent game +propagation, both by the states and by private enterprise, many of our +depleted ranges can be restocked with big game.</p> + + +<h3>IMPORTANCE OF THE DEER FAMILY.</h3> + +<p>The members of the deer family (Cervidæ) rank next to the cattle and +sheep family (Bovidæ) in general utility, and are the most important of +the big game animals of America.</p> + +<p>Wherever obtainable in quantity the flesh of deer of different kinds has +always been a staple article of diet, and under present market +conditions it is hardly necessary to say that venison is perhaps the +most important game, being a favorite with epicures and also having a +wide<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> use as a substitute for beef and mutton, which meats it resembles +in texture, color, and general characteristics. Its flavor is +distinctive, though it suggests mutton rather than beef. In chemical +composition it is very similar to beef, though, judging from available +data, it is not so fat as stall-fed cattle. The following figures show +how it compares with beef and mutton: A lean venison roast before +cooking has been found to contain on an average 75 per cent of water, 20 +per cent of protein or nitrogenous material, and 2 per cent of fat; a +lean beef rump, some 65 to 70 per cent of water, 20 to 23 per cent of +protein, and 5 to 14 per cent of fat; a lean leg of mutton, 67 per cent +of water, 19 per cent of protein, and 13 per cent of fat.</p> + +<p>Venison, beef, and other common meats are very thoroughly digested, +whatever the method of cooking. Venison may be roasted, broiled, +pan-broiled, or used for making stews, in much the same way as beef. +Venison, particularly steak, to be at its best, should be eaten as soon +as possible after it is cooked.</p> + +<p>The general popularity of venison is so great and the demand for it so +widespread that over-production is improbable. The other products of the +deer—skins and horns—are of considerable importance, and in countries +where deer are abundant and especially where large herds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> are kept in +semi-domestication, the commerce in both is very extensive.</p> + + +<h3>THE DOMESTICATION OF DEER.</h3> + +<p>A number of species of the deer family have been proved to be +susceptible to domestication. The reindeer, however, is the only one +that has been brought fully under the control of man. The fact that the +European red deer and the fallow deer have been bred in parks for +centuries without domestication does not prove that they are less +susceptible to the process than the reindeer. The purposes for which +they have been held captive and the environment given them have been +markedly different. It must be remembered, also, that few attempts have +been made to rear and domesticate deer under intelligent management. The +work has been largely a matter of chance experiment. If they had been as +long under careful management as cattle, they would now, probably, be +equally plastic in the hands of a skillful breeder.</p> + +<p>But raising deer for profit does not necessarily imply their complete +domestication. They may be kept in large preserves with surroundings as +nearly natural as possible and their domestication entirely ignored. +Thus the breeder may reap nearly all the profit that could be expected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +from a domestic herd, while the animals escape most of the dangers +incident to close captivity. But the breeder who aims at the ultimate +domestication of the animals, and whose herd approaches nearest to true +domesticity, will in the end be most successful.</p> + + +<h3>SPECIES TO BE SELECTED FOR BREEDING.</h3> + +<p>The number of species of deer suited for breeding in inclosures in the +United States is great, though the chances for success are by no means +the same for all. As a rule those native to America are to be preferred, +since they are already acclimated. In selecting any species, similarity +between its natural habitat and that to which it is to be transferred +must be considered. Important, also, is its adaptability to varied +conditions, as shown by former attempts to acclimatize it.</p> + +<p>Unless they have shown a peculiar adaptability to such change, deer +should not be taken from arid parts of the United States to humid parts. +To a disregard of this principle are probably due many of the failures +that have attended experiments in breeding the American antelope, the +Columbia blacktail deer, the moose, and other animals in places +differing widely from their natural ranges.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p> + +<p>The history of attempts to acclimatize the several kinds of deer shows +that some readily adapt themselves to a great variety of conditions, and +efforts to introduce them into new countries have been almost uniformly +successful. Such has been the experience with the axis deer, the +Japanese and Pekin sikas, the red and the fallow deer of Europe, and +especially with the wapiti, or Rocky Mountain elk, and the Virginia +deer. While experiments with the foreign species named offer every +promise of success to the owners of American preserves, there are +obvious reasons for recommending the two native animals just mentioned +as best suited for the production of venison in the United States.</p> + + +<h3>THE WAPITI, OR ROCKY MOUNTAIN ELK.</h3> + +<p>The Wapiti (<i>Cervus canadensis</i>), including two related species and a +geographic race, and known in America as the elk, is, next to the moose, +the largest of our deer. It was once abundant over the greater part of +the United States, whence its range extended northward to about latitude +60° in the Peace River region of the interior of Canada. In the United +States the limits of its range eastward were the Adirondacks, western +New Jersey, and eastern Pennsylvania; southward it reaches the southern +Alleghenies,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> northern Texas, southern Mexico, and Arizona; and westward +the Pacific Ocean.</p> + +<p>For the practical purposes of this bulletin all the forms of the wapiti +are treated as a single species. At the present time the range of these +animals has so far diminished that they occur only in a few scattered +localities outside of the Yellowstone National Park and the mountainous +country surrounding it, where large herds remain. Smaller herds still +occur in Colorado, western Montana, Idaho, eastern Oregon, Manitoba, +Alberta, British Columbia, and the coast mountains of Washington, +Oregon, and northwestern California. A band of the small California +valley elk still inhabits the southern part of the San Joaquin Valley.</p> + +<p>The herds that summer in the Yellowstone National Park and in winter +spread southward and eastward in Wyoming are said to number about 30,000 +head, and constitute the only large bands of this noble game animal that +are left. Although protected in their summer ranges and partially +safeguarded from destruction in winter by the State of Wyoming, there is +yet great danger that these herds may perish from lack of food in a +succession of severe winters. Partial provision for winter forage has +been made within the National Park, but the supply is inadequate for the +large number of animals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> Further safeguards are needed to place the +Wyoming elk herds beyond the reach of winter starvation.</p> + +<p>In addition to the wild herds, there are a considerable number of elk in +private game preserves and parks, as well as in nearly all the public +zoological parks and gardens of this country. The herds in captivity +form the nucleus from which, under wise management, some of the former +ranges of this animal may be restocked and from which a profitable +business of growing elk venison for market may be developed. At the +present time this species affords a most promising field for ventures in +breeding for profit.</p> + + +<h4><i>Habits of Elk.</i></h4> + +<p>The elk is both a browsing and a grazing animal. While it eats grasses +freely and has been known to subsist entirely upon pasture, it seems to +prefer a mixture of grass and browse.</p> + +<p>The elk is extremely polygamous. The adult bulls shed their antlers +annually in March or April, and new ones attain their full size in about +ninety days. The "velvet" adheres until about August. While the horns +are growing the bulls usually lead solitary lives; but early in +September, when the horns are fully matured,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> the rutting season begins. +Fights for supremacy then take place, and the victor takes charge of as +many cows as he can round up and control. The period of gestation is +about 8-1/2 months. The female does not usually breed until the third +year, and produces but one calf at a time.</p> + +<p>Although the elk is less prolific than the common deer and some other +species that have been bred in parks, it increases fully as rapidly as +the common red deer of Europe. Moreover, it makes up for any lack of +fecundity by its superior hardiness and ease of management. It has been +acclimatized in many parts of the world, and shows the same vigor and +hardiness wherever it has been transplanted. In Europe it has been +successfully crossed with Altai wapiti and the red deer, and in both +instances the offspring were superior in size and general stamina to the +native stock.</p> + + +<h4><i>Elk Venison.</i></h4> + +<p>The flesh of the elk, although somewhat coarse, is superior in flavor to +most venison. That of the bulls is in its best condition about the time +the velvet is shed. By the time the rut is over, in October, their flesh +is in the poorest condition. As the open season for elk is usually in +October and November, and only bulls are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> killed, it follows that +hunters often obtain the venison when it is poorest. The meat is not +best when freshly killed, but should be left hanging for four or five +days before it is used. Of course fat elk are better eating than lean, +and it is said that venison from castrated bulls is superior to any +other.</p> + + +<h4><i>Domestication of Elk.</i></h4> + +<p>With few exceptions the early attempts to domesticate elk were made by +men who were wealthy enough to disregard all thought of profit in +raising them. They were usually placed under the care of servants and +the bucks were left uncastrated until they became old and unmanageable. +Soon the serious problem of controlling them outweighed the novelty of +their possession, and one by one attempts at domestication were +abandoned.</p> + +<p>A desire to preserve this important game animal has caused a renewal of +attempts to breed it in confinement, and at present there are small +herds under private ownership in many places in the United States. The +Biological Survey has recently obtained much information from owners of +herds in regard to their experience in breeding and rearing the animals, +and also their opinions as to the possibility of making the business of +raising them profitable. Of about a dozen successful breeders, nearly +all are of the opinion that raising elk for market can be made +remunerative if present laws as to the sale of the meat are modified.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/fig26.jpg" width="600" height="459" alt="Elk in Enclosure. Shelter in Background." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Elk in Enclosure. Shelter in Background.</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p> + +<p>One especially important fact has been developed by the reports from +breeders. It is that the elk readily adapts itself to almost any +environment. Even within the narrow confines of the paddocks of the +ordinary zoological park the animal does well and increases so that +periodically the herds have to be reduced by sales.</p> + +<p>The fullest reports that have been received by the Department of +Agriculture from breeders of elk are from George W. Russ, of Eureka +Springs, Ark., through H. N. Vinall, of the Bureau of Plant Industry.</p> + +<p>Mr. Russ has a herd of 34 elk. They have ample range in the Ozarks on +rough land covered with hardwood forest and abundant underbrush. The +animals improve the forest by clearing out part of the thicket. They +feed on buds and leaves to a height of 8 feet, and any growth under this +is liable to be eliminated if the range is restricted. If not closely +confined, elk do not eat the bark from trees, nor do they eat +evergreens. In clearing out underbrush from thickets they are more +useful than goats, since they browse higher. Goats, however, eat closer +to the ground; and as the two animals get along<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> well together, Mr. Russ +recommends the use of both for clearing up brushy land and fitting it +for tame grasses.</p> + +<p>The increase of elk under domestication is equal to that of cattle. +Fully 90 per cent. of the females produce healthy young. An adult male +elk weighs from 700 to 1,000 pounds; a female from 600 to 800 pounds. +The percentage of dressed meat is greater than with cattle, but, owing +to hostile game laws, experience in marketing it is very limited. An +offer of 40 cents a pound for dressed meat was received from St. Louis, +but the law would not permit its export. Mr. Russ says:</p> + +<p>"From the fact that as high as $1.50 per pound has been paid for this +meat in New York City and Canada, and that the best hotels and +restaurants pronounce it the finest of all the meats of mammals, we are +of the opinion that if laws were such that domesticated elk meat could +be furnished it would be many years before the supply would make the +price reasonable compared with other meats. Elk meat can be produced in +many sections of this country at less cost per pound than beef, mutton, +or pork."</p> + +<p>Mr. Russ thinks that large areas of rough lands in the United States not +now utilized, especially in localities like the Ozarks and the +Alleghanies, could be economically used to produce<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> venison for sale, +and he regards the elk as especially suited for this purpose.</p> + +<p>Another feature of Mr. Russ's report is of more than passing interest. +He says:</p> + +<p>"We find from long experience that cattle, sheep, and goats can be +grazed in the same lots with elk, providing, however, that the lots or +inclosures are not small; the larger the area the better. We know of no +more appropriate place to call attention to the great benefit of a few +elk in the same pasture with sheep and goats. An elk is the natural +enemy of dogs and wolves. We suffered great losses to our flocks until +we learned this fact; since then we have had no loss from that cause. A +few elk in a thousand-acre pasture will absolutely protect the flocks +therein. Our own dogs are so well aware of the danger in our elk park +that they can not be induced to enter it."</p> + +<p>Judge Caton, in his Antelope and Deer of America, also remarks on the +animosity of elk toward dogs, and says that the does always lead in the +chase of dogs that get into the elk park. If elk will attack and +vanquish dogs and coyotes and thus help to protect domestic animals +grazing in the same pastures, a knowledge of the fact may be of great +advantage to stockmen who desire to give up herding sheep and resort to +fenced pastures instead. The addition of a few<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> elk in the pasture may +be an efficient protection from dogs, coyotes, and wolves. However, +outside of fenced pastures elk do not always show themselves hostile to +dogs and coyotes.</p> + + +<h4><i>Management of Elk in Inclosures.</i></h4> + +<p>Lorenzo Stratton, of Little Valley, Cattaraugus County, N. Y., began +experiments in breeding elk about sixty years ago. His plan of +management consisted essentially in taming the calves when very young +and continuing the petting process with the entire herd. He visited the +animals daily in the pasture and always carried dainties to feed them. +As the bulls became old and developed signs of viciousness, they were +castrated, younger animals being used for breeding. He thus developed a +thoroughly domesticated herd.</p> + +<p>For economic reasons, it is not always possible to follow Mr. Stratton's +plan. Those who grow the animals for venison and in large preserves +would find it impracticable to tame all the calves. However, if elk or +deer are grown for stocking parks or private preserves, the tamer they +are the easier it will be to handle and ship them.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Range.</span>—In choosing a range for elk, the natural food supply is +important. They thrive best<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> in preserves having a variety of food +plants—grasses, bushes, and trees. Rough lands, well watered with clear +streams and having some forested area, are well adapted to their needs. +About as many elk can be kept on such a range as cattle on an equal area +of fair pasture. There should be thickets enough to furnish winter +browse, but this should be supplemented by a supply of winter forage.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Food.</span>—Except when deep snows cover the ground, elk will keep in good +condition on ordinary pasture and browse; but a system of management +that provides other food regularly will be found more satisfactory. Hay +and corn fodder are excellent winter forage; but alfalfa hay has proved +to be the best dry food for both elk and deer. A little oats or +corn—whole or chopped—may be fed each day. Elk are fond of corn, and +feeding it affords excellent opportunities for winning their confidence +and taming them. The same may be said of salt, which should be furnished +liberally to all deer kept in inclosures. Running water, although not +essential, is of great importance in maintaining elk in good condition.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fence.</span>—Elk are much less nervous than ordinary deer, and less disposed +to jump fences. When they escape from an enclosure they usually return +of their own accord. If tame, they may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> be driven like cattle. +Ordinarily, a 5-foot fence of any kind will confine elk. Henry Binning, +of Cora, Wyo., writes us that a 4-foot woven-wire fence is ample for +these animals. A small enclosure in which a vicious bull elk is to be +kept should be higher and of stronger material. Mr. Russ's report, +already partly quoted, states that where lumber for posts is cheap a +good elk fence may be built for $200 a mile. But the actual cost will, +of course, vary greatly according to style, price of labor, nearness to +market, and other circumstances.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cost of Stock.</span>—The cost of stocking an elk preserve is not great. +Usually surplus stock from zoological parks or small private preserves +may be obtained at low cost, varying with the immediate demand for the +animals. At times they have sold for less than $20 a head, and with the +present restrictions on sale, low prices are likely to continue. A few +years ago T. J. Wilson, of Lewisburg, Ohio, paid $165 for three animals. +A Michigan breeder recently offered to deliver a dozen head, sex and age +not given, all fine specimens, for $500. This is, of course, a low +price, not more than cattle would bring and less than the venison would +be worth if it could be sold. If restrictions on the sale and shipment +of venison from private preserves were removed, prices of the stock +would, of course,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> soon advance, and necessitate a greater outlay in +starting the business.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Vicious Male Elk.</span>—The male elk is ordinarily docile, but in the rutting +season the older ones often become ill-tempered and dangerous. Several +tragedies connected with attempts to domesticate elk are matters of +history. One was recorded by Judge Caton in his Antelope and Deer of +America as having occurred in his own park. Another took place at Bull +City, Osborne County, Kans., in October 1879, and resulted in the +instant death of Gen. H. C. Bull, the mortal wounding of two other men, +and the serious injury of another, from the attacks of an infuriated +bull elk that had previously been regarded as extremely gentle.</p> + +<p>Wild and unconfined deer and elk flee from man under nearly all +circumstances, but when wounded and closely pressed they have been known +to attack hunters. It is unlikely that, even in the rutting season, a +wild bull elk would attack a human being. But the tame or partially tame +animals that have become familiar with man are to be feared and should +not be approached in that season without extreme caution. A male elk or +deer that has once shown viciousness can not again be trusted.</p> + +<p>The remedy for viciousness in the male elk is castration. It is unsafe +to keep an uncastrated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> male elk over 4 years old, unless he is in a +strongly fenced inclosure from which visitors are excluded. The effects +of castration are to make the animal docile and to greatly enhance his +value for venison. This is in accord with observed results in the +production of beef, pork, and mutton. Venison grown in domestication +under a system in which the male animals intended for slaughter are +castrated should be uniformly of the highest grade and far superior to +that obtained in the wild state during the usual open season for +hunting. This consideration is of the greatest importance in fixing the +final status of venison grown under domestication.</p> + + +<h4><i>Breeding the Virginia Deer.</i></h4> + +<p>The Virginia, or whitetail deer (<i>Odocoileus virginianus</i>) is the common +deer of the United States. Including the half dozen geographic races +that occur within our borders, it is distributed over most of the +country, except Nevada and the major portions of Utah, Arizona, +Washington, Oregon, and California. It is extinct in Delaware and +practically so in a number of States in the Middle West. South of our +borders a number of closely related species occur.</p> + +<p>In view of the wide natural range of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> whitetail deer, its +adaptability to nearly all sections of the United States can not be +doubted. Testimony as to its hardiness in parks and preserves is not so +unanimous as that concerning the wapiti; but the general experience of +breeders is that with suitable range, plenty of good water, and +reasonable care in winter, raising this deer for stocking preserves or +for venison may be made as profitable as any other livestock industry. +Not only do deer thrive on land unsuited for cattle or horses, but, like +elk, they may be raised to great advantage in brushy or timbered +pastures fully stocked with cattle or horses, as the food of deer rarely +includes grass.</p> + +<p>Advocates of the Angora goat industry state that within the United +States there are 250,000,000 acres of land not suited to tillage or to +the pasture of horses, cattle, or sheep, which are well adapted to +goats. Much of this land is suited also to deer and elk, and can be +utilized for these animals with less injury to the forest cover than +would result from its browsing by goats.</p> + +<p>The whitetail deer has often been the subject of experiments in +domestication. The beauty of these animals, especially the fawns, +appeals to every admirer of wild life, and early settlers of the country +soon learned how easily they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> could be tamed and how promptly they +attached themselves to the persons who fed them. The dangerous character +of the same pets, especially the males, when grown up was soon learned +also. It followed that the domesticating process usually ended with the +maturity of the first subject, which was soon disposed of or banished to +a safe inclosure.</p> + +<p>The propagation of the Virginia deer has seldom been undertaken in a +systematic way. The animals have often been bred in parks for pleasure +or in large preserves for sport, but the economic possibilities in +raising them have received little attention. Recently breeders have +recognized the fact that they are profitable under proper management and +would be much more so were conditions for marketing live animals and +venison more favorable.</p> + + +<h4><i>Experiences of Breeders.</i></h4> + +<p>The Biological Survey has reports of successful experience in raising +Virginia deer from more than a dozen persons, located in different parts +of the country, who are now engaged in the business. The management of +the herds varies slightly with the surroundings and the object for which +they are kept.</p> + +<p>Thomas Blagden, of Washington, D. C., began<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> raising deer in 1874. After +an experience of over a third of a century he is confident that the +business can be made profitable. In his own herds he has carefully +avoided in-breeding by securing new bucks from time to time. His stock +is vigorous and of the large size characteristic of the Adirondack and +other northern deer. Consequently the animals are in demand for breeding +purposes, the bucks bringing $50 each and the does, $75. He feeds grain, +using corn and a mixture of bran and meal, and during the summer cuts as +much wild forage as possible. He finds that the animals prefer the +rankest weeds to the choicest grass. Of the various kinds of hay, they +prefer alfalfa. He provides abundant water at all times.</p> + +<p>John W. Griggs, of Goodell, Iowa, writes that he has been engaged in +raising deer for about fourteen years. Until two years ago he sold all +his surplus stock for parks, but since then has disposed of about half +of it for venison. For park purposes he gets $20 to $30 a head, but they +bring fully as much or more when fattened for venison. As to management +of deer, Mr. Griggs writes:</p> + +<p>"In raising a large herd the park should be divided into two or three +lots, and one plowed each year and sown to red clover, mustard, rape, +and seeds of different kinds of weeds. Bluegrass<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> and timothy are +useless. Corn is the principal grain I feed. I feed it winter and +summer. In winter I feed also clover hay, oat straw, and weedy wild hay. +Deer when rightly handled are very prolific, and from 50 does one can +count on 75 fawns. They can be raised profitably for venison—very +profitably until overdone; but I would not advise one to go into it on a +large scale without previous experience with deer."</p> + +<p>The report received from C. H. Roseberry, of Stella, Mo., although less +enthusiastic than others, is quoted because his herd approaches more +nearly a state of true domestication. Under date of January 13, 1908, +Mr. Roseberry wrote as follows:</p> + +<p>"My experience in breeding the common or Virginia deer covers a period +of seventeen years, beginning in March, 1891, when, as a boy of 16, I +built a small inclosure of 1-1/2 acres to confine a single doe that was +captured as a fawn in the neighboring forest.</p> + +<p>"A buck and other does were secured from year to year, until in 1900, by +purchase and natural increase, my herd numbered 25 head of all ages.</p> + +<p>"From 1891 to 1901 I lost every year from disease an average of 20 per +cent. The climax came in the drought year of 1901, when my loss<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> was 50 +per cent from the disease known as "black tongue."</p> + +<p>"I am convinced that, like cholera in swine, individuals recovering from +this disease are immune from further attack. Apparently all of my herd +were afflicted. The survivors and their progeny constitute my present +breeding stock. I have made no purchases since 1901, nor have I suffered +any loss from disease.</p> + +<p>"For the last seven years my herd has averaged 70 per cent increase, all +of which I have sold at satisfactory prices. I began selling at $20 per +pair of fawns at 4 months of age and $30 per pair of adults. I now get +$40 and $60, respectively. I sell almost exclusively for pets and for +propagating purposes, although a few surplus bucks have been sold for +venison, averaging me 15 cents per pound gross weight.</p> + +<p>"If we except the goat, I know of no domestic animal common to the farm +that requires so little feed and attention as the deer. My herd has a +range of only 15 acres, two-thirds of which are set to white clover, +bluegrass, and orchard grass. I provide also a small plat of wheat or +rye for winter pasture. With the above provision, in this latitude, no +feed is required between April 15 and November 15. During the rest of +the year a ration of corn, bran, or other mill feed somewhat smaller +than that required<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> for sheep, in connection with a stack of clover or +pea hay to which they have free access, is sufficient to keep them in +good condition. Deer eat with relish nearly all of the common coarse +weeds, and for clearing land of brush they are, I think, second only to +the common goat.</p> + +<p>"Probably the greatest expense connected with the business of raising +deer is the fencing. Another item of trouble and expense, when the +animals are raised for pets, requiring that they be handled and shipped +alive, is the fact that the fawns must be taken from the does when 10 +days old and raised by hand on cow's milk. They are quite easily raised +in this way, with but slight percentage of loss, but require frequent +and careful attention for the first month. When they are allowed to run +with the does their natural wildness can not be overcome, no matter how +gentle the does may be.</p> + +<p>"I have found the business profitable on the lines indicated. I believe +they could be profitably bred for venison alone—certainly with less +trouble and expense, since the fawns could be reared by the does and the +trouble and expense of raising by hand would be eliminated.</p> + +<p>"My experience does not coincide with that of some other breeders in +respect to the weakening of reproductive powers of deer by the +confinement<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> in parks. I have no barren does. Usually they produce a +single fawn at two years of age; afterwards twins, and in rare cases +triplets."</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 484px;"> +<img src="images/fig27.jpg" width="484" height="333" alt="Tame Deer Eating Watermelon." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Tame Deer Eating Watermelon.</span> +</div> + +<h4><i>Management of Virginia Deer.</i></h4> + +<p>As to the management of deer little need be added to the statements from +practical breeders already given. Virginia deer are polygamous, like +cattle; the rutting season is in November; the period of gestation is +about seven months, and the fawns are born in May or June. Young does +usually breed when about 17 months old and have but one fawn the first<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> +time; afterwards they commonly produce twins. The fawns are spotted +until the first shedding of the hair in the fall.</p> + +<p>While deer are chiefly browsing animals, in captivity they eat nearly +every kind of vegetation, including most kinds of garden stuff. They are +fond of acorns, beechnuts, chestnuts, and other mast. Lily pads, leaves, +lichens, and mosses are freely eaten. With plenty of range and an +abundant variety of plants there need be, therefore, no apprehension +concerning the deer's food. A good supply of running water must be +provided, and the animals should have access to rock salt. If the browse +and pasturage are scant, a small ration of grain should be fed. Of the +grains, corn is generally recommended as a food; there is no waste, as +the deer pick up every grain. Coarse hay full of weeds is preferable to +timothy or other tame hays, except alfalfa. Of clover hay, deer usually +eat the blossom heads greedily, but waste the other parts. In winter +feeding is necessary everywhere, and in the northern half of the United +States shelter of some kind should be provided.</p> + +<p>The remarks about castrating elk apply as well to the common deer. A +number of vigorous bucks, however, must be kept with any considerable +herd of does, for a single buck can not serve an unlimited number. +Frequent changes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> of blood by introducing new bucks should be practiced +to avoid in-breeding.</p> + + +<h4><i>Wild Deer in Private Game Preserves.</i></h4> + +<p>Individual owners, as well as associations, have established large +private preserves in many parts of the country and stocked them with +deer and other big game. The objects have been to preserve the animals +and to provide sport for the owners. In the free life under the +protected conditions generally provided, deer do remarkably well, the +increase being even more rapid than in small parks. There can be no +doubt of the success of ventures in propagating the Virginia deer under +natural conditions as wild game, as is proved by the experience of a +large number of hunting clubs and private owners.</p> + +<p>Deer in Buckwood Park, a New Jersey preserve of 4,000 acres, belonging +to Charles S. Worthington, increased in the ten years between 1892 and +1903 from 19 to about 400 head, and the number was then lessened because +it was thought too large for the permanent sustaining capacity of the +park. The St. Louis Park and Agricultural Company have about 1,000 deer +and 400 elk in their 5,000-acre preserve in Taney County, Mo. The +Otzinachson Rod and Gun<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> Club six years ago placed about 90 deer, mostly +does, in their 4,000 acre park in Clinton County, Pa. These have +multiplied to nearly 2,000 head, and a further increase of about a +thousand fawns is expected during the present season (1908). Doubtless +these experiences are not exceptional.</p> + +<p>The good effect of such preserves on the supply of game in the State +should not be overlooked. While they may temporarily restrict the +hunting privileges of a few citizens, they ultimately become a source of +game supply secondary in importance only to State preserves or game +refuges. Already a number of private reserves have become overstocked, +and game has escaped or been turned over to the State to become the +property of the people. The success of private enterprise in propagating +large game in inclosures has thus become an object lesson for State game +commissioners and others, and suggests the feasibility of the State's +undertaking a similar work for the people.</p> + + +<h3>GAME LAWS IN RELATION TO DEER FARMING.</h3> + +<p>The chief obstacle to profitable propagation of deer in the United +States is the restrictive character of State laws governing the killing, +sale, and transportation of game. Many of the States, following +precedent, lay down the broad<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> rule that all the game animals in the +State, whether resident or migratory, are the property of the State. A +few States except game animals that are "under private ownership legally +acquired." A few others encourage private ownership by providing a way +in which wild animals—deer and the like—may be captured for +domestication. Generally, when private ownership of game is recognized +by law, the right to kill such game is granted, but the owner is +hampered by the same regulations as to season, sale, and shipment that +apply to wild game. One by one, however, State legislatures are coming +to recognize the interests of game propagators, and game laws are +gradually being modified in accordance with the change of view.</p> + +<p>The chief source from which deer and elk may be obtained for stocking +preserves is from animals already in captivity. These must be +transported from place to place or there can be no commerce in them, yet +the laws of many States absolutely forbid their shipment. The laws as to +possession and transportation of deer carcasses make the shipping of +venison also illegal. General export of venison is legal from only six +of the States, and three of these have no wild deer left to protect.</p> + +<p>The laws concerning the season for killing and the sale of deer are +often equally embarrassing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> to those who would produce venison for +profit. The owner of domesticated deer can not legally kill his animals +except in open season. Owners of private preserves are similarly +restricted and are limited to the killing of one or two animals in a +season. More than half the States and territories absolutely forbid the +sale of venison. A few forbid the sale of venison produced within the +State, but permit the sale of that imported from other States, a most +unjust discrimination against home industry.</p> + +<p>The following States have recently modified their laws so as to provide, +under regulations, for the sale of deer from private preserves. +Transportation and even export are included in some of them.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arkansas.</span>—Possession, sale, and shipment of deer or fawns is permitted +when they have been raised in captivity for domestic purposes and are +accompanied by an affidavit from the raiser.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Colorado.</span>—Owners of private preserves under a license are permitted to +sell and ship deer or other quadrupeds that are accompanied by an +invoice. A fee is required for each animal sold.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Illinois.</span>—Any person who raises deer for market may kill and sell them +at any time in the same manner as other domestic animals.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Indiana.</span>—The provisions of the law as to possession<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> and sale do not +apply to persons who have under ownership or control any deer raised in +a deer park.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Massachusetts.</span>—The owner may sell his own tame deer kept on his own +grounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Minnesota.</span>—Persons who desire to domesticate deer, moose, elk, or +caribou may secure a permit to do so from the State board of game and +fish commissioners by paying a fee of 50 cents for each animal in +captivity and a like fee for each animal added later by natural increase +or otherwise. The animals kept in captivity may be sold or shipped +within or without the State, by permission of the commissioners.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Missouri.</span>—Deer or elk, alive or dead, may be shipped from any private +preserve and sold in the markets of the State when accompanied by a tag +furnished by the game warden of the county, showing whose property it +is, where killed and to whom shipped.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">New Hampshire.</span>—The Blue Mountain Forest Association may kill elk, deer, +or moose in their preserve for one month after the open season, and at +any time may transport them outside the State.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">New York.</span>—Deer may be sold during the open season; and moose, elk, +caribou, and antelope from private parks may be sold during the same +period. Common carriers may transport animals<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> into the State for +breeding purposes, but may not transport venison unless it is +accompanied by the owner.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">North Carolina.</span>—Seventeen counties permit the owner and keeper of an +inclosed game preserve, who raises deer for use or sale, to kill, sell, +or use those raised or kept in said inclosure.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pennsylvania.</span>—Owners of game preserves who hold a game propagating +certificate may sell and transport deer or fawn alive for propagating +purposes only, after securing the written consent of the president of +the board of game commissioners.</p> + +<p>In three or four other States game "under private ownership, legally +acquired," is supposed to be exempt from general provisions of the game +law; but in a test case as to its sale or export it is doubtful whether +the courts would so hold without more specific provision legalizing such +commerce.</p> + + +<h3>SUMMARY.</h3> + +<p>The domestication of deer and elk offers an interesting field for +experiment, as well as remunerative returns for the investment of +capital.</p> + +<p>The wapiti and the Virginia deer can be raised successfully and cheaply +under many different conditions of food and climate. The production of +venison and the rearing of both species<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> for stocking parks may be made +profitable industries in the United States.</p> + +<p>Instead of hampering breeders by restrictions, as at present, State laws +should be so modified as to encourage the raising of deer, elk, and +other animals as a source of profit to the individual and to the State.</p> + +<p>Safeguards against the destruction and sale of wild deer in place of +domesticated deer are not difficult to enforce. For this purpose a +system of licensing private parks, and of tagging deer or carcases sold +or shipped, so that they may be easily identified, is recommended.</p> + +<p>It is believed that with favorable legislation much otherwise waste land +in the United States may be utilized for the production of venison so as +to yield profitable returns, and also that this excellent and nutritious +meat, instead of being denied to 99 per cent of the population of the +country, may become as common and as cheap in our markets as mutton.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 543px;"> +<img src="images/fig28.jpg" width="543" height="866" alt="The above illustration shows the front cover of +Hunter-Trader-Trapper, a monthly magazine, published by The A. R. +Harding Publishing Co., Columbus, Ohio, who are also publishers of books +on Trapping and Out-o-Door Sports, bringing out new ones continually. +Their latest booklet descriptive of their magazine and books published +will be sent free upon application. See following pages." title="" /> +</div> + + +<h3>Hunter Trader Trapper</h3> + + +<p>As its Name Indicates is a Magazine of Information for Hunters, Traders, +Trappers and Out-o-Door People.</p> + +<p>If you are interested in hunting, trapping, raw furs, ginseng, raising +wild animals, taxidermy, etc., you will find this magazine of interest +and value. The magazine is published monthly and treats on the following +subjects: Steel Traps, Where and How to Set; Baits and Scents; Proper +Season to Trap; How to Skin, Stretch and Handle Furs; New Ways to +Capture Mink, Fox, Wolf, Marten, Beaver, Otter and Other Shy Animals; +Raising Fur Bearing Animals; Growing Ginseng and Golden Seal; Training +Night Hunting Dogs; Leading Fur Markets; London Raw Fur Sales; Fox +Hunting and Hounds; Coon Hunting; Letters From Old Hunters and Trappers, +etc.</p> + +<p>The Editor is a man of long experience in handling raw furs and +trapping. The articles published and photos used are largely from those +who have had actual experience with trap, gun and dog—you will enjoy +them.</p> + +<p>The magazine contains from 128 to 200 pages each month, averaging about +160 each month or 2000 pages a year. About 700 illustrations are used +each year. The magazine is printed on good quality paper and the +subscription price is only</p> + +<p class="center">$1.00 a Year</p> + +<p class="center">Single Copy</p> + +<p class="center">TEN CENTS</p> + +<p class="center">A. R. Harding Publishing Co., Columbus, O.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/fig29.jpg" width="450" height="524" alt="GINSENG PLANT. + +Showing Root, Stock, Leaves and Seed." title="" /> +<span class="caption">GINSENG PLANT. + +Showing Root, Stock, Leaves and Seed.</span> +</div> + +<p class="center">This is only one of about 75 illustrations shown in "Ginseng and Other +Medicinal Plants" as described on opposite page. The illustrations are +of actual "gardens," as well as some fifty of the most valuable +medicinal plants true to life. After reading this book and looking +closely at the illustrations you should be able to distinguish the +various plants. The paper used is of good quality so that the +illustrations are clear and distinct.</p> + + +<h3>Ginseng and Other Medicinal Plants</h3> + + +<p>This book contains about 300 pages and 75 illustrations (see opposite +page for one of them) with chapters on the following: The Story of +Ginseng; Something About Ginseng; Cultivation of Ginseng; Marketing +Ginseng; Seeds and Roots; Letters From Ginseng Growers; Government +Reports; Ginseng in China; General Information; Habits of Ginseng; +Ginseng Prices; Diseases of Ginseng; Medicinal Qualities; Golden Seal +Cultivation; Plants as a Source of Revenue; List of Plants Having +Medicinal Value; Gigantic Mint Farm in Michigan.</p> + +<p>The publishers say—A Book of Valuable Information for Growers and +Collectors of Wild Medicinal Plants—Tells How to Grow, Medicinal Uses, +Value, Etc.</p> + +<p>Much additional information is also given about other Plants which +furnish Root Drugs, such as: Male Fern; Wild Turnip; Skunk Cabbage; +Sweet Flag; Helonias; American Hellebore; Aletris; Bethroot; Wild Yam; +Blue Flag; Lady's Slipper; Crawley Root; Canada Snakeroot; Serpentaria +(Southern Snakeroot); Yellow Dock; Pokeweed; Soapwort; Goldthread; Black +Cohosh; Oregon Grape; Blue Cohosh; Twinleaf; Mayapple; Canada Moonseed; +Bloodroot; Hydrangea; Indian Physic; Wild Indigo; Crane's Bill; Seneca +Snakeroot; Stillingia; Wild Sarsaparilla; Water Eryngo; American +Angelica; Yellow Jasmine; Pinkroot; American Colombo; Black Indian Hemp; +Pleurisy Root; Comfrey; Stoneroot; Culvers Root; Dandelion; +Queen-of-the-Meadow; Elecampane; Echinacea; Burdock.</p> + +<p>A good photograph of each of these is shown with the description. +Considerable money can be made collecting and preparing for the market. +This book explains in detail.</p> + +<p class="center">Price, cloth bound, postpaid, $1.00</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h3>Land Cruising and Prospecting</h3> + + +<p>Is a valuable book for homesteaders, hunters, trappers, guides, etc. The +writer—Mr. A. F. Wallace, an experienced surveyor, land cruiser and +prospector—in his introduction says: "To the men who follow the +compass, the trap and the trail this work is inscribed. It is not +intended for the "Professors" who can tell you all about things after +they are done (by somebody else)."</p> + +<p>The publishers say: A book of Valuable Information for hunters, +trappers, land cruisers, prospectors and men of the trail—tells how to +locate one's self on the map, etc.</p> + +<p>This book contains about 200 pages 5 × 7 inches, is printed on good +quality paper, with nearly 40 illustrations and contains 20 chapters as +follows:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">I. Maps.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">II. The Compass.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">III. Examining and Locating.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">IV. Early Surveys.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">V. Corner Marks.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">VI. Miscellaneous Information.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">VII. Points for Homesteaders.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">VIII. Prospecting for Gold.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">IX. Sampling Ore.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">X. How to Locate a Claim.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">XI. Poor Man's Ore Mill.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">XII. Prospecting for Fur.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">XIII. Prospecting for Pearls.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">XIV. Prospecting for Bees.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">XV. Rations and Camp Cookery.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">XVI. Camp Kits.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">XVII. Guns, Axes and Pack-straps.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">XVIII. Building Cabins, Tanning, Etc.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">XIX. Getting Lost.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">XX. The Red River Trapper.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>This book is practical and may be worth many times the price to you. +Remember it is written by one who has had many, many years of +experience.</p> + +<p class="center">Price, Cloth Bound, Postpaid, 60 Cents</p> + +<p class="center">A. R. Harding Publishing Co. Columbus, Ohio</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h3>Bee Hunting</h3> + + +<h3>A BOOK OF VALUABLE INFORMATION FOR BEE HUNTERS. <br />Tells How to Line Bees +to Trees, Etc.</h3> + +<p><i>The following is taken from the Author's Introduction to BEE HUNTING</i></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 186px;"> +<img src="images/fig30.jpg" width="186" height="235" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p>Many books on sports of various kinds have been written, but outside of +an occasional article in periodicals devoted to bee literature, but +little has been written on the subject of Bee Hunting. Therefore, I have +tried in this volume—Bee Hunting for Pleasure and Profit—to give a +work in compact form, the product of what I have learned along this line +during the forty years in nature's school room.</p> + +<p>Brother, if in reading these pages, you find something that will be of +value to you, something that will inculcate a desire for manly pastime +and make your life brighter, then my aim will have been reached.</p> + +<p><i>The book contains 13 chapters as follows</i>:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">I. Bee Hunting.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">II. Early Spring Hunting.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">III. Bee Watering—How to Find Them.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">IV. Hunting Bees from Sumac.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">V. Hunting Bees from Buckwheat.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">VI. Fall Hunting.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">VII. Improved Mode of Burning.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">VIII. Facts About Line of Flight.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">IX. Baits and Scents.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">X. Cutting the Tree and Transferring.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">XI. Customs and Ownership of Wild Bees.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">XII. Benefactors and Their Inventions.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">XIII. Bee Keeping for Profit.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p><i>This book contains 80 pages, paper cover.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><i>Price, postpaid, only 25 cents.</i></p> + +<p class="center">A. R. Harding Pub. Co., Columbus, Ohio</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Fur Farming, by A. R. 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R. Harding + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Fur Farming + A book of Information about Fur Bearing Animals, Enclosures, + Habits, Care, etc. + +Author: A. R. Harding + +Release Date: October 2, 2010 [EBook #33830] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FUR FARMING *** + + + + +Produced by Peter Vachuska, Chuck Greif, Josephine Paolucci +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net. + + + + + + + + +FUR FARMING. + +[Illustration: SOME YOUNG BLACK AND SILVER FOX.] + + + + +FUR FARMING + +A BOOK OF INFORMATION ABOUT FUR BEARING ANIMALS, ENCLOSURES, HABITS, +CARE, ETC. + +_BY_ + +A. R. HARDING + +Published By + +A. R. HARDING PUBLISHING CO. +Columbus, Ohio. + + +Copyright, 1909 + +By A. R. HARDING PUB. CO. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +CHAPTER. PAGE + +I. SUPPLY AND DEMAND 15 + +II. WHAT ANIMALS TO RAISE 27 + +III. ENCLOSURES 38 + +IV. BOX TRAP TRAPPING 53 + +V. FOX RAISING 63 + +VI. SKUNK RAISING 83 + +VII. MINK RAISING 97 + +VIII. OPOSSUM RAISING 107 + +IX. MUSKRAT RAISING 115 + +X. RACCOON RAISING 129 + +XI. THE BEAVER AND OTTER 137 + +XII. KILLING, SKINNING AND STRETCHING 146 + +XIII. DEER FARMING 152 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + + PAGE + +Some Young Black and Silver Fox Frontispiece + +Enclosure in Thick Woods 32 + +Corner of Enclosure 39 + +Fence with Wire Turned in at Top 41 + +Fence Showing Sheet Tin 43 + +Plan for Combined Enclosures 46 + +Box Trap for Catching Animals Alive 55 + +Box Trap with Swing Gate 58 + +Barrel Trap for Catching Animals Alive 60 + +Another Box Trap 62 + +Northwestern Fox Skins 66 + +Map Showing Where Fox Farming is Feasible 72 + +Plan for Arrangement of Fox Yards 74 + +Box Shelter for Female and Young 75 + +Corner of Fox Yard 77 + +Fox Yard, Showing Outer Fence 78 + +Yards of a Maine Fox Farm 81 + +Corner of an Ohio Skunk Farm 90 + +Mink Enclosure in Detail 103 + +Ideal Location for an Opossum Farm 112 + +Fur Farm Near a Farmhouse 117 + +Muskrat House in a Marsh 122 + +Barrel Shelter for Female and Young 134 + +Fur Farm on Open Ground 135 + +Elk in Enclosure 163 + +Tame Deer Eating Watermelon 178 + + +[Illustration: [G. R. Harding.]] + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +Ever since Columbus discovered America, furs have been an important +article of commerce, but at the rate of the catch during recent years, +the supply drawn from the natural sources--forest, field and +stream--will soon prove inadequate if not entirely depleted in some +species. + +Less than 30 years ago, there were countless thousands of Buffalo upon +the Western Plains. Where are they today? In the 70's and early 80's +they were slain by tens of thousands by hide and robe hunters. Does or +does not such a condition face some of the American fur bearing animals +at the present time? Many hunters and trappers must think that the +supply will not long be equal to the demand, judging from the hundreds +of letters written the Editor of HUNTER-TRADER-TRAPPER, asking +information about raising fur bearing animals. + +This work has been hastily gotten out to meet this demand, yet the +sources of information from which the work has been gathered, are +authentic. Much of the habits, nature, etc., of the various animals has +been furnished by Mr. E. Kreps, a trapper of wide experience. Facts have +also been furnished by those that have to a certain extent followed "Fur +Farming" and as well some information has been added from the United +States Government Bulletins. + +A. R. HARDING. + +Columbus, Ohio, April 1, 1909. + + + + +FUR FARMING. + + + + +CHAPTER 1. + +SUPPLY AND DEMAND. + + +For years there has been a belief that the supply of fur-bearing animals +would soon be inadequate to the demand. This belief is well founded and +is apparent when the fact is known that the natural haunts and homes of +the fur-producing animals are becoming less each year. The draining of +swamps and marshes is destroying the homes and breeding places of +muskrat and to a certain extent coon and mink. The saw mill and clearing +of the land is rapidly lessening the natural resorts of coon, bear, wild +cat and opossum in the South and Central States, while in the North, +marten, fisher and lynx are being deprived of their natural homes. + +Beaver and otter do not like civilization and leave on signs of man and +his works. This is especially true of beaver; otter linger in waters +fringed with timber longer even if settled. + +Some animals, it is true, do well in fairly thickly-settled sections. +Among animals of this kind are red fox, skunk, mink and muskrat. Yet no +fur bearer can hold its numbers against the ever-increasing number of +trappers and the persistency with which they now seek the fur producers. + +North America furnishes a large per cent. of the furs of the +world--foxes, mink, otter, beaver, skunk, marten, lynx, coon, opossum, +muskrat, wolves, etc. Considerable quantities of fine furs are still +secured in parts of Russia, in Europe and Siberia in Asia; Australia +furnishes great quantities of opossum, while from parts of South +America, the trade in chinchilla is large. Yet North America has been +for centuries, the great fur-producing continent and now that trapping +is being pressed harder than ever and the natural haunts of the animals +are becoming less each year, the question is,--where will the future +supply come from? + +In this connection the following article on The Fur Markets is +reproduced from the April issue of _The Hunter-Trader-Trapper_: + +The Spring or March London Sales began March 22 and ended April 2. +During that time American Raw Furs were offered by Hudson's Bay Company; +C. M. Lampson & Co., and A. & W. Nesbitt. In face of the fact that +prices on some articles have advanced so materially that American +manufacturers have bought sparingly, the outcome of the sales was +awaited with much interest by the trade. + +A year ago in giving the quantity of goods offered by the Hudson's Bay +Company, this magazine said: "The quantity seems to be decreasing as the +offering this year is less than 1907, and 1907 less than 1906." The +offerings this year are still less than 1908, and for ready comparison +the Hudson's Bay Company offerings at the March Sales for three years +are given: + + 1909 1908 1907 + + Otter 5,341 4,968 6,933 + Fisher 2,671 3,224 3,228 + Cross Fox 1,445 2,678 4,490 + Red Fox 2,987 6,598 10,200 + Silver Fox 344 526 896 + Blue Fox 14 63 88 + White Fox 2,058 6,703 11,409 + Marten 21,577 29,808 43,798 + Mink 10,966 13,091 32,817 + Ermine 15,314 14,280 20,737 + Lynx 8,856 31,892 56,611 + Wolf 3,756 4,207 2,771 + Wolverine 718 865 734 + Skunk 1,478 5,023 11,430 + Bear, Black 3,943 3,740 4,042 + Bear, Brown 387 353 432 + Bear, Grey 108 123 94 + Bear, White 89 59 137 + Badger 125 169 322 + Raccoon 140 243 600 + +The combined offerings of C. M. Lampson & Co., and A. & W. Nesbitt were +as follows at the Spring Sales in 1907, 1908 and 1909: + + 1909 1908 1907 + + Mink 82,575 134,200 75,600 + Skunk 545,284 416,000 615,900 + Muskrat 1,238,257 1,015,000 1,018,000 + Raccoon 203,155 316,000 69,726 + Opossum 225,671 267,000 225,350 + Marten 8,168 15,000 18,600 + Lynx 1,500 7,550 11,727 + Fox, Red 25,600 36,660 31,870 + Fox, Cross 1,585 5,021 5,080 + Fox, Silver 539 728 1,015 + Fox, Grey 13,600 23,270 8,961 + Fox, Kitt 1,670 388 655 + Fox, White 3,310 14,000 4,785 + Fox, Blue 3,630 2,600 3,600 + Otter 5,211 9,000 2,916 + Fisher 2,914 3,440 1,705 + Beaver 14,282 6,800 11,900 + Bear 7,240 6,980 5,770 + Badger 4,070 4,475 5,905 + Cat, Wild 6,925 5,800 7,072 + Cat, House 20,344 15,800 17,000 + Wolf 21,365 24,150 12,100 + Wolverine 350 450 323 + Ermine 77,600 77,000 100,580 + Civet 19,200 33,000 53,800 + +The noticeable falling off in the Hudson's Bay Company offerings can be +accounted for from the fact that more "free traders," as the Great +Company calls them, are yearly encroaching upon their territory. + +The offerings of Lampson and Nesbitt is short of a year ago with the +exceptions of beaver, muskrat and skunk. The advanced price of muskrat, +no doubt, caused more trapping of these animals than ever before. Again +the fact of the dry fall in many localities bunched the rats, so that +they were much easier caught. The rats offered at the recent sales are +largely fall and winter. From reports, the collection of spring rats +will be very light--in many localities not more than one-fourth of an +average collection. + +While the offerings now show some 200,000 in excess of March, 1908, and +also March, 1907, indications are that before the year 1909 ends there +will be a shortage in the total rat catch for the year. Considerable +anxiety is felt regarding skunk, as the number offered was 545,280 +compared with 416,000 in March, 1908, which is nearly 130,000 more. This +is hardly a fair test. The offerings at March Sales 1908 were light from +the fact that skunk were not in demand at the beginning of the fall +season of 1907, when a good per cent. of skunk are caught for the +following March Sales. Go back another year, that is March, 1907, and +see what the offerings of skunk were; you perhaps will be surprised to +learn that it was 615,900 or 70,000 more than at this spring's sale. The +offerings of beaver were larger than a year ago, but with these +exceptions, there appears a decided falling off--note the quantity of +fox, coon, marten, lynx--all much less. + +Furs are fashionable throughout the entire civilized world, and the +catch seems inadequate on many articles. This is probably responsible +for the high prices. At any rate, some articles have advanced beyond all +previous high record. Prices for wolf, fox, lynx, wild cat and muskrat +are very high, as well as many other American raw furs. Skunk reached a +price that no one expected the past season. Since early in March or +shortly after, too late to get goods into the London Sales, prices were +lowered on skunk, opossum, raccoon and some grades of mink, especially +Southern and Southwestern, but at the same time it should be taken into +consideration that the quality is not so desirable as during the +midwinter months. + +Many believe that by far the most of the furs come from the Far North. +This is erroneous. It is true that the most valuable furs, such as +silver, black and cross foxes, lynx and marten, come from that section. +Some of the best otter, red fox and mink are also secured in the far +northern country. Yet fully one-half of the value of the American catch +of raw furs is comprised in the three following articles--skunk, mink +and muskrat. + +In the Far North there will be foxes, otter, mink, and marten for some +time to come. But what about that part of the country, say south of the +Great Lakes, west of the Allegheny Mountains, north of the Tennessee and +Arkansas Rivers and east of the Rocky Mountains?--a section which has +been producing about half of the furs. + +This section is the great skunk producing one and as well as one of the +best mink and muskrat sections. It also furnishes from the Southern +States within the area outlined, great quantities of coon and opossum. +When those interested in the fur business consider that half the value +of the annual catch is skunk, mink, and muskrat and that the best +producing section has hitherto been the section as outlined, one can +easily see that the supply will not long be equal to the demand. + +During recent years, owing to persistent trapping, the fur producers +have been greatly reduced and if not practically exterminated in parts +of the country, are destined to become nearly so. The fact that skunk, +mink and muskrat have been so greatly reduced in the past few years has +caused those interested in the fur industry to ask,--"what of the +future?" with the settlement of the country and the draining of the +swamps, clearing of the forests, etc., which deprives many species of +fur producers of their natural homes, how can it be expected that the +supply will last? + +That skunk, mink and muskrat do well in settled sections, there is no +question, but since their pelts are so valuable, more trappers are after +them than ever before. In addition, magazines and books on the subject +are more plentiful than in former years, so that the inexperienced +hunter and trapper has far better success than in past years. + +There is always a cash market for raw furs and since the discovery of +America, raw furs have been an important article of commerce. In the +early days, beaver was the leading article and even at this date +thousands of skins are secured annually by the professional trapper in +the swamps of the south and along the streams and lakes of the north. +Scattered thruout the South, Rocky Mountain sections, Northern Canada +and parts of the East, are several thousand professional hunters and +trappers whose annual catch amounts to several hundred dollars each. The +aggregate of these men, footing up to perhaps $3,000,000 or $4,000,000. +In the settled sections are tens of thousands of boys and amateur +trappers with here and there a professional. The annual catch of these +foot up to perhaps $6,000,000 to $8,000,000, or double the catch of the +professionals who leave civilization in September and are not seen again +until May or June. + +It is this class (boys and amateurs) that secures the greatest +quantities of fur and as the number of trappers is so large and the +grounds necessarily limited, here is where the animals are rapidly +decreasing and at the present rate are in danger of extermination. In +some sections there has been a wonderful falling off in the catch of +late years, altho the number of trappers is larger. + +An industry paying the hunter and trapper probably $15,000,000 yearly is +one that should receive attention. At the present rate of extermination, +some of the fur bearers are destined to soon follow in the wake of the +buffalo. The demand for furs is increasing as the population of the +world is becoming more and more. Again furs are being put to more uses +than ever. While the demand for furs are increasing, what of the supply? +The day, perhaps, is not far in the distance when the demand will call +for two or three times as many furs as today. Where are they to come +from? The natural supply is surely diminishing. + +The matter of 'Supply and Demand' is one that there is considerable +difference of opinion upon. Hunters and trappers, as a rule, are of one +opinion and that is that the number of pelts secured upon a certain +territory is becoming less each year. Trappers going over their lines +are surely the ones who know whether the fur is holding out or not. + +The number of persons seeking fur is larger each year. In localities +furnishing as much fur as ever, the chances are that the number of +animals left for breeding is less each year. If such is true the day +when these localities will show a falling off in the receipts is not far +in the distance. + +Until recently, many dealers and manufacturers believed that the supply +of wild fur-bearing animals was practically inexhaustible--that when +wanted, trappers would go out into the "wilds," catch, skin and send the +pelts to market. These people are beginning to awaken to the true +situation and while they send out price lists, circulars, and traveling +buyers after raw furs, they say it is much harder to secure the goods +wanted than formerly. + +A well known dealer in Minneapolis in sizing up the situation, says: +"With the vast fund of information about trapping being sent out and +with improved traps for catching and the great stimulus to trapping +owing to high prices, in five to ten years, there will not be one-fourth +to one-half the fur bearers that there are now, unless stringent laws +are enacted to curtail the trapping." + +"Under proper conditions, with intelligent care, no doubt, raising fur +animals can be made to pay. The raiser starting on a small scale and +increasing as their knowledge increases. Most all successful business is +built up by starting small." + +The dealer who wrote the above advertises quite extensively for furs. +The territory tributary to that city has always been considered a good +fur producing one. During recent years, the supply has fallen off +materially in face of the fact of improved trapping methods and a +greatly increased number of persons seeking the fur bearers. The same +conditions are true to a greater or less degree in many parts of the +country. + +The American people, however, can be depended upon to meet all +emergencies. They have already set about to provide for the future raw +fur supply by raising the animals. As early as 1884, experiments were +made at raising foxes on the islands in the Northern Pacific Ocean, +along the coast of British Columbia and Alaska. The experiments, as a +rule, proved successful and there has been for years a number of +successful fox raisers on the islands of the North Pacific. More will be +said about them elsewhere. + +In various parts of North America, experiments have been made, +principally with skunk, altho a few have tried mink and other animals +but only in a small way, or by men who expected to get rich quick and +who did not give the enterprise the care and attention that is necessary +to make a success at any business. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +WHAT ANIMALS TO RAISE. + + +There is a bright future to "Fur Farming." The person who knows +something of the habits of the animal or animals that they expect to +raise, will be the successful ones. A person who has always lived in the +city would not be apt to make a success at general farming or fruit +raising. The same applies to "fur farming." The person who has followed +hunting and trapping or the farmer who has given attention to fur +bearing animals are the ones most apt to be successful. + +Foxes, no doubt, will be the animals that the majority would like to +begin with, especially the more valuable species, as black, silver and +cross. These for breeding purposes of course can be secured, but the +present raisers do not seem to care to sell any of their stock unless at +good round figures. They want to further increase their own numbers. + +A good many attempts were made at raising skunk a few years ago, most of +which were failures. Some entered the business on a large scale, knowing +nothing of the animal, and of course failed; others "penned up" a few +skunk and as they were not properly cared for resulted in failures. + +The recent advanced price for skunk skins has caused a revival in their +raising. This time, an entirely different class of people are taking up +their raising, and they are going to succeed, why? Because they know +something of the animal and are going at the business in a calm and +business-like way. + +Mink, at present prices, look good to the fur-farmer. They are small +animals but yield a pelt worth from $3 to $7, depending upon the size +and color. Raccoon and opossum are compared with many fur-bearing +animals as producers of cheap furs. This is true, but at the same time, +they offer the most promising future for the fur-farmer in many +localities. They are easily raised, and in addition to their fur, the +carcass finds a ready sale in most cities. + +Opossum and coon will not dig deep seeking escape, but are good climbers +and considerable precaution should be taken to see that the wire netting +is either extended in several feet at the top, or that a strip of tin a +couple of feet wide is fastened to the posts some three feet from the +ground. + +The "fur-farmer," should the market be low for certain animals, can keep +over; or the better plan would no doubt be to kill off the surplus +males and perhaps some females. At such times do not make the mistake of +killing off too closely, as some will do, claiming that the fur is low +and that there is no need of trying to increase. Nine times in ten, this +is the time to raise as many as possible, for by another season, that +particular article is apt to be in demand. + +To illustrate: skunk were low in 1907, yet had the raisers gone ahead, +they would have had a supply to kill during the Winter of 1908-9, at +prices that were indeed satisfactory. + +Had the opossum raiser, during the low prices for this fur in 1907 and +1908, sold off his breeding stock at low prices, as he would have been +compelled to do, he would not had a supply when the prices advanced in +January, 1909. + +Some farmers make the mistake of selling off all their stock when prices +ease up, expecting to go into the raising again when a reaction takes +place. This is not the way to make the most money; when a reaction +comes, other farmers who have continued raising this certain animal, +reap the harvest, selling to the market or to their neighbors at high +prices. + +The prices paid for the various articles shows about what the grower may +expect for his "crop." The demand, of course, will have much to do with +the price. Fashion is constantly changing but indications are that +owing to diminishing supply and increased consumption, prices will be on +a fairly high level always. Trappers and hunters often catch fur too +early and as a consequence have blue pelts which are graded down. In the +spring shedders and rubbed skins are secured which are sold as No. 2 or +lower. With the "fur farmer," there will be no early caught blue skins +or late caught spring and shedders. The animals will be killed when +"prime," and will bring best prices. + +Some reports from those that have experimented in a small way at raising +fur animals is to the effect that they do not fur properly. This is true +in regard skunk, when kept in a box or a small enclosure for weeks and +fed largely on meat. The writer when a fur buyer has bought skunk that +had been kept in a "pen" or small enclosure for weeks and in addition to +being thinly furred, the hide was much thicker than it should have been. + +Indians and professional hunters and trappers of the north say that they +can notice a difference in the fur of foxes, lynx, marten, etc., when +the food supply is abundant. The fur is thicker and has a healthier, +silkier and glossier appearance. The secret, no doubt, is to give the +animals plenty of room and feed should be varied. Here is where the +person who knows the habits of the animal or animals he is raising is +valuable. When cattle, sheep and hogs are fed properly they take on fat +readily and produce a healthy coat of hair or wool. The same applies to +the fur bearing animals. + +What animals offer the best inducement to raise? This is a question that +each individual going into the business must largely decide. The place +you have in view for the starting of the "farm" will have much to do +with this. Is the location one best adapted to skunk, mink, coon, fox, +muskrat or some other fur bearer? Again, your experience should be taken +into consideration,--what fur bearers you are most familiar with. If you +live near a large city which offers a market for coon and opossum +carcasses, this should be considered as these animals are easy to raise +and opossum especially are very prolific, producing from six to twelve +at a litter. While the fur of coon and opossum will never be very +valuable, yet, as both fur and carcass have a cash value, they will +prove greater money makers than many believe. Muskrat are another animal +that should not be overlooked as they increase rapidly and their flesh +is now being sold in many of the larger cities. + +Marten and silver fox should not be raised in the south, as these are +animals that do best in the cold sections. Otter and mink are two +animals that the sun fades the fur and as the darker the fur, the more +valuable, it is important that as little sun as possible shines upon +them. For this reason it is advisable to have the enclosure for these +animals in the woods or thicket. In fact some trees should be in +enclosures for all animals. If raising coon or opossum, they will be "at +home" in the trees while other animals will enjoy the shade in the +summer and will make use of the leaves in the dens for winter. + +[Illustration: Enclosure in thick woods.] + +There are some animals such as marten, fisher, wild cat, weasel, badger +and wolves that do not seem promising to us to raise for various +reasons. Marten do best in the high mountain sections; fisher and wild +cat would be hard to keep in an inclosure; weasel and badger are not +valuable and would both be difficult to keep in; wolves are not valuable +for fur and would require considerable attention and food, hence, not +desirable to raise. In most states there is a bounty on wolf and coyote +scalps but the raising of them for the purpose of the bounty would not +work--the bounty would not be paid if county officials knew from what +source they came. + +Among the animals promising the best for raising are the black, silver, +cross and red fox, skunk, mink, coon, opossum and muskrat. The otter, +beaver, bear and lynx under certain conditions may be well worth +considering, especially lynx at present value. + +Do you think present prices for furs will continue? Generally speaking, +yes. In fact, some articles are liable to go higher. On the other hand +some furs may go lower but are sure to sooner or later react. The +chances are that raw furs will not soon sell at the low figures of past +years. + +Suppose thousands engaged in the business of raising fox, skunk, mink, +coon, opossum and muskrat, what effect would it have upon the market? +Would they overstock it? How many hundreds of thousands of persons are +today raising cotton and wool to furnish clothing to the millions of +people and there has always been a market. The same will be the case +with fur. In fact, unless thousands engage in the fur raising business, +the demand is going to far exceed the supply at no distant day. + +Furs in the north are a necessity as no cloth will repel the piercing +winds. Teamsters and others much out of doors wear fur overcoats, caps +and use fur laprobes. Farther south, say in the latitude of New York, +Pittsburg, Denver, etc., while furs are not an absolute necessity, yet +they are much worn for comfort. In all the cities of the north, furs are +worn eight or nine months in the year; in the central sections perhaps +six months; while in the south only a few months. In addition to this, +American furs are worn in all civilized countries of the world. + +The farmer or stock raiser, as a rule, who is making the most money, is +the one who raises not horses, cattle, sheep or swine alone, but often +two or more of them. The same can be applied to fur farming. Suppose an +enclosure of a few acres is made for skunk, why not take in a pond and +raise muskrat, coon, fish and frogs. There is a ready market in all +cities for fresh fish and frogs. + +The farmer that raises sheep not only sells the wool but fattens and +sells some of the lambs, wethers or old ewes from time to time. The +farmer is in the business to make the most out of it and such will be +the case with the fur farmer. In the cities there is a demand for the +carcasses of coon and opossum at prices ranging from 25 to 75 cents for +coon and 10 to 50 cents for opossum, depending upon the size of the +carcass, as well as the city in which you are marketing. In New York, +Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, there is a ready sale for all coon and +opossum carcasses at good prices. Other cities that use large quantities +are Buffalo, Cleveland, Pittsburg, Detroit, Chicago, and Milwaukee. +There is no city of any size north of the Ohio River but offers a +market. St. Louis, Louisville and other southern cities being near the +coon and opossum producing sections does not offer so good a market. +Muskrat are now served as "marsh rabbit" in Baltimore and other cities. +The trapper realizing from 5 to 10 cents each. + +With the exception of muskrat, fur bearing animals breed only once a +year, unless the first litter are killed or die, when another is +sometimes born and it might be said, such is frequently the case. The +number that the various animals produce at a litter is given in the +chapter dealing with that animal. + +It is not all that are successful bee raisers who have gone into that +business, yet how few failures are there among men who began in a small +way, learning more of the business and gradually increasing the number +of hives in their apiary. + +One thing is important and that is, get the animals accustomed to their +keeper as soon as possible. The old will be wild for some time but the +young soon become tame. Skunk and coon are easily tamed and even beaver, +otter and mink have become so tame when secured young, that children +have safely handled them. + +A man who has been in the "fur farming" industry for years, in response +to the inquiry, "Will the business pay," says: "Yes, it will pay the +right man big dividends on the capital invested." The right man is one +who has "natural aptitude" for this sort of work, and who is "cut out" +for "fur farming." If he has an "inkling" for this sort of work, he will +study the nature and requirements of the animals and attend carefully to +their every want. + +Fur farming as an industry is only in its infancy, in fact, not begun. +The future looks bright to those who engage in the business in a +business way. To those who expect to make a fortune at the business in a +year or two, we predict failure, but to all who are willing to go at the +industry, building a substantial enclosure, paying the same careful +attention to the feed and care of their fur animals, that they would to +other "stock," to get best results, far more than ordinary profits +should result. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +ENCLOSURES. + + +This is indeed, one of the important things in connection with +"fur-farming." Some of the first experimenters in raising skunk and +other fur animals, dug a trench from 2 to 3 feet deep, putting in rocks +or boards edgewise to keep them from digging out, on top of which they +constructed an upright fence of boards from 4 to 7 feet. On top of this +fence was fastened a wide board to keep the animals from climbing out. + +The enclosure should be an acre in extent and 2 to 5 would be better. +The "ranch" should be located where the water will drain off quickly, so +that the dens will be dry, making a good place to burrow. The ground +should not be level, or at any rate, should have good drainage. Skunk +and perhaps other animals are liable to disease, if kept in damp and +crowded quarters, such as sore throat or similar diseases, which may +cause death. + +[Illustration: Corner of enclosure, showing sheet tin at top and stones +at bottom.] + +Galvanized wire, No. 14 or 16, with about one-inch mesh, seems to be the +proper material for fencing. Posts should be of locust, cedar, or some +other long lasting wood. They should be fully 10 feet long and put in +the ground 3 feet or more, depending upon how firm the earth is; they +should be set about 8 feet or not more than ten apart, as your fence +should be about 7 feet above ground. A trench two feet deep is dug, into +which your wire is put. From this it will be seen that you need woven +wire 9 feet high to make your fence 7 feet above ground, as two feet are +under. + +After your wire is in place, fill up the trench with dirt, or if there +are flat stones, it would be well to place a layer about a foot wide, +extending inward from the fence or bottom of wire. Should any of the +animals dig downward from the bottom of the wire, striking the stone +they would become discouraged and give up, as the stone would cause them +to dig in the wrong direction to escape. On top of the wire fence, a +sheet of tin roofing about 18 inches wide, should extend around the +enclosure, on the inside, to keep the animals from climbing out, for +skunk as well as coon can easily climb out of your enclosure. + +Instead of placing the tin around the top some turn the fence in as +shown in the illustration. If this is done to make the fence 7 feet +high, a 10-1/2 foot meshed wire is required as two feet are under ground +and at least 18 inches should be used for turning in--2 feet would be +best. + +[Illustration: Showing Fence with Wire Turned in at Top.] + +The "turning in" method has some advantages over the tin; one being that +dogs cannot get in so easily, and another is that the fence will stand +up better; the wide strip of tin or sheet-iron catching wind or snow +which helps to sag the wire or cause the fence to lean. The tin or +sheet-iron, however, seems to be the best in preventing any animal's +escape. + +The enclosure can be enlarged at any time, but do not make the mistake +of beginning with too small an enclosure, as some have. Also have your +fence about 7 feet high to keep dogs out, as well as to keep the +fur-bearers in. Just how much the enclosure will cost depends upon +several things: The cost of 9 foot, 1 inch mesh No. 16 galvanized wire +is about $1.50 per rod. This price, of course, will vary some, depending +upon where you are located. In some of the smaller cities you perhaps +cannot get the kind you want and will be compelled to send to some of +the larger cities or catalogue houses. Perhaps you can not get wider +than 5 feet. If such is the case buy in two widths--5 feet and 4 feet. +This will give you the desired height. + +Posts as already mentioned should be of locust or some other long +lasting wood, as cedar, and should be thoroughly seasoned before putting +in the ground. The posts should be fully 6 inches in diameter. If from +larger locust and split, so much the better, as the older the tree the +longer it will last. The cutting and setting of the posts, putting up of +the fence, can be done by the "fur-farmer" in those sections where +locust and cedar grow, so that all the cash outlay necessary in building +the enclosure, will be for galvanized wire, some staples and sheet tin +for the top. Instead of placing the tin around the top, it may be +fastened on the inside of the wire (as shown), about four feet from the +ground. + +The corner posts should be two or three times larger than the others; +they should be set more firmly in the ground, five feet being about +right. This will necessitate these posts being two feet longer than the +rest. They should be firmly braced in both ways. + +[Illustration: Fence with Sheet Tin Four Feet from Ground.] + +The cost of fencing an acre, varies, of course. An acre contains 160 +square rods or about 12-1/2 rods each side--equal to 50 rods of fence. +If the wire costs $1.50 a rod, and posts 40 cents each, the cost of +material required to enclose an acre will be $95.00. We are figuring on +two posts to the rod. Add to this staples, gates, etc., and the cost +will perhaps be about $100.00. Of course a much cheaper wire could be +used, poorer posts, etc., so that the cost would be greatly reduced--but +it generally pays to do a thing well. + +To enclose a certain amount of ground with the smallest number of rods +of fencing possible, the plat or ground to be enclosed should be in a +square. The additional cost to enclose an acre, say 20 rods long by 8 +wide, would be material for 6 additional rods. To fully illustrate, an +acre fenced in a square would be 12-1/2 rods on each side, or 50 rods; +if 20 rods long, the two sides would be 40 rods, and the ends 8 each or +16 rods, making a total of 56 rods. + +While the cost of enclosing an oblong piece of ground would be a few +dollars more than if square, this should not stand in the way if the +oblong piece of ground would make a better home for your fur-bearing +animals. + +The persons who expect to make "fur-farming" a business, can begin in a +small way and same need not interfere with other work to a great extent. +Year after year, as they learn more of the business, they can enlarge, +etc. Trappers, hunters and others who from experience know much of the +animals, will no doubt be the most successful from the start. One party +writes to know if skunk, fox, opossum and mink can be successfully +raised in the same enclosure. If he means allowed to run together, they +can not. If he means the same outside enclosure, with separate +apartments for the various animals, there is no reason why such a place +should not be successful as there will be advantages in such a plan. + +First, an enclosure of four acres can be built much cheaper than four +separate enclosures of one acre each. To enclose four one-acre +enclosures would require 200 rods of fencing--50 rods for each. The four +acres in one enclosure would be only about half or 100 rods. A square 25 +rods on each side would be almost 4 acres. Should the fur-farmer wish to +subdivide this into four tracts, a fence thru the middle each way would +take 25 rods additional or 50 rods for both ways. This fencing need not +be so high or so secure as the outside one. Should animals manage to get +into another part of the four-acre enclosure, they would still not be at +liberty, altho they might kill or injure some of the other species +before being discovered by the owner. + +If possible have a small stream of running water in the enclosure. + +[Illustration: Plan for Combined Enclosures.] + +Without labor the cost of material will vary from $2.00 to $3.00 per +rod. The greatest variation in expense will be for posts. Those living +where posts can be had, having considerable the advantage. This estimate +being for galvanized one-inch mesh wire No. 14, per rod, smaller wire of +course being cheaper. This is by far the best material in making +enclosures, yet found. Some of the first experimenters used boards, but +where there were cracks, or the sap or bark on edges rotted, affording +the animals a place to gnaw, they soon found a way out. This had to be +guarded against where the boards extended into the ground they often +rotted so that there was always danger of the animals escaping. Where +stones were set up edgewise or cement used, it was rather expensive and +as galvanized wire lasts well either in the ground, where not exposed to +the air, or being galvanized, it stands the elements well, it seems to +meet the requirements of the fur farmer for fencing or enclosure +purposes. + +Where is the farmer who would expect to make a success at raising +horses, cattle or sheep, by keeping them in a small pen and feeding them +foods not to their liking or nature? Yet, such has been the case with +some of those who tried "fur animal raising." They made a failure of it +and no one who is at all familiar with fur-bearing animals is surprised. +Those who will be successful at "fur-farming" are trappers, hunters and +farmers who know something of the animal or animals they expect to +raise--those who love the animal and have a desire for the business. + +The ox, horse and sheep were all wild at one time, but have become +domesticated. Why not the same with the fur-bearers? This is exactly +what should be done. Skunk, especially, are very easily domesticated, +and other fur-bearers, such as coon, mink and opossum, soon lose much of +their fear. + +When the raiser learns this and furnishes a large enclosure with dens +and food similar to their wild state, they will be on the road to +success. As one raiser says: "They do well in a semi-wild state." If the +enclosure is too small, fleas, seed ticks, and other parasites are a +great enemy to the animals. In a large enclosure the animals are more +"at home" although at first they are restless and will walk around +seeking a way to escape; that is they try to escape at night. They are +seldom, if ever, seen during the day when first let loose in the +enclosure; they generally go in the first den that has been prepared for +them. + +Water is important. If you are raising skunk, fox or opossum, water for +drinking is all that they require; the same is the case with the coon, +although they will do best where they have water to wade, play and +search for food. Muskrat, otter, beaver and mink must have water to swim +and play in, as well as to drink or they cannot be raised. The enclosure +for mink and muskrat should include a stream of running water if +possible, or a pond of pure water. The same conditions apply to otter +and beaver, but of course the wire should be of larger size than for +mink and muskrat. Several different species of fur-bearers can be +successfully raised in the same enclosure. Coon, opossum, and skunk will +all do well together. Beaver and otter, apparently, live peaceably for +weeks in the same beaver lodge or house. + +The thousands of small lakes, ponds, etc., offer a splendid opportunity +for the successful raising of muskrat. While many owners of such, today, +in their natural condition, or without any fence, are reaping a +profitable and furry harvest; yet there are additional hundreds that by +building a fence around, would soon have a muskrat lake or pond worth a +great deal. Muskrat are fond of their homes and often remain at the same +location for years. If a wire fence three feet high were built around +this lake or pond, (with one foot underground), it would keep the rats +at home, as some would leave, especially as soon as the increase became +large. Such a fence would also keep out mink, which kill muskrat, often. + +Muskrat, in their wild or natural homes, seldom leave the water more +than a rod or two, so that a pond a considerable distance from any +stream, would be a comparatively safe place to raise them, without any +enclosure. The danger would be, mainly, that after the animals became +quite plentiful, some would perhaps leave, for instinct seems to teach +them that some should seek homes not so crowded. This has happened in +their natural breeding places where they became very plentiful. + +How large and where to build enclosures for fur farming, must be decided +by each individual. One party may have a creek, pond or lake, perhaps a +swamp, already inhabited by muskrat, and all that is necessary is to +keep other hunters and trappers off. On navigable rivers or lakes having +an inlet and outlet, we believe in most states any one can trap so long +as he is upon the water. In other words, the water does not belong to +the land owner and he cannot keep others off; but any small lake or pond +may be enclosed. On this point it would be well to see some lawyer in +your county, as different states may have different laws. + +A wooded bluff containing some den trees for coon, and hollow logs, +stumps, etc., for opossum and skunk, would be an ideal place for a +fur-farm. The location of the farm should be within sight of the home of +the raiser, in case a dog should get within or a thief should visit the +farm. To guard against stealing at night your dog would give the alarm, +or you could have an electric appliance connect the farm with the +house. + +Islands in large lakes offer a splendid place to begin raising +fur-bearing animals, and especially those that do not like to get their +"fur wet" or that naturally are not swimmers. In this class are the +various kinds of foxes, skunk and opossum; marten, it is true, are not +included in the swimming class, but the successful marten raiser perhaps +will be found, if at all, in the higher altitudes where the snow gets +several feet deep during the winter months, and the ground is covered +with snow eight or nine months each year--such is the ideal and natural +home of the marten. + +Skunk and opossum are two animals that do not travel much in extreme +cold weather, so that an island in a lake or large river, could be used +with no fencing. It perhaps would be best to put up a wire fence but it +need not be so substantial as if it were not surrounded by water. Of +course islands in rivers that overflow, would not be suitable. There +are, however, islands in the Great Lakes and elsewhere, that can be used +for raising both skunk and opossum with little or no cash outlay at the +start. + +If islands are used for foxes (except in salt water where the water does +not freeze), the same precaution in fencing must be taken as elsewhere. +Foxes travel during all kinds of weather and the first night the ice +formed sufficient to bear their weight, they would be very apt to +leave. + +Coon could not be successfully raised on an island. They do not travel +much during severe weather, but unless the island happened to be some +distance from the mainland, they would likely swim to shore. Mink would +be at home on an island where there was fish, frogs, etc., with drift +and log piles to wander through, but as they are good swimmers, there +would be nothing gained by starting with this animal on an island. + +Skunk and opossum seem to be the only animals that can be safely raised +on an island without the same precaution taken in fencing and enclosing, +as upon the mainland. These two animals, while not the highest priced +furred ones, for various reasons will prove to be as profitable, or more +so, where conditions favor, than many other fur-bearers. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +BOX TRAP TRAPPING. + + +I was born in Central Pennsylvania and spent the greater part of my +early life among the mountains of that part of our country, writes Mr. +A. C. Williams, a well known trapper. From my early boyhood, I had a +decided liking for the wilder class of literature, and took special +interest in tales of hunting and trapping adventures; but at that time, +did not know that there were many who still followed hunting and +trapping for profit. When I did learn of it, I naturally became even +more interested, and tried to find a partner among my boy friends, +intending, if I could find some person to accompany me, to make an +extended hunting and trapping trip into some one of the wilder portions +of the West or North. + +Of course I was no more fitted for such a trip than any other country +boy of the same age, and knew nothing of the wilderness; but being a +boy, and having read so many tales of boy hunters traversing the +wilderness as they would their own back yards, I naturally thought that +life in the forests was a very simple thing, and that there was no +reason why I should not go. As I grew older I learned that there was +still some fur to be found in Pennsylvania, and not only that but that +there were parties who made trapping a business, in season. + +I was interested, and decided to try my hand on the fur-bearing animals +found near my own home, before going farther, but I had no traps and +knew nothing about the various sizes and grades; as a consequence, I +sought out one of the trappers that I had heard of, and asked his advice +regarding different traps for the various animals. He gave me the +desired information, very willingly, and also remarked that he had been +very successful in trapping mink and other small animals with box-traps. +After he had mentioned it, I remembered that my father had, on one +occasion, caught a mink in a box trap, after it had been paying nightly +visits to our chicken coop for a week or more, killing a hen each night; +but for all of that I did not know that these traps could be used +successfully when trapping for profit. It was not very long after my +conversation with this trapper, that I had an opportunity of examining +one of these wooden traps and studying its construction. I will give +here a description of the trap used in that section: + +A plain box, size 10 by 10 by 24 inches, is made of one-inch lumber, +hardwood preferred, and is left open on one end and the top (see A) +another part (B) the cover, is fitted in top and end, and hinged at back +by driving a nail in each side, being careful to get both nails same +distance from the end of board. This cover should work freely, and when +dropped down in place, should fill the opening neatly, leaving no cracks +for the captured animal to gnaw at. + +[Illustration: Box Trap for Catching Animals Alive.] + +Now nail two strips (CC) on opposite sides of the box and about three +inches from the mouth of the trap. These strips should extend about ten +inches above the top of the box, and should have the tops notched to +hold stick (D). Stick (E) is tied at one end to a nail driven in the end +of cover, and at the other end, is attached the trigger (F). One end of +this trigger fits into a notch cut into the end of the box, and the +other end fits into a similar notch cut in the bait-stick (G). The +bait-stick, as will be noticed in the drawing, is slipped through a hole +in the end of the box, just below the trigger notch, and is kept in +place by means of a nail driven through on the inside of the box. A +small trip board (H), rests under the bait-stick on the inside of the +trap. This trip board doubles the value of the trap, as by its use many +an animal which merely enters the trap to smell at the bait, will be +caught; which would not occur if the board were not used. + +To complete the trap, a snap catch (I) is fastened to one side of the +trap in front of upright strip (C) and its purpose is to catch and hold +the cover when the trap is sprung. This snap is made of springy wood, +beveled on the top, and the falling cover presses it outward; but as +soon as the trap is fully closed, it springs back to the original +position holding the cover securely. In making this trap it is +advisable, always, to use old, weather-beaten lumber. + +As a result of my investigation, I made a number of these traps and was +successful with them, from the start. In that part of the country there +had been many saw-mills and logging camps, at one time or another and at +such places I could always find old boards from which to construct the +traps. The only tools required being a saw, a hatchet, and a half-inch +auger, I would go to these places during the summer, whenever I had a +day to spare, and make a few traps, hiding them near the places where I +wished to set them. + +The trap described above is of the size used for mink, skunk and +opossum, but I made most of mine on a larger scale, and by baiting with +fish, I caught many coons. On one occasion I caught three coons in one +night, with only three traps set, and in another trap, set by the side +of a small stream, in a gap of the mountains, I caught three mink and +two coons in one fall season. At another time I caught a large bob-cat +in such a trap. + +As I said before I baited with fish when I could get them; but those +trappers who used them for mink alone, never used bait, but attracted +the mink into the trap by means of mink musk rubbed on the trip board. + +I caught quite a lot of skunks in box traps, and it is a nice way to +catch these animals, for the trap may be carried to the nearest water +and the catch drowned by holding the trap beneath the surface. It is +advisable always, to place a weight--a few stones or wet chunks--on the +cover, as this will make it more certain in its action. + +These traps are specially suitable for catching animals alive and +uninjured, for breeding purposes, and now, that so many people are +interested in raising fur-bearing animals, there is a ready sale for +live animals, and this matter should be given attention. + +[Illustration: Box Trap with Swing Gate.] + +I have used another style of box-trap for muskrats, but is not intended +for catching the animals alive, and the muskrats are always drowned. It +is a simple box or square tube of boards, 6 x 6 x 24 or 26 inches, open +at both ends. A wire screen is fastened over one end, and a loosely +hinged gate of pointed wires is hung in the other end. I used for the +gate, pieces of umbrella ribs, cut about eight inches long and the ends +filed sharp. With the wires cut this length the gate will hang at an +angle of forty-five degrees, or more, and will push in easily, allowing +the animal to enter the trap without effort; but once inside, escape is +impossible, as the gate cannot be pushed out, and even if the captured +animal should raise the gate and attempt to creep under it, the pointed +wires will catch in its back and prevent escape. + +They are set in the dens, under water, and if the mouth of the den is +too large, the space around the trap should be closed with sods. Set in +this way, it will catch any muskrat that attempts to leave the den, and +I have caught three at one time in such a trap. + +While muskrats caught in this way are always drowned, other animals, +such as: mink, skunk and opossum, may be taken alive by setting the trap +in the mouth of the den, blocking up all side openings. The width of the +trap as shown in the cut, is considerably out of proportion, when +compared with its length--it being drawn this way to show more clearly +the working of the swing gate. + +A very effective skunk trap may be made from an old barrel. The barrel +is pivoted to a pair of stakes, driven firmly into the ground along a +bank or hillside, where skunks are found, and the bait is fastened on +the bottom of the inside of the barrel. This trap is shown plainly in +the illustration. It will be apparent to all that when the skunk, in +approaching the bait, passes the center, where it is hinged to the +stakes, the barrel tips over, and it will be impossible for the animal +to escape. + +Muskrats are sometimes taken with a wire net. To hunt them successfully +in this way, two persons are required. While one holds the net over the +mouth of the den, the other hunter drives the inmates from the burrow by +prodding the ground with a pointed pole. A wire cage with a cover must +be used to carry the captured animals, and each individual must be +shaken into the cage as soon as captured, and the cage closed +immediately to prevent their escape. + +[Illustration: Barrel Trap for Catching Animals Alive.] + +When box traps are used, no difficulty whatever will be encountered in +transporting the animals, as trap and catch may be carried into the +enclosure before the animal is liberated. Even the skunk may be carried +along in this way without any danger of scenting. The trap should be +handled carefully--not thrown about. + +Muskrats may be handled with perfect safety if grasped by the end of the +tail and held at arm's length. + +Trappers, as a rule, know just what time of year the young of each +species of animal are born and I would advise, when trapping animals for +breeding purposes, to catch them before this time, or at such a length +of time after the birth of the young, that there will be no danger of +their starving in case they are not captured along with the mother. Even +if the very young animals are taken from the den, there is danger of +them suffering from careless handling, or from not receiving proper +care. It is better to catch the female animals before the young are +born. + + * * * * * + +Another box trap that is a good one, is described by an Illinois trapper +as follows: + +"I here enclose a sketch for making a trap for catching mink which I +have used for years, and think it can't be beat. Make a box 22 inches +long, 5 inches wide, and 6 inches high out of inch lumber; bore a hole +at the back for the string (D) to pass through, which is tied to a bait +at (E) and fastened at the other end to a heavy wire (C), on top of the +box, which holds the sliding door (A), when set. A couple of strips (B) +are nailed on each side to hold the door in place. This is a good trap +for mink that are afraid of steel traps. For bait use a rabbit's head +tied securely to the string, also a few drops of good scent put on the +bait, and set near the mouth of some tiles or wherever mink abound." + +[Illustration: Another Box Trap.] + +This trap, as well as all the box-traps in this chapter, are recommended +for catching such animals as skunk, coon, mink, and opossum, alive and +uninjured, for stocking "fur-farms." + +Muskrat can be caught in these traps by baiting and setting where they +feed, or on runways from one pond to another. + +Animals caught in these traps can be carried with safety to both catcher +and animal, to the enclosure, before taking out of the trap. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +FOX RAISING. + + +The foxes of North America are divided by naturalists into only three +distinct groups or species, namely, the red, the gray and the Arctic +foxes. Of these, the red species is divided into a number of varieties, +among which are the Nova Scotia Red Fox, the Newfoundland Red Fox and +the Western Kit or Swift Fox, etc. + +The black, cross and silver foxes are commonly supposed to be only color +varieties of the red, there being no difference whatever, except in the +fur. While naturalists all agree on this subject there is considerable +difference of opinion among others who give as proof that they are of a +different species, the fact that the black, cross and silver are only +found in the northern districts while the red variety is found well down +into the south. There are, however, certain facts which go to prove that +they are all of the same variety or if different that they interbreed, +the most convincing of these being the fact that the various colors are +sometimes found in the same litter. But, be this as it may, the matter +is of little importance to the prospective fox breeder as it has become +a well known fact that the red color can be entirely eliminated by +careful breeding. + +The red fox is found throughout the greater part of Canada and the +United States except in the far south where it is replaced by the gray +species and in the extreme northern portions of Canada and Alaska, where +it gives place to the Arctic fox, also they are not found in the far +western states nor on the Pacific coast, being replaced here by the +gray. They are perhaps most abundant in the New England States, +Newfoundland and the eastern provinces of Canada, but are also found in +good numbers in parts of New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia +and the mountainous and hilly sections of the South. + +The silver and black foxes are found but rarely in the most northern +tier of states and are probably found in the greatest numbers in +Newfoundland, Labrador, northern Quebec and northern Ontario, but an odd +specimen is occasionally met with in all parts of Canada. They appear +also to be quite plentiful in the interior of Alaska and the Yukon +Province of Canada. The range of the cross fox is the same as that of +the silver and black except that it probably extends somewhat farther +southward into the United States. + +Of the gray foxes, several varieties are recognized, all however, being +very much alike. They are found throughout the Southern and South +Central States--in the east being found as far north as Connecticut and +on the Pacific Coast are found in California and Oregon. + +The Arctic fox, also known as the blue fox and the white fox, is found +only in northern Canada and Alaska. In the most northern parts of their +range they are a bluish color in summer, changing to white in winter, +but in the lower latitudes they retain the blue color throughout the +year. + +There is an immense difference in the value of the various varieties of +foxes. While the fur of the gray variety is seldom worth more than a +dollar or a dollar and a half, that of the fine silver and black foxes +will range from several hundred to a thousand dollars, and more if the +skin is an exceptionally fine one. The Arctic fox comes next in value to +the silver, while the cross is as a rule of less value, depending mostly +on color, and the red variety sells for from three to five dollars each +and upwards for prime skins. + +[Illustration: Northwestern Fox Skins--Silver, Cross and Red.] + +The various members of the red fox family are practically the same as +regards habits, being influenced to a certain extent by environments, +differences in climate and food, etc., but on the whole very much alike. +They are all of a cunning, wary and suspicious nature and it is owing to +this fact alone that they have been enabled to live and thrive in the +face of the persistent hunting and trapping. They are hardy animals and +while they generally have a den somewhere on the side of a gravelly or +sandy hill, they spend comparatively little of their time in the dens +and prefer to spend the day in a bunch of grass or weeds, a clump of +brush, or, curled up on top of a stump. + +In their search for food they sometimes start out quite early in the +evening, but are probably most active in the early morning when all +animal life is on the move. Then it is that the rabbits and other +nocturnal animals are seeking their places of rest and the birds, etc., +are commencing to move about and the fox stands a better chance of +securing some article of food. + +Their food consists principally of small animals and birds, such as +rabbits, partridge, quail, chipmunks and mice, but they also eat fruit, +such as apples, wild grapes and nuts. However, they are more strictly +carnivorous than the gray fox. They are fond of eggs and often rob the +nests of ground building birds, of eggs and young, and in the settled +sections have acquired a decided liking for poultry of all kinds. + +The food of the gray fox is practically the same as that of the red +variety but they are more given to eating fruit and feed extensively on +grapes, apples, etc., and in some sections they feed on green corn. All +foxes will eat fish with a relish when they can get them and will refuse +scarcely anything in the line of flesh, being especially fond of +muskrat, skunk and opossum. In captivity they take very kindly to a +vegetable diet. + +The Arctic foxes live chiefly on lemmings, small animals which are found +quite plentifully in the far north, but in captivity they thrive on fish +and cooked corn meal. + +The mating season of the red fox comes mainly in February and the +beginning of March and the young, from five to eight or nine, are born +in April or early in May. The young of the gray fox are born in May, the +mating season of this species being somewhat later than that of the red +fox. The breeding dens of the fox are usually located on some gravelly +hillside but in places where the country is broken and rocky. They use +natural dens in the rocks. It is only during the breeding season and +while the young foxes are still quite small that these dens are +regularly inhabited. At other times they may spend an occasional day +there or seek safety in the dens when hard pressed by hounds, but for +the most part they prefer to rest out of doors. + +Foxes prefer the rough hilly countries and are usually found in good +numbers in the hilly farming sections where there are old pastures and +an occasional patch of woodland. The gray fox is most at home in the +wooded districts but the red species, including the silver, cross and +black prefer the more open stretches of country. In the north they will +be found most plentiful in the barrens and sections where second-growth +timber prevails. + +The two species do not appear to be on very friendly terms and not given +to mixing one with the other. In some sections where red foxes were once +numerous and the gray variety were unknown, the grays now predominate, +having driven out the red variety. In other parts the reds have +supplanted the grays. This, however, is only in the central and southern +districts, as the gray fox is never found far north. + +FOX FARMING.--Fox farming has been attempted by various parties from +time to time and those who have given the business considerable study +and have persevered have generally been successful. Many of the parties, +however, were men who have had practically no knowledge of nature, +having gone into the business too deeply in the start and being +ignorant of the nature and habits of the animals when found in a wild +state, have as a consequence, failed. Very few of those who have made a +success of breeding the valuable silver foxes have gone into this +business in the start, but have first experimented with the less +valuable red fox, and as the silver and red foxes are of the same +variety their nature and habits are also the same, and the knowledge of +their habits gained by experimenting with one is of equal value as +applied to the other. + +The Arctic foxes are being raised successfully on many of the islands +off the coast of Alaska. As the seas never freeze over there, no +enclosures are necessary and the business has proved comparatively easy +from the start. Such islands are not within the reach of the average fox +farmer and other means must be resorted to. The breeding of silver foxes +has, thus far, been carried on mainly in the Canadian Maritime Provinces +and the state of Maine, but it has also been undertaken to some extent +in Michigan, Alaska, Labrador and Newfoundland. + +We are certain that if one will give the matter sufficient study, learn +the habits and nature of the animals thoroughly and act accordingly, +success is sure to follow and that the red, cross and silver foxes may +be bred and raised successfully. Experiments should be conducted on a +small scale, for otherwise failure would mean a great loss. We would +advise that the amateur conduct his experiments with red foxes, learning +their habits thoroughly before attempting the breeding of the valuable +silver-gray. + +FAVORABLE LOCALITIES.--It is a well known fact that the finest furs are +produced in northern localities and fox farming should not be attempted +in the far south. The accompanying map, which is taken from the bulletin +of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, will show the area most suitable +for silver fox farming. The plainly lined portions show the most +suitable country, and conditions in those parts are most excellent and +the cross-hatched parts show the area where silver fox raising is +possible and conditions favorable. The red fox will do well somewhat +farther south, but as before stated, the warm climate of the south is +detrimental to fine furs, and it will be wise to not locate too far +south of the shaded portions shown on the map. + +[Illustration: Map of life zones in which fox farming is feasible in the +United States, showing the Canadian zone where conditions are excellent, +and the Transition zone, in parts of which conditions are favorable.] + +Having decided on a favorable section of country the next step is to +find a suitable location. It is not necessary or even advisable to have +a large enclosure. For the beginner a half-acre to an acre will be +sufficient, and a space of four or five acres is ample for extensive +operations. If the enclosure is too large the animals will be wild and +unmanageable, and on the other hand if too small they will become +nervous and restless and will not breed well, and it is advised also +that the foxes be not disturbed by visitors and be allowed to live as +quietly as possible. A sandy soil is recommended, and there should be +some trees for shade, but a thick woods is not desirable. + +ENCLOSURES.--Fences should be made of galvanized woven wire of two-inch +mesh,--number 14 or 16 wire being best. The fence should be ten feet in +height and should be sunk in the ground two feet and turned in two feet +at the top. The overhang at the top is easily adjusted by means of cross +strips on the top of the posts. Care in making the fences is essential, +and if there is much snow in winter the drifts must not be allowed to +become high enough to allow the animals to leap over. It is advisable to +have a set of inside enclosures, and as it is necessary that the animals +are not annoyed by visitors. It is a good plan to have the space between +the inside and outside fences filled with trees and clumps of brush so +as to obstruct the view. The inner enclosures are small and designed for +single animals and pairs and should be about thirty or forty feet in +size. There should also be several larger enclosures for the males and +females, for, except during the breeding season it will do no harm to +allow the males to run together. Each separate enclosure should be +provided with a gate so that it will be an easy matter to remove the +foxes from one enclosure to another. The plan for the arrangement of the +yards as shown here is a good one and is taken from the Government +Bulletin. + +[Illustration: Plan for Arrangement of Fox Yards.] + +Each compartment should be provided with small kennels, for although the +fox will usually dig a den, the nature of the ground is not always +suitable and they take kindly to these artificial dens. They are usually +made four or five feet square and two or three feet high. If desired, +shelters may be made of boxes as shown in the cut. No bedding is +required, as the old foxes will do well without or will provide one +themselves. + +[Illustration: Box Shelter for Female and Young.] + +FEEDING.--Many fox raisers have failed to recognize the fact that the +fox is almost omnivorous and give a strictly meat diet according. While +this does not always have disastrous results, it is better to give them +a mixed food, including besides meat, table scraps, bread and milk, etc. +Overfeeding is a common trouble and should be avoided. Of course they +must have sufficient, but should not be allowed to become too fat, as +this spoils them for breeding purposes; also feeding should be at +regular intervals. The weight of a healthy fox is from six to nine +pounds, and when an animal weighs more than ten pounds it is almost +certain that it is too fat. When a number of animals are kept together +in one enclosure the boldest and strongest will usually get more than +its share of the food. Of course fresh drinking water must be provided +regularly. + +One of the most successful breeders feeds a quarter of a pound of meat +and a quart of skim milk daily. A quarter of a pound of meat and a +handful of scraps is a fair daily allowance. Another fox farmer feeds +along with the meat a hoecake made of corn meal and sour milk. + +Beef, mutton, fish, horseflesh, etc., are all good food for the fox. Old +worn-out animals may be secured in any rural district, but it is +absolutely necessary that the animals be healthy and the meat should be +kept on ice. One breeder claims that if everything were purchased, his +foxes would not cost him more than one cent each a day, but as he feeds +considerable table scraps the cost is even less. + +BREEDING.--In the wild state the male fox mates with a single female but +in captivity one male will answer for two or even three females but it +is best to have all animals in pairs. It has been found best to place +the male with the female in December or January and leave them in +company until the last of March when the males should be removed. The +females should be kept in the small enclosures continuously and the +young foxes removed when weaned. They breed the first season, when less +than a year old, but as a rule the litters are small. + +[Illustration: Corner of Fox Yard showing Stones to Prevent Escape by +Digging.] + +As before stated it is absolutely necessary to prevent the animals from +becoming nervous from too frequent visits of strangers. This nervousness +has a bad effect on their breeding qualities. It is especially bad +after the young foxes are born, as the mother fearing for the safety of +her young, will move them about continuously until they are badly +injured or die of exposure. The keeper also should not disturb the young +but should keep away from them as much as possible. In raising silver +foxes, only the most perfect specimens should be kept for breeding +purposes. However, if there is a tendency to show some red among the fur +this may be bred out entirely by using care in selecting the breeding +stock. + +[Illustration: Fox Yards, Showing Detail of Outer Fence.] + +As there is considerable difference in the disposition of individuals +this should also be kept in mind and those animals showing the least +aversion to man should be selected, providing, of course, that they are +prolific and otherwise perfect. + +A party in Ohio who has been raising foxes for some time writes as +follows: + +Two years ago I added foxes to my game preserve and last spring my red +gave birth to five young foxes. My black male fox got to the young and +killed the three males. I now have three cross foxes, one black and four +red. I expect to have a big increase in the spring. Should I get a lot +of black pups next spring I will surely do well with my foxes. + +I find that foxes are not strictly carnivorous (flesh eating) animals. I +feed them stale bread, milk and any kind of a dead fowl, rats, mice, +stale meats, muskrat, coon or any other carcass. I aim to give them all +they will eat, yet I often have thought that I feed them too much at one +time and not enough at other times. + +I think foxes should be fed morning and evening only about what they +will eat. They should be given fresh water twice a day during the summer +months and the water should not be given them in a shallow vessel, +nothing lower than an ordinary bucket. They are sure to foul the water +if they can get over or in it. + +Allow me to suggest to any one who contemplates raising foxes that one +of the essential things to do is to first build a kennel in such a way +that they will not gnaw or dig out. A safe fox pen can be built by +putting a stone wall or concrete two feet down, setting posts first, +then build wall around posts. Don't use any netting over two-inch mesh +and the poultry netting should be made of No. 17 wire. Fox will tear the +ordinary two-inch poultry netting as fast as you can put it on. + +My kennel is 50 feet by 25 feet and 7 feet high, covered over the top +with ordinary poultry netting. One of the essential things to do after +kennel is built is to see that it is properly underdrained and to see +that plenty of dry leaves are put in kennel. Straw will do if leaves +cannot be gotten. A mound of earth would be an excellent thing in each +apartment of your kennels. Foxes are great to be constantly digging in +the ground. Keep plenty of boxes in your kennel with a nice smooth hole +in each box, as a rough hole destroys their fur. + +[Illustration: Yards of a Successful Maine Fox Farm.] + +A summary of the whole shows that the points most necessary of +consideration for success is in proper feeding, in giving particular +attention to the animals during the breeding season, in using special +care to prevent them from being frightened and in the keeper winning the +confidence of the captive animals. A careful study of their nature is +advised and it should always be kept in mind that foxes are wild animals +and therefore should have far more attention than is necessary with +domestic animals. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +SKUNK RAISING. + + +There are but two species of skunk found in North America, namely, the +common striped skunk and the small spotted skunk of the Central +States,--commonly known as the "civet cat." This latter name is wrong as +the real civet cat is an entirely different animal. + +It is with the true skunk that this article has to deal, and of this +animal naturalists recognize several varieties, the only difference +being in size and markings. + +They are found in all parts of the United States, with the exception of +the bunch-grass plains and the mountainous district of the West. They +occur again to the west of the mountain ranges and also are found in +most parts of Southern Canada. They are found in the prairie country and +in the hilly and mountainous districts of the East, and are at home in +the "wilds" as well as in the thickly settled districts, however, they +seem to thrive best in the farming sections and especially if the +country is of a hilly nature. Their dens are located along the gravelly +hillsides, quite often under the roots of trees and stumps but in the +prairie they den along the washouts and creek banks. In thickly settled +sections they frequently make their home under houses and outbuildings, +showing practically no fear of man and often appropriate the den of the +woodchuck. + +They are nocturnal animals and as a rule do not wander far from the den +but in the fall they travel farther, looking for a good den in which to +spend the winter. Again, in early spring during the mating season, the +males travel considerably. While they are not a hibernating animal, they +stay in the dens during cold weather, also when the snow is loose and +deep, but are sure to be out on the first nice night. + +The mating season of this animal is in February and early March and the +young are born mostly in May, although some will be born in April. There +are usually from four to ten young in a litter but occasionally there +will be a larger number. + +The value of a skunk skin depends mainly on its size and markings, they +being graded by the buyers entirely by the amount of black fur, +providing, of course, that the skin is prime and well handled. There is +a considerable difference in respect to sizes and markings of the +average catches of the various sections. From some parts of the country +they will run quite large, in other parts small, and while in one +section they will run perhaps ninety per cent. long stripes, in other +parts of the country the black and short stripe grade predominates. Of +course the skunks of the South are not as well furred as those found +farther north. + +Being slow moving animals, they can not catch the more active animals +and birds as do the other members of the weasel family and their food +consists mainly of mice, insects and grubs, also on the eggs and young +of such birds as nest on the ground. They are very fond of poultry and +frequently visit the poultry houses, killing the young birds. They also +feed on carrion. When they can get it they will eat almost any kind of +animal food. Even in the wild state the skunk is not, strictly speaking, +a carnivorous animal as they will eat and in fact are fond of sweet corn +when in a milky state, also sweet potatoes, melons and wild fruits. + +They have no means of defense other than their scent, but this is +sufficient in many cases and the majority of people will give them a +wide berth. This scent is only used when alarmed or frightened and in +captivity there is no trouble whatever from this source as they soon +learn that there is no occasion for alarm and become quite tame. + +PAST EXPERIMENTS.--Beyond all doubt the skunk has been given more +consideration by raisers of fur-bearers than any other animal, with the +exception of the fox. There are many who have tried raising these +animals with more or less success and where the experimenters have used +good judgment and have given the subject all of the attention it +deserves, they have been reasonably successful. Most of these people +have started in on a small scale, having perhaps only a dozen or two of +skunks to start with; in fact, nowhere has the business been carried on +as extensively as some newspaper articles would lead one to believe; the +majority of these parties having at the most only two or three hundred +animals. One of the largest ranches was located in Eastern Pennsylvania, +but for various reasons this venture was a failure. + +It is the smaller experimenters, in other words, those who have begun on +a small scale, who have been most successful. They are for the most part +trappers who had even before venturing into the business a fair +knowledge of the nature and habits of the skunk and therefore were more +qualified for making the business a successful one. Trappers naturally +take an interest in all nature and are most likely to give the proper +amount of attention to the animals, also learn their habits readily and +act accordingly and these qualities are absolutely necessary for the +successful raising of all fur-bearing animals. + +The most successful stock breeders are those who make a special study of +their animals and take a great interest in them and those who do not are +almost certain to fail and really deserve failure. If so much care is +necessary in breeding domestic animals, how much more important the care +in handling the wild creatures, knowing so little of them as the average +man does. But even handicapped by lack of knowledge the experimenters +have been fairly successful from the start if they were the right men +for the business. Without exception they all report that the animals +breed well in captivity and are easily kept; in a short time becoming +quite tame and losing their fear of man. + +The skunk is an animal which is despised and feared by many people +because of its readiness to make use of its powerful scent, the only +means of defense with which nature has provided it, but it is only when +frightened that it uses this scent and once they have become tame and +learn that they will not be harmed they are practically harmless. We +will say, however, to those who are afraid of the scent do not attempt +to raise skunks, but devote your time to some other calling for which +you are more fitted. + +It is true that the scent glands may be removed from the young animals +but many of them will die from the operation and there is practically +nothing gained; therefore, this practice is not advised. + +Those who have failed were for the most part people who knew nothing +regarding the habits of the animal and its care when in captivity. They +were men with capital, who began on a large scale expecting to make a +fortune in a short time, but in this they were mistaken, for many of +them lost all that they invested. These parties have had trouble from +the older animals killing and eating the young, also from depredations +of owls, but mainly from the first reason. It is our opinion that this +cannibalistic tendency is caused by improper feeding, as those parties +who have used care in that respect have had no trouble whatever. + +To those who are thinking of embarking in the business of skunk farming, +we would say,--start on a small scale with only a small number of +animals, say two dozen females and six males. Give them every possible +attention and study them under all conditions. Do not expect to make a +fortune in a short time. + +ENCLOSURES.--After you have decided on this business the first thing is +to find the proper location and make a suitable enclosure. There should +be a spring on, or a small stream crossing the ground to be inclosed, +but at the same time the ground must not be wet; in fact, it should be +of rather dry nature, so that there will not be too much dampness in the +dens. There should be banks of earth for the animals to den in and the +ground should have a gradual slope so that it will drain readily. If it +is of a sandy nature it will be all the better. Some who have tried +skunk farming have located the yards on the shore of a small lake or +pond and have included a portion of the pond in the enclosure. This is a +good idea and it will not be necessary to extend the fence very deep +into the water, as the skunk is not a water animal and will not dive +under; however, where the fence crosses a stream of running water the +fence should reach to the bed of the stream as the water will fall +considerably during dry weather. + +The enclosures should be large. When the animals are inclosed in small +yards or pens they become infested with fleas, ticks, etc., and they do +not do well. Such small enclosures will answer for a short time but as +soon as possible they should be placed in a large roomy yard. For +fencing material, galvanized wire netting of one-inch mesh is advised, +as the young animals will escape through a two-inch mesh. The fence +should be seven feet in height. Under ordinary conditions the skunk +would not escape over a four-foot fence, but there is danger in winter +from drifting snow, and dogs and other animals must be kept out at all +times; therefore, the fence should be of the height mentioned and it +must be turned in at the top or a sheet of tin placed along the edge to +prevent the animals from climbing out. + +[Illustration: Corner of an Ohio Skunk Farm.] + +The interior of the enclosure should be divided into compartments, using +the same material for the fences but they need not be so high. The +largest compartment would be for the females and there should be a +smaller one for the males, also one for the young animals after they +have become large enough to take care of themselves. Some also make +small yards in which to place the females, two or three together, after +the young animals are born. The most of those who have tried skunk +breeding, however, have not found this necessary, but there should +always be a separate enclosure for the males. When the number of animals +increases it will be necessary to have a few small breeding yards, large +enough for ten or twelve animals. One need not, however, make such an +elaborate enclosure in the start but can enlarge it as needed, adding +more compartments. + +In each compartment a number of dens should be made by digging a trench +and covering afterwards. While the animals will dig dens if necessary, +they prefer even while in a wild state to use dens already made. Boxes, +barrels or pens with board floors should not be used. Some of the +successful ones claim that this has a tendency to cause a thick pelt and +thin fur and say that it is absolutely necessary that they have natural +dens in the ground. The dens should be made quite deep so that there +will be no danger from frost in winter. + +FEEDING.--Skunks should have plenty of food especially during the summer +and they should be fed at regular intervals, giving just enough for a +meal each time. It is advisable to give a mixed diet, partly animal and +partly vegetable. They will eat almost all kinds of flesh and fish, +table scraps, fruits, especially if very ripe, melons, sweet potatoes, +berries, etc. One of the most satisfactory foods is bread and milk, but +it is considered too expensive by some people. However, it could be +given occasionally. They are very fond of carrion, but such food should +not be given, for it is likely to cause disease. If near a slaughter +house one can get plenty of offal and in the country one can buy old, +worn-out horses, etc., but one should remember that the skunk will +consume an amazing amount of food. One party claims that three hundred +skunk will eat two horses in a week. In the fall especially, when they +are laying on fat for winter, they should have plenty of food. In +winter they do not require so much. + +It should be remembered that it is a lack of food that causes them to +eat their young and one should feed well during the spring and summer. + +Skunks feed largely on insects, grubs, etc., and it is to be regretted +that one can not supply this food. They are fond of eggs, either fresh +or spoiled, and should be given a feed of this kind occasionally if +possible. They also have a fondness for poultry of all kinds. + +The matter of providing sufficient food is not as difficult as it would +appear at first glance. If the farm is located near a large town or +city, hotel and restaurant keepers will generally save table scraps, +stale bread, etc., on request, if one will make a regular habit of +calling for it. Even in the country the neighbors will help out. The +farmers will be only too glad to have you take the dead stock, poultry, +etc., thus saving them the time and labor of otherwise disposing of it. + +BREEDING.--As before stated the mating season comes late in February and +in March and the young animals make their appearance in May. The period +of gestation being about nine weeks. + +One male animal will easily serve eight or ten females and he should be +left in their company a number of days. After that he should be removed +and to make certain, another male should be installed for a few days. +Two males should never be allowed with the females at one time or they +will fight and one or both may be seriously injured. This is the plan +which is used by the most successful skunk farmers and is recommended. + +Great care should be exercised in the selection of the males for +breeding stock. Only the large and healthy animals of good color should +be used and all others should be killed and their skins marketed while +they are in good condition. + +While the animals do not always breed strictly true to color, the white +markings may be greatly reduced and the general stock improved by +selected breeding. One should, each year secure fresh breeding stock +from other localities and related animals should not be allowed to breed +together or in a few years the result will be disastrous. One can not be +too careful in this respect for it is very important. + +After the mating season the females should be separated, placing three +or four together in small enclosures and they should be well fed or +otherwise they may kill and eat the young. They should be allowed to +remain in these small enclosures until the young animals are large +enough to take care of themselves, when they should be separated and +the females may again be placed in the large enclosure. + +GENERAL INFORMATION.--From the commencement of the breeding season until +late in the fall the animals require a larger amount of food than during +the winter and especially during the breeding season and while the +mother is still nursing the young they will require plenty of nourishing +food. They require fresh drinking water at all times and the enclosures +should be so arranged that each compartment will be supplied. + +As before stated one should use care in selecting animals for breeding +purposes as it is in this way that the quality of the fur will be +improved and the business made to be a profitable one. All small and +weak animals and those showing considerable white fur, especially males +should be killed off while the fur is in good condition. If you wish to +increase the number of animals do not be tempted for the sake of the +higher prices realized for the finer skins to kill off animals that +should be kept for breeding. + +The animals should never be allowed to become frightened by the +intrusion of dogs into the enclosure--dogs should be kept away at all +times. + +The skunk raiser must watch closely at all times to see that the +enclosure fences are in good shape so that the animals do not escape. If +they are found digging holes near the fence, these holes should be +filled up so as to discourage the workers. + +Fleas and other parasites are likely to bother the animals and they +should have plenty of room so that they can change dens when the old +habitations become infested with vermin. + +On the whole, one should study the habits of the animals on every +opportunity and attend to their wants. If one will give the proper +attention to the animals and take an interest in them there is no reason +why he should not succeed. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +MINK RAISING. + + +There is only one species of mink found in North America, altho there +are a number of varieties differing in size, color and quality of fur. +Thus we find in Northern Maine and New Brunswick a very small variety +having a fine silky fur of a very dark shade; farther west and south a +somewhat larger variety, paler in color, and thruout the Mississippi +valley and parts of the south, also parts of Western Canada, a very +large mink is found, but running quite pale, and the fur somewhat +coarser than the northeastern varieties. + +Again, on parts of the Pacific Coast, a very small and poorer quality +are found, and the mink from the lower Yukon River of Alaska are said to +be of very poor quality. One or more varieties are found in almost every +part of the United States, Canada and Alaska. Wherever there is running +water their tracks may be seen; but they seem to prefer the smaller +streams, as a rule, and they will be found as plentiful in the thickly +settled parts as in the wilderness. + +Mink are great travelers, but each individual animal has his regular +route and seldom ventures far out of his course. While they travel +streams and lake shores as much as possible, they do not hesitate to +leave the stream and cut across country in order to reach some other +water-course. During the mating season they also wander away from the +streams more than at other times. While they are always found in the +neighborhood of fresh water, they are not a water animal, and in +following a stream, always run on the bank, but usually as near to the +water as possible. + +In the thickly settled districts where the most valuable fur-bearing +animals, such as the silver foxes, otters, etc., are not to be found, +the mink is the most valuable and is eagerly sought by the trappers. The +fur is at its best during the first two months after it becomes prime, +which in the north will be about November 1st, and in the south perhaps +a month later. After the first two months, the fur commences to fade, +especially where the country is open and the animal is exposed to the +bright light, for the mink is not, strictly, a nocturnal animal. The +darkest skins come, as a rule, from the timbered parts of the country. +While the female is smaller than the male, she is also darker, and the +skins have about an equal value. + +The food of the mink consists mostly of rabbits, partridges, quail, +squirrels, muskrats, mice, fish, frogs, birds' eggs, etc. While they +will eat stale meat, if hungry, they prefer strictly fresh food. +Occasionally they will pay a visit to the poultry house, for like most +animals of the weasel family, they have a decided liking for the +domesticated birds. They are very fond of fish, and when same may be +secured easily, they will kill large numbers, merely for the sake of +killing. + +They are active and hardy little animals, apparently almost tireless, as +they will travel long distances in a night. They are perhaps most active +during the fall months, and in the north they travel very little during +the cold part of winter. + +The burrow or den of the mink is usually located in the high bank of +some stream, but they frequently inhabit deserted dens of other animals, +but always near the water. It is in these dens that the female and her +offspring spend the summer months, never straying far from home. + +The first two weeks of March is the minks' season for mating, and the +young--from four to six--are born about six weeks later. When confined +in enclosures where the diet, water and temperature are similar with +each animal, there is so little difference in the time of mating and +bearing their young, that five or six litters may make their appearance +within twelve hours of each other. + +The young are blind from four to five weeks, but are very active and as +playful as kittens. The mother weans them when they are eight or ten +weeks old. At about four weeks the mother begins to feed them meat, and +they learn to suck at it before they have teeth to eat it. The young are +fed by the mother on frogs, fish, mice, etc., until they are three or +four months old, when she leaves them to shift for themselves. The young +soon separate and do their hunting alone. They do not pair and the male +is a rover and "free lover." + +Mink are extremely cleanly and as soon as the den becomes foul, the +mother moves the family to some other nest. + +MINK BREEDING.--There are a great many readers of the H-T-T who live in +the city, that long for some way to profitably spend their idle time. I +will give a successful way of breeding mink, according to Mr. Boughton's +Guide: + +"Wild adult mink are almost untamable, but young ones readily submit to +handling and are easily domesticated. The time to secure young mink is +in May or June when they begin to run with their dams. The streams must +be quietly watched for mink trails, and these, if possible, tracked to +the nest. When they leave the hole, the young ones may be secured, or +they may be dug out. Those who own a breeding stock of mink ask very +high prices for them, but if the aforesaid plan is carried out, it is an +easy matter to get the young wild ones. + +"MANAGEMENT OF MINK.--Mink being by nature solitary, wandering animals, +being seldom seen in company except in mating season, it is impossible +to rear them successfully if large numbers are kept together constantly; +therefore, their enclosure should be a large one. The male and the +female should be permitted to be together frequently from the middle of +February until the middle of March. At all other times keep them +entirely separate. + +"About this season the mink should be allowed plenty of fine grass, +which they will carry into their boxes to make their nests out of. A box +3 or 4 feet long and 18 inches wide is the shape they prefer. It should +be placed as far as possible from the water to prevent the mink from +carrying mud and water into it. The young mink, when first born, are +small and delicate, destitute of any kind of fur and much resemble young +rats. If the old mink is tame, the young ones may be taken out of the +nest and handled when they are three weeks old. They will soon learn to +drink milk, and may be fed every day. At three weeks of age they may be +taken from their mother and put into a pen by themselves, and then they +will soon become very playful, are pretty, and make much better mothers +than they would if allowed to run with the old one." + +The shelter should be in the shape of a long box, 5 or 6 feet wide and 3 +or 4 feet high, set upon legs, with a good floor and roof. Divide into +separate apartments 6 feet long (longer would be better), the front of +each apartment to be furnished with a swinging door of strong screen +wire, with hinges at the top, and a latch on the bottom. A trough 6 +inches square, should run the entire length of pen at rear side; one end +of the trough should be made several inches lower than the other, so +that the water could be drawn off. With this arrangement the water can +be turned in at one end of trough, and be drawn off and changed as often +as desired. The lower end of the trough should be a little deeper than +the other end to prevent the water from running over. Each apartment is +furnished with a box 3 feet long and 13 inches wide. On one side of the +box, and near one end is made a round hole about 4 inches in diameter, +and provided with a sliding cover, so by means of a stick it can be +opened or closed from the outside. This is so the mink can be closed up +while the pen is being cleaned. + +[Illustration: Mink Enclosure in Detail.] + +On the top of the box and at the other end should be a door large enough +to put in grass, straw, etc., for the nest, and take out young. It is +necessary that they have an abundance of pure soft water, fresh air, +desirable shade and plenty of exercise. These conditions secure for the +mink a good quality of dark fur and good health. Brush, weeds, etc., are +allowed to grow up in the yard, but not near enough to the fence to +admit of their climbing up and out. + +The fence for the enclosure should be of poultry netting of one-inch +mesh. If of larger mesh the young animals will escape. The general plan +for the fence should be the same as described under the heading, +"Enclosures." There should be separate apartments for the males and +females, and also some smaller breeding pens. As it is not advisable to +attempt handling the animals, each compartment should be provided with a +small gate so that the animals may be driven from one pen to the other. +During the breeding season, and afterwards, while the young animals are +under the care of the mother, the same general methods of handling as is +recommended in skunk raising, should be adopted. + +At all times, plenty of fresh water must be provided, and the enclosures +should be so arranged that the water will be distributed to all parts. +While the mink is always found near the water, it is not a water animal, +as is the muskrat, and a large body of same is not needed. A spring or a +small stream is all that is needed; and a pond may be dug in each of the +large enclosures. + +Careful and regular feeding is advised. The mink is strictly a +carnivorous animal, and always prefers fresh food. The matter of +supplying sufficient food will be more difficult than in the case of +the skunk and muskrat. As they are fond of fish, if one is near a place +where they may be obtained, the feeding will be comparatively easy. They +should not, however, be fed on fish alone. An occasional fowl will be +acceptable, also rabbit, muskrat, etc. + +The natural home and breeding place of the mink is near the water. Their +den is often under an old stump, tree or in some drift pile. The nest +where the young are born generally being in the ground. When the animals +become tame enough, the raiser should provide dens similar to those used +in their wild state. These can be made by burying tile in the ground and +in other ways making artificial burrows. A few hollow logs placed in the +enclosure would be enjoyed by the animals. + +Many report that the males kill the young. This should be guarded +against by keeping the males separate. Some hesitate about starting a +"minkery" for fear that the animals will not fur properly. There is no +danger on that point if properly fed, watered and given homes in keeping +with those they lived in when roving at their own free will. This only +brings out more forcibly the fact that those who are going to be the +most successful mink raisers should have a natural aptitude for the +business--trappers, hunters, animal lovers, etc. Who has made the +greatest success at raising stock in your neighborhood--the man who +loves stock or someone who thought they saw a fortune in the business +but neither loved animals or knew anything about them? We venture the +answer, without fear of contradiction, that it has been the party who +loves and delights in stock. Remember, this applies to fur animals as +well as horses, sheep and cattle. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +OPOSSUM RAISING. + + +The opossum is a southern animal and is found in abundance in most parts +of the Southern States. In late years they have been moving farther +northward and are now found, though not numerous, as far north as +Central Pennsylvania; but are found most plentifully in the wooded +portions of the South, where they are such a common animal as to be well +known to all. + +They are slow moving and inoffensive, having no means of defense +whatever. When approached, they make a great show by opening the mouth, +and present a rather fierce appearance, but when touched by man or +animal, they pretend to be dead, and this very characteristic habit has +given rise to the expression, "playing 'possum." + +While the opossum is a nocturnal animal, it is sometimes seen in +daylight, but this is of rare occurrence. They do not hibernate but will +remain in the dens during cold weather, and do not like to roam about +when the leaves are dry and rustly. + +The dens are, as a rule, located in the ground, under a rock, log or +tree, and are quite shallow; the nest at the extremity being lined with +leaves or grass. They also den in hollow logs and stumps occasionally, +and in natural openings in rock bluffs. + +The young of this animal are born in the last half of April and the +beginning of May, the number of young varying from six to twelve, and +sometimes even more. When born they are very small and imperfectly +formed and are immediately placed by the mother in the pouch on her +belly, where they remain until they have attained a perfect form and +have become large enough to walk about. After being placed in the pouch, +they attach themselves to the teats of the mother, and remain in that +condition until they have become large enough to move about. + +On leaving the pouch, they quite often ride about, when tired, on the +mother's back, holding fast by winding their tails about that of the +parent. They will reach their full growth within a year, if the +conditions are favorable--that is, if they have plenty of food, etc. In +captivity, when well cared for, they attain considerable size by +midwinter. + +The opossum is omnivorous, feeding alike on animal and vegetable food, +but it prefers flesh to fruit. They feed on carrion, and on any small +animal which their slow movements will allow of capturing, also on eggs +and young birds, for they are good climbers. They are quite fond of wild +fruits, such as persimmons, polk berries, apples and paw-paws; also of +certain vegetables, especially onions. They also eat mice, insects, etc. + +Opossums are hunted extensively in the South, and when pursued they +usually climb the nearest tree, unless they are close to the den. As an +article of food they are highly esteemed, especially by the colored +people, and find a ready sale in the market. + +While the fur of this animal is not, strictly speaking, a valuable one, +to the prospective fur-farmer it is well worth considering, especially +if located near a market. At present prices the young animals by +midwinter, will average a dollar each in value, when selling both the +skin and carcass. The ease with which they may be raised is also an +important factor, so that on the whole, in many sections, they will be +found to be a profitable animal to handle. + +Opossums are fairly good climbers and the enclosure should have a wide +strip of tin around, as described elsewhere in the chapter on +Enclosures. They will also gnaw out of wooden enclosures if there is a +crack or any chance to get a start. They will readily climb out of the +enclosure if made of wood unless covered or at least partially covered. +There has been no better or cheaper material found for constructing +fences for opossum raising purposes than galvanized wire. + +They are not much given to digging and the wire need not be buried very +deep in the earth. If the ground is solid, 18 inches will be deep +enough. The animals, if properly fed, watered and cared for, will soon +become accustomed to their quarters, and make little or no effort to +escape. The young will become tame and quite playful. + +The natural home of the opossum can be described as south of a line +drawn west from New York City through Pennsylvania, Northern Ohio and +Indiana, south of Chicago, through Iowa near Des Moines, and into +Nebraska near Omaha, extending about half way into Nebraska, then South +through Kansas, all of Oklahoma and the lowlands or the Eastern half of +Texas. The opossum is not a cold weather animal, and in its wild state +would freeze if it inhabited territory much farther north than the +northern boundary of the line shown. A severe winter a few years ago, is +said to have frozen large numbers in their dens in Southern Ohio, +Pennsylvania, and parts of West Virginia, Indiana and Illinois. + +In their natural or wild state, they often hole up in shallow dens, old +logs, trees, etc., and while they are endowed with the instinct of +"playing 'possum" when injured, their instinct along other lines seems +very shallow, as they do not always know enough to "get in out of the +cold;" in other words, on the approach of severe winter weather, they do +not all seek deep dens where the ground does not freeze. + +While the natural home of the opossum is in the section as outlined, +there is no reason why they cannot be successfully raised hundreds of +miles north of their northern limit. The thing to guard against will be +freezing. The raiser must see that they have good and deep burrows--deep +enough that the ground will never freeze to their nest. They should have +plenty of leaves in their nest. If the enclosure is in a thicket, and +there are trees within and leaves near, the animals will no doubt carry +an abundance of leaves into their dens for nests. If there are no trees +in the enclosure, see that a supply is furnished each den before +freezing weather in the Fall. + +The opossum is going to become one of the important animals in +fur-farming for various reasons: They are prolific breeders, bringing +forth from 6 to 12 at a litter; grow rapidly; are easily fed and eat a +great variety of food. + +[Illustration: Ideal Spot for an Opossum or Raccoon Fur Farm.] + +The opossum raiser has two sources of revenue--fur and carcass. There is +a ready market for the carcasses in all cities. The grower should make +arrangements with butchers and others to take so many carcasses on a +certain date. The fur is at its best from about Thanksgiving to the +middle of February. Thanksgiving, Christmas and New Years are three +holidays when the fur will be prime and the meat in demand. In cities +like New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Pittsburg, Buffalo, +Cleveland, Detroit, Columbus, Cincinnati, Indianapolis, Chicago, +Milwaukee, Omaha, Des Moines, Kansas City, St. Louis, etc., a market can +be had in each for large quantities at each of these holidays, as well +as considerable quantities each week during the winter months. In the +smaller places, from 5000 up, there will be found a demand for the meat, +so that the market for the carcasses as well as fur, is one that will +always be open. Prices at which the carcasses sell will of course vary, +depending to some extent upon the supply of other meats, as well as the +times, etc. + +When it is taken into consideration that the litters are large; that +they eat cheap food; their growth is rapid and that the pelt is extra, +does not this animal promise to lead as a money maker over some of the +other and higher priced fur-producers? + +In the latitude of West Virginia, the young are born about the middle of +April. In two months, or by June fifteenth, they are about the size of +rats and always "gaining." Six months later, or December fifteenth, if +well fed and cared for, they will weigh from nine to fifteen pounds. By +this it will be seen that at only eight months old--born April fifteenth +and killed December fifteenth--they have attained sizes ranging from +medium to large. + +The males should be kept by themselves, at least from the time the young +are born, until they are two months of age or older. The female, with +her large family, should be given plenty of food from the time the young +are a few days old until weaned, as she requires a great deal of food to +satisfy her cravings and to supply the numerous young. + +As the severe weather is over by the time the young are born, very good +places for the old can be made in boxes, old logs and the like. These +should be so placed and constructed that food can be given to the female +handily, so as not to disturb her and the young more than necessary. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +MUSKRAT RAISING. + + +The muskrat is one of our most common fur-bearing animals and is found +in greater numbers than any other animal, notwithstanding its fur is +very popular and is gradually increasing in value. + +Muskrats are found throughout the greater part of the United States and +Canada, but for various reasons are more plentiful in certain sections. +Being water animals they are found in greater numbers in marshy places, +on ponds and lakes and sluggish rivers, but also thrive and are found in +fair numbers on the smaller and more rapid streams. They are very +plentiful in Western Canada and especially in the marshy country lying +west of Hudson's Bay. In the salt water marshes of Delaware and Maryland +they are probably found in greater numbers than in any other part of the +world. There, hundreds of the houses of these little creatures may be +seen in every direction. + +It is said that the value of the catch from Dorchester County, Md., will +usually run to $20,000 a year and in some seasons reaches almost to +$50,000. The number of animals required to reach such a figure must +necessarily be very large and the number of muskrats found in that +locality may be judged from the fact that the open season for these +animals and the only time of year when they are trapped, is during the +months of January, February and March. They are also very plentiful in +the marshes along the western shore of Lake Erie and about Lake +Champlain. They are not found on parts of the Pacific Coast and portions +of the South and never range south of the State of Arizona. + +While there is only one species of the muskrat, naturalists find several +varieties differing mainly in size and color. For instance, there is the +southern muskrat, which is comparatively small and is dull sooty in +color, found in the lower Mississippi Valley and along the coasts of +Mississippi and Alabama; then there is the Dismal Swamp Muskrat of the +Dismal Swamp, Va., which is larger, darker and richer colored than the +common variety and has larger teeth. In Labrador a small and very dark +variety is found. + +The muskrat of the Northwest, while of the same variety as those of the +Central and Eastern districts, are small and thin skinned and as a +consequence are less valuable. What causes this difference in size is +not known, but it is supposed to be due either to the presence of alkali +in most of the Northwestern waters or to the scanty and poor quality of +its natural food. + +[Illustration: Fur Farm on Open Ground near a Farmhouse.] + +The popularity of muskrat fur is on the increase, while large numbers +are exported to foreign countries, it is being more and more used in the +United States and Canada. At present it is much used for lining ladies +coats and its rich appearance when used in this way seems certain to +increase its popularity. It is also dyed and is then known as electric +seal and French seal. + +The great demand for the fur during the past two seasons has resulted in +such persistent hunting and trapping that the number of animals in many +sections has decreased visibly and as a consequence the spring catch has +been comparatively light. + +Just before this book went to press, considerable inquiry was made about +the supply of raw fur the past season. The general report was that the +catch of Spring Rats in 1909 was perhaps not more than 25% what it was +the year prior. The fall catch of 1908 and the winter catch of 1908-9 +was quite heavy. + +From this it appears that the high prices of muskrat during the months +of October, November and December, 1908, caused an unusual number of +hunters and trappers to seek these animals. The consequence being that +they were caught off much closer than ever before. + +To further bear this out, dealers say that in many of the Central States +where last year they collected 20,000 during March and April, this year +they only secured 4000 or 5000. Trappers say that there are very few +muskrats left in certain localities. This shows that continued trapping +will practically exterminate the muskrat. + +Along the Atlantic Coast south from New York for hundreds of miles the +marshes along the coast, bays, rivers and creeks are literally alive +with muskrats. The marsh owners farm out the "rat catching" privileges, +usually on the halves. The State of Delaware protects the rats some +eight or nine months each year. There are laws in several other states +protecting these animals. A few states prohibit the destroying of rat +houses at all times. + +While hundreds of people follow rat catching along the marshes the +owners and state see that enough are left for breeding and replenishing +the marshes. They get their food from the flags and other weeds largely, +which flourish in these swamps. Fifty acres of "swamp" has been known to +furnish 2000 rats or fifty per acre year after year. + +In this section black muskrats are not uncommon, the catch some seasons +running as high as 40% black, but as a rule it is lower. What causes +this strange color phase is unknown. Black muskrats are met with +occasionally in other sections but nowhere is the proportion as large as +along the East Coast. + +What nature in a way does for the muskrat in the Eastern swamps, fur +raisers can help to accomplish in hundreds of localities throughout +America. There are scores of ponds, small lakes, swamps, etc., in +practically all states where the muskrat is found that can be made to +yield large profits from muskrats. They are easily raised, in fact, will +raise themselves if given "half a chance." + +There is no doubt whatever that the fur of this animal will steadily +increase in value. While there will be fluctuations as in the past, we +do not believe that prices will ever go as low as they were some years +ago. Our conclusions in this are based on the fact that the catch is +growing smaller and the popularity of furs for wearing apparel and +especially muskrat fur, is steadily increasing, also the population of +all countries grows larger each year and there is bound to be a steady +demand for furs. + +Another thing worthy of consideration is the fact that the flesh of the +muskrat has become a very popular dish in many of the Eastern cities and +there is a market for the carcass of the animal. The trappers of +Maryland and Delaware find ready sale for the flesh. + +The muskrats found on the East Coast as well as those found in the +marshes and the shallow lakes and ponds of other parts of the country +are of the house building kind. It should be understood, however, that +the muskrat living in houses and those living in burrows in the banks of +streams are the same variety, their different, styles of habitation +being due to the different conditions of their respective locations. +Where streams are swift or where there is danger of the houses being +carried away by freshets, they dig burrows in the bank, making the +entrance below the surface of the water. + +These burrows extend sometimes twenty-five or thirty feet into the bank +and the interior chamber is sometimes quite large. Along the streams of +the farming sections, much damage is done by muskrats because of these +burrows. + +The houses of the marsh-dwellers are composed of grass and flags, grass +roots, mud, etc. They are of cone shaped structure and to those +unacquainted with the animals, they are simply piles of grass and weeds +in the water, for that is what they resemble. The entrances to these +houses are always deep under water. It is said that the muskrats build +their houses with thicker walls when they feel instinctively that an +unusually severe winter is approaching. + +[Illustration: Muskrat House in a Marsh.] + +In addition to the house the animals build small feeding places near by. +These feed beds as they are called, are constructed in the same way as +the houses, but only rise to the level of the water. These beds are the +dining rooms of the muskrats, for to them they bring all of their food +so that they may have a place to rest while they are enjoying their +meal. They also have like the raccoon, a habit of washing their food +before they will eat it. + +The muskrat is a vegetarian and seldom eats any animal food. In the wild +state their natural food is grass and roots, fruit, grain and clams or +mussels. They are also fond of parsnips, carrots, artichokes, white flag +roots, wild rice, pond lily roots, sweet corn and pumpkin, and will eat +almost all kinds of vegetables. + +It will be seen that in captivity the food problem would be easily +solved. They are very fond of wild rice, and those who have ponds +suitable for muskrats and are contemplating the raising of these animals +would do well to sow them with wild rice. The rice may be obtained from +almost any of the seed houses and it will grow in six or eight feet of +water. They are also fond of pumpkins and it is a cheap and satisfactory +food. + +Some of them will lay up stores of food for winter, but they do not all +do this. Where the streams are rapid they can get out to hunt for food +at almost all times, and where they are located on lakes and marshes +that freeze over in winter they can find plenty of food in the water +under the ice. This food is taken to the feed bed to be eaten. + +In early spring the warmth from their bodies will sometimes thaw a hole +through the ice over the bed and the muskrat stops this hole with grass +roots, etc. The trapper is looking for just such places and it is the +bunch of grass roots on the ice that gives them away. The steel trap is +soon in place, awaiting the coming of the animal, and many of them are +trapped in this way. + +The breeding habits of the muskrat are different from those of other +fur-bearing animals, as they will have three litters in a season. The +first are born in April, and there will be from six to nine young. It is +claimed that the female of the first litter will also bear young that +season and this accounts for the small rats, or kits, caught during the +fall season. + +It would appear from this that the animals should increase in numbers +very rapidly, but they have many enemies other than man, and perhaps +one-half of the muskrats born in a season never reach maturity. With the +exception of man, their greatest enemies are the birds of prey, such as +owls, hawks, buzzards, etc., but chiefly the owl, as it is a nocturnal +bird and has a fine opportunity to capture the unwary. The fox +frequently makes a capture, as does also the mink and otter. + +It is a deplorable fact that there is a large proportion of small +animals in the trapper's catch. These are the young muskrats, for while +they grow rapidly the first summer, it requires several years for them +to attain full size, yet they class as No. 1 the first season. The old +animals are larger and their fur is more valuable than that of the +young. For those who raise the animals there would be less trouble from +catching young and immature rats. + +Muskrats do not become fully prime until midwinter and many of them are +not strictly number one until March. When fully prime the skin will be +of a cream or pink color, with no dark spots showing. Winter caught +skins will have a number of dark spots, while those taken in the fall +have a very pronounced stripe or two on the back. + +Along the Atlantic Coast for many years land owners have rented the rat +catching privileges to "ratters" on shares, which is generally one-half +of the catch. The "ratters" only trap when the fur is at its best, so +that the supply is holding out. On lands "free for all" the rats are +thinned out. + +During recent years, property owners in various rat producing sections +have awakened to the fact that their "swampy land" is of more value for +the animal fur harvest than for any other purpose. + +Muskrats are easily raised and increase rapidly. They often make their +homes in the banks of canals, fish ponds, etc., coming from nearby +waters of their own accord. These places seem to be ideal places for +muskrats and instead of their leaving they remain year after year, even +though they are trapped and the property owners resort to other means +endeavoring to get rid of them. Muskrats are not afraid of civilization, +and do well in thickly settled sections where there are rivers, creeks, +lakes, ponds, marshes, etc. They seem to do well in their natural state +where they have water and feed and on some ponds hundreds are caught +annually. + +As already mentioned, these animals need little care. If the waters +where the animals are is naturally productive of muskrat food, the +animals will take care of themselves unless the numbers are too large +and they consume the entire food supply. The raisers should guard +against this by feeding, as the natural supply should be protected so as +to help furnish the food supply year after year. + +Lakes, ponds, etc., that abound in wild rice, flags, lilies, etc., make +an ideal home for muskrats, as they are fond of both the wild rice seed +and roots, as well as the roots of flags and lilies, on which they feed +when the surface is frozen over. Artichokes should also be started, as +muskrats are fond of them. + +Those who expect to raise this fur-bearer should take into consideration +that little or no fencing is required on lakes, ponds and creeks if +proper feed grows there. If the feed is not there the prospective raiser +should see that it is started at once by sowing wild rice seed, +transplanting some flags and lily roots to his muskrat waters. In fact, +the prospective muskrat raiser should have the food supply well under +way before the rats are brought or secured or they will destroy it. + +There are no doubt hundreds of places that can be converted into ideal +"muskrat preserves" by a little work. Low, marshy land on which the +water is not deep enough to be dammed. Such a place would require a wire +fence around it. Perhaps the best way would be to place the fence +several rods back from the water, as there would then be no danger of +the animals burrowing under. The fence should be of five-foot wire, one +foot in the ground. Where the fence crosses any inlets or outlets, the +wire should be put much deeper for two rods or more on each side and it +would be well to place flat stones in the bottom of the trench, as shown +and described in the chapter on Enclosures. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +RACCOON RAISING. + + +The raccoon is closely allied to the bears, although much smaller. Like +them it possesses an omnivorous appetite, is plantigrade, and hibernates +during cold weather. It is found throughout the Southern, Central and +Eastern States, and in Southern Ontario and Nova Scotia. It is also +found in good numbers on the Pacific coast, northward into British +Columbia; but they are found in greatest numbers in the extreme South of +the United States, and especially in Florida, Louisiana and the lowlands +of Arkansas and Texas. + +Their natural home is in the heavily timbered parts, but they are also +found in the sparsely wooded bottom lands of the Central States. + +They den, as a rule, in hollow trees, well up from the ground, and +seldom if ever in a tree which has a continuous hollow and an opening at +the bottom, preferring a hollow, broken off limb, or a hole in the +trunk, high up on the tree. In some places they den in natural caves in +the rocks, and in the western part of their range, it is said that they +sometimes occupy dens in some high and dry bank of earth. During the +mating season the males travel considerably, and will, when daylight +approaches, seek a place of rest in any hollow tree that is to be found, +or failing to find this, may spend the day in a hollow log or under a +stump. + +The mating season comes mainly, late in February or early in March, and +the young, from four to six in number, are born in April and the +beginning of May. They remain with the parents for some time during the +summer, but will find a den for themselves as soon as possible. However, +they will be found, the first season, in the near vicinity of the +parents' den. + +The food of the coon is variable, to conform with conditions of +different sections, but wherever found, they feed on both vegetable and +animal food. Fish, frogs, crawfish, clams, eggs of birds, and turtles; +water snails, wild fruits, such as grapes and berries, nuts, acorns, +etc., are all eaten with a relish. They are especially fond of corn when +in the milky state, and in late summer they feed on it extensively. They +are fond of poultry, also of honey, and will dig out the nests of bumble +bees when they find them, for the sake of the little bit of "sweet" +which is found therein. + +They are nocturnal animals and are seldom seen by daylight. In their +travels they follow the streams mostly, and catch fish by feeling under +the stones in shallow water. Whenever possible, they wash their food +before eating. + +The raccoon has a peculiar cry, which is heard sometimes, on still +nights, during the summer. It is a quavering note somewhat resembling +that of the screech owl, but lower and softer, and seems to come from a +distance, though really close by. To one inexperienced in the ways of +this animal, the cry would not be recognized. + +The fur of the raccoon meets with ready sale at fair prices, and there +is also sale for the flesh in many markets. There is considerable +difference in color in individual animals, some of them being very dark, +and others quite pale. Of course the northern animals are more heavily +furred than those of the south. + +The darker and larger specimens, as a rule, are secured in the northern +states--New York, Pennsylvania, Northern Ohio, Northern Indiana, +Northern Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and the Northwest. The +greatest numbers, but smaller and lighter colored, are secured from the +southern states, those bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, Tennessee, +Arkansas, Missouri, and Kentucky. + +While raccoon can be raised in nearly all parts of America, the best +furred specimens can only be raised where the climate is productive of +good fur,--say north of 40 degrees. This would be on a line passing +through Philadelphia, south of Pittsburg, just north of Columbus, +through Central Indiana and Illinois, northern Missouri, boundary +between Kansas and Nebraska, north of Denver, and on to the Pacific +Ocean. + +It is not meant that coon cannot be profitably raised south of this line +indicated, for they can. The chances, however, are that far south of the +line mentioned, the skins would not be as valuable and being nearer the +coon-producing section, there would not be as ready a market for the +carcasses. + +The coon raiser should secure good dark males and females for breeding +purposes, from northern sections. If unable to do this, a good male or +two crossed with the females, would help to produce larger and darker +animals. This is important, as the larger and darker the pelt, the more +valuable, and the larger the carcass the more it brings. + +That raccoons do well in captivity is well known from the many kept in +zoos, parks, etc. Countless numbers have been caught while young, when +they soon become tame and interesting pets. Even those caught when +grown, soon become accustomed to their owners and keepers. They can be +handled and become amusing pets. They know strangers and will often put +their paws over their eyes and look between their toes, thinking +perhaps, that the stranger cannot see them, while their paws are over +their eyes. + +Large numbers of raccoons could be raised by fencing in a piece of +woods, embracing a few acres, with a creek running through. If the fence +was considerable distance from the edge of the woods, it is doubtful if +the animals would make much effort to escape. The places they would be +apt to frequent the most, would be where the stream entered and left the +enclosure. At these places the fence should be extra high, strong and +secure. + +The raccoon and opossum farmer have a double advantage where their +"farm" is situated near a city. First, if the fur farm is one containing +a large number of animals, the supplying of food will be quite a problem +and the city offers a means of plenty and cheap food for your animals, +such as offals from slaughter houses and other feed. Second, the city +offers a market for the meat at "killing time". + +While raccoon will eat decayed meat to some extent, it should be +furnished them fresh, in which condition it is much better for them. +Most animals will eat carrion, yet it is doubtful if it is advisable to +feed when in such condition. Putrid flesh is unhealthy and some claim, +causes fur-bearing animals to become affected with mange. + +Raccoon are naturally a clean animal, and in their wild state are +particular that their food is clean. They seldom, if ever, eat left-over +food or flesh that has become tainted. + +[Illustration: Barrel Shelter for Female and Young.] + +That raccoon raising promises well is borne out from the fact that they +are easily handled, eat a variety of food easily secured, and their fur +and meat both have a ready cash market. The pelt of a full grown and +dark raccoon is worth from $1.00 to $2.00, depending upon the section; +to this add from 40c to 75c for the carcass and it will be seen that the +raccoon brings to its owner $1.40 to $2.50 or upwards. This price is for +the better grade. The smaller and lighter colored skins from the more +southerly sections, will perhaps only bring two-thirds as much--75 cents +to $1.50 for the pelts and 25 to 50 cents for the carcass. + +At what other "branch of farming" is there greater profit? No one is +going to become immensely rich "at coon raising" in a few years, but if +they enter the business and give the same attention and care to it that +they would to poultry, sheep, horses and cattle, there is reason to +believe that the profits will be as large if not larger. Again, the +person who loves the handling of fur-bearing animals will be making his +living at the business he enjoys most. + +[Illustration: Fur Farm on Open Ground.] + +Those who expect to raise coon in a small enclosure, should have the +wire turned in several feet at the top, or the chances are they will +follow along the under side to the edge and thus escape. In the +enclosure for raccoon, the strip of tin around the fence some three or +four feet high is strongly recommended. There should be some logs, dens, +and low, branchy trees for the animals to play in is to their liking. +The more homelike their enclosure, the sooner they become contented. +This means that they grow faster, which is all to the financial interest +of the coon raiser. + +An enclosure of several acres for coon, taking in trees suitable for +dens, could be used for fox raising as well. The coon would raise their +young in the "den trees" and therefore would not bother the foxes, as +those having young would be in pens. The male foxes having access to the +entire enclosure might steal the feed for the female coon left at the +roots of the den trees. Should there be trouble on this point, the food +could be placed on a platform against the body of the tree out of reach +of the foxes. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +THE BEAVER AND OTTER. + + +These two very important fur-bearing animals were once quite numerous +throughout practically the whole of the United States and Canada, but +because of the persistency with which they were hunted, have become rare +in many of the sections where they were once found in abundance. +Especially is this true of the beaver. Almost all of the states in which +beavers are still found, as well as the various provinces of Canada, +have made laws to protect these animals, but they are still hunted and +trapped, and the day is not far distant when the beaver will be extinct. + +The otter is a more wary animal than the beaver, and as a consequence +will linger within the bounds of civilization long after the beaver has +disappeared, but for all this they are becoming very rare in most of the +settled sections. As these animals both belong to different orders and +their habits are entirely different, it will be necessary to take up +each separately. + +THE BEAVER.--As before mentioned, the beaver has become extinct in many +sections where it was once found, and at present they are practically +confined to Canada, Alaska, the Northern States and the Western mountain +regions. A few are still found in the more isolated portions of the +South, but there they are quite rare except in a few small sections. +Thruout the Central and many of the Eastern and Southern States, they +have entirely disappeared. There is only one species of the beaver, but +there are several varieties, all of which are very much alike in +appearance and the habits of all are the same, except where it is +changed because of difference in food, climate, etc. + +The beaver has always been an interesting animal, not only to those +directly interested in furs, but to all others, and practically +everybody knows something regarding the habits of the animal. One of +their most remarkable habits is that of building dams on the stream, or +at the outlet of the pond or lake on which they are located. These dams +are intended to regulate the height of the water. They will vary from +two to five feet in height, and from twenty to one hundred yards in +length, according to the size of the stream and the nature of the +shores. + +The dams are composed of sticks and chunks of wood, stones, sods, etc. +They always watch the dam closely and keep it in repair, and each fall +it is strengthened by adding new material. In addition to the main dam +there are, as a rule, one or more smaller dams built lower down stream. +What these small dams are for is not known for a certainty, but +sometimes, when the lower dam backs the water up to the large one, the +beavers will, in the fall after the ice has formed, dig a passage +through the upper dam, which allows the water to fall and leaves an air +space between the water and the ice, and it is perhaps for this reason +that the smaller dams are constructed. + +Somewhere on the edge of the pool where the water is not too deep, the +beavers make their lodge, or house. These houses sometimes rise eight +feet above the water and will measure fifteen feet in diameter. They are +constructed of the same materials as used for the dam, and are always +repaired and strengthened before freezing weather comes. There are two +entrances to the house and they are always located deep under water. + +The food of the beaver consists principally of bark of poplar, birch, +willow, cottonwood, alder and wild cherry. They are also fond of the +roots of the water lily. In the South it is said that they quite often +feed on corn, when located near the farms. They would doubtless eat many +kinds of roots and vegetables if same could be procured. In some few +sections, where the nature of the stream is such that houses and dams +are not a success, the beavers live in holes in the bank of the stream +and are called "bank beavers"; however, they are the same variety as the +house building kind. + +In the Northern districts, where the ponds are covered with ice six +months of the year, the beavers spend the entire winter under the ice. +For this long period of imprisonment they must lay up a large store of +food. This food consists of small, green saplings and brush, cut into +suitable lengths and stored under water, in front of the house. They eat +only the bark and the peeled sticks are used to repair the house and +dam. The young beavers are born in April and May and there are usually +only two at a birth, but sometimes there will be three. These young +animals remain two years with the parents, so that a full family will +consist of the two old ones, two or three medium size and two or three +small beavers. However, there are "bachelor beavers", old males who +always live alone, and have a small house somewhere along the shore of a +stream or pond. + +It was the beaver that was most sought by the early trappers, for the +fur was more in demand than the fur of any other animal. At present it +is not as popular as in days of old, but we do not believe that its +value will decrease, as the catch becomes lighter each succeeding year. +The skins do not become prime as early as those of some other animals, +but are in good condition in advance of the muskrat. The fur of the +beaver, otter, muskrat and bear remains in good condition until late in +the spring. + +During the summer months many of the beavers travel about on the streams +and if a house is found at this time it may be deserted, or at the best, +only one or two animals will be found there. As fall approaches, they +all return to the lodge and from that time until the water is frozen +they will be hard at work laying up the winter's store of food. + +THE OTTER.--The otter is occasionally met with in almost all parts of +North America, in some places fairly plentiful, in others very rare, but +they are found in greatest numbers in the swamps of some of the Southern +States, and in the wilder portions of Canada, Alaska and Newfoundland. +There are two species, the common otter and the sea otter, which latter +is only found in the North Pacific and is now quite rare. Of the common +otter there are some three or four varieties, differing only in size and +color. The habits of the otter are very little known by the average man, +and many of the trappers know little about this animal. They are +rambling animals, traveling the streams and lakes for great distances. +They will travel sometimes ten or fifteen miles to visit some certain +lake and perhaps will only stay there over night. Again, if undisturbed, +they may remain for a month or more on some small pond. + +They are on very friendly terms with the beaver and will frequently +spend several weeks or months with a beaver family, apparently living in +the same house. If an otter knows the location of two or more families +of beavers, it will spend practically all of its time with one or other +of the beaver families, or may make frequent visits from one to the +other. + +The otter is an exceedingly active animal and is so much at home in the +water that it is able to catch fish with ease, and they are its +principal food. Where fish are plentiful, they will kill them merely for +pleasure, and what they can not eat, they will store up in some little +bay or inlet along the shore. These, however, are not placed there for +future use, as the otter will only eat food that is strictly fresh. +Besides fish, they also eat large numbers of frogs, which are easily +secured. They also eat muskrats and sometimes surprise these animals by +coming up into the houses from below, thus preventing the inmates from +escaping. + +The otter does not travel much on land, except when crossing country +from one lake or stream to another. Their bodies being long and their +legs short, walking is, for them, rather difficult and their mode of +locomotion is a series of plunging leaps. On the snow or ice they move +along rapidly by throwing themselves forward, sliding on their bellies. +They are very playful animals and sometimes amuse themselves by sliding +down a slippery bank. They also have landing places where they go to +roll in the leaves and grass. In the spring they often lay for hours on +some old log by the side of the stream, basking in the warm sun. They +can remain a long time under water, and in winter travel long distances +under the ice,--in fact, they prefer to travel this way whenever +possible. + +The home of the otter is a burrow in the bank of a stream, the entrance +under water. At the end of the burrow is a nest lined with leaves and +grass. They also, sometimes, den in hollow logs and the trunks of hollow +trees. The dens are always located in the most secluded places, as far +as possible removed from danger of discovery. The young are born in +April or May and the number is from two to four. + +With regard to raising the beaver and otter for profit, we will say that +there has been comparatively few attempts at the business and we are +unable to get any authentic data with regard to these experiments. +However, the animals do well in captivity, in zoos, and when kept by +private individuals, as pets, and it is our opinion that if one will but +go slowly and learn the habits and nature of the animals, a fair degree +of success may be attained. It should be understood that conditions must +be favorable and the animals should be given a range as nearly like +their natural home as possible. Of course, one could not make a success +of raising beavers in an open field. They must have wooded land where +their natural food, quaking aspen (sometimes poplar), birch, willow, +cottonwood, alder, is plentiful. A pool on some quiet little stream, +bordered by a large tract of forest, would be the proper place. Beavers +are not given to roaming, except during the summer months, and in such +cases they always return to their home before cold weather comes. + +We believe that the animals could not be raised successfully by any of +the plans recommended for the rearing of other fur-bearing animals, but +should simply be placed in a large enclosure, in the proper location, +and allowed to take care of themselves. The animals will breed perfectly +without any attention and there will be no danger of them killing their +offspring, as is the case with other fur bearers. There is no doubt that +the beaver and the otter will do well in the same enclosure, for in the +wild state they are very sociable and are fond of one another's company. + +If otters are kept in an enclosed pond, it will be necessary to keep +them supplied with food, and perhaps the best way would be to keep the +ponds stocked with live fish and frogs. With the beaver the matter of +providing food is more simple, as it will only be necessary to make the +enclosure where their natural food is found in abundance. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +KILLING, SKINNING AND STRETCHING. + + +When "killing time" comes, care should be taken to not frighten the +animals left for breeding purposes more than is absolutely necessary. +All animals that are tame enough should be driven into a separate +enclosure and out of sight of the others before being killed. Perhaps as +good a method of killing as any is to use a good club, striking on the +head just over the eyes or ears. + +The above method is not for skunk, as they should be killed without the +enclosure becoming so strongly scented. A pole several feet long with a +strong loop on the end can be slipped over their head and well back on +the neck. The animal can now be lifted clear off the ground and carried +wherever the killing is desired. If the killer does not mind a little +perfume he knocks them on the head, or if a barrel of water is handy +they can be drowned and few scent. The drowning, however, is not +recommended, as it takes the fur hours to dry and is therefore extra +work. Some even claim that the water spoils the luster of the fur to a +certain extent. + +Some animals, such as coon and skunk, do not leave their dens during +severe weather, so that it is advisable to begin selecting those that +are to be killed days and even weeks in advance of the time decided +upon. These should be placed in an enclosure or pen by themselves so +that the remaining ones will not be disturbed. + +Even those animals that come out to their feed regularly during the cold +days should be handled in a similar manner so as not to disturb those to +be kept. + +The animals that are to be kept for breeding purposes need not be fed so +heavily during the winter months or after those that were intended for +market have been killed. Of course in the spring after the females have +young, they must be fed heavily. + +Some raisers, as soon as the young are weaned, select those that are to +be killed the coming winter, keeping them separate from the breeding +stock so that they can be fed properly. That is a great saving of food, +as those for market should be fed much more than the breeders at this +season--say during the months of September, October and November. + +Much importance should be attached to the skinning and stretching of all +kinds of skins so as to command the highest commercial value. The otter, +foxes, marten, mink, opossum, civet and skunk should be cased, that is, +taken off whole. + +Commence with the knife in the center of one hind foot and slit up the +inside of the leg, up to and around the vent and down the other leg in a +like manner. Cut around the vent, taking care not to cut the lumps or +glands in which the musk of certain animals is secreted; then strip the +skin from the bone of the tail with the aid of a split stick gripped +firmly in the hand while the thumb of the other hand presses against the +animal's back just above. Make no other slits in the skin, except in the +case of the skunk or otter, whose tails require to be split, spread, and +tacked on a board. + +Turn the skin back over the body, leaving the pelt side out and the fur +side inward, and by cutting a few ligaments, it will peel off very +readily. Care should be taken to cut closely around the nose, ears and +lips, so as not to tear the skin. + +The beaver and raccoon should be skinned open; that is, ripped up the +belly from vent to chin after the following manner: Cut across the hind +leg as if to be "cased" and then rip up the belly. The skin can then be +removed by flaying as in skinning a beef. + +Many inexperienced trappers stretch coon skins too long and draw out the +head and neck. This can be avoided. Coon can be cased but most dealers +prefer to have them stretched open. + +You should have about three sizes of stretching boards for mink and fox. +For mink they should be 4-1/2 inches down to 3 inches and for fox from +6-1/4 inches down to 5 inches wide; in length the fox boards may be 4 +feet and the mink boards 3 feet. + +The boards should taper slightly down to within 8 inches of the end for +fox, and then rounded up to a round point. The mink boards should be +rounded at 4 or 5 inches from this point. You will vary the shape of the +board in proportion to the width. Stretching boards should not be more +than 3/8 inch thick. Have the boards smooth and even on the edges. Other +stretching boards should be made in proportion to the size and shape of +the animal whose skin is to be stretched. + +You should not fail to remove all the fat and flesh from the skin +immediately after the skin is on the board. If a skin is wet when taken +from the animal, it should be drawn lightly on a board until the fur is +quite dry. Then turn the skin flesh side out and stretch. + +Do not dry skins at a fire nor in the sun, nor in smoke. It often burns +them, when they will not dress and are of no value. Dry in a +well-covered shed or tent where there is a free circulation of air, and +never use any preparation, such as alum and salt, as it only injures +them for market. Never stretch the noses out long, as some trappers are +inclined to do, but treat them as above described, and they will command +better values. Fur buyers and dealers are inclined to class long nosed +skins as "southern" and pay a small price for them, as southern skins +are so much lighter than those of the north, in fur. + +Foxes of the various kinds should be cased and put on boards fur side in +for a few days, or until dry. As the pelt is thin, they soon dry, when +they must be taken off and should be turned fur side out. In shipping, +see that they are not packed against furs flesh side out. + +Skunk should be cased fur side in, and stretched on boards for several +days. The white stripe cut out, blackened, etc., reduces the value. + +Mink should be cased fur side in and stretched on boards for several +days or until dry. + +Muskrat should be stretched fur side in, and a few days on the board +will be sufficient. They are left as taken off, that is, fur side in. +Cut the tails off when skinning--they are worthless. + +Opossum are stretched on boards fur side in and are left in that +condition after removing the boards. Cut the tails off when +skinning--they have no value. + +Raccoon should be stretched open (ripped up the belly), and nailed on +boards or the inside of a building. Some dealers allow as much for coons +cased, from any section, while others prefer that only Southern coon, if +any, be cased. + +Otter are cased and stretched fur side in. The pelt being thick and +heavy, takes several days to dry properly. They are shipped flesh side +out. + +Beaver are split but stretched round and should be left in the hoop or +stretcher for several days. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +DEER FARMING. + + +This chapter is from Farmers' Bulletin 330, issued July 28, 1908, by +United States Department of Agriculture and written by D. E. Lantz, +Assistant, Biological Survey. + +The term "deer" is here used in its general sense, in which it includes +the elk, the reindeer or caribou, the moose and other species, besides +those usually referred to as deer. + + U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, + BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY, + _Washington, D. C., June 3, 1908._ + + SIR: I have the honor to transmit the accompanying + manuscript on the subject of Deer Farming in the United + States, and to recommend its publication as Farmers' + Bulletin No. 330. As a result of the growing scarcity of + game animals in this country the supply of venison is wholly + inadequate to the demand, and the time seems opportune for + developing the industry of deer farming, which may be made + profitable alike to the state and the individuals engaged + therein. The raising of venison for market is as legitimate + a business as the growing of beef and mutton, and state + laws, when prohibitory, as many of them are, should be so + modified as to encourage the industry. Furthermore, deer and + elk may be raised to advantage in forests and on rough, + brushy ground unfitted for either agriculture or stock + raising, thus utilizing for profit much land that is now + waste. An added advantage is that the business is well + adapted to landowners of small means. + + Respectfully, + + C. HART MERRIAM, + _Chief Biological Survey._ + + HON. JAMES WILSON, + _Secretary of Agriculture._ + + +INTRODUCTION. + +The present bulletin discusses briefly the economic possibilities of +raising deer and elk in the United States. It is believed that when the +restrictions now imposed by State laws are removed this business may be +made an important and highly profitable industry, especially since it +will be the means of utilizing much otherwise unproductive land. The +raising of venison should be, and is naturally, as legitimate a business +as the growing of beef or mutton, and State laws should be so modified +as to permit the producer, who has stocked a preserve with deer at +private expense, to dispose of his product at any time, under reasonable +regulations, either for breeding purposes or for food. + +The growing scarcity of game mammals and birds in the United States and +the threatened extinction of some of them over large parts of their +present ranges make the preservation of the remnant highly important. +Very important also is the increase of this remnant so as to make game +once more abundant. It is believed that by means of intelligent game +propagation, both by the states and by private enterprise, many of our +depleted ranges can be restocked with big game. + + +IMPORTANCE OF THE DEER FAMILY. + +The members of the deer family (Cervidae) rank next to the cattle and +sheep family (Bovidae) in general utility, and are the most important of +the big game animals of America. + +Wherever obtainable in quantity the flesh of deer of different kinds has +always been a staple article of diet, and under present market +conditions it is hardly necessary to say that venison is perhaps the +most important game, being a favorite with epicures and also having a +wide use as a substitute for beef and mutton, which meats it resembles +in texture, color, and general characteristics. Its flavor is +distinctive, though it suggests mutton rather than beef. In chemical +composition it is very similar to beef, though, judging from available +data, it is not so fat as stall-fed cattle. The following figures show +how it compares with beef and mutton: A lean venison roast before +cooking has been found to contain on an average 75 per cent of water, 20 +per cent of protein or nitrogenous material, and 2 per cent of fat; a +lean beef rump, some 65 to 70 per cent of water, 20 to 23 per cent of +protein, and 5 to 14 per cent of fat; a lean leg of mutton, 67 per cent +of water, 19 per cent of protein, and 13 per cent of fat. + +Venison, beef, and other common meats are very thoroughly digested, +whatever the method of cooking. Venison may be roasted, broiled, +pan-broiled, or used for making stews, in much the same way as beef. +Venison, particularly steak, to be at its best, should be eaten as soon +as possible after it is cooked. + +The general popularity of venison is so great and the demand for it so +widespread that over-production is improbable. The other products of the +deer--skins and horns--are of considerable importance, and in countries +where deer are abundant and especially where large herds are kept in +semi-domestication, the commerce in both is very extensive. + + +THE DOMESTICATION OF DEER. + +A number of species of the deer family have been proved to be +susceptible to domestication. The reindeer, however, is the only one +that has been brought fully under the control of man. The fact that the +European red deer and the fallow deer have been bred in parks for +centuries without domestication does not prove that they are less +susceptible to the process than the reindeer. The purposes for which +they have been held captive and the environment given them have been +markedly different. It must be remembered, also, that few attempts have +been made to rear and domesticate deer under intelligent management. The +work has been largely a matter of chance experiment. If they had been as +long under careful management as cattle, they would now, probably, be +equally plastic in the hands of a skillful breeder. + +But raising deer for profit does not necessarily imply their complete +domestication. They may be kept in large preserves with surroundings as +nearly natural as possible and their domestication entirely ignored. +Thus the breeder may reap nearly all the profit that could be expected +from a domestic herd, while the animals escape most of the dangers +incident to close captivity. But the breeder who aims at the ultimate +domestication of the animals, and whose herd approaches nearest to true +domesticity, will in the end be most successful. + + +SPECIES TO BE SELECTED FOR BREEDING. + +The number of species of deer suited for breeding in inclosures in the +United States is great, though the chances for success are by no means +the same for all. As a rule those native to America are to be preferred, +since they are already acclimated. In selecting any species, similarity +between its natural habitat and that to which it is to be transferred +must be considered. Important, also, is its adaptability to varied +conditions, as shown by former attempts to acclimatize it. + +Unless they have shown a peculiar adaptability to such change, deer +should not be taken from arid parts of the United States to humid parts. +To a disregard of this principle are probably due many of the failures +that have attended experiments in breeding the American antelope, the +Columbia blacktail deer, the moose, and other animals in places +differing widely from their natural ranges. + +The history of attempts to acclimatize the several kinds of deer shows +that some readily adapt themselves to a great variety of conditions, and +efforts to introduce them into new countries have been almost uniformly +successful. Such has been the experience with the axis deer, the +Japanese and Pekin sikas, the red and the fallow deer of Europe, and +especially with the wapiti, or Rocky Mountain elk, and the Virginia +deer. While experiments with the foreign species named offer every +promise of success to the owners of American preserves, there are +obvious reasons for recommending the two native animals just mentioned +as best suited for the production of venison in the United States. + + +THE WAPITI, OR ROCKY MOUNTAIN ELK. + +The Wapiti (_Cervus canadensis_), including two related species and a +geographic race, and known in America as the elk, is, next to the moose, +the largest of our deer. It was once abundant over the greater part of +the United States, whence its range extended northward to about latitude +60 deg. in the Peace River region of the interior of Canada. In the United +States the limits of its range eastward were the Adirondacks, western +New Jersey, and eastern Pennsylvania; southward it reaches the southern +Alleghenies, northern Texas, southern Mexico, and Arizona; and westward +the Pacific Ocean. + +For the practical purposes of this bulletin all the forms of the wapiti +are treated as a single species. At the present time the range of these +animals has so far diminished that they occur only in a few scattered +localities outside of the Yellowstone National Park and the mountainous +country surrounding it, where large herds remain. Smaller herds still +occur in Colorado, western Montana, Idaho, eastern Oregon, Manitoba, +Alberta, British Columbia, and the coast mountains of Washington, +Oregon, and northwestern California. A band of the small California +valley elk still inhabits the southern part of the San Joaquin Valley. + +The herds that summer in the Yellowstone National Park and in winter +spread southward and eastward in Wyoming are said to number about 30,000 +head, and constitute the only large bands of this noble game animal that +are left. Although protected in their summer ranges and partially +safeguarded from destruction in winter by the State of Wyoming, there is +yet great danger that these herds may perish from lack of food in a +succession of severe winters. Partial provision for winter forage has +been made within the National Park, but the supply is inadequate for the +large number of animals. Further safeguards are needed to place the +Wyoming elk herds beyond the reach of winter starvation. + +In addition to the wild herds, there are a considerable number of elk in +private game preserves and parks, as well as in nearly all the public +zoological parks and gardens of this country. The herds in captivity +form the nucleus from which, under wise management, some of the former +ranges of this animal may be restocked and from which a profitable +business of growing elk venison for market may be developed. At the +present time this species affords a most promising field for ventures in +breeding for profit. + + +_Habits of Elk._ + +The elk is both a browsing and a grazing animal. While it eats grasses +freely and has been known to subsist entirely upon pasture, it seems to +prefer a mixture of grass and browse. + +The elk is extremely polygamous. The adult bulls shed their antlers +annually in March or April, and new ones attain their full size in about +ninety days. The "velvet" adheres until about August. While the horns +are growing the bulls usually lead solitary lives; but early in +September, when the horns are fully matured, the rutting season begins. +Fights for supremacy then take place, and the victor takes charge of as +many cows as he can round up and control. The period of gestation is +about 8-1/2 months. The female does not usually breed until the third +year, and produces but one calf at a time. + +Although the elk is less prolific than the common deer and some other +species that have been bred in parks, it increases fully as rapidly as +the common red deer of Europe. Moreover, it makes up for any lack of +fecundity by its superior hardiness and ease of management. It has been +acclimatized in many parts of the world, and shows the same vigor and +hardiness wherever it has been transplanted. In Europe it has been +successfully crossed with Altai wapiti and the red deer, and in both +instances the offspring were superior in size and general stamina to the +native stock. + + +_Elk Venison._ + +The flesh of the elk, although somewhat coarse, is superior in flavor to +most venison. That of the bulls is in its best condition about the time +the velvet is shed. By the time the rut is over, in October, their flesh +is in the poorest condition. As the open season for elk is usually in +October and November, and only bulls are killed, it follows that +hunters often obtain the venison when it is poorest. The meat is not +best when freshly killed, but should be left hanging for four or five +days before it is used. Of course fat elk are better eating than lean, +and it is said that venison from castrated bulls is superior to any +other. + + +_Domestication of Elk._ + +With few exceptions the early attempts to domesticate elk were made by +men who were wealthy enough to disregard all thought of profit in +raising them. They were usually placed under the care of servants and +the bucks were left uncastrated until they became old and unmanageable. +Soon the serious problem of controlling them outweighed the novelty of +their possession, and one by one attempts at domestication were +abandoned. + +A desire to preserve this important game animal has caused a renewal of +attempts to breed it in confinement, and at present there are small +herds under private ownership in many places in the United States. The +Biological Survey has recently obtained much information from owners of +herds in regard to their experience in breeding and rearing the animals, +and also their opinions as to the possibility of making the business of +raising them profitable. Of about a dozen successful breeders, nearly +all are of the opinion that raising elk for market can be made +remunerative if present laws as to the sale of the meat are modified. + +[Illustration: Elk in Enclosure. Shelter in Background.] + +One especially important fact has been developed by the reports from +breeders. It is that the elk readily adapts itself to almost any +environment. Even within the narrow confines of the paddocks of the +ordinary zoological park the animal does well and increases so that +periodically the herds have to be reduced by sales. + +The fullest reports that have been received by the Department of +Agriculture from breeders of elk are from George W. Russ, of Eureka +Springs, Ark., through H. N. Vinall, of the Bureau of Plant Industry. + +Mr. Russ has a herd of 34 elk. They have ample range in the Ozarks on +rough land covered with hardwood forest and abundant underbrush. The +animals improve the forest by clearing out part of the thicket. They +feed on buds and leaves to a height of 8 feet, and any growth under this +is liable to be eliminated if the range is restricted. If not closely +confined, elk do not eat the bark from trees, nor do they eat +evergreens. In clearing out underbrush from thickets they are more +useful than goats, since they browse higher. Goats, however, eat closer +to the ground; and as the two animals get along well together, Mr. Russ +recommends the use of both for clearing up brushy land and fitting it +for tame grasses. + +The increase of elk under domestication is equal to that of cattle. +Fully 90 per cent. of the females produce healthy young. An adult male +elk weighs from 700 to 1,000 pounds; a female from 600 to 800 pounds. +The percentage of dressed meat is greater than with cattle, but, owing +to hostile game laws, experience in marketing it is very limited. An +offer of 40 cents a pound for dressed meat was received from St. Louis, +but the law would not permit its export. Mr. Russ says: + +"From the fact that as high as $1.50 per pound has been paid for this +meat in New York City and Canada, and that the best hotels and +restaurants pronounce it the finest of all the meats of mammals, we are +of the opinion that if laws were such that domesticated elk meat could +be furnished it would be many years before the supply would make the +price reasonable compared with other meats. Elk meat can be produced in +many sections of this country at less cost per pound than beef, mutton, +or pork." + +Mr. Russ thinks that large areas of rough lands in the United States not +now utilized, especially in localities like the Ozarks and the +Alleghanies, could be economically used to produce venison for sale, +and he regards the elk as especially suited for this purpose. + +Another feature of Mr. Russ's report is of more than passing interest. +He says: + +"We find from long experience that cattle, sheep, and goats can be +grazed in the same lots with elk, providing, however, that the lots or +inclosures are not small; the larger the area the better. We know of no +more appropriate place to call attention to the great benefit of a few +elk in the same pasture with sheep and goats. An elk is the natural +enemy of dogs and wolves. We suffered great losses to our flocks until +we learned this fact; since then we have had no loss from that cause. A +few elk in a thousand-acre pasture will absolutely protect the flocks +therein. Our own dogs are so well aware of the danger in our elk park +that they can not be induced to enter it." + +Judge Caton, in his Antelope and Deer of America, also remarks on the +animosity of elk toward dogs, and says that the does always lead in the +chase of dogs that get into the elk park. If elk will attack and +vanquish dogs and coyotes and thus help to protect domestic animals +grazing in the same pastures, a knowledge of the fact may be of great +advantage to stockmen who desire to give up herding sheep and resort to +fenced pastures instead. The addition of a few elk in the pasture may +be an efficient protection from dogs, coyotes, and wolves. However, +outside of fenced pastures elk do not always show themselves hostile to +dogs and coyotes. + + +_Management of Elk in Inclosures._ + +Lorenzo Stratton, of Little Valley, Cattaraugus County, N. Y., began +experiments in breeding elk about sixty years ago. His plan of +management consisted essentially in taming the calves when very young +and continuing the petting process with the entire herd. He visited the +animals daily in the pasture and always carried dainties to feed them. +As the bulls became old and developed signs of viciousness, they were +castrated, younger animals being used for breeding. He thus developed a +thoroughly domesticated herd. + +For economic reasons, it is not always possible to follow Mr. Stratton's +plan. Those who grow the animals for venison and in large preserves +would find it impracticable to tame all the calves. However, if elk or +deer are grown for stocking parks or private preserves, the tamer they +are the easier it will be to handle and ship them. + +RANGE.--In choosing a range for elk, the natural food supply is +important. They thrive best in preserves having a variety of food +plants--grasses, bushes, and trees. Rough lands, well watered with clear +streams and having some forested area, are well adapted to their needs. +About as many elk can be kept on such a range as cattle on an equal area +of fair pasture. There should be thickets enough to furnish winter +browse, but this should be supplemented by a supply of winter forage. + +FOOD.--Except when deep snows cover the ground, elk will keep in good +condition on ordinary pasture and browse; but a system of management +that provides other food regularly will be found more satisfactory. Hay +and corn fodder are excellent winter forage; but alfalfa hay has proved +to be the best dry food for both elk and deer. A little oats or +corn--whole or chopped--may be fed each day. Elk are fond of corn, and +feeding it affords excellent opportunities for winning their confidence +and taming them. The same may be said of salt, which should be furnished +liberally to all deer kept in inclosures. Running water, although not +essential, is of great importance in maintaining elk in good condition. + +FENCE.--Elk are much less nervous than ordinary deer, and less disposed +to jump fences. When they escape from an enclosure they usually return +of their own accord. If tame, they may be driven like cattle. +Ordinarily, a 5-foot fence of any kind will confine elk. Henry Binning, +of Cora, Wyo., writes us that a 4-foot woven-wire fence is ample for +these animals. A small enclosure in which a vicious bull elk is to be +kept should be higher and of stronger material. Mr. Russ's report, +already partly quoted, states that where lumber for posts is cheap a +good elk fence may be built for $200 a mile. But the actual cost will, +of course, vary greatly according to style, price of labor, nearness to +market, and other circumstances. + +COST OF STOCK.--The cost of stocking an elk preserve is not great. +Usually surplus stock from zoological parks or small private preserves +may be obtained at low cost, varying with the immediate demand for the +animals. At times they have sold for less than $20 a head, and with the +present restrictions on sale, low prices are likely to continue. A few +years ago T. J. Wilson, of Lewisburg, Ohio, paid $165 for three animals. +A Michigan breeder recently offered to deliver a dozen head, sex and age +not given, all fine specimens, for $500. This is, of course, a low +price, not more than cattle would bring and less than the venison would +be worth if it could be sold. If restrictions on the sale and shipment +of venison from private preserves were removed, prices of the stock +would, of course, soon advance, and necessitate a greater outlay in +starting the business. + +VICIOUS MALE ELK.--The male elk is ordinarily docile, but in the rutting +season the older ones often become ill-tempered and dangerous. Several +tragedies connected with attempts to domesticate elk are matters of +history. One was recorded by Judge Caton in his Antelope and Deer of +America as having occurred in his own park. Another took place at Bull +City, Osborne County, Kans., in October 1879, and resulted in the +instant death of Gen. H. C. Bull, the mortal wounding of two other men, +and the serious injury of another, from the attacks of an infuriated +bull elk that had previously been regarded as extremely gentle. + +Wild and unconfined deer and elk flee from man under nearly all +circumstances, but when wounded and closely pressed they have been known +to attack hunters. It is unlikely that, even in the rutting season, a +wild bull elk would attack a human being. But the tame or partially tame +animals that have become familiar with man are to be feared and should +not be approached in that season without extreme caution. A male elk or +deer that has once shown viciousness can not again be trusted. + +The remedy for viciousness in the male elk is castration. It is unsafe +to keep an uncastrated male elk over 4 years old, unless he is in a +strongly fenced inclosure from which visitors are excluded. The effects +of castration are to make the animal docile and to greatly enhance his +value for venison. This is in accord with observed results in the +production of beef, pork, and mutton. Venison grown in domestication +under a system in which the male animals intended for slaughter are +castrated should be uniformly of the highest grade and far superior to +that obtained in the wild state during the usual open season for +hunting. This consideration is of the greatest importance in fixing the +final status of venison grown under domestication. + + +_Breeding the Virginia Deer._ + +The Virginia, or whitetail deer (_Odocoileus virginianus_) is the common +deer of the United States. Including the half dozen geographic races +that occur within our borders, it is distributed over most of the +country, except Nevada and the major portions of Utah, Arizona, +Washington, Oregon, and California. It is extinct in Delaware and +practically so in a number of States in the Middle West. South of our +borders a number of closely related species occur. + +In view of the wide natural range of the whitetail deer, its +adaptability to nearly all sections of the United States can not be +doubted. Testimony as to its hardiness in parks and preserves is not so +unanimous as that concerning the wapiti; but the general experience of +breeders is that with suitable range, plenty of good water, and +reasonable care in winter, raising this deer for stocking preserves or +for venison may be made as profitable as any other livestock industry. +Not only do deer thrive on land unsuited for cattle or horses, but, like +elk, they may be raised to great advantage in brushy or timbered +pastures fully stocked with cattle or horses, as the food of deer rarely +includes grass. + +Advocates of the Angora goat industry state that within the United +States there are 250,000,000 acres of land not suited to tillage or to +the pasture of horses, cattle, or sheep, which are well adapted to +goats. Much of this land is suited also to deer and elk, and can be +utilized for these animals with less injury to the forest cover than +would result from its browsing by goats. + +The whitetail deer has often been the subject of experiments in +domestication. The beauty of these animals, especially the fawns, +appeals to every admirer of wild life, and early settlers of the country +soon learned how easily they could be tamed and how promptly they +attached themselves to the persons who fed them. The dangerous character +of the same pets, especially the males, when grown up was soon learned +also. It followed that the domesticating process usually ended with the +maturity of the first subject, which was soon disposed of or banished to +a safe inclosure. + +The propagation of the Virginia deer has seldom been undertaken in a +systematic way. The animals have often been bred in parks for pleasure +or in large preserves for sport, but the economic possibilities in +raising them have received little attention. Recently breeders have +recognized the fact that they are profitable under proper management and +would be much more so were conditions for marketing live animals and +venison more favorable. + + +_Experiences of Breeders._ + +The Biological Survey has reports of successful experience in raising +Virginia deer from more than a dozen persons, located in different parts +of the country, who are now engaged in the business. The management of +the herds varies slightly with the surroundings and the object for which +they are kept. + +Thomas Blagden, of Washington, D. C., began raising deer in 1874. After +an experience of over a third of a century he is confident that the +business can be made profitable. In his own herds he has carefully +avoided in-breeding by securing new bucks from time to time. His stock +is vigorous and of the large size characteristic of the Adirondack and +other northern deer. Consequently the animals are in demand for breeding +purposes, the bucks bringing $50 each and the does, $75. He feeds grain, +using corn and a mixture of bran and meal, and during the summer cuts as +much wild forage as possible. He finds that the animals prefer the +rankest weeds to the choicest grass. Of the various kinds of hay, they +prefer alfalfa. He provides abundant water at all times. + +John W. Griggs, of Goodell, Iowa, writes that he has been engaged in +raising deer for about fourteen years. Until two years ago he sold all +his surplus stock for parks, but since then has disposed of about half +of it for venison. For park purposes he gets $20 to $30 a head, but they +bring fully as much or more when fattened for venison. As to management +of deer, Mr. Griggs writes: + +"In raising a large herd the park should be divided into two or three +lots, and one plowed each year and sown to red clover, mustard, rape, +and seeds of different kinds of weeds. Bluegrass and timothy are +useless. Corn is the principal grain I feed. I feed it winter and +summer. In winter I feed also clover hay, oat straw, and weedy wild hay. +Deer when rightly handled are very prolific, and from 50 does one can +count on 75 fawns. They can be raised profitably for venison--very +profitably until overdone; but I would not advise one to go into it on a +large scale without previous experience with deer." + +The report received from C. H. Roseberry, of Stella, Mo., although less +enthusiastic than others, is quoted because his herd approaches more +nearly a state of true domestication. Under date of January 13, 1908, +Mr. Roseberry wrote as follows: + +"My experience in breeding the common or Virginia deer covers a period +of seventeen years, beginning in March, 1891, when, as a boy of 16, I +built a small inclosure of 1-1/2 acres to confine a single doe that was +captured as a fawn in the neighboring forest. + +"A buck and other does were secured from year to year, until in 1900, by +purchase and natural increase, my herd numbered 25 head of all ages. + +"From 1891 to 1901 I lost every year from disease an average of 20 per +cent. The climax came in the drought year of 1901, when my loss was 50 +per cent from the disease known as "black tongue." + +"I am convinced that, like cholera in swine, individuals recovering from +this disease are immune from further attack. Apparently all of my herd +were afflicted. The survivors and their progeny constitute my present +breeding stock. I have made no purchases since 1901, nor have I suffered +any loss from disease. + +"For the last seven years my herd has averaged 70 per cent increase, all +of which I have sold at satisfactory prices. I began selling at $20 per +pair of fawns at 4 months of age and $30 per pair of adults. I now get +$40 and $60, respectively. I sell almost exclusively for pets and for +propagating purposes, although a few surplus bucks have been sold for +venison, averaging me 15 cents per pound gross weight. + +"If we except the goat, I know of no domestic animal common to the farm +that requires so little feed and attention as the deer. My herd has a +range of only 15 acres, two-thirds of which are set to white clover, +bluegrass, and orchard grass. I provide also a small plat of wheat or +rye for winter pasture. With the above provision, in this latitude, no +feed is required between April 15 and November 15. During the rest of +the year a ration of corn, bran, or other mill feed somewhat smaller +than that required for sheep, in connection with a stack of clover or +pea hay to which they have free access, is sufficient to keep them in +good condition. Deer eat with relish nearly all of the common coarse +weeds, and for clearing land of brush they are, I think, second only to +the common goat. + +"Probably the greatest expense connected with the business of raising +deer is the fencing. Another item of trouble and expense, when the +animals are raised for pets, requiring that they be handled and shipped +alive, is the fact that the fawns must be taken from the does when 10 +days old and raised by hand on cow's milk. They are quite easily raised +in this way, with but slight percentage of loss, but require frequent +and careful attention for the first month. When they are allowed to run +with the does their natural wildness can not be overcome, no matter how +gentle the does may be. + +"I have found the business profitable on the lines indicated. I believe +they could be profitably bred for venison alone--certainly with less +trouble and expense, since the fawns could be reared by the does and the +trouble and expense of raising by hand would be eliminated. + +"My experience does not coincide with that of some other breeders in +respect to the weakening of reproductive powers of deer by the +confinement in parks. I have no barren does. Usually they produce a +single fawn at two years of age; afterwards twins, and in rare cases +triplets." + + +[Illustration: Tame Deer Eating Watermelon.] + +_Management of Virginia Deer._ + +As to the management of deer little need be added to the statements from +practical breeders already given. Virginia deer are polygamous, like +cattle; the rutting season is in November; the period of gestation is +about seven months, and the fawns are born in May or June. Young does +usually breed when about 17 months old and have but one fawn the first +time; afterwards they commonly produce twins. The fawns are spotted +until the first shedding of the hair in the fall. + +While deer are chiefly browsing animals, in captivity they eat nearly +every kind of vegetation, including most kinds of garden stuff. They are +fond of acorns, beechnuts, chestnuts, and other mast. Lily pads, leaves, +lichens, and mosses are freely eaten. With plenty of range and an +abundant variety of plants there need be, therefore, no apprehension +concerning the deer's food. A good supply of running water must be +provided, and the animals should have access to rock salt. If the browse +and pasturage are scant, a small ration of grain should be fed. Of the +grains, corn is generally recommended as a food; there is no waste, as +the deer pick up every grain. Coarse hay full of weeds is preferable to +timothy or other tame hays, except alfalfa. Of clover hay, deer usually +eat the blossom heads greedily, but waste the other parts. In winter +feeding is necessary everywhere, and in the northern half of the United +States shelter of some kind should be provided. + +The remarks about castrating elk apply as well to the common deer. A +number of vigorous bucks, however, must be kept with any considerable +herd of does, for a single buck can not serve an unlimited number. +Frequent changes of blood by introducing new bucks should be practiced +to avoid in-breeding. + + +_Wild Deer in Private Game Preserves._ + +Individual owners, as well as associations, have established large +private preserves in many parts of the country and stocked them with +deer and other big game. The objects have been to preserve the animals +and to provide sport for the owners. In the free life under the +protected conditions generally provided, deer do remarkably well, the +increase being even more rapid than in small parks. There can be no +doubt of the success of ventures in propagating the Virginia deer under +natural conditions as wild game, as is proved by the experience of a +large number of hunting clubs and private owners. + +Deer in Buckwood Park, a New Jersey preserve of 4,000 acres, belonging +to Charles S. Worthington, increased in the ten years between 1892 and +1903 from 19 to about 400 head, and the number was then lessened because +it was thought too large for the permanent sustaining capacity of the +park. The St. Louis Park and Agricultural Company have about 1,000 deer +and 400 elk in their 5,000-acre preserve in Taney County, Mo. The +Otzinachson Rod and Gun Club six years ago placed about 90 deer, mostly +does, in their 4,000 acre park in Clinton County, Pa. These have +multiplied to nearly 2,000 head, and a further increase of about a +thousand fawns is expected during the present season (1908). Doubtless +these experiences are not exceptional. + +The good effect of such preserves on the supply of game in the State +should not be overlooked. While they may temporarily restrict the +hunting privileges of a few citizens, they ultimately become a source of +game supply secondary in importance only to State preserves or game +refuges. Already a number of private reserves have become overstocked, +and game has escaped or been turned over to the State to become the +property of the people. The success of private enterprise in propagating +large game in inclosures has thus become an object lesson for State game +commissioners and others, and suggests the feasibility of the State's +undertaking a similar work for the people. + + +GAME LAWS IN RELATION TO DEER FARMING. + +The chief obstacle to profitable propagation of deer in the United +States is the restrictive character of State laws governing the killing, +sale, and transportation of game. Many of the States, following +precedent, lay down the broad rule that all the game animals in the +State, whether resident or migratory, are the property of the State. A +few States except game animals that are "under private ownership legally +acquired." A few others encourage private ownership by providing a way +in which wild animals--deer and the like--may be captured for +domestication. Generally, when private ownership of game is recognized +by law, the right to kill such game is granted, but the owner is +hampered by the same regulations as to season, sale, and shipment that +apply to wild game. One by one, however, State legislatures are coming +to recognize the interests of game propagators, and game laws are +gradually being modified in accordance with the change of view. + +The chief source from which deer and elk may be obtained for stocking +preserves is from animals already in captivity. These must be +transported from place to place or there can be no commerce in them, yet +the laws of many States absolutely forbid their shipment. The laws as to +possession and transportation of deer carcasses make the shipping of +venison also illegal. General export of venison is legal from only six +of the States, and three of these have no wild deer left to protect. + +The laws concerning the season for killing and the sale of deer are +often equally embarrassing to those who would produce venison for +profit. The owner of domesticated deer can not legally kill his animals +except in open season. Owners of private preserves are similarly +restricted and are limited to the killing of one or two animals in a +season. More than half the States and territories absolutely forbid the +sale of venison. A few forbid the sale of venison produced within the +State, but permit the sale of that imported from other States, a most +unjust discrimination against home industry. + +The following States have recently modified their laws so as to provide, +under regulations, for the sale of deer from private preserves. +Transportation and even export are included in some of them. + +ARKANSAS.--Possession, sale, and shipment of deer or fawns is permitted +when they have been raised in captivity for domestic purposes and are +accompanied by an affidavit from the raiser. + +COLORADO.--Owners of private preserves under a license are permitted to +sell and ship deer or other quadrupeds that are accompanied by an +invoice. A fee is required for each animal sold. + +ILLINOIS.--Any person who raises deer for market may kill and sell them +at any time in the same manner as other domestic animals. + +INDIANA.--The provisions of the law as to possession and sale do not +apply to persons who have under ownership or control any deer raised in +a deer park. + +MASSACHUSETTS.--The owner may sell his own tame deer kept on his own +grounds. + +MINNESOTA.--Persons who desire to domesticate deer, moose, elk, or +caribou may secure a permit to do so from the State board of game and +fish commissioners by paying a fee of 50 cents for each animal in +captivity and a like fee for each animal added later by natural increase +or otherwise. The animals kept in captivity may be sold or shipped +within or without the State, by permission of the commissioners. + +MISSOURI.--Deer or elk, alive or dead, may be shipped from any private +preserve and sold in the markets of the State when accompanied by a tag +furnished by the game warden of the county, showing whose property it +is, where killed and to whom shipped. + +NEW HAMPSHIRE.--The Blue Mountain Forest Association may kill elk, deer, +or moose in their preserve for one month after the open season, and at +any time may transport them outside the State. + +NEW YORK.--Deer may be sold during the open season; and moose, elk, +caribou, and antelope from private parks may be sold during the same +period. Common carriers may transport animals into the State for +breeding purposes, but may not transport venison unless it is +accompanied by the owner. + +NORTH CAROLINA.--Seventeen counties permit the owner and keeper of an +inclosed game preserve, who raises deer for use or sale, to kill, sell, +or use those raised or kept in said inclosure. + +PENNSYLVANIA.--Owners of game preserves who hold a game propagating +certificate may sell and transport deer or fawn alive for propagating +purposes only, after securing the written consent of the president of +the board of game commissioners. + +In three or four other States game "under private ownership, legally +acquired," is supposed to be exempt from general provisions of the game +law; but in a test case as to its sale or export it is doubtful whether +the courts would so hold without more specific provision legalizing such +commerce. + + +SUMMARY. + +The domestication of deer and elk offers an interesting field for +experiment, as well as remunerative returns for the investment of +capital. + +The wapiti and the Virginia deer can be raised successfully and cheaply +under many different conditions of food and climate. The production of +venison and the rearing of both species for stocking parks may be made +profitable industries in the United States. + +Instead of hampering breeders by restrictions, as at present, State laws +should be so modified as to encourage the raising of deer, elk, and +other animals as a source of profit to the individual and to the State. + +Safeguards against the destruction and sale of wild deer in place of +domesticated deer are not difficult to enforce. For this purpose a +system of licensing private parks, and of tagging deer or carcases sold +or shipped, so that they may be easily identified, is recommended. + +It is believed that with favorable legislation much otherwise waste land +in the United States may be utilized for the production of venison so as +to yield profitable returns, and also that this excellent and nutritious +meat, instead of being denied to 99 per cent of the population of the +country, may become as common and as cheap in our markets as mutton. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: The above illustration shows the front cover of +Hunter-Trader-Trapper, a monthly magazine, published by The A. R. +Harding Publishing Co., Columbus, Ohio, who are also publishers of books +on Trapping and Out-o-Door Sports, bringing out new ones continually. +Their latest booklet descriptive of their magazine and books published +will be sent free upon application. See following pages.] + + * * * * * + +Hunter Trader Trapper + + +As its Name Indicates is a Magazine of Information for Hunters, Traders, +Trappers and Out-o-Door People. + +If you are interested in hunting, trapping, raw furs, ginseng, raising +wild animals, taxidermy, etc., you will find this magazine of interest +and value. The magazine is published monthly and treats on the following +subjects: Steel Traps, Where and How to Set; Baits and Scents; Proper +Season to Trap; How to Skin, Stretch and Handle Furs; New Ways to +Capture Mink, Fox, Wolf, Marten, Beaver, Otter and Other Shy Animals; +Raising Fur Bearing Animals; Growing Ginseng and Golden Seal; Training +Night Hunting Dogs; Leading Fur Markets; London Raw Fur Sales; Fox +Hunting and Hounds; Coon Hunting; Letters From Old Hunters and Trappers, +etc. + +The Editor is a man of long experience in handling raw furs and +trapping. The articles published and photos used are largely from those +who have had actual experience with trap, gun and dog--you will enjoy +them. + +The magazine contains from 128 to 200 pages each month, averaging about +160 each month or 2000 pages a year. About 700 illustrations are used +each year. The magazine is printed on good quality paper and the +subscription price is only + +$1.00 a Year + +Single Copy + +TEN CENTS + +A. R. Harding Publishing Co., Columbus, O. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: GINSENG PLANT. + +Showing Root, Stock, Leaves and Seed.] + +This is only one of about 75 illustrations shown in "Ginseng and Other +Medicinal Plants" as described on opposite page. The illustrations are +of actual "gardens," as well as some fifty of the most valuable +medicinal plants true to life. After reading this book and looking +closely at the illustrations you should be able to distinguish the +various plants. The paper used is of good quality so that the +illustrations are clear and distinct. + + * * * * * + +Ginseng and Other Medicinal Plants + + +This book contains about 300 pages and 75 illustrations (see opposite +page for one of them) with chapters on the following: The Story of +Ginseng; Something About Ginseng; Cultivation of Ginseng; Marketing +Ginseng; Seeds and Roots; Letters From Ginseng Growers; Government +Reports; Ginseng in China; General Information; Habits of Ginseng; +Ginseng Prices; Diseases of Ginseng; Medicinal Qualities; Golden Seal +Cultivation; Plants as a Source of Revenue; List of Plants Having +Medicinal Value; Gigantic Mint Farm in Michigan. + +The publishers say--A Book of Valuable Information for Growers and +Collectors of Wild Medicinal Plants--Tells How to Grow, Medicinal Uses, +Value, Etc. + +Much additional information is also given about other Plants which +furnish Root Drugs, such as: Male Fern; Wild Turnip; Skunk Cabbage; +Sweet Flag; Helonias; American Hellebore; Aletris; Bethroot; Wild Yam; +Blue Flag; Lady's Slipper; Crawley Root; Canada Snakeroot; Serpentaria +(Southern Snakeroot); Yellow Dock; Pokeweed; Soapwort; Goldthread; Black +Cohosh; Oregon Grape; Blue Cohosh; Twinleaf; Mayapple; Canada Moonseed; +Bloodroot; Hydrangea; Indian Physic; Wild Indigo; Crane's Bill; Seneca +Snakeroot; Stillingia; Wild Sarsaparilla; Water Eryngo; American +Angelica; Yellow Jasmine; Pinkroot; American Colombo; Black Indian Hemp; +Pleurisy Root; Comfrey; Stoneroot; Culvers Root; Dandelion; +Queen-of-the-Meadow; Elecampane; Echinacea; Burdock. + +A good photograph of each of these is shown with the description. +Considerable money can be made collecting and preparing for the market. +This book explains in detail. + +Price, cloth bound, postpaid, $1.00 + + * * * * * + +Land Cruising and Prospecting + + +Is a valuable book for homesteaders, hunters, trappers, guides, etc. The +writer--Mr. A. F. Wallace, an experienced surveyor, land cruiser and +prospector--in his introduction says: "To the men who follow the +compass, the trap and the trail this work is inscribed. It is not +intended for the "Professors" who can tell you all about things after +they are done (by somebody else)." + +The publishers say: A book of Valuable Information for hunters, +trappers, land cruisers, prospectors and men of the trail--tells how to +locate one's self on the map, etc. + +This book contains about 200 pages 5 x 7 inches, is printed on good +quality paper, with nearly 40 illustrations and contains 20 chapters as +follows: + + I. Maps. + II. The Compass. + III. Examining and Locating. + IV. Early Surveys. + V. Corner Marks. + VI. Miscellaneous Information. + VII. Points for Homesteaders. + VIII. Prospecting for Gold. + IX. Sampling Ore. + X. How to Locate a Claim. + XI. Poor Man's Ore Mill. + XII. Prospecting for Fur. + XIII. Prospecting for Pearls. + XIV. Prospecting for Bees. + XV. Rations and Camp Cookery. + XVI. Camp Kits. + XVII. Guns, Axes and Pack-straps. + XVIII. Building Cabins, Tanning, Etc. + XIX. Getting Lost. + XX. The Red River Trapper. + +This book is practical and may be worth many times the price to you. +Remember it is written by one who has had many, many years of +experience. + +Price, Cloth Bound, Postpaid, 60 Cents + +A. R. Harding Publishing Co. Columbus, Ohio + + * * * * * + +Bee Hunting + + +A BOOK OF VALUABLE INFORMATION FOR BEE HUNTERS. Tells How to Line Bees +to Trees, Etc. + +_The following is taken from the Author's Introduction to BEE HUNTING_ + +[Illustration] + +Many books on sports of various kinds have been written, but outside of +an occasional article in periodicals devoted to bee literature, but +little has been written on the subject of Bee Hunting. Therefore, I have +tried in this volume--Bee Hunting for Pleasure and Profit--to give a +work in compact form, the product of what I have learned along this line +during the forty years in nature's school room. + +Brother, if in reading these pages, you find something that will be of +value to you, something that will inculcate a desire for manly pastime +and make your life brighter, then my aim will have been reached. + +_The book contains 13 chapters as follows_: + + I. Bee Hunting. + II. Early Spring Hunting. + III. Bee Watering--How to Find Them. + IV. Hunting Bees from Sumac. + V. Hunting Bees from Buckwheat. + VI. Fall Hunting. + VII. Improved Mode of Burning. + VIII. Facts About Line of Flight. + IX. Baits and Scents. + X. Cutting the Tree and Transferring. + XI. Customs and Ownership of Wild Bees. + XII. Benefactors and Their Inventions. + XIII. Bee Keeping for Profit. + +_This book contains 80 pages, paper cover._ + +_Price, postpaid, only 25 cents._ + +A. R. Harding Pub. Co., Columbus, Ohio + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Fur Farming, by A. R. Harding + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FUR FARMING *** + +***** This file should be named 33830.txt or 33830.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/8/3/33830/ + +Produced by Peter Vachuska, Chuck Greif, Josephine Paolucci +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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