diff options
Diffstat (limited to '33795-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 33795-h/33795-h.htm | 13801 |
1 files changed, 13801 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/33795-h/33795-h.htm b/33795-h/33795-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cc4e45e --- /dev/null +++ b/33795-h/33795-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,13801 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg Ebook of Pictures of German Life + in the XVth XVIth and XVIIth Centuries, Vol. II., by Gustav + Freytag + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + +body {margin-left:10%; + margin-right:10%; background-color:#FFFFFF;} + + + +p.normal {text-indent:.25in; text-align: justify;} +p.center {text-align:center; margin-top:2em;} +p.right {text-align:right; margin-right:10%;} + +p.continue {text-indent: 0in; margin-top:1em;} + +.t4 {margin-top:0px; margin-bottom:0px; margin-left:4em; +margin-right:0px;} +.t5 {margin-top:0px; margin-bottom:0px; margin-left:5em; +margin-right:0px;} + +.sp1 {margin-top: 1em;} +.sp2 {margin-top: 2em;} +.sp4 {margin-top: 4em;} +.fs150 {font-size: 150%; } +.fs120 {font-size: 120%; } +.fs80 {font-size: 80%; } +.fs50 {font-size: 50%; } + +.gesperrt1 {letter-spacing: 0.2em; margin-right: -0.2em; } + +div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} + +h1, h2 {text-align: center; margin-top: 4em; margin-bottom: 1em; } +h3 {text-align: center; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em; } +h4 {text-align: center; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; } + +span.sc {font-variant: small-caps; font-size:100%;} +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +.sup { vertical-align: top; font-size: 0.65em; line-height: 3.5;} + + +hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} +@media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } + +p.hang1 {margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em;} + +.poem { + margin-top: 2em; + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + text-align: left; + margin-bottom: 1em; + } + +</style> + +</head> + +<body> + + + +<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; +font-weight:bold'>Pictures of German Life in the XVth XVIth + and XVIIth Centuries, Vol. II., by Gustav Freytag</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online +at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you +are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of +the +country where you are located before using this eBook. +</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; +margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Pictures of German Life +in the XVth XVIth and XVIIth Centuries, Vol. II.</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; +margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Gustav Freytag</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; +margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Translator: Georgiana Malcolm</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: September 22, +2010 [EBook #33795]<br /> +[Most recently updated: December 31, 2022]</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: +UTF-8</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced +by: Charles Bowen, from page scans provided by the Web +Archive.</div> +<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE +PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PICTURES OF GERMAN LIFE, +VOL. II ***</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> + +<p class="fs80" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber's Notes:<br /> +1. Page scan source:<br /> +http://www.archive.org/details/picturesgermanl00freygoog<br /></p> + + +<div class="chapter"> +<h1> +PICTURES<br /> +<span class="fs50">OF</span><br /> +<span class="gesperrt1">GERMAN LIFE</span><br /><br /> + +<span class="smcap fs50">In the XV<span class="sup">th</span> XVI<span +class="sup">th</span> and XVII<span class="sup">th</span> + Centuries.</span></h1> +</div> + +<p class="sp2 center"><span class="fs80">BY</span><br /> +GUSTAV FREYTAG.<br /><br /><br /><br /> + +<b>Translated from the Original by</b><br /> +MRS. MALCOLM.<br /><br /><br /><br /> + + +<i>COPYRIGHT EDITION.—IN TWO VOLUMES</i>.<br /><br /><br /><br /> + + +VOL. II.<br /><br /><br /><br /> + + +LONDON:<br /> +CHAPMAN AND HALL, 193 PICCADILLY.<br /> +1862. +<br /> +</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> + + +<p class="center"> +LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET.<br +/> +<br /><br /> +</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> +</div> + +<h3>SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES.</h3> + +<p class="hang1">Introduction--Retrospect of the results of the +sixteenth +century--Greater development of individuality--Defects of +Protestantism--A more elevated tone in Catholicism--Contrast of the +Roman and German systems--Political weakness of Protestantism--The +Hapsburgers--Discontent in the people</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + +<p class="hang1">The Thirty Years' War (1618 to 1638). The +Army--Strength of the Army--Cost--Method of conducting the +war--Political events of it--Organization of the army--The officers and +the banners--Pay--Discipline--Punishments--Camp followers and their +discipline--Description of a Soldier's Life before the War, by Adam +Junghans</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3> + +<p class="hang1">The Thirty Years' War. Life and Manners of the +Soldiers (1618 to 1648)--Intermixture of nations--The camp; gambling; +luxury; scarcity--Superstition--Vices--Camp language--The +cartel--Booty--Partisan service and spies--Marauders--Oppression</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER III.</h3> + +<p class="hang1">The Thirty Years' War. The Villagers and their Pastors +(1618 to 1648)--State of the villages--Position and manners of the +peasantry--Effects of the war; money perplexities; quartering of +troops; tortures--Fear; insolence; lawlessness--Love of home--The +pastors and their endurance--Fate of the Pastor Bötzinger</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IV.</h3> + +<p class="hang1">The Thirty Years' War. Clippers of Money and Public +Opinion (1618 to 1648)--The commencement of newspapers--Struggle of the +press at the beginning of the war--The <i>kipper</i> time--Money +coining--Depreciation of the coinage in 1621, and its effect upon the +people--Discovery of the danger; excitement; storm in the +press--Specimen from the flying-sheet <i>expurgatio der +kipper</i>--Theological controversial writings--Enthusiasm +for Gustavus Adolphus--Character of that king--Dialogue between +the king and the envoy of Brandenburg--The fate of Gustavus +Adolphus--Opposition of the press to Sweden--Patriotism of the German +press--The Flying-Sheet, the German Brutus--The benefit of Sweden to +Germany</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER V.</h3> + +<p class="hang1">The Thirty Years' War. The Cities (1618 to +1648)--Aspect of the cities in 1618--Effects of the war; luxury; +contributions; sieges--Religious persecution--The Ladies of +Löwenberg</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VI.</h3> + +<p class="hang1">The Thirty Years' War. The Peace (1650)--Festivities +of the Ambassadors at Nuremberg--Festive Fair in a Thuringian +Village--Condition of the country after the war--Its +devastation--Attempted estimation of it--The consequences to the +Austrian provinces</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VII.</h3> + +<p class="hang1">Rogues and Adventurers--Their increase during the +war--Their history--The strollers of the middle ages--Gipsies and their +language--Gibberish and beggars--Travelling scholars--Robbers and +incendiaries--Foreign jugglers--Description of Strolling Players, +by Garzoni--Comedians, and influence of adventurers on +literature--Swindlers of distinction--Alchemists</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VIII.</h3> + +<p class="hang1">Engagement and Marriage at Court (1661)--Fashion and +gallantry, a foreign means of preserving decorum--Courtly Wooing and +Marriage at Vienna--The Royal families--The Elector Palatine Carl +Ludwig--Letter of the Electress Palatine Charlotte to the +Emperor--Judgment upon her and her husband</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IX.</h3> + +<p class="hang1"> +Of the Homes of German Citizens (1675)--Order and decorum in +wooing--Narrative of Friedrich Lucä--Change in expression of feelings +of the heart--Life at home--Prosperity of Hamburg--Letter of +Burgomaster Schulte to his Son in Lisbon--Strong sense of duty in +men--Berend Jacob Carpfanger--Sorrowful tidings from Cadiz</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER X.</h3> + +<p class="hang1"> +German Life at the Baths (1690)--Distinction of ranks--Forms of +society--Bath life--Poggio--Baths in the Fifteenth Century, by +Poggio--In the Sixteenth, by Pantaleon--In the Seventeenth, by de +Merveilleux--In the Eighteenth, by Hess</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XI.</h3> + +<p class="hang1"> +Jesuits and Jews--Decay of the Church--Protestants and Catholics--The +Jesuits also weaker--Position of the Jews since the middle ages--Their +lucrative business--The Jews at Prague Story of Simon Abeles--Victory +of humanity over religious intolerance</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XII.</h3> + +<p class="hang1"> +The Wasunger War (1747)--Weakness of the German Empire--Division +of classes wider--Anthony Ulrich von Meiningen and Philippine +Cesar--Quarrels at the Court of Meiningen--Cause of the war--Diary of +the Gotha Lieutenant Rauch</p> + +<p class="hang1"> +Conclusion. From Frederick the Great up to the present +time--Object of these pictures--The mind of the people +<br /> +<br /> +</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> + +<p class="center fs150 sp4">PICTURES OF GERMAN LIFE.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2>INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND VOLUME.</h2> +</div> + +<p class="normal"> +The year 1600 dawned upon a people who had gone through a vast change +in +the last century. Everywhere we perceive marks of progress. Let us +compare any learned book of the year 1499 with one of 1599. The former +is written in bad Latin, poor in diction, ponderous in composition, and +not easy of comprehension. Of independent spirit and individual +conviction we find little trace. There are undoubtedly exceptions, but +they are very rare. Even the Latin of the earlier Humanitarians reminds +us of the subtle vapidness of monkish language, almost as much as of +the artistic phrases of ancient rhetoricians. We are sometimes +surprised to find in the theology, an undercurrent of deep-thinking +speculations of elevated grandeur; but it is a kind of secret doctrine +of souls depressed under the constraint of the cloister. It is +certainly philosophy, but deprived of vitality.</p> + +<p>A century later we discover, even in mediocre authors, a certain +independent individuality. The writers begin to reflect on human life +and faith; they understand how to represent their own feelings and the +emotions of the soul, and struggles for their own convictions. Yet +still they remain too much bound by general prescription, and there is +still much that is monotonous, according to our views, in their +judgment and learning, and the cultivation of their minds. But in their +prose we find a peculiar and often original style, and almost always a +stronger and more active common sense. Three generations struggled for +their faith, many individuals perished for their convictions, and +thousands were plunged in misery. Martyrdom was no longer a monstrous +and unheard-of thing, and men maintained their own judgment on the +highest questions. There were few souls strong enough to do this a +century earlier; then, among the people, individuals passed their lives +without any community of ideas or activity of mind, seeking in the +narrow circle of their associates no advantage save that of support +against insufferable oppression; that alone was the purport of their +struggles. But now enthusiasm had been called forth in the nation, the +individual felt himself in close connection with millions, he was +carried along the stream by the unanimous impulse of all who were +like-minded; he acted and suffered for an idea; this was especially the +case with the Protestants; and even Roman Catholics partook of this +blessing: so much nobler had men become.</p> + +<p>But every higher development produces new defects; the child is free +from many complaints which attack the youth. Protestantism, which had +done so much for the people, did not for a long time achieve its +greatest results. It required the unceasing inward workings of the +minds of individuals; it gave an impulse everywhere to self-decision, +and yet it could not raise itself above the worst principles of the old +Church. It wished still to dominate over the faith of its disciples and +to persecute as heresy every deviation from its convictions. Luther's +giant nature had been able to keep zealous spirits united, but he +himself had predicted that after his death they would not remain so. He +knew his faithful adherents accurately; their weaknesses, and their +eagerness to carry out their own views. Melancthon, who though firm in +his theology and in the every-day troubles of life, was embarrassed and +uncertain in matters of great import, could not command the fiery +spirits of more determined characters. At that Imperial Diet which was +held at Augsburg in 1547, the victorious Emperor had endeavoured, in +his way, to compose the disputes of the Churches, and had pressed upon +the vanquished Protestants a preliminary formula of faith, called the +Interim. From the point of view of the Roman Catholics, it was +considered as extreme toleration, which was only bearable because it +gradually led back to the Old Church; from the point of view of zealous +Protestants, it was held to be insupportable tyranny, which ought to be +withstood. The ecclesiastical leaders of the opposition rose everywhere +against this tyranny; hundreds of preachers were driven from their +benefices and went about with their staffs as miserable pilgrims, and +many fell victims to the furious reaction. It was the heroic time of +the Protestant faith; simple preachers, fathers with wives and +children, manfully suffered for their convictions, and were soon +followed by thousands of laity.</p> + +<p>But this enthusiasm was fraught with danger. The Interim was the +beginning of vehement theological disputes, even among Luther's +followers. The struggle of individuals became also the struggle of the +Universities. The successors of Frederick the Wise lost the University +of Wittenberg as well as the Electoral dignity; Melancthon and the +Wittenbergers were under the influence of Maurice and his brothers; +while the most zealous Lutherans were assembled at the new University +of Jena.</p> + +<p>This race of vehement men was followed by another generation of +<i>Epigonen</i>. At the end of the century German Protestantism +appeared +in most of the provinces to be secure from outward dangers. Then the +ecclesiastics became too self-sufficient and fond of power--the +failings +of a privileged order. Influential counsellors of weak princes, and +rulers of public opinion, they themselves persecuted other believers +with the weapons of the old Church. They sometimes called down the +civil +power upon heretics; and the populace stormed the houses of the +Reformers in Leipzig; at Dresden a courtly ecclesiastic was executed on +account of heresy, though perhaps there may also have been political +reasons. Thus this new life threw deep shadows over the souls of the +people.</p> + +<p>In Roman Catholic territories also, a vigorous and extraordinary life +was roused. The Roman Catholic Church gave birth to a new discipline of +the mind, a mode of human culture distinctly opposed to Protestantism. +Even in the old Church a greater depth of inward life was attained. A +new system of rapturous excitement and self-denial, with high duties +and an exalted ideal, was offered to satisfy the needs of the souls of +the faithful. In Spain and Italy this new religious zeal was aroused, +full of resignation and self-sacrifice, full of great talent, eagerness +for combat, and glowing enthusiasm, and rich in manly vigour. But it +was not a faith for Germans. It demanded the annihilation of free +individuality, a rending from all the ties of the world, fanatical +devotion, and an unconditional subjection of the individual to a great +community. Each one had to make an offering of his life for a great +aim, without criticism or scruple. Whilst Protestantism formed a higher +standard, and imposed on each individual, the duty of seeking +independently by an effort of his own mind, the key to divine and human +knowledge, the new Catholicism grasped his whole being with an iron +hand. Protestantism was, notwithstanding all the loyalty of the +Reformers, essentially democratic; the new Catholicism concentrated all +the powers of men, of which it demanded the most unhesitating +submission, in a spiritual tyranny, under the dominion of the head of +the Church, and afterwards under that of the State.</p> + +<p>The great representatives of this new tendency in Church and State +were +the Jesuits. In the impassioned soul of a Spanish nobleman smouldered +the gloomy fire of the new Catholic teaching; amidst ascetic penances, +in the restricted intercourse of a small brotherhood, the system was +formed. In the year 1540 the Pope confirmed the brotherhood, and +shortly after, the first members of the order hastened across the Alps +and the Rhine into Germany, and began already to rule in the council of +Trent. Their unhesitating determination strengthened the weak, and +frightened the wavering. With wonderful rapidity the order established +itself in Germany, where the old faith still subsisted along with the +new; it acquired favour with the higher classes, and a crowd of +adherents amongst the people. Some princes gave up to it the spiritual +dominion of their countries, above all the Hapsburgers; and besides +them, the German princes of the Church, who could not uphold by their +own intrinsic strength, the wavering faith of their subjects: and +lastly the Dukes of Bavaria, who for more than a century had been in +the habit of seeking advantage for their house in a close union with +Rome. When the brotherhood first entered Germany the whole nation was +on the point of becoming Protestant; even at the beginning of the +Thirty years' war, after losses and successes on both sides, three +fourths of Germany were Protestant; but in the year 1650, the whole of +the new Imperial state, and the largest third of the rest of Germany, +had again become Roman Catholic. So well did these foreign priests +serve their Church.</p> + +<p>The way in which they worked was marvellous; cautiously, step by +step, +with endless schemes, and firm determination, never wavering, bending +to the storm, and indefatigably returning again, never giving up what +they had once begun, pursuing the smallest, as well as the greatest +plans at any sacrifice, this society presented the only specimen of an +unconditional submission of the will, and surrender of everything to +one idea, which did not find expression in individuals, but only in the +society. The order governed, but no single member of it was free, not +even the General of the order.</p> + +<p>The society gained honour and favour; it understood well how to make +itself beloved, or indispensable wherever it came; but it never found a +home in Germany. Its fearful principle of mystery and secrecy was felt, +not only by the Protestants, who endeavoured to break its power by +their paper weapons, the flying-sheets, and made it answerable for +every political misdeed, whether far or near, but also in the Roman +Catholic countries. Even there it was only a guest, influential +certainly, and much prized, but from time to time ecclesiastics and +laity felt that it was a thing apart from them. All the other spiritual +societies had become national,--the Jesuits never. It is not unnatural +that this feeling was strongest among the Roman Catholic ecclesiastics, +for their worldly prospects were often injured by the Jesuits.</p> + +<p>Thus from the middle of the sixteenth century two opposite methods of +mental cultivation, two different sources of morals and working power +have struggled against one another. Devotion and unconditional +subjection, against feelings of duty and thoughtful self-assertion; +rapid and unhesitating decision, against conscientious doubts; a spirit +of energy, working laboriously with much deliberation and scheming +after distant aims, against defective discipline; and an urging to +unity, against a striving for separation.</p> + +<p>These opposing powers appeared everywhere, especially in politics and +at the courts of princes. Protestantism in its unfinished shape, though +it had elevated the people, was no help to the formation of the +character of the German princes; it had raised higher their external +power, but it had lessened their inward stability; their youthful +training became in general too theological to be practical. However +immoral many of them were, they all suffered from conscientious doubts; +and there was no ready answer for these doubts, such as the Roman +Catholic confessor had always in store for them. The Protestant princes +stood isolated; there was no firm bond of union between the Churches of +the different states, but much trivial quarrelling and bitter hatred, +not only between Lutherans and Reformers, but even amongst the +followers of the Augsburg confession; and this diminished the strength +of the princes. Whilst the priests of the Roman Catholic Church did +their best to unite their rulers, the Protestant ecclesiastics helped +to increase the disunion of theirs. So it is not surprising, that the +Protestants for a long time stood at a disadvantage in their political +struggle with the old faith. The Germans had not yet found, and did not +for centuries attain to, the new constitution of State, which transfers +the mainspring of government from the accidental will of the ruler, to +the conscience of the nation, and which places in a regulated path, +citizens of talent and integrity as advisers to the crown; public +opinion was still weak, the daily press not yet in existence, and the +relation between the political rights of the princes and the people +very undefined.</p> + +<p>Protestantism had everywhere produced political convulsions, from the +peasant war even into the following century. The Reformation had +unloosed all tongues, it had given the Germans a freer judgment upon +their position as citizens, and had inspired individuals with the +courage to fight for their own convictions. The peasant now loudly +murmured against exorbitant burdens, the members of guilds against the +selfish dominion of the corporations, and the noble members of the +provincial estates against the extravagant demands of the sovereign for +war expenses. The wild democratic disturbances of 1525 were with +Luther's entire approbation easily put down, but democratic tendencies +did not therefore cease, and together with them, anabaptist and +socialist views spread from city to city. Their teaching, which +scarcely forms a system, took a different colouring in different +individuals, from the harmless theorist who imagined a community of +good citizens without egotism, full of self-abnegation, as did the +talented Eberlin, to the reckless fanatic who tried to establish a new +Zion at Münster, with an illusive community of goods and wives. These +excitements lost their power towards the end of the century, but still +continued to ferment among the people, especially in those provinces, +where the Protestant opposition of the estates excited the people +against the old faith of the rulers of the country. Thus it was in +Bohemia, Moravia, and Upper Austria. The more zealously the Hapsburgers +endeavoured, by means of the Jesuits, to restore the old faith, the +more it was kept in check, even in their own country, by the demands of +the opposition in the estates, and the commotions among the people. And +well did they perceive the threatening connection of this opposition to +their house. Two ways only were therefore open to them, either they +must themselves have become Protestants, which they found impossible, +or they must have resolutely destroyed the dangerous teaching and +pretensions which upset the souls of men everywhere, especially in +their own country. The Hapsburger appeared who attempted this.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the spirit of the old Church had been raised, by the great +victories which it had gained in other countries. The Protestant +princes combined against the threatened offensive movement of the Roman +Catholic party, as before at Smalkald, and the Roman Catholic party +answered by the formation of the League; but the object at heart, of +the League was attack, while that of the Protestants was only +defence.</p> + +<p>This was the political state of Germany before the Thirty years' war; +a +most unsatisfactory state. Discontent was general, a mournful tendency, +a disposition to prophecy evil, were the significant signs of the +times. Every deed of violence which was announced to the people in the +flying-sheets, was accompanied by remarks on the bad times. And yet we +know for certain that immorality had not become strikingly greater in +the country. There was wealth in the cities, and even in the country +increase of prosperity; there was regular government everywhere, better +order and greater security of existence, luxury and an inordinate love +of enjoyment had undoubtedly increased, together with riches; even +among the lower strata of the people greed was awakened, life became +more varied and dearer, and much indifference began to be shown +concerning the quarrels of ecclesiastics. The best began to be gloomy, +and even cheerful natures, like the honest Bartholomäus Ringwald, +became prophets of misfortune, and wished for death.</p> + +<p>And there was good reason for this gloom. There was something +diseased +in the life of Germany, an incomprehensible burden weighed it down, +which marred its development. Luther's teaching, it is true, produced +the greatest spiritual and intellectual progress which Germany had ever +made through one man, but the demands of life increased with every +expansion of the soul. The new mental culture must be followed by a +corresponding advance in earthly condition, a greater independence in +faith, demanded imperiously a stronger power of political development +But it was precisely this teaching, which appeared like the early +dawn of a better life, that conveyed to the people the consciousness +of their own political weakness, and by this weakness they became +one-sided and narrow minded. Germany being divided into countless +territories under weak princes, its people everywhere involved in and +occupied with trifling disputes, were deficient in that which is +indispensable to a genial growth; they needed a general elevation, a +great united will, and a sphere of moral duties, which alone makes men +pre-eminently cheerful and manly. The fatherland of the Germans +extended probably from Lorraine to the Oder, but in no single portion +of it did they live like the citizens of Elizabeth or Henry IV.</p> + +<p>Thus already inwardly diseased, Germany entered upon a war of thirty +years. When the war ended, there was little remaining of the great +nation. For yet a century to come, the successors of the survivors were +deficient in that most manly of all feelings,--political enthusiasm.</p> + +<p>Luther had raised his people out of the epic life of the middle ages. +The Thirty years' war had destroyed the popular strength, and forced +the Germans into individual life, the mental constitution of which one +may truly call lyrical. That which will here be depicted from the +accounts of cotemporaries, is a sad joyless time. +<br /> +</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> +<div class="chapter"> +<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2> +</div> + +<h3>THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.--THE ARMY.</h3> + +<p class="normal sp1"> +The opposition between the interests of the house of Hapsburg and of +the +German nation, and between the old and new faith, led to a bloody +catastrophe. If any one should inquire how such a war could rage +through +a whole generation, and so fearfully exhaust a powerful people, he will +receive this striking answer, that the war was so long and terrible, +because none of the contending parties were able to carry it out on a +great and decisive scale.</p> + +<p>The largest armies in the Thirty years' war did not exceed in +strength +one corps of a modern army. Tilly considered forty thousand men the +greatest number of troops that a general could wish to have. It was +only occasionally that an army reached that strength; almost all the +great battles were fought by smaller bodies of men. Numerous were the +detachments, and very great were the losses by skirmishes, illnesses, +and desertion. As there was no regular system for maintaining the +strength of the army, its effective amount fluctuated in a remarkable +way. Once, indeed, Wallenstein united a larger force under his +command--according to some accounts a hundred thousand men--but they +did not form one army, nay, they were hardly in any military +connection, for the undisciplined bands with which, in 1629, he subdued +the German territories of the Emperor, were dispersed over half +Germany. Such large masses of soldiers appeared to all parties as a +terrible venture; they could not, in fact, be kept under control, and +after that, no general commanded more than half that number.<a +name="div2_01" href="#div2Ref_01"><sup>[1]</sup></a></p> + +<p>An army in order of battle was considered as a movable fortress, the +central point of which was the General himself, who ruled all the +details; he had to survey the ground and every position, and every +attack was directed by him. Adjutantcies and staff service were hardly +established. It was part of the strategy to keep the army together in +masses, to defend the ranks by earth works, and not to allow horse or +man to be out of observation and control. In marching also, the army +was kept close together in narrow quarters, generally within the space +of a camp; from this arose commissariat difficulties, the high-roads +were bad, often almost impassable, the conveyance of provisions +compulsory, and always ill-regulated: and worst of all, the army was +attended by an intense baggage-train, which, with the wild-robber +system, quickly wasted the most fertile countries.</p> + +<p>Great care was therefore taken that no such embarrassment should +arise. +Neither the Emperor nor the Princes of the Empire were in a condition +to maintain forty thousand men out of their income even for three +months. The regular revenue of the sovereign was much less than now, +and the maintenance of an army far more costly. The greater part of the +revenue was derived from tithes in kind, which in time of war was +insecure and difficult to realize. The finances of the parties engaged +in this war were even at the commencement of it in a most lamentable +state.</p> + +<p>In the winter of 1619 and 1620, half the Bohemian army died of hunger +and cold, from the want of pay and a commissariat; in September 1620, +more than four and a half million of gulden of pay was owing to the +troops, and there were endless mutinies, and the King Palatine +Frederick could not aid his Protestant allies with subsidies. The +Emperor was then not in much better condition, but he soon afterwards +obtained Spanish subsidies. When the Elector of Saxony, whose finances +were better regulated, first hired fifteen hundred men in December, +1619, he could not pay them regularly. What was granted by the estates +in war taxes, and the so-called voluntary contributions of the opulent, +did not go far; loans even in the first year of the war were very +difficult to realize; they were attempted with the banking-houses of +southern Germany, and also in Hamburg, but seldom with success. City +communities were considered safer debtors than the great princes. There +were dealings about the smallest sums even with private individuals. +Saxony in 1621, hoped to get from fifty to sixty thousand guldens from +the Fuggers, and endeavoured in vain to borrow thirty and seventy +thousand gulden from capitalists. Maximilian of Bavaria, and the +League, made a great loan for the war of one million two hundred +thousand gulden at twelve per cent, from the merchants in Genoa, for +this the Fuggers became responsible, and the salt trade of Augsburg was +given to them for their security. Just one hundred years before, this +said banking-house had taken an important share in the election of the +Emperor Charles V., and now it helped to secure the victory of the +Roman Catholic party; for the Bohemian war was decided even more by the +want of money than by the battle of the Weissen-Berge. Thus the war +began with the governments being in a general state of insolvency; and +therefore the maintenance of great armies became impossible.</p> + +<p>It is evident that there was a fatal disproportion between the +military +strength of the parties and the ultimate object of every war. None of +them could entirely subdue their opponents. The armies were too small, +and had too little durability, to be able to control by regular +strategic operations, the numerous and warlike people of wide-spread +districts. Whilst a victorious army was ruling near the Rhine or the +Oder, a new enemy was collecting in the north on the shores of the +Baltic. The German theatre of war, also, was not so constituted as to +be easily productive of lasting results. Almost every city, and many +country seats were fortified. The siege guns were still unwieldy and +uncertain in their aim, and the defence of fortified places was +proportionably stronger than the attack. Thus war became principally a +combat of sieges; every captured town weakened the victorious army, +from the necessity of leaving garrisons. When a province had been +conquered, the conqueror was often not in a position to withstand the +conquered in open battle. By new exertion the conqueror was driven from +the field; then followed fresh sieges and captures, and again fatal +disruption of strength.</p> + +<p>It was a war full of bloody battles and glorious victories, and also +of +excessive alternations of fortune. Numerous were the dark hero forms +that loomed out of the chaos of blood and fire; the iron Ernst von +Mansfeld, the fantastic Brunswicker, Bernhard of Weimar; and on the +other side, Maximilian of Bavaria, and the generals of the League, +Tilly, Pappenheim, and the able Mercy; the leaders of the Imperial +army, the daring Wallenstein and Altringer; the great French heroes, +Condé and Turenne, and amongst the Swedes, Horn, Bauer, Torstenson, +Wrangel, and above all the mighty prince of war, Gustavus Adolphus. How +much manly energy excited to the highest pitch, and yet how slow and +poor were the political results obtained! how quickly was again lost, +what appeared to have been obtained by the greatest amount of power! +How often did the parties themselves change the objects after which +they were striving, nay even the banner for which they desired +victory!</p> + +<p>The political events of the war can only be briefly mentioned here; +they may be divided into three periods. The first, from 1618 to 1630, +is the time of the Imperial triumphs. The Protestant estates of +Bohemia, contrary to law and their own word, refused the Bohemian crown +to the Archduke Ferdinand, and chose for their ruler the Elector +Palatine, a reformer. But by means of the League and the Lutheran +Electors of Saxony, Ferdinand became Emperor. His opponent was beaten +in the battle of the Weissen-Berge, and left the country as a fugitive. +Here and there, the Protestant opposition continued to blaze up, but +divided, without plan, and with weak resources. Baden-Durlach, the +Mansfelder, the Brunswicker, and lastly the circle of lower Saxony with +the Danish King, succumbed to the troops of the League and the Emperor. +Ferdinand II., who though Emperor, was still a fugitive in the states +belonging to his house, obtained through the assistance of an +experienced mercenary commander, Wallenstein, a large body of troops, +whom he maintained in the territory of the principality by contribution +and pillage. Ever greater did the Emperor's army continue to swell; +ever higher rose his claims in Germany and Italy: the old idea of +Charles V. after the Smalkaldic war became a living principle in the +nephew; he would subdue Germany, as his predecessor had done the +peasants and the estates in the Austrian provinces; he would crush all +independence, the privileges of cities, the rights of the estates, the +pride and family power of princes--he hoped to subjugate all Germany to +his faith and his house. But throughout the whole of Germany sounded a +cry of grief and indignation, at the horrible marauding war which was +conducted by the merciless general of the Hapsburger. All the allies of +the Imperial house rose threateningly against him. The Princes of the +League, and above all Maximilian of Bavaria, looked abroad for help; +they subdued the high spirit of the Emperor, and he was obliged to +dismiss his faithful General and to control the barbarous army. Nay, +more, even the Holy Father began to fear the Emperor. The Pope himself +united with France in order to bring Swedish help to the Protestants. +The lion of the north disembarked on the German coast.</p> + +<p>Now began the second period of the war. The swelling billows of the +Roman Catholic power had overflowed Germany even up to the Northern +Sea. From 1630 to 1634 came the Protestant counter-current, which +flowed in a resistless course from north to south over the third part +of Germany. Even after the death of their king, the Swedish Generals +kept their ascendency in the field; Wallenstein himself abandoned the +Emperor, and was secretly murdered. The Roman Catholic party had begun +to lose courage, when, by a last effort of collected strength, it won +the bloody battle of Nördlingen.</p> + +<p>Then followed the third period of fourteen years, from 1634 to 1648, +in +which victory and reverses were nearly equal on both sides. The Swedes, +driven back to the Northern Sea, girding up their whole strength, again +burst forth into the middle of Germany. Again the tide of fortune ebbed +to and fro, becoming gradually less powerful. The French, greedy of +booty, spread themselves as far as the Rhine; the land was devastated, +and famine and pestilence raged. The Swedes, though losing one General +after another, kept the field and maintained their claims with +unceasing pertinacity. In opposition to them stood the equally +inflexible Maximilian, Prince of the League. Even in the last decade of +the war, the Bavarians fought for three years the most renowned +campaigns which this dynasty has to boast of. The fanatical Ferdinand +was dead, his successor, able, moderate, and an experienced soldier, +persevered from necessity; he also was firm and tenacious. No party +could bring about a decisive result. For years negotiations for peace +were carried on; whilst the generals fought, the cities and villages +were depopulated and the fields were overgrown with rank weeds. Peace +came at last; it was not brought about by great battles, nor by +irresistible political combinations, but chiefly by the weariness of +the combatants, and Germany celebrated it with festivities though she +had lost three fourths of her population.</p> + +<p>All this gives to the Thirty years' war the appearance of foredoomed +annihilation, ushered in as it was by the most fearful visitations of +nature. Above the strife of parties a terrible fate spread its wings; +it carried off the leaders and prostrated them in the dust, the +greatest human strength became powerless under its hand; at last, +satiated with devastation and death, it turned its face slowly from the +country which had become a great charnel house.</p> + +<p>It is not the intention of this work to characterize the Generals and +battles belonging to this period of struggle, but to speak of the +condition and circumstances of the German people, both of the +destructive and suffering portions of the population, of the army, +alike with the citizen and peasant. Since the Burgundian war and the +Italian battles of Maximilian and Charles V., the burgher infantry had +thrown into the background the knightly cavalry of the middle ages.</p> + +<p>The strength of the German army consisted of Landsknechte, freemen, +either citizens or peasants, and among them occasionally a few nobles. +They were for the most part mercenaries, who bound themselves +voluntarily by contract to some banner for a time. They carried on war +like a trade, sternly, actively, and enduringly. But the full vigour of +their power was of short duration: their decadence may be dated from +their revolt against the old Fronsperg; from that hour when they broke +the heart of their father, the gray-headed Landsknecht hero. Many +things combined to corrupt this new infantry: they were mercenaries, +serving only for a time, accustomed to change their banner, and not to +fight for an idea, but only for booty or their own advantage. They were +not called into existence in consequence of the application of +gunpowder to the art of war; but they more especially appropriated this +new invention to themselves. The introduction of fire-arms into the +army, certainly first showed the weakness of their opponents, the old +cavalry of knighthood, but at the same time soon caused the diminution +of their own efficiency, for these weapons were too clumsy and slow to +insure victory on the battle-field. The final result still depended on +the rushing charge of the pikemen and the onslaught of their great +masses on the enemy.</p> + +<p>To this was added other detrimental circumstances; there were as yet +no +standing armies: when there was threatening of a feud, troops were +assembled by the territorial lords great and small, and by the cities, +and at the conclusion of the war they were dismissed. These wars were +generally short and local; even the Hungarian wars were only summer +campaigns of a few months. The German rulers, always in want of money, +endeavoured to help themselves by the depreciation of the coinage, +striking a lighter coin expressly for the payment of the soldiers, and +also by faithlessly paying them less than had been agreed upon. This +unworthy treatment demoralized the men, no less than the shortness of +the service. Thus the Landsknechte became deceived deceivers, +adventurers, plunderers and robbers.</p> + +<p>The infantry at the beginning of the war used either firearms or +pikes, +the former to open the enemy's ranks, the latter to decide the battle +by hand-to-hand fighting. At this period we find that the pikemen were +the heavy infantry; they wore breastplates, brassarts, swords, and a +pike eighteen feet long with an iron point, the handles of the best +were of ash; the lance-corporals and subaltern officers had halberds +and partisans. The two species of fire-arms which prevailed in the army +were the musketoon (which with the Imperialists was a heavy weapon six +feet long, with matchlocks and balls, of which there were ten in the +pound) and the short handgun, a weapon of lighter and smaller calibre, +which in the beginning of the war bore amongst the infantry the old +name of arquebuss. The musketeer wore also at his side a hanger, a +weapon with a small curved point, and over his shoulder a bandolier +with eleven cylindrical cases in which the charges were placed, a match +holder, and a musket rest, a staff with a metal point and two metal +prongs, on the top of which the musketeer laid his weapon: his +head was covered with a helmet or morion; this last piece of armour +was soon discarded. The foot arquebussier did not carry a rest or a +shoulder-belt; he loaded from his shot-pouch and powder-horn. There +were pikemen and musketeers in the same company, and long even before +the great war there were companies in which fire-arms alone were borne. +Out of the light infantry were formed, in the middle of the war, what +were called rifle companies, but among whom only a few had rifles. The +grenadiers, who threw hand-grenades, were then formed in small numbers; +for instance, in 1634, by the Swedes at the siege of Ratisbon.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the war the pikemen, as heavy infantry, were +considered of importance, and they were put down in the muster-rolls as +receiving double pay; but in the course of it they were found to be too +unwieldy for long marches, helpless in attack, in short, almost +useless, +since the last decision of the battle now devolved upon the cavalry; +thus they gradually sank into contempt, and the clever judgment +pronounced by the jovial Springinsfeld, accurately expresses the view +that was taken of their utility. "A musketeer is indeed a poor, +much harassed creature; but he lives in splendid happiness compared to +a +miserable pikeman: it is vexatious to think what hardships the poor +simpletons endure; no one who had not experienced it themselves could +believe it, and I think whoever kills a pikeman whom he could save, +murders an innocent man, and can never be excused such a barbarous +deed: +for although these poor draught oxen--they were so called in +derision--are formed to defend their brigades in the open field from +the +onslaught of the cavalry, yet they themselves do no one any injury, and +he who throws himself upon their long spears deserves what he gets. In +short, I have during my life seen many sharp encounters, but seldom +found that a pikeman ever caused the death of any one." +Nevertheless the pikemen kept their ground till towards the end of the +seventeenth century. The musketeers who were, however, the great mass +of +the infantry, were rendered more agile by Gustavus Adolphus; he +discarded from the Swedish army the musket rests, lightened their +weapons and the calibre of the balls, of which there were thirteen to +the pound, and introduced instead of the rattling bandoliers, paper +cartridges and pockets; but the musketeers, without bayonets, slow in +firing, unaccustomed to fight in close ranks, were little fitted to +decide an engagement.</p> + +<p>The influence of the cavalry on the other hand increased. At the +beginning of the war there were two contending principles concerning +them, the method and arming of old knightly traditions were mixed up +with the Landsknechte characteristics, many of whom were also horsemen. +The heavy cavalry were still considered an aristocratic corps, the +nobleman still placed himself with his charger, his knightly armour, +his old knightly lance, and his troop of vassals, for whom he drew pay, +under the standard of the cavalry regiments. But the war made an end +gradually of this remnant of old customs. It was still, however, an +object of ambition to join the army as a soldier of fortune, either +with an esquire or alone, and whoever estimated himself highly or had +made much booty, thronged to the cavalry standard. In the German army +there were four kinds of regular cavalry, the Lancers, in full armour +even to the knightly spurs, without shield, with the knightly lance or +the spear of the Landsknechte, a sword, and two holster pistols; the +Cuirassiers, with similar armour, pistols and sword; the Arquebussiers, +called later Carbineers, half armed, with morion, and pistol proof back +and breast pieces, with two pistols and an arquebuss on a small +bandolier; finally the Dragoons, mounted pikemen, or musketeers, who +fought either on foot or on horseback. Besides these there were +irregular cavalry Croats, Stradiots, and Hussars, who almost a century +before, in 1546, had made a great sensation in Germany when Duke +Maurice of Saxony borrowed them from King Ferdinand of Bohemia. Their +appearance was not displeasing; they wore Turkish armour, a sabre, and +a targe, but they were wild robbers, and in the worst repute. Gustavus +Adolphus brought to Germany only Cuirassiers and Dragoons. His +Cuirassiers were more lightly armed than the Imperial, but far superior +to them in energy of attack. During the whole war the endeavour of the +cavalry was to lighten their heavy armour; the more the army separated +into military companies the more pressing was the necessity for greater +activity.</p> + +<p>In the sixteenth century the heavy guns were very varied in calibre +and +length of barrel, and had divers curious names. The sharp metz, the +carronade, culverin and nightingale, the singer, the falcon and the +falconet, the field serpent and serpentine, with balls from one hundred +pounds down to one pound, besides the organ,<a name="div2_02" +href="#div2Ref_02"><sup>[2]</sup></a> mortars large and +small, rifle-barrelled guns and rifles. But in the beginning of the +Thirty years' war the forms were already simplified; they cast +forty-eight, and twenty-four pounders, twelve and six pounders, with +forty-two, twenty-four, twelve and six pound balls;<a name="div2_03" +href="#div2Ref_03"><sup>[3]</sup></a> the first were +fortress and siege guns, the last were field guns; besides these, +disproportionately long culverins and falconets, also chamber pieces +for throwing shells, or bomb mortars which were soon called howitzers, +smaller mortars for throwing fire-balls, stinkpots, &c.; and in the +beginning of the war bombarders, which fired pieces of iron, lead, +small shot, and stones. Lastly from forged pieces they fired half-ounce +bullets, double, single, and half-hooks, or grappling irons. But the +length of the barrels of the guns was too long for balls; the powder +was bad, and the aim consequently uncertain. Gustavus Adolphus +introduced shorter and lighter guns; his leather cannon, made of copper +cylinders with thick hemp and leather coverings<a name="div2_04" +href="#div2Ref_04"><sup>[4]</sup></a> held together by +iron hoops, soon ceased to be used, probably because they were not +sufficiently durable, but his short four-pounders, two of which were +given to every regiment, and which worked best with grape shot, lasted +over the war. These field pieces fired not only from position but were +moved with tolerable rapidity during action, but the bombardes and +petards were unwieldy; the last were twisted round with ropes more like +a sort of cannon than our bombs and grenades, but were of uncertain +effect because the locks were badly prepared and they did not measure +the time for the explosion. The old disposition of the Germans to give +life to the inanimate had already in earlier times bestowed especial +names on favourite guns, and the custom remained, even after pieces of +the same calibre were cast in greater numbers; then particular guns, +for example, were called after the planets, months, and signs of the +zodiac, like a high sounding alphabet,<a name="div2_05" +href="#div2Ref_05"><sup>[5]</sup></a> and in this case indicated by +single letters. There was always a new name given according to the +calibre, which in spite of all the simplification was still very +varied. The progress of artillery and its influence on the conduct of +war was impeded in the last half of the war by the want of experienced +master gunners, the greater portion of them were infantry commanders; +the loss of an artillery officer of capacity was difficult to +replace.</p> + +<p>The relative numbers of particular branches of the service were +changed +during the war. In the beginning the proportion of the cavalry to the +infantry was as one to five, but soon they became one to three, and in +the latter period they were sometimes the strongest. This striking fact +is a proof both of the deterioration of the troops and of the art of +war. In the exhausted country, the army could only be maintained by a +strong force of cavalry, who could forage further and change their +ground with more rapidity. As all who hoped for independence or booty +pressed into the cavalry it was in better condition proportionately +than the infantry, who at last were reduced to support themselves by +reaping the scanty remains left by the horsemen. Undoubtedly the +cavalry also became worse, the want of good horses was at last more +sensibly felt than that of men, and the heavy cavalry could not be kept +up, whilst in the last year the service of the scouts and foraging +parties for the commissariat was brought to great perfection. +Nevertheless the cavalry were the most effective, for it was their task +to decide the battle by their charge. The last army with skilled +infantry and Dutch discipline was that of Bavaria under Mercy, from +1643 to 1645.</p> + +<p>The tactics of armies had slowly altered in the course of the +century. The old Landsknecht army advanced to battle in three +great squares,--the advanced guard, the main body, and the rear +guard--disregarding roads and corn-fields; before it went pioneers, who +filled in ditches and cut down hedges to clear the way for the bulky +mass. For battle, the deep square masses of infantry placed themselves +side by side, each square mass consisted of many companies, sometimes +of many regiments; the cavalry formed in a similar deep position at the +wings. There was no regular reserve, only sometimes one of the three +masses was kept back for the final decision; a select body of men, the +forlorn hope, was formed for dangerous service, such as forcing the +passage of a river, covering an important point, or turning the enemy's +flank. Since fire-arms had prevailed over pikes, these great battalions +were surrounded by files of sharpshooters, and at last special bodies +of sharpshooters were formed and attached to them. In the war in the +Netherlands, the unwieldiness of these heavy squares led to breaking +the order of battle into smaller tactical bodies. But it was only +slowly, that formation in line and a system of reserve were organized. +Much of the old method continued in the Imperial army in the beginning +of the war. Still the companies of infantry were united in deep +squares--in battalions. To take firm positions and assume defensive +warfare had become too much the custom in inglorious campaigns against +the wild storming Turks. The weight and tenacity of deep masses might +certainly be effective, but if the enemy succeeded in bringing his guns +to bear upon them, they suffered fearfully, and were very unwieldy in +all their movements. Gustavus Adolphus adopted the tactical innovations +of the Netherlanders in an enlightened way; when in battle he placed +the infantry six, and the cavalry only three deep; he distributed the +great masses into small divisions, which firmly connected together, +formed the unity of the Swedish brigade; he strengthened the cavalry, +placing between them companies of sharpshooters, and introduced light +artillery regiments besides those that were in reserve and position, +and accustomed his soldiers to rapid offensive movements and daring +advances. His infantry fired quicker than the Imperial, and at the +battle of Breitenfeld the old Walloon regiments of Tilly were routed by +their close platoon firing; he also laid down for his cavalry, those +very rules by which a century later Frederick the Great made his, the +first in the world; viz., not to stop in order to fire, but at the +quickest pace to rush upon the enemy.</p> + +<p>During the battle the soldiers recognized one another by their +war-cries and distinguishing marks, the officers by their scarfs. For +example, at Breitenfeld Tilly's army wore white bands on their hats and +helmets, and white lace round the arm, and the Swedes had green +branches. The Imperial colour in the field was red, therefore Gustavus +Adolphus prohibited his Swedes from wearing that colour,<a +name="div2_06" href="#div2Ref_06"><sup>[6]</sup></a> the scarfs +of the Swedish officers at the battle of Lützen were green, those of +Electoral Saxony during the war were black and yellow, and later, after +the acquisition of the Polish crown, red and white.</p> + +<p>The soldiers were formed in troops or companies, and these were +combined in regiments which had administrative unity. The German +infantry regiments consisted of three thousand men, in ten companies of +three hundred men; they seldom reached their normal strength, and lost +their men in the war with frightful rapidity, so that there were +frequently regiments of from a thousand to three hundred, and companies +of seventy to thirty men. Cavalry regiments were required to be from +five hundred to a thousand men strong; the numbers of the troops were +different, and their effective war strength was still more variable.</p> + +<p>The titles and duties of officers had already much similarity to the +modern German organization. He who had raised a regiment for his +Sovereign, was called the colonel of the regiment, even if he had the +rank of General; under him were the Lieutenant-colonel and Major. More +important for the object of these pages were the officers of companies; +the Captain of infantry or cavalry, with his Lieutenant, an Ensign, +and sergeant, or troop sergeant-major, non-commissioned officers and +lance-corporals, and finally the provost-marshal.</p> + +<p>When an officer at the mustering of his company in a circle, was +installed as chief captain and father, he begged his dear soldiers, in +a friendly manner, to be true and obedient to him, recounted to them +their duties, promised to stand by them in every emergency, and as an +honest man, devote himself to them in life or death, and leave them +whatever he had. Unfortunately the captain's first duty was to be +faithful in money concerns, both towards the colonel and his own +soldiers, to procure clever good soldiers for the reviewing officer, +not to charge for more mercenaries than was right, and to give the +soldiers their full pay; but this seldom happened. The temptation to a +system of fraudulent gain was great, and conscientiousness in the +uncertain life of war was a virtue which quickly disappeared; even the +most honourable fell upon dangerous rocks when the pay had been long in +arrear, or not fully given. Besides this, it was necessary for him to +be an energetic experienced man, just and kind in disposition, but +strict in maintaining rights. During the week, he was, according to the +old proverb, to look severe, and not to smile upon the soldiers before +Sunday; when there was preaching in the camp, the soldiers sat on the +ground, but stood up, taking their hats off, before the captain, but he +who wore a morion kept it on. On the march, the captain rode, but +before the enemy he went on foot, carrying either the pike or the +musket of his company.<a name="div2_07" +href="#div2Ref_07"><sup>[7]</sup></a></p> + +<p>The banner of the infantry, which was held sacred by the company, had +a +standard about the size of ours, but the silken flag, like an enormous +sail, reached almost to the end of the standard; it was of heavy +material, according to the taste of that time, with allegorical +pictures +painted on it, and short Latin sentences beautifully illuminated. The +"<i>cornete</i>" of the cavalry, sometimes vandyked, were +smaller, and fixed to the standard like our banners. The regiments were +sometimes called after the colours of the banners; for example, in +Electoral Saxony, where the ground of the banners was always of two +colours, they were called the black and yellow, blue and white, red and +yellow, regiments; each of the ten banners of the regiment also had its +especial emblem and motto, and different combinations of the regimental +colours, grained, striped and in squares, yet the chief standard showed +the regimental colours only on the border. The +"<i>cornete</i>" of the cavalry had a ground of only one +colour: the corps of cavalry were denoted according to the colours of +their banners, and not by their uniforms, which they hardly ever wore; +for example:--"two corps of orange-coloured cornet +cuirassiers," "five corps of steel-green cornet +arquebussiers." The Swedes also distinguished their brigades, +which +were in Germany frequently called regiments, by the colour of their +banners; thus, besides the yellow (Body Guard) there were the green, +blue, white, and red. The colours of regiments were often chosen from +the armorial bearings of the colonel, especially if he had raised the +regiment. Gradually, however, it became the custom in all the armies to +call the regiments after the names of the officers.</p> + +<p>The flag was attached to the standard and erected in the midst of +the +circle of enlisted soldiers; then the Colonel delivered the banner to +the Ensign, and thus gave it into his charge:--"As your bride or +your own daughter, from the right hand to the left; and if both your +arms should be shot or cut off, you should take it with your mouth; and +if you cannot preserve it thus, wrap yourself therein, commit yourself +to God so to be slain, and die as an honourable man." As long as +the colours were flying, and a piece of the standard left, the soldiers +were to follow the Ensign to the death, till all should lie in a heap +on +the battle-field, that no evildoer or blameworthy person should be +sheltered by the flag; if any one should transgress against the banner +oath, the Ensign was to furl the banner, and forbid the transgressor to +march under it or mount guard, and he was obliged to go among the bad +women and children with the baggage till the affair was arranged: the +Ensign was not to leave the colours a single night without permission; +when he slept he was to have them by him, and never to separate himself +from them; if they should be torn from the standard by treachery or +some +roguish attendant, the Ensign should be delivered over to the common +soldiers to be judged for life or death, according to their will. It +was +necessary for him to be tall, powerful, manly, and valiant, and a +cheerful companion, friendly to every one, a mediator and peace-maker; +he was not to inflict punishment on any one, that he might incur no +hatred. In the open field under the unfurled colours appointments were +declared and the articles of war read. A trooper was not, without +permission, to be out of sight of the colours when the army was +marching +or encamped; whoever fled from the colours in battle was to die for it, +and whoever killed him was to be unpunished: if an Ensign should +abandon +a fort or redoubt before he had held out against three assaults without +relief, he transgressed the rules of war; a regiment lost its colours +if +from cowardice it yielded a fortress before the time. It was not long +since pike-law was given up, the severe tribunal of the Landsknechte, +where, before the circle of common soldiers, the provost-marshal +accused +the evil-doer, and forty chosen men, officers and soldiers, pronounced +judgment: at the beginning of the trial the Ensigns furled their +colours, and reversed them with the iron point in the ground, and +demanded a sentence, because the colours could not fly over an +evil-doer. If the transgressor was condemned to the spear, or to be +shot +by the arquebussiers, then the Ensign thanked them for their judgment +on +the offender, unfurled the colours, and caused them to fly towards the +east, comforted the poor sinner, and promised to meet him halfway, and +thereby to deliver him by taking him under the protection of the +colours. When the line of pikes was formed they went to the end of it +with their backs towards the sun; but the transgressor had to bless the +soldiers and pray for a speedy death, then the provost gave him three +strokes with his staff on the right shoulder and pushed him into the +lane. Whoever had disgraced himself, if the colours were waved three +times over him, was freed from his disgrace. The Ensign received every +three years, money for a new flag or dress (from eighty to a hundred +gulden), and for that he was to make a present to the company of two +casks of beer or wine.</p> + +<p>The office of Cornet of cavalry was less responsible. It was his duty +to rush vigorously upon the enemy, and after the attack to raise his +standard on high, that his people might collect round him. In the +Hungarian war the Cornet passed sometimes into the rank of Lieutenant, +and in some regiments (the Wallenstein army for instance) this custom +was kept up.</p> + +<p>The most important man of the company next to the Captain was the +Sergeant; he was the drill-master and spokesman for the soldiers, and +had to mark out with flags the position to be taken up by the troops of +the Imperial batons, or Swedish brigades, to arrange the men, placing +in the front and rear ranks and at the sides, the best armed and most +efficient men, to mingle the halberds and short weapons, to lead and +keep with the arquebussiers; he was the instructor of the company, and +knew the proper and warlike use of his weapons.</p> + +<p>As the "mob" who came together from for and near under a +banner were difficult to keep in order, the greater part of them not to +be depended on, and unskilled in the exercise of their weapons, the +number of non-commissioned officers was necessarily very great, +frequently indeed they formed more than a third of the troop. Any one +who had military capacity or could be depended upon, was marked out by +the subordinate commander for higher pay and posts of confidence. +Amongst the numerous functions and manifold designations of the +subalterns, some are particularly characteristic. In the beginning of +the war every company had, according to the old <i>Landsknecht</i> +custom, their "leader," who, in the first instance at least, +was chosen by the soldiers. He was the tribune of the company, their +spokesman, who had to lay their grievances and wishes before the +Captain, and to represent the interests of the soldiery. It may easily +be understood that such an arrangement did not strengthen the +discipline +of the army; it was done away with in time of war. Even the thankless +office of quartermaster was of greater importance than now; the +complaints of the soldiers, who quarrelled about the bad quarters he +had +provided for them, he met with defiance, and inspired them with fear of +his usurious practices. When a company came to a deserted village, the +serjeants threw their knives into the hat of the quartermaster; he then +went from house to house, sticking the blades as they came to his hand +in the door-posts, and every band (of six or eight men) followed their +leader's knife. When poor members of the nobility, candidates for +commission, of whom the number was often great, presented themselves, +their names were inscribed on the list of lance-corporals. Old +vagabonds +full of pretension were designated in the military kitchen Latin by the +title of "<i>Ambesaten</i>," and afterwards +"<i>Landspassaten</i>;" they were orderlies and messengers +receiving higher pay, representatives and assistants of the Corporals. +There was a general endeavour to add a deputy to every office, as the +Lieutenant to the Captain, an under Ensign to the Ensign, to the +Serjeant an under Serjeant, and frequently with the infantry a vidette +for the sentinels at out-posts; in the same way serjeants were deputies +to the officers, and the "<i>Landspassaten</i>" to the +Corporal, and the provost to the provost-general, &c., &c.</p> + +<p>The army consisted, with few exceptions, of enlisted soldiers. The +Sovereign empowered an experienced leader by patent to raise for him an +army, a regiment, or a company; recruiting places were sought for and a +muster place established where the recruits were collected. The +recruits +were paid their travelling expenses or bounty; at the beginning of the +war this was insignificant, and sometimes deducted from their pay, but +later the bounty increased, and was given to the soldiers. At the +beginning of the war negotiations were carried on with every mercenary, +about the pay, at the muster-place. The soldier in quarters received +nothing but his pay, which in 1600, for the common foot soldier, +amounted to from fifteen to sixteen gulden a month.<a name="div2_08" +href="#div2Ref_08"><sup>[8]</sup></a> With this they had to procure for +themselves weapons, clothing, and food. Garrisons were provided with +stores by the quarter-master, the cost being reimbursed to him. During +the great war, however, the arrangements about pay were often deviated +from, the distribution of it to the soldiers was very irregular.</p> + +<p>In the Imperial army the pay, exclusive of food, was nine gulden to +the +pikeman and six to the musketeer. In the Swedish army it was still +lower, but was in the beginning more regularly paid, and there was more +care about the provisions. The whole sustenance of the army was charged +upon the province by a hard system of requisition, even on friendly +territory. The maintenance of the upper officers was very high, and yet +formed only a small share of their income. During the time of service +the troops were entered on the muster-roll by a court of comptrol, the +reviewing officer, or commissary of the Prince; in order to prevent the +officers and commanders drawing too much pay, when they were assembled +round the flag, the names of the deserters were written apart, and +beside each name a gallows was painted. At the time of muster if any +one was unserviceable or had served a long time, he was taken off the +muster-roll, and declared free, given his discharge, and provided with +a pass or certificate. Whoever wished for leave, obtained a pass from +the Ensign. The soldier had to clothe himself, uniforms were only found +exceptionally; the halberdiers of the life-guards, and the heavily +armed cavalry, so far as armour was concerned, were generally furnished +by the Sovereign; but before the war it was only occasionally done, and +then pay was deducted for it, or the Colonel took back the armour after +the campaign.</p> + +<p>The military discipline of the Germans was, in the beginning of the +war, in the worst repute. The German soldiers were considered by other +nations as idle, turbulent, refractory bullies;<a name="div2_09" +href="#div2Ref_09"><sup>[9]</sup></a> they had been not a +little spoilt by service in half-barbarous countries, as Hungary and +Poland then were, and against the barbarian Turks. When individuals had +to chaffer about their pay, discontent began; when the Captain would +not satisfy the claims of the enlisted mercenary, the malcontent threw +his musket angrily at the feet of the former, and went off with the +money for his travelling-expenses, there was no means of detaining him. +Though the Ensign was bound by oath, the Captain only too frequently +found advantage in favouring plunder and the nightly desertion of the +banner, for he had his share of the soldier's booty; the worst thieves +were the best bees.</p> + +<p>The paymasters were always deeply hated, because they generally gave +the regiments short pay and bad coin; they and other commissaries of +the sovereign were exposed to much insult when they came to the camp. +The worst things are related of the Commanders-in-chief, above all, +that they received more pay than they distributed to the soldiers; +still worse were the Generals. Frequently open mutiny broke out, and +then the mutineers placed a Colonel or Captain in the middle of them, +and chose him for their leader. The same thing took place in Hungary. +Indeed it happened, during the armistice preceding the Westphalian +peace, that in a Bavarian dragoon regiment, a corporal of the garrison +of Hilperstein nominated himself Colonel of the regiment, and by the +help of his comrades drove away the officers; the regiment was +surrounded by loyal soldiers, the new Colonel with eighteen of the +ringleaders were executed, the muskets were taken from the regiment, it +was resworn and formed anew as a cavalry regiment. The arrears of pay +were the usual cause of mutiny. In the year 1620, the regiment of Count +Mansfeld mutinied. He began to pay, but meanwhile leaving his tent, +struck down two of the soldiers with his own hands, severely wounding +them; he then mounted his horse, sprang into the midst of the +mutineers, and shot many of them. He alone with three captains subdued +the insolence of six hundred men, after having slain eleven, and +severely wounded six-and-twenty. If it was difficult to secure +obedience to military commands whilst the banner was waving, still +greater was the burst of resentment when it was furled and the regiment +was disbanded. Then the provost, the prostitutes, and the soldiers' +sons hid themselves; the Captain, Lieutenant, and other commanders were +obliged to submit to abusive language and challenges, and to hear +themselves thus accosted: "Ha, you fellow, you have been my +commander, +now you are not a jot better than I; a pound of your hair is of no more +importance to me than a pound of cotton; out with you, let's have a +scuffle!" Whenever punishment was administered, the commanders +were +in +danger from the revenge of the culprit or his friends. The disbanded +soldiers quarrelled amongst each other, as they did with their +officers, and sometimes there were as many as a hundred parties in one +place engaged in duelling. The most wanton death-blows were dealt, and +murders perpetrated, such as have never been heard of since the +beginning of Christianity. When the banner was unfurled, it was +customary for the combatants to join hands and vow to fight out their +quarrel when their term of service was ended, and till then to live +together in brotherly love. When this disbanding took place, the most +disorderly of the soldiers combined together and began an "armour +cleaning" of those comrades to whom, during service, the officers +had +shown favour; that is to say, they robbed them of all, deprived them of +their clothes, beat and almost killed them. All these crimes were +tolerated, and the powerless commander-in-chief looked passively on +these proceedings as a mere custom of war.</p> + +<p>During the Hungarian campaigns the soldiers adopted the habit of only +remaining by their banners during the summer months; they found their +reckoning in serving a short time, and mutinying if more was desired of +them; for during the autumn and winter they went with two, three, or +more boys as "<i>Gartbrüder</i>"<a name="div2_10" +href="#div2Ref_10"><sup>[10]</sup></a> through the country, a fearful +plague +to the farmers in eastern Germany. In the frontier countries, Silesia, +Austria, Bohemia, and Styria, it was even commanded by the sovereigns +to pay a farthing to every soldier who was roving about as +"<i>Gartbrüder</i>." Thus by their refractory conduct they +daily obtained a +gulden or more; their boys pilfered where they could, and were +notorious poachers. Wallhausen, whilst making other energetic +complaints, reckons that the support of a standing army would cost less +to the princes and states, and secure greater success against the +enemy, than this old bad system.</p> + +<p>More than once during the long war, these wild armies were brought +under the constraint of strict discipline by the powerful will of +individuals, and each time great military successes were obtained; but +this was not of any duration. The discipline of the Wallenstein army +was excellent in a military point of view; but what the commander +permitted with regard to citizens and peasants was horrible. Even +Gustavus Adolphus could not preserve for more than a year, the strict +discipline which on his landing in Pomerania was so triumphantly lauded +by the Protestant ecclesiastics. It is true that the military law and +articles of war contained a number of legal rules for all soldiers, +concerning the forbearance to be observed even in an enemy's land +towards the people and their property. The women, invalids, and aged +were under all circumstances to be spared, and mills and ploughs were +not to be injured. But it is not by the laws themselves, but by the +administration of them, that we can judge of the peculiar +characteristics of a period.</p> + +<p>The punishments were in themselves severe. With the Swedes,--for the +embezzlement of money intended for the hospitals or invalid soldiers, +the wooden horse with its iron fittings was awarded, or running the +gauntlet (for this hardy fellows were hired to take upon them the +punishment), or loss of the hand, shooting, or hanging. For whole +divisions,--the loss of their banners, cleaning the camp and lying +outside it, and decimation. In the beginning of the war many of the old +Landsknecht customs were maintained, for instance, their criminal court +of justice, in which the law was decided by the people through select +jurymen. And before the war, together with this, court-martials had +been introduced. During the war a military tribunal was organized +according to the modern German method, under the presidency of the +advocate-general, and the provost-marshal superintended the execution. +But even in punishments there was a difference between the army and the +citizens and peasants. The soldier was put in irons, but not in the +stocks or in prison; no soldier was ever hanged on a common gallows, or +in a common place of execution, but on a tree or on a special gallows, +which was erected in the city for the soldiers in the market-place; the +old form by which the delinquent was given over to the hangman was thus +expressed: "He shall take him to a green tree and tie him up by the +neck, so that the wind may blow under and over him, and the sun shine +on him for three days; then shall he be cut down and buried according +to the custom of war." But the perjured deserter was hanged to a +withered tree. Whoever was sentenced to death by the sword, was taken +by the executioner to a public place, where he was cut in two, the body +being the largest and the head the smallest portion. The provost and +his assistant also were in nowise dishonoured by their office; even the +avoided executioner's assistant, the "<i>Klauditchen</i>" of +the army, who +was generally taken from among the convicts, and who was allowed to +choose between punishment and this dishonourable office, could, if he +fulfilled his office faithfully, become respectable when the banner was +unfurled; he could then receive his certificate like any other gallant +soldier, and no one could speak evil of him.</p> + +<p>There was one circumstance which distinguished the armies of the +Thirty +years' war from those of modern days, and which made their entrance +into a province like an eruption of a heterogeneous race of strangers: +each soldier, in spite of his short term of service in the field, was +accompanied by his household. Not only the higher officers, but also +the troopers and foot-soldiers, took their wives, and still more +frequently their mistresses with them in a campaign. Women from all +countries, adorned to the utmost of their power, followed the army, and +sought entrance into the camp, because they had a husband, friend, or +cousin there. At the mustering or disbanding of a regiment, even +respectable maidens were, through the most cruel artifices, carried off +by disorderly bands, and when the money was all spent, left sometimes +without clothes, or at some carousal sold from one to another. The +women who accompanied the soldiers cooked and washed for them, nursed +the sick, provided them with drink, bore their blows, and on the march +carried the children and any of the plunder or household implements +which could not be conveyed by the baggage waggons. It is known that +the King of Sweden on his first arrival in Germany would not suffer any +such women in the camp; but after his return from Franconia, this +strict discipline seems to have ceased. Whoever peruses the old church +records of the village parishes will find sometimes the names of +maidens, who, having been carried off, returned at the end of a year to +their village home, and submitted themselves to the severest Church +penances in order to die amongst the ruined population of their +birthplace. The women of the camp were also under martial law. For +great offences they were flogged, and driven out of the camp; the +soldiers too were hard masters, and little of what had been promised +them in the beginning was kept.</p> + +<p>The children accompanied the women. In the Swedish army military +schools were established by Gustavus Adolphus, in which the children +were instructed even in the camp. In these migratory schools strict +military discipline prevailed, and a story, which cannot be warranted, +is told of a cannonball having passed through a school in the Swedish +camp, and having killed many of the children, but the survivors +continued their sum in arithmetic.</p> + +<p>Some soldiers maintained one or more lads, a crafty, stubborn set of +good-for-nothings, who waited upon their masters, cleaned their horses, +sometimes bore their armour, and fed their shaggy dogs; nimble spies +who prowled about far and near on the traces of opulent people, and on +the look-out for concealed money.</p> + +<p>The plundering by the baggage-train was almost worse in a friendly +country. When the soldiers with the women and children came to a +farmhouse, they pounced like hawks upon the poultry in the yard, then +broke open the doors, seized upon the trunks and chests, and with +abusive language, threatened, importuned and destroyed, what they could +not consume or take away. On decamping they compelled the owner to +horse his waggons and take them to their next quarters. Then they +filled the waggons with the clothes, beds, and household goods of the +farmers, binding round their bodies what could not otherwise be carried +away.</p> + +<p>"Frequently," says the indignant narrator Wallhausen, +"the women did +not choose to be drawn by oxen, and it was necessary to procure horses, +sometimes from a distance of six miles, to the great cost of the +country people, and when they came with the waggons to the nearest +quarters, they would not allow the poor people to return home; but +dragged them with them to another territory, and at last stole the +horses and made off."</p> + +<p>In the beginning of the war, a German infantry regiment had to march +for some days through the country of their own sovereign; there were as +many women and children with the baggage-train, as soldiers, and they +stole in eight days from the subjects of their sovereign almost +sufficient horses for each soldier to ride. The colonel, a just and +determined man, frequently dragged the soldiers himself from the +horses, and at last enforced their restoration by extreme severity. But +it was impossible to prevent the women from riding; there was not one +who had not a stolen horse, and if they did not ride them they +harnessed them three or four together to the peasants' carts.</p> + +<p>Only a few of the otherwise copious writers of that time make mention +of this despised portion of the army; yet there are sufficient +accounts, from which we may conclude that great influence was produced +by the baggage-train on the fate of the army and the country. +Especially by the enormous extent of it. At the end of the sixteenth +century Adam Junghans reckons, that in a besieged fortress where the +camp-followers were reduced to the smallest possible number, to three +hundred infantry soldiers, there were fifty women and forty children, +besides sutlers, horseboys, &c., &c., somewhat more than a +third +of the +soldiers. But in the field the proportion was quite different even in +the beginning of the war. Wallhausen reckons as indispensable to a +German regiment of infantry, four thousand women, children, and other +followers. A regiment of three thousand men had at least three hundred +waggons, and every waggon was full to repletion of women, children, and +plundered goods; when a company broke up from its quarters, it was +considered an act of self-denial if it did not carry away with it +thirty or more waggons. At the beginning of the war a regiment of north +German soldiers, three thousand strong, started from the muster-place +where it had remained some time, followed by two thousand women and +children.</p> + +<p>From that time the baggage-train continued increasing to the end of +the +war. It was only for a brief space of time that great commanders, like +Tilly, Wallenstein, and Gustavus Adolphus were able to diminish this +great plague of the army. In 1648, at the end of the great war, the +Bavarian General, Gronsfeld, reports that in the Imperial and Bavarian +armies there were forty thousand soldiers who drew war rations, and a +hundred and forty thousand who did not; on what were these to subsist +if they did not obtain their food by plunder, especially as in the +whole country where the army encamped, there was not a single place +where a soldier could buy a bit of bread. In the year 1648 the +camp-followers were more than three times the number of the +fighting-men. These numbers tell more significantly than any +deductions, what a dreadful amass of misery surrounded these armies.</p> + +<p>Before we proceed to describe the influence which armies thus +composed +exercised upon the life of the German people, we must once more remind +the reader, that this monstrous evil was not created by the Thirty +years' war, but for the most part already in existence. Some +observations will therefore be here introduced from the above-quoted +and now rare little book, written by Adam Junghans von der Olnitz, at +that period when the worth and capacity of the old Landsknecht army +passed away into the wild dissolute life of mercenaries. It appears +here as the prologue to the monstrous tragedy which began twenty years +later.</p> + +<p>"Each and every officer, captain of horse, or other captain, +knows +well +that no doctors, magisters, or any other God-fearing people, follow in +his train, but only a heap of ill-disposed lads, out of all kinds of +nations; strange folks, who leave wives and children, abandon their +duties, and follow the army; all that will not follow the pursuits of +their fathers and mothers, must follow the calf-skin which is spread +over the drum, till they come to a battle or assault, where thousands +lie on the field of battle, shot or cut to pieces; for a Landsknecht's +life hangs by a hair, and his soul flutters on his cap or his sleeve. +Besides, three kinds of herbs always grow with war; these are, sharp +rule, fifty forbidden articles, and severe judgment with speedy +sentence, which fits many a neck with a hempen collar.</p> + +<p>"It is not enough that a soldier should be strong, straight, +manly, +tyrannical, bloody-minded, in his actions like a grim lion, and +behave like a bully, as if he himself would catch and eat the devil +alone, so that none of his comrades should partake of him; but these +trigger-pullers wantonly bring themselves to destruction by their +stupidity, and other good fellows with them. Another is a snorer, and a +kicker, and stamps like a wild horse on the straw, and when he goes +into battle, and the balls whistle about his head, he is a martyr and +poor sinner, who would for very fear soil his hosen, and allow his +weapon to fall from his hand. But when they sit at the tap, or in the +cantinières' stalls, or in public-houses, then they have seen much and +can do nothing but fight, then a fly on the wall irritates them, there +is no peace with them, then they are ready to fight the enemy with +great curses. Such 'bear-prickers' are generally found out; one seldom +finds one who is not maimed in the hands or arms, or has a scar on the +cheek, and they have never really all their lives long, faced the +enemy. The captain may well keep clear of such fellows, for they are +generally seditious mutineers. A wise soldier avoids quarrels and +public-house brawls whenever he can, that he may have his skin whole +and uninjured to bring in front of the enemy. To be wounded by the +enemy is an honour, but he who injures himself wantonly must expect +scorn and derision, and is of no use to any army. Such a fellow must +remain all his life a paltry beggar; he roves about the country, begs +bread and sells it again, feeds like a wolf, and when the rats and mice +are drowned in the countrywoman's milk, he maintains himself on the +cheese made from it, and must submit to the rough words of the +peasants, and herd with other poor beggars to the end of his life. +Besides these, there are many who wish to be soldiers, mothers' sons, +beardless boys, like young calves, who know nothing of suffering, who +have sat beside the stove and roasted apples, and lain in warm beds. +When they are brought to a foreign country, and meet with all kind of +strange arrangements, food, drink, and other things, they are like soft +eggs that flow through the fingers, or like paper when it lies in the +water. It is thus not only with foot Landsknechte, but also with young +nobles. When they are led to the field in devastated countries, where +all is consumed and laid waste, and they can no longer carry their +well-filled bread wallets and drinking-flasks on their necks, they +first pine away, hunger and thirst, then eat and drink unusual things, +from which result all kinds of maladies. These delicate vagabonds ought +to remain at home, attend to the tillage, or sit in the shop by the +pepper-bags, and shift for themselves, as their fathers and mothers +have done, fill their stomachs at eventide, and go to bed; thus they +would not be slain in war. It is truly said that soldiers must be hardy +and enduring people, like unto steel and iron, and like the wild beasts +that can eat all kinds of food. According to the jocose saying, the +Landsknechte must be able to digest the points of their wheel-nails; +nothing must come amiss to them, even if necessity required that they +should eat dogs' or cats' flesh, and the flesh of horses from the +meadow must be like good venison to them, with herbs unseasoned by salt +or butter. Hunger teaches to eat, if one has not seen bread for three +weeks. Drink one may have gratis, for if one can get no water from the +brook, one can drink with the geese out of the pond or the puddle. One +must sleep under a tree, or in the field; there is plenty of earth to +lie on, and of sky for a canopy; such must often be the Landsknecht's +sleeping-room, and from such a bed no feathers will stick to his hair. +Hence arises the old quarrel between the fowls and geese and the +Landsknechte, because the former can always sleep in feathers, whilst +the latter must often lie in straw. There is another animal that +clashes with the Landsknechte, that is the cat; as the soldiers know +well how to pilfer, they are enemies to the cats, and friendly to the +dogs. According to the old doggerel, a Landsknecht should always have +with him a beautiful woman, a dog, and a young boy, a long spear, and a +short sword; he is free to seek any master who will give him service. A +Landsknecht must make three campaigns before he can become an +honourable man. After the first campaign, he must return home wearing +torn clothes; after the second, he should return with a scar on one +cheek, and be able to tell much of alarms, battles, skirmishes and +storming parties, and to show by his scars that he has got the marks of +a Landsknecht; after the third, he should return well appointed, on a +fine charger, bringing with him a purse full of gold, so that he may be +able to distribute whole dollars as he would booty-pence.</p> + +<p>"It is truly said, that a soldier must have to eat and drink, +whether +it is paid for by the sacristan or the priest; for a Landsknecht has +neither house nor farm, cows nor calves, and no one to bring him food; +therefore he must procure it himself wherever it is to be found, and +buy without money whether the peasants look sweet or sour. Sometimes +they must suffer hunger and evil days, at others they have abundance, +and indeed such superfluity, that they might clean their shoes with +wine or beer. Then their dogs eat roast; the women and children get +good appointments, they become stewards and cellarers of other people's +property. When the householder is driven away with his wife and +children, the fowls, geese, fat cows, oxen, pigs, and sheep have a bad +time of it. The money is portioned out in their caps, velvet and silk +stuffs and cloth are measured out by long spears; a cow is slaughtered +for the sake of the hide; chests and trunks are broken open, and when +all has been plundered and nothing more remains, the house is set on +fire. That is the true Landsknecht's fire, when fifty villages and +country towns are in flames. Then they go to other quarters and do the +like again; this makes soldiers jolly, and is a desirable life for +those who do not pay for it. This entices to the field many a mother's +child, who does not return home, and forgets his friends. For the +proverb says: 'The Landsknechte have crooked fingers and maimed hands +for work, but for pilfering and plundering all the maimed hands become +sound.' That has been so before our days, and will remain so truly +after us. The longer the Landsknechte learn this handiwork the better +they do it, and become circumspect, like the three maidens who had four +cradles made, the fourth as a provision in case one of them had two +children. Wherever the soldiers come, they bring with them the keys of +all the rooms, their axes and hatchets, and if there are not enough +stalls in a place for their horses, it does not signify, they stall +them in the churches, monasteries, chapels, and best rooms. If there is +no dry wood for fire, it matters not, they burn chairs, benches, +ploughs, and everything that is in the house; if they want green wood, +no one need go far, they cut down the fruit trees in the nearest +orchard; for they say, whilst we live here we keep house, to-morrow we +go off again into the country, therefore, Mr. Host, be comforted; you +have a few guests you would gladly be free from, therefore give freely +and write it on the slate. When the house is burnt the account is burnt +also. This is the Landsknechts' custom; to make a reckoning and ride +off, and pay when we return.</p> + +<p>"The French, Italians, and Walloons are as adverse to the +Germans +as to +dogs, but the Spaniards are friendly to them; they however have an +unheard-of weakness for women, and are disposed to profligate and +godless conduct. Altogether, the Germans are but little thought of by +these nations, who call them nothing but drunkards, proud featherpates, +mighty braggadocios, blasphemers of God, '<i>Hans Muffmaff</i>' with the +beggar's wallet, who would willingly play the great man. And if one +comes to look at it, it is not far from the truth. For there is a new +custom amongst the North Germans when they go to war, or collect +together under a master, they spend all their goods and possessions on +ostentatious splendour, as if they were going to a bride, or riding to +a banquet. Thus the Germans who were formerly called the Blackriders, +come riding along with silver daggers, seven pound in weight, in velvet +clothes, and shining boots, with short holster pistols inlaid with +ivory, and large wide padded sleeves; they are ashamed of carrying +cuirass or armour, or indeed a spear, or any other murderous weapons, +as in the olden time. Hence it arises, that they never hold together. +Then when Hans Spaniard comes with his tilting spear and proof armour, +these chaw-bacons, with their short holster pistols, must run away or +yield their money and blood.</p> + +<p>"Further, it is a misfortune to the Germans, that they take to +imitating, like monkeys and fools. As soon as they come amongst other +soldiers, they must have Spanish or other outlandish clothes. If they +could babble foreign languages a little, they would associate +themselves with Spaniards and Italians. The Germans would like to +mingle with foreign nations, and take pleasure in outlandish dress and +manners, 'but one should not place the vermin in the fur, it comes +there without.' It is clear that foreign people have become our +neighbours, and it is to be feared that they will in a few years come +nearer. The frontier lords, who still rest in tranquillity, fight +against the wind, speak quite wisely thereupon, comfort themselves, and +have in talk, all their cities and villages full of soldiers to defend +the country and withstand all enemies. But I fear that they prefer +sitting by the stove in winter, and in the shade in summer, playing +draughts, or striking the guitar, or dancing with <i>Jungfrau</i> +Greta, +to +providing their houses with good weapons or armour.</p> + +<p>"On this account, and because all foreign nations cry out all +over +Germany, '<i>Cruci, cruci, mordio, mordio!</i>' and grind their teeth +like +ravenous wolves, and desire and hope to bathe in German blood, one must +earnestly pray God not to withdraw his hand, but to take under his +protection this little vessel, tossed on the wild sea, cover it with +his wings, and preserve it from all storms; for we see how the Roman +Empire has declined from day to day, and still continues to do so. +These sufferings come from nothing but the proceedings of the +ecclesiastics, whereof the whole world complains. If one finds one +right-minded preacher there are ten to the contrary; every tradesman +praises his own wares, everyone will feed his own flock, and lead them +the right way to heaven, yet no one knows, save the devil and our Lord, +where the false shepherds go to themselves. Every one abuses, slanders, +and condemns the other; when they stand in the pulpit, the devil is +their preceptor, who helps them to manage so that one kingdom is at +variance with another, one country rebellious against the other; +neighbour can no longer agree with neighbour; nay one finds even at one +table four or five different faiths, one will worship on this mountain +and another on yonder. May the eternal Almighty God strengthen the +hearts of the dear North Germans, give them an upright spirit, and +raise them up again, that they may one day rise from the ashes, and +renew their ancient repute, and their good name. God help the +righteous."</p> + +<p>Thus writes an honourable officer before the year 1600. + +<br /> +</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> +<div class="chapter"> +<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2> +</div> + +<h3>THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.--LIFE AND MANNERS +OF THE SOLDIERS.</h3> + + +<p class="normal sp1">Almost all the people of Europe sent their +least +promising sons to the +long war. Not only did foreign mercenaries follow the recruiting drum +like crows to the battle-field, but the whole of Christian Europe was +drawn into the struggle; foreigners trampled on the German soil in +companies and regiments: English and Scotch, Danes, Fins and Swedes, +besides the Netherlanders (whom the people considered as countrymen), +fought on the side of the Protestants. Even the Laplanders came with +their reindeer to the German coast; in the winter months of 1630 they +brought upon their sledges over the ice, furs for the Swedish army. But +still more chequered did the Imperial army look. The Roumaun Walloons, +Irish adventurers, Spaniards, Italians, and almost every Sclavonic race +broke into the country; worst of all the light cavalry,--Cossacks, +Polish auxiliaries (who were for the most part slaughtered by the +country people in 1620), Stradiots (among them undoubtedly some +Mahomedans), and, most hated of all, the Croats. The position of the +Emperor in the beginning of the war was striking in this respect, that +he had almost nothing but Sclavonic and Roumaun soldiers, and only +Roumaun money to oppose the Germans. By them the national rising was +crushed, and it is probable that half the troops of the League +consisted of foreigners.</p> + +<p>Each army was a sample of the different nationalities; in each there +was an intermixture of many languages; and the hatred of nations seldom +ceased even when fighting under the same colours. It was especially +necessary in the camp to arrange the regiments according to the good +understanding between them. Germans and Italians were always kept +apart.</p> + +<p>The Field-marshal or Quartermaster-general chose the site of the +camp; +if possible by running water, and in a position which was favourable +for defence. First of all was measured out the place for the General +and his staff; large ornamented tents were raised on the ground thus +set apart, which was divided from the rest of the camp by barriers and +by planting spears, frequently even by fortifications. An open place +was left close to it for the main-guard; if the army remained long +encamped, a gallows was erected there as a warning. The position of +each regiment and company was marked out with branches; the troops were +marched in, the ranks were opened, the colours of each regiment were +planted in the ground in rows side by side; behind in parallel lines +lay the encampment of the company, always fifty men in a row; near the +colours was the Ensign, in the middle the Lieutenant, at the rear the +Captain, and behind all the tents of the superior officers and +officials; the surgeon next to the Ensign, and the chaplain near the +Captain. The officers lived in tents, often in conical forms fastened +with cords to the ground. The soldiers built themselves little huts of +planks and straw. The pikemen planted their pikes in the ground near +the huts; the pikes, short spears, halberds, partisans, and standards +showed from afar the rank and weapons of the inhabitant of the tent. +Two or four soldiers were generally housed in a hut, with their wives, +children, and dogs. Thus they lay encamped, company by company, +regiment by regiment, in great squares or circles, the whole camp +surrounded by a large space which served as an alarm post. Before the +Thirty years' war it was customary to set up a barricade round the +camp; then the train or baggage-waggons were pushed together in double +or more rows, and bound by chains or fastenings to the great square or +circle, leaving free the necessary openings. Then also the cavalry had +their camp next the inner side of the waggons; the necessary partitions +were erected for the horses near the huts and tents of the horsemen. +This custom had become obsolete, and it was only occasionally that the +waggons surrounded the camp, but it was protected by trenches, mounds, +and field-pieces. At the openings sentinels were posted, outside the +camp, troops of horse and a chain of outposts of musketeers or +arquebussiers were stationed. Each Ensign planted the colours before +his tent; near it was the drummer of the company, and a musketeer kept +watch with a burning match in his hand and his musket supported +horizontally on its rest.</p> + +<p>In such a camp it was that the wild soldiery dwelt in unbridled +licence, insupportable to the neighbourhood even in a friendly country. +The provinces, cities, and villages were obliged to supply wood, straw, +fodder, and provisions, the waggons rolled along every road, and droves +of fat cattle were collected. The neighbouring villages quickly +disappeared; as all the wood-work and thatching was torn away by the +soldiers and employed in building their huts, only the shattered clay +walls remained. The soldiers and their boys roved about the +neighbourhood, plundering and stealing, and the cantineers drove about +with their carts. In the camp the soldiers congregated in front of +their huts; meanwhile the women cooked, washed, mended the clothes and +squabbled together; there was constant tumult and uproar and bloody +crimes, fighting with bare weapons, and combats between the different +services or nations. Every morning the crier and the trumpet called to +prayer, even among the Imperialists; early on the Sunday the regimental +chaplain performed service in the camp, then the soldiers and their +households seated themselves devoutly on the ground, and it was +forbidden for any one during service to loiter and drink in the +canteens. It is known how much Gustavus Adolphus inculcated pious +habits and prayers; after his arrival in Pomerania he caused prayers to +be read twice a day in his camp, but even in his army, it was necessary +in the articles of war to admonish the chaplains against +drunkenness.</p> + +<p>In the open space in front of the main guard was the gambling ground, +covered with cloaks and set with tables, round which all the gamesters +crowded. There the card-playing of the old Landsknechte gave place to +the quicker games of the dice. The use of dice was frequently forbidden +in the camp, and stopped by the captain of the guard and the provost; +then the gamblers assembled privately behind the fence, and played away +their ammunition, bread, horses, weapons, and clothes, so that it was +found necessary to place them under the supervision of the main-guard. +Three square dice were rolled on each cloak or table, called in camp +language "<i>Schelmbeine</i>;" each set had its croupier; to +him belonged +the cloak, table, and dice; he had the office of judge in cases of +dispute, and his share of the winnings, but also frequently of blows. +There was much cheating and cogging; many dice had two fives or sixes, +many, two aces or deuces, others were filled with quicksilver and lead, +split hair, sponge, chaff, and charcoal; there were dice made of +stags-horn, heavy below and light above, +"<i>Niederländer</i>,"<a name="div2_11" +href="#div2Ref_11"><sup>[11]</sup></a> which +must be slid along, and "<i>Oberländer</i>,"<a name="div2_12" +href="#div2Ref_12"><sup>[12]</sup></a> which must be thrown "from +Bavarian Heights" for them to fall right; often the noiseless work +was +interrupted by curses, quarrels, and flashing rapiers. Lurking +tradespeople, frequently Jews, slipped in, ready to value and buy up +the rings, chains, and booty staked.</p> + +<p>Behind the tents of the upper officers and the regimental provost, +separated from them by a wide street, stood the shops of the cantineers +in parallel cross rows. Cantineers, butchers, and common victuallers +formed an important community. The price of their goods was decided by +the provost, who received a perquisite in money or in kind; for +example, he received a tongue for every beast that was killed. On every +cask which was to be tapped, he wrote the retail price with chalk. By +these compacts, and the favour of the powerful, which was to be bought +by time-serving, the purveyors of the army maintained a proportionably +secure position, and insured themselves the payment, though irregular, +of their long tallies, which were scored equally for the officers and +soldiers. In good times traders came from afar to the camp with +expensive stuffs, jewels, gold and silver workmanship, and delicacies. +In the beginning of the war especially, the officers set a bad example +to the army by their extreme luxury; every captain would have a French +cook, and consumed the dearest wine in great quantities.</p> + +<p>The military signals of the camp were, for the infantry the beat of +the +drum, for the cavalry the trumpet: the drum was very large, the drummer +often a half-grown boy, sometimes the fool of the company. In the +beginning of the war, the German army had in many cases a uniform beat. +Every command from the General to the camp, had to be proclaimed by a +herald riding through it with a trumpeter. On such occasions the herald +wore over his dress a "tabard" of coloured silk, embroidered +before and +behind with the arms of the sovereign. This proclamation, which +announced to the camp in the evening the work of the following day, was +very destructive to secret and rapid operations; it was also very +injurious to discipline, for it announced to the loiterers and robbers +of the camp, the night when they might steal out for booty.</p> + +<p>When times were prosperous, a battle won, a rich city plundered, or +an +opulent district laid under contribution, everything was plentiful, +food and drink cheap; and it once happened, in the last year of the +war, that in the Bavarian camp a cow was bought for a pipe of tobacco. +The Croats of the Imperial army in Pomerania, in the winter of 1630 and +1631, had their girdles overlaid with gold, and whole plates of gold +and silver on the breast. Paul Stockmann, a pastor at Lützen, relates, +that in the Imperial army, before the battle of Lützen, one horseman +had his horse decorated with a quantity of golden stars, and another +with three hundred silver moons; and the soldiers' women wore the most +beautiful church dresses and mass vestments, and that some Stradiots +rode in plundered priests' dresses, to the great mirth of their +comrades. In these times also carousers drank to one another in costly +wine from the chalices, and caused long chains to be made of the +plundered gold, from which, according to the old knightly custom, they +severed links to pay for a carousal. But the longer the war lasted the +more rare were these golden times. The devastation of the country +revenged itself fearfully on the army itself; the pale spectre of +hunger, the forerunner of pestilence, glided through the lines of the +camp, and raised its bony hand against every straw hut. Then supplies +from the surrounding districts ceased, the price of provisions was +raised so as to be almost unattainable; a loaf of bread, for example, +in the Swedish army in 1640, at Gotha, cost a ducat. Hollow-eyed pale +faces, sick and dying men, were to be seen in every row of huts; the +vicinity of the camp was pestilential from the decaying bodies of dead +animals. All around was a wilderness of uncultivated fields, blackened +with the ruins of villages, and the camp itself a dismal city of +death.</p> + +<p>A broad stream of superstition had flowed through the souls of the +people from ancient times up to the present day, and the soldier's life +of the Thirty years' war revived an abundance of peculiar +superstitions, of which a portion continues even now; it is worth while +to dwell a little upon these characteristic phenomena.</p> + +<p>The belief that it is possible to make the body proof by magic +against +the weapons of the enemy, and on the other hand to make your own arms +fatal to them, is older than the historical life of the German people. +In the earliest times, however, something gloomy was attached to this +art; it might easily become pregnant with fatality, even to its +votaries. The invulnerability was not unconditional, and succumbed to +the stronger counter-magic of the offensive weapon: Achilles had a heel +which was not invulnerable; no weapon could wound the Norse god Baldur, +but the waving of a branch of misletoe by a blind man killed him; +Siegfried had a weak spot between the shoulders, the same which the +soldiers of the Thirty years' war considered also as vulnerable. Among +the numerous Norse traditions are many accounts of charmed weapons: the +sword, the noblest weapon of heroes, was considered as a living being, +also as a slaying serpent or a destroying fire; when it was shattered, +it was spoken of by the Norse poets as dying. It was unnecessary to +charm swords forged by dwarfs, as there was a destroying magic +concealed in them; thus the sword of Hagens, the father of Hilda, was +death to any man when it was drawn from the sheath, magic Runic +character being scratched on the hilt and blade of it.</p> + +<p>The introduction of fire-arms gave a new aspect and a wider scope to +this superstition; the flash and report of the weapon, and the distant +striking of the ball, imposed the more on the fancy, the less the +imperfect weapon was certain of hitting: the course of the deadly shot +was considered malicious and incalculable. Undoubtedly the literature +of the Reformation seldom touched upon this kind of magic; it first +made itself heard in the middle of the century, when it served to +portray the condition of the people. But in armies, the belief in magic +was general and widely spread, travelling scholars and gipsies were the +most zealous vendors of its secrets, one generation of Landsknechte +imparted it to the next: in Italy and in the armies of Charles V., +Italian and German superstitions were mixed, and in the time of +Fronsperg and Schärtlin almost every detail of the art of rendering +invulnerable is to be found. Luther, in 1527, inveighs against the +superstition of the soldiery: "One commits himself to St. George, +another to St. Christopher, some to one saint, some to another; some +can charm iron and gun-flints, others can bless the horse and his +rider, and some carry the gospel of St. John,<a name="div2_13" +href="#div2Ref_13"><sup>[13]</sup></a> or somewhat else with +them, in which they confide." He himself had known a Landsknecht, +who, +though made invulnerable by the devil, was killed, and announced +beforehand the day and place of his death. Bernhard von Milo, Seneschal +at Wittenberg, sent to Luther for his opinion on a written charm for +wounds; it was a long roll of paper written in wonderful characters.</p> + +<p>When the Augsburg gunner, Samuel Zimmermann the elder, wrote the +experiences of his life up to 1591, in a folio volume, under the title +of '<i>Charms against all Stabs, Strokes, and Shots, full of great +secrets</i>,' he mentions only the defensive incantations, which he did +not consider as the works of Belial; but it is apparent from his +manuscript that many devilish arts were known to him, which he intended +to conceal. Another well-known Zimmermann, who was hardened, received a +fearful blow from a dagger; there was no wound to be seen, but he died +shortly after from the internal effect of the blow. In 1558 there was +an invulnerable soldier in the regiment of Count Lichtenstein, who, +after every skirmish, shook the enemy's balls off his dress and his +bare body; he often showed them, and the holes burnt through his +clothes; he was at last slain by some foreign peasants.</p> + +<p>When the Italians and Spaniards entered the Netherlands in 1568, they +carried along with them, with little success, whole packets and books +full of magic formulas of conjurations and charms. The French found +talismans and magic cards fastened round the necks of the prisoners and +the dead, of the Brandenburg troops who had been led by Burgrave Fabian +von Dohna, in 1587, as auxiliaries to the Huguenots. When the Jesuit +George Scheerer preached at the Court Chapel at Vienna in 1594, before +the Archduke Matthias and his Generals, he found it necessary to exhort +them earnestly against the use of superstitious charms for cuts, stabs, +shots, and burns.</p> + +<p>It is therefore unjust in later writers to state, that the art of +rendering invulnerable was introduced at Passau by a travelling scholar +in the seventeenth century, as Grimmelshausen informs us, or as others +will have it, that it was brought into the German army by Kaspar +Reithardt von Hersbruck, the executioner; for when Archduke Leopold, +the Bishop of Passau, raised the reckless and ill-disciplined bands +which spread terror through Alsace and Bohemia by their barbarities, +his soldiers only adopted the old traditions which were rooted in +German heathenism, and had lingered on through the whole of the middle +ages; nay, even the name, "<i>Passau art</i>," which has been +customary +since then, may rest on a misunderstanding of the people, for in the +sixteenth century all who bore charms about them to render them +invulnerable were called by the learned soldier, +"<i>Pessulanten</i>," or +"<i>Charakteristiker</i>," and whoever understood the art of +dissolving a +charm was a "<i>Solvent</i>." It is possible that the first +of +these popular +designations was changed into "<i>Passauer</i>."</p> + +<p>Even in the first year of the Thirty years' war, the art of rendering +invulnerable was eagerly discussed. A good account of it can be found +in 'The true narrative of the siege and capture by storm of the city of +Pilsen in Bohemia, 1619.' The passage according to our dialect is as +follows:</p> + +<p>"An adventurer under Mansfeld, called Hans Fabel, once took a +tumbler +of beer up to the city trenches and drank it to the besieged. They +saluted him with powder and shot; but he drank up his tumbler of beer, +thanked them, entered the trenches and took five balls from his bosom. +This '<i>Pilmiskind</i>,'<a name="div2_14" +href="#div2Ref_14"><sup>[14]</sup></a> although he was so invulnerable, +was taken +very sick, and died before the capture of the town. This magical art, +'Passau art,' has become quite common; one would sooner have shot at a +rock than at such a charmed fellow. I believe that the devil hides in +their skin. One good fellow indeed often charms another, even when the +person so charmed does not know it, and still less desires it. A small +boy from fourteen to fifteen years of age was shot in the arm when he +was beating the drum, but the ball rebounded from the arm to the left +breast, and did not penetrate; this was seen by many. But those who use +this magic come to a bad end; I have known many such lose their lives +in a terrible way, for one delusion struggles against another. Their +devilish sorcery is expressly against the first and other commandments +of God. Assiduous prayer and faith in God gives other means of support. +If any one in presence of the enemy perishes not, it is God's will. If +he is struck, the angels take him to heaven, but those who are charmed +are taken by Black Kaspar."<a name="div2_15" +href="#div2Ref_15"><sup>[15]</sup></a></p> + +<p>Numerous were the means employed by men to make themselves and others +invulnerable. Even this superstition was governed tyrannically by +fashion. Of very ancient date are the charmed shirts, and the Victory +and St. George's shirts; they were prepared in different ways for the +Landsknechte. On Christmas night, according to ancient tradition, +certain virgins used to spin linen thread in the name of the devil, +weave and stitch it; on the breast two heads were embroidered, the one +on the right side with a beard, and the left like that of king +Beelzebub, with a crown, dark reminiscences of the holy heads of Donar +and Wuotan. According to later custom the charmed shirt must be spun by +maidens under the age of seven; it was to be sewed with particular +cross stitches, laid secretly on the altar till three masses had been +read over it. On the day of battle such a charmed shirt was worn under +the dress, and if the wearer received a wound, it was owing to other +thread having been mixed with that which was charmed.</p> + +<p>Superstition gladly availed itself of the miraculous power of the +Christian Church, even when in opposition to law. The gospel of St. +John was written elaborately on thin paper and placed secretly under +the altar cover in a Roman Catholic church, and left there till the +priest had thrice read the mass over it; then it was placed in a quill +or the shell of a hazel nut, and the opening was cemented with Spanish +lac or wax, or this capsule was framed in gold or silver and hung round +the neck. Others received the host at the Lord's supper, accompanying +it with a silent invocation to the devil; taking the wafer out of their +mouths again, they separated the skin from the flesh in some part of +the body, placed the wafer there, and let the wound heal over it. The +most reckless gave themselves up entirely to the devil; such people +could not only make other men invulnerable, but even eatables, such as +butter, cheese, and fruit, so that the sharpest knife could not +penetrate them.<a name="div2_16" +href="#div2Ref_16"><sup>[16]</sup></a></p> + +<p>There was a change of form and name in the written parchments also +which contained charms.</p> + +<p>"<i>Pope Leo's blessing</i>" originated in the early +Landsknecht times; it +contained good Christian words and promises. Besides this there was the +"<i>Blessing of the Knight of Flanders</i>," so called +because +a knight who +had once worn it could not be beheaded; it was written in strange +characters and types interspersed with signs of the cross. Then there +was "<i>The benediction</i>," or charm in time of need, which +in a moment of +danger arrested the sword or gun of the enemy.<a name="div2_17" +href="#div2Ref_17"><sup>[17]</sup></a></p> + +<p>Similar were the "<i>Passau charms</i>" of the seventeenth +century, written +on post paper, virgin parchment, or the host, with a peculiar pen in +bat's blood; the superstition was in strange characters, wizard feet, +circles, crosses, and the letters of foreign languages; according to +Grimmelshausen<a name="div2_18" href="#div2Ref_18"><sup>[18]</sup></a> +the rhyme runs thus: Devil help me, body and soul +give I thee. When fastened under the left arm they expelled the shot +and closed the guns of the enemy. Sometimes even the charms were eaten. +But opinions concerning their efficacy were fluctuating. Some thought +them safeguards only for four-and-twenty hours; but according to others +their magic did not begin to work till after the first four-and-twenty +hours, and whoever was shot before that time belonged to the devil. +Other charms were also used for protection, everything odious and +dismal was collected together, and what had been fearful in the ancient +mythology continued to retain its old power. A piece of the cord or +chain by which a man had been hung, or the beard of a goat, the eyes of +a wolf, the head of a bat and the like, worn round the body in a purse +of black cat's skin, rendered a person invulnerable. Hair balls (a mass +of hair from the stomach of the chamois), and the caul in which +children are born, gave invulnerability; he who had never eaten kidneys +was secure from shot or pestilence, and it was believed at Augsburg, +that a famous knight and experienced General, Sebastian Schärtlin, had +thus protected himself before the enemy.</p> + +<p>Old magic herbs, as endive, verbena, St. John's wort, chickweed, +vervain, mallow, and garlick were used as charms, and the most powerful +of all, the deadly nightshade. It was necessary to dig them up with the +best new sharpened steel, and never to touch them with the bare hand, +least of all with the left, and they were carried like an <i>Agnus +Dei</i>. +They were circular, and only found on the battle-fields of great +battles, and were, as Zimmermann says, sacred for the sake of the dead. +Besides these there was a fire-coloured flower which Cabalists called +"Efdamanila;" it not only protected the wearer from shot, +stabs, and +fire, but when it was hung over the wall in a besieged town near the +enemy's cannon, they were spell-bound for a whole month.</p> + +<p>Amulet medals also were early in use: in 1555, at the battle of +Marienburg, between the Princes of Orange and Nevers, a little child +was struck on the neck by a shot, a silver medal was doubled up, and +the child remained unhurt; this great effect was then ascribed to an +amulet parchment which the child wore round his neck near the medal. +But about the same time the "Sideristen," who were +experienced +in +astronomical science, poured out heavenly influence in invulnerable +medals of silver and fine gold, which were worn round the neck. +Thurneisser spread also these kinds of amulets in Northern Germany. An +accidental circumstance brought the Mansfeld St. George's thaler into +repute in the Thirty years' war, especially those of 1611 and 1613, +bearing the inscription, "With God is counsel and action."</p> + +<p>Not only the common soldiers, but many great commanders also had the +repute of being invulnerable: not Pappenheim, indeed, who was wounded +in almost every action, but Holk, who was supposed at last to have been +carried away to hell by the devil in person; Tilly, for whom, after the +battle of Breitenfeld, the affrighted surgeon found he had only bruises +to dress; Wallenstein and his kinsman Terzka; even the sword of +Gustavus Adolphus was considered to be enchanted. Ahaz Willenger also, +leader after the death of Fardinger, of the revolted Austrian peasants, +was rendered so hard that a cannon-ball at seven paces rebounded from +his skin without penetrating it; he was at last killed by an officer of +Pappenheim. All the Princes of the house of Savoy were considered +invulnerable, even, after the Thirty years' war. Field-Marshal +Schauenburg tried it with Prince Thomas when he besieged him in an +Italian fortress; the bullets of the best marksmen missed their aim. No +one knew whether the members of that noble house had especial grace, +because they were of the race of the royal prophet David, or whether +the art of rendering themselves invulnerable was hereditary.</p> + +<p>There were hardly any who did not believe in the mystic art. The +renowned French General Messire Jacques de Puysegur, in the French +civil war in 1622, was obliged to compass the death of an opponent, +<i>qui avait un caractère</i>, by blows of a strong pole on his neck, +because he had no weapon that could kill him; he recounts this +circumstance to his King. At the blockade of Magdeburg in 1629, the +complaint against these practices became so general, that the parties +engaged in this war entered into negotiations concerning it. Gustavus +Adolphus, in his first article of war, earnestly forbade idolatry, +witchcraft, or the charming of weapons as sins against God.</p> + +<p>But the dark powers which the soldier invoked to his aid were +treacherous. They did not protect against everything; it was, to say +the least, very unsatisfactory that they did not preserve from the +hand of the executioner: Zimmermann relates many cases in which the +far-reaching hopes of an invulnerable person and his adherents were +disappointed at the place of execution. Certain portions of the body, +the neck, and the back between the shoulders, the armpits, and the +under part of the knee, were considered not hard or invulnerable. The +body also was only charmed against the common metals of lead or iron. +The simplest weapons of peasants, a wooden club, bullets of more +precious metals, and sometimes inherited silver could kill the +invulnerable. Thus an Austrian governor of Greifswald, on whom the +Swedes had fired more than twenty balls, could only be shot by the +inherited silver button that a soldier carried in his pocket. Thus too +a witch in Schleswig was changed into a were-wolf, and shot by +inherited silver.<a name="div2_19" +href="#div2Ref_19"><sup>[19]</sup></a> The magic also could be broken +by +other mixtures, +by cast balls, and by magically consecrated weapons. Rye bread which +had been leavened and baked on Easter night, was rubbed crosswise over +the edge of the steel, and signs were indelibly impressed on blades and +barrels: it was known how to cast balls which killed without injuring +the skin, others which must draw blood, and some which broke every +invulnerability; these were prepared by mixtures of pulverized grains +of corn, antimony, and thunder-stones, and cooled in poison. But these +arts were considered supernatural and dangerous. Besides these they +tried "natural" devices which might be resorted to with +advantage, even +by an honourable soldier. They imagined they could prepare gunpowder +with a mixture of pounded dogs' bones, which would make no report. +Powder was also prepared by which the person shot was only stunned for +hours; other powder that did not explode, even when glowing steel was +inserted. By a mixture of borax and quicksilver they produced a mining +powder by which the enemy's pieces were blown up, in case there was not +time to spike them. They sought after the secret of giving a man double +strength without magic.</p> + +<p>There was a peculiar and also very old kind of magic, which +spell-bound +the enemy by mystic sentences, which were recited in moments of danger. +The adept could fix whole troops of horsemen and infantry: in the same +way, by other sentences, they could dissolve the spell. There was still +another kind of sorcery; horsemen were made to appear on the field of +battle, that is to say, when support was required in imminent danger, +deceptive appearance was produced, as if soldiers were approaching in +the distance. Both these conjurations are relics of the heathen occult +sciences, the echoes of which may still be discovered in manifold tales +and traditions, even up to the present day.</p> + +<p>The gloomy provost was the man in the regiment who was held in the +most +awe; he was naturally considered as pre-eminently an adept. In 1618, it +was supposed that the executioner of Pilsen could, with the help of an +assistant, fire daily three fatal balls against the camp of Mansfeld; +after the capture of the city, he was hanged on a special gallows. The +provost of the Hatzfeld army of 1636 was still more versed in sorcery: +he was killed by the Swedes with an axe, because he was magically +hardened. It was very much in the interest of these authorities to keep +up amongst the revengeful soldiery the belief in their +invulnerability.</p> + +<p>We may add to these delusions, the endeavours of individuals to read +from the course of the stars the events and issue of the war, and their +own fate. Prognostics accumulated, the terrors of the approaching year +were unweariedly prophesied from constellations, shooting-stars, +comets, and other atmospheric phenomena; the casting of horoscopes was +general. Some individuals also possessed second sight, they foresaw to +whom the approaching future would be fatal. When in 1636 the Imperial +Saxon army was lying before Magdeburg, there was an invalid +mathematician in the camp who foretold to his friends that the 26th of +June would be fatal to him. He was lying in a closed tent when a +lieutenant rode up, and unloosening the tent cords, forced himself in +and begged the sick man to draw his nativity. After refusing a long +time, the invalid prophesied to him that he would be hanged that very +hour. The lieutenant, very indignant that any one should dare to say +such a thing to a cavalier, drew his sword and killed the sick man. +There immediately arose a great tumult, the murderer then threw himself +upon his horse and tried to escape; it happened however, accidentally, +that the Elector of Saxony was riding through the camp with General +Hatzfeld and a great retinue. The Elector exclaimed, that there would +be bad discipline in the Imperial camp if the life of a sick man in bed +could not be secured from murderers. The lieutenant was hanged.</p> + +<p>Whoever was considered the possessor of such secrets was feared by +his +comrades, but not esteemed. "For if they were not cowardly, +dastardly +ninnies, they would not use such charms." Certain officers in the +sixteenth century caused every prisoner to be hanged upon whom were +found jagged or iron-coated balls, "which were consecrated for the +sake +of a soul." In the Thirty years' war, a coward begged of his +comrade a +Passau parchment, who wrote on a strip of paper three times: +"Defend +yourself, scoundrel," folded it up and made the dastard sew it in +his +clothes. From that day every one imagined that he was invulnerable, and +he went about on all occasions amongst the enemies' weapons, as hard as +horn, like a <i>Siegfried</i>, and always came out unwounded.</p> + +<p>But the soldier had not only to win the favour of the Fates, but +still +more the approbation of his comrades. Whoever carefully examines this +period, without ceasing to view with horror the numerous and refined +atrocities which were practised, will at the same time perceive that +this scene of barbarity was occasionally brightened by milder virtues, +and sometimes healthy integrity comes to light. A peculiar code of +soldier's honour was soon formed, which preserved a kind of morality, +though a lax one. We have but few records of the good humour which +arose from consciousness of having the mastery over citizen and +peasant. But the proverbial modes of speech often bear sufficiently the +impress of the same disposition which is idealized in Schiller's +"Reiterlied." "The sharp sabre is my field, and booty +making is my +plough." "The earth is my bed, heaven my canopy, my cloak is +my house, +and wine my eternal life."<a name="div2_20" +href="#div2Ref_20"><sup>[20]</sup></a> "As soon as a soldier is +born, three +peasants are selected for him; the first provides for him, the second +finds him a beautiful wife, and the third goes to hell for him."<a +name="div2_21" href="#div2Ref_21"><sup>[21]</sup></a></p> + +<p>We have reason to suppose that sensuality was in general unbridled +and +shameless; the old German vice, drunkenness, prevailed as much amongst +the officers as soldiers. The smoking and chewing tobacco, or as it was +then called, "tobacco drinking"--"eating and +snuffing," spread rapidly +through all the armies, and the guard-room was a disagreeable abode for +those who did not smoke. This custom, which at the beginning of the war +was introduced into the army by the Dutch and English auxiliaries, was +at the end of it so common, that a pipe was to be found in every +peasant's house, and nine out of ten of the day labourers and +apprentices smoked during their work.</p> + +<p>The German language also was jargonized in the army; it soon became +the +fashion among the soldiers to intermix Italian and French words, and +the language was enriched even by Hungarian, Croat, and Czech: they +have left us besides their "<i>karbatsche</i>" and similar +words, and also +sonorous curses. Not only was their discourse garnished with these +strong expressions, but gipsy cant became the common property of the +army. It did not indeed begin in the great war, for long before, the +Landsknechte, as "Gartbrüder" and members of the beggars' +guild, had +learned their arts and language. But now the camp language was not only +a convenient help to secret intercourse with the bad rabble who +followed the army, with guild robbers, Jewish dealers and gipsies, but +it also gave a certain degree of consideration round the camp fire to +be able to bandy mysterious words. Some expressions from the camp +language passed among the people, others were carried by runaway +students into the drinking-rooms of the universities.<a name="div2_22" +href="#div2Ref_22"><sup>[22]</sup></a></p> + +<p>The daily quarrels gave rise amongst the common soldiers also to the +cartel, or duels regulated by many points of honour. Duels were +strictly forbidden; Gustavus Adolphus punished them with death even +among the higher officers; but no law could suppress them. The +duellists fought alone, or with two or three seconds, or an umpire was +selected: before the combat the seconds vowed to one another and gave +their hands upon it, not to help the combatants, either before, in, or +after the encounter, nor to revenge them; the duellists shook hands and +exchanged forgiveness beforehand, in case of the death of either. They +fought on horseback or on foot, with carbines, pistols, or swords; in +the fight, a throw in wrestling or unhorsing was sufficient; stabbing +was considered un-German, above all a thrust in the back was of +doubtful propriety.<a name="div2_23" +href="#div2Ref_23"><sup>[23]</sup></a></p> + +<p>As it was so usual to change parties, a corporation feeling was +formed +amongst the soldiers which also embraced the enemy. The armies had a +tolerably accurate knowledge of each other, and not only the character +of the upper officers, but of old soldiers was known; any day an old +comrade might be seen in the enemy's ranks, or installed as a tent +companion to a former adversary. Indeed, quarter was often proffered: +but any one who fought against the customs of war, or was suspected of +using devilish acts, was to be killed even if he sued for pardon. +Cartels were concluded between the courteous conquerors and the +vanquished, the conquerors promised to protect, and the prisoners not +to escape; the weapons, scarfs, and plumes were taken away from the +vanquished; all that he concealed in his clothes belonged to the +conqueror, but he who got Dutch quarter, kept what was enclosed in his +girdle; a courteous prisoner himself presented what he had in his +pockets. If a desperate man did not stand by his conditions of quarter, +he was killed, if he did not rapidly escape. During the transport they +were coupled by the arm, and the string taken from their hose, so that +they were obliged to hold their small-clothes with the hand that was +free. The prisoners could be ransomed, and this ransom was fixed by +tariff in each army. Towards the conclusion of the war, when soldiers +became scarce, the common prisoners were summarily placed in the +regiments without giving them a choice. Such soldiers were naturally +not to be depended on; they gladly took the first opportunity to desert +to their former colours, where they had left their women, children, +booty, and arrears of pay. Distinguished prisoners were sometimes +bought from the common soldiers by the colonels of their regiments; +they were treated with great consideration in the enemy's quarters, and +almost every one found there either an acquaintance or a relative.</p> + +<p>Booty was the uncertain gain for which the soldier staked his life, +and +the hope of it kept him steadfast in the most desperate situations. The +pay was moderate, the payment insecure; plunder promised them wine, +play, a smart mistress, a gold-laced dress with a plume of feathers, +one or two horses, and the prospect of greater importance in the +company and of advancement. Vanity, love of pleasure, and ambition, +developed this longing to a dangerous extent in the army.</p> + +<p>The success of a battle was more than once defeated, by the soldiers +too soon abandoning themselves to plundering. It often happened that +individuals made great booty, but it was almost always dissipated in +wild revelry; according to the soldier's adage: "What is won with +the +drum will be lost with the fifes." The fame of such lucky hits +spread +through all armies. Sometimes these great gains brought evil results on +the fortunate finders.<a name="div2_24" +href="#div2Ref_24"><sup>[24]</sup></a> A common soldier of Tilly's army +had won +great booty at the capture of Magdeburg, it was said to be thirty +thousand ducats, and was immediately lost in gambling. Tilly caused him +to be hanged after thus accosting him: "With this money you might +have +lived all your life like a gentleman, but as you have not understood +how to make use of it, I cannot see of what use you can be to my +Emperor." At the end of the war a man in Königsmark's troop had +obtained a similar sum in the suburbs of Prague, and played it away at +one sitting. Königsmark wished in like manner to despatch him, but the +soldier saved himself by this undaunted answer: "It would be +unfair +for +your Excellence to hang me on account of this loss, as I have hopes of +acquiring still greater booty in the city itself." This answer was +considered a good omen. In the Bavarian army a soldier in the Holtz +infantry was famed for a similar lucky hit. He had been for a long time +musketeer, but shortly before the peace had sunk to be a pikeman, and +was ill-clad; his shirt hung behind and before out of his hose. This +fellow had obtained at the taking of Herbsthausen a barrel filled with +French doubloons, so large that he could hardly carry it off. He +thereupon absconded secretly from the regiment, dressed himself up like +a prince, bought a coach and six beautiful horses, kept many coachmen, +lackeys, pages, and <i>valets de chambre</i> in fine liveries, and +called +himself with dull humour Colonel Lumpus.<a name="div2_25" +href="#div2Ref_25"><sup>[25]</sup></a> Then he travelled to +Munich, and lived in an inn there splendidly. General Holtz +accidentally put up at the same inn, heard much from the landlord of +the opulence and qualities of Colonel Lumpus, and could not remember +ever having heard this name among the cavaliers of the Roman empire, or +among the soldiers of fortune. He therefore commissioned the landlord +to invite the stranger to supper. Colonel Lumpus accepted the +invitation, and caused to be served up at dessert, in a dish, five +hundred new French pistoles and a chain worth a hundred ducats, and +said at the same time to the General: "May your Excellence be +content +with this entertainment and think thereby favourably of me." The +General made some resistance, but the liberal colonel pressed it upon +him with these words: "The time will soon come when your Excellence +will acknowledge that I am wise in making this gift. The donation is +not ill applied, for I hope then to receive from your Excellence a +favour which will not cost a penny." On this, Holtz, according to +the +custom of that time, accepted the chain and money with courteous +promises to repay it under such circumstances. The General departed, +and the fictitious colonel lived on there; when he passed by the guard, +and the soldiers presented arms to do him honour, he threw to them a +dozen thalers. Six weeks after, his money came to an end. Then he sold +his coaches and horses, afterwards his clothes and linen, and spent all +in drinking. His servants ran away from him, and at last nothing +remained to him but a bad dress and a few pence. Then the landlord, who +had made much by him, presented him with fifty thalers for travelling, +but the colonel tarried till he had spent it all; again the host gave +him ten thalers for travelling expenses, but the persevering reveller +answered that if it was money to be spent, he would rather spend it +with him than another. When that also was dissipated, the landlord +offered him another five thalers, but forbade his servants to let the +spendthrift have anything. At last he quitted the inn and went to the +next one, where he spent his five thalers in beer. After that he +wandered away to his regiment at Heilbronn. There he was immediately +confined in irons, and threatened with the gallows, because he had been +away so many weeks. He insisted on being taken before his General, +presented himself to him, and reminded him of the evening at the inn. +To the sharp rebuke of the General he answered that he had all his life +wished for nothing so much as to know what were the feelings of a great +lord, and for that he had used his booty.</p> + +<p>In the Hungarian war it was made a law, that the booty should be +equally distributed, but that soon ceased. Still those who were +fortunate enough to make great gains, found it advisable to give a +share to the officers of their company. This common interest in the +booty, as well as the necessity of maintaining themselves by +requisition, in remote countries, developed in great perfection +partisan service. There were not only whole divisions of troops, which +performed in the armies the service of marauding corps, as for example +those of Holk and Isolani in the Imperial, but there were also +individual leaders of companies, who selected the most expert people +for this lucrative employment. A marauding party, departing on a secret +expedition, must consist of an uneven number to bring good luck. These +parties stole far into the country to plunder a rich man, to fall upon +a small city, or intercept transports of goods or money, and to bring +away with them cattle and provisions. There was often an agreement made +with the enemy's garrisons in the neighbourhood, as to what was to be +spared in the districts common to them. Every kind of cunning was +practised in such expeditions; they knew now to imitate the report of +heavy artillery, by firing a hand-gun, doubly loaded, through an empty +barrel; they used shoes with reversed soles, and caused the horses to +be shod in the same manner, the feet of stolen cattle were covered with +shoes, and a sponge was put in the pigs' food to which a packthread was +fastened. The soldiers disguised themselves as peasants or women, and +paid spies amongst the citizens and country people of the +neighbourhood. Their messengers ran hither and thither with despatches, +and were called in camp language "<i>feldtauben</i>" (field +doves); they +carried these despatches in their ears rolled up as small balls, +fastened them in the hair of shaggy dogs, enclosed them in a clod of +earth, or sewed them with green silk between the leaves of a branch of +oak, that they might be able to throw them away, without suspicion, in +time of danger.<a name="div2_26" href="#div2Ref_26"><sup>[26]</sup></a> +These despatches were written in gipsy language or +gibberish, in foreign characters, and if there were runaway students in +the companies, they were written perhaps in French with Greek letters; +they employed, for these purpose, a simple kind of short-hand writing, +displacing the letters of the words, or agreeing that only the middle +letter of the words should have signification.<a name="div2_27" +href="#div2Ref_27"><sup>[27]</sup></a> The transition from +such partisan service to becoming dishonourable marauders and +freebooters was easy. In the beginning of the war, the newly raised +regiment of Count Merode was so reduced by long marches and bad +nourishment, that it could hardly set its guard; it dissolved almost +entirely, on the march, into stragglers, who lay under the hedges and +in the byways, or sneaking about the army with defective weapons, and +without order. After that time, the stragglers, whom the soldier wits +had before called "<i>sausänger</i>" and +"<i>immenschneider</i>" (drones), were +now denoted as "Merode-ing brothers." After a lost battle +their +numbers increased enormously. Horsemen who were slightly wounded, and +had lost their horses, associated themselves with them, and it was +impossible, from the then state of military discipline, to get rid of +them.</p> + +<p>The most undisciplined, abandoned the route of the army, and lived as +highwaymen, footpads, and poachers. Vain were the endeavours of the +sovereigns, at the end of the war, to annihilate the great robber +bands; they lasted, to a certain extent, up to the beginning of the +present century.</p> + +<p>Such was the character of the war which raged in Germany for thirty +years. An age of blood, murder, and fire, of utter destruction to all +property which was movable, and ruin to that which was not; and an age +of spiritual and material decay in the nation. The Generals imposed +exorbitant contributions, and kept part in their own pockets. The +colonels and captains levied charges on the cities and towns in which +their troops were quartered, and merciless were the demands on all +sides. The princes sent their plate and stud horses as presents to the +Generals, and the cities sent sums of money and casks of wine to the +captains, and the villages, riding horses and gold lace to the cornets +and sergeant-majors, as long as such bribery was possible. When an army +was encamped in a district, any landed proprietors of importance, +monasteries, and villages, endeavoured to obtain the protection of a +"<i>salva guardia</i>." They had to pay dear for this guard, +yet had to bear +with much unseemly conduct from them. If a place lay between two +armies, both parties had to be asked for <i>salva guardia</i>, and both +guards lived by agreement in peaceful intercourse at the expense of +their host. But it was seldom that either individuals or communities +were so fortunate as to be able to preserve even this unsatisfactory +protection; for it was necessary for the army to live. When a troop of +soldiers entered a village or country town, the soldiers rushed like +devils into the houses; wherever the dung-heaps<a name="div2_28" +href="#div2Ref_28"><sup>[28]</sup></a> were the largest, +there the greatest wealth was to be expected. The object of the +tortures to which the inhabitants were subjected, was generally to +extort from them their hidden property; they were distinguished by +especial names, as the "Swedish fleece," and the +"wheel." The +plunderers took the flints from the pistols and forced the peasants' +thumbs in their place; they rubbed the soles of their feet with salt, +and caused goats to lick them; they tied their hands behind their +backs; they passed a bodkin threaded with horse-hair through their +tongues, and moved it gently up and down; they bound a knotted cord +round the forehead and twisted it together behind with a stick; they +bound two fingers together, and rubbed a ramrod up and down till the +skin and flesh were burnt to the bone; they forced the victims into the +oven, lit the straw behind them, and so they were obliged to creep +through the flames. Ragamuffins were everywhere to be found who +bargained with the soldiers, to betray their own neighbours. And these +were not the most horrible torments. What was done to the women and +maidens, to the old women and children, must be passed over in +silence.</p> + +<p>Thus did the army misbehave amongst the people, dishonouring every +bed, +robbing every house, devastating every field, till they were themselves +involved in the general ruin. And the destruction of these thirty years +increased progressively. It was the years from 1635 to 1641 which +annihilated the last powers of the nation; from that period to the +peace, a death-like lassitude pervaded the country; it communicated +itself to the armies, and one can easily understand that the bitter +misery of the soldiers called for some consideration for the citizens +and peasants. The remaining population were once more reduced to +despair, as they had to pay the cost, maintenance, and peace subsidies +for the standing army. And the army dispersed itself amongst the +population. + +<br /> +</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> +<div class="chapter"> +<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2> +</div> +<h3>THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.--THE VILLAGES AND +THEIR PASTORS.</h3> + +<div class="poem"> +<p>Oft have the soldier's sword<br /> +And jeering Croat horde,<br /> +With usage rude and fierce,<br /> +Threaten'd my heart to pierce.<br /> +Yet I drew unhurt my breath,<br /> +No mishap could bring me death.</p> + +<p>In water, 'gainst my will,<br /> +Plunged deep, I far'd but ill;<br /> +Closed in a wat'ry grave,<br /> +God deign'd my life to save;<br /> +Wond'rous 'tis I was not drown'd;<br /> +Brought to land all safe and sound.</p> + +<p>Into my mouth once or more,<br /> +As 'twere a tub, they did pour<br /> +A mess of liquid dung;<br /> +Four churls, cords round me strung;<br /> +Yet I drew unhurt my breath,<br /> +No mishap could bring me death.</p> + +<p>One of an exile band,<br /> +There in Thuringia's land<br /> +At Notleben, I dwelt,<br /> +Till I God's blessing felt,<br /> +And to Heubach's parsonage pass'd<br /> +Where kind Heaven sent peace at last.</p> + +<p>God's servant, here have I<br /> +The church kept orderly,<br /> +Have preach'd the word therein,<br /> +The bad expell'd, of sin<br /> +Absolv'd the penitent heart,<br /> +And labour'd truth to impart.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>From 'Four +Christian Hymns of Martin +Bötzinger</i>.' (1663.)</p> +</div> + +<p class="normal">Whoever could portray the desolation of +the German +people, would be +able to explain to us the striking peculiarities of the modern German +character; the remarkable mixture of fresh youth and hoary wisdom, +aspiring enthusiasm, and vacillating caution; but above all, why we, +among all the nations of Europe, still strive in vain after much which +our neighbours, not more noble by nature, not more strongly organized, +not more highly gifted, have long secured to themselves.</p> + +<p>The following documents will only furnish an unimportant contribution +to such an explanation. Individual examples will render the ruin of the +village and city communities comprehensible, and what counteracting +power there was, together with the destroying power which supported the +remaining vitality, and prevented the final annihilation of the +nation.</p> + +<p>From these we shall see thoroughly the condition of one particular +province, which suffered severely from the miseries of war, but not +more than most other parts of Germany, not indeed so much as the +Margravate of Brandenburg and many territories of Lower Saxony and +Suabia. It is the Thuringian and Franconian side of the +"Waldgebirge," +which formed, in the middle of Germany, the boundary between the north +and south; more especially the present Dukedoms of Gotha and Meiningen. +The following details are taken from the church documents and parish +records, and many, from the voluminous church and school stories which +were published by clerical collectors in the former century.</p> + +<p>Germany was supposed to be a rich country in the year 1618. Even the +peasants had acquired during the long peace a certain degree of +opulence. The number of villages in Franconia and Thuringia was +somewhat greater than now; they were not entirely without defences, and +were often surrounded by broad ditches and palisades, or clay and stone +walls; it was forbidden to form entrances in them, but at the end of +the main streets were gates which were closed at night The churchyard +was usually defended by particularly strong walls, and more than once +it was used as the citadel and last refuge of the inhabitants. There +were night and day patroles through the villages and fields. The houses +were indeed ill formed and only of wood and clay, often crowded +together in narrow village streets, but they were not deficient in +comfort and household furniture. The villages were surrounded by +orchards, and many fountains poured their clear waters into stone +basins. Small poultry fluttered about the dung-heaps in the enclosed +courtyards, immense troops of geese fed in the stubble fields, teams of +horses stood in the stables, far more numerous than now, probably of a +larger and stronger stamp; they were rustic descendants of the old +knightly chargers, the pride and joy of their owners; and besides these +were the "Kleppers," the small and ancient race of the +country. The +large parish herds of sheep and cattle grazed on the stony heights and +on the rich grass marshes. The wool fetched a high price, and in many +places much value was attached to a fine breed; the German cloths were +famed, and these were the best articles of export. This national wool, +the result of a thousand years of cultivation, was entirely lost to +Germany during the war. The district round the village (where the old +Franconian divisions of long strips were not maintained) was divided +into three fields, which were much subdivided, and each division +carefully stoned off. The fields were highly cultivated, and fine +grained white wheat was sown in the winter fields. Woad was still +zealously cultivated with great advantage in the north of the +Rennstiegs. Although even before the war the foreign indigo competed +with the indigenous dye, the yearly gain from the woad in Thuringia +could be computed at three tons of gold; this was principally in the +territory of Erfurt and the Dukedom of Gotha; besides this, anise and +saffron produced much money; the cultivation of the teazel also was +formerly indigenous, and the wild turnips, and (by the Rhine) the rape +seed were sowed in the fellows. Flax was carefully prepared by steeping +it in water, and the coloured flowers of the poppies, and the waving +panicle of the millet, raised themselves in the corn-fields. But on the +declivities of warmer situations in Thuringia and Franconia there were +everywhere vineyards, and this old cultivation, which has now almost +disappeared in those countries, must in favourable years have produced +a very drinkable wine, as now on the lower range of the Waldgebirge; +for the wine of particular years is noted in the chronicles as most +excellent. Hops also were assiduously cultivated and made good beer. +Everywhere they grew fodder, and spurry and horse-beans. The meadows, +highly prized, and generally fenced in, were more carefully handled +than two hundred years later; the mole-heaps were scattered, and the +introduction and maintenance of drains and watercourses was general. +Erfurt was already the centre of the great seed traffic, of garden +cultivation, also of flowers and fine orchards. On the whole, when we +compare one time with the other, the agriculture of 1618 was not +inferior to that of 1818. It must be confessed in other respects also, +our century has but restored what was lost in 1618.</p> + +<p>The burdens which the peasants had to bear both in service and taxes, +were not small, and greatest of all on the properties of the nobles; +but there were many free villages in that country, and the government +of the rulers was less strict than in Southern Franconia or in Hesse. +Many ecclesiastical properties had been broken up; many domains, and +not a few of the nobles' estates, were farmed by tenants; leases were a +favourite method of raising the rent of the ground. All this was for +the advantage of the peasant. The damage done by game indeed occasioned +great suffering, and there still continued much of the old bond-service +on the property of the impoverished nobles. But the greater part of the +country people were pronounced by lawyers, newly educated in the Roman +law, to be possessors of their property; it was the greatest blessing +bestowed by Roman law on the Germans in the sixteenth century. It is an +error to suppose that the bureaucratic rule is a production of modern +days; it already prevailed in those times, and the villages had often +to pay the small travelling expenses of the ducal messenger who brought +them their letters. It was already decided by superintending officials +how many fire buckets every one was to procure, and how many doves were +to be kept; they saw to the clearing of the fruit trees from +caterpillars, the cleansing of the ditches, and the annual planting of +young trees. The parish accounts had for nearly a hundred years been +kept in an orderly manner, and inspected by the government of the +country, as also the district certificates and registers of birth. +There was also a good deal of commercial intercourse. A large +commercial road passed through Thuringia, in a line almost parallel +with the mountains, from the Elbe to the Rhine and Maine; and from the +descent of the mountains near to the Werra, lay the military road which +united the north of Germany with the south. The traffic on these +unconstructed roads demanded numerous relays of horses, and brought to +the villages gain, and news from the distant world, and many +opportunities of spending money.</p> + +<p>After the Reformation there were schools, at least in all the +villages +where there was a church; the teachers were often divines, and +sometimes there were schoolmistresses for the girls. Small sums were +paid for the schooling, and a portion of the inhabitants of the village +were initiated into the secrets of reading and writing. The difference +between the countryman and the citizen was then still greater than now. +The "stupid peasant" was the favourite object of ridicule in +the rooms +of the artisans, who attributed to him, as characteristic qualities, +roughness, simplicity, disingenuous cunning, drunkenness, and love of +fighting. But however retired his life then was, and poor in varied +impressions, we should do him great injustice if we considered him +essentially weaker or less worthy than he is now; on the contrary, his +independence was not less, and was frequently better established. His +ignorance of foreign states was undoubtedly greater, for there were as +yet no regular gazettes or local papers for him, and he himself +generally did not wander farther than to the nearest town, where he +sold his products, or occasionally over the mountain when he had to +drive cows; or if a Thuringian, to go to the woad market at Erfurt, if +a Franconian, perhaps to Bamberg with his hops. Also in dress, +language, and songs, he was not fashionable like the citizens; he +preferred using old strong words, which they considered coarse; he +swore and cursed after the ancient style, and his ceremonial of +greeting was different from theirs, though not less precise. But his +life was not on that account deficient in spirit, morals, or even in +poetry. The German popular songs were still vigorous, and the +countryman was the most zealous preserver of them; the peasant's +feasts, his domestic life, his lawsuits, his purchases and sales, were +rich in old picturesque customs and proverbs. The genuine German +pleasure also in beautiful specimens of handicraft, in clean and +artistic heir-looms, was then shared alike by the countryman and +citizen. His household gear was superior to what it is now. Ornamental +spinning-wheels, which still pass for a new invention, neatly carved +tables, carved chairs and cupboards, have in some instances been +preserved to our times, with the earthenware apostle jugs, and similar +drinking-vessels, which may be bought by art collectors. Great were the +treasures of the countrywomen in beds, linen, clothes, chains, medals, +and other ornaments, and not less worthy of note were the numerous +sausages and hams in the chimneys. A great deal of ready money lay +concealed in the corners of chests, or carefully buried in pots or +other vessels, for the collection of bright coins was an old pleasure +to the peasantry; there had been peace as long as they could remember, +and woad and hops brought a high price. The peasant had abundance, and +was without many wants; he bought lace in the city for his clothes, and +silver ornaments for his wife and daughters, spices for his sour wine, +and whatever metal utensils and implements were necessary for his farm +and kitchen. All the woollen and linen clothes were wove and made up by +the women of the house, or the neighbour in the village.</p> + +<p>Thus did the peasant live in middle Germany, even after the year +1618. +He heard in the ale-houses on Sunday of the war alarms in Bohemia, +about which he cared little; he bought indeed a flying-sheet of a +crafty dealer, or a satirical song on the outcast King of Bohemia; he +gave some of his bread and cheese to a fugitive from Prague or Budweis, +who came begging to his door, and shook his head as he listened to his +tale of horror. An official messenger brought into the village an order +from the sovereign, from which he found it was expected of him to +deliver into the city, money and provision for the newly raised +soldiers; he was indignant, and hastened to bury his treasures still +deeper. It soon, however, became clear that bad times were approaching +him also, for the money which he received in the town was very red, and +all goods were dear; thus he was involved in the wretched confusion +which after 1620 was brought upon the country by the coinage of bad +gold. He went no longer to the city, but kept his corn and meat at +home: he had constant disputes however with the townsmen and his +neighbours, because he wished to rid himself of the new gold in his own +payments, whilst he would receive only the good old money: his heart +was full of ominous forebodings. Thus it went on till the year 1623. He +then saw evil coming in another quarter; theft and burglary increased, +foreign vagabonds were often seen on the high-roads, trumpeters rushed +into the towns with bad news, hired soldiers, insolent and bragging, +drew up before his farm demanding entertainment, stole sausages, and +carried off his poultry in their knapsacks. <i>Defensioners</i>, the +newly +raised country militia, galloped into the village, quartered themselves +upon him, demanded provisions, and molested him more than the rogues +whom they were to drive away from the cattle-sheds.</p> + +<p>At last began--in Thuringia not till after 1623--the passage, of +foreign troops through his country, and the great sufferings of the war +fell upon him; foreign soldiers of strange appearance, reckless from +blood and battle, marched into his village, occupied his house and bed, +ill treated him and his, demanded provisions and other contributions +besides gifts, and broke, destroyed, or plundered whatever came before +their eyes. Thus it went on after 1626, worse and worse every year, +troop followed upon troop, more than one army settled itself round him +in winter quarters, the requisitions and vexations appeared endless. +The yeoman saw with dismay that the foreign soldier had the power of +tracing--which he ascribed to sorcery--the treasures which he had +concealed deep in the earth; but if he had been too sly for them, his +fate was still worse, for he himself was seized, and by torments which +it would be painful to describe, compelled to make known the place +where his treasure was concealed. On the fate of his wife and daughter +we must remain silent; the most horrible was so common, that an +exception, was extraordinary. Other sufferings also followed; his +daughters, maid-servant, and his little children were not only +maltreated, but were in imminent danger of being carried off by +persuasion or force, for every army was followed by the coarse, +worthless baggage-train of women and children. But the yeoman's +homestead was devastated in still other ways; his farming-man had +perhaps borne for some years the blows of the foreign soldiers, at last +he himself was exposed to them; the team was dragged from the plough, +the cattle were fetched from the meadow, and the tillage of the fields +thus often rendered impossible. Yet pitiful and helpless as was his +position in the beginning of the war, up to the death of Gustavus +Adolphus, its horrors were comparatively bearable; for there was as yet +a certain system even in plundering and destruction, some degree of +discipline kept together the regular armies, and an occasional year +passed without any great passage of troops. It is possible for us to +discover at this time how many exactions were made on particular +parishes, for there were already country authorities who sat in their +offices, and after the passage of troops through a parish, demanded the +usual liquidation of their loans, the amount of which was indeed seldom +returned to them. Whoever will glance over the liquidations in the +parish archives, will find the names of ill-famed commanders, whom he +may know from history or Schiller's Wallenstein, in very near +connection with the history of a Thuringian village.</p> + +<p>The effect produced by such a life of insecurity and torment on the +souls of the country people, was very sad. Fear, trembling, and dread +pervaded and enervated all hearts: their minds had always been full of +superstition, now everything was sought for, with impulsive credulity, +which could be significant of the attacks of supernatural powers. The +most horrible countenances were seen in the heavens, the signs of +fearful wickedness were discovered in numerous abortions, ghosts +appeared, mysterious sounds were heard on earth and in the heavens. In +Ummerstadt for example, in the dukedom of Hildburghausen, white crosses +illuminated the heavens when the enemy entered; when they forced their +way into the court of chancery, a spirit clothed in white met them and +motioned them back, and no one could advance; after their departure, a +violent breathing and sighing was heard for eight days in the choir of +the church which had been burnt. At Gumpershausen a maid-servant made a +great sensation through the whole country; she rejoiced in the visits +of a little angel, who appeared, sometimes in a blue, sometimes in a +red shirt sitting on the bed or by the table, cried out +"Woe," +warned +against cursing and blasphemy, and predicted horrible bloodshed if men +would not give up their vices, their pride, and their stiff blue +ruffs,--then a new fashion. When we look at the zealous protocols which +were drawn up by the ecclesiastics concerning the half-witted maiden, +we find that the only circumstance which was matter of surprise to +them, was that the angel did not visit themselves instead of a simple +maiden.</p> + +<p>Not only terror, but a spirit of defiance and wild despair possessed +all souls. A moral recklessness prevailed fearfully among the country +people. Wives abandoned their husbands, children their parents; the +customs, vices, and maladies of the passing armies left lasting traces, +even when the pillagers had quitted the desolated and half-ruined +villages. The brandy drinking, which had been introduced among the +people since the Peasant war, became a general vice; respect for the +property of others disappeared. In the beginning of the war the +neighbouring villages were disposed to help one another; if the +soldiers had driven away the cattle from one village, and disposed of +them again at their next night-quarters, the buyers often returned +their new purchase to the former proprietors at the purchase price. +This was done in Franconia, by both Catholic and Protestant +communities, out of pure kindness. Gradually, however, the country +people began to rob and plunder like the soldiers; armed bands combined +together, passed the frontiers into other villages, and carried off +whatever they needed. They waylaid the stragglers of the regiments in +dense woods or mountain passes, and often after a severe struggle took +a bloody revenge on the vanquished; indeed, they far surpassed the +skill of the soldiers in the contrivance of barbarities; and there were +wooded hills, in whose shades the most horrible crimes were now +committed by those who had formerly frequented them as peaceful +wood-cutters and stone-breakers, singing their simple songs. There +arose gradually a terrible hatred betwixt the soldiery and peasantry, +which lasted till the end of the war, and caused more than anything +else the ruin of the villages of Germany. There were feuds also between +the provinces and individual towns; that which is related here was only +a harmless one of that gloomy time.</p> + +<p>A violent enmity subsisted for many years after the war between the +citizens of Eisfeld and the monastery of Banz, on account of the two +fine-toned bells of their parish church, the "<i>Banzer</i>" +and the +"<i>Messe</i>." A Swedish officer had carried off both bells +from Banz and +sold them to the town. Twice, when the Catholic army was stationed at +Eisfeld, the monks had come with waggons and ropes to fetch back their +bells, but the first time they fell into a quarrel with a certain Croat +who was quartered there, because they wished to take away with them the +steeple clock. The Croat rushed upon the pious men with his sword, and +he and his comrades ran up the tower and vehemently pulled the bell, so +that the monks of Banz could not fetch it down, and were only able to +take away the clock with them. The second time they did not succeed +better; at last, after the peace, another bell was offered to them as +compensation. But when they discovered this sentence upon it: +"Preserve +us, Lord, by thy word," they returned to their house shaking their +heads. At last the pious Duke Ernest arranged the affair; he took for +himself as a thank-offering the small bell, and hung it on the +Friedenstein in Gotha.</p> + +<p>The villages did all in their power to defend themselves from the +rapacity of the soldiers. As long as they had money, they endeavoured +to buy off the officers who were sent forward to seek for quarters, and +many rogues took advantage of their fears, and appearing under the +disguise of quartermasters, levied heavy contributions on the deluded +villagers. Watchmen were placed on the church towers and elevations of +the plain, who gave signals if troops were visible in the distance. +Then the countryman brought whatever he could save, and the women and +children their movable chattels, hasting to some distant place of +concealment. These hiding-places were selected with great sagacity; by +a little additional labour they were made still more inaccessible, and +for weeks, indeed months, the fugitives passed their anxious existence +there. On the dark moor, midst ditches, rushes and elders, in the deep +shade of woody glens, in old clay-pits, and amid the ruins of decaying +walls, did they seek their last refuge. The countryman in many places +still shows with emotion such spots. There is a large vault with an +iron door in an old tower at Aspach, whither the Aspachers fled +whenever small bands of soldiers approached the village; for a more +distant refuge they had a field of many acres, overgrown with thick +hornbeam, and there they planted thorns which from the fertility of the +soil grew into large trees and became like a thick wall. Within this +barricade, which could only be attained by creeping on the belly, the +villagers often concealed themselves. After the war the thorns were +rooted up, and the land changed into hop, and afterwards cabbage +grounds. But a portion of this land is still called the +"Schutzdorn," +"thorn-defence." When the soldiers had withdrawn, the +fugitives +returned and repaired with their scanty means what had been laid waste. +Often, indeed, they found only a smoking pile.</p> + +<p>All however who fled did not return. The more wealthy sought a refuge +for themselves and their property in the cities, where martial +discipline was a little more rigorous, and the danger less. Many also +fled into another country, and if they were threatened by enemies +there, again into another; and most of them assuredly had not less +misery to suffer there. Those who remained in the country did not all +return to their own fields. The wild life in hiding-places and woods, +the rough pleasure in deeds of violence and pillage, turned the boldest +of them into robbers; provided with rusty weapons, which they had +perhaps taken from some dead marauder, they carried on a lawless life +under the mountain pines, as companions of wolves and crows, as +poachers and highwaymen.</p> + +<p>Thus did the population of the plains decrease with frightful +rapidity. +Even in the time of the King of Sweden many villages were entirely +abandoned, the beasts of the woods roamed about among the blackened +rafters, and perhaps the tattered figure of some old beldame or cripple +might be seen. From that time ruin increased to such an extent, that +nothing like it can be found in modern history. To the destructive +demons of the sword were added others, not less fearful and still more +voracious. The land was little cultivated and the harvest was bad. An +unheard-of rise in prices ensued, famine followed, and in the years +1635 and 1636 a pestilence attacked the enfeebled population, more +terrible than had raged for more than a century in Germany. It spread +its pall slowly over the whole of Germany, over the soldier as well as +over the peasant, armies were dissipated under its parching breath, +many places lost half their inhabitants, and in some villages in +Franconia and Thuringia there remained only a few individuals. The +little strength which had remained in one corner of the land was now +broken. The war raged on still twelve long years after this time of +horror, but it had become weaker, the armies were smaller, the +operations without plan or stability, from the want of provisions and +animals, but where the fury of war still blazed, it devoured +mercilessly what remained of life. The people reached the lowest depths +of misfortune; a dull apathetic brooding became general. Of the country +people of this last period there is little to be told; they vegetated, +reckless and hopeless, but few accounts of them are to be found in +village records, parish books, and small chronicles. They had forgotten +in the villages the art of writing, nay even their crying grievances. +Where an army had carried devastation and famine raged, men and dogs +ate of the same corpse, and children were caught and slaughtered. A +time had now come when those who had held out during twenty years of +suffering, laid violent hands on themselves; we read this in the +accounts of ambassadors, who for years worked in vain for peace.</p> + +<p>It may be asked how, after such sufferings and utter ruin, the +survivors could still form a German nation, who at the conclusion of +peace could again cultivate the country, pay taxes, and after +vegetating in poverty for a century, again engender energy, enthusiasm, +and a new life in art and science. It is certainly probable that the +country people would have entirely scattered themselves in roving +bands, and that the cities would never have been in a condition to +produce a new national life, if three powerful causes had not +contributed to preserve the German countryman from being altogether +lost,--his love of his paternal acres; the endeavours of the +magistracy; and above all, the zeal of those who had the care of his +soul, the village pastors. The love of the peasant for his own field, +which works inimically against the most benevolent agrarian laws, is +even now a strong feeling, but in the seventeenth century was still +more powerful. For the peasant knew very little of the world beyond his +own village, and it was difficult for him to pass the boundaries which +separated him from other vocations, or from establishing himself on the +property of other lords. He ever returned with tenacity from his +hiding-place to his devastated farm, and endeavoured to collect +together the trampled corn, or to sow the few seeds he had been able to +preserve. When his last beast had been stolen, he harnessed himself to +the plough. He took care not to give his house a habitable appearance; +he accustomed himself to dwell amidst dirt and ruins, and concealed the +flickering fire of his hearth from the gaze of marauders, who might +perhaps be seeking in the night for some warm resting-place. He hid his +scanty meal in a place which would disgust even a reckless enemy, in +ditches and coffins, and under skulls. Thus he lived under the powerful +pressure of habit, however little hope there might be that his labour +would prove advantageous to him. If a landed proprietor stood valiantly +by his village, even in times of comparative tranquillity, he +accompanied his beasts to the fields, armed to the teeth, ready to +fight against any robbers who might pounce down on him.</p> + +<p>It was no less the interest of the landed proprietor and his +officials, +than of the peasant himself, to preserve the villages. The smaller the +number of tax-payers became, the higher was the tax on the few who +remained. The rulers, from the cities in which they resided occupied +themselves during the whole war through their officials, bailiffs, and +receivers, with the fate of the villages, nay even of individuals. The +keeping of the parish records was only interrupted during the most +troubled time, and was always recommenced. Certificates, reports, +memorials, and rescripts passed hither and thither amidst all the +misery.<a name="div2_29" href="#div2Ref_29"><sup>[29]</sup></a> +Petitions for remission of rents and liquidation of costs +were incessantly demanded, and many a poor schoolmaster obediently gave +his service as parish writer whilst the snow floated into his +schoolroom through the shattered windows, the parish chests lay broken +in the streets, and the parishioners, whose accounts he was writing, +went armed into the woods with dark illegal projects, which were never +reported to the government. Useless as this system of writing in many +cases was, it formed numerous links which bound individuals more +closely to their states; and in the pauses of the war, and at the +conclusion of it, was of the greatest importance, for it had preserved +the mechanism of the administration.</p> + +<p>It was however to the country clergy and their holy office that the +maintenance of the German people is chiefly owing. Their influence was +undoubtedly not less in the Catholic than in the Protestant provinces, +though there remain few accounts of it; for the Catholic village +pastors were then as averse to writing as the evangelical were fond of +it. But the Protestant pastors had a far greater share in the mental +cultivation of their time. The Reformers had made the German learned +education essentially theological, and the village clergy were, in the +estimation of the noble proprietors and peasantry, the representatives +of this intelligence. They were generally well skilled in the ancient +languages, and expert in writing Latin and elegiac verses. They were +powerful disputants, and much experienced in dogmatic controversy, +stubborn and positive, and full of zealous indignation against the +followers of Schwenkfeld, Theophrast, Rosenkreuz, and Weigelia, and +their teaching was more full of hatred to heretics than love towards +their fellow-creatures. Their influence on the consciences of the laity +had made them arrogant and imperious, and the most gifted among them +were more occupied with politics than was good for their characters. If +an order may be considered responsible for the imperfection of the +mental cultivation of the period, which it has not formed, but only +represents, the Lutheran ecclesiastics were deeply and fatally guilty +of the devastation of mind, the unpractical weakness, and the dry +wearisome formalism which frequently appeared in German life. The +ecclesiastics, as an order, were neither accommodating nor especially +estimable, and even their morality was narrow-minded and harsh. But all +these errors they atoned for in times of poverty, calamity, and +persecution, more especially the poor village pastors. They were +exposed to the greatest dangers, hated in general by the Imperial +soldiers, and obliged by their office to bring themselves under the +observation of the enemy; and the rough usage which they, their wives, +and daughters had to suffer, fatally injured their consideration in +their own parish. They were maintained by the contributions of their +parishioners, and were not accustomed, and ill fitted to obtain their +daily food by bodily labour; they were the greatest sufferers from any +decrease in the wealth, morality, or population of their villages. One +must bear witness that a very great number of them endured all these +dangers as true servants of Christ. Most of them adhered to their +parishes almost to the very last man. Their churches were plundered and +burnt, chalice and crucifix stolen, the altar desecrated with +disgusting ordures, and the bells torn from the towers and carried +away. Then they held divine service in a barn, or an open field, or in +the cover of a green wood. When the parishioners had almost perished, +so that the voice of the singer was heard no more, and the penitential +hymns were no longer intoned by the chanter, they still called the +remains of their congregation together at the hour of prayer. They were +vigorous and zealous both in giving comfort and in exercising +discipline; for the greater the misery of their parishioners, the more +reason they had to be dissatisfied with them. Frequently they were the +first to suffer from the demoralization of the villagers: theft and +insolent wantonness were willingly practised against those whose +indignant looks and solemn admonitions had heretofore overawed them. +Hence their fate is particularly characteristic of that iron time, and +we happily possess numerous records concerning them, frequently in +church documents, in which they bemoaned their sufferings, when no one +would listen to them. From such records of Thuringian and Franconian +village pastors, only a few examples will here be given.</p> + +<p>Magister Michael Ludwig was pastor at Sonnenfeld, about 1633; there +he +preached to his parishioners in the wood under the canopy of heaven; +they were called together by the sound of the trumpet, instead of the +bell, and it was necessary to place an armed watch whilst he preached; +thus he continued for eight years, till his parishioners entirely +disappeared. A Swedish officer then appointed him preacher to his +regiment; he was afterwards made president of the army consistory at +Torstenson, and superintendent at Wismar. Georg Faber preached at +Gellershausen, read prayers daily to three or four hearers, always at +the risk of his life: he rose every morning at three o'clock and +learned his sermon entirely by heart; besides that, he wrote learned +treatises upon the books of the Bible.</p> + +<p>In the neighbouring towns of the interior, the clergy had as much to +undergo. For example, the rector at Eisfeld, about 1635, was Johann +Otto, a young man who had just married; he had in the worst times kept +the whole school during eight years, with only one teacher, and +provided the choir also gratis. The smallness of his income may be seen +from the notes which the excellent man has written in his Euclid: +"2 +days thrashing in autumn, 1 day working in the wood in 1646. 2 days +thrashing in January, 1647. 5 days thrashing in February, 1647. 4 +marriage letters written. Item, 1/2 day binding oats, and one day +reaping," and so on. He persevered, and administered his office +honourably for forty-two years. His successor, the great Latin scholar, +Johann Schmidt, teacher of the celebrated Cellarius, had become a +soldier, and when on guard at the Royal Castle was reading a Greek +poet; this was perceived by his officer with astonishment, and was +mentioned by him to Ernest the Good, who made him a teacher.</p> + +<p>The superintendent at the same place, Andreas Pochmann, was, when an +orphan, carried off with two little brothers by the Croats. He escaped +with his brothers in the night. Later, when a Latin scholar, he was +again taken prisoner by the soldiers, was made an officer's servant, +and then a musketeer. But he continued to study in the garrison, and +found among his comrades students from Paris and London, with whom he +kept up his Latin. Once, when a soldier, he was lying sick by the watch +fire, under his sleeve was the powder pouch, with a pound and a half of +powder, the flames reached the sleeve and burnt half of it; the powder +pouch was unconsumed. When he awoke he found himself alone, the camp +was abandoned, and he had not a penny of money. Then he found two +thalers in the ashes. With this he struck across to Gotha; on the way, +he turned off to Langensalza, to a lonely small house near the walls: +an old woman received the wearied man, and laid him on a bed. It was +the plague nurse, and the bed was a plague bed, for the malady was then +raging in the city; he remained unhurt. His life, like that of most of +his cotemporaries, was full of wonderful escapes, sudden changes, and +unexpected succour, of deadly perils, penury, and frequent changes of +place. These times must be accurately observed, in order to understand +how, just at a period when millions were brought to ruin and +destruction, there was fostered in the survivors a deep belief in that +Divine Providence, which, in a wonderful way, encompassed the lives of +men.</p> + +<p>From almost every village church one can obtain reminiscences of the +sufferings, self-devotion, and perseverance of their pastors. It must +be said, that only the strongest minds came out unscathed in such +times. The endless insecurity, the want of support, the lawless +proceedings of the soldiers and of their own parishioners, made many of +them petty in their ideas, cringing and beggarly. We will give one +example among many. Johanne Elfflein, pastor at Simau after 1632, was +so poor that he was obliged to work as a day labourer, to cut wood in +the forest, to dig and to sow; twice he received either alms from the +poor-box at Coburg, or what was placed there at the baptism of +children. At last the consistory at Coburg sold one of the chalices of +the church to procure bread for him. He considered it an especial piece +of good fortune, when he had once to perform the funeral of a +distinguished noble, for then he got a good old rix-dollar, and a +quarter of corn. When shortly afterwards he confidentially complained +to a neighbour of his want of food, and the latter replied with +desperate resolution, he knew well what he should do in such a case, +then, firm in faith, Magister Elfflein said, "My God will provide +means +that I shall not die of hunger; He will cause a rich nobleman to die, +that I may obtain money, and a quarter of corn." He considered it +was +ordained by Providence, when soon after, this melancholy event actually +occurred. His situation was so pitiable, that even the rapacious +soldiers, when they sent their lads in the neighbourhood after booty, +emphatically ordered them to leave the pastor at Simau unmolested, as +the poor simpleton had nothing for himself. At last he got another +parish.</p> + +<p>At the source of the Itz, where the mountains decline in high +terraces +towards the Main, lies the old village of Stelzen, a holy place even in +heathen times. Close to the church, from the corner of a spacious +cavern, overshadowed by primeval beech and lime trees, springs up a +miraculous well; near the well, before the Reformation, stood a chapel +to the Holy Virgin, and many a time did hundreds of counts and +noblemen, with numberless other people, flock together there as +pilgrims. The village was entirely burnt down at Michaelmas, 1632, only +the church, the school, and shepherd's hut remained standing. The +pastor, Nicholas Schubert, wrote to the authorities in the winter as +follows: "I have saved nothing but my eight poor, little, naked, +hungry +children. I continue to dwell <i>ex mandato</i> in the very old, and on +account of the want of a chimney, a floor and so forth, dangerous +school-house, where I can neither attend to my studies, nor do anything +for my support. For I have neither food nor clothes, <i>longe enim plura +deficiunt</i>. Given at my castle of misery, Stelzen, 1633. Your willing +servant, and obedient poor burnt-out pastor, Nicholas Schubert." +Shortly he was removed. His successor likewise was pillaged, and +stabbed in the left hip with a rapier; he too was removed; a second +successor also was unable to maintain himself there. After that, the +parsonage house was uninhabited for fifteen years, but the neighbouring +pastor, Götz of Sachsendorf, came every third Sunday, and performed +service in the ruined village. For two years there came no pence to the +church coffers. At last, in 1647, the church was entirely burned to the +bare walls.</p> + +<p>Gregory Ewald was pastor at Königsberg; in 1632, Tilly burnt down the +city, and Ewald was taken prisoner in a vineyard by two Croats, and +robbed; when they could not withdraw a gold ring from his finger they +prepared to cut off the finger, but at last had so much consideration +that they took only the skin with the ring, and demanded a thousand +dollars ransom. Ewald released himself by this stratagem; he took the +simple soldier, who was left with him to fetch the ransom, first to the +door of a cellar in order to give him a drink of wine, and under the +pretext of fetching the key he escaped. In his great necessity he took +an appointment as Swedish army chaplain, and after the battle of +Nördlingen, lived as an exile for a year in a foreign country, from +thence he returned to his ruined parish, where for some years he and +his family endured want and misery.</p> + +<p>Among the most instructive of the biographical accounts of Protestant +pastors, is that of the Franconian pastor, Martin Bötzinger. We see +with horror, both the village life in the time of the war, and the +demoralization of the inhabitants, distinctly portrayed in his +narrative. Bötzinger was not a man of great character, and the +lamentable lot he had to bear did not strengthen it; indeed, we can +hardly deny him the predicate of a right miserable devil. Nevertheless +he possessed two qualities which render him estimable to us, an +indestructible energy with which there was not the slightest frivolity +united; and that determined German contentment which takes the +brightest view of the most desolate situations. He was a poet. His +German verses are thoroughly pitiful, as may be seen by the specimen +heading this chapter, but they served him as elegant begging letters by +which, in the worst times, he endeavoured to procure sympathy. He +celebrated all the officials and receivers of the parish of Heldburg in +an epic poem, as also the melancholy condition of Coburg, where he +tarried for a certain time as a fugitive.</p> + +<p>Of the career which he noted down, the beginning and the last portion +were already torn out when Krauss, in 1730, incorporated it in his +history of the Hildburghaus church, school, and province. The following +is faithfully transcribed from this fragment; only the series of events +which are intermingled in his autobiography are here arranged according +to years. Bötzinger was a collegian at Coburg and a student at Jena, +during the <i>Kipper</i> time;<a name="div2_30" +href="#div2Ref_30"><sup>[30]</sup></a> and in 1626, he became pastor at +Poppenhausen. In the spring of 1627, the young pastor entertained the +idea of marrying the only daughter of Michael Böhme, burgher and +counsellor at Heldburg, whose name was Ursula.</p> + +<p>"In the year 1627, on the Tuesday after the Jubilate, all +necessary +preparations being made, on this very day, a body of eight thousand +men, people from Saxe Lauenburg, together with the Prince himself, +encamped before Heldburg; pitched their camp on the cropped ground, and +in eight days ruined the city and land belonging to the corporation, so +that neither calf nor lamb, beer nor wine, could any more be procured. +Provisions were brought from all the neighbouring districts, and yet +even the royal officers and officials could hardly be maintained. They +were, on account of the cold, quartered some days in the city and +villages. It was then, for the first time, I was plundered in the +parsonage house at Poppenhausen, for not only had I not secured +anything, but rather had I made preparation as if I had to lodge an +honourable guest or officer; I lost my linen, bedding, shirts, and so +forth, for I did not yet know that the soldiers were robbers, and took +everything away with them. The prince of the country, Duke Casimir, was +himself obliged to journey to Heldburg; he ordered for the Lauenburger +a princely banquet; he presented him with fine horses and eight +thousand thalers if he would only take himself away. After this +misfortune, the blessing of God made itself miraculously visible +everywhere. Owing to the thousands of huts, quarters and fires, which +made the fields look like a wilderness, it was thought that the winter +seed was lost in the ground. Nevertheless, there grew from these burnt +huts and ditches so thick a crop, that in the same year, there was a +superfluity of winter food. A miracle! Thus my wedding could take place +on the Tuesday after the <i>Exaudi</i>, and was celebrated at the Town +Hall.</p> + +<p>"For five years there was rest in the land till 1632, except +that +several Imperial corps, consisting of two, three, or more regiments, +passed to and fro, who often took up their quarters in the township of +Heldburg, and exhausted it. I wanted for nothing at Poppenhausen. I +could wish that I was now as well off as I was before the war. As, +however, the fury of war at last arrived, the neighbouring bishops +began to reform vigorously; sent Jesuits and monks with diplomas into +the country, and examined the ecclesiastical benefices and monasteries. +The princes had their militia here and there, who now and then pilfered +in the neighbouring Papal states, and stirred up the hornets there. +Every intelligent person could discover that things would become worse. +The noblemen also fled with their pastors, bailiffs, and all belonging +to them, to our little towns and villages, hoping for greater security +there than in their own places.</p> + +<p>"In 1631, at Michaelmas, King Gustavus came from Sweden suddenly +through the wood, just as if he had wings. He took Königshofen and many +other places, and went on very flourishingly. Our nobles enlisted +people for the king, who were as bad as the enemy in pilfering and +robbing. They more especially took from the neighbouring Catholics +their cows, horses, pigs, and sheep; then was there a great sale; a +ducat for one cow, and a thaler for a pig. The Papists often came +hither and saw how and who bought their cattle, and frequently redeemed +them themselves. They were however so often taken, that they wearied of +redeeming them, and it went ill with the poor neighbouring Papists. We +all at Poppenhausen preserved for those in the neighbourhood, their +bits of property in churches and houses, as far as we could. But when +in the year 1632, the tables were turned, and the three Generals, the +Friedlander, Tilly, and the Bavarian prince, took possession of Coburg +and the country, the neighbouring Papists helped to rob and burn, and +we found no faith or safety with them.</p> + +<p>"When on the eve of Michaelmas, all the guns were heard from +Coburg, as +a signal that the enemy was approaching, and every one took care of +himself, I went with all those whom I had lodged for some weeks, to +Heldburg, where I had previously sent my wife and child. The town was +on its guard, but did not imagine what evil would betide it; the +burgomaster and some of the councillors ran away, my father-in-law of +blessed memory, having the charge of the powder, lead, and linstocks, +which he served out to the guard as need required, was obliged to +remain in the town. I had a great desire to leave the town with my wife +and children, but he would not let me go, and still less his daughter, +and bade us remain at home; he had a tolerable purse of thalers with +which he intended to make off in case of disaster. But before midday on +the feast of St. Michael, fourteen horsemen presented themselves; they +were supposed to be Duke Bernhard's people, but it was very far from +the case. These they were obliged to admit without thanks for it. They +were soon followed by some infantry, who from the beginning searched +about everywhere, and knocked down and shot whoever resisted them. In +the middle of the market, one of these fourteen struck my father-in-law +with a pistol on the head, so that he fell down like an ox. The +horseman dismounted, and searched his hosen, and our citizens who were +at the Town Hall saw that the thief drew out from thence a large mass +of money. When the stupefaction from the blow had passed away, my +father-in-law stood up: he was made to go to the Star Inn, where they +found somewhat to eat, but nothing to drink; then he said he would go +home and bring some drink. Now as they thought he might escape them, +they took the platters and food with them, and accompanied him to his +house. It was not long before one of them demanded money; and when he +excused himself, the scoundrel stabbed him with his own bread-knife in +the presence of his wife and mine, so that he sank to the ground. 'God +help us!' screamed out my wife and child. I, who was hid in the +bath-house, in the straw over the stable, sprang down and ventured +amongst them. The wonder was that they did not catch me in the parson's +cap. I took my father-in-law, who was reeling about like a drunken man, +into the bath-room, that he might be bandaged. I was obliged to look on +whilst they took off from your mother<a name="div2_31" +href="#div2Ref_31"><sup>[31]</sup></a> her shoes and clothes, +and laid hold of you, my son Michael, in their arms; hereupon they +quitted the house and the street. I went from the little court of the +bath-house to my father-in-law's room; I carried over there pillows and +mattresses, whereon we laid him. I had to venture still further. I went +into the cellar, wherein his brother, Herr George Böhm, pastor at +Lindenau, had placed in three large butts, two tons of good wine. I +wished to fetch a refreshing drink for my father-in-law, but the vent +peg was so carefully and firmly driven into the butt that although I +pulled out the spigot nothing would flow. I was obliged to stay a long +time, at great risk, before I could get a spoonful. I had hardly gone +over there, before a scoundrel went into the bath-house, threw the +invalid off the bed, and searched everywhere. I had crept under the +sweating bench, where indeed I got a good sweating, for the day before +had been the bath day.</p> + +<p>"As there was now a great butchery and shooting down in the +town, +so +that no one was secure, divers citizens came at intervals to have +themselves bandaged. Then my father-in-law consented that I should seek +for a hiding-place and leave the town, but would not let my wife and +children accompany me. So I went to the castle garden, and ascended the +height behind the castle, that I might look out towards Holzhausen and +Gellershausen, to see if it was safe. Then the citizens and their wives +came to me for comfort and to journey with me. Thus I crossed over the +Hundshanger lake into the wood, and wished to go up to Strauchhahn. +When we came to the common, eight horsemen, who were Croats, rode up +the heights. As soon as they saw us they hastily galloped up to us. Two +citizens, Kührlein and Brehme, escaped; I had most to endure. They took +off my shoes, stockings, and hosen, and left me only my cap. With my +hosen I had to give up my purse full of money, which I had hid there +three hours before, and thus had preserved from the first pilferers. +The danger was so urgent that I did not think of my purse till I saw it +for the last time. They demanded first a thousand thalers, then five +hundred, and lastly a hundred, for my life. I had to go with them to +their quarters, and to run with them a whole hour barefoot. At last +they perceived that I was a <i>pap</i> or <i>pfaff</i>, which I also +confessed; +then they began to thrust at me with their sabres without discretion, +and I held my hands and arms towards them, and through God's protection +only got a few wounds on the wrist.</p> + +<p>"Meanwhile they discovered a peasant who had hidden himself in +some +bushes. It was the rich Kaspar of Gellershausen, so they all rode off +to him, and only one remained with me, who was by birth a Swede, and +had been made prisoner. This one said to me, 'Priest, priest, run, run, +otherwise you must die.' He was a good Swede: I placed confidence in +his counsel, and begged of him to feign to ride after me, as if he +would fetch me back. Thus it happened that I escaped the Croats. But +the rich Kaspar met a miserable death at that place; for as he would +not come forth from thence, they hewed off his legs, as I saw, at the +knees. Therefore he was obliged to lie in that place, where after their +withdrawal he was found. But I ran through a great oak wood for almost +an hour, and could see no thick bushes wherein to conceal myself, and +fell at last into a pool of water out of which an oak root had grown, +and I was so tired of running that I could go no further, and my heart +beat so that I knew not whether it was the horses' hoofs that I heard, +or my heart.</p> + +<p>"Thus I sat till it was night; then I rose up and continued in +search +of a thick cover, till I came out and could see Seidenstadt. I slipped +into the village, and as I heard dogs bark, I hoped to find people at +home, but there was no one; I therefore went into a shed, and was +desirous of passing the night on the hay. But God granted that the +neighbours, who had hid themselves in Strauchhahn, had come together +behind this shed, and took counsel where they should reassemble, and +where they should go to. This I could distinctly hear. I therefore +descended and went to the house. The peasant had just come in, had +struck a light, and was standing in the cellar taking the cream off the +milk, which he intended to drink. I was standing above the opening, +spoke to him and greeted him; he looked up and saw the under part of my +body, namely, my shirt and naked legs, and it was dark above. He was +much frightened; but when I told him that I was the pastor at +Poppenhausen, who had been carried off by the soldiers, he brought the +milk up, and I begged him to procure me some clothes of his neighbours, +as I wished to accompany them wherever they were going. He went out, +and meanwhile I regaled myself on his pot of milk, and entirely emptied +it. In my whole life no milk had ever tasted so good. He came back with +others, and one of them brought me a pair of old leather hosen, which +smelt badly of cart-grease, another a pair of old latchet shoes, and +another two woollen stockings, one green and one white. This livery was +not suitable either for a traveller or for a pastor; yet I took it with +thanks, but could not wear the shoes, for they were frozen too stiff. +The soles of the stockings were torn, thus I went to Hildburghausen +more barefooted than shod. When we looked around us we saw that many +places in Itzgrund were in flames. At that time, Ummerstadt, Rodach, +Eisfeld, and Heldburg were burnt to the ground.</p> + +<p>"I was, on my arrival, such a spectacle as to create terror and +fear +at Hildburghausen; no one--though many thousand strangers had come +there--felt secure, although the city had a strong guard. My only +anxiety was to get a respectable dress, stockings, shoes, &c., +before +we departed from thence. I went, therefore, barefoot to the +burgomaster, Paul Walz, and to the curate, and begged them to give me +something to clothe me respectably. Herr Walz gave me an old hat which +was almost an ell in height, which disfigured me more than anything +else; nevertheless I put it on. Herr Schnetters Eidam, now curate at +Römhild, gave me a pair of hosen, which came over my knees, these were +still good, Herr Dressel a pair of black stockings, and the sexton a +pair of shoes. Thus I was rigged out, so that I could appear without +being ashamed before so many thousand strangers, who had sought +security in the town; and could show myself amongst the citizens. But +the hat disfigured me very much, therefore I sought an opportunity to +obtain another. Now it came to pass that the whole ministry, the +authorities of the high school and councillors, had agreed, without the +knowledge of the citizens generally, that they would have the gates +opened at nine o'clock at night, and go away with their wives and +children: having learned this, I went to the lodging of the town-clerk, +where the gentlemen were all assembled; but no one knew or noticed me. +I placed myself alone by a table in the dark; there I discovered that a +good respectable hat was hanging on a nail. I thought that if this +should remain hanging on the breaking up of the assembly, it would suit +me. What matter; all would be ruined after the flight. What I wished +and thought came to pass: then there began a wailing and leave-taking +on their departure, and I laid my head on the table as if I were +asleep. Now when almost every one was gone, I hung the long stork on +the wall, made the exchange, and went with the other gentlemen into the +street.</p> + +<p>"The arrangements for flight now became known to the people. +Countless +numbers therefore sat with their packages in the streets; horses were +put also to many waggons and carts, all prepared to go out of the gate +with those who were departing. When we came into the open country we +saw that the good people were all dispersed about the streets. There +were thousands of lighted torches to be seen, some had lanterns, some +burning wisps of straw, others links. In short some thousands came +mournfully out. I and my flock came about midnight to Themar, the +townspeople there rose up and joined us, so that some hundreds more +were added to us. The march proceeded to Schwarzig and Steinbach, and +when towards morning we arrived at a village, the people were so +terrified that they abandoned their houses and farms and accompanied +us. When we had been about an hour at an inn, the news came that the +Croats had fallen upon Themar this very morning, had cut up the escort +and plundered the carrier's goods; had split the burgomaster's head, +robbed the church, and carried the organ pipes off to the market; and +it was high time for us to have evacuated it. Hildburghausen had +afterwards to ransom itself by a large sum of money and its chalices, +otherwise the town would like all the others have been reduced to +ashes. During this wandering I got also a present of a pair of gloves, +a knife, and a sheath.</p> + +<p>"This lasted five or six days, then came the news announcing +that +the +enemy had departed from Coburg. Now I could not remain any longer. I +went speedily to Römhild, where lived my honoured godfather Cremer, the +town clerk. I had to report to the worthy magistrate what had happened +to me. This little town alone remained unplundered. The worthy +magistrate had ordered the enemy to be fired upon, and by his foresight +God preserved this little town. Meanwhile Römhild became full of +refugees, who were partly known and partly unknown. But I did not then +care for any society; so I set off for Heldburg, and passing many +hundred men, arrived there first, just when the slain were being +brought on carts to the burial-ground. When I perceived this I went to +the burial-ground, and found seventeen persons lying in one grave, +among them were three councillors, one my father-in-law, the precentor, +some citizens, a tutor, the country beadle, and town constable. They +were all horribly disfigured. After this I went to my mother-in-law's +house; I found her so ill and so disfigured from being broken on the +wheel, and pinched with pistol screws, that she could hardly speak to +me; she made up her mind that she should die. So she desired me to seek +my wife and children whom the enemy had carried away with them. The +children were you, Michael, a year and a half, and your eldest sister, +five years old. I would gladly have eaten something at Heldburg, but +there was nothing either to eat or drink. I speeded therefore hungry +and terrified to Poppenhausen, not only to refresh myself there, but to +procure a messenger who would seek and recover my wife and children. +But I learnt there that the Poppenhausen children had also been carried +away, and that there were marching columns on many roads, so that the +life of a messenger would be in deadly peril. Meanwhile my parishioners +dressed a cow for me, which had escaped the soldiers; this I looked for +with a hungry stomach. So we had meat enough to eat, but without salt +and bread. After my repast I learned by post that my wife was come, and +thus it had come to pass. She had been taken with her two children, by +some musketeers, to Altenhausen, where, from fear of dishonour, she and +her children had sprung over the bridge into the water. From thence she +was drawn out by the soldiers, and brought into the village, where she +was made to help in the kitchen to prepare the supper. Meanwhile there +came another troop of soldiers who were higher in rank and more in +number, and drove the others from their quarters. My wife took this +opportunity to escape. She wended her way out, and left the two +children with the soldiers. A poor beggar-woman led her through secret +byways out of the village, and brought her to an old cave in a wood, +where she passed that night and remained the next day till evening. On +that day the people came forth from all quarters, and thus my wife set +out and came safe and unharmed to me, so that we were all joyful and +thankful to God.</p> + +<p>"How murder and fire meanwhile had gone on at Heldburg, I will +also +relate. The town of Heldburg had militia and trained bands, and it was +ordered that if the enemy came there, the city should be defended. For +it was always hoped that Duke Bernhard's people were not far distant, +and that the country would be relieved. When therefore the town was +fired, my honoured father-in-law, with many citizens and other folks, +hastened out of the town, and arrived in the night with my wife and two +children to Poppenhausen, and my wife prepared him a good invalid bed. +For my parsonage house had been filled with all kinds of furniture left +by noblemen and magistrates in their flight; and although pilferers had +been there, there was enough still left. The following day a whole +troop of horsemen came to the parsonage, examined my belongings, but +let them alone because there was one there who was wounded: they +ordered supper and went out to plunder, and returned towards evening, +bringing all kinds of booty; then it was necessary to boil and roast, +and the neighbouring women helped thereto with good will. When the +horsemen were about to depart, they advised my father-in-law not to be +too confident, as this tumult would last yet eight days, and as the +road led past there, he and his daughter might suffer violence, and as +the neighbouring villages were Popish, he had better remove to a +Protestant one. This my father-in-law did, and went at night in the fog +for security to Gleichmuthrusen; but the ungodly neighbours screamed +out that the horsemen wished to burn and slay the Lutherans, but they +did it for their advantage, as the Papists had gone with the troopers +into our villages and houses and stolen as much as others. Then my +father-in-law did not like to remain there any longer, he went with his +belongings to Einöder wood and remained there day and night. He +occasionally went forth to examine the road between Heldburg and +Einöder. When therefore one day he saw no one especial on the road, +either travelling or riding, and heard the little bell which was wont +to be sounded when children were baptized, he thought, such being the +case, he might creep nearer the town, and see whether there was any +hindrance along the road. As soon as he came to the town his steps were +watched. Then a whole body of camp followers came and took him, my +mother-in-law, and my wife to the house of Herr Göckel. Ah! there was +banqueting and revelling! Being now urged to give money and making +various excuses, they singed and smeared his eyes, beard, and mouth +with tallow candles, and endeavoured shamelessly to maltreat my wife in +the room before every one, but she screamed so that her mother sprang +violently into the room and drew her out through the door, which indeed +was fastened, but the under panel had been ingeniously covered with +list, and was fractured. Then the cook had compassion upon her, and +brought her out of the house; and when my wife gave him some ducats, +which she had for a whole week concealed in the cuff of her sleeve, he +brought to her my father-in-law, who however was horribly disfigured. +Thus they left the town more dead than alive, and being too weak to go +further, went into the hospital. Not only the poor sick folk were +there, but many respectable citizens and women in hopes of finding +it a safe asylum. But it was far from being the case. Although my +father-in-law was lying on a bed nearly dying, and every one saw that +he was bleeding and had been evil treated, yet he was dragged hither +and thither, some wicked people having betrayed that he was a rich man. +They broke him on the wheel; they brought my wife and children +prisoners into the town, where they had to make shirts for the +soldiers. As she was sitting in the churchyard, one of them brought her +a piece of linen to cut out, he said to one of his comrades: 'Go and +make sure that the peasant, meaning my father-in-law, is dead.' He +went, and returned again soon, having in his arms my father-in-law's +hosen and waistcoat, and said to my wife, 'Your father is done for.' +What barbarity! When the pilferers had sufficiently pillaged the church +of clothes and linen, they left the town, and would carry my wife with +them whether she would or no.</p> + +<p>"Not long after they received their reward at Leipzig and +Lützen, +as +may be read in other places. After this every one returned home, and +people found each other again; but the sheep and cattle were all gone. +I did not preserve more than three calves out of eight, without +counting my forty-eight sheep which, with the whole herd, had been +lost.</p> + +<p>"Duke Johann Casimir died in the year 1633, and was buried, on +the +same +day on which the funeral sermon was preached for Gustavus King of +Sweden, in that country. At that time great robbing and plundering went +on, amongst others by Duke Bernhard's soldiers, nine regiments of which +were stationed at Itzgrund, to enable the princely corpse to be buried +in safety.</p> + +<p>"In 1634 things became much worse, and one could well perceive +that +in +a short time everything would be topsy-turvy. I therefore removed what +I could to the parsonage at Steltzen, my beds, two cows, clothes, +&c. +But this being in the autumn, after Lamboy had quartered himself with +every one and everywhere, my winter quarters cost me more than five +hundred gulden in thirty-five weeks, which I had to settle with Captain +Krebs. I had eleven persons in my house, not counting camp-followers +and maid-servants. It is not to be described what I and my wife had to +suffer and endure for a length of time. At last I could no longer feel +secure on account of them; I ran away sick and came to Mitwitz and +Mupperg, where I had as little rest as at Heldburg. My stepmother +especially tormented me (she had been struck by lightning), she would +not let me remain in my exile with my old father. I was obliged to go +to Neistadt to the rector, M. Val. Hoffmann, now superintendent. But I +was not only very poor; but became daily more ailing, therefore I only +thought how I could return to Poppenhausen or Heldburg and die there, +for I was weary of my life.</p> + +<p>"It is miraculous how I passed along the roads and through the +villages +in the darkness of night, for it was still unsafe everywhere; at last I +reached Poppenhausen. There my poor parishioners and schoolmaster were +as joyful at sight of me, as if our Lord God had himself appeared among +them. But we were all in such great weakness and want, that we looked +more dead than alive. Many died of hunger; and we were frequently, each +day, obliged to take to our heels and conceal ourselves. And although +we hid our lentils, corn, and poor food in the ditches and old coffins, +nay, under the skulls of the dead, yet all was taken away from us.</p> + +<p>"Then were the survivors obliged to leave house and home, or die +of +hunger. At Poppenhausen most of the inhabitants were in their graves; +there remained only eight or nine souls, who fled from it in the year +1636. The same circumstances occurred at Lindenau, the cure of which +was committed to me vicariously in 1636, by the Royal Consistory. I +could obtain no income; apples, pears, cabbage, turnips, &c., were +my +only pay. Thus I was pastor at Lindenau from 1636 to 1641. I had the +parsonage arranged, but could not, on account of the insecurity and +turmoil, dwell constantly there, and performed the duties from +Heldburg. I have still the testimony of the Lindenauers, wherein they +acknowledge that I did not in five years get ten gulden in money; but +they have since honestly paid me the arrears in wood and apples.</p> + +<p>"In the year 1640, between Easter and Whitsuntide, the Imperial +and +Swedish armies fought a battle at Saalfeld; and Franconia and Thuringia +were devastated far and wide. At four o'clock in the morning of the +Sunday before Whitsunday, strong bodies of Imperialists fell upon +Heldburg, when most of the citizens were still resting in their beds. +My whole street, in every direction, was full of the turmoil of horses +and riders; just as if some one had taken pains to show them my house. +I and my wife were taken prisoners five times in one hour; when I was +released from one, I was taken by another. Then I took them into my +room and cellar, that they might themselves seek what they required. At +last they went off, leaving me alone in the house; yet my terror and +anguish were so great that I never thought of my ready money, which I +might have saved ten times over, if I had had sufficient confidence to +take it with me. But all the houses and streets were full of horsemen; +and if I had taken my Mammon with me, it might so have happened that I +should have been caught. But in my dismay I thought not of money. Many +men and women were convoyed out of the town by an escort of Hasisch +horsemen, who had been quartered there. I then returned to my wife and +children; we betook ourselves to the nearest wood towards Hellingen; +there old and young, ecclesiastics and laymen, remained day and night. +Our chief sustenance was black juniper berries. Now certain of the +citizens ventured into the town, and brought back with them food and +other things that they required. I thought, ah! if thou also couldst go +to thy house and get hold of thy small cash in pence, and therewith +support thyself and thy children! I ventured it, slipped in, and went +through the Spittel Gate to the Mühl Gate, which was closed in with +palisades. Within, there were some who caught me by surprise, as a cat +does a mouse; they bound me with new cords so that I could neither help +myself with hands or feet, and must either give money, or betray rich +people to them. The thieves obliged me to toss the fodder for their +horses at the Herrnhof, to lead them to drink, and other odd work. Then +imagining myself more at liberty, I ran from thence, being unaware that +a whole troop of soldiers were standing at the gate of the courtyard, +so I ran into their arms. They beat me well with their swords and +bandoliers, kept me still more strictly with cords, led me from house +to house, that I might tell them to whom this or the other house +belonged. Thus I was also led to my own house, there I saw the copper +water-can lying on the floor, in which had been placed my ready money, +three hundred thalers, and I thought, hadst thou known that the birds +and the foxes were in the way, thou wouldst have remained outside. Now +because I would not betray any one, they put upon my head my own cap, +which was lying on the ground in my house, and gave me a blow on the +head with a cutlass, so that the blood ran down to my ears, but no hole +was made in the cap, for it was of felt. Still more; the same man +wantonly drew the cutlass across my stomach, in order to try whether I +was invulnerable; he pressed tolerably hard, yet God willed not that he +should draw more blood from me. Twice in one hour, namely, in +Schneiderinn, at the farm of the tailor's wife Wittich, on the +dung-heap, and in the forest ranger's stable, they gave me the Swedish +drink mixed with dung water, whereby my teeth became all loose. I +defended myself as well as a prisoner could, when they forced a great +stick into my mouth. At last they led me along with cords, and said +they would hang me up: they brought me out to the Mühl Gate on the +bridge; then one of them took the cord wherewith my feet were bound +together, and another the cord on my left arm, and pitched me into the +water, holding the cord so that they might draw me up and down. Now +whilst I was groping around me in search of a support, I caught hold of +a hay-rake, which however gave way with me, and I could find no help +thereon; but by God's providence an opening was made for me, so that I +slipped under the bridge. Whenever I tried to hold on, they battered me +with these said hay-rakes, so that they snapped in two like a school +cane. When they were not only weary of their labour, but thought they +had done for me, as I should drown in the water, they let go both +cords, when I dived under the bridge like a frog, and no one could +touch me. Then I searched the pocket of my hosen and found a little +knife, such as could be closed, which they had not chosen to take, +though they had often searched me; I therefore cut the cord which bound +my two feet, and sprang down to the floor of the mill, where lay the +wheels. The water covered half my body; then the rogues threw sticks, +brickbats, and cudgels at me, in order to put an end to me completely. +I was anxious to work my way to the miller's back door, but could not, +either because my clothes being saturated with water held me back, or +more likely, because God would not permit me to die there. For as a +drunken man reels to and fro, thus did I, and came up on the other side +at the back of the brewery. When they perceived that I was about to get +into the narrow lane, they all ran into the town, collected more +companions, and watched at the tan-house to see whether I would come +thither. But as I perceived this, and was now left to myself, I +remained lying in the water, and placed my head under a thick willow +bush, and rested in the water four or five hours, till it was night and +the town quiet; then I crept out half dead, and could hardly breathe, +on account of the blows I had had. I went down to the tan-house and +found that there was as yet no safety, as there was one there cutting +grass, and another picking hides out of the tan-pits, and I almost +stumbled upon them, so I was obliged to hide there till late in the +night; I went then over the conduit, always following the course of the +stream, and climbed over a willow stem by which I reached the other +side, towards Poppenhausen.</p> + +<p>"When I came to the Poppenhausen or Einöder road, it was +strewed +here +and there with linen, which the soldiers had thrown away or lost, but I +could not stoop to pick anything up. I came at last to Poppenhausen, +and found no one at home but Claus Hön, whose wife was lying-in; he was +obliged to cut the clothes from off my body, for I was swollen, and he +put aside the wet clothes to be dried. He also lent me a shirt, and +then examined my head, which was of all colours from the blows I had +received; afterwards my back and arms became quite black and blue. The +following day my parishioner bade me go away, for he feared they might +lie in wait for me, and that he should get into trouble on my account. +So with his assistance I put on my wet clothes, and went quite slowly +to Lindenau, always through the densest thicket, and kept on the other +side in the Lindenau garden, from which I could see the village. At +last I discovered some people going into a house; I went thither, but +they would not admit me, for they were too much afraid, but finally, +when they saw through the window that it was I, their pastor, who had +come, they admitted me, and I remained with them some days; for there +was quartered there one who was a Lindenauer, which helped a little. +But I met with a new misfortune. When those who were quartered here +went to the castle of Einöd with the Lindenauers, to fetch away what +could yet be found of their goods, the magistrate, the smith, and I +were keeping guard the while on the tower; as we were all three +performing this duty, certain horsemen came into the village, they saw +us on the tower, went straight up to it, and found us there together. +As they ascended the stairs we discovered from their blustering and +talking that they were troopers, so, in bad plight as I was, I +endeavoured, alas! to climb. I clambered up into the belfry and curled +myself like a cat behind the clock; but one of the thieves climbed up +at the same time and found me. My parishioners said I was their +schoolmaster, and entreated for me, as I had already been badly beaten +by the soldiers. It was however of no avail. They insisted on this +schoolmaster descending. The magistrate went first, after him a +trooper, the smith followed, then another trooper, and lastly I +followed, lingering. Now when they all came out through the door of the +church, I remained within, bolted the little door, and ran out of the +other, and crept into a turnip pit. God help me! How woeful it was for +me to be obliged to stoop and lie on all-fours for a whole hour! Thus I +was saved, but my dear fellow-watchers were taken to a mill and obliged +to fill the flour sacks.</p> + +<p>"On the Friday before Whitsuntide I came with many citizens to +Coburg. +A thief had carried off my shoes, and left me a pair of old bad ones +instead; I had nothing else to wear for almost a week, and both soles +had fallen out, and when it became necessary to take to one's heels, +the shoes turned round hindforemost, so that often I could not help +laughing outright. Thus I came to Coburg. The news of my torments had +reached Coburg some days before, together with the report that I had +been killed; when therefore I came myself, the citizens and my old +acquaintance were much astonished. Dr. Kesler, general superintendent, +<i>item</i>, consul Körner, invited me several times during the +Whitsuntide +festival, and for a whole month the Coburgers showed great kindness to +me, my wife, and children, which I lauded in print on St. John's +day.</p> + +<p>"Ah, how great was the grief and misery to be seen and heard in +all +the +surrounding small towns at that time! the inhabitants of Eisfeldt, +Heldburg, and Neustadt, together with the villagers, had to make shift +miserably in the town. Asking and begging was no shame. Yet I did not +wish to burden too much my good host, Herr Hoffman the apothecary. I +went out into the wide world with the pastor of Walburg, Eisentraut, +for three weeks, <i>victum quærendi gratia</i>, to Culmbach, Bayreuth, +Hirschheid, Altorf, and Nuremberg, and again back to Coburg. I then +found that my wife had returned to Poppenhausen, accompanied again by +the Hasische trooper, but there was nothing to eat or reap there. What +God had provided me with on my journey, I was obliged to carry to the +town hall and give to the soldiers, and the children were well-nigh +dying of hunger. They had not been able to buy bran enough for bread. +My superintendent, Herr Grams, died from the effects of the Swedish +drink, at the castle four or five weeks after this turbulent time.</p> + +<p>"Now as exactions and extortions still continued, I could get no +stipend, and yet had to assist in the superintendence of the parish of +Heldburg, as well as my own, I went <i>cum testimonio et consilio</i> +of +Dr. +Kesler, and also with letters of recommendation to Duke Albert, to +Eisenach, and represented my poverty in divers ways to the Consistory. +I got a presentment and other recommendations to their Princely +Highnesses, the two brothers, that I might obtain advancement in their +dominions. So I went from Eisenach to Gotha, just as our honoured +prince and lord, Duke Ernest, fixed his residence at the Kaufhaus: for +I was present when they paid him homage at Gotha. The royal Consistory +soon offered to me the parish of Notleben; but as the Notlebers were at +strife with their old pastor, and there was to be a month's delay to +carry on their contest, Dr. Glass persuaded me in the interim to go +with my recommendation to Weimar, and to collect somewhat for my poor +family. My wanderings, however, lasted till the year 1641. I returned +on Tuesday the 18th of January to Gotha, and found the cure of that +parish still vacant for me, which I undertook with the greatest +humility and thankfulness, and preached my first sermon on the parable +of the vineyard, from the 20th of Matthew. But I not only lived in +great insecurity at Notleben, as one had daily to think of flight, but +had also many disputes with the peasantry, who in church and school +affairs had always a hankering after Erfurt, and to whom all royal +ordinances with respect to the catechism were odious. I, the pastor, +had to bear this from the council and peasants, and as all the stipend +was paid in kind, and I was neither a tutor, nor had any other means +whereby I could get on well, I humbly sought for a change of cure. +When, therefore, our honoured lord, after the division of property, +obtained the parish of Erock and the village of Heubach, he offered to +me to become pastor there, which I had expected more than a year +before. Thus in 1647, I in all humility accepted this removal, and +preached my trial sermon on Judica Sunday, in the presence of the +parishioners and commissaries. I received the call on the following +day, and thus under God's providence brought hither my wife and child. +This was my fourth piece of church preferment, where for my own part I +desire, God willing, to live and die; but my wife wishes herself away, +in a better place in the plains, on account of the difficulty of +getting servants. I leave it in the hands of God and my +superiors."</p> + +<p>Thus far extends what is preserved of Bötzinger's biography. He +finally found rest at Heubach, and administered his office there for +six-and-twenty years. He died in 1673, at the age of seventy-four, +after having led for forty-seven years a life which cannot be +designated as peaceful. Heubach was a new parish which had been formed +at Gotha by Duke Ernest the Good, and Bötzinger was the first pastor. +He was obliged to dwell in the royal shooting lodge, which had been +built by Duke Casimir in the forest, for grouse shooting. In the +neighbouring forester's house lived an insolent forester; the country +was in a wild state, little inhabited, and the people, corrupted by the +war, led a lawless forest life. It appears that the new pastor was not +particularly welcome to these denizens of the woods, the forester +especially was his vehement opponent, and the pastor secretly +complained, in Latin distiches which he inscribed in the church +records, to his successor, of the bitter sufferings which this servant +of the woods occasioned him. He in a brotherly way warned his successor +against the wickedness of the man and his bad wife. But in spite of +this contention, it may be concluded that this long-tormented sufferer +was not altogether unhappy, and a harmless self-contemplation is to be +perceived in his Latin verses. When at last he died, laudatory poems by +some of his noted clerical brothers were written, as was then the +custom; some of them are extant both in Latin and German. Even Herr +Andreas Bachmann, the court preacher at Gotha, a distinguished man, +yielded a tribute of respect to his "Dear old, now deceased +clerical +brother;" it begins with the following verses, which will conclude +this +chapter:--</p> +<div class="poem"> +<p class="t4">Martin Bötzinger, God's servant, faithful and true,</p> +<p class="t5">Upright as Job--was long time pastor I ween;</p> +<p class="t4">A much tormented man with crosses not a few,</p> +<p class="t5">As will, in the record of his life, be seen.</p> + + +<br /> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2> +</div> + +<h3>THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.--THE CLIPPERS OF MONEY, +AND PUBLIC OPINION.</h3> + +<p class="normal sp1">Monotonously did the death wail sound in the +chronicles and records of +fellow-sufferers. Where thousands were saved, millions were ruined and +destroyed. The war was destructive of house, wealth, and life, alike in +town and country. Manifold was the work of the destroying forces, but a +higher force was unceasingly at work to ward off final ruin.</p> + +<p>It is a marvellous circumstance, that in the same year in which the +war +in Germany expired, the interest of the people in public affairs was so +far developed as to originate the first newspapers. In matters of +faith, moral feeling and the judgments of individuals had for a century +worked, but in politics it was only rarely and feebly that serious +diversity of opinion was ventured to be expressed by private +individuals. It was just when the recruiting drums of the princes were +beating at every muster-place that public opinion began its first +political struggle in the press. On an important social question, the +intellectual leaders of the people rose up against the immorality of +their own Sovereigns. We shall endeavour here briefly to exhibit the +course of public opinion, and show what was stirred up and carried away +by it during the war. It may more especially be discovered in the +literature of the flying-sheets, which contended for and against the +Bohemian King, condemned the <i>Kipper</i> and <i>Wipper</i>, and did +homage to +the great Gustavus Adolphus, but at last became itself, like the +nation, meagre and powerless.</p> + +<p>It was after the beginning of the sixteenth century that the people +began to receive news through the press, in a double form. One of these +forms was a single sheet printed on one side, almost always ornamented +with a woodcut, and after the sixteenth century, with a copper-plate +engraving, under which the explanatory text was generally rendered in +verse. In these flying leaves were communicated the appearances in the +heavens, and comets; very soon also battles by land and sea, +portraitures of the celebrities of the day, and the like. Much of the +good humour, and coarse jests of the Reformation time are to be found +in them. The art of the wood carver was in constant activity, and we +find many characteristic peculiarities of the talents of the great +painters impressed upon it. The other form was that of pamphlets, +especially in quarto, frequently also ornamented with woodcuts. They +gave information of every novelty; coronations, battles, and newly +discovered countries; by them every striking event flitted through the +country. After the Reformation, they increased enormously in number. +All printing-houses gave birth to them under the titles of newspapers, +advices, reports, and couriers. Besides these, there were the small +controversial writings of the Reformers, sermons, discourses, and +songs. Very soon also the Princes began to make use of the invention of +printing, to inform the public of their quarrels, and to gain +partisans. Private individuals whose rights were injured contended with +their opponents, whether city magistrates or foreign rulers, in +pamphlets. During the whole of the sixteenth century the aim of the +small, not theological, literature, was first to impart news, and +afterwards to serve the interests of individuals or princes, or to make +known the views of those in power. The opinions of individuals upon +political affairs were principally conveyed in a form which was then +considered particularly ingenious, as pasquinades or dialogues. These +small news sheets were innumerable, and their spread was rapid; after +the Reformation it became a separate branch of industry. The +booksellers, or as they were then called, stationers, who offered these +newspapers for sale in their shops and stalls, and introduced them to +the markets of foreign cities, made a dangerous competition with the +printers, bookbinders, and illuminators. Important newspapers were +everywhere pirated. Along the great trade and post roads, more +particularly of the Rhine and southern Germany, certain trading and +printing establishments made special gains from the communication of +the daily news; for example, Wendelin Borsch, at the Tiler's Hut in +Nuremberg, about 1571, Michael Enzinger at Cologne, at the end of the +century, and others. These sheets at first were published very +irregularly, but they already contained a correspondence from different +cities, in which not only political, but mercantile intelligence was +given.<a name="div2_32" href="#div2Ref_32"><sup>[32]</sup></a> At last, +in 1612, appeared here and there separate newspaper +sheets in numbers, and in a certain degree of continuity. Meanwhile it +had been long the custom of the merchants to make such communications +to their mercantile friends with some regularity, so that there already +existed news-writers who were in the habit of forwarding written +newspapers. This method of spreading intelligence had come to Germany +from Italy. In Venice, from the year 1536, there were <i>Notizie +Scritte</i>, written news in successive series, which continued there +till +the French Revolution. There also, appeared the first regular newspaper +shortly before 1600, which it is stated took the name of <i>Gazzetta</i> +from a little coin which was the cost of the single numbers.</p> + +<p>Soon after, the German newspapers began to appear regularly. In 1615 +the first weekly newspaper was published at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, by +Egenolf Emmel, bookseller and printer. In opposition to which, in 1616, +the Imperial deputy postmaster Johann van der Brighden, published a +competing paper called 'Political Notices.' From these two undertakings +resulted the oldest German newspapers, the 'Frankfort Journal,' and the +'Oberpostamts Zeitung.'</p> + +<p>But these and other weekly papers were for a long time, only news +sheets in which opinions on the facts communicated were carefully +withheld. The great stream of public opinion still continued for two +centuries to run in the old direction; the flying leaves and occasional +brochures.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the war even the distant readers were compelled +to +be violent partisans. Everywhere appeared controversial writings, +opinions, councils, and deliberations. The nation was rent into large +parties by this intellectual strife, and it is instructive to see how +the writings of the disputants stand in exact relation to the success +which their party had achieved. Till the battle of the Weissen Berge +nine tenths of all the narratives and controversial writings are +Protestant; they reached full a thousand in number. Hatred to the +Jesuits blazed fiercely; bitter was the rancour against the Emperor, +and incessant were the cautions against the League. After Prague, +Strasburg was the centre of their warlike activity. Whilst at Prague +the libel-writer von Rörig, as <i>Huss-redivius</i>, made his voice +heard +vehemently in many 'Political Discourses' against his adversary Sturm: +the <i>magisters</i> of Strasburg, after the fashion of Boccalini, made +accusations against the same opponent, before Apollo and the high court +of Parnassus; but their Apollo had to deliver human and explicit +oracles. The answers in defence are cautious and uncertain, as during +the whole war the Catholic party were generally not a match for the +Protestants in the serious warfare of the pen. But the speedy flight of +the new King of Bohemia suddenly changed the physiognomy of the +literary market. The secret writings obtained as booty from the +Bohemian party were published by their opponents; and about these bulky +quartos there raged for years a battle of petty flying-sheets. +Revengeful, and joyfully triumphant, the Imperialists sounded their +pæan. It is true that in their brochures there was still some +moderation, for they were obliged to spare the Lutheran Saxons; but so +much the more irritably did they attack the enemy, in countless +pictorial sheets and satirical verses. Endless and merciless were the +satires on the fugitive winter King, he, the proud and witless one, +with his wife and children, were depicted in every kind of pitiful +situation, seeking their bread, departing in bad waggons, and digging a +grave for themselves.</p> + +<p>This strife was interrupted by another, which will ever be of high +interest. It was the storm of the German press against the +"<i>Kipper</i> +and <i>Wipper</i>."</p> + +<p>Of all the terrors at the beginning of the war, nothing gave such +vague +apprehension to the people, as the sudden depreciation of the coinage. +To the fancy of the suffering generation, the evil became so much the +greater, as in the gloomy frame of mind of that period it appeared to +occur suddenly, and everywhere roused the most frightful passions, +discord in families, and hatred and strife between debtors and +creditors, leaving behind, hunger, poverty, beggary, and immorality. It +made honourable citizens gamblers, drunkards, and profligates, it drove +preachers and schoolmasters from their offices, brought opulent +families to beggary, plunged every government into miserable confusion, +and threatened the dwellers in cities, in a thickly populated country, +with famine.</p> + +<p>It was the third year of the war; its flames had already carried +destruction over Bohemia and the Palatinate, and the ruins were still +glowing, on which the Imperial troops erected the cross of the old +faith. A sultry atmosphere loured over the country; throughout the +empire, in every class, men armed themselves, and anxiety for the +future pervaded all. But intercourse with the provinces in which the +war was at first located, was then comparatively small. The countries +exposed to its fury were, with the exception of the Palatinate, +provinces belonging to the Emperor; and on the Elbe and lower Rhine, in +Thuringia, Franconia, and the territories of lower Saxony, it was still +a question whether the danger was approaching home. In August, 1621, +the peasant had the prospect of a moderate harvest; in trade and +commerce there was some degree of stagnation, but there was much of +that excited eagerness which is the natural offspring of a great +defensive movement, and manly youths were more allured than intimidated +by the wild conduct of the soldiery. It had indeed been long remarked, +that there was something unusual about the money which circulated in +the country. The good heavy Imperial coin became more and more scarce, +in its place much new money was current, badly coined, and of a red +colour. The increasing rise in the price of foreign goods appeared +still more strange. Everything became dearer. Whoever wished to make a +present to a godchild, or to pay foreign tradesmen, had to give an +increasing <i>agio</i> for his old pure Joachim's thaler. But in the +local +trade, betwixt town and country, the extensive new coinage was taken +without hesitation, indeed it was exchanged or bartered with an +increased activity. The mass of the people did not observe that the +different kinds of coin with which it was the custom to pay, became in +their hands, worthless lead; but the sharper ones, who had an inkling +of the state of things, became, for the most part, accomplices in the +dishonest usury of the Princes. It may be distinctly perceived how the +people came to a knowledge of their situation, and we still feel +dismayed at the sudden terror, anguish, and despair of the masses, and +are struck by the anxieties and manly indignation of the thoughtful; +and in reading the old narratives, we still feel somewhat of the +indignation with which the guilty were regarded. When we consider +the many wonderful errors of public opinion at that time, and the +well-meaning zeal of individuals who gave good counsel, we may be +permitted in this period of calamity and humiliation, to feel a proud +satisfaction at the sagacity with which even then, some men of the +people discovered the ground of the evil, and, in one of the most +difficult national questions, found the right answer, and by it a +remedy, at least for the worst misfortunes. Before we attempt to give a +picture of the "<i>Kipper</i> and <i>Wipper</i>" years, we +must make some remarks +on the coining of that period.</p> + +<p>In the olden time, all technical dexterity was environed with +dignity, +secrecy, and an apparatus of forms. Nothing is more characteristic of +the peculiarity of the German nature, than its virtuosoship; even the +most monotonous handicraft was ennobled by an abundance of lively +additions. As soon as the spirit of the artisan was excited by the +genial pleasure of creating, his imagination was occupied with images +and symbols, and he turned his skill dexterously to high, nay even to +holy things. What we have described as applicable to all the +handicrafts of the middle ages, was so especially to the art of +coining. A feeling of his self-importance was strong in the coiner; the +work itself, the handling of the precious metals fresh from the fire, +was considered ennobling. The obscure chemical processes, which were +surrounded, through alchemy, with a wilderness of fantastic forms, had +a far more imposing effect upon the workers, than can be understood by +the rational fabricators of our century. To this was added the +responsibility of the service. When the coiner took the assay weight +out of its beautiful capsule, and placed the little acorn cup on the +artistically worked assay balance, in order to weigh the remnant in it, +he did this with a certain consciousness of superiority over his +fellow-citizens.<a name="div2_33" +href="#div2Ref_33"><sup>[33]</sup></a> +When he purified the silver assay from lead in the +cupel, and the liquid silver first overflowed, shining with delicate +prismatic colours, and then, the variegated stream being rent, the +bright gleam of the silver passed like lightning through the molten +mass, this silver gleam filled him with reverential astonishment, and +he felt himself in the midst of the mysterious creations of the spirits +of nature, which, whilst he feared, he was yet able to control by the +art of his handicraft, as far as his knowledge reached. After that +period, in the order of things, the coiners formed themselves into a +close corporation, with masters, associates, and apprentices, and held +jealously to their privileges. Whoever was desirous of stamping the +Holy Roman Imperial coin was first obliged to give proof of his free +and honourable lineage, to do lowly service for four years, during this +period to wear, according to custom, a fool's cap, and to allow himself +to be punished and beaten when inexpert or in the wrong; then at last +he was admitted to the business of coining, and entered as an associate +in the brotherhood of Imperial coiners.</p> + +<p>But these strict regulations, which were again confirmed to the +brotherhood by the Emperor Maximilian II., in 1571, had even then +ceased to have the effect of making the corporation honourable and +upright. Equally inefficient were the attempts at control, by the +decisions of the Imperial Diet and the Sovereigns. At the inspection of +every piece of coin the master of the mint had with him a warden, who +proved the texture and weight of the coin. The ten Circles of the +Empire held yearly approbation days, in order, mutually, to compare +their coin and to reject the bad; every Circle was to be represented by +a warden-general; for every Circle an appointed number of mints were +established, in which the lesser rulers were to have their money +specially coined: but all these regulations were only imperfectly +carried out.</p> + +<p>There were undoubtedly some Sovereigns and mint-masters then in the +country who were faithful, but they were few in number; and generally a +mint-master, who was considered capable by a German Circle, and worked +in a legal mint, was concerned in many strange practices. It was +difficult to exercise control over these imperfect coining proceedings; +the temptations were great, and morality in general much lower than +now. From the Sovereign down to the understrapper and Jewish purveyor, +every one concerned in coining deceived the other. The Sovereign +allowed the master of the mint for a series of years to work and become +rich; he perhaps permitted in silence the coin of the country to be +debased, in order at the right moment to proceed against the guilty, +from whom then he squeezed out by pressure, like a sponge, all that +they had sucked up for many years drop by drop. It did not avail them +that they had long quitted the service, for after many years greedy +justice would reach them: but the mint-master, who was not in the +convenient position of the lion, to be able to secure his booty by a +single stroke of the paw, was in the habit of industriously +overreaching his masters, the purveyors, nay even his cashiers, the +associates, and the apprentices, not to mention the public. The other +assistants did no better; every man's hand was against the other, and +the curse, which according to the proverb lies on the gold of the +German dwarf, appears in the seventeenth century to have depraved all +who transmuted the shining metal into money. The common method of +transacting the business was as follows.</p> + +<p>The master of the mint purchased the metal, defrayed the costs of the +stamping, and paid a tax to the Sovereign for every Cologne mark which +he struck, which it appears amounted generally to about four good +groschen: but he had to pay dear for fine silver, and the wages and +other accessories were continually rising in price. If he paid the tax, +from one to two thousand marks, weekly to the lord of the mint, he +concealed from him the fifty marks which he had struck over and above, +and retained the tax upon them for himself; furthermore, he was a sharp +coiner, that is to say, he deducted from the money about half a grain +in the amount of silver required by the law; he always struck a hundred +marks in weight, two ounces too light, which was remarked by no one, +and when he knew that the money was to be sent directly into foreign +countries, especially to Poland, he was bolder in deducting from the +weight. His dealings with the purveyors who procured the metal for him, +were not more upright. There was carried on then, throughout the whole +of Germany, a secret traffic, which was severely prohibited by the law, +and traced with much sagacity by the gate-keepers of the cities, a +traffic in false money. What was acquired by the soldier as booty, or +stolen by the thief from the church, was smelted by the receivers of +stolen goods into flat cakes or conical masses, which in the language +of the trade were called "ingots" and "kings;" +whatever was clipped +from the money in diminishing the proper quantity of silver, or had +otherwise to be carefully consigned under a false name, was poured out +of the smelting crucible over moist birchen-twigs, and thus granulated: +but besides this, by being incessantly bought up, the good coin was +exchanged for bad, the small money-changers, most of them wandering +Jews, journeyed from village to village far across the frontiers of the +German Empire, and collected, as the ragmen do now, their wares from +the soldiers, countrymen, and beggars. All the medals of distinguished +persons, all coats-of-arms and inscriptions, horse and man, wolves, +sheep and bears, thalers and hellers, the saints of Cologne and Treves, +and the medallions of the heretic Luther, were bought up for the mint, +collected and exchanged. The concealed wares were then packed into a +vessel with ginger, pepper, and tartar, and paid toll duty as white +lead, wrapped up in bales of cloth and frankincense. There were +travelling waggons with false bottoms, which were specially prepared +for such transports. A still better safeguard was an ecclesiastic as a +travelling companion; but the best of all was a trumpeter, who gave the +trader the appearance of being a prince's courier. If it happened that +a distinguished lord was travelling towards the same country, it was +expedient to bribe him, for he and his suite, their waggons and horses, +were never examined at the city gates. Sometimes the agent disguised +himself as a distinguished lord or soldier, and caused the burden +to be conveyed by the trooper's horses or his servants. Sometimes the +mint-master was obliged to travel to the frontier to meet the agent, +under the pretext of paying a visit to some friend. Then the costly +goods were carried far from the dwellings of men, across lonely heaths, +or through the clearings of a wood, from one hand to another, on a +merchant's parole.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the petty Jewish dealer carried at night, along byways over +the frontier, his wallet full of old groschen, in the twofold fear of +robbers and of the guardians of the law. The wallet, the broad-brimmed +hat, and the yellow cloth border to the coat, the mark of a Jew of the +Empire, was frequently seen at the mint. There existed between the +dealer and the mint-master a confidential business connection, +certainly not without a mental reservation; for it occasionally +happened to the Jew that false thalers were found in one of the +hundred marks which he delivered in thalers, or that the wallet +together with the coin had become moist during the journey, which added +some half-ounces to their weight, or that fine white sand became +mingled with the granulated silver, and was weighed with it. For this +the mint-master indemnified himself, by hanging the scales so that one +side of the beam was shorter than the other, by causing the scales to +spring up and descend slowly, notwithstanding the perpendicular +position of the balance, in order to make the wares some half-ounces +lighter, or by falsifying the weights altogether. What the masters did +not do, the apprentices of the mint ventured upon. However cautious the +purveyor might be during the smelting assay, they understood how to mix +copper dust with the silver already weighed, in order to make the assay +worse than it really was. Such was the state of the traffic even at +those mints where there was still some respect for the law.</p> + +<p>Besides the licensed coiners, there were others in most of the ten +Circles, of easier conscience and bolder practice; not exactly false +coiners in our sense of the term, although this was carried on with +great recklessness; but nobles and corporations who had the right of +coining, and prized it highly as a source of income; for, contrary to +the Imperial decrees, which imposed upon them the duty of having their +money coined in one of the approved mints of the Circle, they coined +actively in their own territory. Sometimes they let their right of +coining for a year's rent, nay, they even disposed of their mints to +other princes as a speculation. These irregular coining places were +called hedge mints, and in them a systematic corruption of money took +place. No inquiry was made as to the right of the coiners; whoever knew +how to manage fire and metal, engaged in this kind of work. There was +little regard for the prescribed fineness of texture, and weight of the +money; it was coined with false stamps, and the head of the ruler, with +the date of a better period, were stamped on light coin; nay, in +regular false coining, the stamps of foreign mints were often +counterfeited. The brightness of the new coin was removed by tartar or +lead water; and all this took place under the protection of the +Sovereign. The disposal of the money thus coined required all the +cunning and circumspection of the agents, and a line of industry was in +this way formed, which we may presume occupied many intermediate hands. +Thundering decrees had been fulminated for seventy years at the +Imperial Diets and Assemblages of the circles, against the hedge mints, +but without success. Indeed, after the introduction of good Imperial +money, they became more numerous and active, for the work paid +better.</p> + +<p>Such was the state of things even before the year 1618. The +sovereigns, +small and great, required more and more money. Then some of the Princes +of the Empire--the Brunswickers, alas! were among the first--began to +outdo the proceedings of the most notorious of the hedge mints; they +caused the coin of the country, both heavy and light, to be struck of a +bad mixture of silver and copper, instead of silver, and soon it was +only copper silvered. At last, as for example at Leipzig, a small +angular coin was issued by the city, no longer of copper, which was of +higher value, but of pure tin. This discovery of making money at little +cost spread like a pestilence. From both of the Circles of Saxony it +spread to those of the Rhine and Southern Germany. Hundreds of new +mints were established. Wherever a ruined tower appeared firm enough +for a forge and bellows, wherever there was abundance of wood for +burning, and a road to bring good money to the mint and carry away bad, +there a band of coiners nestled. Electors and nobles, ecclesiastical +communities and cities outvied each other in making copper money; even +the people were infected with it. For a century the art of making gold, +and treasure digging had occupied the fancies of the people; now the +happy time appeared to have arrived, when every fish-kettle could be +turned into silver in the coiners' scales. A mania for money-making +began. Pure silver and old silver gilt became continually and +strikingly dearer in mercantile traffic, so that at last it was +necessary to pay four, five or more new gulden for one old silver +gulden, and the price of goods and the necessaries of life slowly rose; +but that signified little to the multitude, so long as the new money, +the production of which seemed to increase without end, was willingly +taken. The nation, already excited, became at last madly intoxicated. +Every one thought they had the opportunity of becoming rich without +labour; all applied themselves to trafficking in money. The merchant +had money dealings with the artisan, the artisan with the peasant. A +general craving, chaffering, and overreaching prevailed. The modern +swindling in funds and on 'Change, gives only a weak notion of the +proceedings of that time. Whoever had debts hastened to pay them; +whoever could get money from an accommodating coiner, in exchange for +an old brewing vessel,<a name="div2_34" +href="#div2Ref_34"><sup>[34]</sup></a> could buy therewith house and +fields; +whoever had to pay wages, salaries, or fees, found it convenient to do +so in plated copper. There was little work done in the cities, and only +for very high pay. Whoever had any old thalers, gold gulden, or other +good Imperial money lying in their chests as a store in case of need, +as was then the case with almost every one, drew out his treasure and +was delighted to exchange it for new money, as the old thalers, in a +most remarkable way, appeared to be worth four, nay even six and ten +times as much as formerly. That was a jolly time. If wine and beer +were dearer than usual, they were not so in the same proportion as +the old silver money. Part of the gains were jovially spent in the +public-house. Every one was disposed to give, in those times. The Saxon +cities readily agreed, at the Diet at Torgau, to a great addition to +the land tax, as money was to be obtained everywhere in superfluity. +People also were very ready to contract debts, for money was offered +everywhere, and business could be done with it on favourable +conditions; great obligations therefore were undertaken on all sides. +Thus a powerful stream carried away the people to destruction.</p> + +<p>But a counter stream arose, first gentle, then continually stronger. +Those were first to complain who had to live on a fixed income, the +parish priests most loudly, the schoolmasters and poor misanthropes +most bitterly. Those who had formerly lived respectably on two hundred +gulden, good Imperial coin, now only received two hundred light gulden, +and if, as often undoubtedly happened, the salary of some were raised +about a quarter in amount, they could not even with this addition +defray half, nay even the fourth part, of the necessary expenses. Upon +this unprecedented occasion the ecclesiastics referred to the Bible, +and found there an indisputable objection to all hedge minting, and +began to preach from their pulpits against light money. The +schoolmasters starved in the villages as long as they could, then ran +away and increased the train of vagabonds, beggars, and soldiers; the +servants next became discontented. The wages, which averaged ten gulden +a year, hardly sufficed to pay for their shoes. In every house there +were quarrels between them and their masters and mistresses. Men and +maid-servants ran away, the men enlisted and the maids endeavoured to +set up for themselves. Meanwhile the youths dispersed from the schools +and universities, few parents among the citizens being sufficiently +well off to be able to support their sons entirely during the period of +education. There were however a multitude of scholarships founded by +benevolent people for poor students. The value of these now suddenly +vanished, the credit of the poor scholars in foreign towns was soon +exhausted, many found it impossible to maintain themselves; they sank +under poverty and the temptations of that bloody period. We may still +read in the autobiographies of many respectable theologians, what +distress they then suffered. One supported life in Vienna, by cutting +daily his master's tallies for a four-penny loaf; another was able to +earn eighteen batz<a name="div2_35" +href="#div2Ref_35"><sup>[35]</sup></a> in the week, by giving lessons, +the whole of +which he was obliged to spend on dry bread.</p> + +<p>There was increasing discontent. First among the capitalists who +lived +on the interest of the money which they had lent, which was then in +middle Germany five, or occasionally six, per cent. For a time they +were much envied as wealthy people, but now their receipts were often +hardly sufficient to maintain life. They had lent thousands of good +Imperial thalers, and now a creditor would pay them on the nail a +thousand thalers in new money. They demanded back their good old money; +they squabbled and laid their complaints before the courts; but the +money which they had received back bore the image of the Sovereign and +the old mark of value; it was legally stamped money, and the debtor +could in justice allege that he had received similar money, both as +interest and capital and for labour. Thus there arose numberless +lawsuits; and the lawyers were in great perplexity. At last the cities +and even the Sovereigns were embarrassed. They had willingly issued the +new money, and many of them had coined it recklessly. But now for all +their taxes and imposts they obtained only bad money, a hundred pounds +of plated copper instead of a hundred pounds of silver, at the same +time everything had become dear, even to them, and a portion of their +expenses had to be paid in good silver. Then the governments attempted +to assist themselves by new frauds. First they endeavoured to retain +the good money by compulsion; now they suddenly lowered the value of +their own money, and again threatened punishment and compulsion to all +who gave less value for it. But the false money still continued to sink +under the regulated value. Then some governments refused to take for +the payment of taxes and imposts, the money of their own country which +they themselves had coined. They declined taking back what they had +stamped in the last year. Now for the first time the people discovered +the whole danger of their position. A general storm broke loose against +the new money; it sank even in daily traffic to a tenth of its nominal +value. The new hedge mints were cried down as nests of the devil; the +mint-masters and their agents, the money-changers, and whoever else +dealt in money concerns, were the general objects of detestation. Then +it was that they obtained in Germany the popular names of <i>Kipper</i> +and +<i>Wipper</i>. These are Lower Saxon words: <i>kippen</i> comes equally +from the +fraudulent weighing, as from the clipping of the money; and +<i>wippen</i> +from throwing the heavy money out of the scales.<a name="div2_36" +href="#div2Ref_36"><sup>[36]</sup></a> Satirical songs +were sung about them; it was supposed that their names were heard in +the call of the quail, and the mob cried out after them "<i>kippe +di +wipp</i>," as they did "<i>hep</i>" after the Jews. In +many places the people +combined together and stormed their dwellings. For many a year after +the terrors of the long war, it was considered a disgrace to have +acquired money in the <i>Kipper-time</i>. Everywhere disorders and +tumults +arose; the bakers would no longer bake, and their shops were destroyed; +the butchers would no longer slaughter, on account of the prescribed +tax; the miners, soldiers, and students raged about in a state of wild +uproar; the city communities, deep in debt, became bankrupt, as for +example the wealthy Leipzig. The old joints of the burgher societies +cracked and threatened to burst asunder. The small literature urged on +and excited the temper of the public mind, and was itself still further +excited by the increasing discontent. The street songs began it, and +the pictorial flying-sheets followed. The <i>Kippers</i> were +unweariedly +portrayed with the flames of hell round their heads, their feet +standing on an insecure ball, surrounded by numerous gloomy emblems, +amongst which the cord and the lurking raven were not absent; or in +their mints collecting and carrying off money, and in contrast to them +the poor, begging; the different classes were depicted, soldiers, +citizens, widows and orphans, paying to the money-changers their hard +earnings; the jaws of hell appeared open, and the changers were +assiduously shoved down by devils; all this was adorned, according to +the taste of the times, with allegorical figures and Latin devices, +made comprehensible to every one by indignant couplets in German.</p> + +<p>As among the people, so also among the educated, a fierce storm began +to rage. The parish priests were loud in their invectives and +denunciations, not only from the pulpit but also in flying-sheets. A +brochure literature began, which swelled up like a sea. One of the +first that was written against the new money was by W. Andreas Lampe, +pastor at Halle. In a powerful treatise, 'On the last brood and fruit +of the devil, Leipzig, 1621,' he proved, by numerous citations from the +Old and New Testament, that all trades and professions in the world, +even that of an executioner, were by divine ordinance; but the +<i>Kipper</i> +was of the devil, whereupon he characterizes in some cutting passages +the mischief which they had caused. He had to suffer severe trials, and +though he loyally spared the authorities, yet he was threatened with +proceedings, so that he found it necessary to obtain from the sheriffs' +court at Halle a justification. He was soon followed by many of his +clerical brethren. The controversial writings of these ecclesiastics +appear to us clumsy productions; but it is well to examine them with +attention, for the Protestant priesthood are always representatives of +the cultivation and the rectitude of the people.</p> + +<p>The preachers exorcised the evil one, and the theological faculty +soon +followed with the heavy artillery of their Latin arguments, and how +bitter was the priestly anger, was shown for example by the consistory +of Wittemberg, when they refused the Lord's Supper and honourable +burial to the Kippers. Lastly we have the lawyers with their questions, +informations, detailed opinions on coining and recapitulations. The +answers which they gave in thick brochures were almost always very +diffuse, and their arguments frequently subtile; still they were +necessary, for the disputes concerning <i>meum</i> and <i>tuum</i> +between +creditor and debtor appeared interminable, and numberless lawsuits +threatened to prolong insupportably the sufferings of the people. The +principal subjects of investigation were, whether those who had lent +good money were to be repaid capital and interest in light money; and +again, whether those who had lent light money had a claim for the +repayment of the full capital in good money. It must be remarked here +that, in many cases which the law and the acuteness of lawyers did not +reach, the dispute was ended by that true feeling of equity which was +inherent in the people. For when the governments were generally bad, +and legal justice was very costly and difficult to be obtained, much +had to be accomplished by the practical sense of individuals. A little +flying leaf, in which is related how the sound common sense of the +village magistrate administered justice, was certainly not less useful +than a massive half-Latin, half-German +"<i>Informatio</i>."</p> + +<p>In the flood of paper, which gives us information concerning the +excitement of that period, there are certain sheets which more +especially arrest our attention--the utterances of educated and +experienced men, who know how to tell shortly and effectively in a +popular form, from whence it all arose. Some of these flying-sheets, +written at different periods of the Thirty years' war, have been +preserved to us, in which we may even now behold with admiration, both +energy of character, power of language, and genuine statesmanlike +discernment. In vain do we inquire for the name of the author. We will +only mention here one of these writings. Its title is, 'Expurgatio, or +Vindication of the poor <i>Kipper</i> and <i>Wipper</i>, given by +Kniphardum +Wipperium, 1622. Fragfurt.'</p> + +<p>The author has chosen the valiant Lampe as the object of his attack, +as +the cautious zeal of the Saxon ecclesiastic whose distinguished +colleagues were accused of being Wippers--for example, the notorious +court preacher Hoe, the subservient tool of the Elector--had excited +the indignation of a powerful mind. A manly judgment, and a very just +democratic tone appears in the strong expressions of this writing. We +may judge of its peculiar tenour from the following passages:--</p> + +<p>"I have never yet seen a single penny, and much less an +inferior +coin, +on which was to be found the names, arms, or stamp of <i>Kipper</i> and +<i>Wipper</i>, still less any inscription from the new quail call, +<i>kippediwipp</i>. But one may truly see thereupon a well-known stamp +or +image, and the <i>Kipper</i> or <i>Wipper</i> will not appear even in +the +smallest letter of the alphabet.</p> + +<p>"But if Herr Magister does not rightly understand the matter, +let +him +ask who has bought the old saucepans at the highest price, in order to +assist the coining; having done so, Herr Magister will truly learn who +has coined the copper and tin money. For truly so many old pans in +which so much good gruel or millet pap has been made, and so many +coppers in which so much good beer has been brewed, are melted down and +coined, and this not by the vulgar <i>Kipper</i>, but by the <i>Arch +kipper</i>. +For the others have no regale to coin, and if they, like the blood and +deer hounds, have scented and hunted out such things, they have done so +by the command of others, and thus are not to be so severely condemned +as those (let them call themselves what they may) who have the regalie, +and misuse it to the perceptible damage of the German States.</p> + +<p>"No one now-a-days will bell the cat, or, like John the +Baptist, +tell +the truth to Herod. Every one heaps abuse upon the poor rogues, the +<i>Kippers</i> and <i>Wippers</i>, who nevertheless do not carry on +this +business +by their own authority, for all that they do takes place with the +knowledge, consent, and approbation of the government. And alas, they +have now-a-days many competitors. For as soon as any one gets a penny +or a groschen that is a little better than another, he forthwith makes +with it usurious profit. Therefore, as experience teaches, it comes to +pass as follows: the doctors abandon their invalids and think far more +of usury than of Hippocrates and Galen; the lawyers forget their legal +documents, lay aside their practice, and taking usury in hand, let who +will peruse Bartholus and Balbus. The same is also done by other men of +learning, who study arithmetic more than rhetoric and philosophy; the +merchants, shop-keepers, and other traders acquire nowadays their +greatest gains by their hardwares which are marked by the mint +stamp.</p> + +<p>"From this we may perceive that the 'unhanged, thievish, +oath-forgetting, dishonourable,' <i>Kippers</i> and <i>Wippers</i>, +though not +indeed to be quite exculpated, are not so much to be condemned as if +they were the <i>causa principalis</i> of the ruin of the German +States. +I +have, alas! assuredly great fears, that if once there is a delivery to +the devil or hangman, the <i>Kippers</i> and <i>Wippers</i>, changers +and +usurers, Jews and Jew associates, helpers and helpers' helpers, one +thief with another, will all be hurled off to the devil, or be hung up +at the same time together, like yonder host with his companions. Yet +with a difference. For their principals and patrons will justly have +the prerogative and pre-eminence, and indeed some of them have been +already sent there beforehand. The others will shortly follow to the +above-mentioned place, and it will then avail nothing on this journey +downward, whether one treats them with <i>carmina</i> or +<i>crimina</i>, +whether +one passes judgment on them as criminals, or gives them laudatory +poems--<i>facilis descensus Averni</i>--they will easily find the way, +for +they need no good fortune for that; the devil will couple them all with +one cord, be the rogues ever so big. <i>Fiat</i>."</p> + +<p>It is not improbable that a similar view of their social prospects in +another world was impressed upon the rulers from many quarters. At all +events, even they discovered that they could only be saved by the most +speedy help; nothing would avail them but the reduction and hasty +withdrawal of the new coinage, and a return to the good old Imperial +coin. Thus the first fears of the princes and cities caused them to +depreciate their new money, and to make use of these verdicts in order +to express their abhorrence--not of very old date--of the bad coin, and +they forthwith had the coin stamped honourably of due weight and alloy, +as prescribed by the Imperial law. In order to put a stop to the +excessive increase of prices, they hastened to put forth a tariff of +goods and wages, which decided the highest price to be permitted. It is +clear that this latter remedy could not be of more lasting use than the +famous edict of Diocletian, thirteen hundred years before. The +compulsion which, for example, it exercised over the city weekly +markets, day labourers, and guilds, was only a temporary help for +restoring the overflowing stream to its old bed.</p> + +<p>This state of intoxication, terror, and fury was followed by a dreary +reaction. Men gazed on one another as after a great pestilence. Those +who had rested secure in their opulence had sunk into ruin. Many +worthless adventurers now strutted, as persons of distinction, in +velvet and silk. The whole nation had become poorer. There had not been +any great war for a long time, and many millions in silver and gold, +the savings of the inferior classes, had been inherited in city and +village from father to son; the greater part of these savings had +vanished in the bad times; it had been squandered on carousals, +frittered away on trifles, and at last expended for daily food. But +this was not the greatest evil; it was a still greater, that at this +time the citizen, and countryman had been forcibly torn from the path +of their honest daily labour. Frivolity, an unsettled existence, and a +reckless egotism, had taken possession of them. The destroying powers +of war had sent forth their evil spirits to loosen the firm links of +burgher society, and to accustom a peaceful, upright, and laborious +people to the sufferings and mal-practices of an army which shortly +overran all Germany.</p> + +<p>The period from 1621 to 1623 was henceforth called the +"<i>Kipper +and +Wipper</i>" time. The confusion, the excitement, the trafficking, +and the +flying-sheet literature lasted till the year 1625. The lessons which +the princes had learnt from the consequences of their flagitious +actions did not avail them against later temptations. Even at the end +of the seventeenth century it seems to have been impossible for them +entirely to avoid hedge mints, and the continual recurrence of a +depreciation of money.</p> + +<p>Whilst Tilly was conquering Lower Saxony, and Wallenstein made great +havoc in Northern Germany, small literature flowed in an under-current. +After every engagement, and every capture of a city, there appeared +copper engravings, with a text which described the position of the +troops and the appearance of the city; irregular newspapers, and songs +of lament conveyed the information of the advance of the Imperialists, +and the destruction of the Mansfelders. In the midst of all this the +people were dismayed by terrible decrees of the Emperor, who now from +his secure position threw over the evangelicals, or compelled them by +force to return to his Church, in spite of the fruitless intercessions +of the Elector of Saxony. The Elector at last authorized the +publication of a defence of the Augsburg confession, against the +attacks of the Catholic theologians; this comprehensive work, called, +'The necessary Defence of the Apple of the Eye,' written in 1628, +called forth immediately a theological war; both opponents and allies +hastened in crowds to the field. 'Spectacles for the Evangelical Apple +of the Eye;' 'A sharp round Eye on the Romish Pope;' 'Who has struck +the Calf in the Eye? The Catholic Oculist or Coucher;' 'Venetian +Spectacles on Lutheran Nose,' &c. These are specimens of the defiant +titles of the most readable of the controversial writings. But this +literary strife was drowned in the burst of loud outcries against +Wallenstein, which pierced from Pomerania through all the German +States, on account of the battle near Stralsund, and his shameful +conduct towards the Pomeranian Duke and his country, and finally the +horrible ill treatment of the men and women of Pasewalk. Again these +lamentations changed into a shout of joy from all the Protestants. +Again hope and confidence revived; this time it was a man, whom the +nation, with the genuine German longing to love and honour, welcomed +with shouts of jubilee. What had been wanting to the Germans for a +century, came to them from the North, an idol and a hero. But he was a +foreigner.</p> + +<p>Much of that halo of light still surrounds the figure of Gustavus +Adolphus, which distinguished him in the eyes of his cotemporaries so +immeasurably above all other generals and princes. It is not his +victories, nor his knightly death, nor the circumstance that he +appeared as the last help to a despairing people, which makes him +the one prominent figure in the long struggle. It was the magic +of his great nature, as he rode over the field of battle, firm, +self-contained, and as confident as unerring; from head to foot he was +dignity, decision, and nervous energy. If one examines more nearly, one +is astonished at the strong contrasts which combined in this character +to form an admirable unity. No General was more systematic, fertile in +plans, or greater in the science of war. Discipline in the army, order +in the commissariat, a firm basis, and secure lines of retreat in every +strategical operation, these were the requisites he brought with him to +the conduct of the German War. But even he, the powerful prince of war, +was driven by an irresistible necessity from his good system, but with +the whole power of his being he incessantly stemmed the tide of the +wild marauding war that raged around him. And yet this same systematic +man bore within him a rash spirit of daring against the greatest +hazards; his bearing in the battle was wonderfully elevated, like that +of a noble battle steed. His eyes lighted up, his figure became more +lofty, and a smile played on his countenance. Again, how wonderful +appears to men, the union in him of frank honesty and wary policy, of +upright piety and worldly wisdom, of high-minded self-sacrifice and +reckless ambition, of heartfelt humanity and stern severity! And all +this was enlivened by an inward confidence and freedom of mind, which +enabled him to look in a humorous point of view on the distracted +condition of the decaying Princes of the country. The irresistible +power which he exercised over all who came under his influence, +consisted principally in the freshness of his nature, his surpassing +good humour, and where it was necessary, an ironical bonhomie. The way +in which he managed the proud and wavering Princes, and the hesitating +cities of the Protestant party, was not to be surpassed; he was never +weary of exciting them to war, and alliance; he ever reverted to the +same theme, whether to the Envoy of the Brandenburger, or when +flattering the Nurembergers, or chiding the Frankforters.</p> + +<p>He was closely allied, both by race and faith, to the Northern +Germans; +but he was a foreigner. This was thoroughly and constantly felt by the +Princes. It was not alone distrust of his superior power which, till +the bitterest necessity compelled them to union, kept aloof from him +the irresolute, but it was the discovery in him of a new master; they +revolted at the idea of this mighty non-German power, which so suddenly +and threateningly arose in the empire. There was still to be found in a +few of them somewhat of Luther's national idea of the empire. They had +no hesitation in negotiating with France, Denmark, the Netherlands, nay +with the unreliable Bethlem Gabor; all these were outside the Empire. +Within its boundaries there was the fanatical Emperor and his +insupportable General; they were new people to them, who might pass +away as rapidly as they had become great; but the sovereignty of the +German Empire was old, and they were the pillars of it. This conception +was no longer in accordance with the highest policy, for the German +Emperor had become the most mortal enemy of the German Empire. But such +a feeling is not deserving of contempt; and the nation as well as most +of the Princes, felt to the heart's core that their quarrel with the +Emperor was in fact a domestic one, in which foreigners should have no +concern. But the people, blinded by their delight in the dazzling +heroism of the Protestant King, lost sight of these considerations. For +two years public opinion paid homage to him, as it has never done +since, except to the Great Frederic of Prussia. Every word, every +little anecdote was carried from city to city, and loud acclamations +greeted every success of his arms. It was not only the zealous +Protestants who thus felt; even in the Catholic armies and in the +states of the League, the scorn was quickly silenced which had been +called forth by the landing of the "Snow King," and the +number +of his +admirers continually increased. Many characteristic traits of him are +preserved to us; almost every conversation that he had with Germans, +gives an opportunity of discovering something of his nature. We will +give here a short conversation, after his landing in Pomerania, +recorded by a clever negotiator.</p> + +<p>The Elector of Brandenburg had sent his plenipotentiary, Von +Wilmersdorff, to persuade the King to conclude an armistice with the +Emperor; he further wished to negotiate a peace between them, although +Wallenstein had already deprived him of his dominions, and the Emperor +had shown him every kind of disregard. The conversation of the King +with the Envoy gives a good picture of his method of negotiating. He is +here concise, firm, and straightforward, in spite of some mental +reservation; and so perfectly self-possessed that he can allow his +lively temperament to break forth without danger. The Envoy relates as +follows:--</p> + +<p>"After his Kingly Majesty had listened graciously to me, though +when I +came to the proposition of an armistice he rather smiled, he, no one +being present, answered me circumstantially.</p> + +<p>"'I had expected a different kind of embassy from my loving +cousin; +that is to say, that he would rather have come to meet me and united +himself with me for his own welfare; and not that my loving cousin +should be so weak as to lose this opportunity so providentially sent by +God. My loving cousin will not comprehend the clear and evident +intentions of his enemies; he does not discern the difference between +pretexts and truth, nor consider that when this pretence shall cease, +that is to say, when they have no longer anything more to fear from me, +another will soon be found to establish himself in my loving cousin's +country.</p> + +<p>"'I had not expected that my loving cousin would have been so +much +terrified at the war as to remain inactive notwithstanding all the +consequences to himself. Or does not my cousin yet know, that the +intention of the Emperor and his allies is not to desist till the +evangelical religion is entirely rooted out of the empire? my loving +cousin must be prepared either to deny his religion or abandon his +country. Does he think that anything else can be obtained by prayers, +entreaties, or the like means? For God's sake let him reflect a little, +and for once take <i>mascula consilia</i>. You see how this excellent +prince +the Duke of Pomerania was in the most innocent way,--having really +committed no offence but only peaceably drunk his beer,--brought into +the most lamentable condition, and how wonderfully he was saved under +God's providence, <i>fato quodam necessario</i>--for he was constrained +to +do so--by making terms with me. What he did from necessity my loving +cousin may do willingly.</p> + +<p>"'I cannot withdraw, <i>jacta est alea, transivimus +Rubiconem</i>. +I do not +seek my own advantage in this business; I gain nought but the security +of my kingdom; beyond this I have nothing but expenses, trouble, +labour, and danger to body and soul. They have occasioned me enough; in +the first place they have twice sent help to my enemies the Poles, and +endeavoured to drive me away; then they have endeavoured to possess +themselves of the harbours of the Baltic, whereby I could well perceive +what their intentions towards me were. My loving cousin the Elector is +in a similar case, and it is now time that he should open his eyes and +give up somewhat of his easy life, that he may no longer be a +Stadtholder of the Emperor, nay even an Imperial servant in his own +country: "Qui se fait brebis le loup le mange."</p> + +<p>"'This is now precisely the best opportunity, when your country +is +free +from Imperial soldiers, to garrison and defend your fortresses. If you +will not do this, deliver over one to me, if it be only Küstrin, I will +defend it, and you may then remain in the inactivity which your Prince +so dearly loves.</p> + +<p>"'What other will you do? For I declare to you distinctly, I +will +not +hear of neutrality, my loving cousin must be either friend or foe. When +I come to your frontier you must show yourselves either cold or warm. +This is a struggle between God and the devil; if my loving cousin will +hold to God, let him unite with me; but if he would rather hold to the +devil, he must henceforth fight against me, <i>tertium non dabitur</i>, +of +that he may be assured.</p> + +<p>"'Take this commission upon you to inform my loving cousin +secretly +of +it, for I have none with me whom I can spare to send to him. If my +loving cousin will treat with me, I will see if I can go to him myself; +but with his present arrangements I will have nothing to do.</p> + +<p>"'My loving cousin trusts neither in God nor to his good +friends. +It +has gone ill with him therefore in Prussia and this country. I am the +devoted servant of my loving cousin, and love him from my heart: my +sword shall be at his service, and it shall preserve him in his +sovereignty and to his people, but he must do his part also.</p> + +<p>"'My loving cousin has great interest in this dukedom of +Pomerania; +this will I also defend for his advantage, but on the same condition as +in the book of Ruth the next inheritor is commanded to take Ruth for +his wife, so must my loving cousin take to him this Ruth; that is, +unite himself with me in this righteous business if he wishes to +inherit the country. If not, I here declare that he shall never obtain +it.</p> + +<p>"'I am not disinclined to peace, and have conformed myself to it +contentedly. I know well that the chances of war are doubtful; I have +experienced that, in the many years in which I have carried on war with +various fortune. But as I have now, by God's grace, come so far, no one +can counsel me to withdraw, not even the Emperor himself if he were to +make use of his reason.</p> + +<p>"'I might perhaps allow of an armistice for a month. It may +appear +fitting to me that my loving cousin should mediate. But he must place +himself in a position, arms in hand, otherwise all his mediation will +avail nothing. Some of the Hanse towns are ready to unite with me. I +only wait for some one in the Empire to put himself prominently at the +head. What might not the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg together +with these cities, accomplish? Would to God that there were a +Maurice!'</p> + +<p>"Thereupon I replied that I had no commands from his Electoral +Highness +to confer with his Majesty, touching an armed alliance. But in my poor +opinion, I doubted much whether his Electoral Highness would be able to +come to an understanding without detriment to his honour and truth, +<i>salvo honore et fide sua</i>.</p> + +<p>"Then his Majesty interposed promptly: 'Yes, they will honour +you +when +they have deprived you of your land and people. The Imperialists will +keep faith with you as they have kept the capitulation.'</p> + +<p>"I: 'It is necessary to look to the future, and consider how +all +will +fall to ruin if the undertaking does not prosper.'</p> + +<p>"The King: 'That will happen if you remain inactive, and would +have +done so already if I had not come. My loving cousin ought to do as I +have done, and commend the result to God. I have not lain on a bed for +fourteen days. I might have spared myself this trouble and sat at home +with my wife if I had had no greater considerations.'</p> + +<p>"I: 'As your Kingly Majesty is content that his Electoral +Highness +should become mediator, you must at least allow his Electoral Highness +to remain neutral.'</p> + +<p>"The King: 'Yes, till I come to his country. Such an idea is +mere +chaff, which the wind raises and blows away. <i>What kind of a thing is +that Neutrality? I do not understand it!</i>'</p> + +<p>"I: 'Yet your Kingly Majesty understood it well in Prussia, +where +you +yourself suggested it to his Electoral Highness and to the city of +Dantzic.'</p> + +<p>"The King: 'Not to the Elector, but certainly to the city of +Dantzic, +for it was to my advantage.'</p> + +<p>"After this he returned again to the subject of the Duke of +Pomerania, +saying that the good prince had been well content with him. He would +have restored him Stralsund, Rügen, Usedom, Wollin, and all the rest. +The Duke had desired that his Majesty should be his father. 'But I,' +said his Majesty, 'answered, I would rather be his son, as he has no +children.'</p> + +<p>"Thereupon I answered: 'Yes, Kingly Majesty, that might very +well +be, +if his Electoral Highness could only maintain the law of primogeniture +in Pomerania.'</p> + +<p>"The King: 'Yes, that may be very easily maintained by my loving +cousin; but he must defend it, and not, like Esau, sell it for a mess +of pottage.'"</p> + +<p>Thus far goes the narrative.</p> + +<p>When the great King, the lord of half Germany, sank into the dust in +battle, the wail of lamentation broke forth in all the Protestant +territories. Funeral services were performed in the towns and country, +endless elegies poured forth; even the enemy concealed their joy under +a manly sympathy, which at that time was seldom accorded to +opponents.</p> + +<p>His death was considered as a national misfortune; the deliverer and +the saviour of the people was lost: we also, whether Catholic or +Protestant, should not only regard with heartfelt sympathy that pure +hero life, which in the prime of its strength was so suddenly +extinguished, but we should also contemplate with the deepest gratitude +the influence of the King upon the German war; for he had, in a time of +desperation, defended that which Luther had attained for the whole +nation,--freedom of soul, and capacity for the development of national +strength against the most fearful enemy of the German national +existence, against a crushing despotism in Church and State. But we +must also observe concerning him, that the fate which he met strikes us +as more peculiarly tragical because he drew it upon himself. History +makes us acquainted with some characters which, after mighty deeds, are +suddenly struck down at the height of their fame by a rapid change of +fate in the midst of powerful but unaccomplished conception. Such +heroes have a popular mixture of qualities of soul, which make them the +privileged favourites both of posterity and art. Such was the case with +the almost fabulous hero, the great Alexander; and thus it was, in a +more limited sphere, with smaller means, with the Swedish King Gustavus +Adolphus: but however accidental the fever or the bullet which carried +them off may appear to us, their destruction arose from their own +greatness. The conqueror of Asia had become an Asiatic despot before he +died; the deliverer of Germany was shot by an Imperial mercenary when +he was rushing through the dust of the battle-field, not like a General +of the seventeenth century, but like a "Viking" of the olden +time, who +fought their battles in wild excitement under the protection of the +battle-maidens of Odin. Often already had the incautious heroism of the +King led him into rash daring and useless danger, and long had his +faithful adherents feared that he would at some time meet his end thus. +It was a wise policy which led him to establish himself on the German +coast, in order to secure to his Sweden the dominion of the Baltic, +also to draw the sea-ports to his interests, and to desire firm points +of support on the Oder, Elbe, and Weser. But what duty did he owe to +the German Empire, whose own Emperor wished to suppress the national +life and popular development by Roman money, and calling thither hordes +of soldiers from half Europe? When Gustavus Adolphus conceived the idea +of making himself lord paramount over the German Princes, when he +proceeded to form an hereditary power for himself in Germany, he was no +longer the great cotemporary of Richelieu, but again the descendant of +an old Norman chieftain. It is possible that the power of the man, +during a longer life and after many victories, might have brought under +his sway, with or without an Imperial throne, the greater part of +Germany; but that Sweden, the foundation of his power, was not in a +position to exercise a lasting supremacy over Germany, a small distant +country over a larger, must have been obvious even then to the weakest +politician. The King might still for some years longer have sacrificed +the peasant sons of Sweden on the German battle-fields, and corrupted +the Swedish nobility by German plunder; but he could not build up an +enduring dynasty for both people, whatever his genius might have +accomplished for a time. Men of ordinary powers would soon have +restored things to their natural condition. We are therefore of +opinion, that he died just when his lofty desires were beginning to +contend against a fundamental law of the new state life, and we may +assume that even a longer life of success would not have made much +alteration in our position. When he died, his natural heir in Germany +was already twelve years of age: this heir was Frederic William, the +great Elector of Brandenburg. Gustavus Adolphus was the last but one of +the northern princes to whom the old Scandinavian expedition to the +south proved fatal. Charles XII., dying before Friedrichshall, was the +last.</p> + +<p>As the funeral lament died away in Germany, there began a reaction in +public opinion against the foreigners. The Catholic faction had, during +the whole war, the doubtful advantage that their quarrels and private +dissensions were not brought to light by the press, but their +Protestant opponents were broken into parties. It was more especially +after Saxony, in 1635, had endeavoured, at Prague, to make an +inglorious reconciliation with the Emperor by a separate peace, that +there arose both in the north and south an Imperial and a Swedish +party, and much weak dissension besides. The French endeavoured, but +without success, to gain by means of the press, adherents on the Rhine. +Bernhard von Weimar found warm admirers, who foresaw in him the +successor of Gustavus Adolphus. He possessed great talents as a +General, and some of the winning qualities of the great King; but he +was only in one respect his successor, that he carried on in the most +dangerous way the too great political daring of his instructor. He +wished to make use of, and at the same time deceive, a foreign power +which was greater and stronger than himself: it was an unequal +struggle, and he, as the weaker party, was soon put aside by France, +and these foreigners possessed themselves of his political legacy, his +fortress and his army.</p> + +<p>While love and hate were thus divided in this gloomy period, there +arose among the better portion of the nation a characteristic +patriotism, which the German people, in the midst of their great need +and sufferings, opposed to the egotistic interests of the rulers who +helped to destroy each other. There no longer existed any party to +which a wise man could from his heart wish success. Differences of +faith had diminished, and the soldiers complained, without scruple, of +confession. Then began for the first time a new political system, +called a constitution founded on reason, in opposition to the reckless +selfishness of the rulers. But even this constitutional principle, the +basis of which was the advantage of the whole, as it was then +understood, was still without greatness of conception or any deep moral +purport; and there was no repugnance to the employment of the worst +means in carrying it out. Still it was an advance. Even the peaceful +citizen, after eighteen years of troubles, was obliged to take an +interest in this political system. The character of the ruling powers +and their interests became everywhere a subject of deliberation. Every +one was terrified out of his provincial narrowness of mind, and had +urgent reasons for interesting themselves in the fate of foreign +countries. Thousands of fugitives, the most powerful members of the +community, had scattered themselves over distant provinces, the same +misfortunes had befallen them also. Thus, amidst the horrors of war, +was developed in Germany a feeling of distrust of their rulers, a +longing for a better national condition. It was a great but dearly +bought advance of public opinion; it may be discerned more particularly +in the political literature after the peace of Prague. A specimen of +this tendency is here introduced from a small flying-sheet, which +appeared in 1636 under the title of 'The German Brutus: that is, a +letter thrown before the public.'</p> + +<p>"You Swedes complain that Germany is ungrateful, that it drives +you +away with violence, that the good deeds, done with God's power by +Joshua, are forgotten, the alliance no longer thought of, in short, +that you are less valued, like an old worn-out horse, or decrepit +hound, both of which, when no longer useful, get such thanks as the +world gives. Thus you are treated with great injustice before God and +the world.</p> + +<p>"Be of good comfort: there are many remaining who wish you well +from +their heart, who pray for you, and show their devotion to you in every +possible way. A country where such people are to be found cannot be +accused of ingratitude; and that there are yet many thousand such +people, even your enemies know right well. But that selfishness, secret +envy, hidden counsels, and clandestine negotiations are stirred up +against you, must not be ascribed to the whole of this praiseworthy +German nation, but only to the causes which have led to such results; +for you have on your part shown a double amount of selfishness.</p> + +<p>"In the first place, in raising at your pleasure the toll on the +Baltic; for I have been told by honest trustworthy seafaring folk, that +you have exacted from people, not only from fifteen to thirty, but up +to forty, nay, even to fifty out of a hundred, and have troubled all +hearts by this rapacity; and as no improvement has taken place, but +commerce has been thereby miserably straitened, and many honest people +have been lamentably brought to beggary, the minds of men being thereby +much embittered, your best friends began at first to condemn you +secretly, and at last through their falling fortunes were made your +worst enemies. Would you throw the blame on the toll gatherers? They +are your servants. It is a well-known rule of law: what I do by my +servant is as though done by myself. You appear to me exactly like him +who carried off a pair of shoes secretly and offered them afterwards to +the holy Benno.</p> + +<p>"The states and cities of the Empire, so long as they were in +your +hands, contributed fully and sufficiently to your maintenance; many, +nay too many, to say the least of it, as a proof of their fidelity, +have lost soul and body, wealth and life, nay all their privileges, +and, in a great measure, religion itself. Ratisbon testifies to this. +Augsburg laments over it. All grieve together over it. You have allowed +the old regiments to dissolve, have completed no companies, nor paid +either new or old, notwithstanding you have demanded, and in fact +received large sums of money from many Diets; I say nothing of what you +have extorted from your enemies in their own countries. How has this +money been spent? In superfluous pomp and luxury which is hateful to +every one. We have observed this silently, and made a virtue of +necessity. The children of Israel, when they had intercourse with the +daughters of their enemies, and afterwards boasted of their victory, +and tormented their brethren of Judah with the hardest yoke of bondage, +were both times severely punished by God. And shall it fare better with +you who have exercised more than Turkish cruelty in many evangelical +places? The corn from the monastery of Magdeburg, the Dukedom of +Brunswick and other places, has been thrashed out and carried off in +heaps from the country, sold at a very high price, and the money spent +for your own use, nothing given to the poor soldiers; the country +people, harassed to death, are dying of hunger; and many fortresses, +from avarice, either not supplied with provisions, or not amply +provided with powder and shot, and, in short, general mismanagement. +Now we see ourselves everywhere abandoned by fortune, so that at last +we discover there is no money in hand, and no people to be got, as +those who were available have run away, and the remainder will no +longer be restrained by martial law. Dear friends, think you of the +saying of Boccalini: 'When the prince leads the life of Lucifer, what +wonder that the subjects become devils!'</p> + +<p>"Our politicians know well that the Electors hold kingly rank +in +the +Empire. But who has exalted himself above them with kingly +magnificence, a great retinue and boundless expense, is it not your +chief (Oxenstiern)? Do you think that this has not been complained of +at every court? His Kingly Majesty of Christian memory never did the +like. From these and countless other reasons the Princes, states, and +cities have become first secretly, and then publicly offended with you; +to this may be added a conduct towards the established inhabitants +which they cannot well bear, when foreigners place themselves higher +than their native princes.</p> + +<p>"You say that electoral Saxony should have made peace by force +of +arms. +Let us leave that uncertain. It is known to every one that certain +persons have helped to shove the cart into the mud, and afterwards left +it there. If electoral Saxony has been wrong, you with your procedures +are not less guilty. In short, every one, be he who he may, has sought +his own advantage; therefore Magdeburg lies in ashes, Wismar is in +ruins, Augsburg is bound with the fetters of servitude, Nuremberg is in +peril of death, Ulm is in quotidian fever, Strasburg has passed to the +French, Frankfort has the jaundice, and the whole Empire is consumed. +The enemy have beaten with rods, but you have chastised with scorpions. +The Wallensteiners inflicted wounds, and you physicians have applied +drawing plasters as a remedy instead of oil, have corrupted the blood +and fastened yourselves on like a crab; such a crab must either be cut +out by force, or satisfied daily by inordinate sums of money. The last +is out of our power, the first we do not wish to do to you, but cannot +help it. If God thus harasses you it is your own fault. Meanwhile, do +you think that God has a flaxen beard, and will allow himself to be led +by the nose? Oh, no, He sees well that you shelter yourselves under the +name of freedom, that you make use of the cloak of the gospel, and at +the same time live as Turks.</p> + +<p>"You cry out much about the Spanish monarchy. I have no fears +of +it. +Give me one of the best chemists who is sufficiently scientific to know +how to mingle earth and ores, so that they will hold together firm and +infrangible, and then let us see whether we have to fear the Spanish +monarchy. But I am afraid that France will be to us Germans, the broken +reed of Egypt, which will pierce the hand of whoever leans on it. All +empires have their fixed time appointed by God, and a boundary across +which they cannot pass. First they arise, then grow like boys; some +improve as youths, remain for a time at a standstill in their manhood, +then decline, become old, languish and at last die; nay, are so utterly +annihilated, that one scarcely knows that they have existed. This +course of things cannot be prevented by any human wisdom. The wise man +sees this, and prepares himself beforehand; the fool does not believe +it, and is ruined, like the surviving Generals of Alexander the Great, +who so long divided his conquests, till the Romans became their +masters. And truly the Empire has great need to rid herself at last of +foreign physicians.</p> + +<p>"I have been severe, but a steel axe is necessary to sever such +a +hard +knot, one cannot cut with a fur coat.</p> + +<p>"It is asked what will be the issue? It rests with God. Have +you +had +too little bloodshed? Let God be the judge, and fly ye from his wrath. +Although the Church still suffers, it is not yet dead. You cannot +complain that you have gained nothing for the money you have spent and +the dangers you have undergone. You have brought copper out of your +country, but carried silver and gold back to it. Sweden, before this +war, was of wood thatched with straw, now it is of stone, and +splendidly adorned, and that you have obtained from the abducted +vessels of Egypt. This no one would grudge you if you would only thank +God yourselves for it. The Germans have indeed been excited to rise +against their Emperor, but they will take no one who is not of their +race and language. If the house of Austria has done evil, God will +truly search it out. As concerns the French, I know well that God will, +through them, punish Germany; for we have daily imitated in manners, +ceremonies, demeanour, and entertainments, in language and clothing, +together with music, this nation of apish behaviour and dress, and +frivolous manners. How can we expect better than to fall into their +hands? But the Frenchman will not therefore become our Emperor. To him +belongs the Lily, the Eagle to the Germans, the East to the Turks, and +the West to the Spaniards. None among them can reach higher.</p> + +<p>"I must hope that it will not be taken amiss of me, that I have +so +roundly described these transactions. But frankness suits a German +well. Would to God that any one had in good time thus placed the matter +before you. Now we can indeed complain, but help, none either will or +can give. God alone will and can help us; to Him we must pray that He +may at last have compassion on us, and turn the hearts of the high +potentates to love and long-wished-for peace."</p> + +<p>Here ends the flying-sheet. The author, without putting sympathy with +the Imperialists in the foreground, evidently belongs less to the +Swedish party than we do now. Undoubtedly the Swedish soldiers and +officers had become merciless devils, like the Imperialists, and, like +them, they ruined the country and people. But it was not their +exorbitant demands which hindered the peace, but the injustice of the +Emperor, who still continued to raise the execrable pretension to +subdue the life and freedom of the nation to his interest. Had it been +possible for the Hapsburgers to assure freedom of faith, and the +independence of the Imperial tribunals, almost all the German princes +would have succumbed to him to drive away the foreigners. But the +struggle stood thus: either the nation must be crushed, and all the +ideas suppressed, which had grown up in the German soil for one hundred +and forty years, or the pretensions of the Imperial House must be +certainly and fundamentally overcome: The last was impossible to the +Germans without the help of Sweden. Thus on a retrospect of those +years, every one will be well disposed to Sweden, who does not consider +it a mere accident that well-known men of later times, like Lessing, +Goethe, Schiller, Kant, Fichte, Hegel, and Humboldt did not blossom out +of the country in which hundreds of thousands were driven from Church +and school, by the Jesuits of Ferdinand II. But at that period the +patriot undoubtedly felt the weakness of the Empire more than all the +fearful misery of the people. And great ground there was for anxiety +about the future. From this point of view this brochure is to us the +first expression of that feeling which still, in the present day, +unites hundreds of thousands of Germans. That love of Fatherland took +root in the oppressed souls of our ancestors during the Thirty years' +war, which has not yet attained to political life by a unity of +constitutions. Such a feeling indeed only existed then in the minds of +the noblest. But we must honour those who, in a century poor in hope, +left in their teaching and writings, as an inheritance to their +descendants, the idea of a German Empire.</p> + +<p>After Banner's devastating expedition all was quiet in Germany. +Almost +all the news and State records which the war had left, flowed from the +press. In the last years thousands of printed sheets were filled with +the negotiations for peace. Finally the peace was announced to the poor +people in large placards. + +<br /> +</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> +<div class="chapter"> +<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2> +</div> + +<h3>THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.--THE CITIES.</h3> + +<p class="normal sp1">When the war broke out, the cities were the +armed +guardians of German +trade, which was carried on with wealth and bustle, in narrow streets +between high houses. Almost every city, with the exception of the +smallest market towns, was shut out from the open country by walls, +gates, and moats. The approaches were narrow and easy to defend; there +were often double walls, and in many cases the old towers still +overtopped the battlements and gates. Many of the more important of +these middle-age fortifications had been strengthened in the course of +the century, the bastions of stone and brick-work, as well as strong +single towers, were mounted with heavy artillery; and frequently the +old castle of some landed proprietor, or the house of some former +magistrate or count appointed by the Emperor, were fortified. They were +not fortresses in our sense, but they could, if the walls were thick +and the citizens stanch, resist even a great army, at least for a long +time. Thus Nördlingen maintained itself in 1634 for eighteen days, +against the united Imperial armies of King Ferdinand, Gallas, and +Piccolomini--forming together more than 60,000 men: the citizens +repulsed seven assaults, with only five hundred men, Swedish +auxiliaries. For a defence like this, earth sconces were thrown out as +outworks, and rapidly united by trenches and palisades. Many places, +however, far more than at present, were real fortresses. Their chief +strength consisted in their outworks, which were planned by Flemish +science. It had long been known that the balls of carronades were more +destructive to stone and breast-works than to earth-works.</p> + +<p>In the larger cities the cleanliness of the streets was much attended +to; they were paved, even in the carriage ways; the pavement was raised +in the centre for carrying away the water; the chief market-place, as +for example in Leipzig, was already paved with stone. Great efforts had +long been made to procure for the cities a certain and abundant supply +of drinking-water; under the streets ran wooden conduits; stone +cisterns and fountains often decorated with statues, stood in the +market-places and principal streets. The streets were not as yet +lighted; whoever went out by night required torches or lanterns; later, +however, torches were forbidden; but at the corner houses were fixed +metal fire-pans, in which, in case of uproar or fire at night, pitch +rings and resinous wood were burnt. It was the custom on the breaking +out of a fire to allow the water to run from the cisterns or the +fountains to the streets which were endangered. For this purpose +flood-gates were hung, and it was the duty of particular trades--in +Leipzig, the innkeepers--to dam up the water with these flood-gates at +the burning-places; at the same time from dung that was heaped up, they +formed a traverse. The street police and patroles had been improved in +the course of the last sixty years. The Elector Augustus of Saxony had +organized this department of administration with no little skill. His +numerous ordinances were used as models by the whole Empire, according +to which the princes and cities regulated their new social life.</p> + +<p>The chief market was on Sunday the favourite resort of the men. +There, +after the sermon, stood the citizens and journeymen in their festival +attire, chattering, interchanging news, and conferring together on +business. In all commercial cities the merchants had a special room +where they met, which was even then called the Bourse. On the tower of +the Council House, over the clock, there was always a gallery, from +which the warder kept a look-out over the city, and where the city +piper blew the trombone and cornet.</p> + +<p>The city communities kept beer and wine cellars for the citizens, in +which the price of the retailed drink was carefully fixed; there were +special drinking-rooms for persons of distinction to hold agreeable +intercourse. In the old Imperial cities, the patricians had generally, +like the guilds, their especial club-houses or rooms, and the luxury of +such a society was then greater in proportion than now. There were also +numerous hotels, which, in Leipzig, were already famed for their +grandeur, and splendidly arranged. Even the apothecaries were under +regulations; they had special rules and prices; they sold many spices +and delicacies, and whatever else was agreeable to the palate. Bath +rooms were considered greater necessaries than now. Even in the country +there was seldom a little farm-house without its bath-house, and there +was a bath-room in every large house in the city. The poor citizens +went to the barbers, who acted as surgeons, and kept bagnios. But +besides these the cities maintained large public baths, in which, +gratis, or for a very small payment, warm and cold bathing could be had +with every convenience. This primitive German custom was almost +abandoned during the war, and is not yet restored to its old extent.</p> + +<p>In more important cities the houses of the inner town, in 1618, were +for the most part built of stone, three and more stories high, and +roofed with tiles; the rooms in the houses were often noted for their +cleanliness, decoration, and elegance; the walls were generally adorned +with worked and embroidered carpets, even of velvet, and with beautiful +costly inlaid wainscoting and other decorations; and this not only in +the large old commercial cities, but also in some that were in more +youthful vigour. The household gear was elegant and carefully +collected. There was as yet no such thing as porcelain in use. Rich +plate was only found at the courts of great princes, and in a few +wealthy merchant families. In choice pieces of the noble metals, the +artistic work of the goldsmith was of more value than its weight. Among +the opulent citizens, the place of silver and porcelain was supplied by +pewter; it was displayed in great abundance, shining with a bright +polish; it was the pride of the housewife, and together with it were +placed fine glasses and pottery from foreign countries, often painted +and ornamented with either pious or waggish inscriptions. On the other +hand the dress and adornments of the men were far more brilliant and +costly than now. The feeling of the middle ages was still prevalent, a +tendency of the mind for outward display and stately representations +directly opposed to ours, and nothing tended so much to preserve this +inclination, as the endeavours of the authorities to meet it, by +regulating even the outward appearance of individuals, and giving to +each class of citizens their own peculiar position. The endless +sumptuary laws about dress gave it a disproportionate importance; it +fostered more than anything else vanity and an inordinate desire in +each to raise himself above his position. It appears to us a ludicrous +struggle, which the worthiest magistrates maintained for four centuries +up to the French Revolution, against all the caprices and excesses of +the fashion, and always without success.</p> + +<p>Surrounded by these forms and regulations, lived a rich, vigorous, +laborious, and wealthy people; the citizens held jealously to the +privileges and dignity of their cities, they liked to exhibit their +riches, capacity, and enterprise among their fellow-citizens. +Handicraft and trade were still very prosperous. It is true, that in +wholesale commerce with foreign countries Germany had already lost +much. The splendour of the Hanse towns had faded. The great commercial +houses of Augsburg and Nuremberg even then existed, only as heirs of +the great riches of their fathers. Italians, French, and above all, +English and Flemish, had become dangerous rivals, the Swedish, Danish, +and Dutch flags floated on the Baltic more triumphantly than those of +Lubeck and other Baltic ports, and the commerce with the two Indies ran +in new currents and into foreign marts. But the German herring fishery +was still of great importance, and the vast Sclave lands of the East +were still an open market to the commerce of the country. But +throughout the whole width of the Empire industry flourished, and a +less profitable but sounder export of the products of the country had +produced a general and moderate degree of wealth. The manufactures of +wool and leather, and linen, harness, and armour with the ornamental +industry of Nuremberg were eagerly desired by foreign countries. The +chief cause of disturbance was the insecurity of the ratio of value. +Almost every town had then its special branch of industry, solidly +developed under the restrictions and control of guilds. Pottery, +cloths, leather work, mining, and metal work, gave to individual +places a peculiar character, and even to smaller ones a reputation +which reached through the country and excited in the citizens a +well-justified pride. But in all, scarcely excepting the greatest, +agriculture was deemed of more importance than now, not only in the +suburbs and farms of the city domains, but also within the towns; many +citizens lived upon the produce of their fields. In the smaller towns +most persons possessed portions of the town lands, but the richer had +other property besides. Therefore there were many more beasts of burden +and of draught than now, and the housewife rejoiced having her own +corn-fields, from which she made her own bread, and if she was skilful, +prepared fine pastry according to the custom of the country. The cities +had a great share also in the cultivation of the vine, which reached +from the north down to Lower Saxony; the right of brewing beer was +considered a valuable privilege by some houses; almost every place +brewed beer of its own kind, numberless are the local names of these +primitive beverages; much value was attached to its having a strong, +sweet, and wine flavour, and oily substance; highly esteemed beer was +sent to great distances.</p> + +<p>The people derived more pleasure from their sensations than they do +now, were louder and more unconstrained in their mirth. The luxury of +banquets, especially of family feasts, was legally regulated according +to the rank of the citizens, and he was not allowed to diminish it. The +banquets were arranged in courses as now in England, and in every +course a number of similar dishes. Already, oysters were sent out as +far as they could bear the journey, and sometimes, after the +introduction of French cookery, were formed into delicate sauces; +caviare was well known, and at the harvest feasts Leipzig larks were a +favourite dish. In the popular kitchens, besides the Indian spices, +they had the favourite root of the middle ages, saffron, to colour +with; beautifully ornamented show dishes were highly prized, sometimes +even eatable dishes were gilt, and at tables of pretension the most +distinguished confection was marchpane.</p> + +<p>The citizens eagerly sought every opportunity for social enjoyment. +The +carnival mummeries were general in Northern Germany, when masks swarmed +through the streets; the favourite costumes were those of Turks, Moors, +and Indians. When during the war the Council of Leipzig prohibited +masks, they made their appearance armed with spears and pistols, and +there were tumults with the city watchers. Sledge parties were not less +popular, and sometimes they also were in costume. Public dances were +less frequent than now, even at the marriage and artisan feasts they +were looked upon with mistrust, as it was difficult to restrain the +recklessness of wild boys. They wished to dance without mantles; they +lifted up, swung, and twirled about their partners, which was strictly +forbidden, and the thronging of the gaping domestics into the saloon +was displeasing to the authorities. At twilight all dancing amusements +were to cease.</p> + +<p>The larger cities had lists where the sons of the patricians held +their +knightly exercise and ran at the ring, also shooting galleries, and +trenches for crossbow and rifle practice. The shooting festivities were +a great source of enjoyment throughout the country, and on these +occasions booths, tents, and cook-shops were erected. The people also +took a lively interest in the festivals of particular guilds, and +almost every town had its own public feast; for example, Erfurt had +yearly prize races for the poorer classes; the men ran for stockings +and the women for fur cloaks. Tennis was a favourite game of the young +citizens, which unfortunately in the troubles of the century almost +disappeared. There were special tennis courts, and a tennis-court +master, of the town. If any gentlemen of distinction came into the +town, a place in the market was strewed with sand, and a playground +marked off with pegs and cords. There these distinguished persons +played, and the citizens watched with pleasure from the windows, to see +how a young Prince of Hesse threw the ball, and how one of Anhalt did +his best. At the great yearly markets, for more than a century, +Fortune's urn was a favourite game. Sometimes it was undertaken by the +town itself, but generally it was granted to some speculator. How much +the people were interested in this, we learn from the fact that the +town chronicles frequently reported the particulars concerning it. +Thus, in 1624, at Michaelmas, at Leipzig a Fortune's urn of seventeen +thousand gulden was prepared; each ticket cost eighteen pfennige; there +were seventeen blanks to one prize; the highest prize was three hundred +and fifty gulden, and there were three hundred thousand blanks. The +students at last became angry at the number of blanks; they attacked +and broke down the lottery booth. The pleasure of the people in +spectacles was greater than now, at least more easily satisfied; +processions and city solemnities were frequent; plays undoubtedly were +still a rare enjoyment, in these the children of the citizens had +always the pleasure of representing the characters themselves, as bands +of travelling players were still new and rare. The clerical body was +already unfavourably disposed to what were called profane pieces, +therefore ecclesiastical subjects and allegories with moral tendencies +were always interspersed with burlesque scenes, and great was the +number of the actors. At the yearly markets the play booths were more +abundant than now. At the Easter fair at Leipzig in 1630, was to be +seen, amongst other things, a father with six children who performed +beautifully on the lute and violin, a woman who could sew, write, and +convey her food to her mouth with her feet, a child of a year old quite +covered with hair and with a beard; and of strange animals, there were +two marmoset monkeys, a porpoise, and a spoonbill, and, as now, these +monsters were recommended to the people by large pictures. Besides +these there were rope-dancers, fire-eaters, jugglers, acrobats, and +numerous ballad singers and vendors.</p> + +<p>But what gave the greatest feeling of independence to the citizen in +1618 was his martial aptitude--almost every one had some practice in +the use of weapons. Every large city had an arsenal; even the heavy +artillery on the fortifications were served by the citizens, who, as a +body, were under ordinary circumstances superior to the young companies +of besieging soldiers. Magdeburg would have made a stronger resistance, +if feeling of duty and discipline had not already become weaker among +the citizens than in former sieges, in one of which the maiden of the +City Arms so valiantly defended her garland.</p> + +<p>Besides the city train bands, there was in most of the Circles of the +Empire a regular militia for the defence of the country. About every +tenth man in the city or country was drawn, regularly armed, paid +during service, and appointed for the internal defence of the frontiers +of the country. The beginning of the Landwehr dates from the sixteenth +century. This regulation was recommended by military theorists as most +efficient, and from time to time it was renewed. It was introduced by +the States in Saxony in 1612, and renewed in 1618; there were to be +altogether in the Electorate nine thousand men. The privates were to +receive a daily pay of four groschen, and the serjeants ten and a half, +and the cost was distributed among the houses. But this militia was +found very useless in the war. The discipline was much too lax; the +industrious citizen endeavoured to withdraw himself when danger did not +threaten his own city; the consequence was, that many unsettled people +were scouring the country in arms. If they were required by the +community to defend the ploughs in the field against roving marauders, +they demanded a special gratification, or they evaded it, and very soon +they became more a plague than a benefit to their own country.</p> + +<p>What ruin the war brought upon the towns may be learned from every +town +chronicle. First, the disorders of the <i>Kipper</i> time inflicted deep +wounds on their morality and prosperity. Then came the sufferings that +even distant war brought upon the citizens, the scarcity and dearness +of provisions. Everything became so insecure that nothing was thought +of but the enjoyment of the day. Rough and wild was the love of +pleasure; and foreign modes, which had been learned from the travelled +courtiers and soldiers became prevalent. From 1626 dandyism began in +Germany after the French fashion; the <i>Messieurs à la mode</i> +strutted +about, molesting every one on the paved footpaths of the streets. They +had short pointed beards, long hair in frizzled locks, or cut short on +one side, and on the other hanging on the shoulder in a queue or lock, +a large flapped hat, spurs on their heels, a sword on the left side, +dresses slashed and jagged, a coxcombical bearing, and added to all +this, a corrupt language full of French words. The women were not +behindhand; they began to carry foreign masks before their faces, and +feather fans in their hands; they wore whalebones in their dresses, and +repudiated sables, gold and silver stuffs, and, above all--what +appeared very remarkable--silver, and at last, indeed, white lace. This +conduct raised the indignation of the authorities and pastors, as being +fantastic and immoral. To us it appears as the characteristic evil of a +time when the old independence of the German citizen was crushed.</p> + +<p>When an army approached a town, the traffic with the country almost +entirely ceased, the gates were carefully watched, and the citizens +maintained themselves on the provisions that had been collected. Then +began the levying of contributions, the passage and quartering of +friendly armies, with all its terrors. Still worse was the passage of +the enemy. They uselessly endeavoured to purchase safety--it was a +favour if the enemy did not set fire to the town woods or cut them down +for sale, or carry off the town library on his baggage waggon; +everything that was inviting to plunder, such as the organ or church +pictures, had to be ransomed, even to the church bells, which, +according to the custom of war, belonged to the artillery. The cities +were not in a position to satisfy the demands of the Generals, so the +most considerable of the citizens were dragged off as hostages till the +sum exacted was paid.</p> + +<p>If a town was considered strong enough to resist the enemy's army, it +was always filled with fugitives at the approach of the enemy, the +number of whom was so great that the citizens could not think of +providing for them. There came to Dresden, for example, in 1637, after +the capture of Torgau in the course of three days, from the 7th to the +9th of May, twelve thousand waggons with fugitive country people. The +enemy surrounded the over-filled place; round the walls the battle +raged, and within, not less voracious, hunger, misery and sickness. All +the fugitives who were capable of bearing arms were employed in severe +siege service; the nobility also of the neighbourhood sometimes +assisted. If the siege lingered long, the high prices were followed by +shameless usury, the millers ground only for the rich, and the bakers +made exorbitant demands. The pictures of famine, such as was then +experienced in many towns, are too horrible to dwell upon. When at +Nördlingen a fortified tower was taken by the besiegers, the citizens +themselves burnt it down, hungry women fell upon the half-roasted +bodies of the enemy and carried pieces home for their children.</p> + +<p>But if a town was taken by storm it experienced the fate of +Magdeburg; +the mowing down of masses, the dishonouring of women, horrible torments +and mutilations; and, added to all this, pestilence. To what an extent +pestilence then raged in the cities is scarcely credible; it frequently +carried off more than half the inhabitants. In 1626 and the following +years, it depopulated wide districts; from 1631 to 1634 it returned +again, and still worse in 1636.</p> + +<p>At all events it gave to each town for years plenty of space, and +proportionate peace; and the places--not very numerous--which were only +once destroyed in the course of the war, were able to recover +themselves. But the most fearful cases of all, were those where the +same calamities were two, three, and four times repeated. Leipzig was +besieged five times, and Magdeburg six, and most of the smaller towns +were more frequently filled with foreign soldiers; thus both large and +small towns were equally ruined.</p> + +<p>But this was not all; over wide territories raged a plague of quite +another kind,--religious persecution,--which was practised by the +Imperial party wherever it established itself. The army was followed +everywhere by crowds of proselytizers, Jesuits, and mendicant monks on +foot. These performed their office by the help of the soldiers. +Wherever the Roman Catholics had a footing, the leaders of the +Protestant party, and above all the shepherds of souls, were swept +away, more especially in the provinces which were the Emperor's own +domains. Much had been done there before the war, but still in the +beginning of the war in upper Austria, Moravia, Bohemia, and Silesia, +the active intelligence of the country and the greater part of the +community were evangelical. Their general character was improved. +Whoever, after imprisonment and torture, would not give up his faith +was obliged to abandon the country, and many, many thousands did so. +The citizens and country people were driven in troops by the soldiers +to confession. It was considered a favour when the fugitives were +allowed a short insufficient delay for the sale of their movable +goods.</p> + +<p>The fate of a small town in one of these provinces, the only one +which +was restored at a later period to the spiritual life of Germany, is +here given, not on account of the monotony of misery, but because other +characteristic points of the old burgher life are displayed.</p> + +<p>Where the Riesengebirge descend into the Silesian plain, in a +fruitful +valley on the shores of the Bober, lies the old town of Löwenberg, one +of the first places in Silesia which was brought under the regulations +of the German law; it had already in the middle ages become a powerful +community, and numbered in 1617, in the city and suburbs, 738 houses +and at least 6500 inhabitants.<a name="div2_37" +href="#div2Ref_37"><sup>[37]</sup></a> It rose stately, with its strong +walls, moats, and gate-towers, amidst woods and meadows; it had in +its centre, like almost all the German cities in Silesia, a large +market-place, called the 'Ring,' which included the council-house and +fourteen privileged inns and licensed houses of traffic; the houses +within the town were of stone, high gables projected over the streets, +and they were from four to five stories high. Originally the under +story had been built with trellised porches; these covered passages, +however, had been removed sixty years before; on the under floor the +houses had a large hall, and a strong vault, behind these a spacious +room, in which was the baking oven, and over this a wooden gallery +which occupied the back portion of the room, a staircase led up to it; +the forepart of the room was the sleeping-room of the family, and the +gallery was the eating-room. On the floor above was a good apartment +wainscoted with wood work, all the rest were chambers and lofts for +wares, superabundant furniture, corn and wool. For Löwenberg was a +celebrated cloth-manufacturing town; in the year 1617, three hundred +cloth factories fabricated 13,702 pieces of cloth, and traders carried +their strong work far into Bohemia and the Empire, but especially into +Poland. The city seal, a lion in the town gate, was of pure gold.</p> + +<p>In 1629, the town had already suffered much from the war. The +citizens, +demoralized and tortured, had lost the greater portion of their old +spirit. Lichtenstein's dragoon regiment--Imperialists--were quartered +in the neighbouring city, and supported the proselytizing Jesuits by +sword and pistol. The burgesses of the town of Löwenberg, dreading +their arrival, were obliged to dismiss their old pastors; they +separated from them with tears, the populace followed them weeping to +their dwellings, bearing with them their last parting gifts as an +expiation. The Jesuits succeeded them; the night before they came, a +horned owl took up its abode in the church tower, to the terror of the +citizens, and alarmed the town all night long by its hootings. The +Jesuits preached after their fashion daily, promising freedom from all +contributions, and from the infliction of billeting, and special favour +and privileges from the Emperor; but to the refractory temporal +destruction. They went so far, that the intimidated burgesses were +driven to the determination of accepting confirmation; most of the men +of the community took the Lord's Supper according to the Roman Catholic +custom, unblessed by the cup. The more steadfast of the citizens, +however, were compelled to go away in misery. Hardly had the Jesuits +left the town, when the people fell back again, the citizens rushed to +the neighbouring villages, where there were still evangelical pastors, +and were there married and baptized; their churches standing empty +under a Roman Catholic priest. There were new threatenings, and new +deeds of violence. The upright burgomaster Schubert was carried off to +severe imprisonment, but the Council now declared boldly that they +would die for the Augsburg Confession; the burgesses pressed round the +governor of the province in wild tumult. The executioners of the +Emperor, "<i>the beatifiers</i>" rode through the gates; +great +part of the +citizens flew with their wives and children out of the town; all the +villages were full of exiles, who were brought back with violence by +the soldiers and apostate citizens, and put into prison till they could +produce certificates of confession; those who fled further, were driven +into Saxony. A new Council was now established--as was the custom in +those times--of unworthy and disreputable men. The houses abandoned by +the citizens were plundered; many waggons heavily laden with furniture +were bought of Roman Catholic neighbours, by the soldiers, and carried +off. The new Council lived in a shameless manner. The King's judge--an +apostate Löwenberger advocate--and the Senators, ill treated the secret +Protestants, and endeavoured to enrich themselves from the town +property. Two hundred and fifty citizens lived in exile with their +families; one side of the market-place was entirely uninhabited, long +grass grew there, and cattle pastured upon it. In the winter, hunger +and cold drove the women and children at last back to the ruined +houses. The leading spirit of the new Council was one Julius, who had +been a Franciscan, a desperate fellow, not at all like a monk, who wore +under his capoche golden bracelets. Then a Roman Catholic priest, +Exelmann, son of an evangelical preacher, was established there. But +however crushed and dispersed the citizens were, the offices of the +priest and the new town council were not undisputed. All the +authorities of the town were not yet under constraint. How the +opposition resisted, will be learned from the narration of a +cotemporary, which was printed by the industrious Sutorius in his +history of Löwenberg, 1782.</p> + +<p>"On the ninth of April, 1631, early in the morning, the +following +gentlemen met at the council-house: first, the priest, secondly, the +King's judge, who was Elias Seiler, an advocate; thirdly, George Mümer, +a woollen wiseacre and cloth factor; fourthly, Schwob Franze, also a +cloth factor; fifthly, Dr. Melchior Hübner, who had been a miller's +man, and a broken down baker; sixthly, Master Daniel Seiler, a joiner; +seventhly, Peter Beyer, the town clerk; all these took possession of +the councillors' chairs. The worshipful burgomaster was ill of the +gout. Then the priest who had the upper-hand in the council made a +proposal in the following words: 'My beloved children in the Church, +hearing that you intend sending an embassage to the court of his +Kingly<a name="div2_38" href="#div2Ref_38"><sup>[38]</sup></a> Majesty +at Vienna, I and the worthy King's judge have, on +mature consideration, come to the conclusion, that before you break up +it would be well for you to compel all the women to adopt our religion. +You would thereby obtain for yourselves great favour at court. Also I +will not fail to give you letters of recommendation, to my highly +esteemed honourable cousin Herr Pater Lemmermann, now confessor to his +Kingly Majesty, who certainly has much influence in all secret +deliberations, representing to him how indefatigable and zealous you +have been, and have brought the women into the right way, so that all +you who are now here together may receive a special gratulation. +Therefore proceed zealously; if they are not willing, you have towers +and prisons enough to compel them.'</p> + +<p>"On this proposition votes were taken all round, and first the +King's +judge spoke: 'Yea, gentlemen, as I am willing to undertake such a +journey for the advantage of the town, it seems good to me that this +project should be carried out with zeal and earnestness. If they are +not willing, let the most distinguished of them be put in confinement. +I wager that the others will soon give in. They will come and beg that +they may be let out. Many will be glad that their wives run away and +they be quit of them. If we have been able to bring the men into the +right path, why should we not be able to deal with these little +brutes?'</p> + +<p>"Herr Mümer, 'the woollen wiseacre,' said: 'I have been a +widower +six +weeks; I can well tell what cross a man must bear when his conscience +is moved on account of his wife day and night. It would truly be good +if man and wife had one faith and one paternoster; as concerns the Ten +Commandments, it is not so pressing. It would also be good that the +women should do like us, as they enjoy our income, and become +councillors' wives. Only I fear it will be difficult to manage. I would +almost rather consult with the honourable captain-general of the +province hereupon, how he would deal with his own wife. One should be +able to act with better effect when one has a decided command +thereunto. I could never have succeeded with my wife!'</p> + +<p>"Now Schwob Franze said: 'Gentlemen, my wife, as you know, died +a +few +days ago, so that I am now free and a widower; I have also somewhat to +say on this matter, as I have been plagued by my bad wife concerning +the Papacy. Nevertheless I know not how to handle this business +rightly. There are many beautiful women and widows among the Lutheran +heretics. Would it be well, and could one make up one's mind to +confine, or drive them all away at once? Gentlemen, you may do it if it +seems good to you. I am of the same opinion as my honourable colleague, +Mümer. If I marry to-day or to-morrow, my wife must have the like faith +with me, or hold her tongue upon the same.'</p> + +<p>"Hereupon Dr. Melchior began: 'Gentlemen, God's sacrament, +im-m-imprison them all together till they assent; le-le-let none out, +though they should all rot alike in prison. I yesterday thrashed my +domestic plague concerning this. The de-e-vil ta-a-ta-ake me, she must +do it or I will drive her entirely away.'</p> + +<p>"Master Daniel Seiler said: 'My high and most gracious +gentlemen, +you +can proceed in such a good work with force alone. The captain-general +of the province can give us no commands herein; let him see to himself +how he can bring his heretical wife into the right way, who is no small +vexation to him, and a mirror to our wives. Therefore I beg of you +proceed with speed against the women.'</p> + +<p>"The honourable town clerk Peter Beyer's vote, was as follows: +'Gentlemen, I know not what to say in this matter. I have a notable +shrew, who snaps about her like the devil. I cannot trust myself to be +able to restrain her. If you can do it, try. But I advise, that we +should begin to speak kindly with the women. Let benches be placed in +the council-room, desire them to sit them down, and see whether it be +possible to convert them by good words, or afterwards by threats. +Perhaps they will take it into consideration.'</p> + +<p>"Hereupon the priest and the King's judge came to a conclusion. +They +said: 'The time is short, much delay cannot be given; it is a saying +here, eat or die.'</p> + +<p>"So the King's judge spoke to the town clerk saying: 'Are the +women +without?' He answered: 'No, there are as yet none there.' Then the +judge said: 'Go, and you will find them either at my house or with Frau +Geneussin.' The town clerk found no one at the house of the King's +judge, but at that of Frau Geneussin there were about fifteen. To these +he said: 'His reverence the priest, together with his honour the King's +judge, and the honourable council, send greeting to the ladies, and beg +that they will come to the council-house, where the gentlemen are +assembled.'</p> + +<p>"Then the wife of the King's judge answered: 'Yea, yea, greet +them +in +return, and we will come soon.' So the women went two and two, the +judge's and burgomaster's wives foremost, and ascended the stairs of +the council-house, but the other women who had collected at the bread +tables or elsewhere, or in houses, came after them in great numbers, by +troops. Now when the servant had announced to the council that the +women were there, the King's judge said: 'Let them in.' The servant +replied: 'Sir, there will not be room here for them all; I believe that +there are five hundred of them together. The council-house is full of +them, part of them are already sitting on the musicians' stools.'</p> + +<p>"Then the priest began: 'Indeed, we must pause awhile, this is +not +well. I only intended at first that the most distinguished wives, such +as those of the council, the justices, and jurymen should be called. +Ay, ay, what have you done?' The servant answered: 'Your reverence must +be informed, that yesterday the King's judge commanded that all the +women who had not been converted, or would not be so, should be +summoned, and to begin with his wife; this I have done, and because it +was rather late, I told most of those whom I met that they should +notify this to the others, that they were to come on the morrow without +fail on pain of punishment. I believe I have done no wrong.'</p> + +<p>"The priest spoke again: 'Ay, ay, gentlemen, gentlemen, this is +not +well. I know not how we shall manage to be rid of a portion of these +women.'</p> + +<p>"Thereupon the King's judge said to the priest: 'Let your +reverence +be +content; we will arrange the business, and in the beginning we will +only call in the women of distinction. When they see that they must +really give in or be imprisoned, the others will soon withdraw +themselves and run away.'</p> + +<p>"It was therefore determined, and made known to the servant, +that +the +above-mentioned ladies only should enter.</p> + +<p>"Now when the servant announced this, the wife of the King's +judge +began: 'We will by no means allow ourselves to be separated; where I +remain, there shall my train remain also. Say that we only beg they +will allow us to enter.' The servant reported this again to the +council. Then the King's judge waxed wrath and said with great +vehemence: 'Go out again and tell these simple women that they must not +show themselves disobedient and refractory, or they will learn how they +will be treated.' Then the servant went out again and delivered the +command seriously, but the good-wives held to their former opinion, and +said that they wished to know why they had been summoned, that none +would separate from the others; as it fared with one so should it fare +with all. On this there was great confusion and murmuring among the +women, which was heard by the gentlemen in the council-room.</p> + +<p>"When the servant returned with this answer, they were sore +afraid, +and +would rather have seen the women I know not where. They therefore +determined unanimously to send out his honour the town-clerk, that he +might persuade them with earnest yet friendly words, that the most +distinguished of the women should enter, and the others return home, +and none should suffer. But it was all in vain. The women remained firm +not to separate from one another. And the judge's wife began, and said +to the town-clerk: 'Nay, nay, dear friend, do you think we are so +simple, and do not perceive the trick by which you would compel and +force us poor women, against our conscience, to change our faith? My +husband and the priest have not been consorting together all these days +for nothing; they have been joined together almost day and night; +assuredly they have either boiled or cooked a devil, which they may eat +up themselves; I shall not enter there. Where I remain, there will my +train and following remain also.' She turned herself round to the +others and said: 'Women, is this your will?' Then once more there were +loud exclamations from the women: 'Yea, yea, let it be so; we will all +hold together as one man.'</p> + +<p>"Hereupon his honour the town-clerk was much affrighted; he went +hastily back to the council, and reported woefully the state of +affairs, adding, that the council was in no small danger, for he had +observed that almost every woman had a large bunch of keys hanging at +her side.<a name="div2_39" href="#div2Ref_39"><sup>[39]</sup></a> Upon +this their courage utterly and entirely evaporated; +they hung their heads and were at their wits' end; one wished himself +here, another out there. Dr. Melchior took heart and said to the +priest: '<i>Potz-Sacrament!</i> Most reverend sir, if I had now but two +hundred musketeers, I would soon mow down the whole pa-pa-pack, even +those who would fell down on their knees.'</p> + +<p>"At last his honour the town-clerk bethought himself of a +device. +'Gentlemen, I know a way by which we can descend and escape from the +women. If the gentlemen will close both doors of the council-house, we +will silently make off with ourselves by the under council-room, +through the doors of the tower; thus they will not be aware what has +become of us. But I do not know where the keys of the tower are to be +found.' This good counsel pleased them all well, and the keys were +sought for carefully, but meanwhile the town-clerk was called in, and +commanded to signify to the women, that they should have a little +patience. And the town-clerk was to see how one could slip round to the +front, and the other to the back door, that they might suddenly run out +and close the doors behind them.</p> + +<p>"This plan succeeded with the good-wives, of whom two hundred +and +sixty-three were thus imprisoned. The town-clerk speedily opened the +tower gates, which had not been done for several years, and running +back exclaimed: 'Away, gentlemen, away, the coast is clear; but +silence, for God's sake silence, that the women may not become aware of +it, otherwise there will be the devil to pay.'</p> + +<p>"Thereupon they ran away as fast as they could, part of them +without +hats or gloves; some ran home, others to a neighbour's, each, where +in his hurry he thought he should be secure. All could confess to a +state of frightful terror. The priest ran at full trot up the church +lane, looking more behind than before him, to see whether the women +were following and would shake their keys at him during mass; he +closed the parsonage-house behind him, as the town-clerk had done the +council-house. He was so exhausted that he could neither eat nor drink; +both his ladies had enough to do to cool him.</p> + +<p>"Now when the imprisoned women, most of whom sat by the window, +heard +the rumour which was noised about the town, that the honourable +gentlemen had so cunningly gotten off, the wife of the King's judge ran +to the council-door, unlatched it, and called out with great amazement: +'The devil has carried away the rogues; see, there lies a hat, a +pocket-handkerchief and a glove, and all the doors are open. Come, let +us sit in council ourselves and send for our husbands; they shall come +on pain of punishment, and hear our behests.' Thereupon there was great +screaming and laughter amongst the wives, so that they might be heard +over the whole 'Ring.'</p> + +<p>"At last the women divided into small parties by tens and +twelves, +they +pitied their husbands, children, and babies, who would have nothing to +eat. So they agreed, by means of certain women who were outside the +door, and desirous of joining the prisoners, to beg the King's judge to +free them, and to notify to them wherefore they had that day been +summoned to the council-house.</p> + +<p>"In the meanwhile, however, the King's judge discovered, that +he +had +returned from the council-house a wiser man than when he had entered it +in the morning, and it struck him that all husbands might not be so +evil disposed towards their wives as he was. He saw also a tolerable +concourse of children and mob collecting round the council-house, who +were disposed to carry food and drink to the women; nay, some good +friends had already prepared a whole quarter cask of beer for the +refreshment of the dear women. Besides this also, a number of men had +collected together, desiring to know what their wives had done, that +they should be thus locked up. Then the King's judge took heart again, +and invited the gentlemen <i>cito citissime</i> to his house for a +necessary +conference. The four gentlemen of the council and the town-clerk were +found, but with great difficulty; but the priest had thoroughly +concealed himself, and sent to excuse himself on account of his +exhaustion and his need of rest. But it was determined to send another +embassage to him, to call to his mind that he must appear without fail, +as he had occasioned this transaction.</p> + +<p>"Meanwhile the usher of the council came running to the +council-house, +at whose bidding no one knows, and called through the closed door to +his wife, who was in conclave, and said to her: 'Tell the other women +that the gentlemen have reassembled at the house of the King's judge; +they will soon send out and open the council-house, that every one may +return home.' Thereupon the judge's wife answered: 'Yea, we will +willingly have patience, as we are quite comfortable here; but tell +them they ought to inform us why we were summoned and confined without +trial.'</p> + +<p>"The priest at last allowed himself to be prevailed on, and +came +to +the +judge's house. They all began by complaining bitterly of their +exhaustion on account of the great anguish and danger they had +undergone, therefore a refreshing drink of wine was speedily passed +round amongst them; but what plans they afterwards made I have not been +able to gather distinctly, because all passed standing, and there was +no protocol concerning it. But certain it is, that as is usual with +such ragamuffins, the biters were bitten, and one threw dirt into the +face of the other. At last, however, they became unanimous to send an +embassage to the imprisoned ladies, to release them from the +<i>cito</i>, +and to bespeak them in all friendship, that they might be induced to +quit the council-house. The persons empowered for this embassage were +Herr Mümer, Master Daniel, and Herr Notarius.</p> + +<p>"When these arrived the doors were immediately opened, and the +envoys +entered into the midst of the circle of women.</p> + +<p>"Then began the town-clerk thus: 'Honourable, very honourable, +excellent, and most especially gracious and dear ladies! his reverence +the priest, together with his honour the King's judge and very wise +council, send greeting to the ladies assembled; they greatly wonder +that the women have so ill conceived and misunderstood their +intentions; and as they have so earnestly desired to know wherefore +this has happened, the aforesaid gentlemen have sent us to explain this +in all truth. First, as now the holy week is approaching, in which +there will be held by the Church special preachings on the Holy +Sacrament, it has been thought advisable to admonish the women +christianly and faithfully, to present themselves zealously thereat. +Secondly, it is requested that at the approaching Easter festival the +women will likewise present themselves collectively and show their +benevolence, as his reverence the priest's dues will be so poor in +amount, owing to the small number of citizens present.'</p> + +<p>"After this harangue of the town-clerk, Master Daniel the +joiner, +wishing to improve the matter, said: 'My very gracious ladies! Let it +be understood by the women that this is a friendly conference, and that +no constraint will be used; for it is not customary with my masters and +the very wise council to hang a man before they have caught him.'</p> + +<p>"At this inconsiderate and incautious speech, which did not in +the +least serve the council, Herr Mümer and Herr Notarius pushed him away; +but among the assembled wives there was great laughter and uproar. +'Yea! yea! we understand well enough now; they compare us to people who +are to be hanged. What fellows you are, one with the other! Oh you +faithless rogues! you usurious corn-dealers! you woollen thieves! +Thereupon the judge's wife called out: 'Silence! silence, you women!' +and said to Master Daniel: 'Hear, dear brother-in-law, you do not +understand the matter, and are also too few to compel us against our +conscience. Oh, how God will punish you, and my husband also, who so +openly acts against his conscience! Your dear deceased father, a +dignified Lutheran ecclesiastic, taught you both very differently. Now +you say you are good Roman Catholics. Your new faith is necessary for +your roguish tricks; when you are drunk you speak shamelessly enough of +the mother of God herself, and when you go to your bad women you speak +of yourselves as the brothers of the Virgin Mary. Oh, if your gains +were taken away from you, which you make from your offices and the +common property of the town, and consume again in eating and drinking; +if you were obliged to resume your joiners' trade again, and work +vigorously to keep yourselves warm, how soon you would give up your +Popery. May God punish you! Never shall you deprive us of our faith, +you yourselves will yet be hanged on that account.'</p> + +<p>"The burgomaster's wife said: 'If you had nothing else to say +to +us, +the priest might have done that from the pulpit, and it would not have +been necessary to confine us on that account. It is not thus I could be +compelled to go to church. Under our former pastors and preachers it +was a great pleasure to me to go to church, for I received there +comfort from the word of God; now I am only scandalized and troubled +when I go there. So that it cries out to God in heaven. As concerns the +Easter offerings, every one is free; he who has to give may do so.' +Hereupon the other women screamed out loudly: 'Yea, we will give to the +priest, the devil, as his due.' The honourable envoys were terrified at +such discourse, and begged to be allowed to withdraw, and said not a +word further, but departed.</p> + +<p>"Now when the honourable envoys returned to the King's judge, +the +priest and the other gentlemen had already gone away; they made their +report, and also went home. The women were now released from their +arrest. But this affair worked seriously in the head of the King's +judge; he took it to heart that he had been so ignominiously led astray +by his ideas, and feared that the upshot would bring him to eternal +ridicule. He paced up and down the room, murmuring to himself; at last +he said: 'Give me somewhat to eat.' When the table was spread, and +dinner served up by his maid-servant and children,--a dish of crab, a +piece of white bread and cheese and butter,--the worthy gentleman waxed +wrath, took first the good bread, then the tin butter-mould with the +butter, and threw them out of the window into the market-place; he threw +the crab also all about the room, and seized upon the sausage which was +also on the table, which the children would gladly have had, being +hungry, as they had eaten nothing the whole day. Nay, he was so furious +that he ran out of the room, dashing down the dishes and saucepans, and +all that came to his hand, so that a great concourse of neighbours was +brought together. After that, he ran up to his room and went on calling +out and conducting himself as if it was full of people. The following +morning he rose betimes and stole away, having delivered over his +office to Dr. Melchior.</p> + +<p>"That day the other gentlemen rested till towards evening; then +the +priest sent for the beadle, and commanded him to summon in his name and +that of Dr. Melchior, as the vice King's judge, the wife of the +burgomaster and the frau Geneussin to come to him at the parsonage +early in the morning after mass. This the beadle did. The burgomaster's +wife answered: 'Yea, yea, I will come, but I will first tell my +lord.' But when the beadle came to Frau Geneussin, and announced the +same to her, her son-in-law was with her, Herr Krekler, who was +afterwards burgomaster, who thus answered for her: 'Are the priest +and Dr. Melchior your masters? Are they the masters of my honoured +mother-in-law? Reply that she will not come without the commands of the +burgomaster.' This the beadle told to the burgomaster, who reflected +thereupon, and at last said: 'For my part they may go, I am content, so +the blame cannot be laid upon me.'</p> + +<p>"On Friday morning, at the appointed hour, the wife of the +burgomaster +went to the priest and likewise the judge's wife, who however was not +summoned, together with Frau Geneussin. Then the priest began to speak +with them in the most friendly way; he begged them very politely to +conform and accept the only holy religion which could make them +blessed, as their lords had done. They would see what comfort they +would find in it, and how well it would fare with them. To this the +women forthwith replied: 'No, we were otherwise instructed by our +parents, and former preachers; according to that we find ourselves +right comfortable. We cannot reconcile ourselves to your religion.' +Thereupon the priest said: 'You women may come to church or to me as +oft as you please, when you have anxieties or scruples, and I will +assuredly instruct you assiduously.' The women answered: 'Your +reverence need not give yourself any trouble on our account, as we will +not do so.' 'Ay,' said the priest, 'then set the other women a good +example, and at least go to church and mass, and do not be a cause of +offence to others who have already declared that they would go if the +women went.' The women replied: 'We will not do it ourselves, but we +will not prevent others from doing so; these are matters of conscience +whereof none can judge but God.' Now when the priest saw that all was +in vain, he entreated them thus: 'Ay, ay, yet at least tell the other +women that you have begged for, and also obtained, fourteen days for +consideration.' Then answered the women almost with indignation: 'No, +dear sir, we were not taught to lie by our parents, and we will not +learn it from you; we beg you will excuse us.' So they departed +therefrom.</p> + +<p>"But whilst the three women were with the priest, a great +multitude +of +women collected together with marvellous rapidity, many more than on +the first occasion. Herr Schwob Franze perceiving this, came running +panting with haste to the burgomaster and said: 'Sir, I pray you for +God's sake have a care, and prevent the priest from meddling with the +women; they have assembled together again in a great multitude, the +whole of the bread-market and all the houses in Kirchgasse are full of +them; God help us, they will slay us, together with the priest. I made +the best of my way out from them.'</p> + +<p>"The good burgomaster was so ill in bed that he could neither +move +hand +nor foot. He sent hastily to the priest and told him in plain German +what a hazardous business he had begun, the like of which had never +been heard of in any town. If he were to meet with any annoyance from +the women the fault would be his own.</p> + +<p>"Thereupon the priest said: 'Ah no! Herr Burgomaster, let not +your +worship be thus angered. I see that I have been led astray by that +inconsiderate man Dr. Melchior, who represented the matter quite +otherwise. I beg that your worship will signify to the women, that they +may return to their homes; assuredly what has happened shall not happen +again, of that I hereby assure your worship.' When the women heard +this, and that nothing further had happened to the ladies, as has been +related above, the women were well content, went home and laid aside +their bundles and bunches of keys, nevertheless, not out of reach, that +they might have them at hand day or night in case of need."</p> + +<p>Here ends the old narrative. The priest was obliged the following +year +to leave Löwenberg ignominiously, as he would not desist from his +scandalous proceedings. Amongst other things he had a public chop and +beer-house erected for the old Silesian beer. The spiteful Dr. Melchior +became afterwards in desperation a soldier, and was hanged at Prague. +And the valiant women,--we hope they took refuge with their husbands at +Breslau or in Poland.</p> + +<p>After 1632, the town decayed more and more every year, now under +Swedish or Imperial, now under Evangelical, or Roman Catholic +ministers; in 1639, the town contained only forty citizens, and had a +debt of a ton and a half of gold; in 1641, the citizens themselves +unroofed their houses in order not to pay taxes, and dwelt in thatched +huts. When the peace came, the town was almost entirely in ruins. Eight +years later, in 1656, there were again one hundred and twenty-one +citizens in Löwenberg; and about eight hundred and fifty inhabitants, +eighty-seven per cent, of the population had perished. + +<br /> +</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> +<div class="chapter"> +<h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2> +</div> + +<h3>THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.--THE PEACE.</h3> + + +<p class="normal sp1">The peace was signed; the ambassadors had +solemnized +the ratification +by shaking hands, and trumpeters rode about the streets announcing the +happy event.</p> + +<p>At Nuremberg the Imperialists and the Swedes held a peace banquet in +the great saloon of the council-house; the lofty vaulted hall was +splendidly lighted; betwixt the chandeliers hung down thirty kinds of +flowers and real fruits, bound together with gold tinsel; four choirs +were stationed for festive music, and the six classes of invited guests +were assembled in six different rooms. On the table stood two +prodigious show dishes, a triumphal arch, and a hexagonal mound covered +with mythological and allegorical figures with Latin and German +devices. The banquet was served up in four courses, in each course were +a hundred and fifty dishes, then came the fruits in silver dishes, and +on real dwarf trees by which the whole table was covered; amidst all +this, fine frankincense was burnt, which produced a very agreeable +odour. Afterwards the upper leaves of the table were taken away by +pieces, then the table was covered again with napkins, and plates +strewed over wish flowers made of sugar, and now came the +confectionery: among these there were gigantic marchpanes on two silver +shells, each of which weighed ten pounds. And when the health of his +Imperial Majesty of Vienna and his Kindly Majesty of Sweden was drank, +together with the prosperity of the peace which had been concluded, +fifteen large and small pieces were discharged from the citadel. When +this peace banquet had lasted far on into the night, the Field-marshals +and Generals present, wished on parting to play once more at being +soldiers. They caused arms to be brought into the hall, chose the two +ambassadors as captains; his Illustrious and Serene Highness Herr +Carl Gustav, Count Palatine on the Rhine, afterwards King of Sweden, +and his Excellency General Piccolomini; but for a corporal they +chose Field-Marshal Wrangel; and all the Generals, colonels, and +lieutenant-colonels were made musketeers. Thus these gentlemen marched +round the table, fired a salvo, went in good order to the citadel, and +there fired off the pieces many times. On their return they were +playfully discharged by Colonel Kraft and dismissed the service, as now +there was to be peace for ever. Two oxen were slaughtered for the poor, +and there was a great distribution of bread, also for six hours red and +white wine flowed from a lion's jaw. For thirty years had tears and +blood flowed from a greater lion's jaw.</p> + +<p>Like the honourable ambassadors, the people prepared a festive +celebration in every town, nay in every half-destroyed village. How +great was the effect of the intelligence of peace on the German nation +may be learned from some affecting details. To the old country people +the peace appeared as a return of their youth; they looked back to the +rich harvests of their childhood, thickly populated villages, the merry +Sundays under the hewed-down village lindens, and the happy hours which +they had passed with their ruined and deceased relations and +companions. They saw themselves happier, more manly, and better +than they had been during thirty years of misery and degradation. +But the youth of the country--a hard war-engendered demoralized +race--discovered in it the approach of a wonderful time which appeared +to them like a legend from a distant country. The time when on every +acre of field, the thick yellow ears of corn would wave in the wind; +when in every stall the cows would low, and in every sty a fat pig +would be lying; when they themselves should drive with two horses in +the fields, merrily cracking their whips, and when there would be no +enemy's soldiers to snatch rough caresses from their sisters or +sweethearts; when they would no longer have to lie in wait in the +bushes, with pitchforks and rusty muskets, for the stragglers, nor to +sit as fugitives in the dismal gloom of the wood by the graves of +the slain; when the village roofs would be without holes, and the +farm-yards without ruined barns; when the howl of the wolf would not be +heard every night at the yard gate; when their village churches would +again have glass windows, and beautiful bells; when in the soiled choir +of the church, there should arise a new altar with a silk cover, a +silver crucifix and a gilt chalice; and when one day the young lads +would again lead their brides to the altar, bearing the virgin wreaths +in their hair. A passionate, almost painful joy palpitated through all +hearts; even the wildest brood of the war, the soldiery, were seized +with it. The stern rulers themselves, the Princes and their +ambassadors, felt that this great boon of peace would be the salvation +of Germany. The festival was celebrated with the greatest fervour and +solemnity of which the people were capable. From the same circle of +village recollections from which examples have already been taken, the +following description of a festival is placed, in juxtaposition to that +of the Princes and Field-marshals.</p> + +<p>Döllstedt, a fine village in the dukedom of Gotha, had suffered +severely. In 1636 the Hatzfeld corps had fallen upon the place, had +committed great damage, plundered the church, burnt and broken off the +woodwork, as had been prophesied by the pastor Herr Deckner shortly +before. "This dear man," thus writes his successor, the +pastor, Herr +Trümper, "had rebuked his flock with righteous zeal on account of +their +sins; but they had laughed at his rebukes and warnings, had treated him +with anger and ingratitude, and as he lamented in 1634, with weeping +eyes, had cut down his hops from the poles, and carried off the corn +from his fields. Thus he could only proclaim to them God's righteous +judgment on such hardened hearts. Not only publicly from the pulpit, +but also a few hours before his blessed departure, he had thus +lamented: 'Ah! thou poor Döllstedt! it will go ill with thee after my +decease!' Thereupon he turned, with the assistance of the attendants, +towards the church, and raised his weary head, struggling ineffectually +with death, as if he wished once more, from the corner of his room, to +see the church, in the service of which his life had been passed, and +said: 'Ah! thou dear, dear church! How will it fare with thee after my +death? They will sweep thee up with a besom.'"</p> + +<p>His prophecy was fulfilled. The village in 1636 had to liquidate war +damages to the amount 5500 of gulden, and between 1627 and 1637 it +amounted altogether to 29,595 gulden, so that the inhabitants by +degrees disappeared and the place remained quite desolate; in 1636 +there were only two married couples in the village. In the year 1641, +after Banner and, again in the winter, the French had been quartered in +it, half an acre of corn was sown, and there were four couples dwelling +there. By the zealous care of Duke Ernest the Good, of Gotha, the +deserted villages in his country were comparatively quickly occupied by +men. In 1650, therefore, the jubilee and peace festival could be +solemnized in Döllstedt. The description of it is given, as it is +recorded in the church books, by the then Pastor Trümper.</p> + +<p>"On the 19th of August, at four o'clock in the morning, we, +together +with our coadjutors and some of the householders of Gotha, mounted our +tower, and celebrated with music our morning prayer. Towards six +o'clock, as happened the preceding day at one o'clock; they began to +ring the bells for a quarter of an hour, and again, for the same length +of time, at half after seven. Meanwhile, the whole population, man and +woman, young and old, except those who assisted at the ringing, +assembled before the gate: 1st, the women-folk stood on one side; +before them was a figure of Peace, which the noble maidens had dressed +up beautifully, in a lovely green silk dress and other decorations; on +her head was placed a beautiful green wreath intermingled with gold +spangles, and in her hand a green branch. 2nd. On the other side +towards the village stood the men, and in front of them Justice in a +beautiful white garment, with a green wreath round her head, and +bearing in her hands a naked sword and gold scales. 3rd. Towards the +fields on the same side, stood the young men with guns, and some with +naked swords, and before them Mars, dressed as a soldier, and bearing +in his hands a crossbow. 4th. In the middle near me, stood the +scholars, householders, and the coadjutors. Then did the recollection +come across me, of how often we had been obliged to quit our homes and +flee from our gates, our eyes overflowing with tears, and when the +storm was passed, had returned home again with joy, notwithstanding +that we found all devastated, ruined, and turned topsy-turvy. Now we +thought it fitting thus to honour our dear God, going out in front of +our gates, and as He had preserved us from the like devastation and +necessity for flight and escape, by the gracious boon of the noble and +long-desired peace, we desired now to go to his gates with +thanksgiving, and into his courts with praise, and would for that raise +our voices with one accord and sing: 'To God alone most high be honour, +&c.' 5th. Whilst these strophes were being chanted, Peace and +Justice +approached one another nearer and nearer. At the words: 'All feuds are +now at an end,' those who held naked swords sheathed them, and those +who had guns fired some salvos and turned themselves round. Peace +beckoned to some who had been hereto appointed; these took from Mars, +who appeared to defend himself his crossbow, and broke it in twain; +Peace and Justice met together and kissed each other. 6th. Thereupon +the chanting, which had been begun, was continued, and we prepared to +go. Before the scholars, went Andreas Ehrhardt, adorned to the utmost, +with a staff in his hand wound round with green garlands. Then followed +the scholars with green wreaths on their heads and green branches in +their hands, and they wore short white garments; then came the +assistants and musicians; after these, I, the Pastor, together with the +Herr Pastor of Vargula, who had come to me. After us came the maidens, +the little ones in front, and the taller ones behind, all adorned to +the utmost, and green wreaths on their heads. After these went Peace, +and behind her the boys, who carried a basket of rolls and a dish of +apples, which were afterwards distributed among the children; item, all +kinds of fruits of the field.</p> + +<p>"These were followed by the noble maidens, together with their +relations, whom they had bidden; after them nobles from Seebach, +Saxony, and others who had accompanied them. After these came Justice, +and behind her, magistrates and assessors, all bearing white staves in +their hands, twined with green garlands. Then followed the Ensign +Christian Heum, in his best attire, with a staff in his hand, on which +he leant, but it was encircled with a green garland. Afterwards came +the men in pairs with green bouquets in their hands; the men were +followed by Mars bound, then the young lads with their guns reversed. +There followed the Sergeant-major Herr Dietrich Grün in his finery, +with a staff in his hand like the Ensign; and after him the women-folk, +all also in pairs in their order, and all passed singing through the +village to the church. When the aforesaid song was finished we sang, +'Now Praise the Lord, my soul.'</p> + +<p>"In the church there was preaching and singing conformable to +the +royal +ordinance. After the service was completed, we went in the former order +from the church to the Platz in front of the inn; there the men on one +side, and the women on the other, in half-circles, closed in, forming a +fine wide circle, and during their progress they sang, 'Now rejoice +together, dear Christians.' When the circle was formed I gave thanks to +all collectively, that they had not only, according to the proclamation +of the high and mighty princely government, obediently observed this +solemnity, but also had gone out at my desire, all together, noble and +humble alike, to the gates, and had followed me in such beautiful order +to church, &c., and I admonished them to attend again zealously the +afternoon service. And truly, as I said that it would be well for every +one to come from their houses to church in the afternoon, they did all +reassemble as before in front of the inn; Peace and Justice also were +there again in their dress, but Mars had disappeared. When I was +informed of this, I went during the last peal of the bells with the +scholars, the coadjutors, and the householders out by the back gate +through the church lane to the church, when every one again, as +before, followed me into the church. There we then sang, 'Now let us +sing unto the Lord,' &c. From the church we returned in the same +order, again singing, 'Praise the Lord, praise the Lord,' &c., to +the +above-mentioned place, where I again gave thanks both to strangers and +townspeople, with heartfelt wishes for peace. And here the six +groschen, rolls, and ripe apples were distributed among the +children."</p> + +<p>It is known that the great peace came very slowly, like the recovery +from a mortal illness. The years from 1648 to 1650, from the conclusion +of the peace to the celebration of the festival, were among the most +grievous of that iron time; exorbitant war taxes were imposed, the +armies of the different countries lay encamped in the provinces till +they could be paid off, the oppression which they exercised on the +unhappy inhabitants was so fearful, that a despairing cry arose from +the people, which mingled itself with the wrangling of the negotiating +parties. To this was added a plague of another kind; the whole country +swarmed with a rabble that had no masters; bands of discharged soldiers +with the camp followers, troops of beggars, and great hordes of +robbers, roved about from one territory to another; they quartered +themselves by force on those villages which were still inhabited, and +established themselves in the deserted huts. The villagers also, +provided with bad weapons and disused to labour, thought it sometimes +more satisfactory to rob, than to till the fields, and made secret +roving expeditions into the neighbouring territories, the Evangelical +into the Catholic countries, and <i>vice versâ</i>. The foreign +children +of +a lawless race, the gipsies, had increased in number and audacity; +fantastically dressed, with heavily laden carts, stolen horses, and +naked children, they encamped in great numbers round the stone trough +of the village green: whenever the ruler was powerful and the officials +active, the wild rovers were encountered with energy. The villagers of +the dukedom of Gotha were still obliged, in 1649, to keep watch from +the church towers, to guard the bridges and fords, and to give an alarm +whenever they perceived any of these marching bands. A well-regulated +system of police was the first sign of that new feeling of +responsibility which the governments had acquired: every one who wished +to settle down was encouraged to do so. Whoever was established, had to +render an account of how much land he had cultivated, of the condition +of his house and farm, and whether he had any cattle. New registers of +the farms and inhabitants were prepared, new taxes on money and on +natural products were imposed; and by the severe pressure of these, the +villagers were compelled to labour. The villages were gradually +reinhabited; many families who had fled to the towns during the war +repaired their devastated farms; others returned from the mountains or +foreign countries; disbanded soldiers and camp followers sometimes +bought fields and empty houses with the remainder of their booty, or +returned to their native villages. There was much marrying and +baptizing.</p> + +<p>But the exhaustion of the people was still lamentably great. The +arable +land, much of which had lain fallow, was sown without the necessary +manure; not a little remained overrun with wild underwood and weeds, +and long continued as osier land. The ruined districts were sometimes +bought by the neighbouring villages, and in some places two or three +small communities united themselves together.</p> + +<p>For many years after the war, the appearance of the villages was most +comfortless; one may perceive that this was the case in Thuringia, from +the transactions with the Government. The householders of Siebleben and +some other communities round Gotha, had held, from the middle ages, the +right of having timber free from the wooded hills. In 1650, the +government demanded from them, for the exercise of this right, a small +tax upon oats: some of the communities excused themselves, as they were +too poor to be able to think of rebuilding their damaged houses. Ten +years after, the community of Siebleben had forty boys who paid small +school fees, and the yearly offering in the church amounted to more +than fourteen gulden. A portion of this offering was spent in alms to +strangers, and it is perceptible, from the carefully kept accounts, +what a stream of beggars of all kinds passed through the country; +disbanded soldiers, cripples, the sick and aged; amongst them were +lepers with certificates from their infirmaries, also exiles from +Bohemia and Hungary, who had left their homes on account of their +religion, banished noblemen from England, Ireland, and Poland, persons +collecting money for the ransom of their relatives from Turkish +imprisonment, travellers who had been plundered by highwaymen, and +others, such as a blind pastor from Denmark with five children; the +strangers came prepared with testimonials. The governments, however, +were unwearied in their efforts against harbouring such vagrants.</p> + +<p>Much has been written concerning the devastation of the war; but the +great work is still wanting, that would concentrate the statistical +notices which have been preserved in all the different territories: +however enormous the labour may be, it must be undertaken, for it is +only from this irrefragable computation, that the full greatness of the +calamity can be understood. The details hitherto known scarcely amount +to a probable valuation of the loss which Germany suffered in men, +beasts of burden, and productive power. The following inferences only +attempt to express the views of an individual, which a few examples +will support.</p> + +<p>The condition of the provinces of Thuringia and Franconia is not ill +adapted for a comparison of the past with the present; neither of them +were more afflicted by the visitation of war than other countries; the +state of cultivation of both provinces, up to the present time, answers +pretty accurately to the general average of German industry and +agriculture: neither of them are on the whole rich: both were hilly +countries, without large rivers, or any considerable coal strata, with +low lands, of which only certain tracts were distinguished by especial +fertility, and were up to modern times devoted to agriculture, garden +culture, and small mining industry. Thus this portion of Germany had +known no powerful stream of human enterprise or capital, nor, on the +other hand, was it the theatre of the destructive wars of Louis XIV.'s +time, and the rulers, especially the grandson of Frederic the Wise, +were even in the worst times tolerably sparing of the national +strength.</p> + +<p>There have been preserved to us from these districts, amongst other +things, accurate statistical notices of twenty communities, which once +were in the Hennebergen domain; but now, with the exception of one that +is Bavarian, belong to Saxe Meiningen. It is nowhere mentioned, and +from their condition need not be concluded, that the devastation in +them had been greater than in other portions of the province. The +government in 1649 ordered an accurate report to be given of the number +of inhabited houses, barns, and head of cattle that existed when the +worst sufferings of the war began in 1634. According to the reports +delivered by the magistrates of the places, there had perished in +the twenty communities more than eighty-two per cent, of families, +eighty-five per cent, of horses, more than eighty-three of goats, and +eighty-two of cows, and more than sixty-three per cent. of houses. The +remaining houses were described as in many places damaged and in ruins, +the still surviving horses as lame and blind, and the fields and +meadows as devastated and much overgrown with underwood; but the sheep +were everywhere altogether destroyed.<a name="div2_40" +href="#div2Ref_40"><sup>[40]</sup></a></p> + +<p>It is a bloody and terrible tale which these numbers tell us. More +than +four fifths of the population, far more than four fifths of their +property were destroyed. And in what a condition was the remainder!</p> + +<p>Precisely similar was the fate of the smaller provincial towns, as +far +as one can see from the preserved data. We will give only one example +from the same province. The old church records of Ummerstadt, an +agricultural town near Coburg, famed, from olden times, throughout the +country for its good pottery, report as follows:--"Although in the +year +1632 the whole country, as also the said little town, was very +populous, so that it alone contained more than one hundred and fifty +citizens, and up to eight hundred souls, yet from the ever-continuing +war troubles, and the constant quartering of troops, the people became +in such-wise enervated, that from great and incessant fear, a +pestilence sent upon us by the all-powerful and righteous God, carried +off as many as five hundred men in the years 1635 and 1636; on account +of this lamentable and miserable condition of the time, no children +were born into the world in the course of two years. Those whose lives +were still prolonged by God Almighty, have from hunger, the dearness of +the times, and the scarcity of precious bread, eaten and lived upon +bran, oil-cakes, and linseed husks, and many also have died of it; many +also have been dispersed over all countries, most of whom have never +again seen their dear fatherland. In the year 1640, during the +Saalfeldt encampment, Ummerstadt became a city of the dead or of +shadows; for during eighteen weeks no man dared to appear therein, and +all that remained was destroyed. Therefore the population became quite +thin, and there were not more than a hundred souls forthcoming." In +1850 the place had eight hundred and ninety-three inhabitants.</p> + +<p>Still more striking is another observation, which may be made from +the +tables of the Meiningen villages. It is only in our century that the +number of men and cattle of all kinds has again reached the height +which it had already attained in 1634. Nay, the number of houses was +still in 1849 less than in 1634, although, there the inmates of the +smallest village houses, even the poorest, still anxiously endeavour to +preserve their own dwellings. It is true that there is a trifling +increase of the number of inhabitants in 1849 over that in 1634; but +even this increase is dubious when we consider that the number of +inhabitants in 1634 had probably already experienced a diminution from +sixteen years of war. Thus we are assuredly justified in concluding +that two centuries were necessary, at least for this tract of Germany, +to restore the population and productive power of the country to its +former standard. These assumptions are supported by other observations. +The agriculture of the country, before the Thirty years' war, nay even +the relative proportion of the value of corn to that of silver, at a +time when the export of corn was only exceptional, lead to the same +conclusions.</p> + +<p>It is true that during the last two centuries, agriculture, owing to +the mighty effects of foreign traffic, has developed itself in an +entirely new direction. The countryman also now cultivates field +vegetables, clover, and other herbage for fodder, which were unknown +before the Thirty years' war, and agricultural produce is more +lucrative for an equal amount of population. Perhaps our ancestors +lived in a poorer style, and farmed less. We can compare the stock of +cattle. The number of cattle kept now in the villages is precisely the +same as before the war; they have still the short, thick, curly-woolled +Spanish herds, which used to be reared in the pens of the peasants; the +old wool fell in long locks; but judging from the value of the cloth +and stuffs woven from it, and the price of sheep at that time, it must +have been good.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, the stock of horses has diminished by three +fourths +in comparison with 1634. This striking circumstance can only be thus +explained: that the traditions of the troopers of the middle ages +exercised an influence even upon agriculture; that the rearing of +horses was more profitable than now, on account of the bad roads which +made a distant transport of corn impossible, whilst the lowing of +cattle in the narrow farm-yards of the towns was so general that the +sale of milk and butter paid little; and finally, that a larger portion +of the country people were better able to maintain teams. The breaking +up of the ground was then, as may be seen from the old farm books in +Thuringia, somewhat--but not considerably--less than now. In the +present day the number of goats and of cattle belonging to small +farmers has increased, as also the number of oxen, which probably in +Middle and Southern Germany are now finer and higher bred than +formerly. This is a decided progress of the present day. But on the +whole, reckoning the amount of fodder required, the number of beasts +which are maintained with advantage is very inconsiderably larger at +present than in 1634.</p> + +<p>Thus Germany, in comparison with its happier neighbours in England +and +the Low Countries, was thrown back about two hundred years.</p> + +<p>Still greater were the changes which the war made in the intellectual +life of the nation. Above all among the country people. Many old +customs passed away, life became aimless and full of suffering. In the +place of the old household gear the rudest forms of modern furniture +were introduced; the artistic chalices, and old fonts, and almost all +the adornments of the churches, had disappeared, and were succeeded by +a tasteless poverty in the village churches, which still continues. For +more than a century after the war the peasant vegetated, penned in, +almost as much as his herds, whilst his pastor watched him as a +shepherd, and he was shorn by the landed proprietors and rulers of his +country. There was a long period of gloomy suffering. The price of corn +in the depopulated country was, for fifty years after the war, even +lower than before. But the burdens upon landed property rose so high, +that for a long time, land together with house and farm, bore little +value, and sometimes were offered in vain as acquittance for service +and imposts. Severer than ever was the pressure of vassalage, worst of +all in the former Sclave countries, in which the peasantry were kept +down by a numerous nobility. With respect to their marriages, they were +placed under an unnatural and compulsory guardianship; strict care was +taken that the son of the countryman should not evade by flight the +servitude which was to weigh down his future. He could not travel +without a written permission; even ship and raft masters were forbidden +under severe penalties to take such fugitives into their service.</p> + +<p>Much to be lamented is the injury to civilization which took place in +the devastated cities, especially the return to luxury, love of +pleasure, and coarse sensuality, the want of common sense and +independence, the cringing towards superiors and heartlessness towards +inferiors. They are the ancient sufferings of a decaying race. That the +self-government of cities was more and more infringed upon by the +princes, was frequently fortunate, for the administrators were too +often deficient in judgment and feeling of duty.</p> + +<p>The new constitution of governments which had arisen during the war, +laid its iron hands on town and country. The old territories of the +German empire were changed into despotic bureaucratic states. The ruler +governed through his officials, and kept a standing army against his +enemies; to maintain his "state," that is, his courtiers, +officials and +soldiers, was the task of the people. But to make this possible, it was +necessary to promote carefully the increase of the population, and the +greater tax-paying capacity of the subject. Some princes, especially +the Brandenburgers, did this in a liberal spirit, and thus in this dark +period, by increasing the power of their new state, laid the foundation +of the greatness of their houses. Others indeed lavished the popular +strength, in coarse imitation of French demoralization.</p> + +<p>It was a mortal crisis through which Germany had passed, and dearly +was +the peace bought. But that which was most important had been preserved, +the continuity of German development, the continuance of the great +inward process, by which the German nation raised itself from the +bondage of the middle ages to a higher civilization.</p> + +<p>The long struggle, politically considered, was a defensive war of the +Protestant party against the intolerance of the old faith and the +attacks of the Imperial power. This defensive struggle had begun by an +ill-timed offensive movement in Bohemia. The head of the House of +Hapsburg had law and right on his side, so long as he only put down +this movement. His opponents put themselves in the position of +revolutionists, which could only be vindicated by success. But from the +day when the Emperor made use of his victory to suppress by means of +Jesuits and soldiers the sovereignty of the German princes, and the old +rights of the cities, he became in his turn the political offender +whose bold venture was repulsed by the last efforts of the nation. But +here we must take a higher point of view, from which the proceedings of +Ferdinand II. appear still more insupportable. Just a hundred years +before his reign, all the good spirits of the German nation fought on +the side of the Emperor, when he, in opposition to existing rights and +old usages, had founded a German Church and German state. Since that, +the family of Charles V. had for a century, a short time excepted, done +much by laborious scheming, or listless indifference, to destroy the +last source of this new life, independence of spirit, thought and +faith: it was for a century, a short time excepted, the opponent of the +national German life; it had its Spanish and Italian alliances, and had +arrayed the Romish Jesuits against the indigenous civilization of the +nation, aided, alas! by some of the German princes. It was by such +means that it had endeavoured to become great in Germany, and in the +same spirit, an overzealous Emperor called forth the bloody decision. +On his head, not on the German people or Princes, lies the guilt of +this endless war. The Protestant chiefs, with the exception of the +lesser rulers, only sought to submit and make peace with their Emperor. +It was only for a few years they were led into open war, by the +arrogance of Wallenstein, the scorn of Vienna, and the warlike pressure +of Gustavus Adolphus; the alliance of the great electoral houses of +Saxony and Brandenburg with Sweden did not last four years; at the +first opportunity they receded, and during the last period of the war, +neutrality was their strongest policy.</p> + +<p>The princes obtained by the peace the object of their defensive +opposition; the extravagant designs of the Imperial Court were crushed. +Germany was free. Yes, free! Devastated and powerless, with its western +frontier for a century the fighting-ground and spoil of France, it had +still to bear the out-pouring of an accumulated measure of humiliation +and shame. But whoever would now clench their hands at this, let them +beware of raising them against the Westphalian peace. The consequences +that followed, the laying in ashes of the Palatinate, the seizure of +Strasburg, the loss of Alsace and Lorraine, were not owing to this +peace. The cause of all this, was long before the Thirty years' war; it +had been foreseen by patriotic men long beforehand. Since the +Smalkaldic war the sovereignty of the German Princes, and the +independence of portions of the empire, were the only guarantee for a +national progressive civilization. One may deeply lament, but can +easily understand this. Now at last this independence had been legally +established by streams of blood. Whoever considers the year 1813,--the +first kindling of the people since 1648,--as full of glory; whoever has +at any time ennobled himself by a sense of duty and enlarged moral +sentiments, acquired from the severe teaching of Kant and his +followers; whoever has at any time derived pleasure from the highest +that man is capable of understanding, and from the nature and souls of +his own and foreign people; whoever has at any time felt with transport +the beauty of the new German poetry, the Nathan, Faust, and Guillaume +Tell; whoever has taken a heartfelt participation in the free life of +our science and arts, in the great discoveries of our natural +philosophers, and in the powerful development of German industry and +agriculture, must remember, that with the peace of Münster and Osnaburg +began the period in which the political foundation of the development +of a higher life was in a great measure secured.</p> + +<p>The war had nevertheless consequences which we must still deeply +deplore; it has long severed the third of Germany from intellectual +communion of spirit with their kindred races. The German hereditary +possessions of the Imperial family have ever since been united in a +special state. Powerfully and incessantly has the foreign principle +worked which there prevails. For a long time the depressed nation +scarcely felt the loss. In Germany the opposition between Romanism and +Protestantism had been weakened, and in the following century it was in +a great measure overcome. Even those territories which were compelled +by their rulers to maintain their old faith, had participated in the +slow and laborious progress which had been made since the peace. It is +not to be denied that the Protestant countries long remained the +leaders, but in spite of much opposition, those of the old faith +followed the new stream, and the results of increasing civilization +flowed in brotherly union from one soul to another; joy and suffering +were in general mutual, and as the political requirements and wishes of +the Protestant and Roman Catholics were the same, the feeling of +intellectual unity became gradually more active. It was otherwise in +the distant countries which Ferdinand II. and his successors had +bequeathed as conquered property. The losses which the German races had +experienced were great, but the injury to the Austrian nationalities +was incomparably greater. To them had happened what must now appear, to +any one who examines accurately, most terrible. Almost the whole +national civilization, which in spite of all hindrances had been +developed for more than a century, was expelled with an iron rod. The +mass of the people remained; their leaders--opulent landed proprietors +of the old indigenous race, manly patriots, men of distinguished +character and learning, and intelligent pastors, were driven into +exile. The exiles have never been counted, who perished of hunger, and +the horrors of war; those also who settled in foreign countries can +scarcely be reckoned. Undoubtedly their collective number amounted to +hundreds of thousands. It is thanks to the Bohemian exiles, that +Electoral Saxony recovered its loss in men and capital quicker than +other countries. Yet it is not the numbers, however great, which give a +true representation of the loss. For those who fell into calamity on +account of their faith and political convictions were the noblest +spirits, the leaders of the people, the representatives of the highest +civilization of the time. But it was not the loss of them alone that +made the Emperor's dominions so weak and dormant; the millions also +that remained behind were crushed. Driven by every low motive, by rough +violence or the prospect of earthly advantage, from one faith to +another, they had lost all self-respect and the last ideal which even +the most commonplace man preserves, the feeling that he has a place in +his heart that cannot be bought. Everywhere throughout Germany in the +worst times after the war, there were thousands who were fortified by +the feeling that they also, like their fathers and neighbours, had +resisted armed conversion to the death. In the converted Austrian +territories of the Emperor, this feeling was rare. For almost a century +and a half the Bohemian and German races vegetated in a dreary dream +life. The Bohemian countryman hung the various saints of the restored +church by the side of his pictures of Huss and Zisko, but he kept a +holy lamp burning before the old heretic; the citizen of Vienna and +Olmutz accustomed himself to speak of the Empire and Germany as of a +foreign land; he accommodated himself to Hungarians, Italians, and +Croats, but at the same time he remained a stranger in the new state in +which he was now domiciled. Little did he care for the categorical +imperative, imposed by the new worldly wisdom; later he learned that +Schiller was a German poet. Only then did a new spring begin for the +Germans, in which freedom of mind and beauty of soul were sought for as +the highest aim of earthly life; when the new study of antiquity +inspired them with enthusiasm, when the genius of Goethe irradiated the +court of Weimar, then sounded from dormant Austria, the deepest and +most mysterious of arts, a fullness of melody. There also the spirit of +the people had found touching expression in Haydn, Mozart, and +Beethoven. + +<br /> +</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> +<div class="chapter"> +<h2>CHAPTER VII.</h2> +</div> + +<h3>ROGUES AND ADVENTURERS.</h3> + + +<p class="normal sp1">The war had fearfully loosened the joints of +burgher +society. The old +orderly and disciplined character of Germans appeared almost lost. +Countless was the number of unfortunates who having lost house and +farm, maintenance and family, wandered homeless through inhospitable +foreign countries; and not less numerous were the troops of reprobates +who had habituated themselves to live by fraud, extortion, and robbery. +Excitement had become a necessity to the whole living race, for thirty +years the vagrant rabble of all Europe had chosen Germany as their +head-quarters.</p> + +<p>Thus it happened that after the peace the doings of the fortune +hunters, adventurers, and rogues increased to an extraordinary extent. +A contrast of weakness and roughness is, in the following century, a +special characteristic of the needy, careworn family life, into which +the spirit of the German people had contracted itself. Some particulars +of this wild life will be here related, which will denote the gradual +changes it underwent. For like the German devils, the children of the +devil have also their history, and their race is more ancient than the +Christian faith.</p> + +<p>People are hardly aware of the intimate connection between German +life +and Roman antiquity. Not only did the traditions of the Roman empire, +Christianity, Roman law, and the Latin language become parts of the +German civilization, but still more extensively were the numerous +little peculiarities of the Roman world preserved in the middle ages. +German agriculture acquired from the Romans the greater part of its +implements, also wheat, barley, and much of the remaining produce. The +most ancient of our finer kinds of fruit are of Roman origin, equally +so our wine, many garden flowers, and almost all our vegetables; also +the oldest woollen fabrics, cotton and silk stuffs, and all the oldest +machines, as for example, watermills, and the first mining and foundry +works; likewise innumerable other things, even to the oldest forms of +our dress, house utensils, chairs, tables, cupboards, and even the +panels of our folding doors. And if it were possible to measure how +much in our life is gathered from antiquity, or from primitive German +invention, we should still, after the lapse of fifteen centuries, find +so much that is Roman in our fields, gardens, and houses, on our +bodies, nay, even in our souls, that one may well have a right to +inquire whether our primeval ancestors were more under the protection +of Father Jove or of the wild Woden.</p> + +<p>Thus amongst numberless others, the despised race of Gladiators, +Histrions, and Thymelei--or jesters, were preserved throughout the +storm of migration, and spread from Rome among the barbarian races. +They introduced amongst the bloody hordes of Vandals the dissolute +Roman pantomime; they stood before the huts of the Frank chiefs, and +piped and played foreign melodies, which had perhaps once come with the +orgies of the Asiatic gods to Rome; they intermingled with the Gothic +congregation, which poured out of the newly built church into the +churchyard, and there opened their chests in order to show a monkey in +a red jacket as a foreign prodigy, or produced the grotesque figures of +old Latin puppets, the <i>maccus</i>, <i>bucco</i>, <i>papus</i>, and +whatever else +the ancient fathers called our jack-puddings, for the amusement of the +young parishioners, who opened wide their large blue eyes at these +foreign wonders. Meanwhile other members of the band of jugglers +offered on payment, to execute gymnastic games before the warriors of +the community, which they performed with sharp weapons and all the +artifices and cunning of the Roman circus; then these foolhardy men +formed a ring and carried on with passionate eagerness, for the sake of +pay, the dangerous hazards of the combat, which the spectators admired +the more, the bloodier it became, whilst they held the unfortunates, +who thus struggled for money, in no greater consideration than a couple +of wolves or hungry dogs. But for the distinguished spectators there +were other more enticing artists. Women also roved with the men amongst +the German tribes, dexterous and bold, dancers, singers, and actresses, +in brilliant cavalcades. When they shook the Greek tambourine or the +Asiatic castanets, in the licentious mazes of the bacchanalian dance, +they were generally irresistible to the German barons, but were +extremely offensive to serious people. In the year 554 a Frank king +interposed with his authority against the nuisance of these foreign +<i>rovers</i>, and the worthy Hinkmar, paternally warned his priests +also +against these women, whose foreign sounding designation was expressed +by the true-hearted monk with a very well known but bitter word.</p> + +<p>To these foreign jugglers were speedily added numerous German +recruits. +The German races had had wandering singers from the primitive times, +bearers of news, spreaders of epic songs and poems. These also moved +from farm to farm, highly welcome in the large houses of persons of +distinction, honoured guests, trusted messengers, who often received +from their hosts a more affectionate reward than golden bracelets or +new dresses. They had once upon a time sung to the harp by the +fireside, of the adventurous expedition of the thunder god to the world +of giants, and of the tragic fall of the Nibelungen, then of Attila's +battle, and the wonders of southern lands. But to the new Christian +faith, this treasure of old native songs was obnoxious. The high-minded +Charlemagne made a collection of the heroic songs of the German race, +but his Popish son Louis hated and despised them. These songs +undoubtedly were so thoroughly heathen, that the Church had reason to +remonstrate against them in synodical resolutions and episcopal +decrees. Together with them, the race of singers who carried and spread +them, fell into disfavour with the church. The songs did not however +cease, but the singers sank to a lower scale, and finally a portion of +them at least fell into the class of vagrants, and the people were +accustomed to hear the fairest heritage of their past from the lips of +despised players.</p> + +<p>Another heritage also from German heathendom fell to these strollers. +Even before the time of Tacitus there were simple dramatic processions +in Germany; on the great feast days of the German gods, there already +appeared the humorous ideas of the pious German regarding his world of +deities, associating with them comic processions of mummers, the +figures of goblins and giants, gray winter and green spring, the bear +of Donar, and probably the magic white horse of Woden, which in the +oldest form of dramatic play opposed each other either in mimic combat, +or for their rights. The wandering jugglers, with great facility, added +these German masks to the grotesque Roman figures which they had +brought into the country; and in the churchyard of the new Christian +congregation, the bear of the bacchanalian Asen bellowed beside the +followers of the Roman god of wine, and the satyr with his goats' feet +and horns.</p> + +<p>Thus this race of wanderers soon Germanized themselves, and during +the +whole of the middle ages roved about amongst the people--in the eye of +the law homeless and lawless. The Church continued to rouse suspicion +against these strollers by repeated decrees; the clergy would on no +account see or listen to such rabble, nay, they were denied the right +of taking a part in the Christian sacraments. The old law books allowed +hired pugilists to kill each other without penance, like stray dogs; or +what was almost worse, they granted to the injured vagrant only the +mockery of a sham penance. If a stroller was struck by a sword or +knife, he could only return the thrust or blow upon the shadow of his +injurers on the wall.</p> + +<p>This ignominious treatment contrasted strongly with the favour which +these strollers generally enjoyed. Singly, or in bands, they went +through the country, and streamed together by hundreds at the great +court and Church fêtes. Then, it was the general custom to distribute +among them food, drink, clothes, and money. It was thought advisable to +treat them well, as they were well known to be tale-bearers, and would +publish in satirical songs throughout the whole country the scandalous +conduct of the niggardly man, with a vindictiveness which was sharpened +by the feeling that such revenge was the best means of making +themselves feared. It was rarely that a prince like Henry II., or a +pious bishop, ventured to send away these bands from their fêtes +without a reward. Almost everywhere, till quite into the fifteenth +century, they were to be found wherever a large assemblage of men +sought for amusement. They sang ballads, satirical songs and love +songs, and related heroic tales and legends from foreign lands, on the +stove-bench of the peasant, in tins ante-room of the burgher, or the +hall of the castle. From the latter its lord is absent perhaps on a +crusade, and his wife and servants listen anxiously to the fables and +lies of the wandering player. To-day he is the narrator of foreign +tales of marvel, and to-morrow the clandestine messenger betwixt +two lovers; then he again enters for a time the service of knightly +minne-singers, whose minne-songs he accompanies with his music, and +undertakes to spread them through the country, as a journal does now; +or he dresses himself up more strikingly than usual, takes his bauble +in his hand, places a fool's cap on his head, and goes as travelling +fool to some nobleman, or follower of some distinguished +ecclesiastic.</p> + +<p>Wherever his fellows collected together in numbers, at courtly +residences and tournaments, or in churchyards at great saints' feasts, +he quickly pitched his tent and booth by the side of those of traders +and pedlers, and began his arts; rope-dancing, jongleur exercises, +sham-fights, dramatic representations in masks, shows of curiosities, +songs, masked artistic dances, and playing for dances and festive +processions. In the churchyard itself, or within the boundaries of some +castle, were heard the sounds of noisy pleasure; and the sun-burnt +women of the band slipped secretly through side doors into the castle +or the priests' house.</p> + +<p>Only some of the practices of these vagrants deserve special mention. +The influence which these musicians exercised on the progress of epic +and lyrical popular poetry, has been already mentioned; it is even now +discerned in heroic poetry, for the players often endeavoured to +introduce fellows of their own class into the old poetry, and took care +that they should play no contemptible rôle. Thus in the Nibelungen, the +brilliant form of the hero Volker the fiddler, is the representation of +a musician; similar figures, grotesque in appearance, but rougher and +coarser, hectored in the later poems and popular legends, as for +example the monk Ilsan in the Rosengarten.</p> + +<p>But it was not only in the German epos, that the strollers smuggled +in, +beautiful copies of their own life; despised as they were, they +contrived, with all the insolence of their craft, to introduce +themselves into the nave and choir of the church, though almost +excluded from its holy rites. For even in the first strict +ecclesiastical beginnings of the German dramas, they crept into the +holy plays of the Easter festivals. Already in the beginning of the +middle ages the history of the crucifixion and resurrection had assumed +a dramatic colouring; alternate songs between Christ and his disciples, +Pilate and the Jews, were sung by the clergy in the church choir; a +great crucifix was reverently deposited in an artificial grave in the +crypt, and afterwards there was a solemn announcement, on Easter +morning, of the resurrection, songs of praise by the whole +congregation, and the consecration of psalms. They began early to bring +forward more prominently, individual rôles in dramatic songs, to put +speeches as well as songs into their mouths, and to distinguish the +chief rôles by suitable dress and particular attributes. On other +Church festivals the same was done with the legends of the saints, and +already in the twelfth century whole pieces were dramatically performed +in the German churches, first of all in Latin, by the clergy in the +choir. But in the thirteenth century the German language made its way +into the dialogue; then the pieces became longer, the number of rôles +increased, the laity began to join in it, the dialogues became +familiar, sometimes facetious, and contrasted wonderfully with the +occasional Latin songs and responses, which were maintained in the +midst of them, and which also gradually became German. The personages +in the Biblical plays still appear under the same comic figures, with +the coarse jokes and street wit which the roving people had introduced +into the churchyards. Generally the fool entered as servant of a quack. +From the oldest times these strollers had carried about with them +through the country, secret remedies, especially such as were +suspicious to the Church, primitive Roman superstitions, ancient German +forms of exorcism, and others also which were more noxious and +dangerous. At the great Church festivals and markets, there were always +doctors' booths, in which miraculous remedies and cures were offered +for sale to the believing multitudes. These booths also of the +wandering doctors are older than the Augustine age; they are to be seen +depicted on the Greek vases, and came to Germany through Italy, with +the grotesque masks of the doctors themselves and their attendant +buffoons, and were the most profitable trade of the strollers. These +doctors and their servants were introduced as interludes to the +spiritual plays, with long spun out episodes of the holy traffic, in +which ribaldry and drubbing are not wanting.</p> + +<p>But the strollers introduced another popular person into the holy +plays, the devil, probably his first appearance in the church. Long had +this spirit of hell spit out fire under the tents of the churchyard, +and wagged his tail, and probably he had often been beaten and cheated, +to the delight of the spectators, by clever players, before he assisted +in the thirteenth century as a much-suffering fellow-actor, in the holy +Easter dramas, to the edification of the pious parishioners.</p> + +<p>Such was the active industry carried on by these strollers through +the +middle ages. Serving every class and every tendency of the times, +coarse in manners and morals, as privileged jesters both cherished and +ill treated, they were probably united amongst themselves in firm +fellowship, with secret tokens of recognition; they were distinguished +by their outward attire, and chiefly by fantastic finery, and by the +absence of long hair and beard, the honourable adornment of privileged +people, which they were forbidden to wear.</p> + +<p>In the fifteenth century the severity of the laws against them were +relaxed, for the whole life of all classes had become more frivolous, +daring, and reckless; an inordinate longing after enjoyment, an +excessive pleasure in burlesque jesting, in music and dancing, in +singing and mimic representations, was general in the wealthy towns. +Thus many of the race of strollers contrived to make their peace with +the burgher society. They became domestic fools in the courts of +princes, the merry-andrews of the towns, associates of the town pipers, +and players to the bands of Landsknechte.</p> + +<p>But besides the players and their followers, there appeared along the +roads of the armies, and in the hiding-places of the woods, other +children of misfortune less harmless and far more awful to the people, +first of all the gipsies.</p> + +<p>The gipsies, from their language and the scanty historical records +that +there are of them, appear to be a race of northern border Indians, who +lost their home, and their connection with their Indian relatives, at a +time when the transformation of the ancient Sanscrit into the modern +and popular languages had already begun. In their wanderings towards +the west, which had gone on for centuries, they must have lived in +continual intercourse with Arabians, Persians, and Greeks, for the +language of these people has had a marked influence on their own. They +were possibly, about the year 430 but more probably about 940, in +Persia. They appeared about the twelfth century as Ishmaelites and +braziers,<a name="div2_41" href="#div2Ref_41"><sup>[41]</sup></a> in +Upper Germany. They were settled in the fourteenth +century in Cypress, and in the year 1370, as bondsmen is Wallachia. The +name of Zingaro or Zitano, is a corruption from their language; they +still call themselves Scindians, dwellers on the banks of the Indus; +their own statement also, that they came from Little Egypt, may be +correct, as Little Egypt appears then to have denoted, not the valley +of the Nile, but the frontier lands of Asia.</p> + +<p>In the year 1417, they came in great hordes, with laughable +pretensions +and grotesque processions, from Hungary, into Germany, and shortly +afterwards into Switzerland, France, and Italy. A band of three hundred +grown-up persons, without counting the children, proceeded as far as +the Baltic, under the command of a duke and count, on horseback and on +foot; the women and children sitting with the baggage on the carts. +They were dressed like comedians, and had sporting dogs with them as a +sign of noble birth; but when they really hunted, they did so without +dogs, and without noise. They showed recommendations and safe-conducts +from princes and nobles, and also from the Emperor Sigismund. They +asserted that their bishops had commanded them to wander for seven +years through the world. But they were great swindlers, and passed +their nights in the open air, for better opportunities of stealing. In +1418, they appeared in many parts of Germany, and the same year went +under the command of Duke Michael, from Little Egypt into Switzerland. +A rendezvous of many hordes seems to have taken place before Zurich. +They numbered according to the lowest computation a thousand heads. +They had two dukes and two knights, and pretended to have been driven +from Egypt by the Turks: they carried much money in their pockets, and +maintained that they had received it from their own people at home: +they ate and drank well, and also paid well, but they have never shown +themselves again like this. From thence they appear to have turned to +France and Italy; in 1422, a band of them came under a duke from Egypt +to Bologna and Forli. They stated that the King of Hungary had +compelled about 4000 of them to be baptized, and had slain the +remainder; the baptized had been condemned to the penance of seven +years' wandering. They wished to go to Rome to visit the Pope. In 1427, +the same band, probably, appeared before Paris with two dukes. They +asserted that they had letters and a blessing from the Pope. The Pope +had held council concerning them, and had decided that they were to +wander through the world seven years, without lying on a bed; then he +would send them to a fine country. For five years they had journeyed +about, and their king and queen had died during their wanderings, +&c. +These were followed by other bands.</p> + +<p>In 1424, a new horde appeared before Ratisbon, with letters of safe +conduct from the Emperor Sigismund, one of which was dated Zips, 1423, +and was published by the chroniclers. In 1438, another horde passed +through Bohemia, Austria, and Bavaria; this time they were under a +petty king, Zindelo; they also asserted that they came from Egypt, and +declared that they were commanded by God to wander for seven years, +because their forefathers had refused hospitality to the mother of God +and the child Jesus, on their flight into Egypt.</p> + +<p>In hordes like these they spread themselves, during the fifteenth and +sixteenth centuries, over the whole of Europe. In spite of their +frivolous finery and cunning lies, there were very few places in which +they succeeded in deceiving men. They proved, indeed, everywhere to be +wicked heathens, magicians, fortune-tellers, and most shameless +thieves. They split themselves into small bands during their distant +travels; their leaders, whom they had honoured with all the feudal +titles, in order to give themselves consideration, disappeared. They +themselves were thoroughly decimated by their wandering lives, and the +persecutions of the local inhabitants.</p> + +<p>Their language gives the best explanation of their past. The original +homogeneousness of the gipsy language is distinctly visible amidst the +various changes which it has gone through in many countries. It appears +to be the mode of speech of a single and special Indian race. The gipsy +is apparently not the descendant of a mixed Indian people, or of a +single low caste of Indians, but of a distinct race of people. The men +call themselves everywhere, <i>rom</i>; and in contradiction to the +western +nations, also <i>calo</i>, black: their wives, <i>romni</i>, and their +language +<i>romany-tschib</i>. The names which their race have had in different +countries are numerous and various.</p> + +<p>Their language is in its origin and internal structure a genuine +daughter of the distinguished Sanscrit, but it has become for many +centuries like a beggar and thief; it has lost much of its beauty, its +elegance, and its resemblance to its mother and sisters; instead of +which it has appropriated something to itself from every country in +which these people have tarried in their wanderings, and its dress +appears covered with the tatters of all nations, so that it is only +here and there that the genuine gold threads are still visible. The +race have lost a great portion of their own words, more especially +those, that express ideas which they could not preserve in their paltry +miserable life in foreign countries. They have lost the Indian +expression for parrot, elephant, and lion, also for the tiger and +buffalo snake, but sugar--<i>gûlo</i>, silk--<i>pahr</i>, and +grapes--<i>drakh</i>, +they call by their Indian, and wine--<i>mohl</i>, by its Persian name. +Nay, +they have also lost the Indian words for many current terms: they no +longer call the sparrow by its Indian name: no fish, and hardly any +plants; but undoubtedly they retain those of many large and small +animals, amongst others <i>dschu</i>, the louse. But in all countries, +new +representations, images, and ideas offered themselves, and too lazy and +careless to form words of their own, they took those of every foreign +language and adapted them to the necessities of their own tongue. The +result was, that even the gipsies who were in bands, being without firm +union, were split in pieces among the various people, so that what they +still possessed did not remain common to all, and there arose in every +country a peculiar gipsy idiom, in which old recollections were mixed +up with the language of the country, in an original way. Finally the +<i>rom</i> appropriated to himself almost everywhere, besides the common +language of the country that of the rogues, the thieves' dialect, to +which he imparted, in friendly exchange, words from his own language. +In Germany he understood gibberish, or <i>Jenisch</i>; in Bohemia, +<i>Hantyrka</i>; in French, <i>Argôt</i>; in England, Slang; and in +Spain, +<i>Germania</i>.</p> + +<p>It is instructive to observe how their hereditary language became +corrupted; for the decadence of one language, through the overpowering +influence of another, proceeds according to fixed laws. First, foreign +words penetrate in a mass, because foreign cultivation has an imposing +effect; next the formation of sentences is taken from the foreign +language, because the mind of the people accustoms itself to think +after the method of the foreigners; and thirdly, they forget their +own inflections; then the language becomes a heap of ruins, a +weather-beaten organism, like a corroded mass of rock which crumbles +away into sand or gravel. The gipsy language has gone through the first +and second stages of decadence, and the third also in Spain.</p> + +<p>The life of this race in Germany was far from comfortable. As their +hands were against the property of every one, so did the popular hatred +work against their lives. Charles V. commanded them to be banished, and +the new police ordinances of the Princes allowed them no indulgence. +Yet they were able to gain money from the country people by soothsaying +and secret arts, by doctoring man and beast, or as horse-dealers and +pedlers. Often, united with bands of robbers, they carried on a new +service during the long war, as camp followers. Wallenstein made use of +them as spies, as did the Swedes also later. The women made themselves +agreeable to the officers and common soldiers. The cunning men of the +band sold amulets and shod horses.</p> + +<p>After the war they went about through the country audaciously, the +terror of the countryman. In 1663 a band of more than two hundred of +them invaded Thuringia, where they distributed themselves, and were +considered as very malevolent, because it was reported of them that +they reconnoitred the country probably for an enemy. They had in fact +become a great plague throughout the country, and the law thundered +against them with characteristic recklessness. Orders were issued +everywhere for their banishment; they were considered as spies of the +Turks, and as magicians, and were made outlaws; even after the year +1700, in a small Rhenish principality, a gipsy woman and her child were +brought in amongst other wild game which had been slain. A band again +broke into Thuringia in the eighteenth century, and a law in 1722 +declared all the men outlawed. In Prussia, in 1710, an edict was +promulgated, commanding the alarm to be sounded, and the community to +be summoned together against them, whenever they should make their +appearance. On the frontiers, gallows were erected with this +inscription: "The punishment for thieves and gipsy rabble, both +men +and +women." As late as the year 1725 all the gipsies in the Prussian +states, over eighteen years of age, were to be hanged whether they had +a passport or not. Even in 1748 Frederick the Great renewed this strong +edict. The conduct of the civilized nineteenth century forms a pleasing +contrast to this. In 1830 at Friedrichslohra in Thuringia, a +philanthropic endeavour was made, and warmly promoted by the +government, to reform a band of about one hundred men, by the +maintenance of the adults and education of the children. The attempt +was continued for seven years, and completely failed.</p> + +<p>The name of Stroller disappeared, and the occupation of these +possessionless rovers became to a certain degree free from the old +defect; but the great society of swindlers maintained a certain +organization. Their language also remained. The gibberish, of which +many specimens remain to us from the latter end of the middle ages, +shows already, before the demoralization of the people by the Hussite +war, a full development of old German rogues' idioms. It consists for +the greater part of Hebrew words as used by persons who were not +themselves Jews; together with these are mingled some of the honoured +treasures of the German language, beautiful old words, and again +significant inventions of figurative expressions, for the sake of +concealing the true sense of the speech by a deceptive figure: thus, +windgap for mantle, broadfoot for goose. Few of their words lead us to +expect an elevated disposition; the rough humour of desperadoes breaks +out from many of them. The practice, like the language of these rogues, +developed itself in greater refinement. The usual form in which the +resident inhabitants were plundered was begging. The works of holiness +of the old Church--an irrational alms-giving--had spread throughout +Christendom an unwieldy mass of mendicancy. In the first century of +German Christendom it is the subject of complaint of pious +ecclesiastics. In churchyards and in public places lay the beggars, +exposing horrible wounds, which were often artistically inflicted; they +sometimes went naked through the country with a club, afterwards +clothed, and with many weapons, and begged at every homestead for their +children, or for the honour of their saints, or as slaves escaped from +the Turkish galleys, for a vow, or for only a pound of wax, a silver +cross, or a mass vestment. They begged also towards the erection of a +church, producing letters and seals; they had much at heart to obtain +special napkins for the priest, linen for the altar cloth, and broken +plate for the chalice; they rolled about as epileptics, holding soap +lather in their mouths. In like manner did the women wander about, some +pretending to give birth to monsters (as for example a toad) which +lived in solitude as miraculous creatures, and daily required a pound +of meat. When a great festival was held they flocked together in +troops. They formed a dangerous company, and even iron severity could +scarcely keep them under restraint. Basle appears to have been one of +their secret meeting-places; they had there their own special place of +justice, and the famed "<i>Liber Vagatorum</i>" also, seems +to +have +originated in that neighbourhood. This book, written by an unknown hand +about 1500, contains, in rogues' language, a careful enumeration of the +rogue classes and their tricks, and at the end a vocabulary of jargon. +It was often printed; and Pamphilus Gengenbach of Basle rendered it +into rhyme. It pleased Luther so well that he also reprinted the clever +little book, after one of the oldest impressions.</p> + +<p>To the order of beggars belong also the travelling scholars, who, as +treasure diggers and exorcists, made successful attacks on the savings +of the peasants and on the provisions in their chimneys. "They +desired +to become priests," then they came from Rome with shaven crowns and +collected for a surplice; or they were necromancers, then they wore a +yellow train to their coats and came from the Frau Venusberg; when they +entered a house they exclaimed, "Here comes a travelling scholar, a +master of seven liberal sciences, an exorciser of the devil, and from +hail storms, fire, and monsters;" and thereupon they made +"experiments." Together with them came disbanded +Landsknechte, +often +associated with the dark race of outlaws, who worked with armed hand +against the life and property of the resident inhabitants.</p> + +<p>Throughout the whole of the middle ages it was impossible to +eradicate +the robbers. After the time of Luther they became incendiaries, more +particularly from 1540 to 1542. A foreign rabble appeared suddenly in +middle Germany, especially in the domains of the Protestant chiefs, the +Elector of Saxony and Landgrave of Hesse. They burned Cassel, Nordheim, +Göttingen, Goslor, Brunswick, and Magdeburg. Eimbech was burned to the +ground with three hundred and fifty men, and a portion of Nordhausen; +villages and barns were everywhere set on fire; bold incendiary letters +stirred up the people, and at last also the princes. The report became +general that the Roman Catholic party had hired more than three hundred +incendiaries, and the Pope, Paul III., had counselled Duke Henry the +younger, of Brunswick, to send the rabble to Saxony and Hesse. +Undoubtedly much wickedness was laid to the credit of the unscrupulous +Duke; but it was then the interest of Pope Paul III. to treat the +Protestants with forbearance, for earnest endeavours were being made on +both sides for a great reconciliation, and preparation was made for it +at Rome, by sending the Cardinal Contarini to the great religious +conference at Ratisbon. The terror, however, and anger of the Germans +was great and enduring. Everywhere the incendiaries were tracked, +everywhere their traces were found, crowds of rabble were imprisoned, +tried for their lives, and executed. Luther publicly denounced Duke +Henry as guilty of these reckless outrages; the Elector and Landgrave +accused him of incendiarism at the Diet before the Emperor; and in vain +did he, in his most vehement manner, defend himself and his adherents. +It is true that his guilt was pronounced by the Emperor as unproved; +but then he was desirous, above all, of internal peace and help against +the Turks. In the public opinion, however, the stain on the prince's +reputation remained. It is impossible to discover how far the strollers +of that time were the guilty parties. The depositions of those arrested +are inaccurately given, and it cannot be decided how much of it was +dictated by torture. One thing is quite clear, they did not form into +any fixed bands, and their secret intercourse was carried on through +the medium of signs, which were scratched or cut on striking places, +such as inns, walls, doors, &c. These signs were partly primitive +German personal tokens, which, as house-marks, may still be found on +the gables of old buildings, but partly also in rogues' marks. Above +all, there was the characteristic sign of the Strollers, the arrow, +once the signal announcing enmity; the direction of his arrow shows the +way which the marker has taken; small perpendicular strokes on it, +often with ciphers above, give probably the number of persons. These +signs are to be found sometimes still on the trees and walls of the +high-roads, and it betokens now, as it did then, to the members of the +band, that the initiated has passed that way with his followers.</p> + +<p>In addition to the indigenous rovers came also foreign ones; as in +the +middle ages, a stream of Italian adventurers again flowed through +Germany. Together with the German player rose the cry of the Italian +orvietan (Venice treacle) vendor, and side by side with the Bohemian +bear were the camels of Pisa. The marvellous Venetian remedies and the +harlequin jacket, mask, and felt cap of the Italian fool wandered over +the Alps, and were added as new fooleries to our old stock.</p> + +<p>The Italian, Garzoni, has given a lively picture of the proceedings +of +these strollers in his book, 'Piazza Universale,' a description of all +the arts and handicrafts of his time. His work was translated in 1641, +into German by Matthäus Merian, under the title of 'General Theatre of +all Arts, Professions, and Handicrafts.' The description of the Italian +portrays also in its chief features the condition of Western Germany +after the war. The following extract is given according to Merian's +German translation:--</p> + +<p>"The wandering comedians in their demeanour are uncivil asses +and +ruffians, who consider that they have performed beautifully when they +have moved the mob to laughter by their coarse sayings. Their +<i>inventiones</i> are such, that if the toads acted thus we might +forgive +them, and they all tally together without rhyme or reason; they do not +care whether they are sufficiently polished and skilful so long as they +can only obtain money. Though they could easily curtail or cloak +whatever is coarse, they imagine that they give no satisfaction in +their business if it is not set forth in the coarsest manner; on this +account comedy and the whole comic art has fallen into the greatest +contempt with respectable people, and even the high comedians are +banished from certain places, are treated with contumely in public laws +and statutes, insulted and derided by the whole community. When these +good people come into a town they must not remain together, but must +divide themselves among divers inns; the Lady comes from Rome, the +Magnificus from Venice,<a name="div2_42" +href="#div2Ref_42"><sup>[42]</sup></a> Ruffiana from Padua, the Zany +from Bergamo, +the Gratianus from Bologna, and they must lurk about for certain days, +till they have begged and obtained permission if they wish to maintain +themselves and carry on their profession; they can with difficulty +obtain lodgings where they are known, every one being disgusted with +their filth, as they leave for a length of time a bad smell behind +them.</p> + +<p>"But when they come into a town and are permitted to perform +their +tricks, they cause it to be made known by handbills, the beating of +drums, and other war sounds, that this or that great comedian has +arrived; then the woman goes after the drum dressed in man's clothes, +girt about with a sword, and thus the people are invited in every +place: 'Whoever would see a beautiful comedian, let him come to this or +that place.' Thither come running all the curious people, and are +admitted for three or four kreutzers into a yard, where they find a +platform erected, and regular scenes. First there begins splendid +music, just as if a troop of asses were all braying together; then +comes a Prologus, making his appearance like a vagabond; afterwards +come beautiful and ill-adorned persons, who make such a cackling that +every one begins to find the time long, and if perchance any one +laughs, it is more at the simplicity of the spectators than because he +finds somewhat laughable. Then comes Magnificus, who is not worth three +hellers; Zany, who truly does his best, but waddles like a goose +walking through deep mud; a shameless Ruffiana, and also a lover, whom +it would be disgusting to listen to long; a Spaniard who knows not how +to say more than <i>mi vida</i>, or <i>mi corazon</i>; a pedant who +jumbles all +sorts of languages together; and Buratinus, who knows no other gesture +than that of twirling his hat or his hood from one hand to the other. +The best of them has so little capacity as to be unfit either to boil +or roast, so that the bystanders all become weary, and laugh at +themselves for having so long given heed to such insane tricks. And +assuredly they must be idle folk or superlative fools to allow +themselves to be caught there a second time; the incapacity of the +players in the first comedy they perform, is so well known and cried +down, that others of respectability are mistrusted on their account.</p> + +<p>"There are now-a-days many genuine dramatic performances in +vogue +at +almost all the market-places and fairs, namely the plays of Ceretani, +of orvietan vendors, and other similar fellows. They are called +Ceretani in Italy because it is presumed they have their origin and +first commencement in a small spot called Cereto, near Spoleto in +Umbria, and afterwards gradually attained such credit and +consideration, that when they were to be heard there was as great a +concourse of people assembled as were ever collected by the cleverest +doctor of the liberal arts, nay even by the best preacher who ever +entered a pulpit. For the common people run together in crowds, gaping +with open mouth, listen to them the whole day, forget all their cares, +and God knows how difficult it is,--even the peasants find it so,--to +keep one's purse in such a throng.</p> + +<p>"When one sees these cheats take a whole lump of arsenic, +sublimate, +or other poison, indiscriminately, that they may make proof by it of +the excellence of their orvietan, it should be known that, in the +summer-time before they came to the place, they have filled themselves +with lettuce dressed with so much vinegar and oil that they might swim +therein, and in winter they stuff themselves upon fat ox-brawn well +boiled. And this they do that they may by means of the fat of the brawn +and oiliness of the salad, with the coldness of their nature, obstruct +the internal passage of the body, and thus weaken the sharpness or heat +of the poison. They have besides this also a secure way of managing, +namely, before they enter the place they go to the nearest apothecary, +who generally in the towns is in or near the market; there they ask for +a box of arsenic, from which they select some small bits, and wrap them +in paper, begging the apothecary to deliver the same to them when they +send for it. Now when they have sufficiently extolled their wares, so +that nothing more remains but to make proof of them, they send out one +of the bystanders, in order that there may appear to be no fear of +deceit, to the apothecary, that he may obtain some arsenic for the +money which they give him. This said person runs forthwith, that there +may be no hindrance in such useful work, and as he goes, considers that +though he has been deceived a thousand times, he cannot be so this +time, he will see well to that. Meantime he comes to the apothecary, +demands the arsenic for his money, receives it, and runs with joy to +the orvietan vendor's table to see the marvel; this one holds meanwhile +in his hand little boxes, amongst them one wherein he puts the +aforesaid arsenic, he speaks and addresses the people for a time before +he takes it, for in a case of so much danger there must be no haste; +meantime he changes the aforesaid little box for another, wherein are +small pieces of paste made of sugar, meat, and saffron that they may +appear like the former. These he then eats with singular gestures as if +he were much afraid, and the peasants stand by open mouthed to see +whether he will not soon burst asunder; but he binds himself up firmly +that this may not happen, although he knows that there is no occasion +for it; he afterwards takes a piece as large as a chestnut of his +orvietan or stuff, and all the swelling disappears as if there had been +no poison in question. 'This, dear gentlemen, will be a precious +orvietan to you.' Whereupon the peasants undraw their purse strings, +and thank God that they have such a dear good man, and can obtain in +their village such costly wares for so little money.</p> + +<p>"But who would venture to describe all the cunning practices +whereby +these strollers contrive to make and collect money? For my own part I +fear I should never get to the end of it. Yet I cannot refrain from +describing some of their tricks.</p> + +<p>"One rushes through the street, having with him a young girl +dressed in +boy's clothes, who bounds about, jumping through a hoop like a monkey. +Then he begins to tell, in good Florentine, some remarkable jests or +pranks, and meanwhile the little maiden sets to work in every kind of +way, throws herself on all-fours, reaches the ring from out of the +hoop, then bends herself backwards, and picks up a coin from under the +right or left foot, with such graceful agility that the lads have +pleasure in looking at her. But finally he also can do nothing farther +than to bring out his wares, and offer the same for sale as well as he +can.</p> + +<p>"But those who boast themselves of being of the race of St. +Paul, +make +their appearance with much consequence, namely, with a great flying +banner, on one side of which stands St. Paul with his sword, but on the +other a heap of serpents, which are so painted that one fears to be +bitten by them. Then one of the party begins to relate their genealogy, +how St. Paul, in the island of Malta, was bitten by a viper without +injury, and how the same virtue was accorded to his descendants; then +they make divers trials, but always keep the upper hand, having a bond +and seal thereupon. Finally they lay hold of the boxes which are +standing on the table or bench, take out of one a salamander, two ells +long and an arm in thickness, from another a great snake, from another +a viper, and relate concerning each how they had caught it when the +peasant was reaping his corn, who would have been in great danger +therefrom, if they had not come to his relief. Thereupon the peasants +become so frightened that they dare not return home till they have had +a draught of the costly snake-powder, and bought still more to take +home to their wives and children, that they may be preserved from the +bite of snakes and other poisonous reptiles; and the game does not end +herewith, for they have still more boxes at hand, which they open, and +take out of one a rough viper, out of another a dead basilisk, out of +another a young crocodile brought from Egypt, an Indian lizard, a +tarantula from the Campagna, or somewhat of the like, whereby they +frighten the peasants, that they may buy the favour of the Holy Paul, +which is imparted to them by small written papers, for a +consideration.</p> + +<p>"Meanwhile, because the people are still assembled together, +another +comes, spreads his mantle on the ground, places upon it a little dog +which can sing <i>ut</i>, <i>re</i>, <i>mi</i>, <i>fa</i>, <i>so</i>, +<i>la</i>, <i>si</i>; it makes also +frolicksome somersaults, somewhat less than a monkey, barks at the +command of its master, who is very ill clad, howls when the Turkish +Emperor's name is mentioned, and makes a leap into the air when this or +that sweetheart is named; and finally, for it is done to obtain +hellers, his master hangs a little hat to his paw, and sends him round +on his hind feet to the bystanders, for travelling expenses, as he has +a great journey in prospect.</p> + +<p>"The Parmesan also does not neglect the like opportunity with +his +goat, +which he brings to the <i>Platz</i>; he makes there a palisade, within +which +it walks up and down, one foot behind the other, and sits up on a +little platform of hardly a hand's breadth, and licks the salt under +its feet. He makes it also go round upon its hind legs, with a long +spear over its shoulder, making fools of all beholders, who present it +with pence for food.</p> + +<p>"Sometimes a bold rope-dancer is to be seen, who walks on the +rope, +till at last he breaks his leg, or falls headlong; or a daring Turkish +juggler who lies on the ground, and allows himself to be struck on the +chest by a great hammer, as if he were an anvil; or by a jerk, tears up +a big pile which has been driven by force into the ground, whereby he +obtains a good sum for his journey to Mecca.</p> + +<p>"Sometimes a baptized Jew makes his appearance, who bawls and +cries +out, till at length he collects a few people, when he begins to preach +about his conversion; whereby one comes to this conclusion, that he has +become a crafty vagrant instead of a pious Christian.</p> + +<p>"In short there is no market-place, either in village or town, +where +some of these fellows are not to be found, who either perform divers +facetious juggling tricks, or sell various drugs.</p> + +<p>"These are the tricks of charlatans, strollers, and jugglers, +and +other +idle people, whereby they get on in the world."</p> + +<p>Here ends the narrative of Garzoni. Numberless light-footed people +also +of the same class thronged into the German market towns. But besides +the old traders and jugglers, a new class of strollers had come into +Germany, harmless people of far higher interest for these days, the +wandering comedians. The first players that made a profession of their +performances came to Germany from England or the Netherlands, towards +the end of the sixteenth century. They were still accompanied with rope +dancers, jumpers, fencers, and horsebreakers; they still continued to +furnish the courts of princes and the market-places of great cities +with clowns and the favourite figure of jack-puddings, and soon after, +the French "Jean Posset," on bad boarded platforms still +continued to +excite the uproarious laughter of the easily amused multitude. Shortly +after, the popular masques of the Italian theatre became familiar in +the south of Germany and on the Rhine. At the same time that the +regular circulation of newspapers commenced, the people received the +rough beginnings of art; the representation of human character and the +secret emotions of restless souls by the play of countenance, gestures, +and the deceptive illusion of action.</p> + +<p>It is remarkable also, that almost precisely at the same period, the +first entertaining novels were written for the people. And these +spontaneously invented pictures of real life had reference to the +strolling people; for the adventures of vagrants, disbanded soldiers, +and in short all those who had travelled in foreign countries, and had +seen there an abundance of marvels, and undergone the most terrible +dangers with almost invulnerable bodies, were the heroes of these +imperfect creations of art. Shortly after the war, Christoph von +Grimmelshausen wrote 'Simplicissimus,' 'Springinsfeld,' 'Landstörzerin +Courage,' and the 'Wonderful Vogelnest,' the heroes of which are +gathered from strollers; these were followed by a flood of novels +describing the lives of rogues and of adventurers.</p> + +<p>The war had rendered the existence of the settled population joyless, +their manners coarse, and their morals lax. And the craving for +excitement was general. Thus at first these modes of representation +allured, by bestowing what was wanting to this ungenial life. They +endeavoured with much detail to represent either an ideal life of +distinguished and refined persons, under entirely foreign conditions, +such as antique shepherds, and foreign princes without nationalities; +this was done by the highly educated; or they tried at least to ennoble +common life, by introducing into it abstractions not less coarse and +soulless, virtues and vices, mythological and allegorical figures; or +they caught endless materials from the lowest circles of life, to whom +they felt themselves superior, but in whose strange mode of life there +was something alluring: they depicted strollers or represented clowns +and fools; and this last development of art was the soundest. Thus +these rough families of jugglers, buffoons, and rogues were of the +utmost significance to the beginning of the drama, theatrical art, and +novels.</p> + +<p>But besides the numerous companies, who wandered about either +modestly +on foot or in carts, vagrants of higher pretensions rode through the +country, some of them still more objectionable. To be able to +prognosticate the future, to gain dominion over the spirits of the +elements, to make gold, and to renew the vigour of youth in old age, +had for many centuries been the longing desire of the covetous and +inquisitive. Those who promised these things to the Germans were +generally Italians or other foreigners; or natives of the country, who +had, according to the old saying, been thrice to Rome. When the new +zeal for the restoration of the Church brought good and bad alike +before the tribunal of the inquisition in Italy, the emigration of +those whose lives were insecure must have been very numerous. It is +probably from the life of one of these charlatans that the adventures +of Faust have been gathered and formed into the old popular tale. After +Luther's death, it is evident that they penetrated into the courts of +the German princes. It was an adventurer of this kind, "Jerome +Scotus," +who, in 1593, at Coburg, estranged the unhappy Duchess Anna of Saxe +Coburg from her husband, and brought her into his own power by +villainous means. Vain were the endeavours of the Duke to obtain the +extradition of Scotus from Hamburg, where he lived long in princely +luxury. Five-and-thirty years before, the father of the Duke Johann +Friedrich, the Middle-sized, was long deluded by an impudent impostor, +who gave herself out to be Anne of Cleves (the wife who had been +selected for Henry VIII. of England), and promised him a great treasure +of gold and jewels if he chose to protect her. Another piece of +credulity bore bitter fruits to the same prince, for the influence +which Wilhelm of Grumbach, the haggard old wolf from the herd of the +wild Albrecht of Brandenburg, gained over the Duke, rested on his +foolish prophecies concerning the Electoral dignity and prodigious +treasures. A poor weak-minded boy who was maintained by Grumbach, had +intercourse with angels who dwelt in the air-hole of a cellar, and +declared themselves ready to produce gold, and bring to light a mine +for the Duke. It may be perceived from judicial records, that the +little angels of the peasant child had a similarity, unfavourable to +their credibility, to our little old dwarfs.</p> + +<p>There was at Berlin, about the time of Scotus, one Leonhard +Turneysser, +a charlatan, more citizen-like in his occupation, who worked as gold +maker and prepared horoscopes; he escaped by flight the dismal fate, +which almost always overtook his fellows of the same vocation who did +not change their locality soon enough. The Emperor Rudolph also became +a great adept, and amalgamated in the gold crucible both his political +honour and his own Imperial throne. The princes of the seventeenth +century at least show the intense interest of dilettanti. During the +war the art of making gold became very desirable. At that period, +therefore, the adepts thronged to the armies; the more needy the times, +the more numerous and brilliant became the stories of alchemy. It was +proposed by an enthusiastic worshipper of Gustavus Adolphus, to make +gold out of lead; and in the presence of the Emperor Ferdinand III. +many pounds of gold were to be made, by one grain of red powder, from +quicksilver; a gigantic coin also was to be struck from the same metal. +After the peace, the adepts resided at all the courts; there were few +dwellings where the hearth and the retorts were not heated for secret +operations. But every one had to beware how he trifled with the +reigning powers, as the paws of the princely lions might be raised +against him for his destruction. Those who could not make gold were +confined in prison, and those who were under suspicion, yet could +fabricate something, were equally put in close confinement. The Italian +Count Cajetan was hanged in a gilded dress, on a gallows at Küstrin the +beams of which were adorned with cut gold; the German Rector von +Klettenberg was beheaded at Königstein, where fourteen years before, +Böttiger was kept in strict cloistral confinement, because he had +produced innocent porcelain instead of gold. There is no doubt that it +was the case with the adepts and astrologers, as it ever has been with +the leaders of a prevailing superstition, that they were themselves +convinced of the truth of their art; but they had strong doubts of +their own knowledge, and they deceived others as to their success, +either because they were seeking the means to attain to greater +results, or because they wished to appear, to the world, to understand +what they considered of importance. These however were not the worst of +the lot.</p> + +<p>The most mischievous of all were, perhaps, the skilful impostors, who +appeared in Germany, France, and England, with foreign titles of +distinction, shining with the glimmer of secret art, sometimes the +propagators of the most disgraceful vices, shadowy figures, who by +their worldly wisdom and the limited intercourse of nations were +enabled to bring themselves into notoriety. Their experience, their +deceptions, their secret successes, for a long period overpoweringly +excited the fancies of Germans. Even Goethe considered it worth his +while to repair to the spot and set on foot serious investigations as +to the origin of Cagliostro.</p> + +<p>The changes in the moral diseases of that society, of which we are +the +representatives, can be gradually traced. After the war astrology and +horoscopes fell into disuse. The princes sought for red powder, or the +unknown tincture, whilst the people dug for money pots. Dilettante +occupation with physical science introduced again to the people the +ancient divining rod, by which springs, murders, thefts, and always +concealed gold, were to be discovered. The superior classes again +realized in their own minds the ancient belief in mysterious men, who +by unknown proceedings, in unfathomable depths, had obtained the power +of giving supernatural duration of life, and had confidential +intercourse with the spirit world. Besides the honourable order of +Freemasons, with their Humanitarian tendencies, there arose more secret +unions, wherein the weak minded of the time were enticed to a refined +sensuality and sickly mysticism, and an extensive apparatus of absurd +secret teaching.</p> + +<p>Since the end of the last century a vigorous dash of the waves of +German popular strength has washed away these diseased fantasies. The +old race of strollers too have diminished in number and influence. It +is only rarely that Bajazzo, with his pointed felt cap, bewitches the +village youth; the meagre neck of the camel no longer stretches itself +to the flowering trees of our village gardens, the black dog seldom +rolls his fiery eyes at buried chests of silver. Even the impostors +have learned to satisfy higher demands. + +<br /> +</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> +<div class="chapter"> +<h2>CHAPTER VIII.</h2> +</div> + +<h3>ENGAGEMENT AND MARRIAGE AT COURT.<br /> +(1661.)</h3> + + +<p class="normal sp1">It has ever been part of the German character +to +maintain propriety of +conduct in intercourse with others, to keep up a good appearance, to do +homage to superiors, and to require a respectful demeanour and address +from inferiors. The forms of intercourse were accurately defined, and +the number of significant turns of speech was not small, which +introduced every social arrangement, and like a boundary stone, +preserved the pathway of life. But the groundwork of all this old +precision was a sound self-respect, which gave to individuals a feeling +of certainty as to what was to be conceded or received, and therefore +civility was generally real. If there was any discord in his soul, the +German did not usually conceal it; and then he became so thoroughly +coarse, that he gained evil repute with all the western nations. It is +true, princes were accosted with much devotedness, words of submission +were used as now; but the prince and the citizen, the nobleman and the +artisan, met together as men, and a strong word or a warm feeling often +broke through the most courtly forms. This, however, changed after the +war. The old feeling of decorum was lost, the egotism of the unbridled +was harsh and wounding; the proper, but often narrow-minded pride of +citizen and nobleman was broken, and the simple patriarchal relation +between prince and subject was lost during thirty years of calamity and +distrust. Men had become more prudent, but weaker, and for the most +part worse.</p> + +<p>But the beginning of a new state of society was visible. With all +this +ruin Providence had mercifully sent a remedy. By many a roundabout way, +through French and Italian fashions, and after long wanderings in every +foreign nationality, the German mind was to be renewed. It was a +wonderful trial of durability, but it was necessary. Like Prince Tamino +in the magic play, the poor German soul passed through French water and +Italian fire; and from that period a weak flute-like tone sounds only +occasionally in our ears, telling us that the German character has not +yet sunk entirely under foreign phantasies.</p> + +<p>It has been customary to consider the intellectual sway of Italy and +France, from Opiz to Lessing, as a great calamity. It is true, it has +given neither beauty nor strength to the German; but we are no longer +in the position of the great man who for a century struggled against +French taste. It was with him a duty to hate whatever caused a +hindrance to the wakening popular vigour. But we should at the same +time remember that this same foreign element protected the German from +the extreme of barbarism. Our imitation was very clumsy, and there was +little worth in the original; but it was to the countless bonds of +international intercourse that the Germans then clung, that they might +not be utterly lost. The moral restraints upon the wilfulness of +individuals had been broken, and the meagre externals gathered from +abroad, of fashion, respect, gallantry, and a taste for foreign +refinements were the first remedy. It was a new kind of discipline. +Whoever wore a large wig, and later, even powder in the hair, was +obliged to hold his head elegantly still, wild movements and violent +running were impossible; if men were not prevented by their own +delicacy of feeling from boldly approaching too near to women, a hoop +and corset were a rampart for them; if the courtesy of the heart was +less, the duty of being gallant in conversation was a benefit. In a +circle where a coarse soldiers' song had been preferred, a polished +song from Damon to Daphne was a great improvement, and even the fade +cavalier, who cut his finger-nails in society with a gilded knife, and +threw himself down with a French flourish, was by far more estimable in +society than an unbridled drunkard, who in his intoxication did the +most unseemly things, and could not open his mouth without an oath.</p> + +<p>Those who assumed to be the élite in Germany soon fashioned their +life +after the foreign model. Even during the war many foreign customs had +become naturalized; not only in court ceremonials and in the +intercourse with ambassadors, but also in the dress and manners of the +citizens. However great was the influence of France, that of Italy was +not much less. The service of the <i>cicisbeato</i>, and the +"State" +ceremonials, had penetrated from Italy into France; the Roman court +long remained the highest model, in all questions of etiquette, to the +diplomats of Europe. Both countries took their share in holding sway +over Germany. In the south, Italy ruled till the eighteenth century, +indeed in Vienna it continued still longer to influence the aspect of +the higher society; but in the north, especially in the Protestant +courts, the French model prevailed, and this copy, like the other, was +a clumsy one. But whilst at the great courts, for example Vienna, the +cavalier assumed at least something of the impulsive versatility of the +Italian; in the smaller towns social intercourse was slow and prolix, +carried on in endless phrases, which appeared the more grotesque in +proportion as the men were coarse who endeavoured to set themselves off +by the use of them.</p> + +<p>Thus was the sunny path, along which men approached the chosen of +their +hearts, charmingly strewn with the flowers of foreign manners. Whatever +of indigenous was retained, was adorned with laborious gallantry, and +became still more tedious. Before we attempt to give a specimen of +honourable German love, it will be fitting to disclose to the +sympathizing reader something of the style of courtly wooing and +marriage. Therefore the following gives the course of wooing of a +cavalier, about the year 1650:--</p> + +<p>"When a person of condition at Vienna wishes to marry some one, +he +begs +of her parents to allow him to wait upon her, but he must already have +made her acquaintance, and know that she is well inclined towards him. +When this has been granted by her parents, the affair is already half +agreed upon, and he gives his servant a new livery, and dresses himself +in his best. Every day he must write to her early, and inquire what she +is doing, what she has dreamt of, when she will drive out, and where +she intends to dine. Besides this, he sends her a nosegay, for which +sometimes a ducat must be paid. Then she returns him an answer, and he +makes his appearance at her door at the right time, helps her into the +carriage, and rides next it with head uncovered, on the side where his +lady sits. When they arrive, he dismounts, opens the carriage door, and +again hands her out. In Austria they generally offer themselves as +guests to the houses of others. When he has learnt where his lady is to +dine, he offers himself also as guest, and does this half an hour +beforehand. When at table, he presents a finger-glass to his love +alone, even though there may be more distinguished ladies there; he +offers, it is true, the water to others, but none accept; his lady +alone does not refuse. Then he places her chair, waits upon and +converses with her; when she desires to have something to drink, he +hands it to her on a plate, which he holds under the glass whilst she +is drinking; he places fresh plates before her and takes the old away, +and he always pledges her health to his left hand neighbour. After +dinner he again hands her the finger-glass, for which reason he sits +next her; he then removes her chair, fetches her gloves, fan, and veil +which she had left, and presents them with a profound reverence. After +the repast is over, the hostess takes his lady with her to her room. +There also he begs for admittance, which is not refused him, and waits +upon her in like manner. From thence they go to vespers, and then in +summer to the Prater, or in winter in sledges with torches. This state +of things continues for at least three months.</p> + +<p>"Now when these three months are over, the betrothal is +celebrated, +and +the marriage invitations are written. Then the bridegroom makes three +presents. First a silver casket, wherein are some pairs of silk +stockings, some pieces of silk stuffs, some pairs of gloves, +handkerchiefs, twelve fans, ribands, and laces. The second present +consists of silver ornaments; the third of jewels, bracelets, earrings, +and pendants of precious stones, or pearls for the neck. He also +presents a dress to his mistress's maid. Some send every day a new +present. Then he gives his servant again a new livery, engages more +servants for himself, and at least one page and two lackeys for his +future wife. Court ladies of high distinction, who drive with six +horses, do not bestow presents on their bridegroom, unless it be from +overflowing liberality; but others present a night-dress to their +beloved, their portrait in a small casket, and on the marriage day +linen; six shirts, six collars, six pocket handkerchiefs, six pairs of +ruffles, and to every servant a shirt. The bride pays the expenses of +the eating and drinking at the marriage, and the bridegroom the cost of +the music.</p> + +<p>"On the wedding-day the bridegroom drives, towards evening, in +his +own +carriage, or that of an intimate friend, dressed entirely in silver +brocade, just as the bride is dressed; he wears a wreath of diamonds +which are put together from the jewels of friends, and afterwards +returned. Behind him drive all the male wedding guests. He waits in the +church till the bride comes. Her bridal train is three ells long, borne +either by a boy of noble birth, or a young lady. The bridegroom goes to +meet her, helps her out of the carriage and leads her in, and thus they +are united together in matrimony. The wedding ring is generally of gold +and silver mixed, and plaited in the form of a laurel wreath; it has a +precious stone in it, in order to signify that their truth and love +shall be endless. Then they betake themselves to the marriage house, +where the feast is to be celebrated. After the meal the men take +forthwith their swords and mantles, and room is made for the dance, and +then come the two bridesmen. Each has a burning torch in his hand; they +make a bow to the bridegroom and the bride, and ask them to dance. Then +they both dance alone. The nearest relations are next asked, and so on +all the rest in succession. These dances of honour are performed to the +sound of trumpets and kettledrums. The cavaliers then lay aside their +swords and mantles, and all dance together. After the dance the +relations accompany the bride and bridegroom to their bedroom, there +the mother commends the bride to her husband with impressive words. +Then all go out."</p> + +<p>Thus did the wealthy noble woo and wed at Vienna, which after the war +rapidly filled with landed proprietors who thoroughly enjoyed life. New +families were in possession of the confiscated properties, the Imperial +generals and faithful councillors had abundantly taken care of +themselves. A residence in the desolated country was wearisome, and +many great proprietors had no old family interest in their property. +Besides the Imperial nobles, sons of German princes and many of the old +nobility of the Empire thronged to the Imperial city, to seek +diversion, acquaintances, and fortune at court or in the army.</p> + +<p>But in proportion as the devotion of the noble servant to his +mistress +was great, the hope of a happy conjugal union was insecure. And the +prospect was not more favourable in the families of the great princes +of the Empire.</p> + +<p>The rulers of Germany attained to a comfortable condition, after the +peace, sooner than others. Whatever could be done by the people, seemed +to be for their advantage. To the old taste for drinking, hunting, and +not always very seemly intercourse with women, was now added the +pleasure of having a body guard who were drawn up in uniform before +their castles, and rode by their carriages along the roads. After the +war every great prince maintained a standing army; the old feudal lords +of the country had become Generals. It was in this century that the +great princely families of Germany, the Wettiners, the Hohenzollerns, +the Brunswickers, and the Wittelsbachers, gained their influential +position in European politics. Three of them obtained royal thrones, +those of Poland, Prussia, and England, and the head of the +Wittelsbachers for many years wore the diadem of the Roman Empire. Each +of these houses represents a great European dynasty. But however +different their fortunes may have been, they have also met with a +retributive fate. At the time of the Reformation, the Imperial throne +with supreme dominion over Germany was offered to the house of +Wettiner; the family, divided into two lines, did not listen to the +high call. At the battle of Linien, in 1547, it lost the leadership. A +hundred years later, the possibility of founding a powerful house was +offered to the Wittelsbacher, by the union of the Palatinate with the +old Bavarian province and Bohemia, which even the Hapsburgers have +never attained to. But one son of the house killed the other at the +Weissen Berge. Only the Hapsburgers and the Hohenzollerns have +understood how to keep together.</p> + +<p>The general misfortune of the German Princes was, that they found +little in their oppressed subjects to excite awe or regard. For the +soul of man is most easily fortified against encroaching passions when +his worldly position makes a strong resistance possible for those who +surround him. A firm feeling of duty is only formed under the pressure +of strong law. Whoever overrides it will find it easier to do great +things, but incomparably more difficult to do permanently what is +right.</p> + +<p>At an earlier period the life at courts was rough, often wild, now it +had become frivolous and dissolute. The combination of refined luxury +with coarse manners, and of strict etiquette with arbitrary will, makes +many of the characters of that time especially hateful.</p> + +<p>The sons of Princes were now better educated. Latin was still the +language of diplomacy, to that was added Italian and French; and +besides all knightly arts--in so far as they still existed--military +drills, and above all, <i>politesse</i>, the new art which rendered men +and +women more agreeable and obliging in society. Some knowledge of state +affairs was not rare, for there were still quarrels with neighbours to +be brought before the supreme court of judicature and the Imperial +Aulic Council, and solicitations to his Imperial Majesty, and +complaints to the Diet, without end or measure. But the person who +exercised most quiet power in the country was the lawyer, who was +generally at the head of the administration; and occasionally a +power-loving court preacher.</p> + +<p>The ladies also of the princely houses had the advantage of some +degree +of instruction; many of them understood Latin, or at least were +acquainted with Virgil (from a bad translation into German +Alexandrines), and Boccaccio in the original. Quarrels about rank, +ceremonials, dress, the love affairs of their husbands, and perhaps +their own, formed the daily interest of their lives, together with +trivial intrigues and gossiping: the stronger minded conversed with the +clergy on cases of conscience, and sought for consolation in their hymn +book, and occasionally also in their cookery book. But German +literature was little adapted to ennoble the feelings of women, and +such as those times did produce, seldom reached them in their elevated +position; a tasteless court poem, an Italian strophe, and sometimes a +thick historical or theological quarto sent by a submissive author in +hopes of receiving a present of money. The marriage of a princess was +concluded upon reasons of state, and it frequently happened that she +was burdened from the very first day with a dissolute husband. +Undoubtedly not a few of them were consigned to their royal vaults with +most choice and solemn pomp, on whom the sunshine of a deep heartfelt +affection had never shone during life: the care of their own household, +and even that sweetest of all cares, the education of their children, +was taken from them by the new court arrangements. Undoubtedly in many +marriages, a good heart made up for the deficiency of the education of +that time; but scandalous occurrences were frequent in the highest +families at that period.</p> + +<p>The domestic relations of these distinguished families belong also to +history, and much is very generally known of them. A picture of one of +these will here be made use of, in order to show that our generation +have no occasion to lose heart in contemplating it.</p> + +<p>When the Imperial party, after the year 1620, persecuted the daughter +of the King of England, Elizabeth, wife of the Palatine, with satirical +pictures, they painted the proud princess, as going along the high road +with three children hanging on by her apron, or, as on the bare ground +eating pap from an earthenware platter. The second of these children +obtained, through the Westphalian peace, the eighth Electorate of the +German Empire. After many vicissitudes of fortune, after drinking the +bitter cup of banishment, and seeking in vain to recover his territory, +the new Elector, Karl Ludwig, looked down from the royal castle at +Heidelberg on the beautiful country, of which only a portion returned +into the possession of his line. His was not a nature which bore in +itself the guarantee of peace and happiness: it is true that in his +family he was considered jovial and good-humoured, but he was also +irritable, hasty, and passionate, covetous and full of pretension, +easily influenced, and without energy, inclined to venture rashly on +deeds of violence, and yet not firm enough to effect anything great. It +appears that he had derived from the blood of the Stuarts, besides a +high feeling of his own rank, much of the obstinacy of his ill-fated +uncle Charles. In the year 1650, he had married Charlotte, Princess of +Hesse, the daughter of that strong-minded woman, who, as Regent of her +country, had shown more energy than most men, and whose powerful +matronly countenance we still contemplate with pleasure, in the +portrait by Engelhard Schäffler. The mother described her own daughter +to the Elector as difficult to rule; the Electress was indeed +passionate and without moderation, and must often have disturbed +domestic peace by her frowardness and jealousy. A young lady of her +court, Marie Susanne Loysa von Degenfeld, daughter of one of the +partisans of the Thirty years' war, a person according to all accounts +of great loveliness and much gentleness, mixed with firmness, excited a +passion in the Elector which made him regardless of all considerations. +After many angry quarrels he divorced his wife and at once married his +love, on whom the title of "Raugräfin" was bestowed by the +Imperial +Court. The castoff Electress turned in vain to the Emperor Leopold, to +effect a reconciliation with her husband. This petition is here given +according to Lünig, from the rolls of the German Empire, 1714.<a +name="div2_43" href="#div2Ref_43"><sup>[43]</sup></a></p> + +<p>"We, by the grace of God, Charlotte, Electress, Countess +Palatine +of +the Rhine, born Landgravine of Hesse, offer to the most august Prince +and Sovereign of Sovereigns, Leopold, by the grace of God, father of +the fatherland, our most dutiful, obedient, and submissive greeting and +service.</p> + +<p>"Although the manifold and weighty business of the Empire with +which +your Imperial Majesty is troubled at this time, might well frighten us +from disquieting you with our private affairs, yet we presume with +profound humility to set before your Imperial Majesty our most pressing +distress, and the mighty injuries inflicted upon us at this time +without any fault on our part, because it is well known to us that your +Imperial Majesty is at all times assiduous in helping most graciously +the injured to their rights.</p> + +<p>"It is not, I hope, unknown to your Imperial Majesty that we +have, +for +nearly eleven years, been united in matrimony with his Most Serene +Highness Prince Karl Ludwig, Count Palatine of the Rhine, Elector of +the Holy Empire. At that time his Princely Highness, in frequent +discourse, both before and after marriage, promised us by the highest +oaths, an ever-enduring faith and conjugal love; and we on our part did +the like. Being then animated by such reciprocal love, we have served +his Highness in all conjugal obedience to the best of our power, so far +as our womanly weakness permitted. We have also, by the grace of God, +reared two young princes and a daughter in all love, so that his +Princely Highness ought in justice to have abstained from divorcing +himself from us.</p> + +<p>"We submissively beg your Imperial Majesty to understand that, +after +three very severe confinements, we clearly traced by many tokens, no +slight alienation in the feelings of our lord and husband, which would +justly have given rise to suspicion in our minds, if our confiding +spirit had not attributed what was good and laudable to his Princely +Highness. For when we once, according to princely custom, presented his +Princely Highness with a beautiful Neapolitan dapple-gray colt with all +its appurtenances, he said to us: 'My treasure, we henceforth desire no +such presents, which diminish our treasury;' and the very same day he +presented the horse to one of the lowest of his nobles. This insult did +so grieve us that, with weeping eyes, we lamented it to our +gentlewoman, Maria Susanna von Degenfeld, of whose secret doings we had +not at that time the slightest idea. She thereupon made answer, 'That +if at any time she should meet with the like behaviour from her future +consort, she would refuse all cohabitation with him.' By these words +she intended nothing else than to incense us against our lord and +master. Not long after, a ring was purloined from us by the said von +Degenfeld out of our drawers. This must without doubt have been a +concerted plan, for our lord and husband had required this ring of us, +and when we could not find it, his Princely Highness was greatly +irritated against us, and thus broke out: 'You make me think strange +things of you as concerns this ring; I had thought you would have taken +better care of it.' Whereupon we answered, 'Ah! my treasure, foster no +evil suspicions against me; it has been purloined by some faithless +person.' But his Princely Highness continued: 'Who may this faithless +person be? Perhaps some young cavalier, on whose finger you may +yourself have placed it.' This caused us so much pain, that we were led +to speak somewhat severely to his Princely Highness, and said, 'No +honest Prince would thus calumniate me.' Whereupon he replied, 'Who +gave you the right to upbraid me as a dishonest Prince? If I hear aught +further of this kind from you, you shall be rewarded with a box on the +ear!' Thereupon we did not answer a word, but wept bitterly. But this +von Degenfeld comforted us deceitfully, and spoke thus: 'Make yourself +happy, Electoral Highness, and be not so much afflicted, it will soon +be found again.' By these words she then tranquillized us. But not long +afterwards a very noteworthy Latin epistle was put into our hand by a +trusty servant, which he had found accidentally in the chamber of our +lord and husband, the contents of which I cannot forbear enclosing. It +is to this effect-- +<br /> +</p> +<p class="hang1" style="margin-left:.5in">"'To the Most Serene +Highness the Elector Palatine Karl Ludwig, Duke of +Bavaria, <i>dilecto meo</i>.</p> + +<p class="normal">"'I can no longer oppose your Electoral +Highness, +nor any longer +deceive you as to my inclinations. <i>Vicisti jamque tua sum</i>, I +unhappy +one,</p> + +<p class="right">"'<span class="sc">Maria Susanna, Baronissa a +Degenfeld</span>.' +<br /> +</p> +<p class="normal">"When, by God's Providence, we got this letter, +we forthwith perused +the same with great consternation; but as we are not much versed in the +Latin tongue, we despatched the aforesaid trusty servant to the Most +Noble Lord, Johann Jacob Graf von Eberstein, our dear lord and cousin, +who was accidentally stopping at Heidelberg, bidding him come to us, +and beseeching him as a friend and cousin to lend us his aid in the +interpretation of the said note. This he honestly rendered us. It +cannot be told what great sorrow took possession of our hearts, when it +became evident in how unjustifiable and unprincely a way we had been +dealt with. So distracted, therefore, were we in mind, that we ventured +so far as to break open the coffer of the afore-mentioned Degenfeld, +who was not then present, and after earnest search found three +abominable letters of his Electoral Highness, likewise written in +Latin, in which he equally assures the Degenfeld of his love.</p> + +<p>"Then we could sufficiently see that our lord and husband was +minded to +renounce all truth and love towards us. This we wished at a fitting +opportunity to forestal, and give his Princely Highness to understand +it in a covert way.</p> + +<p>"It then came to pass accidentally, that a week after, his +Serene +Highness Friedrich, Lord Margrave of Baden, our dearly loved +brother-in-law and brother, together with his loving lady and wife, our +especially beloved cousin and sister, came from Durlach to Heidelberg +to visit us. Now once when we were sitting at table, his Princely +Highness the Lord Margrave, thus spoke to us: 'Wherefore, my lady +sister, wherefore so sorrowful?' To which we answered thus: 'My dear +lord and brother, perhaps there is truly reason for our sorrow.' +Whereupon our lord and husband turning quite red said, 'There is +nothing new in my lady and wife being angry without any cause.' We +could not then, for our honour's sake, leave such a speech unanswered, +but replied, 'It is those that prefer waiting women to wives who make +me angry,' &c. Thereupon our lord and husband was quite taken aback, +turned pale with anger, and gave us, in the presence of the said +princely personages, such a severe box on the ear, that on account of +the vexatious nose-bleeding, brought on by this, we were obliged to +leave the table. But his Princely Highness the Lord Margrave was +mightily indignant thereat, and said to our lord and master: '<i>Signore +Electore, troppo è questo!</i>' Whereto our lord and husband answered: +'<i>Mio fratello, Signore Marchese, ma cosi ha voluto.</i>' But his +Princely +Highness the Lord Margrave spoke strongly to our lord and husband, and +said that if he could have supposed his inconsiderate speech would have +occasioned such discord, he would a thousand times rather have been +silent; and if our lord and husband did not become reconciled to us +before sunset, his Princely Highness was firmly determined to leave +Heidelberg at an early hour on the morrow, without bidding him +farewell. This worked so with my lord and husband that he promised his +Princely Highness to pay us a visit, in company with him and his wife. +This took place after the lapse of two hours, when our husband thus +addressed us in our chamber: 'Is my treasure still angry with me?' We +answered: 'I assure you, my treasure, that what happened at table gave +me sufficient reason to be angry; but on account of the presence of my +beloved lord and brother, and my lady and sister, to whom our discord +is displeasing, I will forgive it with all my heart.' Thereupon our +lord and master gave us his hand, and said, with a loving kiss, 'This +shall wipe out my past delinquency,' after which they departed from our +chamber. That night, however, we did not appear at supper, but sent our +bedchamber woman and lord steward to make our excuses, as by reason of +the necessary preparation of certain writings we could not appear. But +as our husband feared we might disclose to our lord and brother what +had before passed betwixt us, he came at ten o'clock in the evening, +accompanied by two pages, to my chamber, and did there knock at the +door. Now when we came to the door and found his Princely Highness, we +were not a little amazed at this unhoped-for visit, and said: 'Why does +my treasure visit us so late?' Thereupon his Princely Highness answered +kindly, and sent back both the pages. But as at that moment those +unseemly letters recurred to our memory, and as the consideration that +we were of such high princely parentage, made it impossible to bear +silently with such impropriety, we said: 'My lord and husband, I am +quite resolved to abide alone till your Princely Highness resolves to +deliver up a certain person into my hands, with full powers to punish +the same for her past wickedness.' Our lord and husband answered: 'I +should be glad at last to know who this person is; but I imagine the +offence is not so great as your Princely Highness interprets it.' But +we answered further: 'The offence is so great that the person can only +atone for it with their blood.' 'Nay, my treasure,' said our husband, +'that verdict is too severe.' But we were minded to reveal fully to his +Princely Highness the cause of our long affliction; we therefore took +out of our pocket the letter which our servant had brought, and began +to read it in an audible voice. Hereupon our lord and husband laughed +and said: 'All a mere jest; my treasure knows right well that the +Fräulein von Degenfeld has from her youth been assiduous in studying +the Latin tongue, therefore I wished to try whether she was +sufficiently versed in it, to answer in the aforesaid language a note +prepared by me for the purpose. This she executed in the like jesting +way; and we are determined to support her on account of her innocence.' +We did not choose to wrangle with his Princely Highness, but said: 'We +have long known how to distinguish between jest and earnest. If it +please my treasure to furnish me with full proof that it was a jest I +will gladly be content.' Hereupon our lord and husband answered: 'Why +is so much proof required? Your Princely Highness is a woman, and has +better means of examining the innocence of Degenfeld than I, in whom it +would not be quite seemly. But I see well that innocent lady has lost +all grace and favour with you. As, however, it is already very late, I +wish my treasure to inform me whether it please her to be reconciled +with me here?' We answered to this: 'I feel myself bound by virtue of +my once given troth not to gainsay you in this.' But our lord and +husband, with a hearty embrace, protested by all that was noble and +holy, that, with the exception of this note, he had not trespassed +against us, and promised yet once more, never henceforth to misbehave +towards us, if we, on the other hand, would again render due obedience +to his Princely Highness. All this we promised, hoping henceforth to +live in peaceful wedlock, which perhaps might have come to pass if the +devil had not sown his tares.</p> + +<p>"For, three days after, when his Serene Highness the Lord +Margrave +of +Baden had departed, a patent came to Heidelberg from your Imperial +Majesty's illustrious Lord Father, Ferdinand of ever-blessed memory, +whereby our lord and husband was summoned to the Imperial Diet at +Ratisbon, whereto we with our lord and husband betook ourselves at the +appointed time.</p> + +<p>"We deem it unnecessary to relate what great contumely we there +suffered from our lord and husband, as your Imperial Majesty beheld it +for the most part with your own eyes. This caused us to tarry yet a +long time at Ratisbon after the departure of his Princely Highness. But +when, after the lapse of a few weeks, we returned again to Heidelberg, +we signified in a friendly way through one of the nobles to our lord +and husband, that we were minded to greet his Princely Highness. But +our lord and husband said with great displeasure to the said nobleman: +'Tell the bold Landgravine,' thus it pleased his Princely Highness to +call us, 'I will have nothing to do with any one so pernicious to the +country.'</p> + +<p>"Now when this was notified to us we did not venture to accost +his +Princely Highness, but straightway went through the adjoining saloon to +our chamber. But scarcely had we entered therein, when forty of the +Swiss guard had already established themselves in our antechamber, who +were commanded to keep guard over us, and not let us go out till they +received farther orders from his Princely Highness.</p> + +<p>"Then did we learn with great anguish of heart that we, a +freeborn +princess, had been made a prisoner. We knew not what to do, for we +could not write to our lord brother the Landgrave of Hesse Cassel, +because we had no confidential person left to us whom we could +despatch. We had thus no opportunity of effecting anything, for +whenever our servants came to or went from us, they were always +searched by the guard. On this account we resolved to write ourselves +to our lord and husband, and to entreat his Princely Highness to +release us from this most intolerable durance. We drew up therefore the +following petition to his Princely Highness, and sent the same by a +noble youth to his Princely Highness while at table. +<br /> +</p> + +<p class="continue">"'<span class="sc">Most Serene Highness, +and +dear Lord</span>.</p> + +<p class="normal">"'How great annoyance I have suffered during +the +time which it has +pleased your Princely Highness to place a prodigious garrison before my +chamber, is not to be described. It moves me to remind your Princely +Highness, that if you so behave to me, a poor princess, you will have +to answer for it before God and the whole world. It would be well +moreover to bethink you, whether it is praiseworthy to keep guard over +one single weak woman, with forty well-armed halberdiers, which might +be sufficiently accomplished by two or three. I cannot imagine what +offence I have committed to deserve such harsh procedure. I therefore +entreat your Princely Highness, for God's sake to set me at liberty. +For during this time I have not been able to sleep three hours by +reason of the noisy blustering and clatter of these indiscreet +Swiss.</p> + +<p class="right" style="margin-right:5%">"'Your Princely +Highness's +faithful unto death,</p> + +<p class="right">"'<span class="sc">Charlotta Palatine of the +Rhine</span>.' +<br /> +</p> + +<p class="normal">"After our husband had read this writing, he +commanded that all the +Swiss saving four should be withdrawn, which was done forthwith, to our +great content. But his Princely Highness sent us a letter, to the +following tenour. +<br /> +</p> + +<p class="normal">"'To Charlotta, born Landgravine of +Hesse.</p> + +<p class="normal" style="text-indent:5%">"'It surprises me much +that you should venture to ask why I have put +you under surveillance. You cannot deny that on my return from Ratisbon +to Heidelberg, I urgently commanded you to follow me without fail the +next day. But you did not do so till some weeks later, and during this +period you spent so much money, that our subjects, who were +sufficiently ruined without this, will for a long time have much, to +endure. You also know well how you disgraced me at Ratisbon by your +hunting parties, and how--because I in my just indignation, on account +of your past frivolity of conduct and wanton indecorum of dress in the +presence of the assembled Diet, have put you only under slight +restraint--you have for the past half-year refused to live with me as a +wife. This culpable conduct has entirely released me from all bonds of +wedlock; and I am fully resolved to separate myself completely from you +by a public act. This, my purpose, has moved me to assure myself of +your person, that you may not as a fugitive, by exasperating your +brother and other friends, bring evil on my country. Finally, if you +will keep quiet and retired, and will consent to the divorce, I promise +you on my Electoral faith, that I will not only entirely free you from +restraint, but will assign you an income which will enable you to +maintain yourself right royally. Thus saying, and expecting a decisive +declaration from you,</p> + +<p class="right" style="margin-right:20%">"'I remain your +loving +cousin,</p> + +<p class="right">"'<span class="sc">The Elector</span>.' +<br /> +</p> + +<p class="normal">"When this writing was put into our hands, we +were in such great +affliction we did not know how to decide. At last we sent a noble +bedchamber woman to our lord and husband, commanding her to signify to +his Princely Highness that we were disposed to consent willingly to all +his desires, except as concerning the divorce. For this, being an +affair of conscience, must be well considered. I begged him therefore +for a little time for deliberation. Undoubtedly if his Princely +Highness should please to accomplish a divorce by his own power, we +were much too weak to hinder him. But we thought we had never given his +Princely Highness any sufficient reason for repudiating us.</p> + +<p>"The bedchamber woman delivered this in the best way she could. +But +our +lord and husband thus answered: 'Fair lady, tell your mistress we are +now minded to give her henceforth more freedom, and to withdraw the +four Swiss entirely from her apartment. It shall also be permitted to +her to walk below in the garden if agreeable to her; and she may rest +assured that I will find means to content her, but she must not think +of writing to her lord brother concerning our purposes. She must also +agree to the divorce, for I am minded to marry another.'</p> + +<p>"The noble maiden had scarcely given us this answer, when the +four +Swiss were with all speed withdrawn from our apartment, and we went the +same evening to breathe the fresh air in the garden. The day following +our lord and husband journeyed to the castle at Ladenburg. In the +evening, about five o'clock, the noble Count von Eberstein, our loving +lord and cousin, came to us. He told us that the von Degenfeld had been +sojourning already three months at the Castle of Ladenburg, and that +our lord and husband had betaken himself thither every week during our +absence; nay he had caused a special road to be made that he might the +sooner reach it. Then we first discovered what had been the aim of our +lord and husband, and we lamented our misfortune with many tears.</p> + +<p>"A week after, our lord and husband sent us a note, the +contents of +which ran literally thus:-- +<br /> +</p> +<p class="normal">"'<span class="sc">Most Serene +Highness</span>,</p> + +<p class="normal" style="text-indent:5%">"'I wish to inform +your +Highness in a few words, that in consequence of +our afore-mentioned divorce, I have again engaged myself in marriage +with the noble Lady, Marie Susanna von Degenfeld. I therefore hope that +your Highness will be therewith content, as it cannot now be altered. +For I have already sent for our dear and trusty Samuel Heyland, +preacher of the Lutheran community of our city of Heidelberg, to unite +us in Christian wedlock. But as I know well that your Highness has +begotten me three royal children, it becomes me to furnish your +Highness with a princely allowance for the rest of your life. Therefore +we grant unto your Highness the power to make use at your good pleasure +of the half of the castle of Heidelberg, and you may receive from our +lord treasurer sufficient money for your maintenance; only you must +reconcile yourself to my present wife, and inflict no injury upon her, +that I may not have occasion to withdraw my favour from your +Highness.</p> + +<p class="normal">"'I remain your Highness's graciously until +death,</p> + +<p class="right">"'Your Highness's Elector.</p> + +<p class="continue" style="font-size:90%">"'Ladenburg, April +15, +1652.' +<br /> +</p> + +<p class="normal">"My answer was as follows:-- +<br /> +</p> + +<p class="continue">"'Most august Prince and high-born +Lord,</p> + +<p class="normal" style="text-indent:5%">"'From your Princely +Highness's letter I have learnt with the greatest +consternation that your Princely Highness is minded now to cast me off +entirely, and never more to recognize me as your wife. I will commend +my cause, woeful as it is, to God, the righteous judge. I will +henceforth consider myself as a widow; whose husband still lives, led +astray by a wanton worthless person, and drawn away from his lawful +wife.</p> + +<p>"'For the ample maintenance which your Princely Highness has +ordered +for me, I render you hearty thanks. I will also be careful so to behave +myself to your Princely Highness's concubine that she shall have no +cause to complain. Further, a nobleman from Stuttgart is here, who +reports that in ten days his Serene Highness Prince Eberhard von +Würtemberg, our dearly beloved lord cousin and brother, together with +the lady his wife, are coming to visit us at Heidelberg. So your +Princely Highness will undoubtedly come here, and arrange that they +shall have right princely accommodation.</p> + +<p class="normal">"'Datum Heidelberg, the 16th of April, +1657.</p> + +<p class="hang1" style="margin-left:10%">"'Your Princely +Highness's +until death, but now deeply afflicted +lawful Electress of the Rhine.' +<br /> +</p> + +<p class="normal">"After three days our lord and husband +returned, +bringing with +him the von Degenfeld, under the escort of a hundred newly enlisted +dragoons. Then indeed were we cut to the heart when we saw our former +waiting-woman usurping our place and presented to every one as +Electress, yet could not venture to say the least word against her. We +kept a separate table, and had our own servants, and a body-guard of +twenty cuirassiers appointed for our own selves.</p> + +<p>"At last we bethought us we would once more endeavour to +mollify +our +lord and husband. We sent for the two Princes our sons, and the +Princess our daughter, dressed ourselves and the children in our best, +and waited near the hall-door till our lord and husband rose from +dinner and came out. Then we, together with our beloved children, +prostrated ourselves before his Princely Highness, hoping thereby to +mollify him. For if his Princely Highness would not recognize us as his +lawful wife, our dearly beloved children after his death might be +considered as bastards.</p> + +<p>"Our children wept aloud, as did also the whole surrounding +court, +for +it would have melted a heart of stone. Our lord and husband let us thus +kneel, and stood in deep thought, not knowing at the moment what to +say. His Princely Highness's eyes were filled with tears. Meanwhile the +mistress von Degenfeld came from within, saw us thus kneeling, and +spoke audaciously to our lord and husband. '<i>Signore Elettore, servate +la parola di promessa.</i>' At these words our lord and husband clasped +his hands over his head, and went away sighing. We however could no +longer look over such iniquity, but ran into our chamber and seized a +loaded pistol, determined to send a ball through the heart of this +wanton, godless disturber of conjugal rights, this von Degenfeld. But +when we came to her, and were on the point of discharging the pistol, +it was taken away from us by the noble Count and Lord Wolf Julius von +Hohenlohe, and discharged out of a window. But when our lord and +husband heard this shot, he ran hastily out of his apartment, and asked +who had fired. We said: 'Ah, dear treasure, I did it, with the +intention of revenging your Princely Highness's honour on this +monster.' But our lord and husband replied: 'Charlotta, Charlotta, +cease these doings, if you would not be sent away forthwith from +hence.' But we went off without making reply.</p> + +<p>"Four days after a postilion came with a report that his Serene +Highness of Würtemberg would arrive within two hours. Thereupon our +lord and husband sent to notify to us that his Princely Highness, with +Mistress von Degenfeld, would go to meet the said Lord Duke. But we +were to receive his Princely Highness at the castle. And thus it was. +Three days were spent in all kinds of pastimes, in honour of the said +Lord Duke, but we lived neglected, and were not once asked to dinner, +notwithstanding the urgent entreaties of our much-loved lord and +brother Duke Eberhard and his wife.</p> + +<p>"At last we caused a repast to be prepared in our apartment, and +invited thereto both these princely personages, as also our lord and +husband, and our eldest son Prince Karolus. All these came except our +lord and husband, who indeed at the intercession of the Duke would have +been willing to come. But his Princely Highness was prevented by +Mistress von Degenfeld, who, as we afterwards learnt, urged his +Princely Highness with hard words, saying, she would no longer allow +his Princely Highness to live with her, if he went to us.</p> + +<p>"Our lord and husband said also to our Prince Karolus: 'Go +thither +and +help your mother to entertain the guests, and tell her from me, that at +this present I am prevented from visiting her by ill health, but by +God's providence might be enabled to do so another time.'</p> + +<p>"We discoursed during the repast with both the Princely +personages +on +the best way of dealing with our affairs, but their Princely Highnesses +advised us not to undertake anything against the life of this von +Degenfeld, since we might thereby make our evil fate worse. Our lord +brother, Duke Eberhard, took our hand, and promised that his Princely +Highness would exert himself to the utmost to unite us again, but his +Princely Highness would especially, immediately on his return home, +write urgently to his vassal, Gustavus von Degenfeld, brother of the +said Archmistress, to require the return of his sister home. If he did +not do this, he would take his feoff from him, and bestow it on +another. Meanwhile I was to supplicate your Imperial Majesty, most +humbly, to move in this matter, and unite us again by your most +gracious mediation.</p> + +<p>"We cannot refrain also from adding that our lord and husband +has +not +in any other way injured us by word or deed these three years, and we +hope his Princely Highness will favourably receive such Imperial +intercession, and again be gracious to us, a much oppressed and +afflicted Princess, and not prostrate us entirely under this heavy +cross.</p> + +<p>"Therefore we most humbly submit ourselves, praying fervently +to +God +Almighty that He may grant your Imperial Majesty continual health, long +life, a happy reign, victory over your enemies, and all +prosperity.</p> + +<p class="normal">"Datum Heidelberg, July 26, 1661. Your +Imperial +Majesty's most humble +and obedient servant, <span class="sc">Charlotta Countess Palatine of +the Rhine</span>, born +<span class="sc">Landgravine of Hesse</span>."</p> + +<p> +Here the letter closes. We can scarcely feel any warm sympathy with +either of the contending parties. The husband appears thoroughly +unworthy: we find vulgar threats, violence, and ill-usage, a perfidious +attempt to deceive his wife, abject baseness in the evening visit, and +intimidation by the clash of arms, and worse than all, was the manner +of his divorce and re-marriage. The Church constitution of the +Protestants remained an unfinished edifice, the rulers were but too +much inclined to give themselves dispensations and licences as superior +bishops. And of the Electress also! What can we say? How gladly would +we sympathize with the deeply wounded wife and mother; but she appears +at best not very lovable; she also was violent, insolent, strong in +pouting, complaining, and weak at the moment when everything depended +on her defence of her just rights. To say nothing of the remarkable +scene at the Diet, her disobedience in remaining behind, gave the +Elector, at all events according to the ideas of that time, a right to +think of divorce. Not all that is most repugnant in this miserable +history should be laid to the charge of the individuals; much of what +offends us was then usual. The respect for women was small, the +familiar intercourse of the camp was a jealously guarded right of royal +ladies, the evening visit of the husband, an honour which was not +concealed from the court. But however much may be laid to the account +of the manners of the times, there still remains so much individual +imperfection as to leave a painful impression on the reader.</p> + +<p>The Electress outlived both her husband and her rival. Soon after +this +letter, by the mediation of the Brandenburg court a contract of +separation was concluded by the married couple, which assured to the +Electress a yearly income of eight thousand thalers, with the right of +spending it where she pleased. She resided afterwards at Cassel, and +lived to see her rival give birth to fourteen children. Later she took +the most benevolent interest in these children; and her own daughter, +the celebrated Charlotte Elizabeth Duchess of Orleans, mother of the +Regent of France, was bound by ties of the most intimate friendship +with one of the young Raugravines. We may thank this female friendship +for the beautiful letters of the Princess Charlotte Elizabeth, which +are not only important for the history of that period, but also +valuable, as showing how a prudent, intellectual and honourable German +lady remained uncorrupted in the impure atmosphere of a Parisian court. +The mother of the profligate Regent of France was all her life long a +true German. She speaks with warm affection of her father, and with +filial respect of her mother. + +<br /> +</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> +<div class="chapter"> +<h2>CHAPTER IX.</h2> +</div> + +<h3>OF THE HOMES OF GERMAN CITIZENS.<br /> +(1675-1681-1683.)</h3> + + +<p class="normal sp1">While foreign guests, courtesy and ceremonial +were +doing their best to +restrain the aftergrowth of a lawless time in the upper classes, the +German citizen was aided by the innate character of his nation, its +need of order and discipline, its industry and feeling of duty. The +marriage tie and family life, his home and his employment were restored +to him as of old. The wooing still proceeded after the old German +fashion, the matrimonial agent still played his part, and the betrothal +presents of the bride and bridegroom were still recorded with their +accurate worth in money. Nay, the wooing had become still more formal, +even the mode of expression was prescribed. The lover had to think over +his address to the maiden carefully; where his own inventive powers +were deficient, he was assisted by the indispensable compliment book, +the treasured morsel of the library. The same style was adopted by the +modest young lady; even where the marriage had been settled for her, it +was considered desirable that she should not at once consent; nay, the +strictest decorum required that she should at first refuse, or at least +ask time for consideration. Then the lover made his addresses a little +more ardent, in rather a higher strain, and then the interdict was +withdrawn, and she was permitted to say, Yes. But they were not +pedants, they felt that long speeches in these cases were pedantic, and +that both parties who were contemplating matrimony, should express +themselves in few words; the lover had to introduce his proposal +somewhat thus: "Mademoiselle! Forgive me kindly, I pray you, for +taking +a liberty of which I myself am ashamed; yet my confidence in your +kindness emboldens me so much, that I cannot refrain from acquainting +you with the resolution I have taken, of changing my present +condition," &c. Then the well-conducted young lady had to +answer after +this fashion: "Monsieur! I can hardly believe that what it has +pleased +you to propose to me is spoken in earnest, for I well know how little +charm I possess to please so agreeable a person," &c. It had +all been +previously arranged by the matrimonial agent, they both knew what would +be the result, but decorum required of the citizen, as courtesy did of +the noble, that he should openly express his wishes by a proceeding +which should make his resolution irrevocable. Of the agitation of the +man, or the heart-beating of the maiden, we find nothing recorded; we +hope that both were happy, when they had gone through the trying scene, +he without faltering, she without an outburst of tears.</p> + +<p>In the year 1644, Friedrich Lucä, son of a professor at the +Gymnasium, +was born in the capital of the Silesian principality of Brieg. He +studied as a Calvinist, first in Heidelberg, then in the Netherlands +and Frankfort on the Oder, returned after many travels and adventures +to his native city, became the court preacher at Brieg, and, after the +death of the last Piasten Duke at Liegnitz, and the occupation of the +country by the Austrians, was appointed pastor and court preacher at +Cassel. He died after an active life, rich in honours, in 1708. As a +copious historical writer, he was appreciated, but also severely +criticised by his contemporaries. He corresponded with Leibnitz, and +some interesting letters to him from that great man are still preserved +to us. He wrote also an autobiography, which has been piously preserved +in his family for five generations, and was published by one of his +descendants. ('The Chronicle of Friedrich Lucä. A picture of the time, +and its manners,' published by Dr. Friedrich Lucä. Frankfort a. M. +Brönner, 1854.) We will here give Friedrich Lucä's account of his +wooing. This event, so replete with excitement, took place the year he +was preacher at Liegnitz.</p> + +<p>"Meanwhile, when my mind was least intent on thoughts of +matrimony, +and +the other proposals made to me had been unheeded, a foreign lady, +Elizabeth Mercer, whom I had never seen or heard of all my life long, +made known to me her intention of receiving the holy sacrament from me +privately, as she could not wait till it was again publicly given, it +having been so only a short time before. The said lady had come hither +with the noble General Schlepusch and his most dear wife, from Bremen, +and resided at their noble country mansion Klein-Polewitz, a mile and a +half from Liegnitz.</p> + +<p>"On Sunday, the maiden presented herself at divine service, and +after +the performance of the same, came from the church to my house, and the +holy communion being devoutly concluded, I took occasion to discourse +with her concerning the condition of the Church at Bremen, as also to +thank her for two capons which she had sent me for my kitchen, and then +I dismissed her with the Lord's blessing. In this my first interview +however with the maiden, I had not only perceived in her a refined and +seemly demeanour towards me, and discovered a beautiful conformity of +mind with mine, but I found in the effervescence of my feelings, and +emotions of my heart, an evident token that the spirit of love had been +somehow remarkably busy with me, for during my whole life I had never +experienced such an ardent affection for any maiden.</p> + +<p>"This my heartfelt but chaste love, I concealed firmly within my +breast, and let no living soul know aught concerning it. The thought of +this maiden accompanied me every evening to my rest, and rose up with +me in the morning. Sometimes I spoke of her to my housekeeper, who was +a well-bred and discreet woman, and she, without adverting to the +motive of my discourse, extolled the maiden highly to me, and the like +did also my sexton. I tormented myself now with secret love thoughts +for a length of time, but at last spoke out my mind, thinking to +myself: 'Why should thy soul afflict itself fruitlessly concerning a +stranger maiden, who will again leave the country, and who will never +fall to thy lot?'</p> + +<p>"Half a year after, the good maiden Mercer had entirely passed +from +my +remembrance, but the already forgotten maiden sent me an amiable +greeting through the page of the Lord Baron Schlepusch, and signified +to me that she was minded to communicate again. This message renewed +the old wounds of my heart, and therefore I made inquiries of the page +at some length concerning the maiden, with respect to one thing and +another; but could learn little or nothing from him. I then sent an +invitation to dinner on the Sunday through my sexton, to the Mistress +Mercer, but this she did not accept, excusing herself by saying that +she was accustomed to fast the whole of the day on which she +communicated. Thus on Sunday, the maiden, all unconscious of my loving +thoughts, came after church to my house. I gave her then, as before, +the communion, and discoursed with her to the same effect on all kinds +of subjects, to give her thereby some diversion. I would gladly in such +discourse have learnt some particulars as to whether she were noble, +and would like to remain in Silesia, but I could not ask such things +this time. After a while the maiden rose to leave my house; and as she +imagined I had a spouse, commended herself to her. I explained to her +forthwith that I was a bachelor, having no wife. During this discourse, +my sexton as well as my housekeeper were present, and to them, as to +myself, the demeanour of the maiden had always given the greatest +contentment, yet they did not fathom my intent.</p> + +<p>"Now did my trouble begin again. After maturely reflecting upon +the +matter, I could think of no means whereby I might learn the lineage and +circumstances of the maiden, whom I always looked upon as a noble +person, for I did not deem it expedient to open myself to any one. +Meanwhile, I met one day, Herr Tobias Pirner, the pastor at +Nickelstadt, a pious, honourable, and upright man, although of the +Lutheran confession. Now as I knew that the wife of General Schlepusch, +whose husband had lately died and been buried with great pomp in the +church at Liegnitz, went every Sunday, together with the maiden, to +attend divine service in the Lutheran church at Nickelstadt, I begged +of this Herr Pirner, in a way that made it in no wise remarkable on my +part, to inquire concerning the lineage and other circumstances of the +Mistress Mercer. He undertook this, and promised me the following week +a report thereupon. Herr Pirner faithfully fulfilled his engagement, +and at the end of the week reported to me in <i>optima forma</i>, what +he +had learnt from the <i>Frau Generalin</i>. Mistress Mercer was the +daughter +of Mr. Balthaser Mercer, formerly parliamentary assessor at Edinburgh, +in Scotland, who had many times been sent to England by King Charles I. +on weighty commissions, and once on a mission to Hamburg, where he was +decorated with a golden medal of honour. Her mother, also called +Elizabeth, was of noble lineage, born a Kennewy of Scotland. When in +1644 perilous troubles broke forth in England, her honoured father and +also her brother, the court preacher Robert Mercer, as they had been +favourites of the decapitated King, fled the kingdom with the whole +family, from fear of Cromwell and his party; he went with all belonging +to him to Bremen, where he lived on his own means, which were pretty +considerable, till his happy end in 1650, leaving his widow, a pious, +godly matron, with three sons and three daughters. The sons had gone +forth into the world, one to India, another to the Canary Islands; of +the daughters the eldest was married in London to a nephew of Cromwell, +of the noble family of Cleipold, and the youngest to a merchant named +Uckermann at Wanfried in Hess, the second was my love. In the year 1660 +her lady mother also died in Bremen, and was laid beside her honoured +father in the church of St. Stephen, after which Mistress Elizabeth had +lived for a while with the widow of Herr Doctor Schnellen. Meanwhile +she became acquainted with the <i>Frau</i> Schlepusch, who lived at her +property Schönbeck, near Bremen, and when soon after, the General +Schlepusch and his wife departed for Silesia, they took her with them +as a playfellow for their young daughter, to Klein-Polewitz, where she +was always held in good esteem.</p> + +<p>"This report and intelligence increased the ardour of my love +for +her, +especially as I now knew that she was indeed of distinguished family, +but not of noble extraction, and also because Herr Pirner had highly +commended the maiden on account of her godly behaviour, piety, +prudence, and many domestic qualities; and the <i>Frau Generalin</i> +had +no +hesitation in trusting her with the whole conduct of the household, +during her many journeys to and fro. Now my whole heart being filled to +overflowing with a stream of chaste love, I poured it out for the first +time to this honourable man, and revealed to his discretion what else I +would not have disclosed to any man in the whole world, namely, that if +it were possible, and provided it were the will of God, I desired to +make Mistress Mercer my wife, and I begged of him to lend me his +faithful aid in this important affair, and help to promote my good +purpose.</p> + +<p>"The good man was willing to esteem it the greatest honour to +perform +this service for me; he devoted his heart to the work, and gave +expression to my intentions, first to the <i>Frau Generalin</i>. +Meanwhile I +exchanged letters with him, and soon entertained good hopes. <i>In +summa</i>, the affair advanced in a short time in the most satisfactory +manner, so that nothing remained but for me to visit her in person. One +Monday morning, having first sought aid of the Lord, I proceeded on +horseback to Nickelstadt, called for the Herr Pirner there, and went +with him to Klein-Polewitz, which lay about a quarter of a mile from +thence. The son-in-law of the <i>Frau Generalin</i>, Herr Heinrich von +Poser, the royal receiver-general of taxes in the principality of Jauer +and Schweidnitz, received us in the baronial mansion, conducted us with +great politeness to the dining-room, where he entertained us with +various discourse, like a highly-talented and well-educated cavalier. +Soon afterwards the <i>Frau Generalin</i> sent for me to her room, and +welcomed me with much civility, receiving my compliments in return most +favourably. My proposals contented her right well, and she gave me good +hope that my desires would meet with a happy issue. In the mean time +the table was spread, and the <i>Frau Generalin</i> with her maiden +daughter, and Herr von Poser with his spouse, made their appearance, +followed by good Mistress Mercer, who received me most courteously. +During dinner every variety of lively discourse was carried on, and my +love was the true centre to which all were attracted. When dinner was +ended, the whole company absented themselves, and left me and my love +alone in the dining-room. On this occasion I opened my heart to her, +and begged for her sympathy, hoping she might in some degree +reciprocate my chaste love, and allow herself to be persuaded, under +God's providence, to be united with me in wedlock. Now as generally in +love affairs a maiden's No is as good as Yes, so I considered my love's +first uttered No as Yes, and was not thereby alarmed, but pursued my +intent. Meanwhile, however, the <i>Frau Generalin</i> and the Herr von +Poser +passed to and fro, and teased us poor lovers with polite jests. At last +our love could no longer hide itself under compliments, but burst forth +like the moon from behind dark clouds, and we exclaimed, 'Yes, I am +thine, and thou art mine!' And now we called together the <i>Frau +Generalin</i>, the Herr Poser, and he who was my rightful wooer, who +then, +as assistants and witnesses, confirmed our verbal Yes, by joining +together our hands. As a pledge of my affection, I hereupon presented +my love with a small Bible handsomely embossed with silver, and a +ring with ten diamonds, which had been made for me at Breslau for +fifty-three imperial thalers. But my treasure entered into a contest of +love with me, presenting me with a ring with one diamond, which, on +account of its size, was estimated at ninety imperial thalers. Now when +the affair had in such wise come to an arrangement, we sat down again +to table in the evening, and supped together with gladness of heart, +till at nightfall I and Herr Pirner were conducted to two comfortable +bedchambers. The following morning I expressed to <i>Frau Generalin</i> +my +thankfulness for all the honour she had shown me, took leave of my love +and all present, and returned with Herr Pirner to Nickelstadt, and from +thence back to Liegnitz. From there I corresponded weekly with my love, +visited her every Sunday after the performance of divine service, at +Polewitz; treated her each time with a special present, and finally +fixed with her upon St. Elizabeth's day, namely the 19th of November, +1675, for the conclusion of our nuptials.</p> + +<p>"After this fashion did our courtship continue almost five +weeks; +then +as the appointed nuptial day was approaching, and everything necessary +had been procured, and the wedding guests invited, and more especially +as my former colleague at Brieg, Herr Dares, whom I had requested to +unite us, had arrived at Klein-Polewitz, the <i>Frau Generalin</i> sent +two +coaches, the one with six, the other with four horses, to Liegnitz to +fetch me and my guests; but as these coaches could not bring all, the +Captain General, Herr von Schweinichen lent me one, item the Abbess of +Nonnenklosters, item the city councillor, nay one with four horses, +together with certain calèches, whereupon, by God's will, I with my +guests repaired to Polewitz. After the marriage sermon, in which Herr +Dares introduced the names Friedrich and Elizabeth very ingeniously and +emblematically, the wedding took place by the light of burning torches, +about six o'clock in the evening in the large dining-room, whereunto I +was conducted by the Royal Councillors Herr Kurchen and Herr Caspar +Braun, and my love by Herr von Poser and Herr von Eicke, brother to the +<i>Frau Generalin</i>. Before the wedding, Fräulein von Schlepusch had +presented me with the wreath, and I had given her in return a beautiful +gold ring. As soon as the marriage was completed we sat down to supper, +which had been provided by my love at our cost, and were all very +blithe and merry. In such fashion did we entertain our guests for the +space of three days with the greatest gaiety and contentment; and it +all ended in confidential union and harmony. On the fourth day, +accompanied by Herr Rath Knichen and his wife, I brought home my love +to Liegnitz in the coach of the <i>Frau Generalin</i>, drawn by six +horses."</p> + +<p>Here we conclude the narrative of the happy husband; he had won by +his +wooing a most excellent housewife. In the midst of flowery expressions +the reader will perhaps discern here the deep emotions of an honourable +heart.</p> + +<p>But the mode of expressing the feelings of the heart was altered. +When +a century before, Felix Platter related the beginning of his love for +his maiden, he expresses his feeling in these simple words: "I +began to +love her much;" Lucä, on the other hand, already expresses himself +thus: "That the stream of chaste love filled his heart to +overflowing." +The bride of the Glauburger still decorously addressed her bridegroom +in her letters as "Dearly beloved Junker;" but now in a +tender +epistle +from a wife to her husband, she accosts him as "Most beautiful +angel." +In other European nations also, we find the same false refinement; with +them also the finest feelings were overloaded with ornament. Through +the foreign and classical poets this style had been brought into +Germany, partly a bad kind of renaissance, which had originated in an +unskilful imitation of the ancients. But nevertheless it satisfied a +real need of the heart; men wished to raise themselves and those they +loved, out of the common realities of life into a purer atmosphere: as +angels, they placed them in the golden halo of the Christian heaven; as +goddesses, in the ancient Olympus; as Chloe, in the sweet perfumed air +of the Idylls. In the same childish effort to make themselves +honourable, dignified, and great, they wore peruques, introduced +ridiculous titles, believed in the philosopher's stone, and entered +into secret societies; and whoever would write a history of the German +mind might well call this a period of ardent aspirations. These +aspirations were not altogether estimable, by turns they became vague, +childish, fanatical, stupid, sentimental, and at last dissolute; but +beneath might always be discovered the feeling that there was something +wanting in German life. Was it a higher morality? Was it gaiety? +Perhaps it was the grace of God? The beautiful or the frivolous? Or +perhaps that was wanting to the people, which the princes had long +possessed, political life. With the broken window-panes of the Thirty +years' war, and the choice phrases of the young officers who banqueted +in the tent of General Hatzfeld, this period of aspiration began; it +reached its highest point in the fine minds which gathered round +Goethe, and in the brothers who embraced in the east, and it ended +perhaps with the war of freedom, or amidst the alarms of 1848.</p> + +<p>The home life of the respectable citizen of the seventeenth century +was +as strictly regulated as was his wooing, prudent and circumspect, even +in the most minute particulars. His energies were occupied in strenuous +labour from morning to evening, which afforded him a secret +satisfaction. Thoughtful and meditative, the artisan sat over his work, +and sought to derive pleasure from the labour of his hands. The workman +was still full of anxiety, but the beautiful product of his hands was +precious to him. Most of the great inventions of modern times were +thought out in the workshops of German citizens, though they may indeed +sometimes have been first brought into practical use in foreign +countries. Scarcely was the war ended when the workshops were again in +full activity, the hammer sounded, the weavers' shuttle flew, the +joiner sought to collect beautiful veined woods, in order to inlay +wardrobes and writing-tables with ornamental arabesques. Even the poor +little scribe began again to enjoy the use of his pen; he encircled his +characters with beautiful flourishes, and looked with heartfelt pride +on his far-famed Saxon <i>ductus</i>. The scholar also was occupied +incessantly with thick quartos; but the full bloom of German literature +had not yet arrived. Everywhere, indeed, interest was aroused in +collecting materials and details, and the industry and knowledge of +individuals appears prodigious. But they knew not how to work out these +details, it was pre-eminently a period of collection. Historical +documents, the legal usages of nations, the old works of theologians, +the lives of the saints, and stores of words of all languages were +compiled in massive works, the inquiring mind lost itself in the +insignificant, without comprehending how to give life to individual +learning. It wrote upon antique ink-horns and shoes it reckoned +accurately the length and breadth of Noah's ark, and examined +conscientiously the length of the spear of the old Landsknecht Goliah. +Thus we find that industry did not obtain the full benefit of its +labour; yet it assisted much in training the genius of our great +astronomer Leibnitz; it also helped to give an ideal purpose to man, a +spirit for which he might live.</p> + +<p>The war had inflicted much injury on the artisan, and it was first in +domestic life that he began to recover from the effects of it. The +weaker minds withdrew entirely into their homes, for there was little +satisfaction in public life, and their means of defence were +diminished. There was now peace, and the old gates of the battered city +walls grated on their hinges, but trivial quarrels distracted the +council-table, and envious tittle-tattle and malignant calumny +embittered every hour of the year to those stronger minds that exerted +themselves for the public good. A morbid terror of publicity prevailed. +When in the beginning of the eighteenth century the first weekly +advertisers sprang up, and the Council of Frankfort-on-Main conceded to +the undertakers of it, a weekly list of baptisms, marriages, and +deaths, there was a general burst of displeasure; it was considered +insupportable that such private concerns should be made public. So +completely had the German become a private character.</p> + +<p>There were few cities then in Germany on whose social life we can +dwell +with satisfaction. Hamburg is perhaps the best specimen that can be +given. Even there war and its consequences had caused great +devastation, but the fresh air that blew from the wide ocean through +the streets of the honest citizens of a free town, soon invigorated +their energies. Their self-government, and position as a small state in +union with foreign powers, preserved their community from extreme +narrow-mindedness, and it appears that in the period of laxity and +weakness that followed the Thirty years' war, they became by their +energetic conduct the principal gainers. Land traffic with the interior +of Germany, as also nautical commerce across the North Sea and Atlantic +Ocean, recovered their elasticity soon after the termination of the +war. Hamburg envoys and agents negotiated with the States-general, and +at the court of Cromwell. The Hamburgers possessed not only a merchant +fleet, but also a small navy. Their two frigates were, more than once, +a terror to the pirates of the Mediterranean and of the German Ocean. +They convoyed, now Greenland and Archangel navigators, now great fleets +of from forty to fifty merchantmen, to Oporto, Lisbon, Cadiz, Malta, +and Leghorn, in short, wherever there were Hamburg settlements.</p> + +<p>This commerce, inferior as it may be to that of the present day, was +perhaps, in proportion to that of other German seaports of the +seventeenth century, more important than now. The young Hamburgers went +then to the seaports of the German and Atlantic Ocean, and of the +Mediterranean, as they now do to America, and founded there commercial +houses on their own account. Thus was formed in Hamburg a +cosmopolitanism which is still characteristic of that great city. But +it was undoubtedly more difficult for that generation to conform +themselves to foreign customs, than for the present. It was not +devotion to the German empire, but an attachment to the customs of +their daily life and family ties, which made the Hamburgers then, as +now, rarely consider a foreign country as their fixed home. When they +had passed a course of years abroad, in profitable activity, they +hastened home, in order to form a household with a German wife. The +warm patriotism and the prudent pliancy to foreign customs, which are +peculiar to the citizens of small republics, were produced by this kind +of life, and also the love of enterprise, and the enlarged views, which +were seldom to be found then in the courts of Princes in the interior. +Thus the family of a Hamburg patrician of that period shows a number of +interesting peculiarities which are well worth dwelling upon.</p> + +<p>Such a family was that of the Burgomaster Johann Schulte, whose +race still survives on the female side. Johann Schulte (who lived +1621-1697), was of ancient family, he had studied at Rostock, +Strasburg, and Basle, had travelled, and married whilst secretary to +the city council, and had then acted as envoy from Hamburg to Cromwell. +He became burgomaster in 1668, was a worthy gentleman of great +moderation of character, experienced in all worldly affairs as well as +in the government of his good city, a happy husband and father. Some +letters are preserved from him to his son, who in 1680 entered into +partnership in a Lisbon house. These letters contain many instructive +details. But most interesting, is the pleasing insight we get into the +family life at that period; the terms the father was on with his +children, the heartiness of the feeling on both sides; in the father +the quiet dignity, and wisdom of the much experienced man, with a +strong feeling of his distinguished position, and in all the members of +the family a firm bond of union, which, in spite of all the inevitable +disputes within the circle, formed an impenetrable barrier to all +without.</p> + +<p>A journey to Lisbon, and a separation of many years from the paternal +house, was then a great affair. When the son, after his departure amid +the tears and pious blessings and good wishes of parents and sisters, +was detained by contrary winds at Cuxhaven, his father lost no time in +sending him "a small prayer book; item, a book called 'The Merry +Club,' +and Gottfried Schulze's Chronicle, also a box of cream of tartar, +and a blue stone pitcher with tamarinds, and preserved lemon-peel for +sea-sickness." The son during his voyage, called to mind that he +owed +his brother three marks and six shillings, and anxiously entreated his +mother to withdraw that sum for him from the eight thalers he had left +in her keeping. The father liberally responded, that the eight thalers +should be kept for him undiminished, that his mother would make no +difficulty about three marks. After the son was established at Lisbon, +regular supplies were sent of Zerbster and Hamburg beer, butter, and +smoked meats, as also prescriptions for illnesses, and whatever else +the care of the mother could procure for the absent son; he on the +other hand sent oranges back, and casks of wine. The father accurately +reported the changes which had occurred in the family, and among the +citizens of the good city of Hamburg, and zealously laboured to send +his son, commissions from his Hamburg friends. Soon the son confessed +to his parents from that foreign land, that he loved a maiden at +Hamburg; naturally one of the acquaintances of the family, and the +father sympathized in this love affair, but always treated it as a +matter of serious negotiation, which was to be cautiously and tenderly +dealt with. It is clearly the object of the father to put off the +wooing and proposal till his son had been some years abroad, and with +diplomatic tact he meets his son's wishes just far enough to retain his +confidence.</p> + +<p>What however is perhaps most characteristic of that period, is the +advice given by the father to the son as to the necessity of adapting +himself to the usages of foreign countries. The son is a pious zealous +Protestant, whose conscience was much disquieted at having to live +among strict Roman Catholics, and to join the practices so repugnant to +him of Roman Catholic countries. What the father writes to him on this +subject, is here given from the first letters, with the slight +alterations necessary to make them intelligible. +<br /> +</p> + +<p class="continue">"Dear Son,</p> +<p class="normal" style="text-indent:5%">"It is a week to-day +since +the last meeting of the Council, under +my government, for this year, and I sent in the afternoon to the +post-house to inquire whether the Spanish letters had arrived, and +received for answer, No. The following day, at noon on Saturday, Herr +Brindts sent his servant with your letter of the 11/22 of this month. +As far as concerns your letter, we are in the first place all rejoiced +that, thanks to God, you are in good health, which is a great mercy; +and then that you are well pleased with your partners, and on this +account likewise you should thank the Lord, that you have met in a +foreign country with such honourable and well-disposed men. God grant +that you may henceforth pass your time with all contentment, in peace +and harmony, and also in a sound and prosperous condition till it +pleases God to restore you to your country. Nevertheless, in reading +your letter I have remarked that your place of residence, Lisbon, and +its inhabitants, both clerical and lay, are not altogether suited to +you, and you do not find yourself quite right in your present position, +owing to which I discover in you some traces of impatience. It cannot +be otherwise than that the change from Hamburg to Lisbon, the +difference between the inhabitants of one and the other, their customs +and behaviour, and many other things, should strike you with amazement, +nay, even with consternation and anger; but you must remember that +there and in other places, you have had many predecessors in like case, +with whom it has fared the same, and to whom the great change in +everything, especially in religious matters, has appeared very +surprising.</p> + +<p>"According to the Latin adage, <i>post nubila Phœbus</i>, +that +is, bad +weather is followed by brighter and more agreeable sunshine, which may +the most benign God in his mercy fulfil to you, and grant that, as you +met with and endured great dangers and bodily weakness by sea, the time +which you may spend in Portugal may sweeten and brighten the former +sour and bitter days, and that you may by degrees forget those bad +days, and be comforted and rejoice in the good ones, which may the +Almighty in his mercy constantly grant and bestow upon you. Amen.</p> + +<p>"Brother-in-law Gerdt Buermeister (who loves you as his child) +told +me +to-day, that many things would indeed appear surprising to you on your +first arrival at Lisbon, especially the seeing on all sides the forms +of white, black, and gray monks and other persons; but it would be only +three or four months, before you would become accustomed to this and +other things. Now it is certainly true that one gets habituated in time +to everything. I was for four years constantly at Strasburg, and got so +accustomed to it that it became alike to me whether I lived at +Strasburg or Hamburg, and was never disturbed about anything.</p> + +<p>"Believe me and others, you will find equally that a short time +and +a +little patience will alter and improve all. I trust in God, therefore, +that I shall in the course of eight or ten weeks receive from you more +satisfactory letters, especially as you gradually make progress in the +language. Brother-in-law Gerdt Buermeister says that he was twelve +years old when he arrived at Lisbon, and he could not sufficiently +describe his dissatisfaction; and whenever he descried the monks he +thought they were devils; he would also have poured water on them from +above, but would have got into difficulties thereby: he says, that when +he was obliged to go out he felt terrified, but he soon overcame his +fears. As regards religion, you must be judicious, and as much as +possible avoid all hypocrisy, and never enter into discourse with your +partner, nor with any one, on religious topics, but continue yourself +at fitting times to read thereon, and also pray to God with devotion +morning and evening, and put your firm trust in Him, that as He has so +wonderfully called you to that place, He will also be, and ever remain +your gracious Father and protector under all apparent crosses.</p> + +<p>"You state that you have already once sinned from necessity, +when +the +consecrated host was carried past--or as it is otherwise called the +venerabile--and ask whether you have well done to pray for yourself, +and whether the good God will hear and forgive you this sin. I cannot +forbear relating to you on this occasion what befel me at Maintz: when, +in 1641, I journeyed from Hamburg to Strasburg, and was obliged to +remain quiet at Frankfort for a fortnight during the fair, I went to +Maintz, which is four miles from thence. It so happened I was there a +Sunday, on which a special feast was kept by the Roman Catholics; so I +ascertained in which church the Elector was to attend mass, betook +myself there, and found in the church many devout people on their +knees. Some had their <i>rosarium</i> or rosaries in their hands, and +said +the Ave Maria and Lord's prayer, others smote their breasts with their +hands like the penitent publican, and repented of their sins. I thus in +some sort inspected the people, and thought their devotion commendable, +and wished also that such good devotion in outward demeanour in the +church could be found among us Lutherans. Meanwhile the Elector came, +and entered into the choir. I, as an inquisitive young man, pressed in +together with him, and as I was well dressed, having round me a scarlet +mantle, the halberdiers allowed me to pass, supposing me to be a young +nobleman. In the mean time the Herr von Andlaw chanted the mass in +<i>pontificalibus</i>, that is he had a bishop's hat or cap on his +head, +and +a bishop's staff in his hand. I had good thoughts as I looked on all +these ceremonies, and all was as yet well. But when the Herr von Andlaw +raised the consecrated cup, then all knelt down who were standing by +me, I did the same, and said a Paternoster. To this I was led by my +curiosity, but you were led unavoidably, and I trust in God that He +will forgive me and you this fault. Besides this once, I have been in +the Roman Catholic church frequently in France, and especially at +Orleans on a Sunday afternoon, and have heard good music, but have +never found my limbs tremble as you write that you have experienced. +One should not be like a timid hare, but maintain always a constant +steadfast heart. You mention that in Lisbon there are many priests, and +also many churches and monasteries. Well! let it be so, that is nothing +to you; however many priests there may be there they will not bite you, +only take heed to yourself. No one can compel you to go to mass or into +the church, and if at Easter you can obtain a ticket from an +ecclesiastic, as if you had confessed and communicated, you have no +farther need to care about the priests. But if you see the priests at a +distance coming towards you with the consecrated host, use all caution +and turn into a byway, or go into a house.</p> + +<p>"You write to me also, that many are already envious of you, +and +that +Frick and Amsing are amongst the number. My son! who is without envious +rivals? The more a person prospers, the more there are who envy them. +Therefore the Dutch say: <i>idt is beter, beniedt als beklaegt, als idt +man onsen lieven Heer behaegt.</i> What think you of the many who envy +me, +but whereof I know only a few, most of them I know not. On that +account one has to pray in the Litany: 'That it may please the Lord to +forgive our enemies, persecutors, and slanderers, and turn their +hearts.' I should have been glad to see that when Frick and Amsing +invited you twice you had gone to them. You write that they would have +cross-questioned you. But you are not such a child that they could have +cross-questioned you, particularly as you could undoubtedly tell them +what you chose, and what they ought to know. You write also that Frick +did not take off his hat to you; now you are younger than Frick, and +thus it behoved you to greet him first. You tell me also that Amsing +gave good words with his mouth, while gall was in his heart; to that I +answer, that one must set a thief to catch a thief; give always good +words to all, be they ecclesiastics or laymen, and keep to yourself +your own thoughts, that is the way of the world.</p> + +<p>"It is particularly satisfactory to us to find from your letter +that +you hope soon to make progress in the Portuguese language, which will +cause you great contentment, and although on account of your deficiency +in that language, you cannot yet give any special help and assistance +in buying and selling, yet you can keep the books, and be assiduous in +setting down and registering everything.</p> + +<p>"Admonish your young Heinrich to fear God, and to that end to +pray +and +read, and make him read to you in your room on the forenoon of Sunday +from the <i>Molleri postilla</i>.</p> + +<p>"Your mother has spoken to Gunther Andreas, and told him he +must +take +heed, and when a vessel is noted up at the exchange to be laden for +Lisbon, send a ton of beer by it. You have in your mother's hands not +eight marks, ten shillings, but eight good rix-dollars, which I have +before written to you. And if the eight rix-dollars are already gone, a +ton of beer will not signify. You have always as much or more in hand. +We will also, God willing, send you a present of fresh smoked Elbe +salmon, for I have already had two salmon in the smoke three days, one +of which we have destined for you. The salmon fishery promises fair, +though as yet a pound costs one mark.</p> + +<p>"Last Monday we held our Peter's, and yesterday our Matthias's +collation, when I had a convenient opportunity to recommend you and +your brother-partner to Herr Brümmelman. The same reported to me that +he had received letters from you, and the good honest man opened +his mind to me thoroughly, and told me that he would answer you by +this post, also that I need not doubt God would bless you and your +brother-partner, and you would have no cause to complain. God grant you +health, patience, and a constant cheerful spirit, also pleasure in and +love for your business and work of superintendence. A common proverb +says: <i>ora et labora</i>, and let God be your councillor. This do, and +throw all your cares on the Lord, and it will be well with you. +Wherewith I conclude for this time, as I brought to a close yesterday +my seventh year of administration, and by God's grace and favour have +concluded it; and together with the friendly greetings of all your dear +belongings, I faithfully commend you to the secure protection of the +great God, and remains always</p> + +<p class="right" style="margin-right:15%">"Your kindly +affectionate +father,</p> + +<p class="right">"Johann Schulte, Lt.</p> + +<p class="normal" style="font-size:90%">"Hamburg, Feb. 25, +1681. +<br /> +</p> +<p class="normal">"P.S. I have mentioned, in my letter of the 14th +of January, if I am +not mistaken, that the pleasant fellow Heinrich Mein served up to us +and the ship's company a rarity, a dish of fish which had been cooked +in Lisbon. Now you might intend sending me a gift of the like in +future, but do not do it, it would cost you trouble and money, and I +care not much about it. Vale.</p> + +<p>"P.S. Your lady mother sends you most kindly greeting from +herself, +and +is glad to find, <i>par curiosité</i>, that you here and there mention +in +your letters what kind of weather you have, and what vegetables and +fruit you get in succession; you may also touch lightly upon what meat +and fish or vegetables you eat. And you should look to it that you eat +wholesome food, and above all not too much. Here indeed the Elbe is +open, and there is tolerably mild weather; we have good Elbe and sea +fish, only we have deep muddy roads, and a foggy thick atmosphere, +whilst with you doubtless all is now green and gay and everything in +blossom.</p> + +<p>"P.S. As the price of letters to Spain and Portugal runs +somewhat +higher than to other places, I write, contrary to my usual habit and +manner, somewhat small and <i>compresser</i>. Write small and light +letters, +but tolerably long ones, and <i>menagire</i> also herein. +Vale."</p> + +<p> +Thus far the cautious Burgomaster Johann Schulte. He had the pleasure +of seeing his son return safe from the land of monks, and united after +many family negotiations to the maiden of his choice.</p> + +<p>Labour undoubtedly makes men firm and enduring, and it more +especially +serves the egotistic interests of men of sound capacity; but to any one +whose vocation it is to be employed for the benefit of others, the +service will be consecrated by a feeling of duty. Every employment +which is capable of maintaining life gives man also a position. The +journeyman is the official of his master, the housewife has the office +of the keys, and every work develops even in the smallest circle a +domain of moral duties. The German has never been deficient in a +feeling of the duties of home and of his trade. There always have been +citizens who were not only ready to die for their city, but who have +sometimes passed a life of self-sacrifice for it. The Reformation +elevated the feeling of duty to a higher domain of earthly action and +the self-denial and self-sacrifice of the pious shepherd of souls +should always be highly esteemed; but on closer observation, we +perceive that the foundation of this more elevated feeling of duty was +more especially of a religious nature. It was the command of God which +men sought to obey; where the Scripture did not command with powerful +voice, the feeling for the universal good was not so strongly +developed, and the perception of the duties of their own position was +uncertain.</p> + +<p>It is instructive to notice that it was the armies brought together +by +the war which first raised the citizen's idea of the duties of his +calling. The soldier's feeling of honour not only developed itself in a +noble esprit de corps, but became the source gradually of official +honour in the citizen. First of all it gave him honour in the eyes of +others when he fulfilled his duty, but also it afforded himself +internal satisfaction and a just pride. Thus after the fidelity of the +middle ages and the piety of the Reformation there arose a new domain +of moral requirements. There was more of feeling than of the result of +thought in it, but it was still an advance; though at first indeed only +among the best.</p> + +<p>Two years after the paternal admonitions of Herr Burgomaster Schulte +to +his son, at a little distance south of Lisbon, the life of a Hamburger +was put an end to by a fearful catastrophe. The account of it is given +in an old narrative.</p> + +<p>Berend Jacob Carpfanger was one of the captains at Hamburg. He was +born +in that city in 1623; he got his schooling, as was the custom, in the +merchant service; he early became a member of the admiralty, and at +last as captain of convoys, commander of one of the vessels of war +which had to defend the merchantmen against pirates. These marine +officers of the city, besides having to exercise the highest official +control in their fleet, had to perform diplomatic negotiations in the +harbours, and sometimes were sent for the same purpose to foreign +courts. It was necessary for them to have some practice in business, +and to know how to associate with great lords, so as to maintain the +honour and fame of their city. Carpfanger was considered in his city an +elegant, smart man, who knew better than most how to conduct himself. +He had an earnest countenance, almost melancholy, a high forehead, +large eyes, and a chin and mouth of great power. His health appeared +rather less strong than was desirable in a seaman. He had given proof +that he understood how to conduct a sea-fight, and had often been in +bloody actions. For the Barbary pirates still continued their +depredations both on sea and land. Not only in galleys, but in large +frigates did these birds of prey bear down upon the swarm of commercial +vessels. It was just at that period that the 'Hund' was the terror of +European seas. Far over the channel, from Gibraltar onwards, on the +great ocean, nay, on the coasts of the Northern Sea, his swift vessels +made their appearance; dreadful were the harbour tales of their +temerity, violence, and bloodthirstiness. In the year 1662, a squadron +of eight Hamburg merchantmen had become the booty of these +"barbarians."</p> + +<p>In 1674, the burgomaster of the admiralty girded the silver sword on +Captain Carpfanger, and handed to him the admiral's staff. Then the +seaman swore before the senate, that he would manfully defend the fleet +intrusted to him, and sacrifice everything, body and soul, rather than +abandon his ship.</p> + +<p>During the ten years that passed after that, up to his death, he made +an annual voyage, starting with his fleet in the Spring and returning +home in August. He had many severe struggles with storm and waves, and +often complained how unfavourable the elements were to him.</p> + +<p>Thus he went to Cadiz and Malaga, to the Northern frozen ocean, and +to +Lisbon. From an expedition to Greenland, his fleet of fifty vessels +brought home a booty of five hundred and fifty whales. Once when +returning home he was attacked at the north of the Elbe by five French +privateers; in the course of a twelve hours' fight he sent two to the +bottom by his shot, and they sank before his eyes with every man and +mouse on board, the remainder escaped to the open sea. He was also +engaged with the Brandenburg privateers. It happened that the admiral's +red flag of Hamburg floated on the gaff of the Besan threateningly +against the red eagle of Brandenburg; for in 1679 the great Elector was +not favourably disposed towards the Hamburgers, and his little vessels +of war had already captured many of theirs. The opponents met, but +Carpfanger had strict instructions to keep on the defensive, therefore +it came to a good issue. The large ship inspired the Brandenburgers +with respect; they sent the long-boat with two officers to salute him, +and "in order to inspect the arrangements of the ship." The +Hamburger +regaled them with wine in his cabin, and then they politely took leave. +Their vessel fired a salute, which Carpfanger answered with equal +courtesy, and then both sailed away.</p> + +<p>Again the captain on one of his voyages met with a fleet of Spanish +galleons in fight with Turkish pirates. The combat was taking an +unfavourable turn for the Spaniards; some heavy galleons had been cut +out and overpowered by the pirates. Carpfanger attacked the pirates, +and by a broadside freed the Spanish vessels. He was on this account +invited to the court of Charles II., and presented by the king with a +golden chain of honour.</p> + +<p>When in August he exchanged the winds and waves for the narrow +streets +of the old city, even there little rest was allowed him. First there +were disputes with the senate about expenses, a writing of reports, the +vindication of particular arrangements which did not appear clear to +the gentlemen of the council table, or injured some private interest, +and all the vexations of the counting office which are so hateful to +the seaman. For there is no lack of petty trading spirit in old +Hamburg. In the winter of 1680, his dear wife died in the prime of +life.</p> + +<p>Again and again he convoyed merchantmen to Cadiz and Malaga: in 1683 +he +commanded the frigate 'The Arms of Hamburg.' The passage had been +lengthened by a storm, and a leaking vessel in the fleet, but it had +already been made known at the Hamburg Exchange that the captain was +about to return from Spain <i>viâ</i> the Isle of Wight. Then there +came +instead of him, sorrowful tidings. These will be here given; it is an +example of the old method by which news was rapidly spread. +<br /> +<br /> +</p> +<p class="center">"<span class="sc">Sorrowful tidings from Cadiz +in +Spain</span>.</p> + +<p class="right" style="font-size:90%">"From Cadiz 12/22 +October.</p> + +<p class="normal">"<span class="sc">Good and dear +friend</span>,</p> + +<p class="normal" style="text-indent:5%">"I could have wished +that +this my letter might have awakened joy rather +than occasioned sorrow. But when we mortal men are in the highest tide +of happiness, and think of nought but gladness, misfortune hovers over +our heads.</p> + +<p>"Such, alas! contrary to all expectation, has been the case +with +me +and +all who together with me came in the convoyship 'The Arms of +Hamburg.'</p> + +<p>"On October 10/20, I and our chief officers, as also the noble +captain's son and his cousin, had the honour of taking supper with our +noble captain. When it was about eight o'clock and we were on the point +of rising from table, our cabin-watch brought the sad tidings that +there was fire in the hold of our ship. Thereupon our noble captain and +we all sprang up terrified from the table and hastened to the spot, +where we found all the cordage in the hold already in full blaze. By +the order of the captain, buckets and water-casks were speedily +brought; much water was poured on it, and some holes opened because +this place was not easily reached; all this in hopes of extinguishing +the fire. Our people, especially the soldiers, who were valiantly urged +on by their commander, worked assiduously, but all in vain, for no +diminution could be perceived in the fire, but only increase. Divers +guns were fired as signals of distress, in order to procure help, but +fruitlessly, as the other vessels afterwards pretended they did not +know what such firing signified.</p> + +<p>"Thus the captain was obliged to send our lieutenant in the +small +cutter to the surrounding vessels, to acquaint them with our unhappy +condition, to entreat the aid of their cutters and boats, and procure +some pump-hose. They came, it is true, but stopped at a distance; for +the fire was very near the place where the powder, which used to lie in +the fore-part of the ship, was kept, and it was impossible, on account +of the great heat, to bring it away; so every one feared that the ship, +and we all, one with another, should be blown up, if the flames were to +reach it. On this account many of the seamen gave up the work, and +retreated into the boats and the large cutter behind the ship, or made +away in foreign boats, however much we implored of these not to carry +off our people.</p> + +<p>"To those in our boat and great cutter, the captain called out +from +the +cabin window, that they should remember the oath they had sworn to him +and the magistracy, and not abandon him, but return on board, as at +present there was no danger, and by God's help the fire might be +extinguished.</p> + +<p>"These certainly obeyed the command, and began to work again +earnestly, +but it all was of no avail for the fire increased more and more. After +working assiduously but fruitlessly for two hours, the lieutenant and +shipmaster, as also the other officers, went to the captain, and +informed him that, alas! there was no more help, that it was impossible +to save the good ship, and it was now high time to save themselves, if +they did not intend to be burned in the ship or blown up with it. For +between the fire and the powder there was now only a plank of a +finger-breadth remaining. But the captain, who still thought to +preserve the ship, and prized his honour more than life and everything +in the world, answered that he would not leave the ship, but would live +and die therein. His son fell on his knees before him, and besought him +for God's sake to think better of it, and seek to preserve his life. To +whom he replied: 'Away with you, I know better what is intrusted to +me.'</p> + +<p>"Thereupon he commanded the quarter-master to place this his +son, +together with his cousin, in another vessel, which was then done. He +would not allow the least bit of his own property to be removed, that +the men might not be disheartened thereby.</p> + +<p>"Meanwhile it was suggested by some that it would be best to +cut a +hole +in the ship and let her go to the bottom; to this however the captain +would not consent, but said he had still hopes of saving her. Others +advised to cut the cable and strand the ship. This was at last agreed +to, and the order given to cut the cable. But just as this was about to +be done, when the mizen and foremast were on the point of falling, and +the people were still sitting on the fore-yard, the powder in the +fore-part of the ship caught fire. The force of it however being broken +by the pouring in of a large body of water it only blew up with a +whizz. The fire burnt through the deck almost to the foremast, and as a +stiff east wind blew above, and the vessel lay to the wind, it ran up +the mast into the shrouds and sails, and in a moment over the whole +ship.</p> + +<p>"When the people who were still in the vessel saw this, they +sought +to +fly with pitiful shrieks. Some ran to the cabin, hoping to find safety +there; others to the gun-room. At the door of this last, the +lieutenant, by order of the captain, had placed himself, together with +a soldier with a loaded gun, to prevent any one from running through +the room into the large cutter, which lay fastened just behind it. The +lieutenant was pressed through the door, and thus obliged to betake +himself to the cutter, followed forthwith by a throng of people: many +sprang into the boat. As this however, was already pushed off, because +the fire from behind burnt quite over, and as it appeared likely that +the fire would reach the powder at the back of the ship, and all who +were around and near it would be blown up, the poor men who were still +in the ship, and did not wish to be burnt, determined to abandon +themselves to the waves, and sprang into the water. It would have +melted a heart of stone to have heard the cries and shrieks of these +miserable men, driven about in shoals in the water, so that nothing but +heads could be seen. Now whilst the fire was driven by the wind from +the forepart to the stem with great power, its violence increasing with +its duration, I stood in the cabin with divers persons round the +captain; they moaned and wept before him, and at the same time exhorted +him, saying there was no time now to remain any longer.</p> + +<p>"I went from them to the window, to see whether there was yet a +boat at +hand, and found that the large cutter was still fastened to the ship. I +took my resolution, and commending my life to God, sprang through the +cabin window into the boat; which succeeded so well that I was saved +therein without suffering any damage. As I turned my back to the +captain, he, with the persons remaining by him, among whom were the +commander and some soldiers and seamen, went out of the door. I thought +they were seeking to save themselves, as indeed they were willing to +do; for I perceived that they went to the great blaze with the +intention of forcing the captain into a boat. But finding none, as the +flames were already over their heads they left the captain and sprang +overboard.</p> + +<p>"As soon as I was in the large cutter, the lieutenant became +visible; I +asked him whether the captain was out of the ship, he answered that a +Dutch captain had saved him. Now when we thought we were assured +thereof, we loosened the cutter in all haste, for there were many +people swimming about in the water, seeking to save themselves therein; +and the cutter was almost dragged down by them, as many clung to its +side. It was also to be feared that we should be blown up when the +flames reached the powder.</p> + +<p>"When we had gone about a cable's length from the ship, many +pieces +of +it fell asunder by reason of the heat of the fire; and the grenades +sprang one after another. The fire, at last, towards one o'clock, +reached the powder in the powder room, and with one hollow clap the +stern of the vessel blew up; whereupon the remaining portion, with all +that was still therein, went to the bottom, after the good ship had +been burning about five hours.</p> + +<p>"Meanwhile we came with our cutter to another ship lying in the +bay, +and put out the people who had been saved, with the exception of the +necessary rowers; with whom the lieutenant, during the remaining +portion of the night, sought sorrowfully after the noble captain among +all the vessels in the bay. But in vain, as he was nowhere to be +found.</p> + +<p>"On the following day, about ten in the forenoon, notice was +given +by +the English cutter of Captain Thompson's ship, that the body of our +captain, alas! had been driven on to their boat's cable, and had been +rescued by them.</p> + +<p>"Thereupon, the now deceased good man was forthwith brought +from +the +vessel of the said Captain Thompson, and as was fitting, was clothed in +clean linen, for which Captain Thompson was paid with gratitude.</p> + +<p>"Of all the men who lost their lives by this great misfortune +(of +seamen two-and-forty, of soldiers two-and-twenty), the deceased noble +captain was the first that was found. Preparations were forthwith made +for his funeral, and when everything needful was provided, on Saturday +the 13th of this month, he was consigned to the grave according to +Christian usages, here behind the Puntales, in the place where it is +the custom to bury those of foreign nations. Our <i>Domine</i> first +preached a fine funeral discourse; the body was convoyed by some twenty +cutters, wherein were many distinguished captains and merchants; in +each the flags were half mast high, as a sign of mourning; in like +manner all the English, Dutch, and Hamburg ships lying here, testified +their condolence by hoisting their flags and Jacks half-mast high, amid +the firing of guns, whereof above three hundred were heard.</p> + +<p>"Who caused this fearful fire and misfortune, or by what +negligence +it +originated, is unknown. The boatswain's son, who had been in the hold, +and had to watch the lamp which usually burnt there, stated that he had +gone from the hold upon deck, in order to speak to another youth, and +on his return to the hold, found it in flames. God preserve other ships +from a like misfortune, and comfort the widows and orphans of those who +have been lost."</p> + +<p>Here we conclude the news from Cadiz. According to another account +the +captain walked alone about his ship up to the last; others declare that +they saw him at an open port-hole, raising his clasped hands to heaven; +and according to others, he last of all committed himself to the waves, +either to be preserved or to sink as God willed it; and it is no wonder +that the weakly old gentleman, after the mental and bodily exertions of +the last hours, should have gone to the bottom. A great marvel had been +observed by the sailors: three doves had for several hours hovered over +the burning ship, to the time of its blowing up.<a name="div2_44" +href="#div2Ref_44"><sup>[44]</sup></a> King Charles II. +of Spain caused a monument to be erected on the grave of the Hamburg +seaman; which, according to consular records, was only destroyed in the +Spanish war, the beginning of this century.</p> + +<p>We rejoice that the deceased kept his oath. The honour of his calling +demanded his death, and he died. For it is better that once in a while, +a brave, honest, and able man, though he were still able to save +himself, should go down with his good ship, than that mariners should +in the hour of danger want a model of enduring energy. He died as +became a sailor, silent and collected; he laconically dismissed his own +son; his whole soul was in his employment. May the German citizen never +come to such a pass as to consider the deed of this man, strange and +unheard of. In the inland provinces also, many hundreds of peaceable +citizens since his time have died in the performance of their duty to +the utmost of their power, and beyond it; pastors in the midst of +contagion, doctors in the lazar house, and helpful citizens in dangers +from fire. And we hope that the reader will discern that this is the +path of duty, and the general rule with us.</p> + +<p>And still our hearts heave with the thought that in the same year in +which Strasburg was so ignominiously lost, a fellow-countryman felt +even as we should feel, namely, that there is not much cause for +astonishment, and no occasion for crying and moaning, when any one dies +in the performance of duty. And his memory should be honoured both by +those who traverse the sea, and those who never hear its roar. The +German had much degenerated after 1648, but he yet deserved a better +life; for he still understood how to die for an idea. + +<br /> +</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> +<div class="chapter"> +<h2>CHAPTER X.</h2> +</div> + +<h3>GERMAN LIFE AT THE BATHS IN THE SEVENTEENTH +CENTURY.</h3> + +<p class="normal sp1">Civilization was undoubtedly, in spite of war +and +devastation, making +continual progress, for it was not as in ancient times carried on by +one people alone, but by large families of nations; and the blessing of +this higher development in Germany first elevated the life of +individuals. The century of the Reformation had increased the +individual independence of men, and developed what was spontaneous and +characteristic in various directions. After the war, the gap between +the classes became greater; not only was there a difference in their +dress, but in their social manners, their language and mode of life; +each class endeavoured to close its ranks against that which was just +beneath it. But this, however objectionable, was the first result of +political progress. At one time the great classes of princes, nobles, +citizens and peasants, lived in established relations to one another. +The religious movement had created a social ferment, which was a bond +of union between the cities and country aristocracy: now during the war +all classes had been shaken together; a large portion of the nobility +had been driven into the cities, and the impoverished landed proprietor +sought a place in the service of the new state, or in the city +community. Undoubtedly there lay within this the beginning of a higher +life, but the old pretensions did not on that account immediately +disappear; the less was the inward ground for social separation, the +more carefully were outward distinctions preserved.</p> + +<p>Servility towards persons of distinction became general; it extended +from outward marks of courtesy, such as addressing them by their +titles, to the actual sentiment. It was considered an honour by the +citizen's daughter to receive compliments from a cavalier, and he +expressed his bold addresses more smoothly, than her neighbour the poor +pedantic <i>Magister</i>, or the awkward merchant's son.</p> + +<p>The social intercourse also of the citizens amongst each other, was +deteriorated by foreign manners. In the past century, the style of +expression when at their ease, was not particularly delicate; but at +that time it was considered thoroughly harmless, and had therefore not +endangered the morality of the women. Now many honourable old words +were proscribed, and in their place <i>double entendres</i> were +prevalent; +to be bold and skilful in words, not to speak out what was unseemly, +but to signify it cleverly, became the fashion; and the women and +maidens soon learnt to give a smart answer. The choice pleasantries, +the attacks and repartees that we find in the small compendiums of +civilities, which were for the use of the unassuming citizen, are so +pitiable that they will not be given here.</p> + +<p>But there was no want of hearty cheerfulness: the young people long +continued to play the familiar games which are now confined to +children; they journeyed to Jerusalem, and played at blindman's-buff, +which, under the appearance of accident, gave fine opportunities of +venturing on liberties; games of forfeits with witty fines appear not +to have been usual yet, but sarcastic verses and riddles were in vogue; +if at table there was liver served with the roast or fish, rhymes were +made upon it by turns, no trifling affair, for it was necessary to +produce something neat, and a dunderhead or a simpleton exposed himself +dreadfully. Conversation was considered a serious matter, for which one +should be well prepared; anecdotes and remarkable occurrences were with +that view read beforehand, and he was highly esteemed who could +introduce pertinently some pretty German verse.</p> + +<p>After the war, dancing was frequent in family circles in the evening; +and waltzing was the favourite dance with the citizens: before the lady +was led to the dance she was greeted with a small speech, and if she +were married or a bride, the bridegroom was so likewise: then the +dancer had to lead her, so that her finger lay lightly on his. In the +dance he was not to spring about, nor to oblige her to make unnecessary +springs, which might toss her dress up to her girdle, nor was he to +tear her dress with his spurs. After the dance there was another short +speech and answer. Finally he was to take her home, and in doing so it +was necessary to be on his guard that there was no rival lurking for +him with a cudgel, as was often the case. When arrived at the dwelling, +he had first to make his excuses to the parents for having, by +escorting her, allowed his homage to be perceived, and then to the +lady, whom he commended to the gracious protection of the Most High, +and tenderly signified that he would wish to kiss her pillow.</p> + +<p>It is not easy to form any true idea of the old society from the +general literature, for the numerous writers of comedies and novels +give us mostly caricatures; they find their account in bringing +everything down to a low level. It is for this reason, therefore, that +the unbiassed records of cotemporaries are so instructive.</p> + +<p>In the olden time there were as now, baths to which all those +resorted +who wished for social amusement; and the bath life shows at least the +forms of easy intercourse away from home; therefore a number of small +pictures will be given here from the baths of Zurich, the most famous +of all the German baths at the conclusion of the middle ages. The +doings of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries will be better +explained by comparing with them, the former period of the fifteenth +and sixteenth centuries.</p> + +<p>Switzerland was by the peace of Westphalia entirely detached from the +Empire; but the political separation had not led the German burgher +life into foreign channels. The unity of mind remained, more than once +have the literary men, the poets and artists of Switzerland, had an +important share in the development of the German mind. Even now is this +inward unity undiminished, and Germans and Swiss alike have reason to +congratulate themselves on it. After the great war, the Swiss had +honestly participated in the pleasures and sorrows of the German; they +also had suffered by the war, and were in political troubles; a +narrow-minded patrician government oppressed the country; there also, +energy, public spirit and conscience, had been weakened.</p> + +<p>The following narrative paints the state of things at Baden, and +equally portrays the Bath life of Germans in the interior of the +Empire. +<br /> +</p> + +<h4><span class="sc">Bath Life in the year</span> +1417.</h4> + +<p class="normal">The Florentine, Francis Poggio (1380-1459), one of +the +great Italians +who spread the Humanitarian literature throughout their native country, +then held the office of Papal secretary; in this capacity he was +actively employed at the Council of Constance, and visited Baden from +thence. He describes his impressions of travel in an elegant Latin +letter to his friend, the learned Nicolo Nicoli; he himself was then an +ecclesiastic. In order to understand thoroughly how much the +reformation of the Church, which took place a century later, was +brought about by the excited moral feeling of the people, we should pay +attention to the cool, haughty freedom of tone of the following letter. +Poggio was a great scholar and a prudent statesman; he was one of the +most refined among the highly cultivated Italians; nay, more, he had a +fierce, manly spirit, and was always exhorting his literary friends to +seriousness. But with his classical literature he had also adopted the +spirit of a distinguished Roman of the time of Tiberius, and it makes a +disagreeable impression to find how mildly and good-humouredly the +secretary of the Pope, the priest, the scholar, the offshoot of the +civilization of his time, viewed the profligacy of both ecclesiastics +and laity. His letter, which follows here, is abbreviated in some +places:--</p> + +<p>"Baden itself affords the mind little or no diversion; but has +in +all +other respects such extraordinary charm, that I could often dream that +Venus had come from Cypress, for whatever the world contains of beauty +has assembled here, and so much do they uphold the customs of this +goddess, so fully do you find again her manners and dissoluteness, that +little as they may have read the speech of Heliogabalus, they appear to +be perfectly instructed by Nature herself.</p> + +<p>"About a quarter of an hour's drive from the town, on the other +side of +the river, there is a beautiful village, established for the use of the +baths; in the middle of the village is a large <i>platz</i>, surrounded +by +splendid inns, which contain a multitude of people. Each house has its +own bath, which can only be made use of by those who reside there. The +number of public and private baths amounts altogether to full thirty. +Two special places, open on all sides, are appointed for the lowest +classes of the people; and the common crowd, men, women, boys, and +unmarried maidens, and the dregs of all that collect together here, +make use of them. In these baths there is a partition wall, dividing +the two sexes, but this is only put up for the sake of peace; and it is +amusing to see how, at the same time, decrepit old beldames and young +maidens descend into it naked, before all eyes, and expose their charms +to the gaze of the men. More than once I have laughed at this splendid +spectacle; it has brought to my mind the games of Flora at Rome, and I +have much admired their simplicity who do not in the least see or think +anything wrong in it.</p> + +<p>"The special baths at the inns are beautifully adorned, and +common +to +both sexes. It is true they are divided by a wainscot, but divers open +windows have been introduced therein, through which they can drink +with, speak to, see, and touch each other, as frequently happens. +Besides this, there are galleries above, where the men meet and chatter +together, for every one is free to enter the bath of another, and to +tarry there, in order to look about, and joke and enliven his spirits, +by seeing beautiful women nude when they go in and come out. No guard +watches the avenues here; no door, and, above all, no thought of +impropriety hinders them. In many baths both sexes have access to the +bath by the same entrance, and it not unfrequently comes to pass, that +a man meets a naked woman, and the reverse. Nevertheless, the men bind +a cloth round their loins, and the women have a linen dress on, but +this is open either in the middle or on the side, so that neither neck, +nor breast, nor shoulders are covered. The women eat frequently in the +bath itself, of dishes contributed by all, which are placed on a table +floating upon the water, whereto the men naturally resort. In the house +where I bathed, I also was invited to such a feast; I gave my +contribution, but went away, although they did urge me much to stay. +And truly not from shyness, which we here consider as stupid and +boorish, but because I did not understand the language, for it appeared +to me absurd that an Italian, ignorant of German, should pass a whole +day amongst lovely, fair ladies, in a bath, dumb and speechless, merely +eating and drinking. Two of my friends however, who were present, ate, +drank and toyed, spoke to the ladies through an interpreter, fanned +them, and in short enjoyed themselves much. My friends were clothed in +a linen dress, such as the men wear here when they are invited to a +ladies' bath. I saw all from the gallery, their manners and customs, +their good eating, and their free and easy intercourse. It is wonderful +to see in what innocence they live, and with what frank confidence they +regard the men; the liberties which foreigners presume to take with +their ladies does not strike their attention; they interpret everything +well. In Plato's Republic, according to whose rules everything was to +be in common, they would have behaved themselves excellently, as they +already, without knowing his teaching, are so inclined to belong to his +sect.</p> + +<p>"Many visit daily three or four of these baths, and pass there +the +greatest part of the day, in singing, drinking, nay in waltzing, and +they play the lute if they are not seated deep in the water. But there +can be nothing more charming than to see budding maidens, or those in +full bloom, with pretty kindly faces, in figure and deportment like +goddesses, strike the lute, then they throw their flowing dress a +little back in the water, and each appears like a Venus. It is the +custom of the women to beg for alms jestingly from the men who view +them from above; one throws to them, especially to the pretty ones, +small coins, which they catch with their hands or with the outspread +linen dress, whilst one pushes away the other, and in this game all +their charms were frequently unveiled. In like manner one threw them +down twined wreaths of divers flowers, with which they adorned their +heads while they sat in the bath.</p> + +<p>"I bathed only twice a day, but attracted by the rich +opportunity +of +such a spectacle and such fun, I spent the remaining time in visits to +other baths, and threw coin and wreaths like the others.</p> + +<p>"Then the playing of flutes, the tinkling on the guitar and +singing +resounded everywhere; there was no time either for reading or thinking; +to have been here the only wise one would have been the greatest folly, +especially for one who will be no self-tormentor, and to whom nothing +human is strange. I was deprived of the highest enjoyment, the main +point, the interchange of speech. So there remained nothing for me but +to feast my eyes on the fair ones, to follow them, to conduct them to +the games, and to escort them back again. There was also such +opportunity for near intercourse, and so great freedom therein, that +one needed not to trouble oneself about regulating it.</p> + +<p>"Besides this varied enjoyment, there was yet another of not +less +charm. Behind the courtyards, near the river, lies a large meadow +shaded by many trees. Here every one comes after dinner and diverts +himself with singing dancing, and sundry games. The most part played at +ball, but not after our fashion, but the men and women throw to one +another, each to the one he likes best, a ball, wherein are many bells. +All run to catch it; whoever gets it, wins, and throws it again to his +love: all stretch out their hands again to catch it, and whoever +succeeds make pretence as if they would throw it now to one person now +to another. Many other sports I pass over for brevity's sake. I have +recounted this to you, in order to show how completely they are the +disciples of Epicurus.</p> + +<p>"But the most striking thing is the countless multitude of +nobles +and +plebeians, who collect here from the most distant parts, not so much +for health as for pleasure. All lovers and spendthrifts, all pleasure +seekers, stream together here, for the satisfaction of their desires. +Many women feign bodily ailments, whilst it is really their heart that +is affected; therefore one sees numberless pretty women, without +husbands and relations, with two maid-servants and a man, or with some +old beldame of the family who is more easily deceived than bribed. All +the women come attired to their utmost with smart dresses, gold, +silver, and precious stones, not as if for the baths, but as though it +were for the grandest wedding. There are here also virgins of Vesta, or +rather of Flora; besides, abbots, monks, lay-brothers, and +ecclesiastics, and these live more dissolutely than the others, some of +them also live with the women, adorn their hair with wreaths, and +forget all religion. All have the same object, to fly from melancholy +and seek cheerfulness, and to think of nothing but a merry life of +enjoyment; they do not wish to take the property of others, but to +impart their own freely. And it is remarkable that among the great +number, almost thousands of men of different manners and such a drunken +set, no discord arises, no tumults, no partisanship, no conspiracies, +and no swearing. The men allow their wives to be toyed with, and see +them pairing off with entire strangers, but it does not discompose or +surprise them; they think it is all in an honest and housewifely +way.</p> + +<p>"How different are these manners from ours! We put the worst +construction upon everything: we find a pleasure in slander and +calumny; the slightest suspicion is sufficient for us, and equivalent +to a clear transgression. I often envy the composure of the people +here, and curse our perversity, always restlessly seeking, and +restlessly desiring. We compass heaven, earth, and ocean, to procure +money, are contented with no gain, satisfied with no profit. We are +continually in fear of future disaster, and are cast down by unceasing +mischances and anxieties, and in order to preserve ourselves from being +unhappy, we never cease to be so. But here they live for the day, +contented with a little; every day is a festival, they desire no great +riches, which would be of no use to them, but they enjoy what they +have, and fear not the future. If they meet with misfortune they bear +it with good courage. But enough, it is not my purpose to praise them +and blame ourselves. I wish this letter to be lively in order that you, +my distant friend, may find in it some portion of the amusement I have +enjoyed at the baths."</p> + +<p>Here we have the elegant representation of the Italian statesman. The +fifteenth century was truly a time of luxury and refined enjoyment, but +what the foreigner relates is not so bad as the way in which he relates +it.</p> + +<p>The Reformation came. It exercised an influence even on the frivolous +people who visited the baths. Life became more earnest and thoughtful, +and the superintendence exercised by the authorities and pastors more +strict. The number of married persons became greater, for it was one of +the favourite tenets of the Protestant opposition, to promote marriage +and domestic discipline. Much fewer became the number of those prelates +and their ladies, monks and roving women, who were not joined in lawful +matrimony. Thus after the time of Luther and Zwinglius, towards the end +of the sixteenth century, we have a very different description of the +baths of Baden, written by an honest German, the doctor of medicine +Pantaleon, a Basle man, rector of the high school and of the +philosophical faculty. Here follow some characteristic fragments.</p> + +<p>"Bath life, 1580.--The free bath, called also burgher bath, is +under +the open heaven. It is so long and broad, that above a hundred men can +bathe therein at a time. It is bordered round about with stone +pavement, and many seats are disposed therein. One corner, a fourth +part of the bath, is closed in by a wooden lattice, arranged for the +accommodation of the women. But as the women in general come there, +some are wont to go to the larger bath. In this every one, stranger or +native, may bathe gratis, and divert himself for as long or short a +time as he likes. On Saturday, especially, the people from the city and +country come in crowds, and husbands and wives desire to have their +pastime, and to beautify themselves. But herein one is much surprised, +that they in such wise misuse cupping; for every one will be cupped, +and they think for the most part that they have not bathed if they have +not had as many lancets stock in them as the bristles of a hedgehog. +And yet it would be far more useful to them to obtain a little +additional blood.</p> + +<p>"Poor people come oft to the baths of St. Verena, especially in +May, +some hundreds together. But they must first look about for an inn, that +they may have some sort of home and not be about in the streets, and +there are three or four inns near the baths. The poor are daily +maintained by the alms of pious people. They place their bowls in a +circle on the wall round the bath, and remain sitting in the bath, and +no one may point out his bowl. Then money, bread, wine, soup, meat, or +other things are put in the bowls, and no one knows to whom they +belong. Great hoards are sometimes collected; the warder who has his +little house near the bath, distributes the gifts in due order, and +exhorts the poor to pray and be thankful. After that, each takes what +is in his bowl, and goes out. But as also there are oft mixed up among +the honest, many bad rogues and idlers who will not work, but take the +bread out of the mouths of others who are in need, it would be useful, +were each poor person who is desirous to obtain alms, to bring a +certificate from his magistrate that he is in need of it, and that the +alms will be well applied. Many bad rogues would then be ashamed. If +the poor do aught that is contrary to order and discipline, they are +punished by the warder, and placed in the lock-up that stands below, +near the house called the Lock and Key. When their month's stay at the +bath is ended, they receive a dismissal from the warder; nay he desires +them, according to the nature of their illness, to go away, to make +room for others. They must attend to him also, under pain of severe +punishment.</p> + +<p>"The 'Stadthof' is a large cheerful inn, adorned with many +beautiful +rooms, saloons, and chambers. There are two large kitchens, one of +which belongs to the landlord, who provides the guests with all kinds +of meals, or with single dishes, according to every one's need. In the +other, there is a special cook, for all those who buy their own food, +and wish to have it cooked to their own fancy, for this is allowed to +every one. In this house there are eight good baths, of which five are +in common, the remaining three are let out to certain persons by the +week for a fixed sum of money, with the chambers belonging thereto. The +first is the gentlemen's bath, in which men, both noble and others, +ecclesiastics and laymen, young and old, Catholic or Evangelical, come +together without any disputes or quarrels, friendly and peaceably.</p> + +<p>"This bath is almost the same height as the court, and +whosoever +sits +therein, can look out through the doors into the court, and behold +every one. Whoever wishes to use these baths, pays on entrance two +<i>doppelvierer</i>,<a name="div2_45" +href="#div2Ref_45"><sup>[45]</sup></a> or one <i>angster</i>,<a +name="div2_46" href="#div2Ref_46"><sup>[46]</sup></a> and three +<i>kreuzers</i>. +Moreover the members of the bath community give breakfast at six +o'clock every morning by turns, one much, another little, according as +they wish to distinguish themselves. Although much eating and drinking +is not good with the baths, yet it oft happens that many who sit three +or four hours in the bath, need a little soup, and cannot go on without +somewhat to drink. Yet it were well for some rule to be established, +that each person should not have more than a quart of wine; this would +give the baths a better repute, and they could not then openly write +and put in print, that here is a tippling bath wherein drunken matins +are sung. For the members of the bath community can unite to settle +these matters according to their pleasure. They pray before and after +breakfast, and return thanks to the host in a pleasant song, hoping +that he may live long in all honour, till he gives another breakfast. +After that they nominate him whose turn it is to be the next host, +place a garland on him, and threaten him in a song that they will come +to him the morrow with fifes and drums. But on Sundays and great +festivals they discontinue their breakfasts and songs.</p> + +<p>"At this bath a mayor is chosen by the majority of the bath +community, +likewise a governor, treasurer, chaplain, apparator, bailiff, and +executioner, who after breakfast sit in judgment, in order to put an +end to or punish any offences against order and discipline, which may +have been committed in this or the other baths of the house. Each +member of the bath community must also put his left hand on the mayor's +staff, and swear to obey him. The fines which fall in, they give to the +poor, or for wine, or they spend it amongst one another. Thus passes +the morning in pastime. When any one has finished bathing, he takes a +friendly leave, and gives an honourable farewell present.</p> + +<p>"The second bath is the women's bath, in which divers +honourable +women +and maidens meet together. In this the women also choose, every day, in +turn a hostess, have a cheerful breakfast, thank the hostess, and with +a wreath and pleasant song select another, as in the gentlemen's baths. +They have also a special treasurer who keeps their money and presents +in the treasury, which they spend in a friendly way together. But if +anything unseemly or worthy of punishment takes place, they bring it +before the mayor and court of the gentlemen, that some decision may be +pronounced thereupon, according to old custom.</p> + +<p>"In the third bath--the kettle--come all kinds of people, women +and +men, as many as fifty people together; they are modest and friendly +with one another, and eat what they can, and what pleases them. These +also are subject to the court of the gentlemen's bath. Any one also, +out of the gentlemen's or ladies' bath, may go into the kettle. On the +other hand, those in the kettle bath, may not go into the others, +unless they pay their share of the breakfasts. This bath has a very +salutary effect, and the lame and paralytic are often brought here, who +soon become vigorous and straight, and are able of themselves to go +away, as in the year 1577, happened to a maiden from Waldshut, who did +not over-eat herself, and bathed according to due order.</p> + +<p>"The Margraves' bath was let out to special persons. The serene +and +right honourable Jörg Friedrich, Margrave of Brandenburg, who there +bathed in person in 1575, was painted sitting therein on a horse. When +I think of this bath, I cannot help laughing at a wonderful pleasantry +that took place therein, and which is worth relating. In the aforesaid +year a burgomaster and honourable councillor of the praiseworthy and +far-famed city of Zurich, had sent a handsome bath present to the right +honourable the Prince of Brandenburg, of wine and oats, and commanded +Herr Heinrich Lochmann, the Banneret of Zurich, to present and deliver +this. Now when he appeared with the present at Baden, it happened that +the Prince was somewhat heated and weakened by the bath, so that for +some days he could not appear at table, but kept quiet in his bedroom +or in the bath. Meanwhile he commanded Duke Johann of Liegnitz and his +councillors, to receive the foreign guests and provide them well. Now +what they had made good cheer, and the Banneret was desirous to see the +Prince, it was signified to him that the Prince received no one at +present, but kept in his bedroom or the bath. Then the Banneret swore +and vowed by his honour that he would be received by the Prince, and +would on the morrow before he departed, if it could not be done +otherwise, enter the bath with boots and spurs, and offer the Prince +his hand, that he might tell his superiors he had seen the Prince. Now +as I had sat at the table with him, and had been invited in the morning +to bathe alone with the Prince. I respectfully signified to him what +conversation had been carried on at supper, and what the Banneret +threatened him with. I at the same time told the Prince of the great +age of the Banneret, and his upright, valiant spirit, and begged of his +Princely Grace, in case it should so happen, not to take it +ungraciously. We sat thus together two hours, and spoke with one +another of divers matters, when lo! there comes my good Lochmann, who +like an old simple associate, wished the Prince good day, waded in his +boots and spurs through the water, and offered the Prince his hand. I +remarked that the Prince changed colour. Thereupon the Banneret stepped +back and begged the Prince to forgive him, as he had done it with good +intent, that he might tell his superiors of the benignity and +friendliness of the Prince. Then did the Prince, like a wise and +eloquent gentleman, thank first the Banneret's superiors, and then also +himself for the gift, and commended himself also to the favour of the +men of Zurich. Thus he forgave him this boldness, which had proceeded +from a good true-hearted spirit, and drank to his good friendship in a +large goblet of wine. I received the goblet from the Prince and handed +it to the Banneret, who pledged the Prince and drank to me from the +goblet. He thereupon parted from the Prince quite humbly and +joyfully."</p> + +<p>Such is the narrative of the prudent Pantaleon. He is not like +Poggio, +a stranger who frankly, and in a spirit of curiosity, describes foreign +manners, who perhaps had every wish to draw a friendly picture of the +life at the baths, and who belonged to a nation which, as Poggio +himself says, is surprised at nothing. But in the same degree as his +character and conceptions differ from those of the Italian, so does the +aspect of the baths appear altered in the century of the Reformation. A +greater earnestness, prayer, and an organized self-police are not to be +mistaken. The last, especially at that time, a general German idea, +deserves attention. The state authorities also had taken the bath life +under their supervision. Gifts were presented to the bath travellers in +the sixteenth century, as they still continued to make presents on +their departure to those who remained behind. As these gifts fostered +vanity and luxury to an extravagant excess, the governments took +serious steps to put a stop to them.</p> + +<p>In the century of the Thirty years' war and of Louis XIV. much of the +self-control and political feeling of the men, and piety of the women +which had been perceptible at the baths, as a consequence of the +Reformation, was lost. Switzerland suffered like Germany. The +government was narrow-minded and tyrannical, and among the subjects +there was a deficiency of self-respect, an aping of foreigners and of +French manners. Again did enjoyment at the baths become dissolute. But +even this is different from the frivolous, wanton behaviour of the +fifteenth century. The citizens thought it an honour to court the +adventurous cavalier from foreign parts, and to be his parasite; the +coquetry of the women also was more forward and common, and their +almost unblushing connection with the foreign bath visitors showed an +empty heart, and too often a great absence of modesty. There is a +characteristic account of these famous baths at this period also, by a +frivolous Frenchman, De Merveilleux, preserved by a branch of the +German family Wunderlish. 'Amusements des Bains de Bade,' &c., +London, +1739. +<br /> +</p> + +<h4><span class="sc">Life at the Baths at the end of the +Seventeenth Century.</span></h4> + +<p class="normal">"Much had been told us of the splendid entrance +of the French +Ambassador at Baden during the Swiss Diet.<a name="div2_47" +href="#div2Ref_47"><sup>[47]</sup></a> We hoped to find a +princely court, but the present Ambassador in no respect resembles his +predecessor. He has no pages; the Count de Luc had six, as they tell +me, as many secretaries, and a like number of gentlemen of the +bedchamber. The present man has a secretary, who they assure me has +been a servant, and no gentleman of the bedchamber. His predecessor +kept open table of fifty covers, with three courses, and thus dined and +supped every morning and evening, in order to show honour to the Swiss. +The present one has his table laid with a kind of <i>déjeuner à la +fourchette</i>, soup, roast, entremets, and dessert, but no variety; +every +day the same, and nothing good or hot. Instead of one silver dish they +would give one, six of pewter. The foreigners and the Swiss do not seem +content with this.</p> + +<p>"But what does this signify to us? We live with our Bernerins; +and +have +good living. They would gladly get rid of some of Bacchus's favourites +from their town; amongst them the son of a delegate, we will endeavour +to get him away if we can.</p> + +<p>"We go little into the city; all people of distinction go to the +promenade, where there is pleasant intercourse. As many towns have +Swiss fashions, which are not similar to the French, such as the dress +of the women of Basle, Lucerne, Zurich, and other distant cantons, it +gives one the impression of a right gay masquerade, when all the +visitors at the baths are assembled for a dance. The Swiss men and +women are much given to gallantry. The ladies of Zurich have little +opportunity of amusing themselves, except at the bath season at Baden, +and they understand how to use this opportunity to the utmost. But if +the French Ambassador is not at Baden or does not keep open table, +there is not very much amusement. Every Swiss of any importance, is +accustomed to have good repasts at the Ambassador's yearly at Baden, so +that they are much dissatisfied with the comparison of the present with +the past. The mothers tell their daughters of the pleasures they had in +former times at the baths, and the young maidens are thereby incited to +endeavour to procure some likewise. They labour to this end to the best +of their powers, and the foreign cavaliers who know how to take +advantage of the simplicity of these young city maidens, find +themselves well off. For they are the daughters of magisterial persons, +who have plenty of means to spend in Baden, and their marriages with +the sons of their country are as good as settled, with such at least as +speculate on places in the state, which are conferred principally by +the fathers of these maidens; and thus it comes to pass that these +little flirtations at the baths, cause no disturbance in the +arrangement which has been made concerning their marriage.</p> + +<p>"We had the honour of an invitation from the minister, he +invited +us to +a dinner with many ladies. Among others were two Mademoiselles S----, +from Schaffhausen, daughters of good families. One of them has wounded +more than one cavalier. There was much good entertainment that day; +nay, there was even some table plate won in a lottery. The ambassador +found Mademoiselle S---- charming, and held her on his knee almost the +whole evening of the ball, though he was suffering with his foot. The +dance had one effect on the demoiselles which astonished us much. When +they had danced very vigorously, and were very warm, lice made their +appearance on the locks of their beautiful hair. That was rather +unpleasant; but the maidens had such beautiful skins that it became +quite a pleasure to take off the vermin as soon as they became visible. +The waters of Baden have the effect of producing these with young +people; therefore the Germans apply powder after powder but without +combing themselves properly.</p> + +<p>"These demoiselles were not the only beauties of this ball; +there +were +many pretty women there with their husbands and adorers. The Zurich +ladies also would gladly have been there, but they were not allowed to +visit the house of the French Ambassador, as their canton was averse to +the renewal of the alliance with the King; nay, it was a transgression +for a Zuricher even to enter the French hotel, therefore their wives +and daughters only took a walk in the Ambassador's garden, who did not +fail to betake himself there in an arm-chair on account of his bad +foot. Every one on entering made him a reverence, and that procured him +the pleasure of giving a kiss to each of these pretty city ladies, both +mothers and daughters."</p> + +<p>Here we conclude the narrative. These insipid and absurd proceedings +ceased gradually towards the end of the last century. Even before the +fever of the French revolution had seized the nations of Europe, the +forms of social intercourse had changed, and still more so the feelings +of men. The burgher life was still insipid, stiff, and +<i>philliströs</i>; +but the need of new ideas and deeper excitement had become general. +Even the adventurers and cavaliers could no longer impose upon the +credulity of their cotemporaries, by their old frivolity; it was +necessary for them to be to some extent performers of prodigies, in +order to get hold of the purses of others.</p> + +<p>The Germans meanwhile, had found other places of amusement. The +pleasure-seeking youths wandered to Spa and Pyrmont; hardly any now but +the citizens of Switzerland assembled at the baths of Zurich. In +conclusion, the society at Baden, as it was at the end of the last +century, is thus shortly described. +<br /> +</p> + +<h4><span class="sc">Life at the Baths at the end of +the +Eighteenth Century</span>.</h4> + +<p class="normal">"The magistracy stand in high esteem with the +citizens, and endeavour +to maintain this by the most formal behaviour. Owing to this adherence +to forms, a journey to Baden was at that period a great state +transaction. Farewell visits were first made to relations and +acquaintances. The distinguished people of Zurich ordered, as early as +possible, the quarters where they were to be accommodated in Hinterhof, +that they might not be mixed up with the common burgher class, who then +put up at the Stadthof. The wealthy artisans whom one met with there, +were still greeted by the title of 'master,' and generally in the +second person; and the patrician families kept exclusively together. +Immediately after an arrival visits of ceremony were paid, each one +made deep obeisance to the other, and observed strictly the customary +etiquette. There was more solemnity than frivolity, and the freer +proceedings of the young people were considered as deviations from the +rule. They always showed themselves also at the baths, dressed to the +best of their power, according to their condition in life, and even the +négligé was carefully chosen, and showed the quality of the person. The +gentlemen appeared in the morning in dressing-gowns of woollen damask, +out of the wide sleeves of which, ruffles of fine cambric fell over the +hands, and the <i>Badehren</i> (bath mantles) of both sexes were trimmed +with lace, and after the bath, in order to be dried, were spread out +ostentatiously as a show, on the bars before the windows of the rooms. +In Zurich they restricted the advance of expenditure by moral laws, +prudent considering the period, but frequently carried to exaggeration. +The material was accurately prescribed in which both sexes were allowed +to be dressed. The women especially were kept under strict observation, +and they were forbidden to wear blond, fringes, thread or silk lace, +except on their caps; all openwork embroidery, all dresses of gauze, +and all trimmings, except of the same material as the dress. The +ordinance on dress says further: 'Married women may be allowed to curl +their hair, but over the curls there must be nothing fastened but a +simple silk ribbon; consequently the wearing of so called tocquets, and +of all feathers and other ornaments for the hair, were altogether +forbidden; farther, the wearing of all enamel work and of portraits +painted in miniature or other representations.' The men were forbidden +not only all upper garments of silk or velvet, but even a lining of the +like material; farther, all gold or silver stuffs and lacing, and all +gallooned or embroidered horse covers and housings, except at the +quarter musterings; and to both sexes most especially all real or mock +jewels on a penalty of fifty pounds. The tribunal, appointed by the +government, which drew up these laws, and was charged to administer +them, was called <i>Reformation</i>. Meanwhile the power of the +<i>Reformation</i> did not extend beyond the frontier of the canton, +although in one special article they endeavoured to stretch the mandate +to those Zurichers who lived in other parts of the confederation, and +especially in Baden. Here alone nothing was prescribed, and they +indemnified themselves for restraint elsewhere, by adorning themselves +with just those things which were forbidden at home. Many proud ladies +and gentlemen, procured themselves objects of luxury for a visit to the +baths of a few weeks, which were quite useless to them for the +remainder of the year, and displayed themselves therein, in defiance of +any reformers who chanced to be present. Gallooned dresses, which had +once been worn in foreign parts, were here brought to light again out +of the chests wherein they had been preserved, unused for years. The +few jewels inherited from great-grandmothers were taken out of their +cases to ornament the ears, neck, and stomacher; and in delicately +holding a cup of coffee, the little finger was stretched to the utmost, +that the ring, brilliant with diamonds, rubies, or emeralds, might +glitter before the eye. In great pomp, like the dressed-up altar +figures, they passed along the dirty courts and alleys to admire and be +admired; but in order that their attire might not be injured, they +seldom went further in this beautiful country than to the meadows or to +the play. It was a period of stiff buffoonery! That the young people of +both sexes, often left alone together till late in the night, danced +more perhaps than now-a-days; that the gentlemen sometimes sacrificed +largely to Bacchus; and that all, after their fashion, enjoyed +themselves right well, may easily be understood. People of rank, some +already smartly attired, others in choice morning dresses, assembled +usually before dinner in the Hinterhofe, round a small stone table +called the <i>Täfeli</i>, where they usually returned again after the +repast. Here they gossiped good-humouredly on everything far and wide; +no news was left untouched, and many witty and delicate allegorical +jests were ventured upon and listened to. The return from Baden took +place generally in a very slow formal manner. After manifold long, +wordy and drawling compliments, and farewell formularies, packed at +last in the lumbering coach, they go; step by step, slowly, still +making salutations right and left from the coach door, up to the +Halde."</p> + +<p>Now Baden has become a respectable, modest, summer residence, little +different from fifty other similar institutions. Still however one may +observe, not in Baden itself, but at other baths in Switzerland, the +ancient arrangement that persons of the same sex may bathe together in +a bath, amusing themselves without constraint; and not long ago at the +Leuker baths there were galleries round the baths, from which many +strangers might watch the bathers. But everywhere the proceedings of +men, even in these works of idleness, take another form; and the +garlanded maidens of Poggio, the costly suppers of the time of +Pantaleon, and the frivolous patrician daughters, who, in defiance of +father and bridegroom, went about from bath to bath with foreign +cavaliers, have vanished, and forgotten is the tedious ceremonial by +which particular classes were closed to one another. + +<br /> +</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> +<div class="chapter"> +<h2>CHAPTER XI.</h2> +</div> + +<h3>JESUITS AND JEWS.<br /> +(<span class="sc">about</span> 1693.)</h3> + +<p class="normal sp1">The Churches in Germany, both Roman Catholic and +Protestant, suffered +from the weakness of the nation. Both had to pass through struggles and +sufferings, which threatened destruction to every exclusive Church +system; they became too narrow to embrace the whole spiritual and +intellectual life of men. Since the war, men had gradually felt the +need of toleration. With the Protestants, Luther's principle again +revived, that only inward conviction could bring men into the Church. +It was later, that the old Church yielded a grumbling toleration. +Science had discovered, amongst other things, that in spite of some +passages of Holy Scripture, the sun does not turn round our earth, but +our earth round the sun. Unwillingly did the Church receive this, after +the discovery had occasioned her many a heart's pang.</p> + +<p>The Protestant Church had fewer difficulties to overcome, but the +aristocratic structure of the Roman Catholic Church, again so firmly +united, and supported by great political interests, would naturally +find it far more difficult to yield to necessity.</p> + +<p>Whoever should wish to write a history of the religious conscience of +Germans, would have to examine how it was, that after the war there +arose in both confessions, precisely at the same time, a reaction of +the heart against the ruling parties, which in spite of the difference +of dogmas, shows a great similarity in the representations of this +tendency. The need of elevation of soul, in a period which was poor in +feeling, made the Protestant Spener, and the Catholic Spee and +Scheffler into pietists, and mystics. It is true, the restraining power +of the Protestant Church could no longer check the development of +individuality. Through it the scientific man could easily satisfy +himself, when he came, from the study of history, from observation of +the heavens, from the secret of numbers, and through the weighing and +measuring of the powers of the elements, to a new representation of the +world of creation, and thereby to new views of the being of the +Godhead. Thus the genius of the great Leibnitz was the growth of the +Protestant Church. Any one also whose fancy took a wild flight, or to +whom deep thought and meditation disclosed some peculiar aspect of the +Deity, might easily release himself from Church-communion with his +fellow-citizens, and unite himself perhaps with congenial spirits in +some special community. Thus did Böhme, and the eccentric Kuhlmann, +Zinzendorf, and Herrnhuter. This was incomparably more difficult in the +Roman Catholic Church. Whoever attempted to go his own way, had to +experience the anger of a strict mistress, and rarely did a powerful +mind break loose from the restraint.</p> + +<p>But the ruling majority of ecclesiastics had even in the old Church +lost much of their energy. The warlike champion of the restored Church, +the order of Jesuits, had itself suffered in its greatness; it had +become powerful and rich, the connection between the provinces and Rome +had been loosened, the independence of individual houses was greater, +and the curse had fallen on it which pursues the prosperous. It became +pre-eminently the representative of modern courtly splendour in church +and school. Even in earlier times the order had not disdained brilliant +displays, nor to enter into the feelings of the great world, but then +it had been like the prophet Daniel, who only wore the Persian dress in +order to serve his God among the heathen; now Daniel had become a +satrap. Through the Westphalian peace, the great mission work of the +order was limited. Still however, did it continue skilfully to draw +within its circle the souls of individuals, whoever was rich or +distinguished was firmly ensnared. Its main object was not the +salvation of souls, but the fame which would accrue to the order. The +greatest amount of work was done in the Emperor's territory. Wherever +heresy still flickered, the lay authorities assisted. But one race, +more stubborn and stiff-necked than the sons of the Hussites, or the +Moravian brothers, incessantly excited the spirit of conversion in the +order, it was the Jews.</p> + +<p>Already in the time of the Romans, the Jews may have dwelt within the +colonies on the Rhine, near the temple of Jupiter of golden Maintz, and +the baths of the proud Agrippina; they afterwards established +themselves within the German cities. In respect to German law they were +as foreigners; they were placed under the protection of the Emperor, +who transferred his power over them to the Archbishop of Maintz, the +Chancellor of the Empire. As the Emperor's dear servitors, besides the +other taxes, they had to pay him and the princes a penny offering, +which was raised on Christmas-day. This tax, one of the sources of the +Emperor's revenue, should have been security for his protection, but it +became an opportunity for the worst oppression; and they were drawn +upon for contributions on every occasion that money was wanted. Their +taxes reached to an exorbitant height. On sudden money emergencies, or +as an act of favour, the Emperor sold, or gave away his right of +taxation to the Princes and cities; and the year's rent of three, four, +or even one hundred Jews, was a secure and important income. Thus it +was a source of gain to the Princes and Sovereigns to possess many +Jews, from whom they raised money to the utmost.</p> + +<p>On the other hand it was an exclusive right of the Jews to lend out +money on interest for notes of hand or mortgages, which was strictly +forbidden to the Christians of the middle ages by the Pope and Emperor. +Thus naturally the whole of the money dealing came into the hands of +the Jews. And by the high interest which they received--especially on +short loans--they must rapidly have acquired great wealth. But this +boundless right was not secure against sudden attacks, both Pope and +Emperor sometimes took the liberty of giving the creditor a +dispensation from the payment of the interest, nay even of the +capital.</p> + +<p>Thus they became the financiers of the olden time in both great and +little traffic, the richest persons in the country, in spite of +monstrous imposts.</p> + +<p>But this opulence stimulated still more the hate and covetousness of +the multitude. In the early part of the middle ages they appear to have +been seldom persecuted by Christian fanaticism. But after the Crusades, +the declining Church and the populace of the towns vied with each other +in seeking their lives and treasure. A tradition which continues up to +the present day was brought forward against them. They were supposed to +poison wells, to introduce the plague, to murder Christian children, +use their blood at their Passover, and feed on their hearts; and to +whip the consecrated host with rods, &c. Persecutions, plundering of +houses, and extensive murders were almost periodical. Christianity was +forced upon them by the sword, torments, and imprisonment, but usually +in vain. No warlike people ever withstood brutal violence, with more +heroic courage than this defenceless race. The most magnanimous +examples of enduring heroism are mentioned by Christian writers +themselves. Thus it went on during the whole of the middle ages, and +still in the sixteenth century we find the Sovereigns endeavouring to +fill their empty coffers from the money bags of the Jews, and the +populace still storming their houses, as in the wild Jewish outbreak at +Frankfort-on-Main in 1614. Some great scholars, physicians, and natural +philosophers among them, acquired a repute which spread through all the +countries of Europe, inspiring even Christians with involuntary +respect, but these were rare exceptions.</p> + +<p>Amidst all these adverse circumstances, the indestructible vital +energies of this people still continued, as we find them among the Jews +of the present day: privileged by the Emperor, helpless before the law +of the country, indispensable, yet deeply hated, desired, but cursed, +in daily danger of fire, robbery, and murder, yet the quiet, masters of +the property and welfare of hundreds, in an unnatural adventurous +position, and yet always steadily occupied, amidst the densest mass of +Christians, yet separated from them by iron boundaries, they lived a +twofold life; in presence of Christians they were cold, stubborn, +patient, timid, cringing, and servile, bowed down under the oppression +of a thousand years: yet all the pride of noble blood, great wealth, +and superior talent, the full glow of southern feeling, every kindly +emotion and every dark passion were to be found in that race.</p> + +<p>After the Thirty years' war, the Jews obtained scarcely more +protection +from the fury of the multitude, and their spiritual trials became +greater. If the Protestants, who were then weak and embarrassed, vexed +them more by repulsive arrogance than by their arts of proselytism, the +old Church was the more zealous. They were more prosperous in trade and +usury since the Westphalian peace, indeed a splendid prospect had +opened for them. The diminution of international wholesale business, +the ruin of old commercial houses at Nuremberg and Augsburg, the +continued depreciation of the coinage, the unceasing need of money, +with the territorial lords, small and great, was favourable to the +multifarious activity of the Jewish business, which found skilful +instruments throughout all Germany, and connections from Constantinople +to Cadiz. The importance to German trade of the close cohesion of the +Jews amongst themselves, at a period when bad roads, heavy tolls, and +ignorant legislation, placed the greatest limits upon commerce, is not +yet sufficiently appreciated. With unwearied energy, like ants, they +everywhere bored their secret way through the worm-eaten wood of the +German Empire: long before the letter post and system of goods carriers +had spread a great network over the whole circuit of the country, they +had quietly combined for these objects; poor chafferers and travelling +beggars, passed as trusty agents between Amsterdam and Frankfort, +Prague and Warsaw, with money and jewels under their rags, nay +concealed within their bodies. In the most dangerous times, in spite of +prohibitions, the defenceless Jew stole secretly through armies, from +one German territory into another; and he carried Kremnitzer ducats of +full weight to Frankfort, while he circulated light ones among the +people. Here he bought laces and new church vestments for his +opponents, the ecclesiastics; there he smuggled through an enemy's +territory, to some prince, arms and implements of war; then he guided +and accompanied a large transport of leather from the interior of +Russia to the fair of Leipzig, he alone being capable by flattery, +money, and brandy, of overmatching the covetousness of the Sclave +nobles. Meanwhile, the most opulent sat in the well-grated rooms of +their Jewish town, concealing securely, under lock and key, the bills +of exchange, and mortgages of the highest lords, they were great +bankers, even according to our present standard.</p> + +<p>The Jews of that period were probably richer in proportion to the +Christians than now, and at all events, from the peculiarities of their +traffic, more indispensable. They had friendly protectors alike at the +Imperial court, in the harem of the Sultan, and in the secret chamber +of the Pope; they had an aristocracy of blood, which was still highly +respected by their fellow-believers, and at bridal feasts they wore +with pride, the jewels which some ancestor, long perhaps before the +days of Marco Polo, had brought from India, while exposing his life to +manifold dangers; or another had got by bartering, from the great +Moorish king at Granada. But in the streets the Jew still bore the +degrading mark of the unhonoured stranger; in the Empire, a yellow +cockade on his coat, and in Bohemia the stiff blue cravat; as in the +middle ages he had worn the yellow hat, and in Italy the red mantle. It +is true he was the creditor and employer of numerous Christians, but in +most of the greater cities he still lived closely confined to certain +streets or portions of the city. Few German Jewish communities were +larger or more opulent than that in Prague, and it was one of the +oldest in Germany. Seldom does a traveller neglect to visit the narrow +streets of the Jewish quarter, where the small houses, clustered +together like the cells of a beehive, enclosed at once the greatest +riches and the greatest misery of the country, and where the angel of +death so long caused tears of gall to trickle into the mouth of the +believer, till every inch of earth in the dismal churchyard became the +ashes of men. At the end of the seventeenth century, near six thousand +industrious men dwelt there in a narrow space; the great money lenders, +as well as the poorest frippery dealers and porters, all closely united +in firm fellowship and common interests, indispensable to the +impoverished country, yet in continual warfare against the customs, +coarseness, and religious zeal of the newly converted kingdom.</p> + +<p>For the second generation were then living, of the new Bohemia, which +the Hapsburgers by scaffolds, expulsion, and fearful dragooning, had +won back after the battle of Weissen Berge. The old race of nobles was, +for the most part, rooted out; a new Imperial nobility drove in gilded +carriages through the black Hussite city; the old biblical learning had +wandered into foreign lands, or died away in the misery of the long +war; in the place of the chalice priests and the Bohemian preachers, +were the holy fathers and begging monks; where once Huss defended the +teaching of Wickliff, and Zisk rebuked the lukewarmness of the citizens +of the old town, the gilded statue of the queen of heaven now rose +triumphant. Little remained to the people of their past, except the +dark stones of Königsstadt, a rough populace, and a harsh piety.</p> + +<p>There remains to us a little pamphlet of this time, for which we are +indebted to two of the Prague celebrities of the order of Jesuits, the +Fathers Eder and Christel, the first of whom, wrote it in Latin, and +the second translated it into German; both writers are otherwise known, +the second as a zealous but insipid German poet. From this writing the +following narrative is taken.</p> + +<p>"Thus in a few years a hundred and seventy persons of the Jewish +persuasion, were purified in the saving waters of baptism, by one +single priest of our society, in the Academical church of Our Saviour, +of the college of the Society of Jesus.</p> + +<p>"I will by the way, here shortly mention, the wonderful bias of +a +Jewish child for the Christian faith. A Jewess in the Zinkower domain +was in the habit of carrying her little daughter in her arms; one day +she accidentally met a Catholic priest, to whom she proposed to show +her child, and taking the veil off its little face, boasted what a +finely-shaped child she had brought into the world. The priest took +advantage of this preposterous and unexpected confidence, to bless the +unveiled child with the sign of the holy cross, admonishing the mother +at the same time to bring up the said child in the love and fear of +God, but leaving all else in the hands of Divine Providence. And behold +this little Jewess had hardly began to walk, when she forthwith +considered herself a Christian, knelt with them when they knelt, sang +with the singers, went out with them into the meadows and woods, made +hay, plucked strawberries, and picked up wood with them; besides this, +she learnt of them the paternoster and the angel's salutation, as also +to say the belief; in short she made herself acquainted with Christian +doctrine, and desired earnestly to be baptized. The high born and Right +Honorable Countess of Zinkow, in order to fulfil this maiden's desire, +to her great delight took her in her carriage to Prague, that she might +there, out of sight of her parents, more securely obtain the privilege +of baptism. But after the parents had discovered that their daughter, +who had for so long a time carefully kept her designs secret, had +become a Christian, they bitterly lamented it, and were very indignant +with the priest who had blessed her in her mother's arms with the sign +of the cross, for they ascribed to him all their daughter's inclination +for Christianity.</p> + +<p>"But by what intrigues the perfidious Jews endeavoured to +frustrate +every conversion, I have myself not long since had experience, when for +the first time, a disciple in the faith of the Jewish race, Samuel +Metzel, was placed under me for instruction. The father, who had four +children yet minors, was a true Israelite, out of the Egypt of the +Jewish town, and had endeavoured, much and zealously, to bring them +all, together with himself, out of bondage. But, behold! Rosina +Metzelin, his wife, who then had a great horror of the Christian faith, +would not obey him; and when she found that the four children were +immediately withdrawn from her, this robbery of her children, was, like +the loss of her young to a lioness, hard to bear. She summoned her +husband before the Episcopal consistory, where she sued for at least +two of the four purloined children, which she had given birth to, with +great labour, pain, and weariness, both before, at, and after the time. +But the most wise tribunal of the Archbishop, decided that all the +children belonged to the husband, who was shortly to be baptized. Then +did the wife lament piteously, indeed more exceedingly than can be told +or believed; and as she was afeard that her fifth offspring, which was +yet unborn, would be stolen from her after its birth, she endeavoured +earnestly to conceal from the Christians the time of her delivery. +Therefore she determined first of all to change her place of abode, as +her present one was known to her husband and children. But there is no +striving against the Lord! The father discovered it by means of his +innocent little daughter, who for some months had been constantly kept +in a Christian lodging, and was unwarily admitted by her mother into +her concealed dwelling. On receiving this information, I sought out the +Imperial Judge of the <i>Altstadt</i> of Prague, who, without delay, +despatched his clerk to the house, to demand the new-born child from +the woman, and (in case she refused) from the Elder of the Jewish +people, as belonging to the now baptized father. But as these crafty +Jews would not consent to deliver up the child, a Christian midwife was +ordered for the Jewish woman, that the same might, by some womanly, +pious contrivance, carry off the child from the mother. This midwife +was accompanied by certain prudent matrons. The conductress was to be +Ludmilla, well known for her great godliness, wife of Wenzeslaus +Wymbrsky, who had gone through the baptism of water and blood. Her +husband Wenzeslaus was, with this his wife and five children, baptized +in our church by his Eminence the Cardinal and Archbishop of Prague in +1464. It was above all displeasing to the furious Jews, to see thirteen +men of other families, following the example of Wenzeslaus, abjuring +Judaism the same year. At last it became insupportable to them that +Wenzeslaus, by whose shop many Jews had daily to pass to their frippery +market, should publicly set up in it the image of the crucified +Saviour, and every Friday keep a burning lamp before it. Therefore he +was greatly hated by the Jewish rabble, and often assailed with +derision and scoffing. Now, once when he went, according to his daily +custom, to the Teynkirche, an hour before day, three armed Jews fell on +him, by whom he was mortally wounded with two poisoned pistol-balls, so +that on the fifth day thereafter, he devoutly departed this life, +without having been persuaded to name the murderers. The ringleader was +caught later, and condemned to the wheel, but acting as his own +executioner hanged himself with a rope. Now the widow of the deceased +man, Ludmilla, could not slip in, with the little troop of pious women, +unperceived, because the Hebrews with their sharp lynx-eyes watched +narrowly. At that moment, many of them combined together and pushed +their way into the room of the Jewish woman about to be confined. But +Ludmilla did not take alarm at their presence, nor at the possible +danger of death. She handed over the consecrated water she had brought +with her, to the midwife, calling upon her in strong language, to +deliver the woman and baptize the child. And so it took place, and the +nurse took the child and baptized it. But the woman who had been +confined sprang frantically from her bed, and with vehement cries, tore +the child violently from the hands of the midwife. Forthwith, the city +judge made his appearance with armed men, in order to separate the now +little Christian son from the mother. But as she, like a frantic one, +held the child so firmly clasped in her arms, that it was feared it +would be stifled in extricating it from her, the judicious judge of the +city contented himself with strictly forbidding the old Jews there +assembled, to make the child a Jew. Thereupon it was commanded, by his +Excellence, the Lord Count of the Empire, Von Sternberg, Chief Burgrave +of the Kingdom of Bohemia, that this fifth child should be delivered +over to the father. Not long after, the mother also, who had so +stubbornly adhered to Judaism, gave in, and was baptized.</p> + +<p>"The father of the Jewish boy Simon Abeles, was Lazarus, and his +grandsire Moses Abeles who for many years had been Chief Rabbi of the +Jews. Whilst already of tender years, there had been discovered in this +boy a special leaning of the spirit towards Christianity. Whenever he +could, he separated himself from the Jewish youths, and associated with +the Christian boys, played with them, and gave them sweets which he had +collected from his father's table, in order to gain their good will. +The Jewish cravat, stiffened with blue starch, which the Jews wear +round the neck, thereby distinguishing themselves here in Bohemia from +the Christians, was quite repugnant to Simon. As the light of his +reason became brighter, he took every opportunity of learning the +Christian mysteries. It happened that he was many times sent by his +father, who was a glove dealer, on business to the house of Christopher +Hoffman, a Christian glover. There he tarried in contemplation of the +sacred, not the profane, pictures that hung on the walls, although the +last were more precious and remarkable as specimens of artistic +painting, and he inquired with curiosity of the Christian inmates, what +was signified in these pictures. When in reply they told him, that one +was a representation of Christ, another of the mother of Christ, the +miracle-working mother of God, by Buntzel, and another, the holy +Antonius of Padua, he exclaimed, from his heart, sighing: 'Oh, that I +could be a Christian!' Moreover, a Jew called Rebbe Liebmann bore +witness, that the boy sometimes passed whole nights among Christians, +and did not appear at his father's house.</p> + +<p>"Now many maintained that this leaning to Christianity arose +from a +supernatural source, and was produced by the baptismal sign, which had +been impressed upon him by a Christian, whilst he was in the cradle. +When later this report had been carefully investigated, it was +certified that a preceptor, Stephen Hiller, was once sent to Lazarus +Abeles to obtain payment of a debt, that he there found a child lying +alone in the cradle, and had, from deep impulse of heart, baptized him +with the elemental water which was at hand. On being examined by the +consistory of the Right Reverend the Archbishop, this preceptor, who is +now invested with a chaplaincy, said that he did not know whether the +child was the little son of Lazarus; nay, his supposition had been far +stronger, that it was the son of a Jewish tailor. From such evidence +this weighty point remained doubtful.</p> + +<p>"After some years, the steadfast leaning of Simon's spirit to +Christianity, having so much increased that it began to be clearly +perceived at home, the astute boy, foreseeing well that his parents and +relations would spare no pains to put impediments in his way, was +minded to prevent this, by flying from his father's house and Jewish +friends, before the path was closed against him. Now while, on the 25th +of July, 1693, Lazarus the father, kept the solemn day of rest in the +Jewish school, his son betook himself to a Christian house near the +Jewish town, which was inhabited by the newly baptized Jew, Kawka, and +that same evening summoned to him Johannes Santa, a Jew who many years +before had been converted with his whole family, of whom he had already +heard a good repute, as a zealous man and assiduous guide. For this man +had, at the risk of his life, brought away Jews who had a desire for +the Christian faith, and their newly baptized children from the Jewish +town, had placed them under instruction in our college of St. Clement, +had provided them with food, clothes, and lodging, and had for hours +together read spiritual books, especially the Life of Christ, with deep +devotion to such as could not read, and whose greatest pleasure it was +to see them cleansed in holy baptism. To him Simon honestly opened his +heart, and entreated that Johannes would take him to the college of the +Society of Jesus.</p> + +<p>"There was no necessity for entreating, the man borrowed +clothes +of +a +Christian youth, covered Simon's head, which was shorn after the Jewish +fashion, with a peruke, and conducted him across the Altstadter Platz +to the college. In the middle of the said Platz, stands the large +richly-gilded image of the holy mother of God, carved out of one stone. +Johannes explained to his Christian scholar, that this richly-gilded +image represented the Queen of heaven, the faithful mediator of +believers with God. This Simon listened to with great eagerness, took +off his hat without delay, bowed his whole body low, and commended +himself with pious sighs, to the blessed mother of God, as her foster +child. Hereupon he turned to his guide and thus addressed him: 'If my +father saw this, he would straightway kill me.' Thus they reached our +college between seven and eight o'clock in the evening. I was called to +the door, and Simon imparted to me his desires with marvellous +eloquence, and at the same time begged with such fervent zeal to be +instructed in the Christian faith, that I was much amazed. I presented +him the same evening to the Reverend Father Rector of the college. It +almost seemed as if this twelve-year-old boy behaved himself, as afore +time Jesus among the doctors, seeing that he answered various questions +with an eloquence, acuteness, and judgment which far surpassed his age. +When it was objected to him, that his arrival excited a suspicion that +he had committed some evil deed in the Jewish town, and sought a refuge +in the ecclesiastical house, Simon answered with cheerful countenance: +'If there is a suspicion of any misdeed, let the truth be searched out +by proclamation, as is usual in the Jew town. If I were conscious of +any evil deed, I should have more hope of remaining unpunished among +the Jews than among the Christians, for I am a grandson of Moses +Abeles, their chief Rabbi.' Then when it was suggested that he had come +among the Christians in order to wear a peruke, a little sword, and +fashionable dress, the boy made a face and said: 'I must confess that +for a long time, I have not worn the Jewish collar. Nevertheless, I do +not desire to shine among Christians in any fashionable clothes, and +will be content with my old rags.' After he had given this earnest +answer, he began to strip his hands of his gloves, to ungird his little +sword, to tear the peruke from his head, and to unhook the clean, +little upper coat, determined were it necessary to follow the destitute +Jesus, unclothed.</p> + +<p>"By such unexpected answers and heroic resolution, he drew +tears +from +the eyes of all present. But when he was commanded to put his clothes +on again, he soon dressed himself, and declared in strong words, which +he oft repeated, that he withdrew from the Jews on account of their +wicked course of life, and associated himself with Christians to secure +his salvation, because he knew well it was impossible to be blessed +without faith. But when he was asked who had taught him, that faith was +necessary to gain eternal life, he answered seven or eight times: 'God, +God, God alone,' therewith he oft sighed and smote his breast with both +hands. Then he went first to one priest, then to another, kissed their +hands, fell on his knees to them, exclaiming: 'Fathers, abandon me not; +do not reject me, do not send me again among the Jews; instruct me +quickly, quickly and' (as if he had a foreboding, and saw the impending +evil floating before his eyes), 'baptize me quickly.' Now when Simon +received the assurance that he would be reckoned among the scholars in +the Christian faith, he clapped his hands, and jumped for joy. His +whole discourse was as mature and discreet, as ready and free from +hesitation, as if he had long beforehand reflected upon it in his mind, +and learnt it by heart from his tablets, so that one of the four +priests present turned with astonishment to another, and said in Latin: +'This boy has a miraculous understanding, which if not supernatural, is +yet truly beyond his age.'</p> + +<p>"Meanwhile, the darkness of night had come on. But as there was +not +convenient sleeping room at present for this new little Nicodemus, he +was with much inward striving of my spirit, left again in that +Christian house from whence he had been brought hither, in order to +spend the night in peace with the newly baptized Jew, George Kawka. +This one was called to the door of the college, and the boy was +intrusted to him, with an express order to bring him again to the +college at the earliest hour on the following morning, that they might +provide him with a secure dwelling.</p> + +<p>"In the interim, Lazarus became aware of the absence of his +son. +Not +finding him either with his friends nor among other Jews, and being a +person of sound judgment, it occurred to him that his son must have +gone over to the Christians. Early on Sunday Lazarus betook himself to +the Christian house of the glove-maker Hoffmann, whom he did not find +at home. He concealed the loss of his son and his sorrow, and begged +the glove-maker's wife Anna, instantly to call George Kawka there, +because he had some weighty business to transact with him who was his +debtor. After a long Hebrew conversation with Lazarus, George Kawka +came in all haste to the college, but to my great sorrow, unaccompanied +by the Christian disciple. He appeared painfully disquieted, but did +not tell me a word of his conference with the father, but only said +that Simon was not sufficiently secure in his dwelling, and that it was +necessary to take good heed, or he would be entrapped by the crafty +devices of the Jews. After a sharp reproof for not bringing the boy +with him when in such danger, according to my strict orders, I +commanded him to go to the house forthwith and bring the boy hither. +This he promised but did not perform. Now when George Kawka returned +home, he pretended that he wished to go to church, and Simon prayed of +him, as though he foreboded some impending treachery, with many words +and tears, not to leave him behind, as the Jews would without fail lie +in wait for him that day, and seize him in the house; but that he would +take him with him to church and so bring him to the college. Now when +he with great sorrow of spirit perceived that George Kawka only +answered with subterfuges, he withdrew himself again, after the +departure of the same, into his hiding-place under the roof.</p> + +<p>"Hardly had George crossed the threshold, when Katherina +Kanderowa, +a +lodger, came from the country into her lodging-room, which was close to +Simon's hiding-place, and saw the boy in his little Jewish coat, which +he had again been obliged to put on. As therefore the said Katherina +understood from the Jews who were standing round the house-door that +they were seeking for the son of a Jew, who had fled from his father, +and as she did not know that Simon was a disciple of the Christian +faith, she drew him out of his corner, and dragged him down to the +front part of the house. When the father saw his son, he presented to +this woman thirty silver groschen, that she might thrust the boy, who +was not strong enough to free himself from her hands, over the +threshold. The boy called upon the Christians to support him against +such violence, but in vain, for two robust Jews seized upon him each by +an arm, and bore him along as if he floated through the air, to the Jew +town and his father's house. But the father went craftily step by step +slowly behind, in order to chat with the Christians, and make them +believe that his son had only fled to the Christians, in order to +escape lawful and deserved punishment. He easily persuaded the populace +of this.</p> + +<p>"But George Kawka betook himself after the end of this tragedy +to +me, +and related the lamentable kidnapping of Simon with many light +worthless excuses. But I spoke sharply to him, put clearly before his +eyes, how evident it was that he had played with the Jews under the +rose, and sternly charged him if he would not be made answerable before +the tribunal, for the treacherous betrayal of Simon, to use all means +without delay, and on the requisition of a Christian judge to recover +him from the hand, of the Jews, and deliver him up to the college. And +truly it appeared as if he obeyed the command faithfully and +assiduously. Ha searched the whole Jew town many days, and examined +almost all the houses, as was testified of him by the person who +accompanied and was associated with him. He thereby turned almost all +the suspicion of treachery from him; and as Simon was nowhere to be +found, he confirmed the report that he had secretly been removed to +Poland. At a later period, George Kawka himself was driven, by a bad +conscience to take refuge in Poland, and has remained invisible to this +day.</p> + +<p>"But Simon was dragged with violence to his father's house, and +after +that day, was never seen outside the threshold. After their arrival at +home, the father could no longer control his anger, and beat his son +with a stick so savagely, that the Jews present began already to fear +that he would kill him. They therefore locked up Simon in a room in +which lived Sarah Bresin, afterwards a witness. But the father +endeavoured to break open the door of the room by repeatedly running at +it with violence, and at last angrily left the house. When his anger +was a little allayed, the Jews gave up to him the severely-beaten boy, +advising to tame him by fasting. So Simon was locked up in another +room. There he passed seven painful months, in hunger and imprisonment, +daily loaded with curses and oft threatened with death. But when the +father saw that his son's spirit was inflexible, and that on the +Saturday before Shrove Sunday, Simon again, before all the family, +declared undauntedly, that he would be baptized; he determined to go to +extremities. And that affection might not restrain his hand, he chose +for assistant a Jew, Levi Kurtzhandl, a man of savage spirit and in the +vigour of youth, who had already before advised him to poison the boy. +Levi Kurtzhandl invited the boy into the room of his step-mother, and +held converse with him out of the Talmud, in order to convert him. But +when Simon persevered in his intentions, he was knocked down by Levi, +and dragged by him and the father into the next room; there both fell +upon him furiously, broke his neck, and drove his head violently +against the corner of a wooden chest, whereby the glorious soldier of +Christ received a last blow on the left side of the temple.</p> + +<p>"Whilst this barbarity was going on, Lia, the stepmother of +Simon, +together with the journeyman Rebbe Liebmann, were occupied in the next +room making gloves. On hearing the moaning of the boy, and the noise of +the murderers, she hastened into the room. There she saw the dead body +on the floor, and both the murderers on their knees by him. Thereupon +the woman was so frightened, that she fainted, and had to be restored +to her senses by Kurtzhandl pouring vinegar over her.</p> + +<p>"After the deed, Hennele, Lazarus's cook, came back, who had +been +sent +out of the house with the little children. These, when supper-time was +approaching, inquired where Simon was. They were obliged to take an +oath to keep the affair secret; whereupon, their father himself told +them that he, with Levi Kurtzhandl, had deprived the boy of life as an +apostate from the law of Moses, after the example of the patriarch +Phineas.</p> + +<p>"After that, Lazarus took counsel with Levi how to keep the +crime +secret, not only from the Christians, but also from the Jews, +especially from the family of Burianer, who were very hostile to all +that belonged to the Abeles. Levi offered while it was yet night, to +carry the body of Simon to his own house, and bury it himself in the +cellar. But Lazarus feared lest some of the Burian adherents should +discover it. They therefore decided on having the corpse buried in the +public burial-ground of the Jews. And truly, the neck of the body was +discoloured with blood, but otherwise there was no open wound to be +seen, with the exception of a blow on the left temple of about the size +of a ducat; so Lazarus called his household together, instructed and +made them swear, that they would say unanimously that Simon had become +insane, and in that state had fallen against the corner of the chest, +whereby he had been mortally wounded on the left temple.</p> + +<p>"On the following morning early, this glorious soldier of +Christ +was +buried in great secrecy by two Jews, Jerochem and Hirsches Kesserlas, +the coroners.</p> + +<p>"After the burial of Simon, from his grave arose the first great +summoner, the worm of conscience, which began to gnaw the heart of the +godless Lazarus. Memory unceasingly persecuted his conscience, and the +fear of worldly punishment ever hovered before his eyes. This fear was +much increased by the journeyman glove-maker, Rebbe Liebmann. The same +had after the deed, straight left Abele's house and made off, and had +only again returned to his work after the burial. When Lazarus began to +relate the particulars, Rebbe interrupted him, protesting that he did +not desire to hear a word about the evil deed, as he had already heard +the whole of yesterday's tragedy, related by the Jewish children in the +public streets. This burst upon the astonished Lazarus like a thunder +clap; without delay he collected and packed up all his light goods, +sold his house in the Jew town, and resigned his hired shop in an +aristocratic house, in order to settle himself in Poland. He was +already prepared, on the following day, to take flight; but it was +providentially ordained that the noble landlord of the house, who had +leased the shop to him, was just then hindered by palsy in his hand +from signing the release himself.</p> + +<p>"Meanwhile, on the 23rd of February, one Johel, a Jew, not +evil-disposed towards the Christians, went into the Jew town through +the Sommer-thor, where he met some children playing, who were relating +to one another, how Simon Abeles had three days before been fresh and +healthy, and had early yesterday been buried without any funeral pomp. +Johel betook himself without delay to the burial-ground, and found a +freshly-raised grave; reflected upon all the other circumstances and +reports, and came to the sensible conclusion that Lazarus was the +murderer of his son. This he confided forthwith to a writer of the +royal government in great secresy. After I had received intelligence +thereof, and had earnestly admonished the Jewish informer to give a +faithful report; he wrote down the following day all the lamentable +particulars, in order to deliver them to the most noble government. +They commanded the body of Simon to be disinterred, and to be closely +examined by a doctor appointed for the purpose; and finally to take +into custody those who were suspected of the deed, as also their +accomplices. All this was set on foot cautiously and without delay. The +body was disinterred under an armed guard; the Jews who had collected, +and the Jewish doctor who was called in, declared that a bad blow on +the head, and lastly a fit of insanity, had killed the boy. But the +medical gentlemen gave their opinion, that many indications, the broken +neck and a small round wound on the temple, showed that the boy had +died from a violent blow.</p> + +<p>"Thereupon Lazarus Abeles was brought to see the body of his +son. +He +turned pale and trembled, and was so confused that he remained silent, +and for a good while could not say anything intelligible, nor answer +anything distinctly. At last as the Herr Commissary continued urging +him to say whether he knew the body of the boy, he answered with bent +head and weak voice that it was the body of his son Simon; and when it +was further put to him what was the cause of the wound on the left +temple, he gave a confused and contradictory answer. He was therefore +again taken to prison, but the body of the boy was put into a Christian +coffin, and placed meanwhile in the cellar of the council house. The +<i>Herren</i> commissaries were unwearied in cross-questioning +Christians +and Jews. But in spite of all indications, Lazarus, and the women who +were in special custody, Lia, his wife, and Hennele, his cook, were +almost unanimous in their evidence: Simon had not taken flight from his +father's house to become a Christian, but for a long time had been +affected with a disease of the head, and therefore kept in the house; +at last he had felt an extreme repugnance for food, had become subject +to violent fits of insanity, and thus had met with his death. All means +of extracting the truth were unavailing; Lazarus Abeles and the two +only witnesses then known of, remained obstinate.</p> + +<p>"One afternoon, the honourable Franz Maximilian Baron von +Klarstein, +the official commissary, was reflecting on this matter as he went home, +and ascended the steps of his house; when it suddenly seemed to him +that he received a violent blow on the side, he turned round crossly, +when behold there appeared to him on the landing which divided the +steps from one another, a boy standing, who bowed his head, and smiled +sweetly with cheerful countenance, clothed in a Jewish winding-sheet, +wounded on the left temple, and in size and age like Simon, as this +gentleman had seen him with his own eyes, on inspection of the body, +when a lively image of him had been impressed on his memory. The +gentleman was amazed, and whilst he was sitting at table with his wife +and some guests, pondered in his mind what this might signify. Then he +heard the tapping of a person's finger several times on the door of the +dining-room. The servant was sent out, and informed him that an unknown +maiden desired instantly to be admitted. Having entered, and being +kindly accosted, the little maiden of fourteen answered that her name +was Sarah Bresin, that she now dwelt among the Christians to be +instructed in the Christian faith, and had shortly before lived as +servant to the tenant in the house of Lazarus Abeles; there she had +seen with her own eyes how cruelly Lazarus had attacked his son Simon, +because he had fled to the Christians, in order to be baptized. Upon +this and other evidence Sarah was confronted with Lazarus; before whom +she declared freely, with much feeling and in forcible language, all +that she knew. But Lazarus roundly denied it all; and with frantic +curses called down all the devils upon her head. But when he returned +to his prison, confusion and despair seized his soul; he perceived that +his denials would no longer help him before the court, and determined +by a last expedient to escape judicial proceedings. Although both his +legs and one hand were impeded by his fetters, yet he contrived to wind +the girdle, called a <i>Tephilim</i>, wherewith the Jews bind their +heads +and arms during prayer, instead of a cord, round the iron window +grating, and strangled himself thereby. Thus on the following morning, +he was found strangled. For the Jews erroneously consider it allowable +to throttle themselves, and oft-times do the like. Judgment was passed +on his dead body.</p> + +<p>"After his death his wife Lia and the servant-maid Hennele being +confronted with Sarah Bresin, made a public confession; the fugitive +journeyman glover, Rebbe Liebmann, was also produced and confessed. His +Princely Grace the Archbishop decided that Simon should be buried in +the Teynkirche, in the chapel of St. John the Baptist, by the baptismal +font, within a vault of polished marble, in a fine oak coffin covered +with red velvet, and guarded by a lock and three keys. Further, that +the coffin was to be borne to the burial-place by innocent and noble +youths dressed in purple. The most noble Frau Silvia, born Gräfin +Kinskey, wife of his Excellency the Lord Count of the Empire, Schlick, +had a double costly dress prepared for this day, an under dress of +white satin and an upper one of red, interwoven with gold, trimmed with +gold buttons and adorned with gold lace-work; she provided also +stockings of the like material to cover the feet, and an exceedingly +beautiful garland of gold and silver lilies and roses to crown the head +of the innocent martyr.</p> + +<p>"Hardly had his most precious body been attired and laid in the +costly +coffin, when the high nobility of both sexes arrived, and pressed with +godly impetuosity into the chapel, where all were amazed, and praised +the God of all marvels when they saw that the holy pledge (the body of +Simon) was unchanged five weeks after his death, that no exhalation of +odour could be discovered or perceived, and that from his death wounds +there dropped continually fresh rose-coloured blood. Wherefore persons +even of the highest consideration caught up this precious liquor with +their pocket-handkerchiefs. But others who were not provided with clean +handkerchiefs, or who could not get near enough for the great throng, +made their way to the old grave and tore away the bloody clippings +which lay therein. Afterwards the revered body was exposed to view on +this and the following day in the great hall of the council house. But +even there it was exceeding difficult to approach it. At last on the +31st of March the funeral was performed. An armed force in three ranks +surrounded the council house for two whole hours; throughout the whole +city resounded the pealing bells of seventy churches. Meanwhile the +synagogue and the whole body of Jews were ready to swoon away with +anguish, because they feared the vengeance of the Christian populace +would fell upon them. It was indeed almost a miracle that no deed of +violence was committed, for in the past year, the Christians had more +than once for the most trifling reasons, fallen upon and plundered the +frippery market and Jew town, and had also, as is well known, attacked +the Jews themselves, severely injuring and even murdering some.</p> + +<p>"When towards ten o'clock, the painters had finished a double +representation of the martyr Simon, the church ceremonies began. After +the coffin had been closed, the commissaries prepared to seal up the +keyhole, but as the paper which was to be sealed over the lock might be +injured, they desired to have a suitable silk ribbon, and when this +became known to the most noble persons present, they tore what they had +of such material from their heads, stomachers and arms. His Excellency +the Reichsgraf von Martinez also unbound the ribbon that was hanging +from his sword-hilt. But a ribbon of red satin was chosen for this +purpose, which the most noble and right honourable the Countess +Kolowrat had worn; this was cut in two and placed over the lock and +sealed. After this the martyr's coffin was covered with a costly red +velvet pall prepared for the occasion; in the middle of the funeral +bier was a fine picture of Our Lady, and on both sides angels with palm +branches. Sixteen good youths of noble descent bore the funeral bier on +their innocent shoulders; they wore red mantles with gold lace +glittering on them, and wreaths of silvered roses wound with red silk. +Then the pealing of bells sounded through all the three towns; the +clouds suddenly cleared from off the heavens; the multitude covered +every roof, and occupied every window; they had flocked together, not +only from the three neighbouring vine-clad mountains but from distant +places and cities.</p> + +<p>"The city authorities led the host of the funeral train; after +them +followed the lately baptized young Jews, adorned with red badges, +before whom two church banners of like material were borne. Next a +countless multitude of schoolboys from all the schools of the three +towns, ranged under eight purple flags; thirdly all the young students +from the under Latin schools. Fourthly above four hundred heads of the +Latin brotherhood from the schools, before whom was carried cross and +banner under a canopy with lighted wax tapers. They were followed by a +fifth of the higher student brotherhood of Our Lady; among them many +doctors, and assessors, and divers nobles of the Empire; before them +also were borne the cross and banner with the canopy, and in their +hands they carried burning wax tapers, and flaming white torches. +Sixthly came the first set of choristers, then the clergy in their +vestments, then the second set of choristers; after them the deacons, +parish priests, and the very reverend the prebendaries with the +officiating priests, and beside them went the city soldiers in long +rows. Seventhly came the sixteen finely attired youths bearing the +glorious corpse of the martyr Simon. On both sides of the coffin went +twelve boys with burning red torches, dressed in exquisitely beautiful +purple linen. Eighthly following the coffin came the most noble the +President and Governor of Königreichs, all holding red torches in their +hands; they were followed by the most distinguished nobility of both +sexes in great numbers, and lastly a countless multitude of God-fearing +people.</p> + +<p>"The accomplice of the murderer, Levi Hüsel Kurtzhandl, was the +son +of +wealthy parents at Prague; he was tall, and twenty years of age, with a +daring countenance, was passionate, had a bold eloquence and ready wit, +and was perfectly acquainted with the Talmud, which he had studied +eleven years. He had concealed himself with his Jewish bride nine miles +from Prague. After diligent inquiries, armed men were despatched there +who put him in irons, and brought him in a carriage to Prague on the +22nd of March. Although the commissaries, having formerly had similar +cases, doubted whether the least atom of truth could be extracted from +this flint, yet they confronted him with the witnesses. But +notwithstanding the affidavits of three witnesses, he acknowledged +nothing. He was threatened with the executioner and the rack, but that +had no more effect upon him than threatening a crab with drowning. For +he trusted he should be able to endure the rack, and so escape. Nay, he +was hardy enough to say, that this trial was carried on contrary to all +law and justice. Thus he was, according to law, condemned to the wheel +on the evidence of three witnesses, though without his own +confession.</p> + +<p>"He however hindered the execution of the sentence for seven +months, +having by means of a Jewish relation brought the affair before his +Imperial Majesty Leopold. The proceedings were now delayed by Jewish +tricks, and so tardily carried on, that it might plainly be seen, that +the culprit was only seeking a delay of some years in order to obtain a +mitigation of punishment or to obviate it by a voluntary death. At last +the tribunal obtained an order that the accused should deliver in his +defence within fourteen days; his frivolous pleas were rejected, and +the sentence of the tribunal confirmed by his Imperial Majesty. He +however adhered to his declaration: 'I am innocent of the blood of the +murdered boy.' This he oft repeated before Father Johannes Brandstedter +of the Society of Jesus, an unwearied apostolical labourer, who met a +blessed death four days after Kurtzhandl, from the virulent poison he +had imbibed in the work of love by a sick bed. When he inquired of the +condemned whether he could meet death with resignation, and exhorted +him to the reception of the saving faith, Levi answered with a cheerful +aspect and without embarrassment: 'I care as little for death as +for this straw'--he held one in his hand, which he thereupon threw +away--'but as concerns the faith, we will now argue out of the holy +Scriptures which of us two holds the true faith. But the father must +not think he has a common simple man before him, for I studied the +Talmud for eleven years.'</p> + +<p>"Thus began a controversy concerning the faith; the priest +attacked +the +Talmud with powerful theological evidence, and Levi apprehended +everything by the strong capacity of his understanding. At last he +threw his Jewish bible away from him, impatiently saying: 'Let it be as +it may, I abide by the faith in which I was born.' As on the following +day the obdurate youth began to harp upon the same string, the priest +set about the matter again in another way; he no longer spoke to him, +but turned to his fellow-prisoners, and read to them divers evidence +from the holy Scriptures, whereby he proved that the Messiah had +already come.</p> + +<p>"This, Levi listened to quietly and thoughtfully, and although +he +gave +no indications of being inclined to the holy faith, yet it might be +seen by his countenance that he was not as averse to the presence of +the priest as yesterday. On the third day Levi, hardened as he might be +in other respects, yet desired that the father should return in the +afternoon, as his presence was a special comfort to him in his +miserable position. When the priest promised him this as an +encouragement, the stony heart appeared softened. In the afternoon, the +father in his holy simplicity placed such reliance on the Jew, that he +removed all the others, and remaining alone with him, kindly and +urgently begged of him to give both himself and him consolation, by +relating at his pleasure, as the greatest secret, truly and faithfully, +what he knew of the death of Simon. At this unexpected address Levi was +quite amazed; he continued long silent; but at last struck with the +rare confidence shown by a Christian priest in a Jew, he conceived a +high esteem for his uprightness, and persuaded by the father's promise +of secresy, confessed before him and one of his fellow-prisoners, with +great signs of sorrow, with bent shoulders and head hanging down on the +left side, that he had, at the instigation of the father Lazarus +Abeles, laid violent hands on Simon, and caused his death from zeal for +the law of Moses.</p> + +<p>"Upon receiving this confession the priest was exceeding +joyful, +and +strove with all his powers, by arguments and urgent entreaties, to +persuade him to turn himself magnanimously to God. But to this Levi +would not return any satisfactory answer; and when, as evening twilight +was creeping on, the priest prepared to go home, Levi raised his eyes +to heaven, and said with a deep sigh: 'Father, where shall I be at this +time to-morrow?' Whereto the priest replied: 'My son, in heaven, if you +embrace the Christian faith; but if you die in Judaism, in hell as a +hardened Jew.' Thereupon he in the most friendly way wished him a good +night and a blessed end, and went away.</p> + +<p>"On the following day the priest found the condemned man +dressed in +white linen for the impending tragedy, as if he had prepared himself to +be baptized. After a friendly greeting the father asked him in which +faith he had at last resolved to die? Hereunto Levi returned this +answer: 'I will die in the same faith in which Abraham, Isaac, and +Jacob died. And as in the olden time Abraham offered up his son, so +will I to-day sacrifice myself for my sins.' When the priest made a +further rejoinder, he said with a pleasant countenance and in a calm +manner: 'I humbly beg of you, father, not to trouble me any more about +baptism, for I will now pray from the Psalms and prepare myself for a +happy death.' Thereupon he began to repeat the Psalms, but without the +girdle called a <i>Tephilim</i>, although the Jews usually consider +prayer +without binding the forehead and hands a sin. But he prayed with such +contrition of heart and such vehement beating of the breast, and +penitential tears, that his fellow-prisoners and all present were +greatly astonished at his remorse.</p> + +<p>"After a prayer that had lasted more than two hours he gave +himself +up +quickly into the hands of the executioner, and thus accosted him with a +cheerful countenance: 'Do to me what God and my judges have commanded +you.' He then turned to his fellow-prisoners, took a friendly leave of +them, and humbly begged of them to forgive his past failings.</p> + +<p>"After ten o'clock they took him, amidst the gaze of countless +multitudes, from the prison, and bound him in a hide, whereat he showed +no sign of impatience or displeasure. Only he sometimes raised his +bound hands in prayer to heaven. Thus was he dragged by a horse to the +field of action. When he perceived that the accompanying priest in the +middle of the Platz was in danger of being severely injured by a horse, +he begged with sympathizing voice that he might go in front to avoid +the danger."</p> + +<p>Thus far the Jesuit's narrative. On the scaffold Levi made a manly +confession of his deed before all the people, with a request that the +witnesses who had only spoken the truth should no longer be kept in +prison. The details of the execution were particularly horrible; the +experienced executioner could not--so the writer states--break the +strong body of the criminal on the wheel. At last Levi called to the +priest by his side and asked him in a clear voice what he would promise +if he should consent to be baptized? When the father promised him, +besides forgiveness of all his sins, also a speedy death, Levi +answered: 'I will be baptized.' The Church triumphant hastened to +impart private baptism, much disposed to attribute this unheard of +bodily strength and calm of the malefactor to a special miracle of +Divine Providence. Levi repeated the prescribed formula with a strong +voice, and received calmly the now effective stroke of death.</p> + +<p>This is the sorrowful history of Simon Abeles. Whoever judges the +Jesuit narrative impartially will discover in it something which the +narrator wishes to conceal; and whoever contemplates with horror the +fanatical murder, will nevertheless not spend much sympathy on the +fanatical priests. They tear the scarcely born child out of the arms of +its mother; they consider it a pious contrivance to steal the suckling +secretly from her, by means of spies and tale-bearers; by promises and +threatenings, and excitement of the imagination, they win hosts of +proselytes in baptism to their God, who is very unlike the God of the +gospel; with the skill of experienced managers, they make use of a +miserable murder, for the sake of bringing on the scene a real tragedy, +and of the dead body of a Jewish boy, in order by pomp and glitter and +enormous processions, and if possible by miracles, to recommend their +faith to both Christians and Jews. Their fanaticism, in alliance with +the burgher magistracy and the compliant law, stands in comparison with +that of a despised, persecuted, and impulsive race; cunning, violence, +malice and a corrupt morality, are to be discovered on both sides.</p> + +<p>During yet two generations, the zeal of the Jesuits against the Jews +continued to work, the struggle of two foreign communities on German +ground. The one consisted of the sons of the old dwellers in the +wilderness, whose leader, the Lord Jehovah, brought them forth with +their flocks and herds, going before them in the fiery pillar, and +pouring his wrath on all who fell away from him. And opposed to these +were the followers of a Spanish nobleman, who had undertaken the +monstrous task of forming the souls of men like the wheels of a +machine, making all the highest intellectual powers serve the one +single object, of a priesthood to the one appointed officer of the +great head of the church militant, Jesus.</p> + +<p>What were Loyola and his school to the ancient Abeles and to Levi +Kurtzhandl? How ancient was Loyola? Their fathers had slaughtered the +sacrificial victim three thousand years before the first Jesuit had +tortured a Jewish heart; their descendants, they were sure, would offer +sacrifice three thousand years later in the kingdom of Messiah, after +the last Jesuit had been collected to his mother Lilith. The fearful S. +J. which shone in gold on the stones of the college, how long would it +last? In the time of their grandfathers it had its origin, in the time +of their grandchildren it would be erased. What was this new device to +the seed of Abraham? An extravagance, a short plague of Egypt. Proudly +did the Roman Catholic church look back on seventeen hundred years of +victory and conquest, but more proudly did the despised Jew look upon +his past, which stretches back to the dawn of the world, for his faith +was seventeen hundred years old when Christ was baptized. Both the +judgment of the pious fathers of the Church and the pious Jews was +narrowed, and their comprehension of the Highest disturbed by old +traditions.</p> + +<p>When Jehovah spoke to Moses on the mountain, his law became the +groundwork of a higher moral law, to the hordes in the desert; when +Jesus proclaimed to the apostles the gracious message of love, his +teaching was a holy treasure for the human race. Since then, the Jews +have continued unweariedly to solemnize their Passover; still do they +shun the meat of the swine, and swing the young cocks on atonement day; +but the foundation of their faith has long vanished, also their +pastoral state on the borders of the Syrian wilderness. For many +centuries also, the pious fathers of the Roman Catholic church have +offered their holy sacrifice daily; but they also, have already ceased +to be the most pre-eminent of those who live under the law of the new +covenant. The Bohemian peasant, who benevolently raised up the sick Jew +on the high road, without tormenting the soul of the stranger with +efforts to convert him, was more Christian than they; that man of +science, who risked his life under the anger of the Church, that he +might understand how the lightning was made by God, and the earth +caused to revolve, was more a proclaimer of the Eternal, than they; and +that citizen who died for his duty, in order to teach that the general +weal is of more value than that of individuals, was nearer the most +perfect pattern, than they. Among them also, undoubtedly, were many +good high-minded men; the Jesuit, Friedrich Spee, met his death in a +pesthouse, like that sailor in the flames. But those who thus lived, +are precious to us because they showed themselves to be good men; +whether they were considered good priests we know not. When this same +Spee protested so vehemently against the burning of witches, which his +Church so zealously carried on, he published his writings, without his +name, in a Protestant place.</p> + +<p>Since Moses, and since the first feast of Pentecost, the Lord had +never +left himself without witnesses; he had given the nations of the earth a +new culture, had led them to a higher civilisation. He had given them a +new code of morals, he had unlocked the other half of the earth, he had +willed that the new spirit in men should be contained in the narrow +space of one book, which might pass from hand to hand, from one soul to +another, from one century to every succeeding one. Restlessly and +unceasingly did the Divine Spirit agitate and stir the hearts of men; +ever more mighty and more holy did these manifestations of the Eternal, +appear to men of powerful intellect; it was a different manifestation +to that of the old writings, it was also another word of God, another +aspect of the Eternal, which was discovered. Thus men now sought the +God of the human race, of the earth, of the universe, not only in the +old faith but also in science. Together with the Jesuits and Jews there +was Leibnitz.</p> + +<p>This new culture has elevated the Jews; their fanaticism has vanished +since the Christian zeal which persecuted them has ceased, and the +descendants of that wandering Asiatic race have become our countrymen +and fellow combatants. But the ecclesiastical community of the Society +of Jesus, already once expelled, then revived again, remains to this +day what it was at the beginning of its emigration into Germany--alien +to the German life. + +<br /> +</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> +<div class="chapter"> +<h2>CHAPTER XII.</h2> +</div> + +<h3>THE WASUNGER WAR.<br /> +(1747.)</h3> + +<p class="normal sp1">The great century of enlightenment began with +blood +and the thunder of +cannon. The Spanish war of succession raged on the western frontier, +within the distracted realm. Bavaria and Cologne fought under the ban +of the Empire, in alliance with Louis XIV. against the house of +Hapsburg.</p> + +<p>The constitution of the Empire had become weak. In the east the +Hohenzollerns already held a powerful position by the side of the +Hapsburgers; from the beginning of the century they had become kings +independent of the Empire, and the Electoral house of Saxony, had +shortly before obtained the insecure possession of the Polish Electoral +throne.</p> + +<p>Condemned witches were still burnt on the funeral pile; the +ecclesiastics of three persuasions still carried on a wearisome strife; +the intolerance of the Church, the pressure of poverty, want of great +political interests, and the pitifulness of the small sovereigns and +their courts, still weighed upon the masses.</p> + +<p>Ever wider became the separation of classes. Etiquette only permitted +the princes to have intercourse with the citizens in particular cases, +and under prescribed forms. It therefore occurred sometimes that a good +paternal ruler disguised himself as a private man, withdrew into a +chamber apart, put on his old dressing-gown, and took a pipe in his +mouth, in order to be enabled to have direct intercourse with his +citizens, and thus learn their wishes from themselves. During such +hours his princely dignity was, to a certain degree, suspended, but +instantly he quitted the room he was again within courtly interdict.</p> + +<p>Yet it was just at this period that numerous mesalliances took place. +Among many of the higher nobility, wild nature broke through the +restraint of court usage, and more than once a city maiden had the +doubtful advantage of becoming the persecuted wife of a Prince of old +family. Seldom did the wife obtain from the Emperor the rights of equal +birth; the marriages were generally morganatic, and the children +refused the succession.</p> + +<p>Among the German princes, the course of whose life was changed by a +union of this kind, was Anthony Ulrich, Duke of Saxe Meiningen; born in +1687, the youngest of three brothers, he became, according to the +custom of his house, joint ruler of the country, that is to say, the +elder brother exercised the rights of sovereignty, but the younger ones +received a portion of the revenues of the country. In his youth, this +prince had travelled; in the war of succession he had served through +some campaigns as an Imperial officer; and at the peace of Rastatt, he +quitted the army with the rank of Major-general. A fiery youth, +courteous and accomplished, affable as becomes young princes, not +without an interest in intellectual pursuits, he had, following the +prevailing fashion, zealously collected objects of art and natural +curiosities; with a lively disposition and chivalrous demeanour, he was +the favourite of the country which he only nominally ruled. Whatever +entered into his head, he carried on wilfully and recklessly, with an +iron perseverance which might have led him to great things. Then it +became his lot to fall in love with Philippine Cesar, the daughter of a +Hessian captain, lady of the bedchamber to his sister, the Abbess of +Gandersheim; he took her to Holland and married her.</p> + +<p>For many years he did not avow his marriage. His life became +unsettled; +he kept his wife concealed in Amsterdam, and strictly commanded his +servants to keep secret his place of residence; he received letters +from home in roundabout ways, and was always moving to and fro in the +land of his fathers. But when his wife became more precious to him, and +sons were born, the stubbornness of his nature was brought forth, he +revealed his marriage, and required of his family the recognition of +it, and the right of succession for his children.</p> + +<p>The displeasure of his proud house now broke out. The recognition was +denied. Such a marriage was considered by the Court altogether +monstrous, but it was always doubtful whether the decisions of feudal +law were competent to declare this marriage invalid. Therefore the +Dukes of Saxony met together in 1717, and decided that all unequal +unions in their house were to be considered as only morganatic, and the +children were never to be allowed the rights of succession.<a +name="div2_48" href="#div2Ref_48"><sup>[48]</sup></a></p> + +<p>Anthony Ulrich remained firm. He solicited the Imperial court, and +strove unweariedly against the council of the country, who took +advantage of this quarrel to diminish the revenues of the Duke. But his +nature was not easily bent. When in 1722, the last feudal tenant of +Altenstein, one Hund von Wenckheim lay dying, and the commissaries of +the government were standing by the death-bed to take possession of the +vacant fief, Anthony Ulrich rode suddenly into the court of the castle, +and in spite of the protest of the councillors, who were also his +servants, entered the chamber of the dying man, sang with him the +evening song and the penitential hymn, and passed the night, armed with +pistols and other weapons, in the castle. As soon as the vassal had +closed his eyes, he entered the room, and according to the old usage +took possession of the vacant fief, and seating himself in a red velvet +arm-chair, said: "I hereby take possession of my third share, +without +prejudice to the two-thirds of my brothers." He then called in his +attendants as witnesses, and according to the prescribed usage, struck +his hand forcibly on the table, so that a jug upset, symbolical of the +movable property, and caused a chip to be cut out of the door of the +chamber of death, and of the dining-room. After this he swore into his +service all who had not fled; he then rode out, cut splinters from the +oak wood, and bits of turf from the meadows, as further tokens of +having taken possession, and went back to Meiningen. But when he +returned to the castle, he found the gates closed and guarded by +grenadiers, and all his threats and protestations were of no avail.</p> + +<p>He afterwards wished to take his wife and children to one of his own +possessions, and lead a peaceable life at home. But such was not his +happy lot. His brothers obtained a decision from the Imperial high +court of judicature, according to which he was not to take his wife and +children into the country of his fathers, and if he should venture to +do so, he was never to usurp for them the title of princes. He now +however went himself to Vienna and so worked there, with the help of +large sums of money, and through the medium of his military +acquaintances--the Spanish minister, the Marquis of Perlas was his +supporter--that the Emperor Charles VI. raised his wife Philippine to +the dignity of Princess of the holy Roman Empire, and her sons and +daughters to be dukes and duchesses of Saxony, with all the privileges +and rights, <i>i.e.</i> those of the succession.</p> + +<p>Against this, the whole house of Saxony, and those of Hohenzollern +and +Hesse, who were interested by the settlement of succession, rose in +opposition. At first, however, Anthony Ulrich was victor. His eldest +brother died, and the second was a weak man. So he became in 1729, the +real ruler of the country. Then he brought his wife and eldest son +under the ducal roof at Meiningen. For eleven years the stubborn prince +rejoiced in having established his own will. But the struggle with his +house had embittered him; and added to restlessness and violence, a +litigious spirit had come over him. Peevish and endless were the +disputes about the government, and the discord with his brothers and +his favourites; the little country was divided into two parties; +ministers and officials threw themselves on the one or the other side, +and sometimes the machine of government stood still. The Duke lived +generally with his wife and children out of the country, at Vienna. The +legal proceedings with the agnates about the equality of birth, which +still continued, and vexatious quarrels with neighbours, gave him but a +gloomy satisfaction. He had gained no trifling knowledge of the forms +of public law, and conducted all his suits himself. They seem to have +taken up the greater part of his time.</p> + +<p>But the victory was to be followed by a sad reverse. The new Emperor +of +the house of Wittelsbacher, Charles VII., was with very evident +reference to Anthony Ulrich's affair, bound on oath not to legitimatize +any notorious mesalliances, and to declare the right of inheritance of +such children null and void. Therefore the rank given to the Duchess of +Meiningen and her children was repealed. Anthony Ulrich had recourse to +the Diet. But in vain. This also declared that his application must be +refused, and the Emperor Francis I. of Lorraine confirmed this +decision.</p> + +<p>It was a cruel stroke of destiny. The wife of the Duke had the good +fortune not to outlive the last Imperial decision; she died a few weeks +previous to it; whilst her husband was fruitlessly setting heaven and +earth in motion at Frankfort to ward off this fate. But the two parties +quarrelled even over her coffin. The brother, and co-ruler with the +Duke, refused to allow the corpse to be buried in the royal hereditary +vault, nay even denied her the usual tolling of the bells for royal +personages. Anthony Ulrich rushed furiously from Frankfort and +commanded the tolling and the burial in the royal vault. Orders and +counter orders crossed each other during several weeks; now the tolling +began and now it was stopped. As Anthony Ulrich, who had again hastened +to Frankfort, had commanded that the coffin should not be deposited +anywhere but in the royal burial place, it was kept in a room in the +castle covered over with sand; there it remained a year and a half, +till in 1746, Anthony Ulrich's last brother died. Then the Duke in +order to give satisfaction to his wife even in death, caused his +brother's corpse after lying in state, to be placed in the same room +next his wife's coffin and like hers to be covered over with sand. +There the two coffins remained for a year, when they were both quietly +deposited at the same time in the royal burial place.</p> + +<p>Now Anthony Ulrich, once the youngest of his family, remained sole +ruler and the eldest of his race, but Meiningen was a source of +annoyance to him. He could not take his dear children home as Dukes, +therefore he went to them at Frankfort. His agnates could scarcely +conceal the impatience with which they awaited for his death in order +to take possession of the inheritance of the last of the Meiningens. +He had passed the greater part of his life in struggle with them; now +he would be revenged. Out of spite to them he married at the age of +sixty-three a Princess of Hesse-Philippsthal. He had ten children by +his first wife and eight by his second. He announced every fresh birth +to the agnates on a sheet of the largest royal folio.</p> + +<p>He died at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1763. Even in his last testament +the stubborn determination breaks forth, of bringing the two sons of +his first marriage into the country as co-heirs. All the children of +the first marriage died unmarried.</p> + +<p>His was an unprofitable life, but it well deserves the sympathy of a +later generation. A strong passion disturbed his days up to his last +hours. Mixed with a great love, a stream of gall penetrated into his +heart, flowing unceasingly; his time, his money and all his talents +were spent in the most sorrowful of all struggles--in family disputes. +His brilliant youth gave great promise, yet how profitless to others, +nay to himself, was his whole manhood. In his old age he dwelt in a +foreign city, divided between his past and his new domestic life, to +which he could never get thoroughly accustomed. His spirit, once so +lively and active, and his unbending will, were so engrossed with his +personal affairs, that when he became the real ruler of his country he +no longer took an interest in doing his duty.</p> + +<p>It was not unnatural that Anthony Ulrich should, from his own +experience, entertain a repugnance to the pretensions of the lower +nobility at court, and it was quite in accordance with his character, +to display his hatred when opportunities offered. This he did shortly +after the death of his first wife, to the bereaved court at +Meiningen.</p> + +<p>In the royal palace at Meiningen the <i>Frau Landjägermeisterin</i>, +(wife +of the Grand Master of the chase), Christiane Auguste von Gleichen held +the highest rank. Among the other ladies who had a right to be there, +was a Fran von Pfaffenrath, born Countess Solms, but yet only the wife +of a councillor, who had only just been ennobled, and to whom she had +been married in a not very regular way, for her husband had been tutor +in her parents' house: she had eloped with him, and had after many +troubles accomplished a reconciliation with her mother, and obtained a +diploma of nobility for her husband. Now Duke Anthony Ulrich, who was +residing at Frankfort, protected her, because, as the court whispered, +her sister had the advantage of being in the good graces of the old +gentleman. Naturally, she ought only to have ranked according to the +patent of her husband, but alas! she raised pretensions because she was +of high nobility. When therefore in October 1746, the doors of the +dining-room were to be opened, and the page was standing ready to +repeat grace, the Master-of-the-Horse entered and said to the <i>Frau +Landjägermeisterin</i>: "His most Serene Highness has commanded +that the +Frau von Pfaffenrath shall take rank before all other ladies." +Frau +von +Gleichen answered that she would never consent to that, but the Frau +von Pfaffenrath had placed herself favourably and took the precedence +of the <i>Frau Landjägermeisterin</i> before she could prevent it. Yet +this +determined lady was far from submitting tamely. She hastened round the +table to the Duke's cabinet minister, and declared to him, as became a +lady of character after such an insult: "If <i>Frau von</i> +Pfaffenrath +again goes before me to table, I will pull her back even to the +sacrifice of her hooped gown, and will say a few words which will be +very disagreeable to her." The cabinet minister was in a great +embarrassment, for he knew the resolute character of <i>Frau von</i> +Gleichen. At last he advised her to rise from the table before grace, +then she would at all events go out first and so get the precedence. +Thus the <i>Landjägermeisterin</i> maintained her place, but she was +much +offended, and so was the whole court, which split into two parties. +This quarrel of the ladies made a commotion in the whole of the holy +Roman Empire, occasioned a campaign between Gotha and Meiningen, and +was only ended by Frederick the Great, in a manner which reminds one of +the fable of the lion which took the royal share for himself.</p> + +<p><i>Frau von</i> Gleichen appealed to the absent Duke for reparation. +She +only received a strong and ungracious answer. Irritated at this, she +made inquiries into the former life of her enemy, and propagated an +anonymous writing, in which the love affairs of the Countess were +described with more energy than delicacy. The <i>Frau von</i> +Pfaffenrath +complained of this lampoon to the sovereign at Frankfort, and +afterwards began a course of proceedings against the <i>Frau +Landjägermeisterin</i> which even then was considered harsh and cruel. +She +was called upon to crave pardon of the <i>Frau von</i> Pfaffenrath, on +her +knees entreating her most penitently for forgiveness; and when she +refused with these words: "I would die first," she was taken +in +arrest to the council-house and there guarded by two musketeers; her +husband also was put in an unhealthy prison. Unshaken by such great +sufferings the <i>Frau Landjägermeisterin</i>, in a beautiful letter +full of +self-reliance and noble sentiments, petitioned the Duke for her +husband's freedom, her own dismission from the service of the court, +and permission to institute a legal defence against the Pfaffenrath. +All this was denied her. She was on the contrary carried by two +musketeers into the room of the Pfaffenrath in order to beg pardon, and +when she again refused, she was taken into the market-place of Meiningen +surrounded by a circle of soldiers, and the sheriff read aloud a +decree, in which it was proclaimed to the people, that the lampoon was +to be burnt before the eyes of the <i>Landjägermeisterin</i> by the +hangman, +and every one was forbidden, on pain of six weeks' imprisonment and a +fine of a hundred thalers, ever to speak again on the subject. The +letter was burnt by the hangman and <i>Frau von</i> Gleichen again taken +back to prison.</p> + +<p>But now the friends of the Gleichen brought a complaint before the +Imperial chamber. But the repeated mandates of the Chamber to Duke +Anthony Ulrich and his government, to give freedom to the Gleichens and +to proceed according to law, were not obeyed. After that Duke Friedrich +III. of Gotha, received a commission from the same tribunal to defend +<i>Frau von</i> Gleichen and her husband from farther violence, and to +deliver them from imprisonment in Meiningen, yet keep them in +honourable custody. Duke Friedrich demanded the delivery of the +prisoners from Meiningen, but his commissioners were not admitted into +the city, nor his letter accepted; but it was signified to him, that if +Gotha should attempt to free them by force, there was plenty of powder +and shot at Meiningen. Betwixt Meiningen and Gotha there were endless +quarrels and great bitterness.</p> + +<p>Thereupon Duke Friedrich of Gotha prepared himself for armed +intervention. He was a warlike Prince, who maintained a subsidiary +force of six thousand infantry and fifteen hundred horse in the Dutch +and Imperial service. He had, besides a large number of guns, a strong +corps of officers and several Generals. On the other hand the military +strength of Meiningen was small; it consisted almost entirely of the +old fortifications and unskilled militia. These were assembled, and +Meiningen was fortified as well as was possible in such haste. But it +was not destined that Meiningen itself should become the scene of +action, for the fury of war raged only about the town of Wasungen. It +was indeed a remarkable coincidence that this place should become the +theatre of war, for scandal says that it was considered the shield or +place of refuge of Meiningen; and in the country there is a lying story +about its councillors and a large gourd. The councillors mistook the +gourd for the egg of a foreign horse which was to be hatched for the +good of the town by the united powers of the councillors.</p> + +<p>The struggle which then took place in the centre of Germany, between +the Thuringian states of Gotha and Meiningen, is known by the name of +the Wasunger war. In a military point of view it is of no importance, +but is characteristic of the period. All the misery in the German +Empire, the decaying state of the burgher life, the coarse immorality +of the politics of that time, the meannesses, pedantry, and +helplessness of the Imperial army, are shown to such an extent, that +they might be a source of amusement, if they did not give rise to a +more serious and better feeling, bringing to light the helplessness of +the German Empire.</p> + +<p>The narrative is here given by Lieutenant Rauch of Gotha, who took +part +in the war. He speaks in his diary as follows:--</p> + +<p>"Early on the 15th of February, precisely at one o'clock, our +whole +division broke up from Tambach, and marched with burning torches +through the wood beyond the so-called Rosengarten, in order that we +might enter at break of day the Hessian village Flohe; we knew not +whither we were going. We continued our march through the city of +Smalkalden up to Middle Smalkalden.</p> + +<p>"When the cavalry came to the Meiningen village +Niederschmalkalden, +a +Lieutenant, with about four-and-twenty militia men, stood right across +the road, and would not let us pass. Here all three corps were obliged +to halt. Major von Benkendorf, together with the Lieutenant-Colonel, +rode up to the Lieutenant who was commanding there; and the Major asked +him what he meant by not letting us pass, and whether this was not a +public road? The Lieutenant answered: 'Yes! it was a high road, but he +had orders not to let us pass. Major Benkendorf might say what he +liked, the Lieutenant would not listen to him.' The Major then took a +letter out of his pocket which he wished to show him; but neither would +he take that. Whereupon the Major said to the Lieutenant: if he would +not let him pass with his people he would force his way.</p> + +<p>"The Lieutenant answered shortly, that we might do so, as he +had +not +sufficient force to prevent him. The Major rode immediately to the +guards, drew his sword, and approached the Lieutenant to see whether he +would consent to treat; but he would not stir from the spot. The Major +asked him once more, whether he would yield up the ground? But he +remained firm. Thereupon the Major gave his orders to the guard: March! +March! and broke through.</p> + +<p>"While they were passing, it happened that one of the horses +pushed +against the Meiningen Lieutenant and threw him down. But he soon +recovered himself, seized his weapon, and shot the serjeant-major of +the guards, Starke, and then took to flight. A horseman however, whose +name was Stähm, pursued him forthwith, and would have cut his head in +two, but the Lieutenant held his weapon obliquely over his head, so +that the horseman Stähm cut in half the powder sack on the barrel. But +my good old Lieutenant thought he would run further, and sprang over a +ditch, where the horseman might not be able to follow him, and thought +he was now safe. But the grenadier Hellbich fired and shot my old +Lieutenant Zimmermann behind the right ear as he ran, so that he fell +suddenly to the ground, and not a muscle quivered. The militia still +standing there looked on at the game; but the grenadiers fired some +grenades among them, and they then took to their heels and ran away.</p> + +<p>"Meanwhile all the streets of the village had been barricaded +with +carts and wagons; but the Mayor and the peasants seeing their old +Lieutenant lying dead, whom they had at all times considered as their +bulwark, and observing that some grenades had fallen into their +gardens, were in great terror, and began to ring the alarm bells that +all the peasants might speedily assemble.</p> + +<p>"In a moment all the wagons and carts were moved out of the way +so +that +we might march. The militia had fled to the village of Schwallungen, +through which also we had to pass, and where again there was an officer +in command of thirty militia, to whom they reported what had taken +place in the village of Niederschmalkalden. So the officer, who was a +shoemaker by profession, when he heard this report from the fugitives, +took such of his men as would go with him and tore off to Wasungen +before he had even caught sight of us.</p> + +<p>"When we came to the afore-mentioned village, we formed +ourselves +in +column, fixed our bayonets, and thought what will now take place? We +marched on, and when we came to the gate the officer and all the troops +had fled, and there to not a single man to make resistance. We marched +straight through with fixed bayonets; then we saw the portion that had +remained of the runaway shoemaker-Ensign's troop in their uniform, with +their cartridge boxes, peeping out of the windows.</p> + +<p>"My good shoemaker-Ensign was off, and had posted himself and +the +men +who thus went out with him at the gate of Wasungen, where again a +Lieutenant, who was a good barber--as I knew by experience, having +myself been shaved by him--had posted himself, and was awaiting us. The +gate of Wasungen was firmly closed with strong double doors, but a +sentinel stood without; so Major von Benkendorf called to him that the +gate must be opened. But the sentinel excused himself, saying he could +not. The said Major asked him, 'Who is there besides?' He answered: +'The Lieutenant.' The Major said he must call his Lieutenant; whereupon +he ran hastily and fetched him out. Then came up my good +barber-Lieutenant; the man was already well nigh dead of fright, and his +face +was whiter than his shirt. The Major accosted him sharply, asking how +it was that the gates were fastened, and whether a public high road did +not pass through there? He answered, Yes! So Major von Benkendorf said +he must that instant open the gates, or we would do it ourselves. When +he heard this, being half dead with fright, he begged for pardon, +saying it was not he that could open the gates, but the councillors who +had closed them. The answer was, that he must forthwith produce the +councillors. Good gracious! was there ever any one more glad than the +good barber, who ran as if his head was burning; but meanwhile there +was nothing seen or heard of the shoemaker-Ensign.</p> + +<p>"At last the councillors came.</p> + +<p>"When I saw these men creeping out of the little gate, I +thought, +'What +the devil! are these councillors? they are a fine lot!' The councillors +looked a little respectable, but the burgomaster was up to the knees +in cow-dung, and must have been fetched from clearing away the dung in +the stable. Hereupon, Major von Benkendorf asked whether they were the +councillors? They answered: 'Yes, and what did we desire?' The Major +asked whether this was not the highroad to Nuremberg? They said, 'Yes.' +'Why then were the gates closed and barricaded, and we not allowed to +pass through?' Then the president of the council answered: 'They were +commanded by their government not to let any troops pass through, +therefore they must keep the gates closed; they must do what their +master commanded them.' But Major von Benkendorf repeated his former +words, and said to them: 'They must open to us, and that quickly, for +that we must march further; and if they did not open, we would do it +ourselves.' The president of the council answered this, and said: 'We +might do as we liked, but he could not open the gates to us.' But the +dung-bespattered burgomaster then began: 'Nay! if you wish to march +further, you can do so by the back road.' I thought to myself, 'If thou +couldst but kill that cursed dirty fellow!' The Major then forthwith +called to me, and desired that all the carpenters of the whole division +should be summoned; which was done in a moment. Hereupon he asked once +more whether they would amicably open the gate? if not, he would have +them immediately hewn open. They might now see that we ourselves would +open the gates if they did not prefer preserving them whole.</p> + +<p>"The Major thought they would resolve to open them, but they +said +they +would not, and we might do what we liked. Hereupon the Major called +out: 'Proceed carpenters! hew the gates down!' Thereupon the carpenters +set to work. When the knocking and cracking began, it was well worth +seeing how the councillors, among whom was the Burgomaster, and the +frightened barber-Lieutenant, began to ran, as if carried off by the +devil. In a moment both gates were hewn down, and the whole detachment +marched with trumpets, drums, and fifes, into the city.</p> + +<p>"As we marched in through the gates, the good +barber-Lieutenant, +and +the shoemaker-Ensign, with their men, presented arms, and saluted both +the officers of our detachment.</p> + +<p>"Here we stopped, just as we were; everyone was hungry and +thirsty. +We +officers made the citizens fetch us something to drink, and stood +looking at and questioning one another. The snow was lying on the +ground, and our men began to be impatient. I went to the inn where the +Lieutenant-Colonel was in consultation with his officers; they were +deliberating, and I could not speak with them. The citizens were +already beginning to kindle their lights, and it did not appear how the +affair was to end.</p> + +<p>"At last the Lieutenant-Colonel came and sent forthwith to the +councillors, who were already assembled in their council-room, +deliberating what report they should make to Meiningen concerning the +hewing down of their gates. But the president of the council had got +scent of it, so he kept apart, and left the others to themselves, +for all men could see that we could not go any further, as it was +night. Now as the president was away, no one would go to the +Lieutenant-Colonel, and each kept calling upon the other to go. At last +one consented, and said: 'Some one must go, let what will happen.' When +therefore he came to the Lieutenant-Colonel, it was represented to him +that the town must provide us with accommodation for the night, whether +they liked or not. The Lieutenant-Colonel also added, that we should +march very early on the morrow; that the citizens were not bound to +give the smallest thing to the soldiers, who had to live on their pay; +therefore he need not deliberate any more about it. The councillor +begged to be excused, but said he could do nothing himself, he must lay +the matter before his colleagues, and see what they were disposed to +do.</p> + +<p>"Hereupon I marched forth again with the good councillor to the +Schlundhouse, where the other councillors were sitting. When I +entered the room with the plenipotentiary, he delivered the +Lieutenant-Colonel's message to them, in his own words: 'That the +Commander desired to have night-quarters for his men, and that on the +morrow at sunrise, they would again march; that he could not help the +citizens; they must do so whether they chose or not; if they would not +do it, they must tell Lieutenant Rauch; in which case, he would quarter +the soldiers in houses according to the custom with troops; they would +get what they wanted, for soldiers must live on their pay. No citizen +was bound to give them anything but a warm room and a place of +rest.'</p> + +<p>"Now every one shall hear what passed amongst these +councillors. +The +first who began, said: 'I do not assent to this. Who asked them to wait +so long here? they might long ere now have marched away, if they had +chosen.' Another said: 'You are right, cousin Kurtz; I would rather +tear myself in pieces than consent.' The third then said: 'So, ho! +first they hew down our gates, and then, forsooth, they cannot go +further, and expect us to give them quarters: most decidedly not!' The +fourth now spoke: 'The honourable Commander seems to be an honest man, +but let him say what he will, there is no doubt that we must provide +food for them, for truly they bring nothing with them.' The fifth then +began: 'That is right, cousin Hopf: do you not remember how it fared +with us when the Imperial cavalry came? they behaved in like manner; +and afterwards we could not get rid of them, but were obliged to keep +them with a good grace.' The sixth said: 'This will never do; we cannot +provide them with quarters till we have received orders from our +government, otherwise we shall be punished.' The seventh spoke thus: +'Did I not tell you, gentlemen, what would happen, by keeping these +people so long outside? Truly the President, Herr Läufer, has made off, +and slips his head out of the noose, leaving us to bear the brunt. Take +heed; they say they will be off to-morrow, but they have been marching +yesterday and to-day, and to-morrow they will make a day of rest, as +they will need repose. Rest assured that I am right; what think you, +gentlemen? suppose we were to send a messenger on horseback to +Meiningen?'</p> + +<p>"I had listened to all the discussions of the councillors, and +now +I +began, and said: 'Gentlemen, you come to no conclusion; I will inform +my Commander of it, let it fare with you as it may.' But he who had +gone with me to the Lieutenant-Colonel, begged me to wait but a little, +and they would just send to the treasurer and city clerk to confer with +them. Here the strife began again, none would go thither. At last one +of them allowed himself to be persuaded, but soon returned again, +saying they had both ridden off when we hewed down the gates. Then I +said, 'Now, gentlemen, do what you like; I will not wait a moment +longer.'</p> + +<p>"Thereupon the eighth and last began to speak, he who had +accompanied +me to the Lieutenant: 'Gentlemen, what shall we do; here they are, and +you have heard what the Commander says: if we will allot them no +quarters, he will let his soldiers go into whatsoever houses they +please; if they fill your houses it is no fault of mine. I go home to +close mine. As many as come to my share I will take; the others I will +show to your houses. You have heard of to-day's misfortunes. At +Smalkalden, friend Böhler's brother-in-law, Lieutenant Zimmermann, is +dead; our gates have been hewn down; below are the soldiers thundering +out curses. Gentlemen, let us billet them. The soldiers in the +market-place say they only wish they had shot the peasants who were +with the Lieutenant. What a calamity that would have been! They say +also that more shall be shot; that one shall not be the last. Thus you +see that the same misfortune might come upon us also. Ah! gentlemen, if +we had but such a prince as he of Gotha is! but ours troubles himself +not about us; he lives comfortably at Frankfort, and let what will come +to us, he cares not. And who knows wherefore this has begun? These +soldiers assuredly have not come for a pastime. One can learn nothing +from them. And how soon one night will pass, or even two! They are our +border neighbours too; why should we not give them a night's +lodging?'</p> + +<p>"They all agreed to this and sought for their old rate of tax; +whereupon I had to tell them the whole strength of our division.</p> + +<p>"After that, I received an order to enjoin upon the soldiers, +when +they +received their billets, that they were not to undress themselves, but +were each of them to place his weapon by his bedside, and soon as a +call was heard, every soldier was instantly to join his commanding +officer fully armed, and if any one was found in a state of +drunkenness, he was to be punished by running the gauntlet of the whole +division; therefore an order was to be given directly to the assistant +executioner, to cut this very evening six hundred rods.</p> + +<p>"None of the officers undressed themselves; for the most part +they +remained in company together, in order to be alert on the morrow. When +morning approached, the citizens as well as the officers were listening +for the beating of the drum. They also had probably passed an unquiet +night; wherefore? because they were badly provided with beds, and had +given them up perhaps to the soldiers for a douceur. This one might +conclude, as in all the houses lights were to be seen throughout the +night. In the morning, instead of the call from the staff of the +grenadier guards, the reveille was beaten. Now, every soldier knows +well, that beating the reveille signifies remaining quiet, or a day of +rest; so we put our heads together to guess what this might mean. The +citizens, also, when they saw that the soldiers did not break up, and +prepare to march, laid their heads together likewise, and there was a +great amount of whispering among them. My host, himself a councillor, +came and asked me what was the meaning of our not marching further? I +could give him no information.</p> + +<p>"Now the misery began; there was only food for him who had +brought +bread. The citizens quarrelled with the soldiers, and asked why they +had not marched away yesterday or early to-day, and whither we had +intended to go? They told them the truth. It was such an uproar as is +impossible to describe. The poor citizens who possessed no goods or +houses, fled, and their dwellings were broken open by the soldiers, and +one excess was committed after another.</p> + +<p>"Meanwhile, all the councillors and burgomasters were called to +Meiningen, where they were charged by their government, on pain of +punishment, to signify to the citizens that they were not to provide +anything for the Saxe-Gotha soldiers. The bakers were not to bake, nor +the butchers to slaughter the beasts; the innkeepers were not to +prepare any food, nor the brewers to brew. This the councillors +actually proclaimed to the citizens. And truly I was not able to get +even three-pennyworth of cheese. The citizens who were prudent people, +begged of us not to take it amiss of them; as we must accept good words +instead of what they would have given us. If I wanted bread I had to +send to Smalkalden for it, and give more pay to the messenger than for +the bread.</p> + +<p>"Thus we remained there, expecting the Meiningens, who never +came. +Meanwhile we found provisions; we got most of them from Smalkalden; the +beer was bought in the Hessian village of Tambach, and the Jews brought +us meat. At last the Wasungers became disloyal, turned round on their +magistrates and said: 'We have all the troubles, and the other states +the enjoyment; this does not suit us; we have promised to obey our +government, but then they should protect us. If they cannot rid us of +these people, we will bake, brew, and cook.' And from that hour they +began to do all. For many years the citizens had not brewed nor sold so +much beer as after this; every week three and four brews; bakers began +to bake, who had long shut up shop; the butchers did the like. Then the +wise councillors went off again to Meiningen and reported everything; +whereupon the citizens were again cited to the town house, on a penalty +of twenty gulden. But they were refractory and would not go, but sent +thither their barefooted children, and heeded no more commands. When +these wise councillors found this, they themselves began to brew.</p> + +<p>"On the 22nd of May, on Whit Monday, 1747, an order must +probably +have +come from Major S---- of which we officers learnt nothing. Hereupon +there was a running and scampering to the Privy Councillor Flörcke at +the 'Bear,' which was quite astounding; now they ran in and now out. I +thought: 'What the devil is the matter?' yet I thought, if something is +passing, I shall hear of it. The citizens also began to inquire: +'Wherefore is all this running to the commander at the +"Bear?"' But I +could give no answer.</p> + +<p>"Whilst all this running hither and thither was going on, I +went +with +Ensign Köhler to inspect the sentinels, and when we arrived at the +upper gate, Majors von S---- and von B---- and Captain von W---- met us. +Major von S---- came straight up to me and asked me secretly, whether I +had heard any news? I answered, No; whereupon he inquired of me, +whether I knew that the Meiningens meant to attack us that night? I +replied: 'Well and good; if they come they must knock pretty loud, we +will be ready for them.' He then said, would I wish to send my wife +away? 'No,' said I, 'she only came on holy Whitsun eve, and will not go +away till the day following Whit Sunday.' 'Indeed,' he continued; 'but +if the Meiningens come?' 'I shall gird a sword round her,' was my +answer, 'and she may defend herself.'</p> + +<p>"Then Major S---- continued, saying, 'I was to make my +dispositions +here, and see that all the gates and posts were defended.' This is +truly being deceived with one's eyes open; to make dispositions before +the eyes of men and not to keep them!</p> + +<p>"When I came down I called out to the soldiers: 'Attention! +cease +that +chattering.' Then I began to arrange the right wing, but had hardly +placed four or five files, when Captain W---- came running, and asked +me, whether I had not heard that I was to come with him directly. Here +came out the first result of their council of war. I did not delay +long, but ran directly to the Major, and asked what commands he had to +give me; whereunto he answered, that I was to take thirty dragoons and +march them to the 'Bear,' and there report myself to the Privy +Councillor Flörcke, in order to bring him in safety to Schwallungen. I +forthwith replied: 'I beg your pardon, Major, but that is not befitting +me, and I shall not do it; there are other officers there who may be +ordered to do this, but not I.' Now, in short, I heard that the Privy +Councillor wished to have me. Who would have dreamt of such a trick? As +if I would have escorted the Privy Councillor from Wasungen! I would +sooner have taken him into the Werra. But no remonstrances would serve; +they said I must and should go. This was the first trick! Hereupon I +replied to the Major: 'So I must consider it an honour, that the Privy +Councillor places such confidence in me, when there are so many +officers in the division;' hereupon I received an order, to tell the +officer at the lower gate that he should give information as soon as I +had passed through with the Privy Councillor; this was the second +trick. Who could have imagined such a trick? I will not write what I +think of it. When I found it out I wished that all the horses of the +carriages had died, that I might not be taken away from Wasungen by +such cunning.</p> + +<p>"Now I went forth, taking with me a corporal named Görnlein, and +nine-and-twenty dragoons, and marched to the 'Bear,' where I found a +carriage at the door, but saw the servant sitting within in the +doorway. I called to him to inform his master I was there; whereupon +the Privy Councillor called out to me from the carriage, 'I am already +here.' Whereupon, I detached the corporal with fourteen men to go +behind the carriage, while I went in advance with the others.</p> + +<p>"Now when I came to the lower gate, I called to the serjeant, +and +bade +him tell the major that I and the privy councillor had passed out. +Meanwhile the soldiers were in great confusion at the rendezvous; but +when the corporal announced that I had passed out with the Privy +Councillor, the major immediately gave orders that all the soldiers +should pile their arms, and go to their quarters to fetch their +baggage; when they had dispersed, he sent to the guard to desire them +to go forthwith and assemble at his quarters, which was done. Thus all +the outposts were forgotten. At last the noise and bawling was so +great, it reached the ears of the outposts, who went off without +orders. Now when the soldiers from the guards came to the market-place, +they saw some of the soldiers coming back from their quarters with +their baggage, so they piled their arms and went off for theirs.</p> + +<p>"But this was not enough. Either the time appeared to him too +long +before the soldiers were again assembled, or the fear of death had +already come upon him, or he was incited to it by his comrades; but in +short, he determined at once to leave, and going down to the soldiers +he called out, 'Allons! March!' although the men had not nearly all +assembled. Then Captain Brandis, who had not consented to this at their +council of war, asked what this meant? whereto the Major von S---- +answered, they were to march into the district of Britungen. The good +man who was standing in front of the Meiningen gate, then ran quickly +to his house, collected his things together, and threw them into his +portmanteau. He had well nigh been left behind.</p> + +<p>"Now when Captain Brandis, and the musketeer who had packed up +his +things, returned to the place of rendezvous, all were gone, and there +were only a few weapons remaining there. So he sent on his servant, and +waited for the remainder of the men. Now every one should know, in the +first place, that Major von S----, had not waited till all the soldiers +were collected together, still less had he thought of the artillery; he +had thought of nothing but calling out 'March! march!' and the sick +officers (Captain Rupert among them), and sick soldiers were forgotten; +besides this, he never set the troops in order, but marched them out as +a shepherd drives his cattle through the gate; and such a shameful +sight was never seen, nor can it be described.</p> + +<p>"Captain Brandis now came marching through the town with the +soldiers +he had collected; whereupon the citizens began to call out after him: +'There they run like vagabonds; they entered in the daylight and run +away at night, like thieves and rogues; the good Major von S---- is up +and away.' Captain Brandis swallowed all this patiently, and continued +marching slowly with his troops. When he had come to a height in front +of the town, some Wasungers, who were lying in ambush, fired at him; +and when he had marched a short distance further, he found our +artillery lying in a defile, without a single man to guard it, and it +lay now with the wheels, now with the wagons uppermost, and hardly a +piece was standing; for as there was a deficiency of chains, the +gunners had fastened the guns with tow to the powder wagons, and these +were breaking every moment. Captain Brandis with his men, remained with +the artillery.</p> + +<p>"Now I had to make my arrangements carefully. When I arrived at +Schwallungen, I stopped my soldiers and the carriage, and went up to +the Privy Councillor to inquire where I should convey him; whereto he, +half dead with fear, answered, 'To the upper Inn.' Where the devil that +was I did not know, till I found a dragoon, who having been there +formerly, conducted us to the place; for I knew nothing about the +village, nor where the inn lay; it was dark as pitch, and rained as if +the water was poured from heaven in buckets. When I arrived at the inn +he had designated, I caused the gates to be opened, and the carriage to +drive into the court; the Privy Councillor alighted with his clerk who +accompanied him, and retired into an upper room, for he knew the place +better than I. I put a sentry on each side of the carriage, because the +chancery papers lay therein. I desired the rest of the soldiers to +place their arms in the house that they might be safe from the rain, +and placed a sentry to guard both the arms and the Privy Councillor. I +did not care any more about the said Privy Councillor, for I had, +according to the orders of Major von S----, brought him to a place of +security; where he would probably be about as safe as a cake among +rats, for it was a Meiningen village; and according to all accounts +there were no worse rogues in the whole country, than the inhabitants +of Schwallungen.</p> + +<p>"Having therefore executed my orders, I sent my sergeant to +Lieutenant +Griesheim, who was stationed with forty or fifty dragoons in the said +village, to inform him that I had brought the Privy Councillor hither, +and that he should come and release me from my charge. A short time +after, the Lieutenant made his appearance, and was much amazed that I, +being adjutant, should have come hither with a detachment, and could +not help remarking on it.</p> + +<p>"I said, it appeared to me more serious. However, this was now +nothing +to the purpose. I begged of him to set to work, and send for his +soldiers, that I might march back to Wasungen with my detachment; +whereupon he took the trouble of going himself for them. When he had +collected about fifteen men, I told him he must take charge of the +posts, as I wished at once to resume my march; the which he did, and so +released me. Now it was right to pay my respects to the Privy +Councillor, and ask him whether he had any commands for Wasungen? +whereupon the man addressed me as if I were a thrasher, and asked me +whether I had no orders to remain here? but I was prepared and answered +him with the most perfect indifference, 'No, the devil has given me no +orders to remain here; and it was no part of my duty to bring you +here.' That he said I might settle with Major von S----. Whereunto I +replied, 'I will most certainly do so.' After that he inquired of me +more kindly what I wished to do at Wasungen, as the whole division were +on the march, and would speedily be here. Then I said, 'Is that the way +the cards are shuffled? that is good, truly.' Now whilst I was still +standing in the room with the Privy Councillor, I heard the tramping of +horses; I rushed down stairs and asked who it was. I received for +answer, 'We are all here.' Then I was so horrified that I almost lost +my senses; there were the two majors, who forthwith dismounted, +hastened up stairs into the councillor's room, and I after them.</p> + +<p>"Now they were beginning to relate to each other how +fortunately +they +had escaped from the besieged Wasungen, but I would not let Major von +S---- say a word, but asked him: 'Herr Major, what manner of conduct is +this, to send me so cunningly away from Wasungen, without telling me +that you were going to march out, and I have left there my wife and +child, and all my property? Is this the custom of war? I know not +whether you have received money for acting thus, or what I am to think +of it. Are these your secret projects which are brought to light +to-day? In the devil's name, I am not so young, nor have only become a +soldier to-day; perhaps I know as well or better than you, what is the +way to do things.' I was in such a rage, I would have staked my life +against him.</p> + +<p>"Now my dear reader, you must observe, that up to this moment I +had +neither seen nor heard a single man of the whole division, and did not +know how matters stood. Major von S---- tried to comfort me, saying I +need not be unhappy about my things; he would be surety for them; but I +answered him quickly: 'Herr Major, how can you answer for my things? +Why did you not tell me the truth instead of sending me out of Wasungen +by such deceit? that is not allowable.' Then the Privy Councillor would +have his say, and truly to this effect, that the Major was right in +sending me away; that was his opinion. But I replied: 'By ---- I +require no clerks to give me orders; if I were a commander, I would +tell those who were under me, what was going to take place, and what +they were to do; but to act in such a way as this, is not +honourable.'</p> + +<p>"Thereupon I left the room, and when I came to the guard in the +court, +one Pleissner, a citizen of Gotha, a tinman, who had been at that time +on a visit at Wasungen, entered the court, and said to me of his own +accord; 'God help us, Herr Lieutenant, what a sight that was at +Wasungen! it filled me with sorrow and vexation when our people marched +out in that way, for I am a citizen of Gotha. When our soldiers marched +out through the lower gate, the militia of the country entered in +through the upper gate, and visited every house; and sent off to +Meiningen, Christian, Ensign of Captain Brandis's company, who had been +forgotten on guard, and was going to his quarters to fetch his baggage. +The devil is in the militia; they visited every house, and said they +would carry off all to Meiningen.'</p> + +<p>"I will ask anyone to think what kind of temper I was in then; +Captain +Ruprecht and many soldiers had been left ill at Wasungen; my wife and +child and my small chattels were also there; and now I heard that the +musketeer Huthmann had already been carried off to Meiningen, so +everything wore a black aspect. I asked the citizen where our soldiers +were? 'Ah,' said he, 'they lie without, all in troops under the trees, +and Captain Brandis is still at Wasungen; the field-pieces lie all on +the road upside down; they cannot get on, as they have no chains to +couple them together, but they have made use of the tow for that +purpose, which breaks every minute. I remained near them some time, but +the Wasungers began to fire at us from behind; it was the devil to pay, +and as it also rained heavily, I thought I would get under cover. Our +people are lying so dispersed about the roads, that it would take two +hours to collect them, and I saw no officer but Captain Brandis: the +soldiers were swearing enough to bring down heaven upon them; I was +frightened out of my wits and hastened away.'</p> + +<p>"After hearing this I stood there, not knowing what to do; +there +was +not a man of the whole detachment to be heard or seen, and it rained +terribly. At last the old grenadier corporal came into the village with +about ten grenadiers, wading through the mud; I knew his voice from +afar, and his soldiers were swearing astoundingly; so I called out to +them, 'What is the use of swearing? it cannot be helped now.' 'Aye, +zounds,' said the corporal, 'I have gone through two campaigns, but +never had such a business as this. Is this to be allowed? There is our +captain lying ill at Wasungen, and our major, who ought to take charge +of us, is gone with Major S---- to the devil; we are poor forsaken +soldiers, but, the devil take me, I will march to Gotha with the few +men I have here.' I asked him where the other grenadiers were; but he +did not know whether they were in advance or behind. 'We have not an +officer,' he said, 'and no one took charge of us,' so each one went +where he chose. He did not know that the two majors were at the inn; +but if the old corporal was foul-mouthed, his grenadiers were still +worse.</p> + +<p>"I had enough to do to mollify the grenadiers, and thus things +went +on; +every quarter or half-hour a small troop came in, and if the first had +made a clamour, the others were still worse; finally, the artillery +came, though it is usual, under whatever circumstances one may march, +to place the artillery either in front or in the middle, and guard them +as one would guard one's soul. It might plainly be seen that this +commander had never seen a corps or army marching with artillery, which +must, according to the usages of war, always be protected.</p> + +<p>"The soldiery became more and more disorderly, and I had to +admonish +them to be on their good behaviour before the peasants, who were +looking at and listening to us from their windows, and making their +jests upon us.</p> + +<p>"At last, thank God, the rain ceased; a dragoon had led us to a +meadow +which lay hard by the road, along which I stationed the right wing, and +taking command, told the force off into divisions and half-divisions. +Whilst I was doing this I heard some horses in the distance coming at a +great pace, so I thought, here comes the enemy; I forthwith called out +to the right wing to send out some men and challenge the new-comers; at +the same time I ran up to one of the grenadiers, and taking his musket +from his hand, as during the process of dividing the men I had given up +mine, I placed myself with some grenadiers in the middle of the road, +and called out, 'Who goes there?' I was answered by a well-known voice, +which I immediately recognized as that of Major von Benkendorf, as he +did mine likewise. When I challenged him, he called to me, 'Do you not +know me?' 'Yes, thank God!' I knew him by his voice, but could not do +so before he spoke, on account of the darkness. Thus did God send to +the children of Israel in the wilderness; here was the word fulfilled: +God forsakes none who trust in him always.</p> + +<p>"The first words of the major were: 'Children, what are you +doing +here?' I answered, Herr Major, God only knows, not I; we have been +brought away in such a fashion, that we hardly know how we have come +here.' He asked further: 'Did you all march?' 'Yes, there is no longer +any one there except the sick, and those they have taken prisoners.' +'<i>Oh, mon Dieu!</i>' exclaimed he, 'we must return thither, even were +we +to sit down before the gates; where are your majors?' 'At the +Schwallungen inn.' Then he called out, 'Allons, children! march away;' +and galloped in all haste to the inn, where he may have found them at a +good bottle of wine, but what kind of greeting he gave them, or +compliments, I have not heard."</p> + +<p>Thus far we have the valiant Rauch. In the farther part of his diary +he +relates how the Gotha troops regained courage, returned to Wasungen and +there drove out the Meiningens, who were equally eager to run away, as +they had done, and again established themselves there.</p> + +<p>Immediately after the first capture of Wasungen, the government at +Meiningen, in great consternation, had sent Frau von Gleichen with her +husband there in a carriage, attended by Gotha troops. But it was no +great pleasure to them to see that the cause of the quarrel was done +away with; so the poor court dignitaries met with a cold reception; the +health of both was broken by sorrow, vexation, and long imprisonment. +In 1748, Herr von Gleichen died, and his wife soon after. Meanwhile, +flying-sheets and memorials, mandates of the Imperial chamber, and +ministerial missives concerning this affair, flew all over Germany; the +Gotha troops kept possession of Wasungen. Anthony Ulrich obstinately +refused to acknowledge the claims of Gotha to indemnification, and the +voices of numerous princes were loud in condemning the sentence of the +Imperial chamber, and the execution of it by Gotha, as a violation of +the sovereign rights of a German ruler. Frederick the Great did so +likewise.</p> + +<p>Just then, when the Duke of Saxe-Gotha was in a desperate position, a +new prospect and a new subject of quarrel presented themselves to him. +The Duke of Weimar had died, and had settled that his cousin of Gotha +was to be guardian to his only son during his minority. The Duke of +Gotha speedily entered upon the guardianship, and caused homage to be +sworn to him: upon this, a violent altercation again sprang up between +him, and the Duke of Coburg and Anthony Ulrich, who both contested the +right of the Gotha prince to the guardianship. Then Frederick II. of +Prussia offered his services to the Duke of Gotha, who was reduced to +great extremities, on condition that he should obligingly offer him the +small gift of two hundred picked men from the guards of Weimar. This +was done; thus the Duke of Gotha purchased the administration of this +country, and the settlement of the Wasunger strife, with two hundred +men of the Weimar guards. Two hundred children of the soil of Weimar, +to whom the quarrel mattered not in the least, were arbitrarily given +away like a herd of sheep. Contrary to all justice, they were chaffered +away by a foreign prince.</p> + +<p>The two hundred followed King Frederick in the seven Years' +war. + +<br /> +</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> +<div class="chapter"> +<h2>CONCLUSION.</h2> +</div> + + +<p class="continue sp1">This work ends with the name of the great +king. The +social condition of +the country in his time, although very different from the present, is +well known to us; and even minute particulars, have become, through its +history and literature, the common property of the people. Frederick +became the hero of the nation. The Germans have exalted him even more +than Gustavus Adolphus. He ruled the minds of men far beyond the +boundaries of his limited dominions. In the distant Alpine valleys, +among men speaking another tongue, and holding another faith, he was +reverenced as a saint both in pictures and writings. He was a powerful +ruler, a genial commander, and what was more valued by the Germans, a +great man in the highest of earthly positions. It was his personal +appearance and manners which made foreigners and even enemies admire +him. He inspired the people again with enthusiasm for German greatness, +zeal for the highest earthly interests, and sympathy in a German state. +In the course of three centuries, he was the third man round whom the +national love and veneration had entwined itself; the second to whom it +was granted to elevate and improve the character of the nation. For the +Germans became better, richer, and happier, when they were carried +beyond the narrow interests of their private life, and beyond their +petty literary quarrels, by the appearance of a great character +daringly aspiring to the highest objects, struggling, suffering, +persevering, and firm. He was of their own blood, and in spite of his +passion for what was French, he was a thorough child of Germany, reared +in a hard time, and belonging to them. Under him, the grandsons of +those citizens who had passed through the great war, began for the +first time after a century to feel their own powers. We delight to see, +how the poor poet sings the praises of him, who would so little +appreciate the odes of the German Sappho, or the outpouring of elevated +poetry; still more do we rejoice in seeing the whole people, even in +Austria, contending on his behalf, his image penetrating into every +family, and his name exciting everywhere party spirit, new interests, +and political passions. This has been the greatest blessing of his +whole life. He forced the private individual to take part in political +life; he created a state for the German, which whether loved or hated, +must become a continual object of care and watchfulness.</p> + +<p>But though enthusiasm for a hero perhaps gives a capacity for the +development of powers, it does not give stability. The Germans had yet +to go through severe trials after the death of the great king. He had +bequeathed to them the first beginning of a German State, but the ruins +of the Empire of the middle ages lay defenceless against the western +enemy. The curse which since the time of Charles V. had rested on the +German Empire had not yet changed into a blessing. Once more was +Germany overrun by a great army, once more did a league of German +princes unite with a foreign conqueror, even the state of the great +Frederick was shattered, the last hope seemed to have vanished, the +German people were crushed.</p> + +<p>But in the rooms of the German peasants, the picture of the old king, +in his three-cornered hat and small pigtail, did not turn his earnest +look in vain on the life he had revived; nor in vain had the mothers of +the present generation run to the churches to pray for a blessing on +his arms. Now it was that the full blessing of his energetic life truly +manifested itself. The spirit of that great man lived again in the +German people. Fifty years after the return of the king from the seven +years' war, three hundred years after Luther strove earnestly to find +his God, the German nation roused itself for the greatest struggle it +had ever yet successfully carried on. The fathers now sent out their +sons, and the wives their husbands to the war; the Germans encountered +death with a song on their lips, to seek a body for the German soul, a +state for the fatherland.</p> + +<p>In the year 1813, we find the conclusion of that great struggle which +began in 1517. From the time of the contest of the Wittenburger +Augustine against indulgences, to the march of the German volunteers +against Napoleon, the German spirit carried on a great defensive war +against a foreign influence, which issuing from Rome well nigh +overwhelmed those who had once been the conquerors of the Roman +Empire.</p> + +<p>From this life-and-death struggle of three hundred years, Germany +passed from the bondage of the middle ages into freedom. But though the +spirit of the people became free, the reality of a German state was +lost to them. The nation was almost annihilated by this unnatural +condition. After a death-like exhaustion it recovered itself slowly; the +resuscitated spirit was helpless, its form weak and sickly; it was +seeking unity of government. By a powerful development of strength, the +foundation of it was laid in the beginning of this century.</p> + +<p>Henceforth German Protestantism became a living, sound, and manly +acquisition, a great national principle, the expression of the German +popular mind, the peculiar German characteristic in every domain of +ideal and practical life.</p> + +<p>We all still feel how deficient and unfinished is the development of +this, the highest principle of life in the German nation. But it is +this feeling which gives us courage and leads us to struggle +onwards.</p> + +<p>What are here given from the old records are narratives of +individuals +of past generations. They are some of them unimportant passages from +the lives of insignificant persons. But, as the outward appearance of +any stranger we meet, his mode of greeting, and his first words, give +us an impression of his individuality, an imperfect, an unfinished +impression, but still a whole; so, if we are not mistaken, does each +record, in which the impulses of individuals and their peculiar working +are portrayed, give us with rapid distinctness a vivid picture of the +life of the people; a very imperfect and unfinished picture, but yet, +also a whole, round which a large portion of our knowledge and +intuitive perceptions rapidly concentrate, like the radii round the +centre of a crystal.</p> + +<p>If every such picture gives us an impression, that in the soul of +each +man a miniature picture may be found of the characteristics of his +nation; something will be learnt from a succession of these narratives, +arranged according to their periods, however much there may be in them +that is incidental and arbitrary. We shall discover the stirring and +gradual development of a higher intellectual unity, which likewise +meets us here in the shape of a distinct individuality; and therefore, +these little sketches will perhaps help us to a more lively +comprehension, of what we call the life of a nation.</p> + +<p>Everywhere man appears to us, by his customs and laws, by language +and +the whole genial tendencies of his nature, as a small portion of a +greater whole. It is true also that this greater whole, appears to us +as an intellectual unity, which like an individual, is earthly and +perishable, a thing which accomplishes its earthly existence in a +century, as a man does his in a certain number of years. Like an +individual, a people developes its intellectual capacities in the +course of time, but more powerfully and on a grander scale. And +further, a people consists of millions of individuals the tide of human +life flows in millions of souls, but the conscious and unconscious +working together of these millions, produces an intellectual whole, in +which the share of individuals often vanishes from our eyes, so that +the soul of a whole people seems to us, a self-creative living unity. +Who was the man who created languages? who devised the most ancient law +of nations? who first thought of giving poetical expression to an +elevated tone of mind? It was not individuals who invented these for +practical purposes, but a universal intellectual life, which burst +forth among thousands who lived together. All the great productions of +national power, law, customs, and the constitution of states, are not +the work of individual men, but organic creations of a higher life, +which in every period shine forth in individuals, yet in all periods +seem to unite the intellectual capacities of individuals, in one mighty +whole. Each man bears and cultivates within his soul, part of the +intellect of the nation; each one possesses its language, a certain +amount of knowledge, and a sense of justice and propriety; but in each, +this general nationality is coloured, concentrated, and limited by his +individuality. Individuals do not represent the language or the moral +feelings of the whole; they only are, as it were, the single notes, +which joined together produce a harmonious chord as part of the +collective nation. One may therefore fairly, and without mysticism, +speak of a national soul.</p> + +<p>And if one examines more narrowly, one perceives with astonishment, +that this law of development of a higher intellectual unity, differs +remarkably from that which binds or makes an individual free. A man +chooses freely for himself, between what will injure or be beneficial +to him and his interests; judiciously does he shape his life, and +prudently does he judge the conceptions which reach his soul from the +great world. But less conscious, less full of purpose and judgment than +the determination of man's will, is the working of the life of the +nation. In history, man represents freedom and judgment, but national +energy, works incessantly with the mysterious instinctive impulse of a +primitive power, and its intellectual conceptions correspond sometimes +in a remarkable way, with the process of formation of the silently +productive powers of nature, which bring forth from the seed, the +stalk, leaves, and flowers of the plant. From this point of view, the +life of a nation passes in unceasing alternations from the whole body +to the individual, and from the man to the whole body. The life of each +man, even the most insignificant, gives a portion of its substance to +the nation, and a portion of the collective powers of the nation lives +in each man; he transmits soul and body from one generation to another; +he adds to the language, and preserves the consciousness of right; all +the results of his labours are beneficial to the nation as well as to +himself. The course of life of millions runs smoothly and imperceptibly +along with the stream. But important personalities develop themselves +from the multitude in all directions, gaining a great influence on the +whole body. Sometimes a powerful character arises, which in some wide +field of action, long rules the spiritual life of the people, and +stamps the impress of its individual mind on the age. Then the life of +the whole nation, which also flows through our heads and hearts, +becomes as familiar to us as is possible for the soul of any individual +man; then the whole powers of the people seem for some years working +for the one individual, and obeying him as a master. These are the +great periods in the formation of a people. Such was Luther to the +Germans.</p> + +<p>But no nation develops its life independent of others. As the life of +one individual works on that of another, so does it happen with +nations. Each nation communicates some of its intellectuality to +another. Even the practical forms of national existence, its state and +its Church, are either advanced, or checked and destroyed by foreign +powers. Close is the union of the minds of the nations of Europe, +though manifold the contradiction of their interests. How constantly +does one nationality derive strength, or experience trouble and +disturbance from another! Sometimes the energetic development of some +particular national characteristic, exercises for centuries a +preponderating influence on another. Thus once did the Jews, the +Greeks, and the Romans. The German nation has experienced this foreign +influence, both for good and for evil. From the ancient world came the +holy faith of the Crucified One, to the wild sons of our forefather +Tuisco: at the same time this warlike race received countless +traditions from the Roman Empire, transforming their whole life. +Through the whole of the middle ages, the nation was earnestly +endeavouring to make these new acquisitions their own. Again, at the +end of this period, after a thousand years had passed, began a new +influence of the ancient world. From it came the ideal of the +Humanitarians, the forerunners of Luther, and the ideal of the German +poets, the forerunners of the war of freedom. On the other hand, from +the Romish world, came upon Germany, with the highest claims, the +pressure of the despotism of Gregory VII., and Innocent III., the +devotion of the restored Church, and the lust of conquest of France. +Then did Germany become depopulated, and the national life was +endangered; but the foreigners who had penetrated into it with such +overpowering force, aided its recovery. All that Italians, French, and +English had attained to in science and arts, was introduced into +Germany, and to these foreign acquisitions did German culture cling, +from the Thirty years' war up to the time of Lessing.</p> + +<p>It is the task of science to investigate the productive life of +nations. To her the souls of nations are the highest fields of +investigation that man is capable of knowing. Searching out every +individuality, tracing every received impression, observing even the +broken splinters, uniting all discernible knowledge, more guessing at +truths and pointing out the way, than apprehending them, she seeks, as +her highest aim, to prove the intellectual unity of the whole human +race upon earth. Whilst pious faith with undoubting certainty places +before man the idea of a personal God, the man of science reverently +seeks to discover the Divine, in the great conceptions, which however +they may surpass the understanding of the individual, yet are all +attached to the life of the world. But however little he may consider +their importance, in comparison with that which is incomprehensible in +time and eternity, yet in his limited circle lies all the greatness +that we are capable of understanding, all the beautiful which we ever +enjoy, and all the good which has ennobled our life. But in those +spheres which we do not yet know, and are anxiously investigating, +there remains a boundless work. And this work is to seek the +development of the Divine power in history. +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2> +</div> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_01" href="#div2_01">Footnote 1</a>: +Even the great Imperial army that assembled before the +battle of Nördlingen, in 1634, was a combination of several armies; +that of Wallenstein, an Italian army, Spanish auxiliaries, and troops +of Maximilian of Bavaria, altogether perhaps sixty thousand men, they +only remained together a short time.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_02" href="#div2_02">Footnote +2</a>: +This machine consisted of a number of short barrels, +which, bound in parallel rows, formed a nearly cubic mass, the front of +which showed from six to ten rows of as many mouths arranged in a +square. This system of barrels rested on a carriage, and was fired in +rows. Every single barrel was loaded with three or more balls, and +could be fired separately or together. Fronsperg boasts that after one +loading there could be a thousand shots from the hundred barrels of the +gun.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_03" href="#div2_03">Footnote +3</a>: +Wallhausen, 'Archiley Art of War,' 1617. For the +corresponding French system of this time, a good description is to be +found in the 'Etude sur le passé et l'avenir de l'artillerie par le +Prince Napoléon Louis Bonaparte.' T. I.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_04" href="#div2_04">Footnote +4</a>: +In +the battle of Breitenfeld the metal guns of Sweden were +overheated; there the leather cannon did their last great service +against the Croats.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_05" href="#div2_05">Footnote +5</a>: +Thus generated the ingenious comparison of guns with birds +of prey; the thirty-six pounders were called eagles, the twenty-four +pounders falcons, twelve pounders vultures, six pounders hawks, three +pounders sparrowhawks, and the sixty-pound mortars owls.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_06" href="#div2_06">Footnote +6</a>: +Yet he himself had a brigade which was called red.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_07" href="#div2_07">Footnote +7</a>: +The lieutenants carried partisans, the non-commissioned +officers halberds.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_08" href="#div2_08">Footnote +8</a>: +About 1600 one gulden of the coin of the Empire was equal +to forty silver groschen of our money; thus sixteen of these was equal +to forty-two of our thalers.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_09" href="#div2_09">Footnote +9</a>: +Wallhausen 'On the Art of War.'</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_10" href="#div2_10">Footnote +10</a>: +A +name given to bands that went about pillaging the +fields, orchards, and gardens.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_11" href="#div2_11">Footnote +11</a>: +Because they slide and skate.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_12" href="#div2_12">Footnote +12</a>: +A +mocking allusion to the mountainous country of +Bavaria.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_13" href="#div2_13">Footnote +13</a>: +It was especially John the Baptist, who, according to the +third chapter of St. Luke, was the merciful protector of soldiers; but +at the beginning of the Reformation the difference between the Baptist +and Evangelist was little understood by Landsknechte, nor indeed by all +ecclesiastics.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_14" href="#div2_14">Footnote +14</a>: +Bilwiz-kind, same as child of the devil. Bilwiz is an old +name for magician or hobgoblin.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_15" href="#div2_15">Footnote +15</a>: +One is tempted to change this passage to an old +heathenish form: "Whoever falls by honourable weapons on the field +of +battle, will be carried to Walhalla by the virgins of battle; those who +contend with the sorcery of the gods of death, Helja takes to +herself." +We find the name of Black Kaspar for the devil even in the sixteenth +century.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_16" href="#div2_16">Footnote +16</a>: +Königl. schwedischer Victorischlüssel a. a. O.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_17" href="#div2_17">Footnote +17</a>: +Zimmermann, Goth. Msc. a. a. O.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_18" href="#div2_18">Footnote +18</a>: +Grimmelshausen speaks of the art of rendering +invulnerable as credible, but as a thing long known. He was more +interested in the superstition which was prevalent in 1660--the art of +becoming invisible and of witchcraft. At the end of the century magic +rods were common, and familiar spirits powerful. Wunderbares Vogelnest. +ii. Th. Satyrischer Pilgram ii. Th.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_19" href="#div2_19">Footnote +19</a>: +Müllenhof, Sagen. S. 231.--Femme, Pommesache Sagen. Nr. +244.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_20" href="#div2_20">Footnote +20</a>: +Philander von Sittewald, "Gesicht von Soldatenleben."</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_21" href="#div2_21">Footnote +21</a>: +Grimmelshausen, "Seltsamer Springinsfeld."</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_22" href="#div2_22">Footnote +22</a>: +<i>Dionys Klein. Kriegsinstitution</i>, 1598, 8. <i>S</i>. 288.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_23" href="#div2_23">Footnote +23</a>: +Simplicissimus i. 3, 9, and Philander von Sittewald, +'Soldatenleben.'</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_24" href="#div2_24">Footnote +24</a>: +Grimmelshausen, 'Springinsfeld.'</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_25" href="#div2_25">Footnote +25</a>: +Lump, German for ragamuffin.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_26" href="#div2_26">Footnote +26</a>: +Philander von Sittewald, 'Soldatenleben.'</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_27" href="#div2_27">Footnote +27</a>: +Moscherosoh und Grimmelshausen, a. v. O.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_28" href="#div2_28">Footnote +28</a>: +At the beginning of the war it was customary for people +to conceal their treasures in the dung-heaps.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_29" href="#div2_29">Footnote +29</a>: +The parish receiver, Johann Martin at Heldburg, writes, +for example, on the 13th September, 1640, on behalf of the helpless +pastor, and proposes his removal, because in this village there +remained only a widow and another woman, and he himself could not +obtain a groschen from the annual fees of his district, which formerly +amounted to some hundred thalers.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_30" href="#div2_30">Footnote +30</a>: +This was the time in the Thirty years' war when the +German princes and dukes coined base money. When one prince had +obtained possession of the coinage of another he melted it, and made it +into new money by alloying it with copper and other metals.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_31" href="#div2_31">Footnote +31</a>: +Bötzinger gives this account to his children.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_32" href="#div2_32">Footnote +32</a>: +In a sheet of this kind, entitled, 'A Noteworthy +Hungarian and the Netherlands New Newspaper,' 1599, has already the +form and contents of a modern newspaper. It contains a short +correspondence with different cities, in the form of eleven letters; +amongst them reports of four vessels which had come to Amsterdam with +spices, and of a new toll which the court at Brussels had levied on +merchants' goods, of ten stivers on each pound of silk.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_33" href="#div2_33">Footnote +33</a>: +The sources of the following description were taken from +the flying-sheets and brochures, first of the year 1620-24, and also +from the later writings of the sixteenth century upon coinage, a rich +literature.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_34" href="#div2_34">Footnote +34</a>: +The new money was almost pure copper boiled and blanched; +this lasted a week, and then it became glowing red. The bottles, +kettles, pipes, gutters, and whatever else was of copper, were taken +away to the mint, and made into money. An honest man could not venture +to lodge any one, as he could not but fear that his guest might wrench +away his copper in the night, and carry it off. Wherever there was an +old copper font in a church, it was taken to the mint; its sanctity did +not save it; those sold it who had been baptized in it. Müller, +'Chronika von Sangerhausen.'</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_35" href="#div2_35">Footnote +35</a>: +A +batz was four kreuzer.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_36" href="#div2_36">Footnote +36</a>: +In the decrees of the Diet the words do not occur before +the Thirty years' war; they appear to be new in 1621.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_37" href="#div2_37">Footnote +37</a>: +In 1770 the population was only 2126; but in 1845 it had +increased again to 4500.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_38" href="#div2_38">Footnote +38</a>: +The Emperor was sovereign of Silesia, as King of +Bohemia.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_39" href="#div2_39">Footnote +39</a>: +The bunch of keys in the middle ages was not only an +important symbol of right, but also the popular weapon of women.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_40" href="#div2_40">Footnote +40</a>: +We have to thank Professor Brückner of Meiningen, for the +communication of the following summary: it is printed in 'Memorials of +Franconian and Thuringian History and Statistics,' 1852.</p> + +<p style="margin-left:.5in">In nineteen villages of the former +domain of Henneberg there were in the years--</p> +<table cellpadding="10" style="width:90%;"> +<colgroup><col style="width:40%; text-align:right;" /><col +style="width:20%; text-align:center;" /> +<col style="width:20%; text-align:center;" /><col style="width:20%; +text-align:center;" /></colgroup> +<tr> +<th> </th> +<th>1634</th> +<th>1649</th> +<th>1849</th> +</tr><tr> +<td>Families</td> +<td>1773</td> +<td>316</td> +<td>1916</td> +</tr><tr> +<td>Houses</td> +<td>1717</td> +<td>627</td> +<td>1558</td> +</tr><tr> +<td>In 17 villages--Cattle</td> +<td>1402</td> +<td>244</td> +<td>1994</td> +</tr><tr> +<td>13<span style="letter-spacing:10px"> </span>"<span +style="letter-spacing:15px"> </span> Horses</td> +<td>485</td> +<td>73</td> +<td>107</td> +</tr><tr> +<td>12<span style="letter-spacing:10px"> </span>"<span +style="letter-spacing:20px"> </span> Sheep</td> +<td>4616</td> +<td>--</td> +<td>4596</td> +</tr><tr> +<td>4<span style="letter-spacing:10px"> </span>"<span +style="letter-spacing:20px"> </span> Goats</td> +<td>158</td> +<td>26</td> +<td>286</td></tr></table> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_41" href="#div2_41">Footnote +41</a>: +Brazier here means tinker and scythe-sharpener. The +oldest accounts of them are in a free paraphrase of the 1st Book of +Moses, in rude verses, which were at all events written before 1122; +printed in 'Hoffmann's Fundgrubben,' 2. There they are represented as +foreign Jew traders. These remarkable verses are as follows:-- +</p> +<div class="poem"> +<p class="t4" style="text-indent:-9px">"From Ishmael come the +Ishmaelitish people;<br /> +They go peddling throughout the wide world;<br /> +We call them braziers.<br /> +Oh! what a life and habits are theirs!<br /> +On all they have for sale<br /> +There is a blot, and it is unsound.<br /> +If he, the brazier, buys anything,<br /> +Good or bad, one must give him somewhat over;<br /> +And if he sells his wares<br /> +He never replaces the damaged ones.<br /> +They have neither house nor home--<br /> +Every place is alike to them;<br /> +They rove through the country,<br /> +And cheat the people with their tricks:<br /> +Thus they deceive mankind.<br /> +They rob, but not openly."</p> +</div> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_42" href="#div2_42">Footnote +42</a>: +Here, and further on, he gives the fixed characters of +the old Italian comedy.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_43" href="#div2_43">Footnote +43</a>: +Some tedious passages are shortened, and it is necessary +in one place to soften the angry expressions for the reader of this +book.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_44" href="#div2_44">Footnote +44</a>: +They did not fail to make an engraving of the mysterious +doves, which appeared shortly after with an interpretation.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_45" href="#div2_45">Footnote +45</a>: +A +copper coin in the south of Germany.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_46" href="#div2_46">Footnote +46</a>: +A +Swiss farthing.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_47" href="#div2_47">Footnote +47</a>: +The Diet was then held at Baden, because the foreign +diplomatist could best be entertained there.</p> + +<p class="hang1"><a name="div2Ref_48" href="#div2_48">Footnote +48</a>: +It was particularly offensive to them, as an elder sister +of Anton Ulrich's wife had just married the master of the Ducal Chapel, +Schurmann, at Meiningen. +<br /> +<br /> +</p> + +<p class="center fs120">THE END. +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +</p> + +<p class="center fs80">LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, +STAMFORD STREET. +<br /> +<br /> +</p> + + +<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT +GUTENBERG EBOOK PICTURES OF GERMAN LIFE, VOL. II ***</div> +<div style='text-align:left'> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions +will +be renamed. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part +of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project +Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT +GUTENBERG™ +concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, +and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following +the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use +of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for +copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very +easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation +of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project +Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may +do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected +by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark +license, especially commercial redistribution. +</div> + +<div style='margin:0.83em 0; font-size:1.1em; text-align:center'>START: +FULL LICENSE<br /> +<span style='font-size:smaller'>THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE<br /> +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK</span> +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project +Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full +Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at +www.gutenberg.org/license. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; +font-weight:bold'> +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project +Gutenberg™ electronic works +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or +destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your +possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a +Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be +bound +by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person +or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may +only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic +works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this +agreement and help preserve free future access to Project +Gutenberg™ +electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the +Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the +collection +of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual +works in the collection are in the public domain in the United +States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the +United States and you are located in the United States, we do not +claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, +displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as +all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope +that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting +free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project +Gutenberg™ +works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the +Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily +comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the +same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when +you share it without charge with others. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are +in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, +check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this +agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, +distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any +other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no +representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any +country other than the United States. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other +immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must +appear +prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any +work +on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with +which the +phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, +displayed, +performed, viewed, copied or distributed: +</div> + +<blockquote> + <div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> + This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States +and most + other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions + whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the +terms + of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online + at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you + are not located in the United States, you will have to check the +laws + of the country where you are located before using this eBook. + </div> +</blockquote> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is +derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not +contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the +copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in +the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are +redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase +“Project +Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must +comply +either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or +obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project +Gutenberg™ +trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is +posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any +additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms +will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works +posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the +beginning of this work. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project +Gutenberg™ +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg™ License. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including +any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access +to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format +other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the +official +version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website +(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense +to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means +of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original +“Plain +Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include +the +full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works +provided that: +</div> + +<div style='margin-left:0.7em;'> + <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> + • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you +derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the +method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is +owed + to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he +has + agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project + Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be +paid + within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are + legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty + payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the +Project + Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified +in + Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project +Gutenberg + Literary Archive Foundation.” + </div> + + <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> + • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user +who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that +s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ + License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all + copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and +discontinue + all use of and all access to other copies of Project +Gutenberg™ + works. + </div> + + <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> + • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full +refund of + any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in +the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days +of + receipt of the work. + </div> + + <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> + • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for +free + distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works. + </div> +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project +Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms +than +are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing +from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of +the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set +forth in Section 3 below. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.F. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project +Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project +Gutenberg™ +electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may +contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, +inaccurate +or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other +intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or +other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or +cannot be read by your equipment. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the +“Right +of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the +Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium +with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you +with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in +lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person +or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second +opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If +the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing +without further opportunities to fix the problem. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, +WITH NO +OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT +LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of +damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement +violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the +agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or +limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or +unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the +remaining provisions. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in +accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the +production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ +electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, +including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of +the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this +or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or +additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any +Defect you cause. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; +font-weight:bold'> +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™ +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of +computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It +exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations +from people in all walks of life. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project +Gutenberg™’s +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future +generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see +Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at +www.gutenberg.org. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; +font-weight:bold'> +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax +identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by +U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 +West, +Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up +to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s +website +and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact +</div> + +<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; +font-weight:bold'> +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without +widespread +public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND +DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state +visit <a +href="https://www.gutenberg.org/donate/">www.gutenberg.org/donate</a>. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To +donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate +</div> + +<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; +font-weight:bold'> +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic +works +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project +Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be +freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and +distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of +volunteer support. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in +the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not +necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper +edition. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Most people start at our website which has the main PG search +facility: <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. +</div> + +</div> + +</body> + +</html> + |