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diff --git a/33795-0.txt b/33795-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..20332f1 --- /dev/null +++ b/33795-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,12306 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook of Pictures of German Life in the XVth XVIth +and XVIIth Centuries, Vol. II., by Gustav Freytag + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you +will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before +using this eBook. + +Title: Pictures of German Life in the XVth XVIth and XVIIth Centuries, +Vol. II. + +Author: Gustav Freytag + +Translator: Georgiana Malcolm + +Release Date: September 22, 2010 [eBook #33795] +[Most recently updated: December 31, 2022] + +Language: English + +Produced by: Charles Bowen, from page scans provided by the Web Archive. + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PICTURES OF GERMAN LIFE, +VOL. II *** + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: +1. Page scan source: +http://www.archive.org/details/picturesgermanl00freygoog + + + + + PICTURES + + OF + + GERMAN LIFE + + + In the XVth XVIth and XVIIth Centuries. + + + BY + GUSTAV FREYTAG. + + =Translated from the Original by= + MRS. MALCOLM. + + + _COPYRIGHT EDITION.--IN TWO VOLUMES_. + + + VOL. II. + + + LONDON: + CHAPMAN AND HALL, 193 PICCADILLY. + 1862. + + + LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET. + + + + + CONTENTS. + + + SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES. + +Introduction--Retrospect of the results of the sixteenth +century--Greater development of individuality--Defects of +Protestantism--A more elevated tone in Catholicism--Contrast of the +Roman and German systems--Political weakness of Protestantism--The +Hapsburgers--Discontent in the people + + + CHAPTER I. + +The Thirty Years' War (1618 to 1638). The Army--Strength of +the Army--Cost--Method of conducting the war--Political events +of it--Organization of the army--The officers and the +banners--Pay--Discipline--Punishments--Camp followers and their +discipline--Description of a Soldier's Life before the War, by Adam +Junghans + + + CHAPTER II. + +The Thirty Years' War. Life and Manners of the Soldiers (1618 +to 1648)--Intermixture of nations--The camp; gambling; luxury; +scarcity--Superstition--Vices--Camp language--The +cartel--Booty--Partisan service and spies--Marauders--Oppression + + + CHAPTER III. + +The Thirty Years' War. The Villagers and their Pastors (1618 to +1648)--State of the villages--Position and manners of the +peasantry--Effects of the war; money perplexities; quartering of +troops; tortures--Fear; insolence; lawlessness--Love of home--The +pastors and their endurance--Fate of the Pastor Bötzinger + + + CHAPTER IV. + +The Thirty Years' War. Clippers of Money and Public Opinion (1618 to +1648)--The commencement of newspapers--Struggle of the press at the +beginning of the war--The _kipper_ time--Money coining--Depreciation of +the coinage in 1621, and its effect upon the people--Discovery of the +danger; excitement; storm in the press--Specimen from the flying-sheet +_expurgatio der kipper_--Theological controversial writings--Enthusiasm +for Gustavus Adolphus--Character of that king--Dialogue between +the king and the envoy of Brandenburg--The fate of Gustavus +Adolphus--Opposition of the press to Sweden--Patriotism of the German +press--The Flying-Sheet, the German Brutus--The benefit of Sweden to +Germany + + + CHAPTER V. + +The Thirty Years' War. The Cities (1618 to 1648)--Aspect of the cities +in 1618--Effects of the war; luxury; contributions; sieges--Religious +persecution--The Ladies of Löwenberg + + + CHAPTER VI. + +The Thirty Years' War. The Peace (1650)--Festivities of the Ambassadors +at Nuremberg--Festive Fair in a Thuringian Village--Condition of the +country after the war--Its devastation--Attempted estimation of it--The +consequences to the Austrian provinces + + + CHAPTER VII. + +Rogues and Adventurers--Their increase during the war--Their +history--The strollers of the middle ages--Gipsies and their +language--Gibberish and beggars--Travelling scholars--Robbers and +incendiaries--Foreign jugglers--Description of Strolling Players, +by Garzoni--Comedians, and influence of adventurers on +literature--Swindlers of distinction--Alchemists + + + CHAPTER VIII. + +Engagement and Marriage at Court (1661)--Fashion and gallantry, a +foreign means of preserving decorum--Courtly Wooing and Marriage at +Vienna--The Royal families--The Elector Palatine Carl Ludwig--Letter of +the Electress Palatine Charlotte to the Emperor--Judgment upon her and +her husband + + + CHAPTER IX. + +Of the Homes of German Citizens (1675)--Order and decorum in +wooing--Narrative of Friedrich Lucä--Change in expression of feelings +of the heart--Life at home--Prosperity of Hamburg--Letter of +Burgomaster Schulte to his Son in Lisbon--Strong sense of duty in +men--Berend Jacob Carpfanger--Sorrowful tidings from Cadiz + + + CHAPTER X. + +German Life at the Baths (1690)--Distinction of ranks--Forms of +society--Bath life--Poggio--Baths in the Fifteenth Century, by +Poggio--In the Sixteenth, by Pantaleon--In the Seventeenth, by de +Merveilleux--In the Eighteenth, by Hess + + + CHAPTER XI. + +Jesuits and Jews--Decay of the Church--Protestants and Catholics--The +Jesuits also weaker--Position of the Jews since the middle ages--Their +lucrative business--The Jews at Prague Story of Simon Abeles--Victory +of humanity over religious intolerance + + + CHAPTER XII. + +The Wasunger War (1747)--Weakness of the German Empire--Division +of classes wider--Anthony Ulrich von Meiningen and Philippine +Cesar--Quarrels at the Court of Meiningen--Cause of the war--Diary of +the Gotha Lieutenant Rauch + + +Conclusion. From Frederick the Great up to the present time--Object of +these pictures--The mind of the people + + + + + PICTURES OF GERMAN LIFE. + + + + + INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND VOLUME. + + +The year 1600 dawned upon a people who had gone through a vast change in +the last century. Everywhere we perceive marks of progress. Let us +compare any learned book of the year 1499 with one of 1599. The former +is written in bad Latin, poor in diction, ponderous in composition, and +not easy of comprehension. Of independent spirit and individual +conviction we find little trace. There are undoubtedly exceptions, but +they are very rare. Even the Latin of the earlier Humanitarians reminds +us of the subtle vapidness of monkish language, almost as much as of the +artistic phrases of ancient rhetoricians. We are sometimes surprised to +find in the theology, an undercurrent of deep-thinking speculations of +elevated grandeur; but it is a kind of secret doctrine of souls +depressed under the constraint of the cloister. It is certainly +philosophy, but deprived of vitality. + +A century later we discover, even in mediocre authors, a certain +independent individuality. The writers begin to reflect on human life +and faith; they understand how to represent their own feelings and the +emotions of the soul, and struggles for their own convictions. Yet still +they remain too much bound by general prescription, and there is still +much that is monotonous, according to our views, in their judgment and +learning, and the cultivation of their minds. But in their prose we find +a peculiar and often original style, and almost always a stronger and +more active common sense. Three generations struggled for their faith, +many individuals perished for their convictions, and thousands were +plunged in misery. Martyrdom was no longer a monstrous and unheard-of +thing, and men maintained their own judgment on the highest questions. +There were few souls strong enough to do this a century earlier; then, +among the people, individuals passed their lives without any community +of ideas or activity of mind, seeking in the narrow circle of their +associates no advantage save that of support against insufferable +oppression; that alone was the purport of their struggles. But now +enthusiasm had been called forth in the nation, the individual felt +himself in close connection with millions, he was carried along the +stream by the unanimous impulse of all who were like-minded; he acted +and suffered for an idea; this was especially the case with the +Protestants; and even Roman Catholics partook of this blessing: so much +nobler had men become. + +But every higher development produces new defects; the child is free +from many complaints which attack the youth. Protestantism, which had +done so much for the people, did not for a long time achieve its +greatest results. It required the unceasing inward workings of the minds +of individuals; it gave an impulse everywhere to self-decision, and yet +it could not raise itself above the worst principles of the old Church. +It wished still to dominate over the faith of its disciples and to +persecute as heresy every deviation from its convictions. Luther's giant +nature had been able to keep zealous spirits united, but he himself had +predicted that after his death they would not remain so. He knew his +faithful adherents accurately; their weaknesses, and their eagerness to +carry out their own views. Melancthon, who though firm in his theology +and in the every-day troubles of life, was embarrassed and uncertain in +matters of great import, could not command the fiery spirits of more +determined characters. At that Imperial Diet which was held at Augsburg +in 1547, the victorious Emperor had endeavoured, in his way, to compose +the disputes of the Churches, and had pressed upon the vanquished +Protestants a preliminary formula of faith, called the Interim. From the +point of view of the Roman Catholics, it was considered as extreme +toleration, which was only bearable because it gradually led back to the +Old Church; from the point of view of zealous Protestants, it was held +to be insupportable tyranny, which ought to be withstood. The +ecclesiastical leaders of the opposition rose everywhere against this +tyranny; hundreds of preachers were driven from their benefices and went +about with their staffs as miserable pilgrims, and many fell victims to +the furious reaction. It was the heroic time of the Protestant faith; +simple preachers, fathers with wives and children, manfully suffered for +their convictions, and were soon followed by thousands of laity. + +But this enthusiasm was fraught with danger. The Interim was the +beginning of vehement theological disputes, even among Luther's +followers. The struggle of individuals became also the struggle of the +Universities. The successors of Frederick the Wise lost the University +of Wittenberg as well as the Electoral dignity; Melancthon and the +Wittenbergers were under the influence of Maurice and his brothers; +while the most zealous Lutherans were assembled at the new University of +Jena. + +This race of vehement men was followed by another generation of +_Epigonen_. At the end of the century German Protestantism appeared in +most of the provinces to be secure from outward dangers. Then the +ecclesiastics became too self-sufficient and fond of power--the failings +of a privileged order. Influential counsellors of weak princes, and +rulers of public opinion, they themselves persecuted other believers +with the weapons of the old Church. They sometimes called down the civil +power upon heretics; and the populace stormed the houses of the +Reformers in Leipzig; at Dresden a courtly ecclesiastic was executed on +account of heresy, though perhaps there may also have been political +reasons. Thus this new life threw deep shadows over the souls of the +people. + +In Roman Catholic territories also, a vigorous and extraordinary life +was roused. The Roman Catholic Church gave birth to a new discipline of +the mind, a mode of human culture distinctly opposed to Protestantism. +Even in the old Church a greater depth of inward life was attained. A +new system of rapturous excitement and self-denial, with high duties and +an exalted ideal, was offered to satisfy the needs of the souls of the +faithful. In Spain and Italy this new religious zeal was aroused, full +of resignation and self-sacrifice, full of great talent, eagerness for +combat, and glowing enthusiasm, and rich in manly vigour. But it was not +a faith for Germans. It demanded the annihilation of free individuality, +a rending from all the ties of the world, fanatical devotion, and an +unconditional subjection of the individual to a great community. Each +one had to make an offering of his life for a great aim, without +criticism or scruple. Whilst Protestantism formed a higher standard, and +imposed on each individual, the duty of seeking independently by an +effort of his own mind, the key to divine and human knowledge, the new +Catholicism grasped his whole being with an iron hand. Protestantism +was, notwithstanding all the loyalty of the Reformers, essentially +democratic; the new Catholicism concentrated all the powers of men, of +which it demanded the most unhesitating submission, in a spiritual +tyranny, under the dominion of the head of the Church, and afterwards +under that of the State. + +The great representatives of this new tendency in Church and State were +the Jesuits. In the impassioned soul of a Spanish nobleman smouldered +the gloomy fire of the new Catholic teaching; amidst ascetic penances, +in the restricted intercourse of a small brotherhood, the system was +formed. In the year 1540 the Pope confirmed the brotherhood, and shortly +after, the first members of the order hastened across the Alps and the +Rhine into Germany, and began already to rule in the council of Trent. +Their unhesitating determination strengthened the weak, and frightened +the wavering. With wonderful rapidity the order established itself in +Germany, where the old faith still subsisted along with the new; it +acquired favour with the higher classes, and a crowd of adherents +amongst the people. Some princes gave up to it the spiritual dominion of +their countries, above all the Hapsburgers; and besides them, the German +princes of the Church, who could not uphold by their own intrinsic +strength, the wavering faith of their subjects: and lastly the Dukes of +Bavaria, who for more than a century had been in the habit of seeking +advantage for their house in a close union with Rome. When the +brotherhood first entered Germany the whole nation was on the point of +becoming Protestant; even at the beginning of the Thirty years' war, +after losses and successes on both sides, three fourths of Germany were +Protestant; but in the year 1650, the whole of the new Imperial state, +and the largest third of the rest of Germany, had again become Roman +Catholic. So well did these foreign priests serve their Church. + +The way in which they worked was marvellous; cautiously, step by step, +with endless schemes, and firm determination, never wavering, bending to +the storm, and indefatigably returning again, never giving up what they +had once begun, pursuing the smallest, as well as the greatest plans at +any sacrifice, this society presented the only specimen of an +unconditional submission of the will, and surrender of everything to one +idea, which did not find expression in individuals, but only in the +society. The order governed, but no single member of it was free, not +even the General of the order. + +The society gained honour and favour; it understood well how to make +itself beloved, or indispensable wherever it came; but it never found a +home in Germany. Its fearful principle of mystery and secrecy was felt, +not only by the Protestants, who endeavoured to break its power by +their paper weapons, the flying-sheets, and made it answerable for +every political misdeed, whether far or near, but also in the Roman +Catholic countries. Even there it was only a guest, influential +certainly, and much prized, but from time to time ecclesiastics and +laity felt that it was a thing apart from them. All the other spiritual +societies had become national,--the Jesuits never. It is not unnatural +that this feeling was strongest among the Roman Catholic ecclesiastics, +for their worldly prospects were often injured by the Jesuits. + +Thus from the middle of the sixteenth century two opposite methods of +mental cultivation, two different sources of morals and working power +have struggled against one another. Devotion and unconditional +subjection, against feelings of duty and thoughtful self-assertion; +rapid and unhesitating decision, against conscientious doubts; a spirit +of energy, working laboriously with much deliberation and scheming after +distant aims, against defective discipline; and an urging to unity, +against a striving for separation. + +These opposing powers appeared everywhere, especially in politics and at +the courts of princes. Protestantism in its unfinished shape, though it +had elevated the people, was no help to the formation of the character +of the German princes; it had raised higher their external power, but it +had lessened their inward stability; their youthful training became in +general too theological to be practical. However immoral many of them +were, they all suffered from conscientious doubts; and there was no +ready answer for these doubts, such as the Roman Catholic confessor had +always in store for them. The Protestant princes stood isolated; there +was no firm bond of union between the Churches of the different states, +but much trivial quarrelling and bitter hatred, not only between +Lutherans and Reformers, but even amongst the followers of the Augsburg +confession; and this diminished the strength of the princes. Whilst the +priests of the Roman Catholic Church did their best to unite their +rulers, the Protestant ecclesiastics helped to increase the disunion of +theirs. So it is not surprising, that the Protestants for a long time +stood at a disadvantage in their political struggle with the old faith. +The Germans had not yet found, and did not for centuries attain to, the +new constitution of State, which transfers the mainspring of government +from the accidental will of the ruler, to the conscience of the nation, +and which places in a regulated path, citizens of talent and integrity +as advisers to the crown; public opinion was still weak, the daily press +not yet in existence, and the relation between the political rights of +the princes and the people very undefined. + +Protestantism had everywhere produced political convulsions, from the +peasant war even into the following century. The Reformation had +unloosed all tongues, it had given the Germans a freer judgment upon +their position as citizens, and had inspired individuals with the +courage to fight for their own convictions. The peasant now loudly +murmured against exorbitant burdens, the members of guilds against the +selfish dominion of the corporations, and the noble members of the +provincial estates against the extravagant demands of the sovereign for +war expenses. The wild democratic disturbances of 1525 were with +Luther's entire approbation easily put down, but democratic tendencies +did not therefore cease, and together with them, anabaptist and +socialist views spread from city to city. Their teaching, which scarcely +forms a system, took a different colouring in different individuals, +from the harmless theorist who imagined a community of good citizens +without egotism, full of self-abnegation, as did the talented Eberlin, +to the reckless fanatic who tried to establish a new Zion at Münster, +with an illusive community of goods and wives. These excitements lost +their power towards the end of the century, but still continued to +ferment among the people, especially in those provinces, where the +Protestant opposition of the estates excited the people against the old +faith of the rulers of the country. Thus it was in Bohemia, Moravia, and +Upper Austria. The more zealously the Hapsburgers endeavoured, by means +of the Jesuits, to restore the old faith, the more it was kept in check, +even in their own country, by the demands of the opposition in the +estates, and the commotions among the people. And well did they perceive +the threatening connection of this opposition to their house. Two ways +only were therefore open to them, either they must themselves have +become Protestants, which they found impossible, or they must have +resolutely destroyed the dangerous teaching and pretensions which upset +the souls of men everywhere, especially in their own country. The +Hapsburger appeared who attempted this. + +Meanwhile the spirit of the old Church had been raised, by the great +victories which it had gained in other countries. The Protestant princes +combined against the threatened offensive movement of the Roman Catholic +party, as before at Smalkald, and the Roman Catholic party answered by +the formation of the League; but the object at heart, of the League was +attack, while that of the Protestants was only defence. + +This was the political state of Germany before the Thirty years' war; a +most unsatisfactory state. Discontent was general, a mournful tendency, +a disposition to prophecy evil, were the significant signs of the times. +Every deed of violence which was announced to the people in the +flying-sheets, was accompanied by remarks on the bad times. And yet we +know for certain that immorality had not become strikingly greater in +the country. There was wealth in the cities, and even in the country +increase of prosperity; there was regular government everywhere, better +order and greater security of existence, luxury and an inordinate love +of enjoyment had undoubtedly increased, together with riches; even among +the lower strata of the people greed was awakened, life became more +varied and dearer, and much indifference began to be shown concerning +the quarrels of ecclesiastics. The best began to be gloomy, and even +cheerful natures, like the honest Bartholomäus Ringwald, became prophets +of misfortune, and wished for death. + +And there was good reason for this gloom. There was something diseased +in the life of Germany, an incomprehensible burden weighed it down, +which marred its development. Luther's teaching, it is true, produced +the greatest spiritual and intellectual progress which Germany had ever +made through one man, but the demands of life increased with every +expansion of the soul. The new mental culture must be followed by a +corresponding advance in earthly condition, a greater independence in +faith, demanded imperiously a stronger power of political development +But it was precisely this teaching, which appeared like the early dawn +of a better life, that conveyed to the people the consciousness of their +own political weakness, and by this weakness they became one-sided and +narrow minded. Germany being divided into countless territories under +weak princes, its people everywhere involved in and occupied with +trifling disputes, were deficient in that which is indispensable to a +genial growth; they needed a general elevation, a great united will, and +a sphere of moral duties, which alone makes men pre-eminently cheerful +and manly. The fatherland of the Germans extended probably from Lorraine +to the Oder, but in no single portion of it did they live like the +citizens of Elizabeth or Henry IV. + +Thus already inwardly diseased, Germany entered upon a war of thirty +years. When the war ended, there was little remaining of the great +nation. For yet a century to come, the successors of the survivors were +deficient in that most manly of all feelings,--political enthusiasm. + +Luther had raised his people out of the epic life of the middle ages. +The Thirty years' war had destroyed the popular strength, and forced the +Germans into individual life, the mental constitution of which one may +truly call lyrical. That which will here be depicted from the accounts +of cotemporaries, is a sad joyless time. + + + + + CHAPTER I. + + THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.--THE ARMY. + + +The opposition between the interests of the house of Hapsburg and of the +German nation, and between the old and new faith, led to a bloody +catastrophe. If any one should inquire how such a war could rage through +a whole generation, and so fearfully exhaust a powerful people, he will +receive this striking answer, that the war was so long and terrible, +because none of the contending parties were able to carry it out on a +great and decisive scale. + +The largest armies in the Thirty years' war did not exceed in strength +one corps of a modern army. Tilly considered forty thousand men the +greatest number of troops that a general could wish to have. It was only +occasionally that an army reached that strength; almost all the great +battles were fought by smaller bodies of men. Numerous were the +detachments, and very great were the losses by skirmishes, illnesses, +and desertion. As there was no regular system for maintaining the +strength of the army, its effective amount fluctuated in a remarkable +way. Once, indeed, Wallenstein united a larger force under his +command--according to some accounts a hundred thousand men--but they +did not form one army, nay, they were hardly in any military connection, +for the undisciplined bands with which, in 1629, he subdued the German +territories of the Emperor, were dispersed over half Germany. Such large +masses of soldiers appeared to all parties as a terrible venture; they +could not, in fact, be kept under control, and after that, no general +commanded more than half that number.[1] + +An army in order of battle was considered as a movable fortress, the +central point of which was the General himself, who ruled all the +details; he had to survey the ground and every position, and every +attack was directed by him. Adjutantcies and staff service were hardly +established. It was part of the strategy to keep the army together in +masses, to defend the ranks by earth-works, and not to allow horse or +man to be out of observation and control. In marching also, the army was +kept close together in narrow quarters, generally within the space of a +camp; from this arose commissariat difficulties, the high-roads were +bad, often almost impassable, the conveyance of provisions compulsory, +and always ill-regulated: and worst of all, the army was attended by an +intense baggage-train, which, with the wild-robber system, quickly +wasted the most fertile countries. + +Great care was therefore taken that no such embarrassment should arise. +Neither the Emperor nor the Princes of the Empire were in a condition to +maintain forty thousand men out of their income even for three months. +The regular revenue of the sovereign was much less than now, and the +maintenance of an army far more costly. The greater part of the revenue +was derived from tithes in kind, which in time of war was insecure and +difficult to realize. The finances of the parties engaged in this war +were even at the commencement of it in a most lamentable state. + +In the winter of 1619 and 1620, half the Bohemian army died of hunger +and cold, from the want of pay and a commissariat; in September 1620, +more than four and a half million of gulden of pay was owing to the +troops, and there were endless mutinies, and the King Palatine Frederick +could not aid his Protestant allies with subsidies. The Emperor was then +not in much better condition, but he soon afterwards obtained Spanish +subsidies. When the Elector of Saxony, whose finances were better +regulated, first hired fifteen hundred men in December, 1619, he could +not pay them regularly. What was granted by the estates in war taxes, +and the so-called voluntary contributions of the opulent, did not go +far; loans even in the first year of the war were very difficult to +realize; they were attempted with the banking-houses of southern +Germany, and also in Hamburg, but seldom with success. City communities +were considered safer debtors than the great princes. There were +dealings about the smallest sums even with private individuals. Saxony +in 1621, hoped to get from fifty to sixty thousand guldens from the +Fuggers, and endeavoured in vain to borrow thirty and seventy thousand +gulden from capitalists. Maximilian of Bavaria, and the League, made a +great loan for the war of one million two hundred thousand gulden at +twelve per cent, from the merchants in Genoa, for this the Fuggers +became responsible, and the salt trade of Augsburg was given to them for +their security. Just one hundred years before, this said banking-house +had taken an important share in the election of the Emperor Charles V., +and now it helped to secure the victory of the Roman Catholic party; for +the Bohemian war was decided even more by the want of money than by the +battle of the Weissen-Berge. Thus the war began with the governments +being in a general state of insolvency; and therefore the maintenance of +great armies became impossible. + +It is evident that there was a fatal disproportion between the military +strength of the parties and the ultimate object of every war. None of +them could entirely subdue their opponents. The armies were too small, +and had too little durability, to be able to control by regular +strategic operations, the numerous and warlike people of wide-spread +districts. Whilst a victorious army was ruling near the Rhine or the +Oder, a new enemy was collecting in the north on the shores of the +Baltic. The German theatre of war, also, was not so constituted as to be +easily productive of lasting results. Almost every city, and many +country seats were fortified. The siege guns were still unwieldy and +uncertain in their aim, and the defence of fortified places was +proportionably stronger than the attack. Thus war became principally a +combat of sieges; every captured town weakened the victorious army, from +the necessity of leaving garrisons. When a province had been conquered, +the conqueror was often not in a position to withstand the conquered in +open battle. By new exertion the conqueror was driven from the field; +then followed fresh sieges and captures, and again fatal disruption of +strength. + +It was a war full of bloody battles and glorious victories, and also of +excessive alternations of fortune. Numerous were the dark hero forms +that loomed out of the chaos of blood and fire; the iron Ernst von +Mansfeld, the fantastic Brunswicker, Bernhard of Weimar; and on the +other side, Maximilian of Bavaria, and the generals of the League, +Tilly, Pappenheim, and the able Mercy; the leaders of the Imperial army, +the daring Wallenstein and Altringer; the great French heroes, Condé and +Turenne, and amongst the Swedes, Horn, Bauer, Torstenson, Wrangel, and +above all the mighty prince of war, Gustavus Adolphus. How much manly +energy excited to the highest pitch, and yet how slow and poor were the +political results obtained! how quickly was again lost, what appeared to +have been obtained by the greatest amount of power! How often did the +parties themselves change the objects after which they were striving, +nay even the banner for which they desired victory! + +The political events of the war can only be briefly mentioned here; they +may be divided into three periods. The first, from 1618 to 1630, is the +time of the Imperial triumphs. The Protestant estates of Bohemia, +contrary to law and their own word, refused the Bohemian crown to the +Archduke Ferdinand, and chose for their ruler the Elector Palatine, a +reformer. But by means of the League and the Lutheran Electors of +Saxony, Ferdinand became Emperor. His opponent was beaten in the battle +of the Weissen-Berge, and left the country as a fugitive. Here and +there, the Protestant opposition continued to blaze up, but divided, +without plan, and with weak resources. Baden-Durlach, the Mansfelder, +the Brunswicker, and lastly the circle of lower Saxony with the Danish +King, succumbed to the troops of the League and the Emperor. Ferdinand +II., who though Emperor, was still a fugitive in the states belonging to +his house, obtained through the assistance of an experienced mercenary +commander, Wallenstein, a large body of troops, whom he maintained in +the territory of the principality by contribution and pillage. Ever +greater did the Emperor's army continue to swell; ever higher rose his +claims in Germany and Italy: the old idea of Charles V. after the +Smalkaldic war became a living principle in the nephew; he would subdue +Germany, as his predecessor had done the peasants and the estates in +the Austrian provinces; he would crush all independence, the privileges +of cities, the rights of the estates, the pride and family power of +princes--he hoped to subjugate all Germany to his faith and his house. +But throughout the whole of Germany sounded a cry of grief and +indignation, at the horrible marauding war which was conducted by the +merciless general of the Hapsburger. All the allies of the Imperial +house rose threateningly against him. The Princes of the League, and +above all Maximilian of Bavaria, looked abroad for help; they subdued +the high spirit of the Emperor, and he was obliged to dismiss his +faithful General and to control the barbarous army. Nay, more, even the +Holy Father began to fear the Emperor. The Pope himself united with +France in order to bring Swedish help to the Protestants. The lion of +the north disembarked on the German coast. + +Now began the second period of the war. The swelling billows of the +Roman Catholic power had overflowed Germany even up to the Northern Sea. +From 1630 to 1634 came the Protestant counter-current, which flowed in a +resistless course from north to south over the third part of Germany. +Even after the death of their king, the Swedish Generals kept their +ascendency in the field; Wallenstein himself abandoned the Emperor, and +was secretly murdered. The Roman Catholic party had begun to lose +courage, when, by a last effort of collected strength, it won the bloody +battle of Nördlingen. + +Then followed the third period of fourteen years, from 1634 to 1648, in +which victory and reverses were nearly equal on both sides. The Swedes, +driven back to the Northern Sea, girding up their whole strength, again +burst forth into the middle of Germany. Again the tide of fortune ebbed +to and fro, becoming gradually less powerful. The French, greedy of +booty, spread themselves as far as the Rhine; the land was devastated, +and famine and pestilence raged. The Swedes, though losing one General +after another, kept the field and maintained their claims with unceasing +pertinacity. In opposition to them stood the equally inflexible +Maximilian, Prince of the League. Even in the last decade of the war, +the Bavarians fought for three years the most renowned campaigns which +this dynasty has to boast of. The fanatical Ferdinand was dead, his +successor, able, moderate, and an experienced soldier, persevered from +necessity; he also was firm and tenacious. No party could bring about a +decisive result. For years negotiations for peace were carried on; +whilst the generals fought, the cities and villages were depopulated and +the fields were overgrown with rank weeds. Peace came at last; it was +not brought about by great battles, nor by irresistible political +combinations, but chiefly by the weariness of the combatants, and +Germany celebrated it with festivities though she had lost three +fourths of her population. + +All this gives to the Thirty years' war the appearance of foredoomed +annihilation, ushered in as it was by the most fearful visitations of +nature. Above the strife of parties a terrible fate spread its wings; it +carried off the leaders and prostrated them in the dust, the greatest +human strength became powerless under its hand; at last, satiated with +devastation and death, it turned its face slowly from the country which +had become a great charnel house. + +It is not the intention of this work to characterize the Generals and +battles belonging to this period of struggle, but to speak of the +condition and circumstances of the German people, both of the +destructive and suffering portions of the population, of the army, alike +with the citizen and peasant. Since the Burgundian war and the Italian +battles of Maximilian and Charles V., the burgher infantry had thrown +into the background the knightly cavalry of the middle ages. + +The strength of the German army consisted of Landsknechte, freemen, +either citizens or peasants, and among them occasionally a few nobles. +They were for the most part mercenaries, who bound themselves +voluntarily by contract to some banner for a time. They carried on war +like a trade, sternly, actively, and enduringly. But the full vigour of +their power was of short duration: their decadence may be dated from +their revolt against the old Fronsperg; from that hour when they broke +the heart of their father, the gray-headed Landsknecht hero. Many +things combined to corrupt this new infantry: they were mercenaries, +serving only for a time, accustomed to change their banner, and not to +fight for an idea, but only for booty or their own advantage. They were +not called into existence in consequence of the application of gunpowder +to the art of war; but they more especially appropriated this new +invention to themselves. The introduction of fire-arms into the army, +certainly first showed the weakness of their opponents, the old cavalry +of knighthood, but at the same time soon caused the diminution of their +own efficiency, for these weapons were too clumsy and slow to insure +victory on the battle-field. The final result still depended on the +rushing charge of the pikemen and the onslaught of their great masses on +the enemy. + +To this was added other detrimental circumstances; there were as yet no +standing armies: when there was threatening of a feud, troops were +assembled by the territorial lords great and small, and by the cities, +and at the conclusion of the war they were dismissed. These wars were +generally short and local; even the Hungarian wars were only summer +campaigns of a few months. The German rulers, always in want of money, +endeavoured to help themselves by the depreciation of the coinage, +striking a lighter coin expressly for the payment of the soldiers, and +also by faithlessly paying them less than had been agreed upon. This +unworthy treatment demoralized the men, no less than the shortness of +the service. Thus the Landsknechte became deceived deceivers, +adventurers, plunderers and robbers. + +The infantry at the beginning of the war used either fire-arms or pikes, +the former to open the enemy's ranks, the latter to decide the battle by +hand-to-hand fighting. At this period we find that the pikemen were the +heavy infantry; they wore breastplates, brassarts, swords, and a pike +eighteen feet long with an iron point, the handles of the best were of +ash; the lance-corporals and subaltern officers had halberds and +partisans. The two species of fire-arms which prevailed in the army were +the musketoon (which with the Imperialists was a heavy weapon six feet +long, with matchlocks and balls, of which there were ten in the pound) +and the short hand-gun, a weapon of lighter and smaller calibre, which +in the beginning of the war bore amongst the infantry the old name of +arquebuss. The musketeer wore also at his side a hanger, a weapon with a +small curved point, and over his shoulder a bandolier with eleven +cylindrical cases in which the charges were placed, a match holder, and +a musket rest, a staff with a metal point and two metal prongs, on the +top of which the musketeer laid his weapon: his head was covered with a +helmet or morion; this last piece of armour was soon discarded. The foot +arquebussier did not carry a rest or a shoulder-belt; he loaded from his +shot-pouch and powder-horn. There were pikemen and musketeers in the +same company, and long even before the great war there were companies in +which fire-arms alone were borne. Out of the light infantry were formed, +in the middle of the war, what were called rifle companies, but among +whom only a few had rifles. The grenadiers, who threw hand-grenades, +were then formed in small numbers; for instance, in 1634, by the Swedes +at the siege of Ratisbon. + +At the beginning of the war the pikemen, as heavy infantry, were +considered of importance, and they were put down in the muster-rolls as +receiving double pay; but in the course of it they were found to be too +unwieldy for long marches, helpless in attack, in short, almost useless, +since the last decision of the battle now devolved upon the cavalry; +thus they gradually sank into contempt, and the clever judgment +pronounced by the jovial Springinsfeld, accurately expresses the view +that was taken of their utility. "A musketeer is indeed a poor, much +harassed creature; but he lives in splendid happiness compared to a +miserable pikeman: it is vexatious to think what hardships the poor +simpletons endure; no one who had not experienced it themselves could +believe it, and I think whoever kills a pikeman whom he could save, +murders an innocent man, and can never be excused such a barbarous deed: +for although these poor draught oxen--they were so called in +derision--are formed to defend their brigades in the open field from the +onslaught of the cavalry, yet they themselves do no one any injury, and +he who throws himself upon their long spears deserves what he gets. In +short, I have during my life seen many sharp encounters, but seldom +found that a pikeman ever caused the death of any one." Nevertheless the +pikemen kept their ground till towards the end of the seventeenth +century. The musketeers who were, however, the great mass of the +infantry, were rendered more agile by Gustavus Adolphus; he discarded +from the Swedish army the musket rests, lightened their weapons and the +calibre of the balls, of which there were thirteen to the pound, and +introduced instead of the rattling bandoliers, paper cartridges and +pockets; but the musketeers, without bayonets, slow in firing, +unaccustomed to fight in close ranks, were little fitted to decide an +engagement. + +The influence of the cavalry on the other hand increased. At the +beginning of the war there were two contending principles concerning +them, the method and arming of old knightly traditions were mixed up +with the Landsknechte characteristics, many of whom were also horsemen. +The heavy cavalry were still considered an aristocratic corps, the +nobleman still placed himself with his charger, his knightly armour, his +old knightly lance, and his troop of vassals, for whom he drew pay, +under the standard of the cavalry regiments. But the war made an end +gradually of this remnant of old customs. It was still, however, an +object of ambition to join the army as a soldier of fortune, either with +an esquire or alone, and whoever estimated himself highly or had made +much booty, thronged to the cavalry standard. In the German army there +were four kinds of regular cavalry, the Lancers, in full armour even to +the knightly spurs, without shield, with the knightly lance or the spear +of the Landsknechte, a sword, and two holster pistols; the Cuirassiers, +with similar armour, pistols and sword; the Arquebussiers, called later +Carbineers, half armed, with morion, and pistol proof back and breast +pieces, with two pistols and an arquebuss on a small bandolier; finally +the Dragoons, mounted pikemen, or musketeers, who fought either on foot +or on horseback. Besides these there were irregular cavalry Croats, +Stradiots, and Hussars, who almost a century before, in 1546, had made a +great sensation in Germany when Duke Maurice of Saxony borrowed them +from King Ferdinand of Bohemia. Their appearance was not displeasing; +they wore Turkish armour, a sabre, and a targe, but they were wild +robbers, and in the worst repute. Gustavus Adolphus brought to Germany +only Cuirassiers and Dragoons. His Cuirassiers were more lightly armed +than the Imperial, but far superior to them in energy of attack. During +the whole war the endeavour of the cavalry was to lighten their heavy +armour; the more the army separated into military companies the more +pressing was the necessity for greater activity. + +In the sixteenth century the heavy guns were very varied in calibre and +length of barrel, and had divers curious names. The sharp metz, the +carronade, culverin and nightingale, the singer, the falcon and the +falconet, the field serpent and serpentine, with balls from one hundred +pounds down to one pound, besides the organ,[2] mortars large and small, +rifle-barrelled guns and rifles. But in the beginning of the Thirty +years' war the forms were already simplified; they cast forty-eight, and +twenty-four pounders, twelve and six pounders, with forty-two, +twenty-four, twelve and six pound balls;[3] the first were fortress and +siege guns, the last were field guns; besides these, disproportionately +long culverins and falconets, also chamber pieces for throwing shells, +or bomb mortars which were soon called howitzers, smaller mortars for +throwing fire-balls, stinkpots, &c.; and in the beginning of the war +bombarders, which fired pieces of iron, lead, small shot, and stones. +Lastly from forged pieces they fired half-ounce bullets, double, +single, and half-hooks, or grappling irons. But the length of the +barrels of the guns was too long for balls; the powder was bad, and the +aim consequently uncertain. Gustavus Adolphus introduced shorter and +lighter guns; his leather cannon, made of copper cylinders with thick +hemp and leather coverings[4] held together by iron hoops, soon ceased +to be used, probably because they were not sufficiently durable, but his +short four-pounders, two of which were given to every regiment, and +which worked best with grape shot, lasted over the war. These field +pieces fired not only from position but were moved with tolerable +rapidity during action, but the bombardes and petards were unwieldy; the +last were twisted round with ropes more like a sort of cannon than our +bombs and grenades, but were of uncertain effect because the locks were +badly prepared and they did not measure the time for the explosion. The +old disposition of the Germans to give life to the inanimate had already +in earlier times bestowed especial names on favourite guns, and the +custom remained, even after pieces of the same calibre were cast in +greater numbers; then particular guns, for example, were called after +the planets, months, and signs of the zodiac, like a high sounding +alphabet,[5] and in this case indicated by single letters. There was +always a new name given according to the calibre, which in spite of all +the simplification was still very varied. The progress of artillery and +its influence on the conduct of war was impeded in the last half of the +war by the want of experienced master gunners, the greater portion of +them were infantry commanders; the loss of an artillery officer of +capacity was difficult to replace. + +The relative numbers of particular branches of the service were changed +during the war. In the beginning the proportion of the cavalry to the +infantry was as one to five, but soon they became one to three, and in +the latter period they were sometimes the strongest. This striking fact +is a proof both of the deterioration of the troops and of the art of +war. In the exhausted country, the army could only be maintained by a +strong force of cavalry, who could forage further and change their +ground with more rapidity. As all who hoped for independence or booty +pressed into the cavalry it was in better condition proportionately than +the infantry, who at last were reduced to support themselves by reaping +the scanty remains left by the horsemen. Undoubtedly the cavalry also +became worse, the want of good horses was at last more sensibly felt +than that of men, and the heavy cavalry could not be kept up, whilst in +the last year the service of the scouts and foraging parties for the +commissariat was brought to great perfection. Nevertheless the cavalry +were the most effective, for it was their task to decide the battle by +their charge. The last army with skilled infantry and Dutch discipline +was that of Bavaria under Mercy, from 1643 to 1645. + +The tactics of armies had slowly altered in the course of the century. +The old Landsknecht army advanced to battle in three great squares,--the +advanced guard, the main body, and the rear guard--disregarding roads +and corn-fields; before it went pioneers, who filled in ditches and cut +down hedges to clear the way for the bulky mass. For battle, the deep +square masses of infantry placed themselves side by side, each square +mass consisted of many companies, sometimes of many regiments; the +cavalry formed in a similar deep position at the wings. There was no +regular reserve, only sometimes one of the three masses was kept back +for the final decision; a select body of men, the forlorn hope, was +formed for dangerous service, such as forcing the passage of a river, +covering an important point, or turning the enemy's flank. Since +fire-arms had prevailed over pikes, these great battalions were +surrounded by files of sharpshooters, and at last special bodies of +sharpshooters were formed and attached to them. In the war in the +Netherlands, the unwieldiness of these heavy squares led to breaking the +order of battle into smaller tactical bodies. But it was only slowly, +that formation in line and a system of reserve were organized. Much of +the old method continued in the Imperial army in the beginning of the +war. Still the companies of infantry were united in deep squares--in +battalions. To take firm positions and assume defensive warfare had +become too much the custom in inglorious campaigns against the wild +storming Turks. The weight and tenacity of deep masses might certainly +be effective, but if the enemy succeeded in bringing his guns to bear +upon them, they suffered fearfully, and were very unwieldy in all their +movements. Gustavus Adolphus adopted the tactical innovations of the +Netherlanders in an enlightened way; when in battle he placed the +infantry six, and the cavalry only three deep; he distributed the great +masses into small divisions, which firmly connected together, formed +the unity of the Swedish brigade; he strengthened the cavalry, placing +between them companies of sharpshooters, and introduced light artillery +regiments besides those that were in reserve and position, and +accustomed his soldiers to rapid offensive movements and daring +advances. His infantry fired quicker than the Imperial, and at the +battle of Breitenfeld the old Walloon regiments of Tilly were routed by +their close platoon firing; he also laid down for his cavalry, those +very rules by which a century later Frederick the Great made his, the +first in the world; viz., not to stop in order to fire, but at the +quickest pace to rush upon the enemy. + +During the battle the soldiers recognized one another by their war-cries +and distinguishing marks, the officers by their scarfs. For example, at +Breitenfeld Tilly's army wore white bands on their hats and helmets, and +white lace round the arm, and the Swedes had green branches. The +Imperial colour in the field was red, therefore Gustavus Adolphus +prohibited his Swedes from wearing that colour,[6] the scarfs of the +Swedish officers at the battle of Lützen were green, those of Electoral +Saxony during the war were black and yellow, and later, after the +acquisition of the Polish crown, red and white. + +The soldiers were formed in troops or companies, and these were combined +in regiments which had administrative unity. The German infantry +regiments consisted of three thousand men, in ten companies of three +hundred men; they seldom reached their normal strength, and lost their +men in the war with frightful rapidity, so that there were frequently +regiments of from a thousand to three hundred, and companies of seventy +to thirty men. Cavalry regiments were required to be from five hundred +to a thousand men strong; the numbers of the troops were different, and +their effective war strength was still more variable. + +The titles and duties of officers had already much similarity to the +modern German organization. He who had raised a regiment for his +Sovereign, was called the colonel of the regiment, even if he had the +rank of General; under him were the Lieutenant-colonel and Major. More +important for the object of these pages were the officers of companies; +the Captain of infantry or cavalry, with his Lieutenant, an Ensign, and +sergeant, or troop sergeant-major, non-commissioned officers and +lance-corporals, and finally the provost-marshal. + +When an officer at the mustering of his company in a circle, was +installed as chief captain and father, he begged his dear soldiers, in a +friendly manner, to be true and obedient to him, recounted to them +their duties, promised to stand by them in every emergency, and as an +honest man, devote himself to them in life or death, and leave them +whatever he had. Unfortunately the captain's first duty was to be +faithful in money concerns, both towards the colonel and his own +soldiers, to procure clever good soldiers for the reviewing officer, not +to charge for more mercenaries than was right, and to give the soldiers +their full pay; but this seldom happened. The temptation to a system of +fraudulent gain was great, and conscientiousness in the uncertain life +of war was a virtue which quickly disappeared; even the most honourable +fell upon dangerous rocks when the pay had been long in arrear, or not +fully given. Besides this, it was necessary for him to be an energetic +experienced man, just and kind in disposition, but strict in maintaining +rights. During the week, he was, according to the old proverb, to look +severe, and not to smile upon the soldiers before Sunday; when there was +preaching in the camp, the soldiers sat on the ground, but stood up, +taking their hats off, before the captain, but he who wore a morion kept +it on. On the march, the captain rode, but before the enemy he went on +foot, carrying either the pike or the musket of his company.[7] + +The banner of the infantry, which was held sacred by the company, had a +standard about the size of ours, but the silken flag, like an enormous +sail, reached almost to the end of the standard; it was of heavy +material, according to the taste of that time, with allegorical pictures +painted on it, and short Latin sentences beautifully illuminated. The +"_cornete_" of the cavalry, sometimes vandyked, were smaller, and fixed +to the standard like our banners. The regiments were sometimes called +after the colours of the banners; for example, in Electoral Saxony, +where the ground of the banners was always of two colours, they were +called the black and yellow, blue and white, red and yellow, regiments; +each of the ten banners of the regiment also had its especial emblem and +motto, and different combinations of the regimental colours, grained, +striped and in squares, yet the chief standard showed the regimental +colours only on the border. The "_cornete_" of the cavalry had a ground +of only one colour: the corps of cavalry were denoted according to the +colours of their banners, and not by their uniforms, which they hardly +ever wore; for example:--"two corps of orange-coloured cornet +cuirassiers," "five corps of steel-green cornet arquebussiers." The +Swedes also distinguished their brigades, which were in Germany +frequently called regiments, by the colour of their banners; thus, +besides the yellow (Body Guard) there were the green, blue, white, and +red. The colours of regiments were often chosen from the armorial +bearings of the colonel, especially if he had raised the regiment. +Gradually, however, it became the custom in all the armies to call the +regiments after the names of the officers. + +The flag was attached to the standard and erected in the midst of the +circle of enlisted soldiers; then the Colonel delivered the banner to +the Ensign, and thus gave it into his charge:--"As your bride or your +own daughter, from the right hand to the left; and if both your arms +should be shot or cut off, you should take it with your mouth; and if +you cannot preserve it thus, wrap yourself therein, commit yourself to +God so to be slain, and die as an honourable man." As long as the +colours were flying, and a piece of the standard left, the soldiers were +to follow the Ensign to the death, till all should lie in a heap on the +battle-field, that no evil-doer or blameworthy person should be +sheltered by the flag; if any one should transgress against the banner +oath, the Ensign was to furl the banner, and forbid the transgressor to +march under it or mount guard, and he was obliged to go among the bad +women and children with the baggage till the affair was arranged: the +Ensign was not to leave the colours a single night without permission; +when he slept he was to have them by him, and never to separate himself +from them; if they should be torn from the standard by treachery or some +roguish attendant, the Ensign should be delivered over to the common +soldiers to be judged for life or death, according to their will. It was +necessary for him to be tall, powerful, manly, and valiant, and a +cheerful companion, friendly to every one, a mediator and peace-maker; +he was not to inflict punishment on any one, that he might incur no +hatred. In the open field under the unfurled colours appointments were +declared and the articles of war read. A trooper was not, without +permission, to be out of sight of the colours when the army was marching +or encamped; whoever fled from the colours in battle was to die for it, +and whoever killed him was to be unpunished: if an Ensign should abandon +a fort or redoubt before he had held out against three assaults without +relief, he transgressed the rules of war; a regiment lost its colours if +from cowardice it yielded a fortress before the time. It was not long +since pike-law was given up, the severe tribunal of the Landsknechte, +where, before the circle of common soldiers, the provost-marshal accused +the evil-doer, and forty chosen men, officers and soldiers, pronounced +judgment: at the beginning of the trial the Ensigns furled their +colours, and reversed them with the iron point in the ground, and +demanded a sentence, because the colours could not fly over an +evil-doer. If the transgressor was condemned to the spear, or to be shot +by the arquebussiers, then the Ensign thanked them for their judgment on +the offender, unfurled the colours, and caused them to fly towards the +east, comforted the poor sinner, and promised to meet him halfway, and +thereby to deliver him by taking him under the protection of the +colours. When the line of pikes was formed they went to the end of it +with their backs towards the sun; but the transgressor had to bless the +soldiers and pray for a speedy death, then the provost gave him three +strokes with his staff on the right shoulder and pushed him into the +lane. Whoever had disgraced himself, if the colours were waved three +times over him, was freed from his disgrace. The Ensign received every +three years, money for a new flag or dress (from eighty to a hundred +gulden), and for that he was to make a present to the company of two +casks of beer or wine. + +The office of Cornet of cavalry was less responsible. It was his duty to +rush vigorously upon the enemy, and after the attack to raise his +standard on high, that his people might collect round him. In the +Hungarian war the Cornet passed sometimes into the rank of Lieutenant, +and in some regiments (the Wallenstein army for instance) this custom +was kept up. + +The most important man of the company next to the Captain was the +Sergeant; he was the drill-master and spokesman for the soldiers, and +had to mark out with flags the position to be taken up by the troops of +the Imperial batons, or Swedish brigades, to arrange the men, placing in +the front and rear ranks and at the sides, the best armed and most +efficient men, to mingle the halberds and short weapons, to lead and +keep with the arquebussiers; he was the instructor of the company, and +knew the proper and warlike use of his weapons. + +As the "mob" who came together from for and near under a banner were +difficult to keep in order, the greater part of them not to be depended +on, and unskilled in the exercise of their weapons, the number of +non-commissioned officers was necessarily very great, frequently indeed +they formed more than a third of the troop. Any one who had military +capacity or could be depended upon, was marked out by the subordinate +commander for higher pay and posts of confidence. Amongst the numerous +functions and manifold designations of the subalterns, some are +particularly characteristic. In the beginning of the war every company +had, according to the old _Landsknecht_ custom, their "leader," who, in +the first instance at least, was chosen by the soldiers. He was the +tribune of the company, their spokesman, who had to lay their grievances +and wishes before the Captain, and to represent the interests of the +soldiery. It may easily be understood that such an arrangement did not +strengthen the discipline of the army; it was done away with in time of +war. Even the thankless office of quartermaster was of greater +importance than now; the complaints of the soldiers, who quarrelled +about the bad quarters he had provided for them, he met with defiance, +and inspired them with fear of his usurious practices. When a company +came to a deserted village, the serjeants threw their knives into the +hat of the quartermaster; he then went from house to house, sticking the +blades as they came to his hand in the door-posts, and every band (of +six or eight men) followed their leader's knife. When poor members of +the nobility, candidates for commission, of whom the number was often +great, presented themselves, their names were inscribed on the list of +lance-corporals. Old vagabonds full of pretension were designated in +the military kitchen Latin by the title of "_Ambesaten_," and +afterwards "_Landspassaten_;" they were orderlies and messengers +receiving higher pay, representatives and assistants of the Corporals. +There was a general endeavour to add a deputy to every office, as the +Lieutenant to the Captain, an under Ensign to the Ensign, to the +Serjeant an under Serjeant, and frequently with the infantry a vidette +for the sentinels at outposts; in the same way serjeants were deputies +to the officers, and the "_Landspassaten_" to the Corporal, and the +provost to the provost-general, &c., &c. + +The army consisted, with few exceptions, of enlisted soldiers. The +Sovereign empowered an experienced leader by patent to raise for him an +army, a regiment, or a company; recruiting places were sought for and a +muster place established where the recruits were collected. The recruits +were paid their travelling expenses or bounty; at the beginning of the +war this was insignificant, and sometimes deducted from their pay, but +later the bounty increased, and was given to the soldiers. At the +beginning of the war negotiations were carried on with every mercenary, +about the pay, at the muster-place. The soldier in quarters received +nothing but his pay, which in 1600, for the common foot soldier, +amounted to from fifteen to sixteen gulden a month.[8] With this they +had to procure for themselves weapons, clothing, and food. Garrisons +were provided with stores by the quartermaster, the cost being +reimbursed to him. During the great war, however, the arrangements about +pay were often deviated from, the distribution of it to the soldiers was +very irregular. + +In the Imperial army the pay, exclusive of food, was nine gulden to the +pikeman and six to the musketeer. In the Swedish army it was still +lower, but was in the beginning more regularly paid, and there was more +care about the provisions. The whole sustenance of the army was charged +upon the province by a hard system of requisition, even on friendly +territory. The maintenance of the upper officers was very high, and yet +formed only a small share of their income. During the time of service +the troops were entered on the muster-roll by a court of comptrol, the +reviewing officer, or commissary of the Prince; in order to prevent the +officers and commanders drawing too much pay, when they were assembled +round the flag, the names of the deserters were written apart, and +beside each name a gallows was painted. At the time of muster if any one +was unserviceable or had served a long time, he was taken off the +muster-roll, and declared free, given his discharge, and provided with a +pass or certificate. Whoever wished for leave, obtained a pass from the +Ensign. The soldier had to clothe himself, uniforms were only found +exceptionally; the halberdiers of the life-guards, and the heavily armed +cavalry, so far as armour was concerned, were generally furnished by the +Sovereign; but before the war it was only occasionally done, and then +pay was deducted for it, or the Colonel took back the armour after the +campaign. + +The military discipline of the Germans was, in the beginning of the war, +in the worst repute. The German soldiers were considered by other +nations as idle, turbulent, refractory bullies;[9] they had been not a +little spoilt by service in half-barbarous countries, as Hungary and +Poland then were, and against the barbarian Turks. When individuals had +to chaffer about their pay, discontent began; when the Captain would not +satisfy the claims of the enlisted mercenary, the malcontent threw his +musket angrily at the feet of the former, and went off with the money +for his travelling expenses, there was no means of detaining him. Though +the Ensign was bound by oath, the Captain only too frequently found +advantage in favouring plunder and the nightly desertion of the banner, +for he had his share of the soldier's booty; the worst thieves were the +best bees. + +The paymasters were always deeply hated, because they generally gave the +regiments short pay and bad coin; they and other commissaries of the +sovereign were exposed to much insult when they came to the camp. The +worst things are related of the Commanders-in-chief, above all, that +they received more pay than they distributed to the soldiers; still +worse were the Generals. Frequently open mutiny broke out, and then the +mutineers placed a Colonel or Captain in the middle of them, and chose +him for their leader. The same thing took place in Hungary. Indeed it +happened, during the armistice preceding the Westphalian peace, that in +a Bavarian dragoon regiment, a corporal of the garrison of Hilperstein +nominated himself Colonel of the regiment, and by the help of his +comrades drove away the officers; the regiment was surrounded by loyal +soldiers, the new Colonel with eighteen of the ringleaders were +executed, the muskets were taken from the regiment, it was resworn and +formed anew as a cavalry regiment. The arrears of pay were the usual +cause of mutiny. In the year 1620, the regiment of Count Mansfeld +mutinied. He began to pay, but meanwhile leaving his tent, struck down +two of the soldiers with his own hands, severely wounding them; he then +mounted his horse, sprang into the midst of the mutineers, and shot many +of them. He alone with three captains subdued the insolence of six +hundred men, after having slain eleven, and severely wounded +six-and-twenty. If it was difficult to secure obedience to military +commands whilst the banner was waving, still greater was the burst of +resentment when it was furled and the regiment was disbanded. Then the +provost, the prostitutes, and the soldiers' sons hid themselves; the +Captain, Lieutenant, and other commanders were obliged to submit to +abusive language and challenges, and to hear themselves thus accosted: +"Ha, you fellow, you have been my commander, now you are not a jot +better than I; a pound of your hair is of no more importance to me than +a pound of cotton; out with you, let's have a scuffle!" Whenever +punishment was administered, the commanders were in danger from the +revenge of the culprit or his friends. The disbanded soldiers quarrelled +amongst each other, as they did with their officers, and sometimes there +were as many as a hundred parties in one place engaged in duelling. The +most wanton death-blows were dealt, and murders perpetrated, such as +have never been heard of since the beginning of Christianity. When the +banner was unfurled, it was customary for the combatants to join hands +and vow to fight out their quarrel when their term of service was ended, +and till then to live together in brotherly love. When this disbanding +took place, the most disorderly of the soldiers combined together and +began an "armour cleaning" of those comrades to whom, during service, +the officers had shown favour; that is to say, they robbed them of all, +deprived them of their clothes, beat and almost killed them. All these +crimes were tolerated, and the powerless commander-in-chief looked +passively on these proceedings as a mere custom of war. + +During the Hungarian campaigns the soldiers adopted the habit of only +remaining by their banners during the summer months; they found their +reckoning in serving a short time, and mutinying if more was desired of +them; for during the autumn and winter they went with two, three, or +more boys as "_Gartbrüder_"[10] through the country, a fearful plague to +the farmers in eastern Germany. In the frontier countries, Silesia, +Austria, Bohemia, and Styria, it was even commanded by the sovereigns to +pay a farthing to every soldier who was roving about as "_Gartbrüder_." +Thus by their refractory conduct they daily obtained a gulden or more; +their boys pilfered where they could, and were notorious poachers. +Wallhausen, whilst making other energetic complaints, reckons that the +support of a standing army would cost less to the princes and states, +and secure greater success against the enemy, than this old bad system. + +More than once during the long war, these wild armies were brought under +the constraint of strict discipline by the powerful will of individuals, +and each time great military successes were obtained; but this was not +of any duration. The discipline of the Wallenstein army was excellent in +a military point of view; but what the commander permitted with regard +to citizens and peasants was horrible. Even Gustavus Adolphus could not +preserve for more than a year, the strict discipline which on his +landing in Pomerania was so triumphantly lauded by the Protestant +ecclesiastics. It is true that the military law and articles of war +contained a number of legal rules for all soldiers, concerning the +forbearance to be observed even in an enemy's land towards the people +and their property. The women, invalids, and aged were under all +circumstances to be spared, and mills and ploughs were not to be +injured. But it is not by the laws themselves, but by the administration +of them, that we can judge of the peculiar characteristics of a period. + +The punishments were in themselves severe. With the Swedes,--for the +embezzlement of money intended for the hospitals or invalid soldiers, +the wooden horse with its iron fittings was awarded, or running the +gauntlet (for this hardy fellows were hired to take upon them the +punishment), or loss of the hand, shooting, or hanging. For whole +divisions,--the loss of their banners, cleaning the camp and lying +outside it, and decimation. In the beginning of the war many of the old +Landsknecht customs were maintained, for instance, their criminal court +of justice, in which the law was decided by the people through select +jurymen. And before the war, together with this, court-martials had been +introduced. During the war a military tribunal was organized according +to the modern German method, under the presidency of the +advocate-general, and the provost-marshal superintended the execution. +But even in punishments there was a difference between the army and the +citizens and peasants. The soldier was put in irons, but not in the +stocks or in prison; no soldier was ever hanged on a common gallows, or +in a common place of execution, but on a tree or on a special gallows, +which was erected in the city for the soldiers in the market-place; the +old form by which the delinquent was given over to the hangman was thus +expressed: "He shall take him to a green tree and tie him up by the +neck, so that the wind may blow under and over him, and the sun shine on +him for three days; then shall he be cut down and buried according to +the custom of war." But the perjured deserter was hanged to a withered +tree. Whoever was sentenced to death by the sword, was taken by the +executioner to a public place, where he was cut in two, the body being +the largest and the head the smallest portion. The provost and his +assistant also were in nowise dishonoured by their office; even the +avoided executioner's assistant, the "_Klauditchen_" of the army, who +was generally taken from among the convicts, and who was allowed to +choose between punishment and this dishonourable office, could, if he +fulfilled his office faithfully, become respectable when the banner was +unfurled; he could then receive his certificate like any other gallant +soldier, and no one could speak evil of him. + +There was one circumstance which distinguished the armies of the Thirty +years' war from those of modern days, and which made their entrance into +a province like an eruption of a heterogeneous race of strangers: each +soldier, in spite of his short term of service in the field, was +accompanied by his household. Not only the higher officers, but also the +troopers and foot-soldiers, took their wives, and still more frequently +their mistresses with them in a campaign. Women from all countries, +adorned to the utmost of their power, followed the army, and sought +entrance into the camp, because they had a husband, friend, or cousin +there. At the mustering or disbanding of a regiment, even respectable +maidens were, through the most cruel artifices, carried off by +disorderly bands, and when the money was all spent, left sometimes +without clothes, or at some carousal sold from one to another. The women +who accompanied the soldiers cooked and washed for them, nursed the +sick, provided them with drink, bore their blows, and on the march +carried the children and any of the plunder or household implements +which could not be conveyed by the baggage waggons. It is known that the +King of Sweden on his first arrival in Germany would not suffer any such +women in the camp; but after his return from Franconia, this strict +discipline seems to have ceased. Whoever peruses the old church records +of the village parishes will find sometimes the names of maidens, who, +having been carried off, returned at the end of a year to their village +home, and submitted themselves to the severest Church penances in order +to die amongst the ruined population of their birthplace. The women of +the camp were also under martial law. For great offences they were +flogged, and driven out of the camp; the soldiers too were hard masters, +and little of what had been promised them in the beginning was kept. + +The children accompanied the women. In the Swedish army military schools +were established by Gustavus Adolphus, in which the children were +instructed even in the camp. In these migratory schools strict military +discipline prevailed, and a story, which cannot be warranted, is told of +a cannon-ball having passed through a school in the Swedish camp, and +having killed many of the children, but the survivors continued their +sum in arithmetic. + +Some soldiers maintained one or more lads, a crafty, stubborn set of +good-for-nothings, who waited upon their masters, cleaned their horses, +sometimes bore their armour, and fed their shaggy dogs; nimble spies who +prowled about far and near on the traces of opulent people, and on the +look-out for concealed money. + +The plundering by the baggage-train was almost worse in a friendly +country. When the soldiers with the women and children came to a +farmhouse, they pounced like hawks upon the poultry in the yard, then +broke open the doors, seized upon the trunks and chests, and with +abusive language, threatened, importuned and destroyed, what they could +not consume or take away. On decamping they compelled the owner to horse +his waggons and take them to their next quarters. Then they filled the +waggons with the clothes, beds, and household goods of the farmers, +binding round their bodies what could not otherwise be carried away. + +"Frequently," says the indignant narrator Wallhausen, "the women did not +choose to be drawn by oxen, and it was necessary to procure horses, +sometimes from a distance of six miles, to the great cost of the country +people, and when they came with the waggons to the nearest quarters, +they would not allow the poor people to return home; but dragged them +with them to another territory, and at last stole the horses and made +off." + +In the beginning of the war, a German infantry regiment had to march for +some days through the country of their own sovereign; there were as +many women and children with the baggage-train, as soldiers, and they +stole in eight days from the subjects of their sovereign almost +sufficient horses for each soldier to ride. The colonel, a just and +determined man, frequently dragged the soldiers himself from the horses, +and at last enforced their restoration by extreme severity. But it was +impossible to prevent the women from riding; there was not one who had +not a stolen horse, and if they did not ride them they harnessed them +three or four together to the peasants' carts. + +Only a few of the otherwise copious writers of that time make mention of +this despised portion of the army; yet there are sufficient accounts, +from which we may conclude that great influence was produced by the +baggage-train on the fate of the army and the country. Especially by the +enormous extent of it. At the end of the sixteenth century Adam Junghans +reckons, that in a besieged fortress where the camp-followers were +reduced to the smallest possible number, to three hundred infantry +soldiers, there were fifty women and forty children, besides sutlers, +horseboys, &c., &c., somewhat more than a third of the soldiers. But in +the field the proportion was quite different even in the beginning of +the war. Wallhausen reckons as indispensable to a German regiment of +infantry, four thousand women, children, and other followers. A regiment +of three thousand men had at least three hundred waggons, and every +waggon was full to repletion of women, children, and plundered goods; +when a company broke up from its quarters, it was considered an act of +self-denial if it did not carry away with it thirty or more waggons. At +the beginning of the war a regiment of north German soldiers, three +thousand strong, started from the muster-place where it had remained +some time, followed by two thousand women and children. + +From that time the baggage-train continued increasing to the end of the +war. It was only for a brief space of time that great commanders, like +Tilly, Wallenstein, and Gustavus Adolphus were able to diminish this +great plague of the army. In 1648, at the end of the great war, the +Bavarian General, Gronsfeld, reports that in the Imperial and Bavarian +armies there were forty thousand soldiers who drew war rations, and a +hundred and forty thousand who did not; on what were these to subsist if +they did not obtain their food by plunder, especially as in the whole +country where the army encamped, there was not a single place where a +soldier could buy a bit of bread. In the year 1648 the camp-followers +were more than three times the number of the fighting-men. These numbers +tell more significantly than any deductions, what a dreadful amass of +misery surrounded these armies. + +Before we proceed to describe the influence which armies thus composed +exercised upon the life of the German people, we must once more remind +the reader, that this monstrous evil was not created by the Thirty +years' war, but for the most part already in existence. Some +observations will therefore be here introduced from the above-quoted +and now rare little book, written by Adam Junghans von der Olnitz, at +that period when the worth and capacity of the old Landsknecht army +passed away into the wild dissolute life of mercenaries. It appears here +as the prologue to the monstrous tragedy which began twenty years later. + +"Each and every officer, captain of horse, or other captain, knows well +that no doctors, magisters, or any other God-fearing people, follow in +his train, but only a heap of ill-disposed lads, out of all kinds of +nations; strange folks, who leave wives and children, abandon their +duties, and follow the army; all that will not follow the pursuits of +their fathers and mothers, must follow the calf-skin which is spread +over the drum, till they come to a battle or assault, where thousands +lie on the field of battle, shot or cut to pieces; for a Landsknecht's +life hangs by a hair, and his soul flutters on his cap or his sleeve. +Besides, three kinds of herbs always grow with war; these are, sharp +rule, fifty forbidden articles, and severe judgment with speedy +sentence, which fits many a neck with a hempen collar. + +"It is not enough that a soldier should be strong, straight, manly, +tyrannical, bloody-minded, in his actions like a grim lion, and behave +like a bully, as if he himself would catch and eat the devil alone, so +that none of his comrades should partake of him; but these +trigger-pullers wantonly bring themselves to destruction by their +stupidity, and other good fellows with them. Another is a snorer, and a +kicker, and stamps like a wild horse on the straw, and when he goes +into battle, and the balls whistle about his head, he is a martyr and +poor sinner, who would for very fear soil his hosen, and allow his +weapon to fall from his hand. But when they sit at the tap, or in the +cantinières' stalls, or in public-houses, then they have seen much and +can do nothing but fight, then a fly on the wall irritates them, there +is no peace with them, then they are ready to fight the enemy with great +curses. Such 'bear-prickers' are generally found out; one seldom finds +one who is not maimed in the hands or arms, or has a scar on the cheek, +and they have never really all their lives long, faced the enemy. The +captain may well keep clear of such fellows, for they are generally +seditious mutineers. A wise soldier avoids quarrels and public-house +brawls whenever he can, that he may have his skin whole and uninjured +to bring in front of the enemy. To be wounded by the enemy is an +honour, but he who injures himself wantonly must expect scorn and +derision, and is of no use to any army. Such a fellow must remain all +his life a paltry beggar; he roves about the country, begs bread and +sells it again, feeds like a wolf, and when the rats and mice are +drowned in the countrywoman's milk, he maintains himself on the cheese +made from it, and must submit to the rough words of the peasants, and +herd with other poor beggars to the end of his life. Besides these, +there are many who wish to be soldiers, mothers' sons, beardless boys, +like young calves, who know nothing of suffering, who have sat beside +the stove and roasted apples, and lain in warm beds. When they are +brought to a foreign country, and meet with all kind of strange +arrangements, food, drink, and other things, they are like soft eggs +that flow through the fingers, or like paper when it lies in the water. +It is thus not only with foot Landsknechte, but also with young nobles. +When they are led to the field in devastated countries, where all is +consumed and laid waste, and they can no longer carry their well-filled +bread wallets and drinking-flasks on their necks, they first pine away, +hunger and thirst, then eat and drink unusual things, from which result +all kinds of maladies. These delicate vagabonds ought to remain at home, +attend to the tillage, or sit in the shop by the pepper-bags, and shift +for themselves, as their fathers and mothers have done, fill their +stomachs at eventide, and go to bed; thus they would not be slain in +war. It is truly said that soldiers must be hardy and enduring people, +like unto steel and iron, and like the wild beasts that can eat all +kinds of food. According to the jocose saying, the Landsknechte must be +able to digest the points of their wheel-nails; nothing must come amiss +to them, even if necessity required that they should eat dogs' or cats' +flesh, and the flesh of horses from the meadow must be like good venison +to them, with herbs unseasoned by salt or butter. Hunger teaches to eat, +if one has not seen bread for three weeks. Drink one may have gratis, +for if one can get no water from the brook, one can drink with the geese +out of the pond or the puddle. One must sleep under a tree, or in the +field; there is plenty of earth to lie on, and of sky for a canopy; such +must often be the Landsknecht's sleeping-room, and from such a bed no +feathers will stick to his hair. Hence arises the old quarrel between +the fowls and geese and the Landsknechte, because the former can always +sleep in feathers, whilst the latter must often lie in straw. There is +another animal that clashes with the Landsknechte, that is the cat; as +the soldiers know well how to pilfer, they are enemies to the cats, and +friendly to the dogs. According to the old doggerel, a Landsknecht +should always have with him a beautiful woman, a dog, and a young boy, a +long spear, and a short sword; he is free to seek any master who will +give him service. A Landsknecht must make three campaigns before he can +become an honourable man. After the first campaign, he must return home +wearing torn clothes; after the second, he should return with a scar on +one cheek, and be able to tell much of alarms, battles, skirmishes and +storming parties, and to show by his scars that he has got the marks of +a Landsknecht; after the third, he should return well appointed, on a +fine charger, bringing with him a purse full of gold, so that he may be +able to distribute whole dollars as he would booty-pence. + +"It is truly said, that a soldier must have to eat and drink, whether it +is paid for by the sacristan or the priest; for a Landsknecht has +neither house nor farm, cows nor calves, and no one to bring him food; +therefore he must procure it himself wherever it is to be found, and buy +without money whether the peasants look sweet or sour. Sometimes they +must suffer hunger and evil days, at others they have abundance, and +indeed such superfluity, that they might clean their shoes with wine or +beer. Then their dogs eat roast; the women and children get good +appointments, they become stewards and cellarers of other people's +property. When the householder is driven away with his wife and +children, the fowls, geese, fat cows, oxen, pigs, and sheep have a bad +time of it. The money is portioned out in their caps, velvet and silk +stuffs and cloth are measured out by long spears; a cow is slaughtered +for the sake of the hide; chests and trunks are broken open, and when +all has been plundered and nothing more remains, the house is set on +fire. That is the true Landsknecht's fire, when fifty villages and +country towns are in flames. Then they go to other quarters and do the +like again; this makes soldiers jolly, and is a desirable life for those +who do not pay for it. This entices to the field many a mother's child, +who does not return home, and forgets his friends. For the proverb says: +'The Landsknechte have crooked fingers and maimed hands for work, but +for pilfering and plundering all the maimed hands become sound.' That +has been so before our days, and will remain so truly after us. The +longer the Landsknechte learn this handiwork the better they do it, and +become circumspect, like the three maidens who had four cradles made, +the fourth as a provision in case one of them had two children. Wherever +the soldiers come, they bring with them the keys of all the rooms, their +axes and hatchets, and if there are not enough stalls in a place for +their horses, it does not signify, they stall them in the churches, +monasteries, chapels, and best rooms. If there is no dry wood for fire, +it matters not, they burn chairs, benches, ploughs, and everything that +is in the house; if they want green wood, no one need go far, they cut +down the fruit trees in the nearest orchard; for they say, whilst we +live here we keep house, to-morrow we go off again into the country, +therefore, Mr. Host, be comforted; you have a few guests you would +gladly be free from, therefore give freely and write it on the slate. +When the house is burnt the account is burnt also. This is the +Landsknechts' custom; to make a reckoning and ride off, and pay when we +return. + +"The French, Italians, and Walloons are as adverse to the Germans as to +dogs, but the Spaniards are friendly to them; they however have an +unheard-of weakness for women, and are disposed to profligate and +godless conduct. Altogether, the Germans are but little thought of by +these nations, who call them nothing but drunkards, proud featherpates, +mighty braggadocios, blasphemers of God, '_Hans Muffmaff_' with the +beggar's wallet, who would willingly play the great man. And if one +comes to look at it, it is not far from the truth. For there is a new +custom amongst the North Germans when they go to war, or collect +together under a master, they spend all their goods and possessions on +ostentatious splendour, as if they were going to a bride, or riding to a +banquet. Thus the Germans who were formerly called the Blackriders, come +riding along with silver daggers, seven pound in weight, in velvet +clothes, and shining boots, with short holster pistols inlaid with +ivory, and large wide padded sleeves; they are ashamed of carrying +cuirass or armour, or indeed a spear, or any other murderous weapons, as +in the olden time. Hence it arises, that they never hold together. Then +when Hans Spaniard comes with his tilting spear and proof armour, these +chaw-bacons, with their short holster pistols, must run away or yield +their money and blood. + +"Further, it is a misfortune to the Germans, that they take to +imitating, like monkeys and fools. As soon as they come amongst other +soldiers, they must have Spanish or other outlandish clothes. If they +could babble foreign languages a little, they would associate themselves +with Spaniards and Italians. The Germans would like to mingle with +foreign nations, and take pleasure in outlandish dress and manners, 'but +one should not place the vermin in the fur, it comes there without.' It +is clear that foreign people have become our neighbours, and it is to be +feared that they will in a few years come nearer. The frontier lords, +who still rest in tranquillity, fight against the wind, speak quite +wisely thereupon, comfort themselves, and have in talk, all their cities +and villages full of soldiers to defend the country and withstand all +enemies. But I fear that they prefer sitting by the stove in winter, and +in the shade in summer, playing draughts, or striking the guitar, or +dancing with _Jungfrau_ Greta, to providing their houses with good +weapons or armour. + +"On this account, and because all foreign nations cry out all over +Germany, '_Cruci, cruci, mordio, mordio!_' and grind their teeth like +ravenous wolves, and desire and hope to bathe in German blood, one must +earnestly pray God not to withdraw his hand, but to take under his +protection this little vessel, tossed on the wild sea, cover it with his +wings, and preserve it from all storms; for we see how the Roman Empire +has declined from day to day, and still continues to do so. These +sufferings come from nothing but the proceedings of the ecclesiastics, +whereof the whole world complains. If one finds one right-minded +preacher there are ten to the contrary; every tradesman praises his own +wares, everyone will feed his own flock, and lead them the right way to +heaven, yet no one knows, save the devil and our Lord, where the false +shepherds go to themselves. Every one abuses, slanders, and condemns the +other; when they stand in the pulpit, the devil is their preceptor, who +helps them to manage so that one kingdom is at variance with another, +one country rebellious against the other; neighbour can no longer agree +with neighbour; nay one finds even at one table four or five different +faiths, one will worship on this mountain and another on yonder. May the +eternal Almighty God strengthen the hearts of the dear North Germans, +give them an upright spirit, and raise them up again, that they may one +day rise from the ashes, and renew their ancient repute, and their good +name. God help the righteous." + +Thus writes an honourable officer before the year 1600. + + + + + CHAPTER II. + + THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.--LIFE AND MANNERS OF THE SOLDIERS. + + +Almost all the people of Europe sent their least promising sons to the +long war. Not only did foreign mercenaries follow the recruiting drum +like crows to the battle-field, but the whole of Christian Europe was +drawn into the struggle; foreigners trampled on the German soil in +companies and regiments: English and Scotch, Danes, Fins and Swedes, +besides the Netherlanders (whom the people considered as countrymen), +fought on the side of the Protestants. Even the Laplanders came with +their reindeer to the German coast; in the winter months of 1630 they +brought upon their sledges over the ice, furs for the Swedish army. But +still more chequered did the Imperial army look. The Roumaun Walloons, +Irish adventurers, Spaniards, Italians, and almost every Sclavonic race +broke into the country; worst of all the light cavalry,--Cossacks, +Polish auxiliaries (who were for the most part slaughtered by the +country people in 1620), Stradiots (among them undoubtedly some +Mahomedans), and, most hated of all, the Croats. The position of the +Emperor in the beginning of the war was striking in this respect, that +he had almost nothing but Sclavonic and Roumaun soldiers, and only +Roumaun money to oppose the Germans. By them the national rising was +crushed, and it is probable that half the troops of the League consisted +of foreigners. + +Each army was a sample of the different nationalities; in each there was +an intermixture of many languages; and the hatred of nations seldom +ceased even when fighting under the same colours. It was especially +necessary in the camp to arrange the regiments according to the good +understanding between them. Germans and Italians were always kept apart. + +The Field-marshal or Quartermaster-general chose the site of the camp; +if possible by running water, and in a position which was favourable for +defence. First of all was measured out the place for the General and his +staff; large ornamented tents were raised on the ground thus set apart, +which was divided from the rest of the camp by barriers and by planting +spears, frequently even by fortifications. An open place was left close +to it for the main-guard; if the army remained long encamped, a gallows +was erected there as a warning. The position of each regiment and +company was marked out with branches; the troops were marched in, the +ranks were opened, the colours of each regiment were planted in the +ground in rows side by side; behind in parallel lines lay the encampment +of the company, always fifty men in a row; near the colours was the +Ensign, in the middle the Lieutenant, at the rear the Captain, and +behind all the tents of the superior officers and officials; the surgeon +next to the Ensign, and the chaplain near the Captain. The officers +lived in tents, often in conical forms fastened with cords to the +ground. The soldiers built themselves little huts of planks and straw. +The pikemen planted their pikes in the ground near the huts; the pikes, +short spears, halberds, partisans, and standards showed from afar the +rank and weapons of the inhabitant of the tent. Two or four soldiers +were generally housed in a hut, with their wives, children, and dogs. +Thus they lay encamped, company by company, regiment by regiment, in +great squares or circles, the whole camp surrounded by a large space +which served as an alarm post. Before the Thirty years' war it was +customary to set up a barricade round the camp; then the train or +baggage waggons were pushed together in double or more rows, and bound +by chains or fastenings to the great square or circle, leaving free the +necessary openings. Then also the cavalry had their camp next the inner +side of the waggons; the necessary partitions were erected for the +horses near the huts and tents of the horsemen. This custom had become +obsolete, and it was only occasionally that the waggons surrounded the +camp, but it was protected by trenches, mounds, and field-pieces. At the +openings sentinels were posted, outside the camp, troops of horse and a +chain of outposts of musketeers or arquebussiers were stationed. Each +Ensign planted the colours before his tent; near it was the drummer of +the company, and a musketeer kept watch with a burning match in his hand +and his musket supported horizontally on its rest. + +In such a camp it was that the wild soldiery dwelt in unbridled licence, +insupportable to the neighbourhood even in a friendly country. The +provinces, cities, and villages were obliged to supply wood, straw, +fodder, and provisions, the waggons rolled along every road, and droves +of fat cattle were collected. The neighbouring villages quickly +disappeared; as all the wood-work and thatching was torn away by the +soldiers and employed in building their huts, only the shattered clay +walls remained. The soldiers and their boys roved about the +neighbourhood, plundering and stealing, and the cantineers drove about +with their carts. In the camp the soldiers congregated in front of +their huts; meanwhile the women cooked, washed, mended the clothes and +squabbled together; there was constant tumult and uproar and bloody +crimes, fighting with bare weapons, and combats between the different +services or nations. Every morning the crier and the trumpet called to +prayer, even among the Imperialists; early on the Sunday the regimental +chaplain performed service in the camp, then the soldiers and their +households seated themselves devoutly on the ground, and it was +forbidden for any one during service to loiter and drink in the +canteens. It is known how much Gustavus Adolphus inculcated pious habits +and prayers; after his arrival in Pomerania he caused prayers to be read +twice a day in his camp, but even in his army, it was necessary in the +articles of war to admonish the chaplains against drunkenness. + +In the open space in front of the main-guard was the gambling ground, +covered with cloaks and set with tables, round which all the gamesters +crowded. There the card-playing of the old Landsknechte gave place to +the quicker games of the dice. The use of dice was frequently forbidden +in the camp, and stopped by the captain of the guard and the provost; +then the gamblers assembled privately behind the fence, and played away +their ammunition, bread, horses, weapons, and clothes, so that it was +found necessary to place them under the supervision of the main-guard. +Three square dice were rolled on each cloak or table, called in camp +language "_Schelmbeine_;" each set had its croupier; to him belonged the +cloak, table, and dice; he had the office of judge in cases of dispute, +and his share of the winnings, but also frequently of blows. There was +much cheating and cogging; many dice had two fives or sixes, many, two +aces or deuces, others were filled with quicksilver and lead, split +hair, sponge, chaff, and charcoal; there were dice made of stags-horn, +heavy below and light above, "_Niederländer_,"[11] which must be slid +along, and "_Oberländer_,"[12] which must be thrown "from Bavarian +Heights" for them to fall right; often the noiseless work was +interrupted by curses, quarrels, and flashing rapiers. Lurking +tradespeople, frequently Jews, slipped in, ready to value and buy up the +rings, chains, and booty staked. + +Behind the tents of the upper officers and the regimental provost, +separated from them by a wide street, stood the shops of the cantineers +in parallel cross rows. Cantineers, butchers, and common victuallers +formed an important community. The price of their goods was decided by +the provost, who received a perquisite in money or in kind; for example, +he received a tongue for every beast that was killed. On every cask +which was to be tapped, he wrote the retail price with chalk. By these +compacts, and the favour of the powerful, which was to be bought by +time-serving, the purveyors of the army maintained a proportionably +secure position, and insured themselves the payment, though irregular, +of their long tallies, which were scored equally for the officers and +soldiers. In good times traders came from afar to the camp with +expensive stuffs, jewels, gold and silver workmanship, and delicacies. +In the beginning of the war especially, the officers set a bad example +to the army by their extreme luxury; every captain would have a French +cook, and consumed the dearest wine in great quantities. + +The military signals of the camp were, for the infantry the beat of the +drum, for the cavalry the trumpet: the drum was very large, the drummer +often a half-grown boy, sometimes the fool of the company. In the +beginning of the war, the German army had in many cases a uniform beat. +Every command from the General to the camp, had to be proclaimed by a +herald riding through it with a trumpeter. On such occasions the herald +wore over his dress a "tabard" of coloured silk, embroidered before and +behind with the arms of the sovereign. This proclamation, which +announced to the camp in the evening the work of the following day, was +very destructive to secret and rapid operations; it was also very +injurious to discipline, for it announced to the loiterers and robbers +of the camp, the night when they might steal out for booty. + +When times were prosperous, a battle won, a rich city plundered, or an +opulent district laid under contribution, everything was plentiful, food +and drink cheap; and it once happened, in the last year of the war, that +in the Bavarian camp a cow was bought for a pipe of tobacco. The Croats +of the Imperial army in Pomerania, in the winter of 1630 and 1631, had +their girdles overlaid with gold, and whole plates of gold and silver on +the breast. Paul Stockmann, a pastor at Lützen, relates, that in the +Imperial army, before the battle of Lützen, one horseman had his horse +decorated with a quantity of golden stars, and another with three +hundred silver moons; and the soldiers' women wore the most beautiful +church dresses and mass vestments, and that some Stradiots rode in +plundered priests' dresses, to the great mirth of their comrades. In +these times also carousers drank to one another in costly wine from the +chalices, and caused long chains to be made of the plundered gold, from +which, according to the old knightly custom, they severed links to pay +for a carousal. But the longer the war lasted the more rare were these +golden times. The devastation of the country revenged itself fearfully +on the army itself; the pale spectre of hunger, the forerunner of +pestilence, glided through the lines of the camp, and raised its bony +hand against every straw hut. Then supplies from the surrounding +districts ceased, the price of provisions was raised so as to be almost +unattainable; a loaf of bread, for example, in the Swedish army in 1640, +at Gotha, cost a ducat. Hollow-eyed pale faces, sick and dying men, were +to be seen in every row of huts; the vicinity of the camp was +pestilential from the decaying bodies of dead animals. All around was a +wilderness of uncultivated fields, blackened with the ruins of villages, +and the camp itself a dismal city of death. + +A broad stream of superstition had flowed through the souls of the +people from ancient times up to the present day, and the soldier's life +of the Thirty years' war revived an abundance of peculiar superstitions, +of which a portion continues even now; it is worth while to dwell a +little upon these characteristic phenomena. + +The belief that it is possible to make the body proof by magic against +the weapons of the enemy, and on the other hand to make your own arms +fatal to them, is older than the historical life of the German people. +In the earliest times, however, something gloomy was attached to this +art; it might easily become pregnant with fatality, even to its +votaries. The invulnerability was not unconditional, and succumbed to +the stronger counter-magic of the offensive weapon: Achilles had a heel +which was not invulnerable; no weapon could wound the Norse god Baldur, +but the waving of a branch of misletoe by a blind man killed him; +Siegfried had a weak spot between the shoulders, the same which the +soldiers of the Thirty years' war considered also as vulnerable. Among +the numerous Norse traditions are many accounts of charmed weapons: the +sword, the noblest weapon of heroes, was considered as a living being, +also as a slaying serpent or a destroying fire; when it was shattered, +it was spoken of by the Norse poets as dying. It was unnecessary to +charm swords forged by dwarfs, as there was a destroying magic concealed +in them; thus the sword of Hagens, the father of Hilda, was death to any +man when it was drawn from the sheath, magic Runic character being +scratched on the hilt and blade of it. + +The introduction of fire-arms gave a new aspect and a wider scope to +this superstition; the flash and report of the weapon, and the distant +striking of the ball, imposed the more on the fancy, the less the +imperfect weapon was certain of hitting: the course of the deadly shot +was considered malicious and incalculable. Undoubtedly the literature of +the Reformation seldom touched upon this kind of magic; it first made +itself heard in the middle of the century, when it served to portray the +condition of the people. But in armies, the belief in magic was general +and widely spread, travelling scholars and gipsies were the most zealous +vendors of its secrets, one generation of Landsknechte imparted it to +the next: in Italy and in the armies of Charles V., Italian and German +superstitions were mixed, and in the time of Fronsperg and Schärtlin +almost every detail of the art of rendering invulnerable is to be found. +Luther, in 1527, inveighs against the superstition of the soldiery: "One +commits himself to St. George, another to St. Christopher, some to one +saint, some to another; some can charm iron and gun-flints, others can +bless the horse and his rider, and some carry the gospel of St. +John,[13] or somewhat else with them, in which they confide." He himself +had known a Landsknecht, who, though made invulnerable by the devil, was +killed, and announced beforehand the day and place of his death. +Bernhard von Milo, Seneschal at Wittenberg, sent to Luther for his +opinion on a written charm for wounds; it was a long roll of paper +written in wonderful characters. + +When the Augsburg gunner, Samuel Zimmermann the elder, wrote the +experiences of his life up to 1591, in a folio volume, under the title +of '_Charms against all Stabs, Strokes, and Shots, full of great +secrets_,' he mentions only the defensive incantations, which he did not +consider as the works of Belial; but it is apparent from his manuscript +that many devilish arts were known to him, which he intended to conceal. +Another well-known Zimmermann, who was hardened, received a fearful blow +from a dagger; there was no wound to be seen, but he died shortly after +from the internal effect of the blow. In 1558 there was an invulnerable +soldier in the regiment of Count Lichtenstein, who, after every +skirmish, shook the enemy's balls off his dress and his bare body; he +often showed them, and the holes burnt through his clothes; he was at +last slain by some foreign peasants. + +When the Italians and Spaniards entered the Netherlands in 1568, they +carried along with them, with little success, whole packets and books +full of magic formulas of conjurations and charms. The French found +talismans and magic cards fastened round the necks of the prisoners and +the dead, of the Brandenburg troops who had been led by Burgrave Fabian +von Dohna, in 1587, as auxiliaries to the Huguenots. When the Jesuit +George Scheerer preached at the Court Chapel at Vienna in 1594, before +the Archduke Matthias and his Generals, he found it necessary to exhort +them earnestly against the use of superstitious charms for cuts, stabs, +shots, and burns. + +It is therefore unjust in later writers to state, that the art of +rendering invulnerable was introduced at Passau by a travelling scholar +in the seventeenth century, as Grimmelshausen informs us, or as others +will have it, that it was brought into the German army by Kaspar +Reithardt von Hersbruck, the executioner; for when Archduke Leopold, the +Bishop of Passau, raised the reckless and ill-disciplined bands which +spread terror through Alsace and Bohemia by their barbarities, his +soldiers only adopted the old traditions which were rooted in German +heathenism, and had lingered on through the whole of the middle ages; +nay, even the name, "_Passau art_," which has been customary since then, +may rest on a misunderstanding of the people, for in the sixteenth +century all who bore charms about them to render them invulnerable were +called by the learned soldier, "_Pessulanten_," or "_Charakteristiker_," +and whoever understood the art of dissolving a charm was a "_Solvent_." +It is possible that the first of these popular designations was changed +into "_Passauer_." + +Even in the first year of the Thirty years' war, the art of rendering +invulnerable was eagerly discussed. A good account of it can be found in +'The true narrative of the siege and capture by storm of the city of +Pilsen in Bohemia, 1619.' The passage according to our dialect is as +follows: + +"An adventurer under Mansfeld, called Hans Fabel, once took a tumbler of +beer up to the city trenches and drank it to the besieged. They saluted +him with powder and shot; but he drank up his tumbler of beer, thanked +them, entered the trenches and took five balls from his bosom. This +'_Pilmiskind_,'[14] although he was so invulnerable, was taken very +sick, and died before the capture of the town. This magical art, 'Passau +art,' has become quite common; one would sooner have shot at a rock than +at such a charmed fellow. I believe that the devil hides in their skin. +One good fellow indeed often charms another, even when the person so +charmed does not know it, and still less desires it. A small boy from +fourteen to fifteen years of age was shot in the arm when he was beating +the drum, but the ball rebounded from the arm to the left breast, and +did not penetrate; this was seen by many. But those who use this magic +come to a bad end; I have known many such lose their lives in a terrible +way, for one delusion struggles against another. Their devilish sorcery +is expressly against the first and other commandments of God. Assiduous +prayer and faith in God gives other means of support. If any one in +presence of the enemy perishes not, it is God's will. If he is struck, +the angels take him to heaven, but those who are charmed are taken by +Black Kaspar."[15] + +Numerous were the means employed by men to make themselves and others +invulnerable. Even this superstition was governed tyrannically by +fashion. Of very ancient date are the charmed shirts, and the Victory +and St. George's shirts; they were prepared in different ways for the +Landsknechte. On Christmas night, according to ancient tradition, +certain virgins used to spin linen thread in the name of the devil, +weave and stitch it; on the breast two heads were embroidered, the one +on the right side with a beard, and the left like that of king +Beelzebub, with a crown, dark reminiscences of the holy heads of Donar +and Wuotan. According to later custom the charmed shirt must be spun by +maidens under the age of seven; it was to be sewed with particular cross +stitches, laid secretly on the altar till three masses had been read +over it. On the day of battle such a charmed shirt was worn under the +dress, and if the wearer received a wound, it was owing to other thread +having been mixed with that which was charmed. + +Superstition gladly availed itself of the miraculous power of the +Christian Church, even when in opposition to law. The gospel of St. John +was written elaborately on thin paper and placed secretly under the +altar cover in a Roman Catholic church, and left there till the priest +had thrice read the mass over it; then it was placed in a quill or the +shell of a hazel nut, and the opening was cemented with Spanish lac or +wax, or this capsule was framed in gold or silver and hung round the +neck. Others received the host at the Lord's supper, accompanying it +with a silent invocation to the devil; taking the wafer out of their +mouths again, they separated the skin from the flesh in some part of the +body, placed the wafer there, and let the wound heal over it. The most +reckless gave themselves up entirely to the devil; such people could not +only make other men invulnerable, but even eatables, such as butter, +cheese, and fruit, so that the sharpest knife could not penetrate +them.[16] + +There was a change of form and name in the written parchments also which +contained charms. + +"_Pope Leo's blessing_" originated in the early Landsknecht times; it +contained good Christian words and promises. Besides this there was the +"_Blessing of the Knight of Flanders_," so called because a knight who +had once worn it could not be beheaded; it was written in strange +characters and types interspersed with signs of the cross. Then there +was "_The benediction_," or charm in time of need, which in a moment of +danger arrested the sword or gun of the enemy.[17] + +Similar were the "_Passau charms_" of the seventeenth century, written +on post paper, virgin parchment, or the host, with a peculiar pen in +bat's blood; the superstition was in strange characters, wizard feet, +circles, crosses, and the letters of foreign languages; according to +Grimmelshausen[18] the rhyme runs thus: Devil help me, body and soul +give I thee. When fastened under the left arm they expelled the shot and +closed the guns of the enemy. Sometimes even the charms were eaten. But +opinions concerning their efficacy were fluctuating. Some thought them +safeguards only for four-and-twenty hours; but according to others their +magic did not begin to work till after the first four-and-twenty hours, +and whoever was shot before that time belonged to the devil. Other +charms were also used for protection, everything odious and dismal was +collected together, and what had been fearful in the ancient mythology +continued to retain its old power. A piece of the cord or chain by which +a man had been hung, or the beard of a goat, the eyes of a wolf, the +head of a bat and the like, worn round the body in a purse of black +cat's skin, rendered a person invulnerable. Hair balls (a mass of hair +from the stomach of the chamois), and the caul in which children are +born, gave invulnerability; he who had never eaten kidneys was secure +from shot or pestilence, and it was believed at Augsburg, that a famous +knight and experienced General, Sebastian Schärtlin, had thus protected +himself before the enemy. + +Old magic herbs, as endive, verbena, St. John's wort, chickweed, +vervain, mallow, and garlick were used as charms, and the most powerful +of all, the deadly nightshade. It was necessary to dig them up with the +best new sharpened steel, and never to touch them with the bare hand, +least of all with the left, and they were carried like an _Agnus Dei_. +They were circular, and only found on the battle-fields of great +battles, and were, as Zimmermann says, sacred for the sake of the dead. +Besides these there was a fire-coloured flower which Cabalists called +"Efdamanila;" it not only protected the wearer from shot, stabs, and +fire, but when it was hung over the wall in a besieged town near the +enemy's cannon, they were spell-bound for a whole month. + +Amulet medals also were early in use: in 1555, at the battle of +Marienburg, between the Princes of Orange and Nevers, a little child was +struck on the neck by a shot, a silver medal was doubled up, and the +child remained unhurt; this great effect was then ascribed to an amulet +parchment which the child wore round his neck near the medal. But about +the same time the "Sideristen," who were experienced in astronomical +science, poured out heavenly influence in invulnerable medals of silver +and fine gold, which were worn round the neck. Thurneisser spread also +these kinds of amulets in Northern Germany. An accidental circumstance +brought the Mansfeld St. George's thaler into repute in the Thirty +years' war, especially those of 1611 and 1613, bearing the inscription, +"With God is counsel and action." + +Not only the common soldiers, but many great commanders also had the +repute of being invulnerable: not Pappenheim, indeed, who was wounded in +almost every action, but Holk, who was supposed at last to have been +carried away to hell by the devil in person; Tilly, for whom, after the +battle of Breitenfeld, the affrighted surgeon found he had only bruises +to dress; Wallenstein and his kinsman Terzka; even the sword of +Gustavus Adolphus was considered to be enchanted. Ahaz Willenger also, +leader after the death of Fardinger, of the revolted Austrian peasants, +was rendered so hard that a cannon-ball at seven paces rebounded from +his skin without penetrating it; he was at last killed by an officer of +Pappenheim. All the Princes of the house of Savoy were considered +invulnerable, even, after the Thirty years' war. Field-Marshal +Schauenburg tried it with Prince Thomas when he besieged him in an +Italian fortress; the bullets of the best marksmen missed their aim. No +one knew whether the members of that noble house had especial grace, +because they were of the race of the royal prophet David, or whether the +art of rendering themselves invulnerable was hereditary. + +There were hardly any who did not believe in the mystic art. The +renowned French General Messire Jacques de Puysegur, in the French civil +war in 1622, was obliged to compass the death of an opponent, _qui avait +un caractère_, by blows of a strong pole on his neck, because he had no +weapon that could kill him; he recounts this circumstance to his King. +At the blockade of Magdeburg in 1629, the complaint against these +practices became so general, that the parties engaged in this war +entered into negotiations concerning it. Gustavus Adolphus, in his first +article of war, earnestly forbade idolatry, witchcraft, or the charming +of weapons as sins against God. + +But the dark powers which the soldier invoked to his aid were +treacherous. They did not protect against everything; it was, to say +the least, very unsatisfactory that they did not preserve from the hand +of the executioner: Zimmermann relates many cases in which the +far-reaching hopes of an invulnerable person and his adherents were +disappointed at the place of execution. Certain portions of the body, +the neck, and the back between the shoulders, the armpits, and the under +part of the knee, were considered not hard or invulnerable. The body +also was only charmed against the common metals of lead or iron. The +simplest weapons of peasants, a wooden club, bullets of more precious +metals, and sometimes inherited silver could kill the invulnerable. Thus +an Austrian governor of Greifswald, on whom the Swedes had fired more +than twenty balls, could only be shot by the inherited silver button +that a soldier carried in his pocket. Thus too a witch in Schleswig was +changed into a were-wolf, and shot by inherited silver.[19] The magic +also could be broken by other mixtures, by cast balls, and by magically +consecrated weapons. Rye bread which had been leavened and baked on +Easter night, was rubbed crosswise over the edge of the steel, and signs +were indelibly impressed on blades and barrels: it was known how to +cast balls which killed without injuring the skin, others which must +draw blood, and some which broke every invulnerability; these were +prepared by mixtures of pulverized grains of corn, antimony, and +thunder-stones, and cooled in poison. But these arts were considered +supernatural and dangerous. Besides these they tried "natural" devices +which might be resorted to with advantage, even by an honourable +soldier. They imagined they could prepare gunpowder with a mixture of +pounded dogs' bones, which would make no report. Powder was also +prepared by which the person shot was only stunned for hours; other +powder that did not explode, even when glowing steel was inserted. By a +mixture of borax and quicksilver they produced a mining powder by which +the enemy's pieces were blown up, in case there was not time to spike +them. They sought after the secret of giving a man double strength +without magic. + +There was a peculiar and also very old kind of magic, which spell-bound +the enemy by mystic sentences, which were recited in moments of danger. +The adept could fix whole troops of horsemen and infantry: in the same +way, by other sentences, they could dissolve the spell. There was still +another kind of sorcery; horsemen were made to appear on the field of +battle, that is to say, when support was required in imminent danger, +deceptive appearance was produced, as if soldiers were approaching in +the distance. Both these conjurations are relics of the heathen occult +sciences, the echoes of which may still be discovered in manifold tales +and traditions, even up to the present day. + +The gloomy provost was the man in the regiment who was held in the most +awe; he was naturally considered as pre-eminently an adept. In 1618, it +was supposed that the executioner of Pilsen could, with the help of an +assistant, fire daily three fatal balls against the camp of Mansfeld; +after the capture of the city, he was hanged on a special gallows. The +provost of the Hatzfeld army of 1636 was still more versed in sorcery: +he was killed by the Swedes with an axe, because he was magically +hardened. It was very much in the interest of these authorities to keep +up amongst the revengeful soldiery the belief in their invulnerability. + +We may add to these delusions, the endeavours of individuals to read +from the course of the stars the events and issue of the war, and their +own fate. Prognostics accumulated, the terrors of the approaching year +were unweariedly prophesied from constellations, shooting-stars, comets, +and other atmospheric phenomena; the casting of horoscopes was general. +Some individuals also possessed second sight, they foresaw to whom the +approaching future would be fatal. When in 1636 the Imperial Saxon army +was lying before Magdeburg, there was an invalid mathematician in the +camp who foretold to his friends that the 26th of June would be fatal to +him. He was lying in a closed tent when a lieutenant rode up, and +unloosening the tent cords, forced himself in and begged the sick man to +draw his nativity. After refusing a long time, the invalid prophesied to +him that he would be hanged that very hour. The lieutenant, very +indignant that any one should dare to say such a thing to a cavalier, +drew his sword and killed the sick man. There immediately arose a great +tumult, the murderer then threw himself upon his horse and tried to +escape; it happened however, accidentally, that the Elector of Saxony +was riding through the camp with General Hatzfeld and a great retinue. +The Elector exclaimed, that there would be bad discipline in the +Imperial camp if the life of a sick man in bed could not be secured from +murderers. The lieutenant was hanged. + +Whoever was considered the possessor of such secrets was feared by his +comrades, but not esteemed. "For if they were not cowardly, dastardly +ninnies, they would not use such charms." Certain officers in the +sixteenth century caused every prisoner to be hanged upon whom were +found jagged or iron-coated balls, "which were consecrated for the sake +of a soul." In the Thirty years' war, a coward begged of his comrade a +Passau parchment, who wrote on a strip of paper three times: "Defend +yourself, scoundrel," folded it up and made the dastard sew it in his +clothes. From that day every one imagined that he was invulnerable, and +he went about on all occasions amongst the enemies' weapons, as hard as +horn, like a _Siegfried_, and always came out unwounded. + +But the soldier had not only to win the favour of the Fates, but still +more the approbation of his comrades. Whoever carefully examines this +period, without ceasing to view with horror the numerous and refined +atrocities which were practised, will at the same time perceive that +this scene of barbarity was occasionally brightened by milder virtues, +and sometimes healthy integrity comes to light. A peculiar code of +soldier's honour was soon formed, which preserved a kind of morality, +though a lax one. We have but few records of the good humour which arose +from consciousness of having the mastery over citizen and peasant. But +the proverbial modes of speech often bear sufficiently the impress of +the same disposition which is idealized in Schiller's "Reiterlied." "The +sharp sabre is my field, and booty making is my plough." "The earth is +my bed, heaven my canopy, my cloak is my house, and wine my eternal +life."[20] "As soon as a soldier is born, three peasants are selected +for him; the first provides for him, the second finds him a beautiful +wife, and the third goes to hell for him."[21] + +We have reason to suppose that sensuality was in general unbridled and +shameless; the old German vice, drunkenness, prevailed as much amongst +the officers as soldiers. The smoking and chewing tobacco, or as it was +then called, "tobacco drinking"--"eating and snuffing," spread rapidly +through all the armies, and the guard-room was a disagreeable abode for +those who did not smoke. This custom, which at the beginning of the war +was introduced into the army by the Dutch and English auxiliaries, was +at the end of it so common, that a pipe was to be found in every +peasant's house, and nine out of ten of the day labourers and +apprentices smoked during their work. + +The German language also was jargonized in the army; it soon became the +fashion among the soldiers to intermix Italian and French words, and the +language was enriched even by Hungarian, Croat, and Czech: they have +left us besides their "_karbatsche_" and similar words, and also +sonorous curses. Not only was their discourse garnished with these +strong expressions, but gipsy cant became the common property of the +army. It did not indeed begin in the great war, for long before, the +Landsknechte, as "Gartbrüder" and members of the beggars' guild, had +learned their arts and language. But now the camp language was not only +a convenient help to secret intercourse with the bad rabble who followed +the army, with guild robbers, Jewish dealers and gipsies, but it also +gave a certain degree of consideration round the camp fire to be able to +bandy mysterious words. Some expressions from the camp language passed +among the people, others were carried by runaway students into the +drinking-rooms of the universities.[22] + +The daily quarrels gave rise amongst the common soldiers also to the +cartel, or duels regulated by many points of honour. Duels were strictly +forbidden; Gustavus Adolphus punished them with death even among the +higher officers; but no law could suppress them. The duellists fought +alone, or with two or three seconds, or an umpire was selected: before +the combat the seconds vowed to one another and gave their hands upon +it, not to help the combatants, either before, in, or after the +encounter, nor to revenge them; the duellists shook hands and exchanged +forgiveness beforehand, in case of the death of either. They fought on +horseback or on foot, with carbines, pistols, or swords; in the fight, a +throw in wrestling or unhorsing was sufficient; stabbing was considered +un-German, above all a thrust in the back was of doubtful propriety.[23] + +As it was so usual to change parties, a corporation feeling was formed +amongst the soldiers which also embraced the enemy. The armies had a +tolerably accurate knowledge of each other, and not only the character +of the upper officers, but of old soldiers was known; any day an old +comrade might be seen in the enemy's ranks, or installed as a tent +companion to a former adversary. Indeed, quarter was often proffered: +but any one who fought against the customs of war, or was suspected of +using devilish acts, was to be killed even if he sued for pardon. +Cartels were concluded between the courteous conquerors and the +vanquished, the conquerors promised to protect, and the prisoners not to +escape; the weapons, scarfs, and plumes were taken away from the +vanquished; all that he concealed in his clothes belonged to the +conqueror, but he who got Dutch quarter, kept what was enclosed in his +girdle; a courteous prisoner himself presented what he had in his +pockets. If a desperate man did not stand by his conditions of quarter, +he was killed, if he did not rapidly escape. During the transport they +were coupled by the arm, and the string taken from their hose, so that +they were obliged to hold their small-clothes with the hand that was +free. The prisoners could be ransomed, and this ransom was fixed by +tariff in each army. Towards the conclusion of the war, when soldiers +became scarce, the common prisoners were summarily placed in the +regiments without giving them a choice. Such soldiers were naturally not +to be depended on; they gladly took the first opportunity to desert to +their former colours, where they had left their women, children, booty, +and arrears of pay. Distinguished prisoners were sometimes bought from +the common soldiers by the colonels of their regiments; they were +treated with great consideration in the enemy's quarters, and almost +every one found there either an acquaintance or a relative. + +Booty was the uncertain gain for which the soldier staked his life, and +the hope of it kept him steadfast in the most desperate situations. The +pay was moderate, the payment insecure; plunder promised them wine, +play, a smart mistress, a gold-laced dress with a plume of feathers, one +or two horses, and the prospect of greater importance in the company and +of advancement. Vanity, love of pleasure, and ambition, developed this +longing to a dangerous extent in the army. + +The success of a battle was more than once defeated, by the soldiers too +soon abandoning themselves to plundering. It often happened that +individuals made great booty, but it was almost always dissipated in +wild revelry; according to the soldier's adage: "What is won with the +drum will be lost with the fifes." The fame of such lucky hits spread +through all armies. Sometimes these great gains brought evil results on +the fortunate finders.[24] A common soldier of Tilly's army had won +great booty at the capture of Magdeburg, it was said to be thirty +thousand ducats, and was immediately lost in gambling. Tilly caused him +to be hanged after thus accosting him: "With this money you might have +lived all your life like a gentleman, but as you have not understood how +to make use of it, I cannot see of what use you can be to my Emperor." +At the end of the war a man in Königsmark's troop had obtained a similar +sum in the suburbs of Prague, and played it away at one sitting. +Königsmark wished in like manner to despatch him, but the soldier saved +himself by this undaunted answer: "It would be unfair for your +Excellence to hang me on account of this loss, as I have hopes of +acquiring still greater booty in the city itself." This answer was +considered a good omen. In the Bavarian army a soldier in the Holtz +infantry was famed for a similar lucky hit. He had been for a long time +musketeer, but shortly before the peace had sunk to be a pikeman, and +was ill-clad; his shirt hung behind and before out of his hose. This +fellow had obtained at the taking of Herbsthausen a barrel filled with +French doubloons, so large that he could hardly carry it off. He +thereupon absconded secretly from the regiment, dressed himself up like +a prince, bought a coach and six beautiful horses, kept many coachmen, +lackeys, pages, and _valets de chambre_ in fine liveries, and called +himself with dull humour Colonel Lumpus.[25] Then he travelled to +Munich, and lived in an inn there splendidly. General Holtz accidentally +put up at the same inn, heard much from the landlord of the opulence +and qualities of Colonel Lumpus, and could not remember ever having +heard this name among the cavaliers of the Roman empire, or among the +soldiers of fortune. He therefore commissioned the landlord to invite +the stranger to supper. Colonel Lumpus accepted the invitation, and +caused to be served up at dessert, in a dish, five hundred new French +pistoles and a chain worth a hundred ducats, and said at the same time +to the General: "May your Excellence be content with this entertainment +and think thereby favourably of me." The General made some resistance, +but the liberal colonel pressed it upon him with these words: "The time +will soon come when your Excellence will acknowledge that I am wise in +making this gift. The donation is not ill applied, for I hope then to +receive from your Excellence a favour which will not cost a penny." On +this, Holtz, according to the custom of that time, accepted the chain +and money with courteous promises to repay it under such circumstances. +The General departed, and the fictitious colonel lived on there; when +he passed by the guard, and the soldiers presented arms to do him +honour, he threw to them a dozen thalers. Six weeks after, his money +came to an end. Then he sold his coaches and horses, afterwards his +clothes and linen, and spent all in drinking. His servants ran away from +him, and at last nothing remained to him but a bad dress and a few +pence. Then the landlord, who had made much by him, presented him with +fifty thalers for travelling, but the colonel tarried till he had spent +it all; again the host gave him ten thalers for travelling expenses, but +the persevering reveller answered that if it was money to be spent, he +would rather spend it with him than another. When that also was +dissipated, the landlord offered him another five thalers, but forbade +his servants to let the spendthrift have anything. At last he quitted +the inn and went to the next one, where he spent his five thalers in +beer. After that he wandered away to his regiment at Heilbronn. There he +was immediately confined in irons, and threatened with the gallows, +because he had been away so many weeks. He insisted on being taken +before his General, presented himself to him, and reminded him of the +evening at the inn. To the sharp rebuke of the General he answered that +he had all his life wished for nothing so much as to know what were the +feelings of a great lord, and for that he had used his booty. + +In the Hungarian war it was made a law, that the booty should be equally +distributed, but that soon ceased. Still those who were fortunate enough +to make great gains, found it advisable to give a share to the officers +of their company. This common interest in the booty, as well as the +necessity of maintaining themselves by requisition, in remote countries, +developed in great perfection partisan service. There were not only +whole divisions of troops, which performed in the armies the service of +marauding corps, as for example those of Holk and Isolani in the +Imperial, but there were also individual leaders of companies, who +selected the most expert people for this lucrative employment. A +marauding party, departing on a secret expedition, must consist of an +uneven number to bring good luck. These parties stole far into the +country to plunder a rich man, to fall upon a small city, or intercept +transports of goods or money, and to bring away with them cattle and +provisions. There was often an agreement made with the enemy's garrisons +in the neighbourhood, as to what was to be spared in the districts +common to them. Every kind of cunning was practised in such expeditions; +they knew now to imitate the report of heavy artillery, by firing a +hand-gun, doubly loaded, through an empty barrel; they used shoes with +reversed soles, and caused the horses to be shod in the same manner, the +feet of stolen cattle were covered with shoes, and a sponge was put in +the pigs' food to which a packthread was fastened. The soldiers +disguised themselves as peasants or women, and paid spies amongst the +citizens and country people of the neighbourhood. Their messengers ran +hither and thither with despatches, and were called in camp language +"_feldtauben_" (field doves); they carried these despatches in their +ears rolled up as small balls, fastened them in the hair of shaggy dogs, +enclosed them in a clod of earth, or sewed them with green silk between +the leaves of a branch of oak, that they might be able to throw them +away, without suspicion, in time of danger.[26] These despatches were +written in gipsy language or gibberish, in foreign characters, and if +there were runaway students in the companies, they were written perhaps +in French with Greek letters; they employed, for these purpose, a +simple kind of short-hand writing, displacing the letters of the words, +or agreeing that only the middle letter of the words should have +signification.[27] The transition from such partisan service to becoming +dishonourable marauders and freebooters was easy. In the beginning of +the war, the newly raised regiment of Count Merode was so reduced by +long marches and bad nourishment, that it could hardly set its guard; it +dissolved almost entirely, on the march, into stragglers, who lay under +the hedges and in the byways, or sneaking about the army with defective +weapons, and without order. After that time, the stragglers, whom the +soldier wits had before called "_sausänger_" and "_immenschneider_" +(drones), were now denoted as "Merode-ing brothers." After a lost battle +their numbers increased enormously. Horsemen who were slightly wounded, +and had lost their horses, associated themselves with them, and it was +impossible, from the then state of military discipline, to get rid of +them. + +The most undisciplined, abandoned the route of the army, and lived as +highwaymen, footpads, and poachers. Vain were the endeavours of the +sovereigns, at the end of the war, to annihilate the great robber bands; +they lasted, to a certain extent, up to the beginning of the present +century. + +Such was the character of the war which raged in Germany for thirty +years. An age of blood, murder, and fire, of utter destruction to all +property which was movable, and ruin to that which was not; and an age +of spiritual and material decay in the nation. The Generals imposed +exorbitant contributions, and kept part in their own pockets. The +colonels and captains levied charges on the cities and towns in which +their troops were quartered, and merciless were the demands on all +sides. The princes sent their plate and stud horses as presents to the +Generals, and the cities sent sums of money and casks of wine to the +captains, and the villages, riding horses and gold lace to the cornets +and sergeant-majors, as long as such bribery was possible. When an army +was encamped in a district, any landed proprietors of importance, +monasteries, and villages, endeavoured to obtain the protection of a +"_salva guardia_." They had to pay dear for this guard, yet had to bear +with much unseemly conduct from them. If a place lay between two armies, +both parties had to be asked for _salva guardia_, and both guards lived +by agreement in peaceful intercourse at the expense of their host. But +it was seldom that either individuals or communities were so fortunate +as to be able to preserve even this unsatisfactory protection; for it +was necessary for the army to live. When a troop of soldiers entered a +village or country town, the soldiers rushed like devils into the +houses; wherever the dung-heaps[28] were the largest, there the greatest +wealth was to be expected. The object of the tortures to which the +inhabitants were subjected, was generally to extort from them their +hidden property; they were distinguished by especial names, as the +"Swedish fleece," and the "wheel." The plunderers took the flints from +the pistols and forced the peasants' thumbs in their place; they rubbed +the soles of their feet with salt, and caused goats to lick them; they +tied their hands behind their backs; they passed a bodkin threaded with +horse-hair through their tongues, and moved it gently up and down; they +bound a knotted cord round the forehead and twisted it together behind +with a stick; they bound two fingers together, and rubbed a ramrod up +and down till the skin and flesh were burnt to the bone; they forced the +victims into the oven, lit the straw behind them, and so they were +obliged to creep through the flames. Ragamuffins were everywhere to be +found who bargained with the soldiers, to betray their own neighbours. +And these were not the most horrible torments. What was done to the +women and maidens, to the old women and children, must be passed over in +silence. + +Thus did the army misbehave amongst the people, dishonouring every bed, +robbing every house, devastating every field, till they were themselves +involved in the general ruin. And the destruction of these thirty years +increased progressively. It was the years from 1635 to 1641 which +annihilated the last powers of the nation; from that period to the +peace, a death-like lassitude pervaded the country; it communicated +itself to the armies, and one can easily understand that the bitter +misery of the soldiers called for some consideration for the citizens +and peasants. The remaining population were once more reduced to +despair, as they had to pay the cost, maintenance, and peace subsidies +for the standing army. And the army dispersed itself amongst the +population. + + + + + CHAPTER III. + + THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.--THE VILLAGES AND THEIR PASTORS. + + + Oft have the soldier's sword + And jeering Croat horde, + With usage rude and fierce, + Threaten'd my heart to pierce. + Yet I drew unhurt my breath, + No mishap could bring me death. + + In water, 'gainst my will, + Plunged deep, I far'd but ill; + Closed in a wat'ry grave, + God deign'd my life to save; + Wond'rous 'tis I was not drown'd; + Brought to land all safe and sound. + + Into my mouth once or more, + As 'twere a tub, they did pour + A mess of liquid dung; + Four churls, cords round me strung; + Yet I drew unhurt my breath, + No mishap could bring me death. + + One of an exile band, + There in Thuringia's land + At Notleben, I dwelt, + Till I God's blessing felt, + And to Heubach's parsonage pass'd + Where kind Heaven sent peace at last. + + God's servant, here have I + The church kept orderly, + Have preach'd the word therein, + The bad expell'd, of sin + Absolv'd the penitent heart, + And labour'd truth to impart. + + _From 'Four Christian Hymns of Martin Bötzinger_.' (1663.) + +Whoever could portray the desolation of the German people, would be able +to explain to us the striking peculiarities of the modern German +character; the remarkable mixture of fresh youth and hoary wisdom, +aspiring enthusiasm, and vacillating caution; but above all, why we, +among all the nations of Europe, still strive in vain after much which +our neighbours, not more noble by nature, not more strongly organized, +not more highly gifted, have long secured to themselves. + +The following documents will only furnish an unimportant contribution to +such an explanation. Individual examples will render the ruin of the +village and city communities comprehensible, and what counteracting +power there was, together with the destroying power which supported the +remaining vitality, and prevented the final annihilation of the nation. + +From these we shall see thoroughly the condition of one particular +province, which suffered severely from the miseries of war, but not more +than most other parts of Germany, not indeed so much as the Margravate +of Brandenburg and many territories of Lower Saxony and Suabia. It is +the Thuringian and Franconian side of the "Waldgebirge," which formed, +in the middle of Germany, the boundary between the north and south; more +especially the present Dukedoms of Gotha and Meiningen. The following +details are taken from the church documents and parish records, and +many, from the voluminous church and school stories which were published +by clerical collectors in the former century. + +Germany was supposed to be a rich country in the year 1618. Even the +peasants had acquired during the long peace a certain degree of +opulence. The number of villages in Franconia and Thuringia was somewhat +greater than now; they were not entirely without defences, and were +often surrounded by broad ditches and palisades, or clay and stone +walls; it was forbidden to form entrances in them, but at the end of the +main streets were gates which were closed at night The churchyard was +usually defended by particularly strong walls, and more than once it was +used as the citadel and last refuge of the inhabitants. There were night +and day patroles through the villages and fields. The houses were indeed +ill formed and only of wood and clay, often crowded together in narrow +village streets, but they were not deficient in comfort and household +furniture. The villages were surrounded by orchards, and many fountains +poured their clear waters into stone basins. Small poultry fluttered +about the dung-heaps in the enclosed courtyards, immense troops of geese +fed in the stubble fields, teams of horses stood in the stables, far +more numerous than now, probably of a larger and stronger stamp; they +were rustic descendants of the old knightly chargers, the pride and joy +of their owners; and besides these were the "Kleppers," the small and +ancient race of the country. The large parish herds of sheep and cattle +grazed on the stony heights and on the rich grass marshes. The wool +fetched a high price, and in many places much value was attached to a +fine breed; the German cloths were famed, and these were the best +articles of export. This national wool, the result of a thousand years +of cultivation, was entirely lost to Germany during the war. The +district round the village (where the old Franconian divisions of long +strips were not maintained) was divided into three fields, which were +much subdivided, and each division carefully stoned off. The fields were +highly cultivated, and fine grained white wheat was sown in the winter +fields. Woad was still zealously cultivated with great advantage in the +north of the Rennstiegs. Although even before the war the foreign indigo +competed with the indigenous dye, the yearly gain from the woad in +Thuringia could be computed at three tons of gold; this was principally +in the territory of Erfurt and the Dukedom of Gotha; besides this, anise +and saffron produced much money; the cultivation of the teazel also was +formerly indigenous, and the wild turnips, and (by the Rhine) the rape +seed were sowed in the fellows. Flax was carefully prepared by steeping +it in water, and the coloured flowers of the poppies, and the waving +panicle of the millet, raised themselves in the corn-fields. But on the +declivities of warmer situations in Thuringia and Franconia there were +everywhere vineyards, and this old cultivation, which has now almost +disappeared in those countries, must in favourable years have produced a +very drinkable wine, as now on the lower range of the Waldgebirge; for +the wine of particular years is noted in the chronicles as most +excellent. Hops also were assiduously cultivated and made good beer. +Everywhere they grew fodder, and spurry and horse-beans. The meadows, +highly prized, and generally fenced in, were more carefully handled than +two hundred years later; the mole-heaps were scattered, and the +introduction and maintenance of drains and watercourses was general. +Erfurt was already the centre of the great seed traffic, of garden +cultivation, also of flowers and fine orchards. On the whole, when we +compare one time with the other, the agriculture of 1618 was not +inferior to that of 1818. It must be confessed in other respects also, +our century has but restored what was lost in 1618. + +The burdens which the peasants had to bear both in service and taxes, +were not small, and greatest of all on the properties of the nobles; but +there were many free villages in that country, and the government of the +rulers was less strict than in Southern Franconia or in Hesse. Many +ecclesiastical properties had been broken up; many domains, and not a +few of the nobles' estates, were farmed by tenants; leases were a +favourite method of raising the rent of the ground. All this was for the +advantage of the peasant. The damage done by game indeed occasioned +great suffering, and there still continued much of the old bond-service +on the property of the impoverished nobles. But the greater part of the +country people were pronounced by lawyers, newly educated in the Roman +law, to be possessors of their property; it was the greatest blessing +bestowed by Roman law on the Germans in the sixteenth century. It is an +error to suppose that the bureaucratic rule is a production of modern +days; it already prevailed in those times, and the villages had often to +pay the small travelling expenses of the ducal messenger who brought +them their letters. It was already decided by superintending officials +how many fire buckets every one was to procure, and how many doves were +to be kept; they saw to the clearing of the fruit trees from +caterpillars, the cleansing of the ditches, and the annual planting of +young trees. The parish accounts had for nearly a hundred years been +kept in an orderly manner, and inspected by the government of the +country, as also the district certificates and registers of birth. There +was also a good deal of commercial intercourse. A large commercial road +passed through Thuringia, in a line almost parallel with the mountains, +from the Elbe to the Rhine and Maine; and from the descent of the +mountains near to the Werra, lay the military road which united the +north of Germany with the south. The traffic on these unconstructed +roads demanded numerous relays of horses, and brought to the villages +gain, and news from the distant world, and many opportunities of +spending money. + +After the Reformation there were schools, at least in all the villages +where there was a church; the teachers were often divines, and sometimes +there were schoolmistresses for the girls. Small sums were paid for the +schooling, and a portion of the inhabitants of the village were +initiated into the secrets of reading and writing. The difference +between the countryman and the citizen was then still greater than now. +The "stupid peasant" was the favourite object of ridicule in the rooms +of the artisans, who attributed to him, as characteristic qualities, +roughness, simplicity, disingenuous cunning, drunkenness, and love of +fighting. But however retired his life then was, and poor in varied +impressions, we should do him great injustice if we considered him +essentially weaker or less worthy than he is now; on the contrary, his +independence was not less, and was frequently better established. His +ignorance of foreign states was undoubtedly greater, for there were as +yet no regular gazettes or local papers for him, and he himself +generally did not wander farther than to the nearest town, where he sold +his products, or occasionally over the mountain when he had to drive +cows; or if a Thuringian, to go to the woad market at Erfurt, if a +Franconian, perhaps to Bamberg with his hops. Also in dress, language, +and songs, he was not fashionable like the citizens; he preferred using +old strong words, which they considered coarse; he swore and cursed +after the ancient style, and his ceremonial of greeting was different +from theirs, though not less precise. But his life was not on that +account deficient in spirit, morals, or even in poetry. The German +popular songs were still vigorous, and the countryman was the most +zealous preserver of them; the peasant's feasts, his domestic life, his +lawsuits, his purchases and sales, were rich in old picturesque customs +and proverbs. The genuine German pleasure also in beautiful specimens of +handicraft, in clean and artistic heir-looms, was then shared alike by +the countryman and citizen. His household gear was superior to what it +is now. Ornamental spinning-wheels, which still pass for a new +invention, neatly carved tables, carved chairs and cupboards, have in +some instances been preserved to our times, with the earthenware apostle +jugs, and similar drinking-vessels, which may be bought by art +collectors. Great were the treasures of the countrywomen in beds, linen, +clothes, chains, medals, and other ornaments, and not less worthy of +note were the numerous sausages and hams in the chimneys. A great deal +of ready money lay concealed in the corners of chests, or carefully +buried in pots or other vessels, for the collection of bright coins was +an old pleasure to the peasantry; there had been peace as long as they +could remember, and woad and hops brought a high price. The peasant had +abundance, and was without many wants; he bought lace in the city for +his clothes, and silver ornaments for his wife and daughters, spices for +his sour wine, and whatever metal utensils and implements were necessary +for his farm and kitchen. All the woollen and linen clothes were wove +and made up by the women of the house, or the neighbour in the village. + +Thus did the peasant live in middle Germany, even after the year 1618. +He heard in the ale-houses on Sunday of the war alarms in Bohemia, +about which he cared little; he bought indeed a flying-sheet of a +crafty dealer, or a satirical song on the outcast King of Bohemia; he +gave some of his bread and cheese to a fugitive from Prague or Budweis, +who came begging to his door, and shook his head as he listened to his +tale of horror. An official messenger brought into the village an order +from the sovereign, from which he found it was expected of him to +deliver into the city, money and provision for the newly raised +soldiers; he was indignant, and hastened to bury his treasures still +deeper. It soon, however, became clear that bad times were approaching +him also, for the money which he received in the town was very red, and +all goods were dear; thus he was involved in the wretched confusion +which after 1620 was brought upon the country by the coinage of bad +gold. He went no longer to the city, but kept his corn and meat at home: +he had constant disputes however with the townsmen and his neighbours, +because he wished to rid himself of the new gold in his own payments, +whilst he would receive only the good old money: his heart was full of +ominous forebodings. Thus it went on till the year 1623. He then saw +evil coming in another quarter; theft and burglary increased, foreign +vagabonds were often seen on the high-roads, trumpeters rushed into the +towns with bad news, hired soldiers, insolent and bragging, drew up +before his farm demanding entertainment, stole sausages, and carried off +his poultry in their knapsacks. _Defensioners_, the newly raised country +militia, galloped into the village, quartered themselves upon him, +demanded provisions, and molested him more than the rogues whom they +were to drive away from the cattle-sheds. + +At last began--in Thuringia not till after 1623--the passage, of foreign +troops through his country, and the great sufferings of the war fell +upon him; foreign soldiers of strange appearance, reckless from blood +and battle, marched into his village, occupied his house and bed, ill +treated him and his, demanded provisions and other contributions besides +gifts, and broke, destroyed, or plundered whatever came before their +eyes. Thus it went on after 1626, worse and worse every year, troop +followed upon troop, more than one army settled itself round him in +winter quarters, the requisitions and vexations appeared endless. The +yeoman saw with dismay that the foreign soldier had the power of +tracing--which he ascribed to sorcery--the treasures which he had +concealed deep in the earth; but if he had been too sly for them, his +fate was still worse, for he himself was seized, and by torments which +it would be painful to describe, compelled to make known the place where +his treasure was concealed. On the fate of his wife and daughter we must +remain silent; the most horrible was so common, that an exception, was +extraordinary. Other sufferings also followed; his daughters, +maid-servant, and his little children were not only maltreated, but were +in imminent danger of being carried off by persuasion or force, for +every army was followed by the coarse, worthless baggage-train of women +and children. But the yeoman's homestead was devastated in still other +ways; his farming-man had perhaps borne for some years the blows of the +foreign soldiers, at last he himself was exposed to them; the team was +dragged from the plough, the cattle were fetched from the meadow, and +the tillage of the fields thus often rendered impossible. Yet pitiful +and helpless as was his position in the beginning of the war, up to the +death of Gustavus Adolphus, its horrors were comparatively bearable; for +there was as yet a certain system even in plundering and destruction, +some degree of discipline kept together the regular armies, and an +occasional year passed without any great passage of troops. It is +possible for us to discover at this time how many exactions were made on +particular parishes, for there were already country authorities who sat +in their offices, and after the passage of troops through a parish, +demanded the usual liquidation of their loans, the amount of which was +indeed seldom returned to them. Whoever will glance over the +liquidations in the parish archives, will find the names of ill-famed +commanders, whom he may know from history or Schiller's Wallenstein, in +very near connection with the history of a Thuringian village. + +The effect produced by such a life of insecurity and torment on the +souls of the country people, was very sad. Fear, trembling, and dread +pervaded and enervated all hearts: their minds had always been full of +superstition, now everything was sought for, with impulsive credulity, +which could be significant of the attacks of supernatural powers. The +most horrible countenances were seen in the heavens, the signs of +fearful wickedness were discovered in numerous abortions, ghosts +appeared, mysterious sounds were heard on earth and in the heavens. In +Ummerstadt for example, in the dukedom of Hildburghausen, white crosses +illuminated the heavens when the enemy entered; when they forced their +way into the court of chancery, a spirit clothed in white met them and +motioned them back, and no one could advance; after their departure, a +violent breathing and sighing was heard for eight days in the choir of +the church which had been burnt. At Gumpershausen a maid-servant made a +great sensation through the whole country; she rejoiced in the visits of +a little angel, who appeared, sometimes in a blue, sometimes in a red +shirt sitting on the bed or by the table, cried out "Woe," warned +against cursing and blasphemy, and predicted horrible bloodshed if men +would not give up their vices, their pride, and their stiff blue +ruffs,--then a new fashion. When we look at the zealous protocols which +were drawn up by the ecclesiastics concerning the half-witted maiden, we +find that the only circumstance which was matter of surprise to them, +was that the angel did not visit themselves instead of a simple maiden. + +Not only terror, but a spirit of defiance and wild despair possessed all +souls. A moral recklessness prevailed fearfully among the country +people. Wives abandoned their husbands, children their parents; the +customs, vices, and maladies of the passing armies left lasting traces, +even when the pillagers had quitted the desolated and half-ruined +villages. The brandy drinking, which had been introduced among the +people since the Peasant war, became a general vice; respect for the +property of others disappeared. In the beginning of the war the +neighbouring villages were disposed to help one another; if the soldiers +had driven away the cattle from one village, and disposed of them again +at their next night-quarters, the buyers often returned their new +purchase to the former proprietors at the purchase price. This was done +in Franconia, by both Catholic and Protestant communities, out of pure +kindness. Gradually, however, the country people began to rob and +plunder like the soldiers; armed bands combined together, passed the +frontiers into other villages, and carried off whatever they needed. +They waylaid the stragglers of the regiments in dense woods or mountain +passes, and often after a severe struggle took a bloody revenge on the +vanquished; indeed, they far surpassed the skill of the soldiers in the +contrivance of barbarities; and there were wooded hills, in whose shades +the most horrible crimes were now committed by those who had formerly +frequented them as peaceful wood-cutters and stone-breakers, singing +their simple songs. There arose gradually a terrible hatred betwixt the +soldiery and peasantry, which lasted till the end of the war, and caused +more than anything else the ruin of the villages of Germany. There were +feuds also between the provinces and individual towns; that which is +related here was only a harmless one of that gloomy time. + +A violent enmity subsisted for many years after the war between the +citizens of Eisfeld and the monastery of Banz, on account of the two +fine-toned bells of their parish church, the "_Banzer_" and the +"_Messe_." A Swedish officer had carried off both bells from Banz and +sold them to the town. Twice, when the Catholic army was stationed at +Eisfeld, the monks had come with waggons and ropes to fetch back their +bells, but the first time they fell into a quarrel with a certain Croat +who was quartered there, because they wished to take away with them the +steeple clock. The Croat rushed upon the pious men with his sword, and +he and his comrades ran up the tower and vehemently pulled the bell, so +that the monks of Banz could not fetch it down, and were only able to +take away the clock with them. The second time they did not succeed +better; at last, after the peace, another bell was offered to them as +compensation. But when they discovered this sentence upon it: "Preserve +us, Lord, by thy word," they returned to their house shaking their +heads. At last the pious Duke Ernest arranged the affair; he took for +himself as a thank-offering the small bell, and hung it on the +Friedenstein in Gotha. + +The villages did all in their power to defend themselves from the +rapacity of the soldiers. As long as they had money, they endeavoured to +buy off the officers who were sent forward to seek for quarters, and +many rogues took advantage of their fears, and appearing under the +disguise of quartermasters, levied heavy contributions on the deluded +villagers. Watchmen were placed on the church towers and elevations of +the plain, who gave signals if troops were visible in the distance. Then +the countryman brought whatever he could save, and the women and +children their movable chattels, hasting to some distant place of +concealment. These hiding-places were selected with great sagacity; by a +little additional labour they were made still more inaccessible, and for +weeks, indeed months, the fugitives passed their anxious existence +there. On the dark moor, midst ditches, rushes and elders, in the deep +shade of woody glens, in old clay-pits, and amid the ruins of decaying +walls, did they seek their last refuge. The countryman in many places +still shows with emotion such spots. There is a large vault with an iron +door in an old tower at Aspach, whither the Aspachers fled whenever +small bands of soldiers approached the village; for a more distant +refuge they had a field of many acres, overgrown with thick hornbeam, +and there they planted thorns which from the fertility of the soil grew +into large trees and became like a thick wall. Within this barricade, +which could only be attained by creeping on the belly, the villagers +often concealed themselves. After the war the thorns were rooted up, and +the land changed into hop, and afterwards cabbage grounds. But a portion +of this land is still called the "Schutzdorn," "thorn-defence." When the +soldiers had withdrawn, the fugitives returned and repaired with their +scanty means what had been laid waste. Often, indeed, they found only a +smoking pile. + +All however who fled did not return. The more wealthy sought a refuge +for themselves and their property in the cities, where martial +discipline was a little more rigorous, and the danger less. Many also +fled into another country, and if they were threatened by enemies there, +again into another; and most of them assuredly had not less misery to +suffer there. Those who remained in the country did not all return to +their own fields. The wild life in hiding-places and woods, the rough +pleasure in deeds of violence and pillage, turned the boldest of them +into robbers; provided with rusty weapons, which they had perhaps taken +from some dead marauder, they carried on a lawless life under the +mountain pines, as companions of wolves and crows, as poachers and +highwaymen. + +Thus did the population of the plains decrease with frightful rapidity. +Even in the time of the King of Sweden many villages were entirely +abandoned, the beasts of the woods roamed about among the blackened +rafters, and perhaps the tattered figure of some old beldame or cripple +might be seen. From that time ruin increased to such an extent, that +nothing like it can be found in modern history. To the destructive +demons of the sword were added others, not less fearful and still more +voracious. The land was little cultivated and the harvest was bad. An +unheard-of rise in prices ensued, famine followed, and in the years 1635 +and 1636 a pestilence attacked the enfeebled population, more terrible +than had raged for more than a century in Germany. It spread its pall +slowly over the whole of Germany, over the soldier as well as over the +peasant, armies were dissipated under its parching breath, many places +lost half their inhabitants, and in some villages in Franconia and +Thuringia there remained only a few individuals. The little strength +which had remained in one corner of the land was now broken. The war +raged on still twelve long years after this time of horror, but it had +become weaker, the armies were smaller, the operations without plan or +stability, from the want of provisions and animals, but where the fury +of war still blazed, it devoured mercilessly what remained of life. The +people reached the lowest depths of misfortune; a dull apathetic +brooding became general. Of the country people of this last period there +is little to be told; they vegetated, reckless and hopeless, but few +accounts of them are to be found in village records, parish books, and +small chronicles. They had forgotten in the villages the art of writing, +nay even their crying grievances. Where an army had carried devastation +and famine raged, men and dogs ate of the same corpse, and children were +caught and slaughtered. A time had now come when those who had held out +during twenty years of suffering, laid violent hands on themselves; we +read this in the accounts of ambassadors, who for years worked in vain +for peace. + +It may be asked how, after such sufferings and utter ruin, the survivors +could still form a German nation, who at the conclusion of peace could +again cultivate the country, pay taxes, and after vegetating in poverty +for a century, again engender energy, enthusiasm, and a new life in art +and science. It is certainly probable that the country people would have +entirely scattered themselves in roving bands, and that the cities would +never have been in a condition to produce a new national life, if three +powerful causes had not contributed to preserve the German countryman +from being altogether lost,--his love of his paternal acres; the +endeavours of the magistracy; and above all, the zeal of those who had +the care of his soul, the village pastors. The love of the peasant for +his own field, which works inimically against the most benevolent +agrarian laws, is even now a strong feeling, but in the seventeenth +century was still more powerful. For the peasant knew very little of the +world beyond his own village, and it was difficult for him to pass the +boundaries which separated him from other vocations, or from +establishing himself on the property of other lords. He ever returned +with tenacity from his hiding-place to his devastated farm, and +endeavoured to collect together the trampled corn, or to sow the few +seeds he had been able to preserve. When his last beast had been stolen, +he harnessed himself to the plough. He took care not to give his house a +habitable appearance; he accustomed himself to dwell amidst dirt and +ruins, and concealed the flickering fire of his hearth from the gaze of +marauders, who might perhaps be seeking in the night for some warm +resting-place. He hid his scanty meal in a place which would disgust +even a reckless enemy, in ditches and coffins, and under skulls. Thus he +lived under the powerful pressure of habit, however little hope there +might be that his labour would prove advantageous to him. If a landed +proprietor stood valiantly by his village, even in times of comparative +tranquillity, he accompanied his beasts to the fields, armed to the +teeth, ready to fight against any robbers who might pounce down on him. + +It was no less the interest of the landed proprietor and his officials, +than of the peasant himself, to preserve the villages. The smaller the +number of tax-payers became, the higher was the tax on the few who +remained. The rulers, from the cities in which they resided occupied +themselves during the whole war through their officials, bailiffs, and +receivers, with the fate of the villages, nay even of individuals. The +keeping of the parish records was only interrupted during the most +troubled time, and was always recommenced. Certificates, reports, +memorials, and rescripts passed hither and thither amidst all the +misery.[29] Petitions for remission of rents and liquidation of costs +were incessantly demanded, and many a poor schoolmaster obediently gave +his service as parish writer whilst the snow floated into his schoolroom +through the shattered windows, the parish chests lay broken in the +streets, and the parishioners, whose accounts he was writing, went armed +into the woods with dark illegal projects, which were never reported to +the government. Useless as this system of writing in many cases was, it +formed numerous links which bound individuals more closely to their +states; and in the pauses of the war, and at the conclusion of it, was +of the greatest importance, for it had preserved the mechanism of the +administration. + +It was however to the country clergy and their holy office that the +maintenance of the German people is chiefly owing. Their influence was +undoubtedly not less in the Catholic than in the Protestant provinces, +though there remain few accounts of it; for the Catholic village pastors +were then as averse to writing as the evangelical were fond of it. But +the Protestant pastors had a far greater share in the mental cultivation +of their time. The Reformers had made the German learned education +essentially theological, and the village clergy were, in the estimation +of the noble proprietors and peasantry, the representatives of this +intelligence. They were generally well skilled in the ancient languages, +and expert in writing Latin and elegiac verses. They were powerful +disputants, and much experienced in dogmatic controversy, stubborn and +positive, and full of zealous indignation against the followers of +Schwenkfeld, Theophrast, Rosenkreuz, and Weigelia, and their teaching +was more full of hatred to heretics than love towards their +fellow-creatures. Their influence on the consciences of the laity had +made them arrogant and imperious, and the most gifted among them were +more occupied with politics than was good for their characters. If an +order may be considered responsible for the imperfection of the mental +cultivation of the period, which it has not formed, but only represents, +the Lutheran ecclesiastics were deeply and fatally guilty of the +devastation of mind, the unpractical weakness, and the dry wearisome +formalism which frequently appeared in German life. The ecclesiastics, +as an order, were neither accommodating nor especially estimable, and +even their morality was narrow-minded and harsh. But all these errors +they atoned for in times of poverty, calamity, and persecution, more +especially the poor village pastors. They were exposed to the greatest +dangers, hated in general by the Imperial soldiers, and obliged by their +office to bring themselves under the observation of the enemy; and the +rough usage which they, their wives, and daughters had to suffer, +fatally injured their consideration in their own parish. They were +maintained by the contributions of their parishioners, and were not +accustomed, and ill fitted to obtain their daily food by bodily labour; +they were the greatest sufferers from any decrease in the wealth, +morality, or population of their villages. One must bear witness that a +very great number of them endured all these dangers as true servants of +Christ. Most of them adhered to their parishes almost to the very last +man. Their churches were plundered and burnt, chalice and crucifix +stolen, the altar desecrated with disgusting ordures, and the bells torn +from the towers and carried away. Then they held divine service in a +barn, or an open field, or in the cover of a green wood. When the +parishioners had almost perished, so that the voice of the singer was +heard no more, and the penitential hymns were no longer intoned by the +chanter, they still called the remains of their congregation together at +the hour of prayer. They were vigorous and zealous both in giving +comfort and in exercising discipline; for the greater the misery of +their parishioners, the more reason they had to be dissatisfied with +them. Frequently they were the first to suffer from the demoralization +of the villagers: theft and insolent wantonness were willingly practised +against those whose indignant looks and solemn admonitions had +heretofore overawed them. Hence their fate is particularly +characteristic of that iron time, and we happily possess numerous +records concerning them, frequently in church documents, in which they +bemoaned their sufferings, when no one would listen to them. From such +records of Thuringian and Franconian village pastors, only a few +examples will here be given. + +Magister Michael Ludwig was pastor at Sonnenfeld, about 1633; there he +preached to his parishioners in the wood under the canopy of heaven; +they were called together by the sound of the trumpet, instead of the +bell, and it was necessary to place an armed watch whilst he preached; +thus he continued for eight years, till his parishioners entirely +disappeared. A Swedish officer then appointed him preacher to his +regiment; he was afterwards made president of the army consistory at +Torstenson, and superintendent at Wismar. Georg Faber preached at +Gellershausen, read prayers daily to three or four hearers, always at +the risk of his life: he rose every morning at three o'clock and learned +his sermon entirely by heart; besides that, he wrote learned treatises +upon the books of the Bible. + +In the neighbouring towns of the interior, the clergy had as much to +undergo. For example, the rector at Eisfeld, about 1635, was Johann +Otto, a young man who had just married; he had in the worst times kept +the whole school during eight years, with only one teacher, and provided +the choir also gratis. The smallness of his income may be seen from the +notes which the excellent man has written in his Euclid: "2 days +thrashing in autumn, 1 day working in the wood in 1646. 2 days thrashing +in January, 1647. 5 days thrashing in February, 1647. 4 marriage letters +written. Item, 1/2 day binding oats, and one day reaping," and so on. He +persevered, and administered his office honourably for forty-two years. +His successor, the great Latin scholar, Johann Schmidt, teacher of the +celebrated Cellarius, had become a soldier, and when on guard at the +Royal Castle was reading a Greek poet; this was perceived by his officer +with astonishment, and was mentioned by him to Ernest the Good, who made +him a teacher. + +The superintendent at the same place, Andreas Pochmann, was, when an +orphan, carried off with two little brothers by the Croats. He escaped +with his brothers in the night. Later, when a Latin scholar, he was +again taken prisoner by the soldiers, was made an officer's servant, and +then a musketeer. But he continued to study in the garrison, and found +among his comrades students from Paris and London, with whom he kept up +his Latin. Once, when a soldier, he was lying sick by the watch fire, +under his sleeve was the powder pouch, with a pound and a half of +powder, the flames reached the sleeve and burnt half of it; the powder +pouch was unconsumed. When he awoke he found himself alone, the camp was +abandoned, and he had not a penny of money. Then he found two thalers in +the ashes. With this he struck across to Gotha; on the way, he turned +off to Langensalza, to a lonely small house near the walls: an old woman +received the wearied man, and laid him on a bed. It was the plague +nurse, and the bed was a plague bed, for the malady was then raging in +the city; he remained unhurt. His life, like that of most of his +cotemporaries, was full of wonderful escapes, sudden changes, and +unexpected succour, of deadly perils, penury, and frequent changes of +place. These times must be accurately observed, in order to understand +how, just at a period when millions were brought to ruin and +destruction, there was fostered in the survivors a deep belief in that +Divine Providence, which, in a wonderful way, encompassed the lives of +men. + +From almost every village church one can obtain reminiscences of the +sufferings, self-devotion, and perseverance of their pastors. It must be +said, that only the strongest minds came out unscathed in such times. +The endless insecurity, the want of support, the lawless proceedings of +the soldiers and of their own parishioners, made many of them petty in +their ideas, cringing and beggarly. We will give one example among many. +Johanne Elfflein, pastor at Simau after 1632, was so poor that he was +obliged to work as a day labourer, to cut wood in the forest, to dig and +to sow; twice he received either alms from the poor-box at Coburg, or +what was placed there at the baptism of children. At last the consistory +at Coburg sold one of the chalices of the church to procure bread for +him. He considered it an especial piece of good fortune, when he had +once to perform the funeral of a distinguished noble, for then he got a +good old rix-dollar, and a quarter of corn. When shortly afterwards he +confidentially complained to a neighbour of his want of food, and the +latter replied with desperate resolution, he knew well what he should do +in such a case, then, firm in faith, Magister Elfflein said, "My God +will provide means that I shall not die of hunger; He will cause a rich +nobleman to die, that I may obtain money, and a quarter of corn." He +considered it was ordained by Providence, when soon after, this +melancholy event actually occurred. His situation was so pitiable, that +even the rapacious soldiers, when they sent their lads in the +neighbourhood after booty, emphatically ordered them to leave the pastor +at Simau unmolested, as the poor simpleton had nothing for himself. At +last he got another parish. + +At the source of the Itz, where the mountains decline in high terraces +towards the Main, lies the old village of Stelzen, a holy place even in +heathen times. Close to the church, from the corner of a spacious +cavern, overshadowed by primeval beech and lime trees, springs up a +miraculous well; near the well, before the Reformation, stood a chapel +to the Holy Virgin, and many a time did hundreds of counts and noblemen, +with numberless other people, flock together there as pilgrims. The +village was entirely burnt down at Michaelmas, 1632, only the church, +the school, and shepherd's hut remained standing. The pastor, Nicholas +Schubert, wrote to the authorities in the winter as follows: "I have +saved nothing but my eight poor, little, naked, hungry children. I +continue to dwell _ex mandato_ in the very old, and on account of the +want of a chimney, a floor and so forth, dangerous school-house, where I +can neither attend to my studies, nor do anything for my support. For I +have neither food nor clothes, _longe enim plura deficiunt_. Given at my +castle of misery, Stelzen, 1633. Your willing servant, and obedient poor +burnt-out pastor, Nicholas Schubert." Shortly he was removed. His +successor likewise was pillaged, and stabbed in the left hip with a +rapier; he too was removed; a second successor also was unable to +maintain himself there. After that, the parsonage house was uninhabited +for fifteen years, but the neighbouring pastor, Götz of Sachsendorf, +came every third Sunday, and performed service in the ruined village. +For two years there came no pence to the church coffers. At last, in +1647, the church was entirely burned to the bare walls. + +Gregory Ewald was pastor at Königsberg; in 1632, Tilly burnt down the +city, and Ewald was taken prisoner in a vineyard by two Croats, and +robbed; when they could not withdraw a gold ring from his finger they +prepared to cut off the finger, but at last had so much consideration +that they took only the skin with the ring, and demanded a thousand +dollars ransom. Ewald released himself by this stratagem; he took the +simple soldier, who was left with him to fetch the ransom, first to the +door of a cellar in order to give him a drink of wine, and under the +pretext of fetching the key he escaped. In his great necessity he took +an appointment as Swedish army chaplain, and after the battle of +Nördlingen, lived as an exile for a year in a foreign country, from +thence he returned to his ruined parish, where for some years he and his +family endured want and misery. + +Among the most instructive of the biographical accounts of Protestant +pastors, is that of the Franconian pastor, Martin Bötzinger. We see with +horror, both the village life in the time of the war, and the +demoralization of the inhabitants, distinctly portrayed in his +narrative. Bötzinger was not a man of great character, and the +lamentable lot he had to bear did not strengthen it; indeed, we can +hardly deny him the predicate of a right miserable devil. Nevertheless +he possessed two qualities which render him estimable to us, an +indestructible energy with which there was not the slightest frivolity +united; and that determined German contentment which takes the brightest +view of the most desolate situations. He was a poet. His German verses +are thoroughly pitiful, as may be seen by the specimen heading this +chapter, but they served him as elegant begging letters by which, in +the worst times, he endeavoured to procure sympathy. He celebrated all +the officials and receivers of the parish of Heldburg in an epic poem, +as also the melancholy condition of Coburg, where he tarried for a +certain time as a fugitive. + +Of the career which he noted down, the beginning and the last portion +were already torn out when Krauss, in 1730, incorporated it in his +history of the Hildburghaus church, school, and province. The following +is faithfully transcribed from this fragment; only the series of events +which are intermingled in his autobiography are here arranged according +to years. Bötzinger was a collegian at Coburg and a student at Jena, +during the _Kipper_ time;[30] and in 1626, he became pastor at +Poppenhausen. In the spring of 1627, the young pastor entertained the +idea of marrying the only daughter of Michael Böhme, burgher and +counsellor at Heldburg, whose name was Ursula. + +"In the year 1627, on the Tuesday after the Jubilate, all necessary +preparations being made, on this very day, a body of eight thousand men, +people from Saxe Lauenburg, together with the Prince himself, encamped +before Heldburg; pitched their camp on the cropped ground, and in eight +days ruined the city and land belonging to the corporation, so that +neither calf nor lamb, beer nor wine, could any more be procured. +Provisions were brought from all the neighbouring districts, and yet +even the royal officers and officials could hardly be maintained. They +were, on account of the cold, quartered some days in the city and +villages. It was then, for the first time, I was plundered in the +parsonage house at Poppenhausen, for not only had I not secured +anything, but rather had I made preparation as if I had to lodge an +honourable guest or officer; I lost my linen, bedding, shirts, and so +forth, for I did not yet know that the soldiers were robbers, and took +everything away with them. The prince of the country, Duke Casimir, was +himself obliged to journey to Heldburg; he ordered for the Lauenburger a +princely banquet; he presented him with fine horses and eight thousand +thalers if he would only take himself away. After this misfortune, the +blessing of God made itself miraculously visible everywhere. Owing to +the thousands of huts, quarters and fires, which made the fields look +like a wilderness, it was thought that the winter seed was lost in the +ground. Nevertheless, there grew from these burnt huts and ditches so +thick a crop, that in the same year, there was a superfluity of winter +food. A miracle! Thus my wedding could take place on the Tuesday after +the _Exaudi_, and was celebrated at the Town Hall. + +"For five years there was rest in the land till 1632, except that +several Imperial corps, consisting of two, three, or more regiments, +passed to and fro, who often took up their quarters in the township of +Heldburg, and exhausted it. I wanted for nothing at Poppenhausen. I +could wish that I was now as well off as I was before the war. As, +however, the fury of war at last arrived, the neighbouring bishops began +to reform vigorously; sent Jesuits and monks with diplomas into the +country, and examined the ecclesiastical benefices and monasteries. The +princes had their militia here and there, who now and then pilfered in +the neighbouring Papal states, and stirred up the hornets there. Every +intelligent person could discover that things would become worse. The +noblemen also fled with their pastors, bailiffs, and all belonging to +them, to our little towns and villages, hoping for greater security +there than in their own places. + +"In 1631, at Michaelmas, King Gustavus came from Sweden suddenly through +the wood, just as if he had wings. He took Königshofen and many other +places, and went on very flourishingly. Our nobles enlisted people for +the king, who were as bad as the enemy in pilfering and robbing. They +more especially took from the neighbouring Catholics their cows, horses, +pigs, and sheep; then was there a great sale; a ducat for one cow, and a +thaler for a pig. The Papists often came hither and saw how and who +bought their cattle, and frequently redeemed them themselves. They were +however so often taken, that they wearied of redeeming them, and it went +ill with the poor neighbouring Papists. We all at Poppenhausen preserved +for those in the neighbourhood, their bits of property in churches and +houses, as far as we could. But when in the year 1632, the tables were +turned, and the three Generals, the Friedlander, Tilly, and the Bavarian +prince, took possession of Coburg and the country, the neighbouring +Papists helped to rob and burn, and we found no faith or safety with +them. + +"When on the eve of Michaelmas, all the guns were heard from Coburg, as +a signal that the enemy was approaching, and every one took care of +himself, I went with all those whom I had lodged for some weeks, to +Heldburg, where I had previously sent my wife and child. The town was on +its guard, but did not imagine what evil would betide it; the +burgomaster and some of the councillors ran away, my father-in-law of +blessed memory, having the charge of the powder, lead, and linstocks, +which he served out to the guard as need required, was obliged to remain +in the town. I had a great desire to leave the town with my wife and +children, but he would not let me go, and still less his daughter, and +bade us remain at home; he had a tolerable purse of thalers with which +he intended to make off in case of disaster. But before midday on the +feast of St. Michael, fourteen horsemen presented themselves; they were +supposed to be Duke Bernhard's people, but it was very far from the +case. These they were obliged to admit without thanks for it. They were +soon followed by some infantry, who from the beginning searched about +everywhere, and knocked down and shot whoever resisted them. In the +middle of the market, one of these fourteen struck my father-in-law with +a pistol on the head, so that he fell down like an ox. The horseman +dismounted, and searched his hosen, and our citizens who were at the +Town Hall saw that the thief drew out from thence a large mass of money. +When the stupefaction from the blow had passed away, my father-in-law +stood up: he was made to go to the Star Inn, where they found somewhat +to eat, but nothing to drink; then he said he would go home and bring +some drink. Now as they thought he might escape them, they took the +platters and food with them, and accompanied him to his house. It was +not long before one of them demanded money; and when he excused himself, +the scoundrel stabbed him with his own bread-knife in the presence of +his wife and mine, so that he sank to the ground. 'God help us!' +screamed out my wife and child. I, who was hid in the bath-house, in the +straw over the stable, sprang down and ventured amongst them. The wonder +was that they did not catch me in the parson's cap. I took my +father-in-law, who was reeling about like a drunken man, into the +bath-room, that he might be bandaged. I was obliged to look on whilst +they took off from your mother[31] her shoes and clothes, and laid hold +of you, my son Michael, in their arms; hereupon they quitted the house +and the street. I went from the little court of the bath-house to my +father-in-law's room; I carried over there pillows and mattresses, +whereon we laid him. I had to venture still further. I went into the +cellar, wherein his brother, Herr George Böhm, pastor at Lindenau, had +placed in three large butts, two tons of good wine. I wished to fetch a +refreshing drink for my father-in-law, but the vent peg was so carefully +and firmly driven into the butt that although I pulled out the spigot +nothing would flow. I was obliged to stay a long time, at great risk, +before I could get a spoonful. I had hardly gone over there, before a +scoundrel went into the bath-house, threw the invalid off the bed, and +searched everywhere. I had crept under the sweating bench, where indeed +I got a good sweating, for the day before had been the bath day. + +"As there was now a great butchery and shooting down in the town, so +that no one was secure, divers citizens came at intervals to have +themselves bandaged. Then my father-in-law consented that I should seek +for a hiding-place and leave the town, but would not let my wife and +children accompany me. So I went to the castle garden, and ascended the +height behind the castle, that I might look out towards Holzhausen and +Gellershausen, to see if it was safe. Then the citizens and their wives +came to me for comfort and to journey with me. Thus I crossed over the +Hundshanger lake into the wood, and wished to go up to Strauchhahn. When +we came to the common, eight horsemen, who were Croats, rode up the +heights. As soon as they saw us they hastily galloped up to us. Two +citizens, Kührlein and Brehme, escaped; I had most to endure. They took +off my shoes, stockings, and hosen, and left me only my cap. With my +hosen I had to give up my purse full of money, which I had hid there +three hours before, and thus had preserved from the first pilferers. The +danger was so urgent that I did not think of my purse till I saw it for +the last time. They demanded first a thousand thalers, then five +hundred, and lastly a hundred, for my life. I had to go with them to +their quarters, and to run with them a whole hour barefoot. At last they +perceived that I was a _pap_ or _pfaff_, which I also confessed; then +they began to thrust at me with their sabres without discretion, and I +held my hands and arms towards them, and through God's protection only +got a few wounds on the wrist. + +"Meanwhile they discovered a peasant who had hidden himself in some +bushes. It was the rich Kaspar of Gellershausen, so they all rode off to +him, and only one remained with me, who was by birth a Swede, and had +been made prisoner. This one said to me, 'Priest, priest, run, run, +otherwise you must die.' He was a good Swede: I placed confidence in +his counsel, and begged of him to feign to ride after me, as if he +would fetch me back. Thus it happened that I escaped the Croats. But the +rich Kaspar met a miserable death at that place; for as he would not +come forth from thence, they hewed off his legs, as I saw, at the +knees. Therefore he was obliged to lie in that place, where after their +withdrawal he was found. But I ran through a great oak wood for almost +an hour, and could see no thick bushes wherein to conceal myself, and +fell at last into a pool of water out of which an oak root had grown, +and I was so tired of running that I could go no further, and my heart +beat so that I knew not whether it was the horses' hoofs that I heard, +or my heart. + +"Thus I sat till it was night; then I rose up and continued in search of +a thick cover, till I came out and could see Seidenstadt. I slipped into +the village, and as I heard dogs bark, I hoped to find people at home, +but there was no one; I therefore went into a shed, and was desirous of +passing the night on the hay. But God granted that the neighbours, who +had hid themselves in Strauchhahn, had come together behind this shed, +and took counsel where they should reassemble, and where they should go +to. This I could distinctly hear. I therefore descended and went to the +house. The peasant had just come in, had struck a light, and was +standing in the cellar taking the cream off the milk, which he intended +to drink. I was standing above the opening, spoke to him and greeted +him; he looked up and saw the under part of my body, namely, my shirt +and naked legs, and it was dark above. He was much frightened; but when +I told him that I was the pastor at Poppenhausen, who had been carried +off by the soldiers, he brought the milk up, and I begged him to procure +me some clothes of his neighbours, as I wished to accompany them +wherever they were going. He went out, and meanwhile I regaled myself on +his pot of milk, and entirely emptied it. In my whole life no milk had +ever tasted so good. He came back with others, and one of them brought +me a pair of old leather hosen, which smelt badly of cart-grease, +another a pair of old latchet shoes, and another two woollen stockings, +one green and one white. This livery was not suitable either for a +traveller or for a pastor; yet I took it with thanks, but could not wear +the shoes, for they were frozen too stiff. The soles of the stockings +were torn, thus I went to Hildburghausen more barefooted than shod. When +we looked around us we saw that many places in Itzgrund were in flames. +At that time, Ummerstadt, Rodach, Eisfeld, and Heldburg were burnt to +the ground. + +"I was, on my arrival, such a spectacle as to create terror and fear at +Hildburghausen; no one--though many thousand strangers had come +there--felt secure, although the city had a strong guard. My only +anxiety was to get a respectable dress, stockings, shoes, &c., before we +departed from thence. I went, therefore, barefoot to the burgomaster, +Paul Walz, and to the curate, and begged them to give me something to +clothe me respectably. Herr Walz gave me an old hat which was almost an +ell in height, which disfigured me more than anything else; nevertheless +I put it on. Herr Schnetters Eidam, now curate at Römhild, gave me a +pair of hosen, which came over my knees, these were still good, Herr +Dressel a pair of black stockings, and the sexton a pair of shoes. Thus +I was rigged out, so that I could appear without being ashamed before so +many thousand strangers, who had sought security in the town; and could +show myself amongst the citizens. But the hat disfigured me very much, +therefore I sought an opportunity to obtain another. Now it came to pass +that the whole ministry, the authorities of the high school and +councillors, had agreed, without the knowledge of the citizens +generally, that they would have the gates opened at nine o'clock at +night, and go away with their wives and children: having learned this, I +went to the lodging of the town-clerk, where the gentlemen were all +assembled; but no one knew or noticed me. I placed myself alone by a +table in the dark; there I discovered that a good respectable hat was +hanging on a nail. I thought that if this should remain hanging on the +breaking up of the assembly, it would suit me. What matter; all would be +ruined after the flight. What I wished and thought came to pass: then +there began a wailing and leave-taking on their departure, and I laid my +head on the table as if I were asleep. Now when almost every one was +gone, I hung the long stork on the wall, made the exchange, and went +with the other gentlemen into the street. + +"The arrangements for flight now became known to the people. Countless +numbers therefore sat with their packages in the streets; horses were +put also to many waggons and carts, all prepared to go out of the gate +with those who were departing. When we came into the open country we saw +that the good people were all dispersed about the streets. There were +thousands of lighted torches to be seen, some had lanterns, some burning +wisps of straw, others links. In short some thousands came mournfully +out. I and my flock came about midnight to Themar, the townspeople there +rose up and joined us, so that some hundreds more were added to us. The +march proceeded to Schwarzig and Steinbach, and when towards morning we +arrived at a village, the people were so terrified that they abandoned +their houses and farms and accompanied us. When we had been about an +hour at an inn, the news came that the Croats had fallen upon Themar +this very morning, had cut up the escort and plundered the carrier's +goods; had split the burgomaster's head, robbed the church, and carried +the organ pipes off to the market; and it was high time for us to have +evacuated it. Hildburghausen had afterwards to ransom itself by a large +sum of money and its chalices, otherwise the town would like all the +others have been reduced to ashes. During this wandering I got also a +present of a pair of gloves, a knife, and a sheath. + +"This lasted five or six days, then came the news announcing that the +enemy had departed from Coburg. Now I could not remain any longer. I +went speedily to Römhild, where lived my honoured godfather Cremer, the +town-clerk. I had to report to the worthy magistrate what had happened +to me. This little town alone remained unplundered. The worthy +magistrate had ordered the enemy to be fired upon, and by his foresight +God preserved this little town. Meanwhile Römhild became full of +refugees, who were partly known and partly unknown. But I did not then +care for any society; so I set off for Heldburg, and passing many +hundred men, arrived there first, just when the slain were being brought +on carts to the burial-ground. When I perceived this I went to the +burial-ground, and found seventeen persons lying in one grave, among +them were three councillors, one my father-in-law, the precentor, some +citizens, a tutor, the country beadle, and town constable. They were all +horribly disfigured. After this I went to my mother-in-law's house; I +found her so ill and so disfigured from being broken on the wheel, and +pinched with pistol screws, that she could hardly speak to me; she made +up her mind that she should die. So she desired me to seek my wife and +children whom the enemy had carried away with them. The children were +you, Michael, a year and a half, and your eldest sister, five years old. +I would gladly have eaten something at Heldburg, but there was nothing +either to eat or drink. I speeded therefore hungry and terrified to +Poppenhausen, not only to refresh myself there, but to procure a +messenger who would seek and recover my wife and children. But I learnt +there that the Poppenhausen children had also been carried away, and +that there were marching columns on many roads, so that the life of a +messenger would be in deadly peril. Meanwhile my parishioners dressed a +cow for me, which had escaped the soldiers; this I looked for with a +hungry stomach. So we had meat enough to eat, but without salt and +bread. After my repast I learned by post that my wife was come, and thus +it had come to pass. She had been taken with her two children, by some +musketeers, to Altenhausen, where, from fear of dishonour, she and her +children had sprung over the bridge into the water. From thence she was +drawn out by the soldiers, and brought into the village, where she was +made to help in the kitchen to prepare the supper. Meanwhile there came +another troop of soldiers who were higher in rank and more in number, +and drove the others from their quarters. My wife took this opportunity +to escape. She wended her way out, and left the two children with the +soldiers. A poor beggar-woman led her through secret byways out of the +village, and brought her to an old cave in a wood, where she passed that +night and remained the next day till evening. On that day the people +came forth from all quarters, and thus my wife set out and came safe and +unharmed to me, so that we were all joyful and thankful to God. + +"How murder and fire meanwhile had gone on at Heldburg, I will also +relate. The town of Heldburg had militia and trained bands, and it was +ordered that if the enemy came there, the city should be defended. For +it was always hoped that Duke Bernhard's people were not far distant, +and that the country would be relieved. When therefore the town was +fired, my honoured father-in-law, with many citizens and other folks, +hastened out of the town, and arrived in the night with my wife and two +children to Poppenhausen, and my wife prepared him a good invalid bed. +For my parsonage house had been filled with all kinds of furniture left +by noblemen and magistrates in their flight; and although pilferers had +been there, there was enough still left. The following day a whole troop +of horsemen came to the parsonage, examined my belongings, but let them +alone because there was one there who was wounded: they ordered supper +and went out to plunder, and returned towards evening, bringing all +kinds of booty; then it was necessary to boil and roast, and the +neighbouring women helped thereto with good will. When the horsemen were +about to depart, they advised my father-in-law not to be too confident, +as this tumult would last yet eight days, and as the road led past +there, he and his daughter might suffer violence, and as the +neighbouring villages were Popish, he had better remove to a Protestant +one. This my father-in-law did, and went at night in the fog for +security to Gleichmuthrusen; but the ungodly neighbours screamed out +that the horsemen wished to burn and slay the Lutherans, but they did it +for their advantage, as the Papists had gone with the troopers into our +villages and houses and stolen as much as others. Then my father-in-law +did not like to remain there any longer, he went with his belongings to +Einöder wood and remained there day and night. He occasionally went +forth to examine the road between Heldburg and Einöder. When therefore +one day he saw no one especial on the road, either travelling or riding, +and heard the little bell which was wont to be sounded when children +were baptized, he thought, such being the case, he might creep nearer +the town, and see whether there was any hindrance along the road. As +soon as he came to the town his steps were watched. Then a whole body of +camp followers came and took him, my mother-in-law, and my wife to the +house of Herr Göckel. Ah! there was banqueting and revelling! Being now +urged to give money and making various excuses, they singed and smeared +his eyes, beard, and mouth with tallow candles, and endeavoured +shamelessly to maltreat my wife in the room before every one, but she +screamed so that her mother sprang violently into the room and drew her +out through the door, which indeed was fastened, but the under panel had +been ingeniously covered with list, and was fractured. Then the cook had +compassion upon her, and brought her out of the house; and when my wife +gave him some ducats, which she had for a whole week concealed in the +cuff of her sleeve, he brought to her my father-in-law, who however was +horribly disfigured. Thus they left the town more dead than alive, and +being too weak to go further, went into the hospital. Not only the poor +sick folk were there, but many respectable citizens and women in hopes +of finding it a safe asylum. But it was far from being the case. +Although my father-in-law was lying on a bed nearly dying, and every one +saw that he was bleeding and had been evil treated, yet he was dragged +hither and thither, some wicked people having betrayed that he was a +rich man. They broke him on the wheel; they brought my wife and children +prisoners into the town, where they had to make shirts for the soldiers. +As she was sitting in the churchyard, one of them brought her a piece of +linen to cut out, he said to one of his comrades: 'Go and make sure that +the peasant, meaning my father-in-law, is dead.' He went, and returned +again soon, having in his arms my father-in-law's hosen and waistcoat, +and said to my wife, 'Your father is done for.' What barbarity! When the +pilferers had sufficiently pillaged the church of clothes and linen, +they left the town, and would carry my wife with them whether she would +or no. + +"Not long after they received their reward at Leipzig and Lützen, as may +be read in other places. After this every one returned home, and people +found each other again; but the sheep and cattle were all gone. I did +not preserve more than three calves out of eight, without counting my +forty-eight sheep which, with the whole herd, had been lost. + +"Duke Johann Casimir died in the year 1633, and was buried, on the same +day on which the funeral sermon was preached for Gustavus King of +Sweden, in that country. At that time great robbing and plundering went +on, amongst others by Duke Bernhard's soldiers, nine regiments of which +were stationed at Itzgrund, to enable the princely corpse to be buried +in safety. + +"In 1634 things became much worse, and one could well perceive that in a +short time everything would be topsy-turvy. I therefore removed what I +could to the parsonage at Steltzen, my beds, two cows, clothes, &c. But +this being in the autumn, after Lamboy had quartered himself with every +one and everywhere, my winter quarters cost me more than five hundred +gulden in thirty-five weeks, which I had to settle with Captain Krebs. I +had eleven persons in my house, not counting camp-followers and +maid-servants. It is not to be described what I and my wife had to +suffer and endure for a length of time. At last I could no longer feel +secure on account of them; I ran away sick and came to Mitwitz and +Mupperg, where I had as little rest as at Heldburg. My stepmother +especially tormented me (she had been struck by lightning), she would +not let me remain in my exile with my old father. I was obliged to go +to Neistadt to the rector, M. Val. Hoffmann, now superintendent. But I +was not only very poor; but became daily more ailing, therefore I only +thought how I could return to Poppenhausen or Heldburg and die there, +for I was weary of my life. + +"It is miraculous how I passed along the roads and through the villages +in the darkness of night, for it was still unsafe everywhere; at last I +reached Poppenhausen. There my poor parishioners and schoolmaster were +as joyful at sight of me, as if our Lord God had himself appeared among +them. But we were all in such great weakness and want, that we looked +more dead than alive. Many died of hunger; and we were frequently, each +day, obliged to take to our heels and conceal ourselves. And although we +hid our lentils, corn, and poor food in the ditches and old coffins, +nay, under the skulls of the dead, yet all was taken away from us. + +"Then were the survivors obliged to leave house and home, or die of +hunger. At Poppenhausen most of the inhabitants were in their graves; +there remained only eight or nine souls, who fled from it in the year +1636. The same circumstances occurred at Lindenau, the cure of which was +committed to me vicariously in 1636, by the Royal Consistory. I could +obtain no income; apples, pears, cabbage, turnips, &c., were my only +pay. Thus I was pastor at Lindenau from 1636 to 1641. I had the +parsonage arranged, but could not, on account of the insecurity and +turmoil, dwell constantly there, and performed the duties from Heldburg. +I have still the testimony of the Lindenauers, wherein they acknowledge +that I did not in five years get ten gulden in money; but they have +since honestly paid me the arrears in wood and apples. + +"In the year 1640, between Easter and Whitsuntide, the Imperial and +Swedish armies fought a battle at Saalfeld; and Franconia and Thuringia +were devastated far and wide. At four o'clock in the morning of the +Sunday before Whitsunday, strong bodies of Imperialists fell upon +Heldburg, when most of the citizens were still resting in their beds. My +whole street, in every direction, was full of the turmoil of horses and +riders; just as if some one had taken pains to show them my house. I and +my wife were taken prisoners five times in one hour; when I was released +from one, I was taken by another. Then I took them into my room and +cellar, that they might themselves seek what they required. At last they +went off, leaving me alone in the house; yet my terror and anguish were +so great that I never thought of my ready money, which I might have +saved ten times over, if I had had sufficient confidence to take it with +me. But all the houses and streets were full of horsemen; and if I had +taken my Mammon with me, it might so have happened that I should have +been caught. But in my dismay I thought not of money. Many men and women +were convoyed out of the town by an escort of Hasisch horsemen, who had +been quartered there. I then returned to my wife and children; we betook +ourselves to the nearest wood towards Hellingen; there old and young, +ecclesiastics and laymen, remained day and night. Our chief sustenance +was black juniper berries. Now certain of the citizens ventured into the +town, and brought back with them food and other things that they +required. I thought, ah! if thou also couldst go to thy house and get +hold of thy small cash in pence, and therewith support thyself and thy +children! I ventured it, slipped in, and went through the Spittel Gate +to the Mühl Gate, which was closed in with palisades. Within, there were +some who caught me by surprise, as a cat does a mouse; they bound me +with new cords so that I could neither help myself with hands or feet, +and must either give money, or betray rich people to them. The thieves +obliged me to toss the fodder for their horses at the Herrnhof, to lead +them to drink, and other odd work. Then imagining myself more at +liberty, I ran from thence, being unaware that a whole troop of soldiers +were standing at the gate of the courtyard, so I ran into their arms. +They beat me well with their swords and bandoliers, kept me still more +strictly with cords, led me from house to house, that I might tell them +to whom this or the other house belonged. Thus I was also led to my own +house, there I saw the copper water-can lying on the floor, in which had +been placed my ready money, three hundred thalers, and I thought, hadst +thou known that the birds and the foxes were in the way, thou wouldst +have remained outside. Now because I would not betray any one, they put +upon my head my own cap, which was lying on the ground in my house, and +gave me a blow on the head with a cutlass, so that the blood ran down to +my ears, but no hole was made in the cap, for it was of felt. Still +more; the same man wantonly drew the cutlass across my stomach, in order +to try whether I was invulnerable; he pressed tolerably hard, yet God +willed not that he should draw more blood from me. Twice in one hour, +namely, in Schneiderinn, at the farm of the tailor's wife Wittich, on +the dung-heap, and in the forest ranger's stable, they gave me the +Swedish drink mixed with dung water, whereby my teeth became all loose. +I defended myself as well as a prisoner could, when they forced a great +stick into my mouth. At last they led me along with cords, and said they +would hang me up: they brought me out to the Mühl Gate on the bridge; +then one of them took the cord wherewith my feet were bound together, +and another the cord on my left arm, and pitched me into the water, +holding the cord so that they might draw me up and down. Now whilst I +was groping around me in search of a support, I caught hold of a +hay-rake, which however gave way with me, and I could find no help +thereon; but by God's providence an opening was made for me, so that I +slipped under the bridge. Whenever I tried to hold on, they battered me +with these said hay-rakes, so that they snapped in two like a school +cane. When they were not only weary of their labour, but thought they +had done for me, as I should drown in the water, they let go both cords, +when I dived under the bridge like a frog, and no one could touch me. +Then I searched the pocket of my hosen and found a little knife, such as +could be closed, which they had not chosen to take, though they had +often searched me; I therefore cut the cord which bound my two feet, and +sprang down to the floor of the mill, where lay the wheels. The water +covered half my body; then the rogues threw sticks, brickbats, and +cudgels at me, in order to put an end to me completely. I was anxious to +work my way to the miller's back door, but could not, either because my +clothes being saturated with water held me back, or more likely, because +God would not permit me to die there. For as a drunken man reels to and +fro, thus did I, and came up on the other side at the back of the +brewery. When they perceived that I was about to get into the narrow +lane, they all ran into the town, collected more companions, and watched +at the tan-house to see whether I would come thither. But as I perceived +this, and was now left to myself, I remained lying in the water, and +placed my head under a thick willow bush, and rested in the water four +or five hours, till it was night and the town quiet; then I crept out +half dead, and could hardly breathe, on account of the blows I had had. +I went down to the tan-house and found that there was as yet no safety, +as there was one there cutting grass, and another picking hides out of +the tan-pits, and I almost stumbled upon them, so I was obliged to hide +there till late in the night; I went then over the conduit, always +following the course of the stream, and climbed over a willow stem by +which I reached the other side, towards Poppenhausen. + +"When I came to the Poppenhausen or Einöder road, it was strewed here +and there with linen, which the soldiers had thrown away or lost, but I +could not stoop to pick anything up. I came at last to Poppenhausen, and +found no one at home but Claus Hön, whose wife was lying-in; he was +obliged to cut the clothes from off my body, for I was swollen, and he +put aside the wet clothes to be dried. He also lent me a shirt, and then +examined my head, which was of all colours from the blows I had +received; afterwards my back and arms became quite black and blue. The +following day my parishioner bade me go away, for he feared they might +lie in wait for me, and that he should get into trouble on my account. +So with his assistance I put on my wet clothes, and went quite slowly to +Lindenau, always through the densest thicket, and kept on the other side +in the Lindenau garden, from which I could see the village. At last I +discovered some people going into a house; I went thither, but they +would not admit me, for they were too much afraid, but finally, when +they saw through the window that it was I, their pastor, who had come, +they admitted me, and I remained with them some days; for there was +quartered there one who was a Lindenauer, which helped a little. But I +met with a new misfortune. When those who were quartered here went to +the castle of Einöd with the Lindenauers, to fetch away what could yet +be found of their goods, the magistrate, the smith, and I were keeping +guard the while on the tower; as we were all three performing this duty, +certain horsemen came into the village, they saw us on the tower, went +straight up to it, and found us there together. As they ascended the +stairs we discovered from their blustering and talking that they were +troopers, so, in bad plight as I was, I endeavoured, alas! to climb. I +clambered up into the belfry and curled myself like a cat behind the +clock; but one of the thieves climbed up at the same time and found me. +My parishioners said I was their schoolmaster, and entreated for me, as +I had already been badly beaten by the soldiers. It was however of no +avail. They insisted on this schoolmaster descending. The magistrate +went first, after him a trooper, the smith followed, then another +trooper, and lastly I followed, lingering. Now when they all came out +through the door of the church, I remained within, bolted the little +door, and ran out of the other, and crept into a turnip pit. God help +me! How woeful it was for me to be obliged to stoop and lie on all-fours +for a whole hour! Thus I was saved, but my dear fellow-watchers were +taken to a mill and obliged to fill the flour sacks. + +"On the Friday before Whitsuntide I came with many citizens to Coburg. A +thief had carried off my shoes, and left me a pair of old bad ones +instead; I had nothing else to wear for almost a week, and both soles +had fallen out, and when it became necessary to take to one's heels, the +shoes turned round hindforemost, so that often I could not help laughing +outright. Thus I came to Coburg. The news of my torments had reached +Coburg some days before, together with the report that I had been +killed; when therefore I came myself, the citizens and my old +acquaintance were much astonished. Dr. Kesler, general superintendent, +_item_, consul Körner, invited me several times during the Whitsuntide +festival, and for a whole month the Coburgers showed great kindness to +me, my wife, and children, which I lauded in print on St. John's day. + +"Ah, how great was the grief and misery to be seen and heard in all the +surrounding small towns at that time! the inhabitants of Eisfeldt, +Heldburg, and Neustadt, together with the villagers, had to make shift +miserably in the town. Asking and begging was no shame. Yet I did not +wish to burden too much my good host, Herr Hoffman the apothecary. I +went out into the wide world with the pastor of Walburg, Eisentraut, for +three weeks, _victum quærendi gratia_, to Culmbach, Bayreuth, +Hirschheid, Altorf, and Nuremberg, and again back to Coburg. I then +found that my wife had returned to Poppenhausen, accompanied again by +the Hasische trooper, but there was nothing to eat or reap there. What +God had provided me with on my journey, I was obliged to carry to the +town hall and give to the soldiers, and the children were well-nigh +dying of hunger. They had not been able to buy bran enough for bread. My +superintendent, Herr Grams, died from the effects of the Swedish drink, +at the castle four or five weeks after this turbulent time. + +"Now as exactions and extortions still continued, I could get no +stipend, and yet had to assist in the superintendence of the parish of +Heldburg, as well as my own, I went _cum testimonio et consilio_ of Dr. +Kesler, and also with letters of recommendation to Duke Albert, to +Eisenach, and represented my poverty in divers ways to the Consistory. I +got a presentment and other recommendations to their Princely +Highnesses, the two brothers, that I might obtain advancement in their +dominions. So I went from Eisenach to Gotha, just as our honoured prince +and lord, Duke Ernest, fixed his residence at the Kaufhaus: for I was +present when they paid him homage at Gotha. The royal Consistory soon +offered to me the parish of Notleben; but as the Notlebers were at +strife with their old pastor, and there was to be a month's delay to +carry on their contest, Dr. Glass persuaded me in the interim to go with +my recommendation to Weimar, and to collect somewhat for my poor family. +My wanderings, however, lasted till the year 1641. I returned on Tuesday +the 18th of January to Gotha, and found the cure of that parish still +vacant for me, which I undertook with the greatest humility and +thankfulness, and preached my first sermon on the parable of the +vineyard, from the 20th of Matthew. But I not only lived in great +insecurity at Notleben, as one had daily to think of flight, but had +also many disputes with the peasantry, who in church and school affairs +had always a hankering after Erfurt, and to whom all royal ordinances +with respect to the catechism were odious. I, the pastor, had to bear +this from the council and peasants, and as all the stipend was paid in +kind, and I was neither a tutor, nor had any other means whereby I could +get on well, I humbly sought for a change of cure. When, therefore, our +honoured lord, after the division of property, obtained the parish of +Erock and the village of Heubach, he offered to me to become pastor +there, which I had expected more than a year before. Thus in 1647, I in +all humility accepted this removal, and preached my trial sermon on +Judica Sunday, in the presence of the parishioners and commissaries. I +received the call on the following day, and thus under God's providence +brought hither my wife and child. This was my fourth piece of church +preferment, where for my own part I desire, God willing, to live and +die; but my wife wishes herself away, in a better place in the plains, +on account of the difficulty of getting servants. I leave it in the +hands of God and my superiors." + +Thus far extends what is preserved of Bötzinger's biography. He finally +found rest at Heubach, and administered his office there for +six-and-twenty years. He died in 1673, at the age of seventy-four, after +having led for forty-seven years a life which cannot be designated as +peaceful. Heubach was a new parish which had been formed at Gotha by +Duke Ernest the Good, and Bötzinger was the first pastor. He was obliged +to dwell in the royal shooting lodge, which had been built by Duke +Casimir in the forest, for grouse shooting. In the neighbouring +forester's house lived an insolent forester; the country was in a wild +state, little inhabited, and the people, corrupted by the war, led a +lawless forest life. It appears that the new pastor was not particularly +welcome to these denizens of the woods, the forester especially was his +vehement opponent, and the pastor secretly complained, in Latin +distiches which he inscribed in the church records, to his successor, of +the bitter sufferings which this servant of the woods occasioned him. He +in a brotherly way warned his successor against the wickedness of the +man and his bad wife. But in spite of this contention, it may be +concluded that this long-tormented sufferer was not altogether unhappy, +and a harmless self-contemplation is to be perceived in his Latin +verses. When at last he died, laudatory poems by some of his noted +clerical brothers were written, as was then the custom; some of them are +extant both in Latin and German. Even Herr Andreas Bachmann, the court +preacher at Gotha, a distinguished man, yielded a tribute of respect to +his "Dear old, now deceased clerical brother;" it begins with the +following verses, which will conclude this chapter:-- + + Martin Bötzinger, God's servant, faithful and true, + Upright as Job--was long time pastor I ween; + A much tormented man with crosses not a few, + As will, in the record of his life, be seen. + + + + + CHAPTER IV. + + THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.--THE CLIPPERS OF MONEY, AND PUBLIC OPINION. + + +Monotonously did the death wail sound in the chronicles and records of +fellow-sufferers. Where thousands were saved, millions were ruined and +destroyed. The war was destructive of house, wealth, and life, alike in +town and country. Manifold was the work of the destroying forces, but a +higher force was unceasingly at work to ward off final ruin. + +It is a marvellous circumstance, that in the same year in which the war +in Germany expired, the interest of the people in public affairs was so +far developed as to originate the first newspapers. In matters of faith, +moral feeling and the judgments of individuals had for a century worked, +but in politics it was only rarely and feebly that serious diversity of +opinion was ventured to be expressed by private individuals. It was just +when the recruiting drums of the princes were beating at every +muster-place that public opinion began its first political struggle in +the press. On an important social question, the intellectual leaders of +the people rose up against the immorality of their own Sovereigns. We +shall endeavour here briefly to exhibit the course of public opinion, +and show what was stirred up and carried away by it during the war. It +may more especially be discovered in the literature of the +flying-sheets, which contended for and against the Bohemian King, +condemned the _Kipper_ and _Wipper_, and did homage to the great +Gustavus Adolphus, but at last became itself, like the nation, meagre +and powerless. + +It was after the beginning of the sixteenth century that the people +began to receive news through the press, in a double form. One of these +forms was a single sheet printed on one side, almost always ornamented +with a woodcut, and after the sixteenth century, with a copper-plate +engraving, under which the explanatory text was generally rendered in +verse. In these flying leaves were communicated the appearances in the +heavens, and comets; very soon also battles by land and sea, +portraitures of the celebrities of the day, and the like. Much of the +good humour, and coarse jests of the Reformation time are to be found in +them. The art of the wood carver was in constant activity, and we find +many characteristic peculiarities of the talents of the great painters +impressed upon it. The other form was that of pamphlets, especially in +quarto, frequently also ornamented with woodcuts. They gave information +of every novelty; coronations, battles, and newly discovered countries; +by them every striking event flitted through the country. After the +Reformation, they increased enormously in number. All printing-houses +gave birth to them under the titles of newspapers, advices, reports, and +couriers. Besides these, there were the small controversial writings of +the Reformers, sermons, discourses, and songs. Very soon also the +Princes began to make use of the invention of printing, to inform the +public of their quarrels, and to gain partisans. Private individuals +whose rights were injured contended with their opponents, whether city +magistrates or foreign rulers, in pamphlets. During the whole of the +sixteenth century the aim of the small, not theological, literature, was +first to impart news, and afterwards to serve the interests of +individuals or princes, or to make known the views of those in power. +The opinions of individuals upon political affairs were principally +conveyed in a form which was then considered particularly ingenious, as +pasquinades or dialogues. These small news sheets were innumerable, and +their spread was rapid; after the Reformation it became a separate +branch of industry. The booksellers, or as they were then called, +stationers, who offered these newspapers for sale in their shops and +stalls, and introduced them to the markets of foreign cities, made a +dangerous competition with the printers, bookbinders, and illuminators. +Important newspapers were everywhere pirated. Along the great trade and +post roads, more particularly of the Rhine and southern Germany, certain +trading and printing establishments made special gains from the +communication of the daily news; for example, Wendelin Borsch, at the +Tiler's Hut in Nuremberg, about 1571, Michael Enzinger at Cologne, at +the end of the century, and others. These sheets at first were published +very irregularly, but they already contained a correspondence from +different cities, in which not only political, but mercantile +intelligence was given.[32] At last, in 1612, appeared here and there +separate newspaper sheets in numbers, and in a certain degree of +continuity. Meanwhile it had been long the custom of the merchants to +make such communications to their mercantile friends with some +regularity, so that there already existed news-writers who were in the +habit of forwarding written newspapers. This method of spreading +intelligence had come to Germany from Italy. In Venice, from the year +1536, there were _Notizie Scritte_, written news in successive series, +which continued there till the French Revolution. There also, appeared +the first regular newspaper shortly before 1600, which it is stated took +the name of _Gazzetta_ from a little coin which was the cost of the +single numbers. + +Soon after, the German newspapers began to appear regularly. In 1615 the +first weekly newspaper was published at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, by +Egenolf Emmel, bookseller and printer. In opposition to which, in 1616, +the Imperial deputy postmaster Johann van der Brighden, published a +competing paper called 'Political Notices.' From these two undertakings +resulted the oldest German newspapers, the 'Frankfort Journal,' and the +'Oberpostamts Zeitung.' + +But these and other weekly papers were for a long time, only news sheets +in which opinions on the facts communicated were carefully withheld. The +great stream of public opinion still continued for two centuries to run +in the old direction; the flying leaves and occasional brochures. + +At the beginning of the war even the distant readers were compelled to +be violent partisans. Everywhere appeared controversial writings, +opinions, councils, and deliberations. The nation was rent into large +parties by this intellectual strife, and it is instructive to see how +the writings of the disputants stand in exact relation to the success +which their party had achieved. Till the battle of the Weissen Berge +nine tenths of all the narratives and controversial writings are +Protestant; they reached full a thousand in number. Hatred to the +Jesuits blazed fiercely; bitter was the rancour against the Emperor, and +incessant were the cautions against the League. After Prague, Strasburg +was the centre of their warlike activity. Whilst at Prague the +libel-writer von Rörig, as _Huss-redivius_, made his voice heard +vehemently in many 'Political Discourses' against his adversary Sturm: +the _magisters_ of Strasburg, after the fashion of Boccalini, made +accusations against the same opponent, before Apollo and the high court +of Parnassus; but their Apollo had to deliver human and explicit +oracles. The answers in defence are cautious and uncertain, as during +the whole war the Catholic party were generally not a match for the +Protestants in the serious warfare of the pen. But the speedy flight of +the new King of Bohemia suddenly changed the physiognomy of the literary +market. The secret writings obtained as booty from the Bohemian party +were published by their opponents; and about these bulky quartos there +raged for years a battle of petty flying-sheets. Revengeful, and +joyfully triumphant, the Imperialists sounded their pæan. It is true +that in their brochures there was still some moderation, for they were +obliged to spare the Lutheran Saxons; but so much the more irritably did +they attack the enemy, in countless pictorial sheets and satirical +verses. Endless and merciless were the satires on the fugitive winter +King, he, the proud and witless one, with his wife and children, were +depicted in every kind of pitiful situation, seeking their bread, +departing in bad waggons, and digging a grave for themselves. + +This strife was interrupted by another, which will ever be of high +interest. It was the storm of the German press against the "_Kipper_ and +_Wipper_." + +Of all the terrors at the beginning of the war, nothing gave such vague +apprehension to the people, as the sudden depreciation of the coinage. +To the fancy of the suffering generation, the evil became so much the +greater, as in the gloomy frame of mind of that period it appeared to +occur suddenly, and everywhere roused the most frightful passions, +discord in families, and hatred and strife between debtors and +creditors, leaving behind, hunger, poverty, beggary, and immorality. It +made honourable citizens gamblers, drunkards, and profligates, it drove +preachers and schoolmasters from their offices, brought opulent families +to beggary, plunged every government into miserable confusion, and +threatened the dwellers in cities, in a thickly populated country, with +famine. + +It was the third year of the war; its flames had already carried +destruction over Bohemia and the Palatinate, and the ruins were still +glowing, on which the Imperial troops erected the cross of the old +faith. A sultry atmosphere loured over the country; throughout the +empire, in every class, men armed themselves, and anxiety for the future +pervaded all. But intercourse with the provinces in which the war was at +first located, was then comparatively small. The countries exposed to +its fury were, with the exception of the Palatinate, provinces belonging +to the Emperor; and on the Elbe and lower Rhine, in Thuringia, +Franconia, and the territories of lower Saxony, it was still a question +whether the danger was approaching home. In August, 1621, the peasant +had the prospect of a moderate harvest; in trade and commerce there was +some degree of stagnation, but there was much of that excited eagerness +which is the natural offspring of a great defensive movement, and manly +youths were more allured than intimidated by the wild conduct of the +soldiery. It had indeed been long remarked, that there was something +unusual about the money which circulated in the country. The good heavy +Imperial coin became more and more scarce, in its place much new money +was current, badly coined, and of a red colour. The increasing rise in +the price of foreign goods appeared still more strange. Everything +became dearer. Whoever wished to make a present to a godchild, or to pay +foreign tradesmen, had to give an increasing _agio_ for his old pure +Joachim's thaler. But in the local trade, betwixt town and country, the +extensive new coinage was taken without hesitation, indeed it was +exchanged or bartered with an increased activity. The mass of the people +did not observe that the different kinds of coin with which it was the +custom to pay, became in their hands, worthless lead; but the sharper +ones, who had an inkling of the state of things, became, for the most +part, accomplices in the dishonest usury of the Princes. It may be +distinctly perceived how the people came to a knowledge of their +situation, and we still feel dismayed at the sudden terror, anguish, and +despair of the masses, and are struck by the anxieties and manly +indignation of the thoughtful; and in reading the old narratives, we +still feel somewhat of the indignation with which the guilty were +regarded. When we consider the many wonderful errors of public opinion +at that time, and the well-meaning zeal of individuals who gave good +counsel, we may be permitted in this period of calamity and humiliation, +to feel a proud satisfaction at the sagacity with which even then, some +men of the people discovered the ground of the evil, and, in one of the +most difficult national questions, found the right answer, and by it a +remedy, at least for the worst misfortunes. Before we attempt to give a +picture of the "_Kipper_ and _Wipper_" years, we must make some remarks +on the coining of that period. + +In the olden time, all technical dexterity was environed with dignity, +secrecy, and an apparatus of forms. Nothing is more characteristic of +the peculiarity of the German nature, than its virtuosoship; even the +most monotonous handicraft was ennobled by an abundance of lively +additions. As soon as the spirit of the artisan was excited by the +genial pleasure of creating, his imagination was occupied with images +and symbols, and he turned his skill dexterously to high, nay even to +holy things. What we have described as applicable to all the handicrafts +of the middle ages, was so especially to the art of coining. A feeling +of his self-importance was strong in the coiner; the work itself, the +handling of the precious metals fresh from the fire, was considered +ennobling. The obscure chemical processes, which were surrounded, +through alchemy, with a wilderness of fantastic forms, had a far more +imposing effect upon the workers, than can be understood by the rational +fabricators of our century. To this was added the responsibility of the +service. When the coiner took the assay weight out of its beautiful +capsule, and placed the little acorn cup on the artistically worked +assay balance, in order to weigh the remnant in it, he did this with a +certain consciousness of superiority over his fellow-citizens.[33] When +he purified the silver assay from lead in the cupel, and the liquid +silver first overflowed, shining with delicate prismatic colours, and +then, the variegated stream being rent, the bright gleam of the silver +passed like lightning through the molten mass, this silver gleam filled +him with reverential astonishment, and he felt himself in the midst of +the mysterious creations of the spirits of nature, which, whilst he +feared, he was yet able to control by the art of his handicraft, as far +as his knowledge reached. After that period, in the order of things, the +coiners formed themselves into a close corporation, with masters, +associates, and apprentices, and held jealously to their privileges. +Whoever was desirous of stamping the Holy Roman Imperial coin was first +obliged to give proof of his free and honourable lineage, to do lowly +service for four years, during this period to wear, according to custom, +a fool's cap, and to allow himself to be punished and beaten when +inexpert or in the wrong; then at last he was admitted to the business +of coining, and entered as an associate in the brotherhood of Imperial +coiners. + +But these strict regulations, which were again confirmed to the +brotherhood by the Emperor Maximilian II., in 1571, had even then ceased +to have the effect of making the corporation honourable and upright. +Equally inefficient were the attempts at control, by the decisions of +the Imperial Diet and the Sovereigns. At the inspection of every piece +of coin the master of the mint had with him a warden, who proved the +texture and weight of the coin. The ten Circles of the Empire held +yearly approbation days, in order, mutually, to compare their coin and +to reject the bad; every Circle was to be represented by a +warden-general; for every Circle an appointed number of mints were +established, in which the lesser rulers were to have their money +specially coined: but all these regulations were only imperfectly +carried out. + +There were undoubtedly some Sovereigns and mint-masters then in the +country who were faithful, but they were few in number; and generally a +mint-master, who was considered capable by a German Circle, and worked +in a legal mint, was concerned in many strange practices. It was +difficult to exercise control over these imperfect coining proceedings; +the temptations were great, and morality in general much lower than now. +From the Sovereign down to the understrapper and Jewish purveyor, every +one concerned in coining deceived the other. The Sovereign allowed the +master of the mint for a series of years to work and become rich; he +perhaps permitted in silence the coin of the country to be debased, in +order at the right moment to proceed against the guilty, from whom then +he squeezed out by pressure, like a sponge, all that they had sucked up +for many years drop by drop. It did not avail them that they had long +quitted the service, for after many years greedy justice would reach +them: but the mint-master, who was not in the convenient position of the +lion, to be able to secure his booty by a single stroke of the paw, was +in the habit of industriously overreaching his masters, the purveyors, +nay even his cashiers, the associates, and the apprentices, not to +mention the public. The other assistants did no better; every man's hand +was against the other, and the curse, which according to the proverb +lies on the gold of the German dwarf, appears in the seventeenth century +to have depraved all who transmuted the shining metal into money. The +common method of transacting the business was as follows. + +The master of the mint purchased the metal, defrayed the costs of the +stamping, and paid a tax to the Sovereign for every Cologne mark which +he struck, which it appears amounted generally to about four good +groschen: but he had to pay dear for fine silver, and the wages and +other accessories were continually rising in price. If he paid the tax, +from one to two thousand marks, weekly to the lord of the mint, he +concealed from him the fifty marks which he had struck over and above, +and retained the tax upon them for himself; furthermore, he was a sharp +coiner, that is to say, he deducted from the money about half a grain in +the amount of silver required by the law; he always struck a hundred +marks in weight, two ounces too light, which was remarked by no one, and +when he knew that the money was to be sent directly into foreign +countries, especially to Poland, he was bolder in deducting from the +weight. His dealings with the purveyors who procured the metal for him, +were not more upright. There was carried on then, throughout the whole +of Germany, a secret traffic, which was severely prohibited by the law, +and traced with much sagacity by the gate-keepers of the cities, a +traffic in false money. What was acquired by the soldier as booty, or +stolen by the thief from the church, was smelted by the receivers of +stolen goods into flat cakes or conical masses, which in the language of +the trade were called "ingots" and "kings;" whatever was clipped from +the money in diminishing the proper quantity of silver, or had otherwise +to be carefully consigned under a false name, was poured out of the +smelting crucible over moist birchen-twigs, and thus granulated: but +besides this, by being incessantly bought up, the good coin was +exchanged for bad, the small money-changers, most of them wandering +Jews, journeyed from village to village far across the frontiers of the +German Empire, and collected, as the ragmen do now, their wares from the +soldiers, countrymen, and beggars. All the medals of distinguished +persons, all coats-of-arms and inscriptions, horse and man, wolves, +sheep and bears, thalers and hellers, the saints of Cologne and Treves, +and the medallions of the heretic Luther, were bought up for the mint, +collected and exchanged. The concealed wares were then packed into a +vessel with ginger, pepper, and tartar, and paid toll duty as white +lead, wrapped up in bales of cloth and frankincense. There were +travelling waggons with false bottoms, which were specially prepared for +such transports. A still better safeguard was an ecclesiastic as a +travelling companion; but the best of all was a trumpeter, who gave the +trader the appearance of being a prince's courier. If it happened that a +distinguished lord was travelling towards the same country, it was +expedient to bribe him, for he and his suite, their waggons and horses, +were never examined at the city gates. Sometimes the agent disguised +himself as a distinguished lord or soldier, and caused the burden to be +conveyed by the trooper's horses or his servants. Sometimes the +mint-master was obliged to travel to the frontier to meet the agent, +under the pretext of paying a visit to some friend. Then the costly +goods were carried far from the dwellings of men, across lonely heaths, +or through the clearings of a wood, from one hand to another, on a +merchant's parole. + +Meanwhile the petty Jewish dealer carried at night, along byways over +the frontier, his wallet full of old groschen, in the twofold fear of +robbers and of the guardians of the law. The wallet, the broad-brimmed +hat, and the yellow cloth border to the coat, the mark of a Jew of the +Empire, was frequently seen at the mint. There existed between the +dealer and the mint-master a confidential business connection, certainly +not without a mental reservation; for it occasionally happened to the +Jew that false thalers were found in one of the hundred marks which he +delivered in thalers, or that the wallet together with the coin had +become moist during the journey, which added some half-ounces to their +weight, or that fine white sand became mingled with the granulated +silver, and was weighed with it. For this the mint-master indemnified +himself, by hanging the scales so that one side of the beam was shorter +than the other, by causing the scales to spring up and descend slowly, +notwithstanding the perpendicular position of the balance, in order to +make the wares some half-ounces lighter, or by falsifying the weights +altogether. What the masters did not do, the apprentices of the mint +ventured upon. However cautious the purveyor might be during the +smelting assay, they understood how to mix copper dust with the silver +already weighed, in order to make the assay worse than it really was. +Such was the state of the traffic even at those mints where there was +still some respect for the law. + +Besides the licensed coiners, there were others in most of the ten +Circles, of easier conscience and bolder practice; not exactly false +coiners in our sense of the term, although this was carried on with +great recklessness; but nobles and corporations who had the right of +coining, and prized it highly as a source of income; for, contrary to +the Imperial decrees, which imposed upon them the duty of having their +money coined in one of the approved mints of the Circle, they coined +actively in their own territory. Sometimes they let their right of +coining for a year's rent, nay, they even disposed of their mints to +other princes as a speculation. These irregular coining places were +called hedge mints, and in them a systematic corruption of money took +place. No inquiry was made as to the right of the coiners; whoever knew +how to manage fire and metal, engaged in this kind of work. There was +little regard for the prescribed fineness of texture, and weight of the +money; it was coined with false stamps, and the head of the ruler, with +the date of a better period, were stamped on light coin; nay, in regular +false coining, the stamps of foreign mints were often counterfeited. The +brightness of the new coin was removed by tartar or lead water; and all +this took place under the protection of the Sovereign. The disposal of +the money thus coined required all the cunning and circumspection of the +agents, and a line of industry was in this way formed, which we may +presume occupied many intermediate hands. Thundering decrees had been +fulminated for seventy years at the Imperial Diets and Assemblages of +the circles, against the hedge mints, but without success. Indeed, after +the introduction of good Imperial money, they became more numerous and +active, for the work paid better. + +Such was the state of things even before the year 1618. The sovereigns, +small and great, required more and more money. Then some of the Princes +of the Empire--the Brunswickers, alas! were among the first--began to +outdo the proceedings of the most notorious of the hedge mints; they +caused the coin of the country, both heavy and light, to be struck of a +bad mixture of silver and copper, instead of silver, and soon it was +only copper silvered. At last, as for example at Leipzig, a small +angular coin was issued by the city, no longer of copper, which was of +higher value, but of pure tin. This discovery of making money at little +cost spread like a pestilence. From both of the Circles of Saxony it +spread to those of the Rhine and Southern Germany. Hundreds of new mints +were established. Wherever a ruined tower appeared firm enough for a +forge and bellows, wherever there was abundance of wood for burning, and +a road to bring good money to the mint and carry away bad, there a band +of coiners nestled. Electors and nobles, ecclesiastical communities and +cities outvied each other in making copper money; even the people were +infected with it. For a century the art of making gold, and treasure +digging had occupied the fancies of the people; now the happy time +appeared to have arrived, when every fish-kettle could be turned into +silver in the coiners' scales. A mania for money-making began. Pure +silver and old silver gilt became continually and strikingly dearer in +mercantile traffic, so that at last it was necessary to pay four, five +or more new gulden for one old silver gulden, and the price of goods and +the necessaries of life slowly rose; but that signified little to the +multitude, so long as the new money, the production of which seemed to +increase without end, was willingly taken. The nation, already excited, +became at last madly intoxicated. Every one thought they had the +opportunity of becoming rich without labour; all applied themselves to +trafficking in money. The merchant had money dealings with the artisan, +the artisan with the peasant. A general craving, chaffering, and +overreaching prevailed. The modern swindling in funds and on 'Change, +gives only a weak notion of the proceedings of that time. Whoever had +debts hastened to pay them; whoever could get money from an +accommodating coiner, in exchange for an old brewing vessel,[34] could +buy therewith house and fields; whoever had to pay wages, salaries, or +fees, found it convenient to do so in plated copper. There was little +work done in the cities, and only for very high pay. Whoever had any old +thalers, gold gulden, or other good Imperial money lying in their chests +as a store in case of need, as was then the case with almost every one, +drew out his treasure and was delighted to exchange it for new money, as +the old thalers, in a most remarkable way, appeared to be worth four, +nay even six and ten times as much as formerly. That was a jolly time. +If wine and beer were dearer than usual, they were not so in the same +proportion as the old silver money. Part of the gains were jovially +spent in the public-house. Every one was disposed to give, in those +times. The Saxon cities readily agreed, at the Diet at Torgau, to a +great addition to the land tax, as money was to be obtained everywhere +in superfluity. People also were very ready to contract debts, for money +was offered everywhere, and business could be done with it on favourable +conditions; great obligations therefore were undertaken on all sides. +Thus a powerful stream carried away the people to destruction. + +But a counter stream arose, first gentle, then continually stronger. +Those were first to complain who had to live on a fixed income, the +parish priests most loudly, the schoolmasters and poor misanthropes most +bitterly. Those who had formerly lived respectably on two hundred +gulden, good Imperial coin, now only received two hundred light gulden, +and if, as often undoubtedly happened, the salary of some were raised +about a quarter in amount, they could not even with this addition defray +half, nay even the fourth part, of the necessary expenses. Upon this +unprecedented occasion the ecclesiastics referred to the Bible, and +found there an indisputable objection to all hedge minting, and began to +preach from their pulpits against light money. The schoolmasters starved +in the villages as long as they could, then ran away and increased the +train of vagabonds, beggars, and soldiers; the servants next became +discontented. The wages, which averaged ten gulden a year, hardly +sufficed to pay for their shoes. In every house there were quarrels +between them and their masters and mistresses. Men and maid-servants ran +away, the men enlisted and the maids endeavoured to set up for +themselves. Meanwhile the youths dispersed from the schools and +universities, few parents among the citizens being sufficiently well off +to be able to support their sons entirely during the period of +education. There were however a multitude of scholarships founded by +benevolent people for poor students. The value of these now suddenly +vanished, the credit of the poor scholars in foreign towns was soon +exhausted, many found it impossible to maintain themselves; they sank +under poverty and the temptations of that bloody period. We may still +read in the autobiographies of many respectable theologians, what +distress they then suffered. One supported life in Vienna, by cutting +daily his master's tallies for a four-penny loaf; another was able to +earn eighteen batz[35] in the week, by giving lessons, the whole of +which he was obliged to spend on dry bread. + +There was increasing discontent. First among the capitalists who lived +on the interest of the money which they had lent, which was then in +middle Germany five, or occasionally six, per cent. For a time they were +much envied as wealthy people, but now their receipts were often hardly +sufficient to maintain life. They had lent thousands of good Imperial +thalers, and now a creditor would pay them on the nail a thousand +thalers in new money. They demanded back their good old money; they +squabbled and laid their complaints before the courts; but the money +which they had received back bore the image of the Sovereign and the old +mark of value; it was legally stamped money, and the debtor could in +justice allege that he had received similar money, both as interest and +capital and for labour. Thus there arose numberless lawsuits; and the +lawyers were in great perplexity. At last the cities and even the +Sovereigns were embarrassed. They had willingly issued the new money, +and many of them had coined it recklessly. But now for all their taxes +and imposts they obtained only bad money, a hundred pounds of plated +copper instead of a hundred pounds of silver, at the same time +everything had become dear, even to them, and a portion of their +expenses had to be paid in good silver. Then the governments attempted +to assist themselves by new frauds. First they endeavoured to retain the +good money by compulsion; now they suddenly lowered the value of their +own money, and again threatened punishment and compulsion to all who +gave less value for it. But the false money still continued to sink +under the regulated value. Then some governments refused to take for the +payment of taxes and imposts, the money of their own country which they +themselves had coined. They declined taking back what they had stamped +in the last year. Now for the first time the people discovered the whole +danger of their position. A general storm broke loose against the new +money; it sank even in daily traffic to a tenth of its nominal value. +The new hedge mints were cried down as nests of the devil; the +mint-masters and their agents, the money-changers, and whoever else +dealt in money concerns, were the general objects of detestation. Then +it was that they obtained in Germany the popular names of _Kipper_ and +_Wipper_. These are Lower Saxon words: _kippen_ comes equally from the +fraudulent weighing, as from the clipping of the money; and _wippen_ +from throwing the heavy money out of the scales.[36] Satirical songs +were sung about them; it was supposed that their names were heard in the +call of the quail, and the mob cried out after them "_kippe di wipp_," +as they did "_hep_" after the Jews. In many places the people combined +together and stormed their dwellings. For many a year after the terrors +of the long war, it was considered a disgrace to have acquired money in +the _Kipper-time_. Everywhere disorders and tumults arose; the bakers +would no longer bake, and their shops were destroyed; the butchers would +no longer slaughter, on account of the prescribed tax; the miners, +soldiers, and students raged about in a state of wild uproar; the city +communities, deep in debt, became bankrupt, as for example the wealthy +Leipzig. The old joints of the burgher societies cracked and threatened +to burst asunder. The small literature urged on and excited the temper +of the public mind, and was itself still further excited by the +increasing discontent. The street songs began it, and the pictorial +flying-sheets followed. The _Kippers_ were unweariedly portrayed with +the flames of hell round their heads, their feet standing on an insecure +ball, surrounded by numerous gloomy emblems, amongst which the cord and +the lurking raven were not absent; or in their mints collecting and +carrying off money, and in contrast to them the poor, begging; the +different classes were depicted, soldiers, citizens, widows and orphans, +paying to the money-changers their hard earnings; the jaws of hell +appeared open, and the changers were assiduously shoved down by devils; +all this was adorned, according to the taste of the times, with +allegorical figures and Latin devices, made comprehensible to every one +by indignant couplets in German. + +As among the people, so also among the educated, a fierce storm began to +rage. The parish priests were loud in their invectives and +denunciations, not only from the pulpit but also in flying-sheets. A +brochure literature began, which swelled up like a sea. One of the first +that was written against the new money was by W. Andreas Lampe, pastor +at Halle. In a powerful treatise, 'On the last brood and fruit of the +devil, Leipzig, 1621,' he proved, by numerous citations from the Old and +New Testament, that all trades and professions in the world, even that +of an executioner, were by divine ordinance; but the _Kipper_ was of the +devil, whereupon he characterizes in some cutting passages the mischief +which they had caused. He had to suffer severe trials, and though he +loyally spared the authorities, yet he was threatened with proceedings, +so that he found it necessary to obtain from the sheriffs' court at +Halle a justification. He was soon followed by many of his clerical +brethren. The controversial writings of these ecclesiastics appear to us +clumsy productions; but it is well to examine them with attention, for +the Protestant priesthood are always representatives of the cultivation +and the rectitude of the people. + +The preachers exorcised the evil one, and the theological faculty soon +followed with the heavy artillery of their Latin arguments, and how +bitter was the priestly anger, was shown for example by the consistory +of Wittemberg, when they refused the Lord's Supper and honourable burial +to the Kippers. Lastly we have the lawyers with their questions, +informations, detailed opinions on coining and recapitulations. The +answers which they gave in thick brochures were almost always very +diffuse, and their arguments frequently subtile; still they were +necessary, for the disputes concerning _meum_ and _tuum_ between +creditor and debtor appeared interminable, and numberless lawsuits +threatened to prolong insupportably the sufferings of the people. The +principal subjects of investigation were, whether those who had lent +good money were to be repaid capital and interest in light money; and +again, whether those who had lent light money had a claim for the +repayment of the full capital in good money. It must be remarked here +that, in many cases which the law and the acuteness of lawyers did not +reach, the dispute was ended by that true feeling of equity which was +inherent in the people. For when the governments were generally bad, and +legal justice was very costly and difficult to be obtained, much had to +be accomplished by the practical sense of individuals. A little flying +leaf, in which is related how the sound common sense of the village +magistrate administered justice, was certainly not less useful than a +massive half-Latin, half-German "_Informatio_." + +In the flood of paper, which gives us information concerning the +excitement of that period, there are certain sheets which more +especially arrest our attention--the utterances of educated and +experienced men, who know how to tell shortly and effectively in a +popular form, from whence it all arose. Some of these flying-sheets, +written at different periods of the Thirty years' war, have been +preserved to us, in which we may even now behold with admiration, both +energy of character, power of language, and genuine statesmanlike +discernment. In vain do we inquire for the name of the author. We will +only mention here one of these writings. Its title is, 'Expurgatio, or +Vindication of the poor _Kipper_ and _Wipper_, given by Kniphardum +Wipperium, 1622. Fragfurt.' + +The author has chosen the valiant Lampe as the object of his attack, as +the cautious zeal of the Saxon ecclesiastic whose distinguished +colleagues were accused of being Wippers--for example, the notorious +court preacher Hoe, the subservient tool of the Elector--had excited the +indignation of a powerful mind. A manly judgment, and a very just +democratic tone appears in the strong expressions of this writing. We +may judge of its peculiar tenour from the following passages:-- + +"I have never yet seen a single penny, and much less an inferior coin, +on which was to be found the names, arms, or stamp of _Kipper_ and +_Wipper_, still less any inscription from the new quail call, +_kippediwipp_. But one may truly see thereupon a well-known stamp or +image, and the _Kipper_ or _Wipper_ will not appear even in the smallest +letter of the alphabet. + +"But if Herr Magister does not rightly understand the matter, let him +ask who has bought the old saucepans at the highest price, in order to +assist the coining; having done so, Herr Magister will truly learn who +has coined the copper and tin money. For truly so many old pans in which +so much good gruel or millet pap has been made, and so many coppers in +which so much good beer has been brewed, are melted down and coined, and +this not by the vulgar _Kipper_, but by the _Arch kipper_. For the +others have no regale to coin, and if they, like the blood and deer +hounds, have scented and hunted out such things, they have done so by +the command of others, and thus are not to be so severely condemned as +those (let them call themselves what they may) who have the regalie, and +misuse it to the perceptible damage of the German States. + +"No one now-a-days will bell the cat, or, like John the Baptist, tell +the truth to Herod. Every one heaps abuse upon the poor rogues, the +_Kippers_ and _Wippers_, who nevertheless do not carry on this business +by their own authority, for all that they do takes place with the +knowledge, consent, and approbation of the government. And alas, they +have now-a-days many competitors. For as soon as any one gets a penny or +a groschen that is a little better than another, he forthwith makes with +it usurious profit. Therefore, as experience teaches, it comes to pass +as follows: the doctors abandon their invalids and think far more of +usury than of Hippocrates and Galen; the lawyers forget their legal +documents, lay aside their practice, and taking usury in hand, let who +will peruse Bartholus and Balbus. The same is also done by other men of +learning, who study arithmetic more than rhetoric and philosophy; the +merchants, shop-keepers, and other traders acquire now-a-days their +greatest gains by their hardwares which are marked by the mint stamp. + +"From this we may perceive that the 'unhanged, thievish, +oath-forgetting, dishonourable,' _Kippers_ and _Wippers_, though not +indeed to be quite exculpated, are not so much to be condemned as if +they were the _causa principalis_ of the ruin of the German States. I +have, alas! assuredly great fears, that if once there is a delivery to +the devil or hangman, the _Kippers_ and _Wippers_, changers and usurers, +Jews and Jew associates, helpers and helpers' helpers, one thief with +another, will all be hurled off to the devil, or be hung up at the same +time together, like yonder host with his companions. Yet with a +difference. For their principals and patrons will justly have the +prerogative and pre-eminence, and indeed some of them have been already +sent there beforehand. The others will shortly follow to the +above-mentioned place, and it will then avail nothing on this journey +downward, whether one treats them with _carmina_ or _crimina_, whether +one passes judgment on them as criminals, or gives them laudatory +poems--_facilis descensus Averni_--they will easily find the way, for +they need no good fortune for that; the devil will couple them all with +one cord, be the rogues ever so big. _Fiat_." + +It is not improbable that a similar view of their social prospects in +another world was impressed upon the rulers from many quarters. At all +events, even they discovered that they could only be saved by the most +speedy help; nothing would avail them but the reduction and hasty +withdrawal of the new coinage, and a return to the good old Imperial +coin. Thus the first fears of the princes and cities caused them to +depreciate their new money, and to make use of these verdicts in order +to express their abhorrence--not of very old date--of the bad coin, and +they forthwith had the coin stamped honourably of due weight and alloy, +as prescribed by the Imperial law. In order to put a stop to the +excessive increase of prices, they hastened to put forth a tariff of +goods and wages, which decided the highest price to be permitted. It is +clear that this latter remedy could not be of more lasting use than the +famous edict of Diocletian, thirteen hundred years before. The +compulsion which, for example, it exercised over the city weekly +markets, day labourers, and guilds, was only a temporary help for +restoring the overflowing stream to its old bed. + +This state of intoxication, terror, and fury was followed by a dreary +reaction. Men gazed on one another as after a great pestilence. Those +who had rested secure in their opulence had sunk into ruin. Many +worthless adventurers now strutted, as persons of distinction, in velvet +and silk. The whole nation had become poorer. There had not been any +great war for a long time, and many millions in silver and gold, the +savings of the inferior classes, had been inherited in city and village +from father to son; the greater part of these savings had vanished in +the bad times; it had been squandered on carousals, frittered away on +trifles, and at last expended for daily food. But this was not the +greatest evil; it was a still greater, that at this time the citizen, +and countryman had been forcibly torn from the path of their honest +daily labour. Frivolity, an unsettled existence, and a reckless egotism, +had taken possession of them. The destroying powers of war had sent +forth their evil spirits to loosen the firm links of burgher society, +and to accustom a peaceful, upright, and laborious people to the +sufferings and mal-practices of an army which shortly overran all +Germany. + +The period from 1621 to 1623 was henceforth called the "_Kipper and +Wipper_" time. The confusion, the excitement, the trafficking, and the +flying-sheet literature lasted till the year 1625. The lessons which the +princes had learnt from the consequences of their flagitious actions did +not avail them against later temptations. Even at the end of the +seventeenth century it seems to have been impossible for them entirely +to avoid hedge mints, and the continual recurrence of a depreciation of +money. + +Whilst Tilly was conquering Lower Saxony, and Wallenstein made great +havoc in Northern Germany, small literature flowed in an under-current. +After every engagement, and every capture of a city, there appeared +copper engravings, with a text which described the position of the +troops and the appearance of the city; irregular newspapers, and songs +of lament conveyed the information of the advance of the Imperialists, +and the destruction of the Mansfelders. In the midst of all this the +people were dismayed by terrible decrees of the Emperor, who now from +his secure position threw over the evangelicals, or compelled them by +force to return to his Church, in spite of the fruitless intercessions +of the Elector of Saxony. The Elector at last authorized the publication +of a defence of the Augsburg confession, against the attacks of the +Catholic theologians; this comprehensive work, called, 'The necessary +Defence of the Apple of the Eye,' written in 1628, called forth +immediately a theological war; both opponents and allies hastened in +crowds to the field. 'Spectacles for the Evangelical Apple of the Eye;' +'A sharp round Eye on the Romish Pope;' 'Who has struck the Calf in the +Eye? The Catholic Oculist or Coucher;' 'Venetian Spectacles on Lutheran +Nose,' &c. These are specimens of the defiant titles of the most +readable of the controversial writings. But this literary strife was +drowned in the burst of loud outcries against Wallenstein, which pierced +from Pomerania through all the German States, on account of the battle +near Stralsund, and his shameful conduct towards the Pomeranian Duke and +his country, and finally the horrible ill treatment of the men and women +of Pasewalk. Again these lamentations changed into a shout of joy from +all the Protestants. Again hope and confidence revived; this time it was +a man, whom the nation, with the genuine German longing to love and +honour, welcomed with shouts of jubilee. What had been wanting to the +Germans for a century, came to them from the North, an idol and a hero. +But he was a foreigner. + +Much of that halo of light still surrounds the figure of Gustavus +Adolphus, which distinguished him in the eyes of his cotemporaries so +immeasurably above all other generals and princes. It is not his +victories, nor his knightly death, nor the circumstance that he appeared +as the last help to a despairing people, which makes him the one +prominent figure in the long struggle. It was the magic of his great +nature, as he rode over the field of battle, firm, self-contained, and +as confident as unerring; from head to foot he was dignity, decision, +and nervous energy. If one examines more nearly, one is astonished at +the strong contrasts which combined in this character to form an +admirable unity. No General was more systematic, fertile in plans, or +greater in the science of war. Discipline in the army, order in the +commissariat, a firm basis, and secure lines of retreat in every +strategical operation, these were the requisites he brought with him to +the conduct of the German War. But even he, the powerful prince of war, +was driven by an irresistible necessity from his good system, but with +the whole power of his being he incessantly stemmed the tide of the wild +marauding war that raged around him. And yet this same systematic man +bore within him a rash spirit of daring against the greatest hazards; +his bearing in the battle was wonderfully elevated, like that of a noble +battle steed. His eyes lighted up, his figure became more lofty, and a +smile played on his countenance. Again, how wonderful appears to men, +the union in him of frank honesty and wary policy, of upright piety and +worldly wisdom, of high-minded self-sacrifice and reckless ambition, of +heartfelt humanity and stern severity! And all this was enlivened by an +inward confidence and freedom of mind, which enabled him to look in a +humorous point of view on the distracted condition of the decaying +Princes of the country. The irresistible power which he exercised over +all who came under his influence, consisted principally in the +freshness of his nature, his surpassing good humour, and where it was +necessary, an ironical bonhomie. The way in which he managed the proud +and wavering Princes, and the hesitating cities of the Protestant party, +was not to be surpassed; he was never weary of exciting them to war, and +alliance; he ever reverted to the same theme, whether to the Envoy of +the Brandenburger, or when flattering the Nurembergers, or chiding the +Frankforters. + +He was closely allied, both by race and faith, to the Northern Germans; +but he was a foreigner. This was thoroughly and constantly felt by the +Princes. It was not alone distrust of his superior power which, till the +bitterest necessity compelled them to union, kept aloof from him the +irresolute, but it was the discovery in him of a new master; they +revolted at the idea of this mighty non-German power, which so suddenly +and threateningly arose in the empire. There was still to be found in a +few of them somewhat of Luther's national idea of the empire. They had +no hesitation in negotiating with France, Denmark, the Netherlands, nay +with the unreliable Bethlem Gabor; all these were outside the Empire. +Within its boundaries there was the fanatical Emperor and his +insupportable General; they were new people to them, who might pass away +as rapidly as they had become great; but the sovereignty of the German +Empire was old, and they were the pillars of it. This conception was no +longer in accordance with the highest policy, for the German Emperor had +become the most mortal enemy of the German Empire. But such a feeling is +not deserving of contempt; and the nation as well as most of the +Princes, felt to the heart's core that their quarrel with the Emperor +was in fact a domestic one, in which foreigners should have no concern. +But the people, blinded by their delight in the dazzling heroism of the +Protestant King, lost sight of these considerations. For two years +public opinion paid homage to him, as it has never done since, except to +the Great Frederic of Prussia. Every word, every little anecdote was +carried from city to city, and loud acclamations greeted every success +of his arms. It was not only the zealous Protestants who thus felt; even +in the Catholic armies and in the states of the League, the scorn was +quickly silenced which had been called forth by the landing of the "Snow +King," and the number of his admirers continually increased. Many +characteristic traits of him are preserved to us; almost every +conversation that he had with Germans, gives an opportunity of +discovering something of his nature. We will give here a short +conversation, after his landing in Pomerania, recorded by a clever +negotiator. + +The Elector of Brandenburg had sent his plenipotentiary, Von +Wilmersdorff, to persuade the King to conclude an armistice with the +Emperor; he further wished to negotiate a peace between them, although +Wallenstein had already deprived him of his dominions, and the Emperor +had shown him every kind of disregard. The conversation of the King with +the Envoy gives a good picture of his method of negotiating. He is here +concise, firm, and straightforward, in spite of some mental reservation; +and so perfectly self-possessed that he can allow his lively temperament +to break forth without danger. The Envoy relates as follows:-- + +"After his Kingly Majesty had listened graciously to me, though when I +came to the proposition of an armistice he rather smiled, he, no one +being present, answered me circumstantially. + +"'I had expected a different kind of embassy from my loving cousin; that +is to say, that he would rather have come to meet me and united himself +with me for his own welfare; and not that my loving cousin should be so +weak as to lose this opportunity so providentially sent by God. My +loving cousin will not comprehend the clear and evident intentions of +his enemies; he does not discern the difference between pretexts and +truth, nor consider that when this pretence shall cease, that is to say, +when they have no longer anything more to fear from me, another will +soon be found to establish himself in my loving cousin's country. + +"'I had not expected that my loving cousin would have been so much +terrified at the war as to remain inactive notwithstanding all the +consequences to himself. Or does not my cousin yet know, that the +intention of the Emperor and his allies is not to desist till the +evangelical religion is entirely rooted out of the empire? my loving +cousin must be prepared either to deny his religion or abandon his +country. Does he think that anything else can be obtained by prayers, +entreaties, or the like means? For God's sake let him reflect a little, +and for once take _mascula consilia_. You see how this excellent prince +the Duke of Pomerania was in the most innocent way,--having really +committed no offence but only peaceably drunk his beer,--brought into +the most lamentable condition, and how wonderfully he was saved under +God's providence, _fato quodam necessario_--for he was constrained to do +so--by making terms with me. What he did from necessity my loving cousin +may do willingly. + +"'I cannot withdraw, _jacta est alea, transivimus Rubiconem_. I do not +seek my own advantage in this business; I gain nought but the security +of my kingdom; beyond this I have nothing but expenses, trouble, labour, +and danger to body and soul. They have occasioned me enough; in the +first place they have twice sent help to my enemies the Poles, and +endeavoured to drive me away; then they have endeavoured to possess +themselves of the harbours of the Baltic, whereby I could well perceive +what their intentions towards me were. My loving cousin the Elector is +in a similar case, and it is now time that he should open his eyes and +give up somewhat of his easy life, that he may no longer be a +Stadtholder of the Emperor, nay even an Imperial servant in his own +country: "Qui se fait brebis le loup le mange." + +"'This is now precisely the best opportunity, when your country is free +from Imperial soldiers, to garrison and defend your fortresses. If you +will not do this, deliver over one to me, if it be only Küstrin, I will +defend it, and you may then remain in the inactivity which your Prince +so dearly loves. + +"'What other will you do? For I declare to you distinctly, I will not +hear of neutrality, my loving cousin must be either friend or foe. When +I come to your frontier you must show yourselves either cold or warm. +This is a struggle between God and the devil; if my loving cousin will +hold to God, let him unite with me; but if he would rather hold to the +devil, he must henceforth fight against me, _tertium non dabitur_, of +that he may be assured. + +"'Take this commission upon you to inform my loving cousin secretly of +it, for I have none with me whom I can spare to send to him. If my +loving cousin will treat with me, I will see if I can go to him myself; +but with his present arrangements I will have nothing to do. + +"'My loving cousin trusts neither in God nor to his good friends. It has +gone ill with him therefore in Prussia and this country. I am the +devoted servant of my loving cousin, and love him from my heart: my +sword shall be at his service, and it shall preserve him in his +sovereignty and to his people, but he must do his part also. + +"'My loving cousin has great interest in this dukedom of Pomerania; this +will I also defend for his advantage, but on the same condition as in +the book of Ruth the next inheritor is commanded to take Ruth for his +wife, so must my loving cousin take to him this Ruth; that is, unite +himself with me in this righteous business if he wishes to inherit the +country. If not, I here declare that he shall never obtain it. + +"'I am not disinclined to peace, and have conformed myself to it +contentedly. I know well that the chances of war are doubtful; I have +experienced that, in the many years in which I have carried on war with +various fortune. But as I have now, by God's grace, come so far, no one +can counsel me to withdraw, not even the Emperor himself if he were to +make use of his reason. + +"'I might perhaps allow of an armistice for a month. It may appear +fitting to me that my loving cousin should mediate. But he must place +himself in a position, arms in hand, otherwise all his mediation will +avail nothing. Some of the Hanse towns are ready to unite with me. I +only wait for some one in the Empire to put himself prominently at the +head. What might not the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg together +with these cities, accomplish? Would to God that there were a Maurice!' + +"Thereupon I replied that I had no commands from his Electoral Highness +to confer with his Majesty, touching an armed alliance. But in my poor +opinion, I doubted much whether his Electoral Highness would be able to +come to an understanding without detriment to his honour and truth, +_salvo honore et fide sua_. + +"Then his Majesty interposed promptly: 'Yes, they will honour you when +they have deprived you of your land and people. The Imperialists will +keep faith with you as they have kept the capitulation.' + +"I: 'It is necessary to look to the future, and consider how all will +fall to ruin if the undertaking does not prosper.' + +"The King: 'That will happen if you remain inactive, and would have done +so already if I had not come. My loving cousin ought to do as I have +done, and commend the result to God. I have not lain on a bed for +fourteen days. I might have spared myself this trouble and sat at home +with my wife if I had had no greater considerations.' + +"I: 'As your Kingly Majesty is content that his Electoral Highness +should become mediator, you must at least allow his Electoral Highness +to remain neutral.' + +"The King: 'Yes, till I come to his country. Such an idea is mere chaff, +which the wind raises and blows away. _What kind of a thing is that +Neutrality? I do not understand it!_' + +"I: 'Yet your Kingly Majesty understood it well in Prussia, where you +yourself suggested it to his Electoral Highness and to the city of +Dantzic.' + +"The King: 'Not to the Elector, but certainly to the city of Dantzic, +for it was to my advantage.' + +"After this he returned again to the subject of the Duke of Pomerania, +saying that the good prince had been well content with him. He would +have restored him Stralsund, Rügen, Usedom, Wollin, and all the rest. +The Duke had desired that his Majesty should be his father. 'But I,' +said his Majesty, 'answered, I would rather be his son, as he has no +children.' + +"Thereupon I answered: 'Yes, Kingly Majesty, that might very well be, if +his Electoral Highness could only maintain the law of primogeniture in +Pomerania.' + +"The King: 'Yes, that may be very easily maintained by my loving cousin; +but he must defend it, and not, like Esau, sell it for a mess of +pottage.'" + +Thus far goes the narrative. + +When the great King, the lord of half Germany, sank into the dust in +battle, the wail of lamentation broke forth in all the Protestant +territories. Funeral services were performed in the towns and country, +endless elegies poured forth; even the enemy concealed their joy under a +manly sympathy, which at that time was seldom accorded to opponents. + +His death was considered as a national misfortune; the deliverer and the +saviour of the people was lost: we also, whether Catholic or Protestant, +should not only regard with heartfelt sympathy that pure hero life, +which in the prime of its strength was so suddenly extinguished, but we +should also contemplate with the deepest gratitude the influence of the +King upon the German war; for he had, in a time of desperation, defended +that which Luther had attained for the whole nation,--freedom of soul, +and capacity for the development of national strength against the most +fearful enemy of the German national existence, against a crushing +despotism in Church and State. But we must also observe concerning him, +that the fate which he met strikes us as more peculiarly tragical +because he drew it upon himself. History makes us acquainted with some +characters which, after mighty deeds, are suddenly struck down at the +height of their fame by a rapid change of fate in the midst of powerful +but unaccomplished conception. Such heroes have a popular mixture of +qualities of soul, which make them the privileged favourites both of +posterity and art. Such was the case with the almost fabulous hero, the +great Alexander; and thus it was, in a more limited sphere, with smaller +means, with the Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus: but however accidental +the fever or the bullet which carried them off may appear to us, their +destruction arose from their own greatness. The conqueror of Asia had +become an Asiatic despot before he died; the deliverer of Germany was +shot by an Imperial mercenary when he was rushing through the dust of +the battle-field, not like a General of the seventeenth century, but +like a "Viking" of the olden time, who fought their battles in wild +excitement under the protection of the battle-maidens of Odin. Often +already had the incautious heroism of the King led him into rash daring +and useless danger, and long had his faithful adherents feared that he +would at some time meet his end thus. It was a wise policy which led him +to establish himself on the German coast, in order to secure to his +Sweden the dominion of the Baltic, also to draw the seaports to his +interests, and to desire firm points of support on the Oder, Elbe, and +Weser. But what duty did he owe to the German Empire, whose own Emperor +wished to suppress the national life and popular development by Roman +money, and calling thither hordes of soldiers from half Europe? When +Gustavus Adolphus conceived the idea of making himself lord paramount +over the German Princes, when he proceeded to form an hereditary power +for himself in Germany, he was no longer the great cotemporary of +Richelieu, but again the descendant of an old Norman chieftain. It is +possible that the power of the man, during a longer life and after many +victories, might have brought under his sway, with or without an +Imperial throne, the greater part of Germany; but that Sweden, the +foundation of his power, was not in a position to exercise a lasting +supremacy over Germany, a small distant country over a larger, must have +been obvious even then to the weakest politician. The King might still +for some years longer have sacrificed the peasant sons of Sweden on the +German battle-fields, and corrupted the Swedish nobility by German +plunder; but he could not build up an enduring dynasty for both people, +whatever his genius might have accomplished for a time. Men of ordinary +powers would soon have restored things to their natural condition. We +are therefore of opinion, that he died just when his lofty desires were +beginning to contend against a fundamental law of the new state life, +and we may assume that even a longer life of success would not have made +much alteration in our position. When he died, his natural heir in +Germany was already twelve years of age: this heir was Frederic William, +the great Elector of Brandenburg. Gustavus Adolphus was the last but one +of the northern princes to whom the old Scandinavian expedition to the +south proved fatal. Charles XII., dying before Friedrichshall, was the +last. + +As the funeral lament died away in Germany, there began a reaction in +public opinion against the foreigners. The Catholic faction had, during +the whole war, the doubtful advantage that their quarrels and private +dissensions were not brought to light by the press, but their Protestant +opponents were broken into parties. It was more especially after Saxony, +in 1635, had endeavoured, at Prague, to make an inglorious +reconciliation with the Emperor by a separate peace, that there arose +both in the north and south an Imperial and a Swedish party, and much +weak dissension besides. The French endeavoured, but without success, to +gain by means of the press, adherents on the Rhine. Bernhard von Weimar +found warm admirers, who foresaw in him the successor of Gustavus +Adolphus. He possessed great talents as a General, and some of the +winning qualities of the great King; but he was only in one respect his +successor, that he carried on in the most dangerous way the too great +political daring of his instructor. He wished to make use of, and at the +same time deceive, a foreign power which was greater and stronger than +himself: it was an unequal struggle, and he, as the weaker party, was +soon put aside by France, and these foreigners possessed themselves of +his political legacy, his fortress and his army. + +While love and hate were thus divided in this gloomy period, there arose +among the better portion of the nation a characteristic patriotism, +which the German people, in the midst of their great need and +sufferings, opposed to the egotistic interests of the rulers who helped +to destroy each other. There no longer existed any party to which a wise +man could from his heart wish success. Differences of faith had +diminished, and the soldiers complained, without scruple, of confession. +Then began for the first time a new political system, called a +constitution founded on reason, in opposition to the reckless +selfishness of the rulers. But even this constitutional principle, the +basis of which was the advantage of the whole, as it was then +understood, was still without greatness of conception or any deep moral +purport; and there was no repugnance to the employment of the worst +means in carrying it out. Still it was an advance. Even the peaceful +citizen, after eighteen years of troubles, was obliged to take an +interest in this political system. The character of the ruling powers +and their interests became everywhere a subject of deliberation. Every +one was terrified out of his provincial narrowness of mind, and had +urgent reasons for interesting themselves in the fate of foreign +countries. Thousands of fugitives, the most powerful members of the +community, had scattered themselves over distant provinces, the same +misfortunes had befallen them also. Thus, amidst the horrors of war, was +developed in Germany a feeling of distrust of their rulers, a longing +for a better national condition. It was a great but dearly bought +advance of public opinion; it may be discerned more particularly in the +political literature after the peace of Prague. A specimen of this +tendency is here introduced from a small flying-sheet, which appeared in +1636 under the title of 'The German Brutus: that is, a letter thrown +before the public.' + +"You Swedes complain that Germany is ungrateful, that it drives you away +with violence, that the good deeds, done with God's power by Joshua, are +forgotten, the alliance no longer thought of, in short, that you are +less valued, like an old worn-out horse, or decrepit hound, both of +which, when no longer useful, get such thanks as the world gives. Thus +you are treated with great injustice before God and the world. + +"Be of good comfort: there are many remaining who wish you well from +their heart, who pray for you, and show their devotion to you in every +possible way. A country where such people are to be found cannot be +accused of ingratitude; and that there are yet many thousand such +people, even your enemies know right well. But that selfishness, secret +envy, hidden counsels, and clandestine negotiations are stirred up +against you, must not be ascribed to the whole of this praiseworthy +German nation, but only to the causes which have led to such results; +for you have on your part shown a double amount of selfishness. + +"In the first place, in raising at your pleasure the toll on the Baltic; +for I have been told by honest trustworthy seafaring folk, that you have +exacted from people, not only from fifteen to thirty, but up to forty, +nay, even to fifty out of a hundred, and have troubled all hearts by +this rapacity; and as no improvement has taken place, but commerce has +been thereby miserably straitened, and many honest people have been +lamentably brought to beggary, the minds of men being thereby much +embittered, your best friends began at first to condemn you secretly, +and at last through their falling fortunes were made your worst enemies. +Would you throw the blame on the toll gatherers? They are your servants. +It is a well-known rule of law: what I do by my servant is as though +done by myself. You appear to me exactly like him who carried off a pair +of shoes secretly and offered them afterwards to the holy Benno. + +"The states and cities of the Empire, so long as they were in your +hands, contributed fully and sufficiently to your maintenance; many, nay +too many, to say the least of it, as a proof of their fidelity, have +lost soul and body, wealth and life, nay all their privileges, and, in a +great measure, religion itself. Ratisbon testifies to this. Augsburg +laments over it. All grieve together over it. You have allowed the old +regiments to dissolve, have completed no companies, nor paid either new +or old, notwithstanding you have demanded, and in fact received large +sums of money from many Diets; I say nothing of what you have extorted +from your enemies in their own countries. How has this money been spent? +In superfluous pomp and luxury which is hateful to every one. We have +observed this silently, and made a virtue of necessity. The children of +Israel, when they had intercourse with the daughters of their enemies, +and afterwards boasted of their victory, and tormented their brethren of +Judah with the hardest yoke of bondage, were both times severely +punished by God. And shall it fare better with you who have exercised +more than Turkish cruelty in many evangelical places? The corn from the +monastery of Magdeburg, the Dukedom of Brunswick and other places, has +been thrashed out and carried off in heaps from the country, sold at a +very high price, and the money spent for your own use, nothing given to +the poor soldiers; the country people, harassed to death, are dying of +hunger; and many fortresses, from avarice, either not supplied with +provisions, or not amply provided with powder and shot, and, in short, +general mismanagement. Now we see ourselves everywhere abandoned by +fortune, so that at last we discover there is no money in hand, and no +people to be got, as those who were available have run away, and the +remainder will no longer be restrained by martial law. Dear friends, +think you of the saying of Boccalini: 'When the prince leads the life of +Lucifer, what wonder that the subjects become devils!' + +"Our politicians know well that the Electors hold kingly rank in the +Empire. But who has exalted himself above them with kingly magnificence, +a great retinue and boundless expense, is it not your chief +(Oxenstiern)? Do you think that this has not been complained of at every +court? His Kingly Majesty of Christian memory never did the like. From +these and countless other reasons the Princes, states, and cities have +become first secretly, and then publicly offended with you; to this may +be added a conduct towards the established inhabitants which they cannot +well bear, when foreigners place themselves higher than their native +princes. + +"You say that electoral Saxony should have made peace by force of arms. +Let us leave that uncertain. It is known to every one that certain +persons have helped to shove the cart into the mud, and afterwards left +it there. If electoral Saxony has been wrong, you with your procedures +are not less guilty. In short, every one, be he who he may, has sought +his own advantage; therefore Magdeburg lies in ashes, Wismar is in +ruins, Augsburg is bound with the fetters of servitude, Nuremberg is in +peril of death, Ulm is in quotidian fever, Strasburg has passed to the +French, Frankfort has the jaundice, and the whole Empire is consumed. +The enemy have beaten with rods, but you have chastised with scorpions. +The Wallensteiners inflicted wounds, and you physicians have applied +drawing plasters as a remedy instead of oil, have corrupted the blood +and fastened yourselves on like a crab; such a crab must either be cut +out by force, or satisfied daily by inordinate sums of money. The last +is out of our power, the first we do not wish to do to you, but cannot +help it. If God thus harasses you it is your own fault. Meanwhile, do +you think that God has a flaxen beard, and will allow himself to be led +by the nose? Oh, no, He sees well that you shelter yourselves under the +name of freedom, that you make use of the cloak of the gospel, and at +the same time live as Turks. + +"You cry out much about the Spanish monarchy. I have no fears of it. +Give me one of the best chemists who is sufficiently scientific to know +how to mingle earth and ores, so that they will hold together firm and +infrangible, and then let us see whether we have to fear the Spanish +monarchy. But I am afraid that France will be to us Germans, the broken +reed of Egypt, which will pierce the hand of whoever leans on it. All +empires have their fixed time appointed by God, and a boundary across +which they cannot pass. First they arise, then grow like boys; some +improve as youths, remain for a time at a standstill in their manhood, +then decline, become old, languish and at last die; nay, are so utterly +annihilated, that one scarcely knows that they have existed. This course +of things cannot be prevented by any human wisdom. The wise man sees +this, and prepares himself beforehand; the fool does not believe it, and +is ruined, like the surviving Generals of Alexander the Great, who so +long divided his conquests, till the Romans became their masters. And +truly the Empire has great need to rid herself at last of foreign +physicians. + +"I have been severe, but a steel axe is necessary to sever such a hard +knot, one cannot cut with a fur coat. + +"It is asked what will be the issue? It rests with God. Have you had too +little bloodshed? Let God be the judge, and fly ye from his wrath. +Although the Church still suffers, it is not yet dead. You cannot +complain that you have gained nothing for the money you have spent and +the dangers you have undergone. You have brought copper out of your +country, but carried silver and gold back to it. Sweden, before this +war, was of wood thatched with straw, now it is of stone, and splendidly +adorned, and that you have obtained from the abducted vessels of Egypt. +This no one would grudge you if you would only thank God yourselves for +it. The Germans have indeed been excited to rise against their Emperor, +but they will take no one who is not of their race and language. If the +house of Austria has done evil, God will truly search it out. As +concerns the French, I know well that God will, through them, punish +Germany; for we have daily imitated in manners, ceremonies, demeanour, +and entertainments, in language and clothing, together with music, this +nation of apish behaviour and dress, and frivolous manners. How can we +expect better than to fall into their hands? But the Frenchman will not +therefore become our Emperor. To him belongs the Lily, the Eagle to the +Germans, the East to the Turks, and the West to the Spaniards. None +among them can reach higher. + +"I must hope that it will not be taken amiss of me, that I have so +roundly described these transactions. But frankness suits a German well. +Would to God that any one had in good time thus placed the matter before +you. Now we can indeed complain, but help, none either will or can give. +God alone will and can help us; to Him we must pray that He may at last +have compassion on us, and turn the hearts of the high potentates to +love and long-wished-for peace." + +Here ends the flying-sheet. The author, without putting sympathy with +the Imperialists in the foreground, evidently belongs less to the +Swedish party than we do now. Undoubtedly the Swedish soldiers and +officers had become merciless devils, like the Imperialists, and, like +them, they ruined the country and people. But it was not their +exorbitant demands which hindered the peace, but the injustice of the +Emperor, who still continued to raise the execrable pretension to subdue +the life and freedom of the nation to his interest. Had it been possible +for the Hapsburgers to assure freedom of faith, and the independence of +the Imperial tribunals, almost all the German princes would have +succumbed to him to drive away the foreigners. But the struggle stood +thus: either the nation must be crushed, and all the ideas suppressed, +which had grown up in the German soil for one hundred and forty years, +or the pretensions of the Imperial House must be certainly and +fundamentally overcome: The last was impossible to the Germans without +the help of Sweden. Thus on a retrospect of those years, every one will +be well disposed to Sweden, who does not consider it a mere accident +that well-known men of later times, like Lessing, Goethe, Schiller, +Kant, Fichte, Hegel, and Humboldt did not blossom out of the country in +which hundreds of thousands were driven from Church and school, by the +Jesuits of Ferdinand II. But at that period the patriot undoubtedly felt +the weakness of the Empire more than all the fearful misery of the +people. And great ground there was for anxiety about the future. From +this point of view this brochure is to us the first expression of that +feeling which still, in the present day, unites hundreds of thousands of +Germans. That love of Fatherland took root in the oppressed souls of our +ancestors during the Thirty years' war, which has not yet attained to +political life by a unity of constitutions. Such a feeling indeed only +existed then in the minds of the noblest. But we must honour those who, +in a century poor in hope, left in their teaching and writings, as an +inheritance to their descendants, the idea of a German Empire. + +After Banner's devastating expedition all was quiet in Germany. Almost +all the news and State records which the war had left, flowed from the +press. In the last years thousands of printed sheets were filled with +the negotiations for peace. Finally the peace was announced to the poor +people in large placards. + + + + + CHAPTER V. + + THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.--THE CITIES. + + +When the war broke out, the cities were the armed guardians of German +trade, which was carried on with wealth and bustle, in narrow streets +between high houses. Almost every city, with the exception of the +smallest market towns, was shut out from the open country by walls, +gates, and moats. The approaches were narrow and easy to defend; there +were often double walls, and in many cases the old towers still +overtopped the battlements and gates. Many of the more important of +these middle-age fortifications had been strengthened in the course of +the century, the bastions of stone and brick-work, as well as strong +single towers, were mounted with heavy artillery; and frequently the old +castle of some landed proprietor, or the house of some former magistrate +or count appointed by the Emperor, were fortified. They were not +fortresses in our sense, but they could, if the walls were thick and the +citizens stanch, resist even a great army, at least for a long time. +Thus Nördlingen maintained itself in 1634 for eighteen days, against the +united Imperial armies of King Ferdinand, Gallas, and +Piccolomini--forming together more than 60,000 men: the citizens +repulsed seven assaults, with only five hundred men, Swedish +auxiliaries. For a defence like this, earth sconces were thrown out as +outworks, and rapidly united by trenches and palisades. Many places, +however, far more than at present, were real fortresses. Their chief +strength consisted in their outworks, which were planned by Flemish +science. It had long been known that the balls of carronades were more +destructive to stone and breast-works than to earth-works. + +In the larger cities the cleanliness of the streets was much attended +to; they were paved, even in the carriage ways; the pavement was raised +in the centre for carrying away the water; the chief market-place, as +for example in Leipzig, was already paved with stone. Great efforts had +long been made to procure for the cities a certain and abundant supply +of drinking-water; under the streets ran wooden conduits; stone cisterns +and fountains often decorated with statues, stood in the market-places +and principal streets. The streets were not as yet lighted; whoever went +out by night required torches or lanterns; later, however, torches were +forbidden; but at the corner houses were fixed metal fire-pans, in +which, in case of uproar or fire at night, pitch rings and resinous wood +were burnt. It was the custom on the breaking out of a fire to allow the +water to run from the cisterns or the fountains to the streets which +were endangered. For this purpose flood-gates were hung, and it was the +duty of particular trades--in Leipzig, the innkeepers--to dam up the +water with these flood-gates at the burning-places; at the same time +from dung that was heaped up, they formed a traverse. The street police +and patroles had been improved in the course of the last sixty years. +The Elector Augustus of Saxony had organized this department of +administration with no little skill. His numerous ordinances were used +as models by the whole Empire, according to which the princes and cities +regulated their new social life. + +The chief market was on Sunday the favourite resort of the men. There, +after the sermon, stood the citizens and journeymen in their festival +attire, chattering, interchanging news, and conferring together on +business. In all commercial cities the merchants had a special room +where they met, which was even then called the Bourse. On the tower of +the Council House, over the clock, there was always a gallery, from +which the warder kept a look-out over the city, and where the city piper +blew the trombone and cornet. + +The city communities kept beer and wine cellars for the citizens, in +which the price of the retailed drink was carefully fixed; there were +special drinking-rooms for persons of distinction to hold agreeable +intercourse. In the old Imperial cities, the patricians had generally, +like the guilds, their especial club-houses or rooms, and the luxury of +such a society was then greater in proportion than now. There were also +numerous hotels, which, in Leipzig, were already famed for their +grandeur, and splendidly arranged. Even the apothecaries were under +regulations; they had special rules and prices; they sold many spices +and delicacies, and whatever else was agreeable to the palate. Bath +rooms were considered greater necessaries than now. Even in the country +there was seldom a little farm-house without its bath-house, and there +was a bath-room in every large house in the city. The poor citizens went +to the barbers, who acted as surgeons, and kept bagnios. But besides +these the cities maintained large public baths, in which, gratis, or for +a very small payment, warm and cold bathing could be had with every +convenience. This primitive German custom was almost abandoned during +the war, and is not yet restored to its old extent. + +In more important cities the houses of the inner town, in 1618, were for +the most part built of stone, three and more stories high, and roofed +with tiles; the rooms in the houses were often noted for their +cleanliness, decoration, and elegance; the walls were generally adorned +with worked and embroidered carpets, even of velvet, and with beautiful +costly inlaid wainscoting and other decorations; and this not only in +the large old commercial cities, but also in some that were in more +youthful vigour. The household gear was elegant and carefully collected. +There was as yet no such thing as porcelain in use. Rich plate was only +found at the courts of great princes, and in a few wealthy merchant +families. In choice pieces of the noble metals, the artistic work of the +goldsmith was of more value than its weight. Among the opulent citizens, +the place of silver and porcelain was supplied by pewter; it was +displayed in great abundance, shining with a bright polish; it was the +pride of the housewife, and together with it were placed fine glasses +and pottery from foreign countries, often painted and ornamented with +either pious or waggish inscriptions. On the other hand the dress and +adornments of the men were far more brilliant and costly than now. The +feeling of the middle ages was still prevalent, a tendency of the mind +for outward display and stately representations directly opposed to +ours, and nothing tended so much to preserve this inclination, as the +endeavours of the authorities to meet it, by regulating even the outward +appearance of individuals, and giving to each class of citizens their +own peculiar position. The endless sumptuary laws about dress gave it a +disproportionate importance; it fostered more than anything else vanity +and an inordinate desire in each to raise himself above his position. It +appears to us a ludicrous struggle, which the worthiest magistrates +maintained for four centuries up to the French Revolution, against all +the caprices and excesses of the fashion, and always without success. + +Surrounded by these forms and regulations, lived a rich, vigorous, +laborious, and wealthy people; the citizens held jealously to the +privileges and dignity of their cities, they liked to exhibit their +riches, capacity, and enterprise among their fellow-citizens. Handicraft +and trade were still very prosperous. It is true, that in wholesale +commerce with foreign countries Germany had already lost much. The +splendour of the Hanse towns had faded. The great commercial houses of +Augsburg and Nuremberg even then existed, only as heirs of the great +riches of their fathers. Italians, French, and above all, English and +Flemish, had become dangerous rivals, the Swedish, Danish, and Dutch +flags floated on the Baltic more triumphantly than those of Lubeck and +other Baltic ports, and the commerce with the two Indies ran in new +currents and into foreign marts. But the German herring fishery was +still of great importance, and the vast Sclave lands of the East were +still an open market to the commerce of the country. But throughout the +whole width of the Empire industry flourished, and a less profitable but +sounder export of the products of the country had produced a general and +moderate degree of wealth. The manufactures of wool and leather, and +linen, harness, and armour with the ornamental industry of Nuremberg +were eagerly desired by foreign countries. The chief cause of +disturbance was the insecurity of the ratio of value. Almost every town +had then its special branch of industry, solidly developed under the +restrictions and control of guilds. Pottery, cloths, leather work, +mining, and metal work, gave to individual places a peculiar character, +and even to smaller ones a reputation which reached through the country +and excited in the citizens a well-justified pride. But in all, scarcely +excepting the greatest, agriculture was deemed of more importance than +now, not only in the suburbs and farms of the city domains, but also +within the towns; many citizens lived upon the produce of their fields. +In the smaller towns most persons possessed portions of the town lands, +but the richer had other property besides. Therefore there were many +more beasts of burden and of draught than now, and the housewife +rejoiced having her own corn-fields, from which she made her own bread, +and if she was skilful, prepared fine pastry according to the custom of +the country. The cities had a great share also in the cultivation of the +vine, which reached from the north down to Lower Saxony; the right of +brewing beer was considered a valuable privilege by some houses; almost +every place brewed beer of its own kind, numberless are the local names +of these primitive beverages; much value was attached to its having a +strong, sweet, and wine flavour, and oily substance; highly esteemed +beer was sent to great distances. + +The people derived more pleasure from their sensations than they do now, +were louder and more unconstrained in their mirth. The luxury of +banquets, especially of family feasts, was legally regulated according +to the rank of the citizens, and he was not allowed to diminish it. The +banquets were arranged in courses as now in England, and in every course +a number of similar dishes. Already, oysters were sent out as far as +they could bear the journey, and sometimes, after the introduction of +French cookery, were formed into delicate sauces; caviare was well +known, and at the harvest feasts Leipzig larks were a favourite dish. In +the popular kitchens, besides the Indian spices, they had the favourite +root of the middle ages, saffron, to colour with; beautifully ornamented +show dishes were highly prized, sometimes even eatable dishes were gilt, +and at tables of pretension the most distinguished confection was +marchpane. + +The citizens eagerly sought every opportunity for social enjoyment. The +carnival mummeries were general in Northern Germany, when masks swarmed +through the streets; the favourite costumes were those of Turks, Moors, +and Indians. When during the war the Council of Leipzig prohibited +masks, they made their appearance armed with spears and pistols, and +there were tumults with the city watchers. Sledge parties were not less +popular, and sometimes they also were in costume. Public dances were +less frequent than now, even at the marriage and artisan feasts they +were looked upon with mistrust, as it was difficult to restrain the +recklessness of wild boys. They wished to dance without mantles; they +lifted up, swung, and twirled about their partners, which was strictly +forbidden, and the thronging of the gaping domestics into the saloon was +displeasing to the authorities. At twilight all dancing amusements were +to cease. + +The larger cities had lists where the sons of the patricians held their +knightly exercise and ran at the ring, also shooting galleries, and +trenches for crossbow and rifle practice. The shooting festivities were +a great source of enjoyment throughout the country, and on these +occasions booths, tents, and cook-shops were erected. The people also +took a lively interest in the festivals of particular guilds, and almost +every town had its own public feast; for example, Erfurt had yearly +prize races for the poorer classes; the men ran for stockings and the +women for fur cloaks. Tennis was a favourite game of the young citizens, +which unfortunately in the troubles of the century almost disappeared. +There were special tennis courts, and a tennis-court master, of the +town. If any gentlemen of distinction came into the town, a place in the +market was strewed with sand, and a playground marked off with pegs and +cords. There these distinguished persons played, and the citizens +watched with pleasure from the windows, to see how a young Prince of +Hesse threw the ball, and how one of Anhalt did his best. At the great +yearly markets, for more than a century, Fortune's urn was a favourite +game. Sometimes it was undertaken by the town itself, but generally it +was granted to some speculator. How much the people were interested in +this, we learn from the fact that the town chronicles frequently +reported the particulars concerning it. Thus, in 1624, at Michaelmas, at +Leipzig a Fortune's urn of seventeen thousand gulden was prepared; each +ticket cost eighteen pfennige; there were seventeen blanks to one prize; +the highest prize was three hundred and fifty gulden, and there were +three hundred thousand blanks. The students at last became angry at the +number of blanks; they attacked and broke down the lottery booth. The +pleasure of the people in spectacles was greater than now, at least more +easily satisfied; processions and city solemnities were frequent; plays +undoubtedly were still a rare enjoyment, in these the children of the +citizens had always the pleasure of representing the characters +themselves, as bands of travelling players were still new and rare. The +clerical body was already unfavourably disposed to what were called +profane pieces, therefore ecclesiastical subjects and allegories with +moral tendencies were always interspersed with burlesque scenes, and +great was the number of the actors. At the yearly markets the play +booths were more abundant than now. At the Easter fair at Leipzig in +1630, was to be seen, amongst other things, a father with six children +who performed beautifully on the lute and violin, a woman who could sew, +write, and convey her food to her mouth with her feet, a child of a year +old quite covered with hair and with a beard; and of strange animals, +there were two marmoset monkeys, a porpoise, and a spoonbill, and, as +now, these monsters were recommended to the people by large pictures. +Besides these there were rope-dancers, fire-eaters, jugglers, acrobats, +and numerous ballad singers and vendors. + +But what gave the greatest feeling of independence to the citizen in +1618 was his martial aptitude--almost every one had some practice in the +use of weapons. Every large city had an arsenal; even the heavy +artillery on the fortifications were served by the citizens, who, as a +body, were under ordinary circumstances superior to the young companies +of besieging soldiers. Magdeburg would have made a stronger resistance, +if feeling of duty and discipline had not already become weaker among +the citizens than in former sieges, in one of which the maiden of the +City Arms so valiantly defended her garland. + +Besides the city train bands, there was in most of the Circles of the +Empire a regular militia for the defence of the country. About every +tenth man in the city or country was drawn, regularly armed, paid during +service, and appointed for the internal defence of the frontiers of the +country. The beginning of the Landwehr dates from the sixteenth century. +This regulation was recommended by military theorists as most efficient, +and from time to time it was renewed. It was introduced by the States in +Saxony in 1612, and renewed in 1618; there were to be altogether in the +Electorate nine thousand men. The privates were to receive a daily pay +of four groschen, and the serjeants ten and a half, and the cost was +distributed among the houses. But this militia was found very useless in +the war. The discipline was much too lax; the industrious citizen +endeavoured to withdraw himself when danger did not threaten his own +city; the consequence was, that many unsettled people were scouring the +country in arms. If they were required by the community to defend the +ploughs in the field against roving marauders, they demanded a special +gratification, or they evaded it, and very soon they became more a +plague than a benefit to their own country. + +What ruin the war brought upon the towns may be learned from every town +chronicle. First, the disorders of the _Kipper_ time inflicted deep +wounds on their morality and prosperity. Then came the sufferings that +even distant war brought upon the citizens, the scarcity and dearness of +provisions. Everything became so insecure that nothing was thought of +but the enjoyment of the day. Rough and wild was the love of pleasure; +and foreign modes, which had been learned from the travelled courtiers +and soldiers became prevalent. From 1626 dandyism began in Germany after +the French fashion; the _Messieurs à la mode_ strutted about, molesting +every one on the paved footpaths of the streets. They had short pointed +beards, long hair in frizzled locks, or cut short on one side, and on +the other hanging on the shoulder in a queue or lock, a large flapped +hat, spurs on their heels, a sword on the left side, dresses slashed and +jagged, a coxcombical bearing, and added to all this, a corrupt language +full of French words. The women were not behindhand; they began to carry +foreign masks before their faces, and feather fans in their hands; they +wore whalebones in their dresses, and repudiated sables, gold and silver +stuffs, and, above all--what appeared very remarkable--silver, and at +last, indeed, white lace. This conduct raised the indignation of the +authorities and pastors, as being fantastic and immoral. To us it +appears as the characteristic evil of a time when the old independence +of the German citizen was crushed. + +When an army approached a town, the traffic with the country almost +entirely ceased, the gates were carefully watched, and the citizens +maintained themselves on the provisions that had been collected. Then +began the levying of contributions, the passage and quartering of +friendly armies, with all its terrors. Still worse was the passage of +the enemy. They uselessly endeavoured to purchase safety--it was a +favour if the enemy did not set fire to the town woods or cut them down +for sale, or carry off the town library on his baggage waggon; +everything that was inviting to plunder, such as the organ or church +pictures, had to be ransomed, even to the church bells, which, according +to the custom of war, belonged to the artillery. The cities were not in +a position to satisfy the demands of the Generals, so the most +considerable of the citizens were dragged off as hostages till the sum +exacted was paid. + +If a town was considered strong enough to resist the enemy's army, it +was always filled with fugitives at the approach of the enemy, the +number of whom was so great that the citizens could not think of +providing for them. There came to Dresden, for example, in 1637, after +the capture of Torgau in the course of three days, from the 7th to the +9th of May, twelve thousand waggons with fugitive country people. The +enemy surrounded the over-filled place; round the walls the battle +raged, and within, not less voracious, hunger, misery and sickness. All +the fugitives who were capable of bearing arms were employed in severe +siege service; the nobility also of the neighbourhood sometimes +assisted. If the siege lingered long, the high prices were followed by +shameless usury, the millers ground only for the rich, and the bakers +made exorbitant demands. The pictures of famine, such as was then +experienced in many towns, are too horrible to dwell upon. When at +Nördlingen a fortified tower was taken by the besiegers, the citizens +themselves burnt it down, hungry women fell upon the half-roasted bodies +of the enemy and carried pieces home for their children. + +But if a town was taken by storm it experienced the fate of Magdeburg; +the mowing down of masses, the dishonouring of women, horrible torments +and mutilations; and, added to all this, pestilence. To what an extent +pestilence then raged in the cities is scarcely credible; it frequently +carried off more than half the inhabitants. In 1626 and the following +years, it depopulated wide districts; from 1631 to 1634 it returned +again, and still worse in 1636. + +At all events it gave to each town for years plenty of space, and +proportionate peace; and the places--not very numerous--which were only +once destroyed in the course of the war, were able to recover +themselves. But the most fearful cases of all, were those where the same +calamities were two, three, and four times repeated. Leipzig was +besieged five times, and Magdeburg six, and most of the smaller towns +were more frequently filled with foreign soldiers; thus both large and +small towns were equally ruined. + +But this was not all; over wide territories raged a plague of quite +another kind,--religious persecution,--which was practised by the +Imperial party wherever it established itself. The army was followed +everywhere by crowds of proselytizers, Jesuits, and mendicant monks on +foot. These performed their office by the help of the soldiers. Wherever +the Roman Catholics had a footing, the leaders of the Protestant party, +and above all the shepherds of souls, were swept away, more especially +in the provinces which were the Emperor's own domains. Much had been +done there before the war, but still in the beginning of the war in +upper Austria, Moravia, Bohemia, and Silesia, the active intelligence of +the country and the greater part of the community were evangelical. +Their general character was improved. Whoever, after imprisonment and +torture, would not give up his faith was obliged to abandon the country, +and many, many thousands did so. The citizens and country people were +driven in troops by the soldiers to confession. It was considered a +favour when the fugitives were allowed a short insufficient delay for +the sale of their movable goods. + +The fate of a small town in one of these provinces, the only one which +was restored at a later period to the spiritual life of Germany, is here +given, not on account of the monotony of misery, but because other +characteristic points of the old burgher life are displayed. + +Where the Riesengebirge descend into the Silesian plain, in a fruitful +valley on the shores of the Bober, lies the old town of Löwenberg, one +of the first places in Silesia which was brought under the regulations +of the German law; it had already in the middle ages become a powerful +community, and numbered in 1617, in the city and suburbs, 738 houses and +at least 6500 inhabitants.[37] It rose stately, with its strong walls, +moats, and gate-towers, amidst woods and meadows; it had in its centre, +like almost all the German cities in Silesia, a large market-place, +called the 'Ring,' which included the council-house and fourteen +privileged inns and licensed houses of traffic; the houses within the +town were of stone, high gables projected over the streets, and they +were from four to five stories high. Originally the under story had been +built with trellised porches; these covered passages, however, had been +removed sixty years before; on the under floor the houses had a large +hall, and a strong vault, behind these a spacious room, in which was the +baking oven, and over this a wooden gallery which occupied the back +portion of the room, a staircase led up to it; the fore-part of the room +was the sleeping-room of the family, and the gallery was the +eating-room. On the floor above was a good apartment wainscoted with +wood work, all the rest were chambers and lofts for wares, superabundant +furniture, corn and wool. For Löwenberg was a celebrated +cloth-manufacturing town; in the year 1617, three hundred cloth +factories fabricated 13,702 pieces of cloth, and traders carried their +strong work far into Bohemia and the Empire, but especially into Poland. +The city seal, a lion in the town gate, was of pure gold. + +In 1629, the town had already suffered much from the war. The citizens, +demoralized and tortured, had lost the greater portion of their old +spirit. Lichtenstein's dragoon regiment--Imperialists--were quartered in +the neighbouring city, and supported the proselytizing Jesuits by sword +and pistol. The burgesses of the town of Löwenberg, dreading their +arrival, were obliged to dismiss their old pastors; they separated from +them with tears, the populace followed them weeping to their dwellings, +bearing with them their last parting gifts as an expiation. The Jesuits +succeeded them; the night before they came, a horned owl took up its +abode in the church tower, to the terror of the citizens, and alarmed +the town all night long by its hootings. The Jesuits preached after +their fashion daily, promising freedom from all contributions, and from +the infliction of billeting, and special favour and privileges from the +Emperor; but to the refractory temporal destruction. They went so far, +that the intimidated burgesses were driven to the determination of +accepting confirmation; most of the men of the community took the Lord's +Supper according to the Roman Catholic custom, unblessed by the cup. The +more steadfast of the citizens, however, were compelled to go away in +misery. Hardly had the Jesuits left the town, when the people fell back +again, the citizens rushed to the neighbouring villages, where there +were still evangelical pastors, and were there married and baptized; +their churches standing empty under a Roman Catholic priest. There were +new threatenings, and new deeds of violence. The upright burgomaster +Schubert was carried off to severe imprisonment, but the Council now +declared boldly that they would die for the Augsburg Confession; the +burgesses pressed round the governor of the province in wild tumult. The +executioners of the Emperor, "_the beatifiers_" rode through the gates; +great part of the citizens flew with their wives and children out of the +town; all the villages were full of exiles, who were brought back with +violence by the soldiers and apostate citizens, and put into prison till +they could produce certificates of confession; those who fled further, +were driven into Saxony. A new Council was now established--as was the +custom in those times--of unworthy and disreputable men. The houses +abandoned by the citizens were plundered; many waggons heavily laden +with furniture were bought of Roman Catholic neighbours, by the +soldiers, and carried off. The new Council lived in a shameless manner. +The King's judge--an apostate Löwenberger advocate--and the Senators, +ill treated the secret Protestants, and endeavoured to enrich themselves +from the town property. Two hundred and fifty citizens lived in exile +with their families; one side of the market-place was entirely +uninhabited, long grass grew there, and cattle pastured upon it. In the +winter, hunger and cold drove the women and children at last back to the +ruined houses. The leading spirit of the new Council was one Julius, who +had been a Franciscan, a desperate fellow, not at all like a monk, who +wore under his capoche golden bracelets. Then a Roman Catholic priest, +Exelmann, son of an evangelical preacher, was established there. But +however crushed and dispersed the citizens were, the offices of the +priest and the new town council were not undisputed. All the authorities +of the town were not yet under constraint. How the opposition resisted, +will be learned from the narration of a cotemporary, which was printed +by the industrious Sutorius in his history of Löwenberg, 1782. + +"On the ninth of April, 1631, early in the morning, the following +gentlemen met at the council-house: first, the priest, secondly, the +King's judge, who was Elias Seiler, an advocate; thirdly, George Mümer, +a woollen wiseacre and cloth factor; fourthly, Schwob Franze, also a +cloth factor; fifthly, Dr. Melchior Hübner, who had been a miller's man, +and a broken down baker; sixthly, Master Daniel Seiler, a joiner; +seventhly, Peter Beyer, the town-clerk; all these took possession of the +councillors' chairs. The worshipful burgomaster was ill of the gout. +Then the priest who had the upper hand in the council made a proposal in +the following words: 'My beloved children in the Church, hearing that +you intend sending an embassage to the court of his Kingly[38] Majesty +at Vienna, I and the worthy King's judge have, on mature consideration, +come to the conclusion, that before you break up it would be well for +you to compel all the women to adopt our religion. You would thereby +obtain for yourselves great favour at court. Also I will not fail to +give you letters of recommendation, to my highly esteemed honourable +cousin Herr Pater Lemmermann, now confessor to his Kingly Majesty, who +certainly has much influence in all secret deliberations, representing +to him how indefatigable and zealous you have been, and have brought the +women into the right way, so that all you who are now here together may +receive a special gratulation. Therefore proceed zealously; if they are +not willing, you have towers and prisons enough to compel them.' + +"On this proposition votes were taken all round, and first the King's +judge spoke: 'Yea, gentlemen, as I am willing to undertake such a +journey for the advantage of the town, it seems good to me that this +project should be carried out with zeal and earnestness. If they are not +willing, let the most distinguished of them be put in confinement. I +wager that the others will soon give in. They will come and beg that +they may be let out. Many will be glad that their wives run away and +they be quit of them. If we have been able to bring the men into the +right path, why should we not be able to deal with these little brutes?' + +"Herr Mümer, 'the woollen wiseacre,' said: 'I have been a widower six +weeks; I can well tell what cross a man must bear when his conscience is +moved on account of his wife day and night. It would truly be good if +man and wife had one faith and one paternoster; as concerns the Ten +Commandments, it is not so pressing. It would also be good that the +women should do like us, as they enjoy our income, and become +councillors' wives. Only I fear it will be difficult to manage. I would +almost rather consult with the honourable captain-general of the +province hereupon, how he would deal with his own wife. One should be +able to act with better effect when one has a decided command thereunto. +I could never have succeeded with my wife!' + +"Now Schwob Franze said: 'Gentlemen, my wife, as you know, died a few +days ago, so that I am now free and a widower; I have also somewhat to +say on this matter, as I have been plagued by my bad wife concerning the +Papacy. Nevertheless I know not how to handle this business rightly. +There are many beautiful women and widows among the Lutheran heretics. +Would it be well, and could one make up one's mind to confine, or drive +them all away at once? Gentlemen, you may do it if it seems good to +you. I am of the same opinion as my honourable colleague, Mümer. If I +marry to-day or to-morrow, my wife must have the like faith with me, or +hold her tongue upon the same.' + +"Hereupon Dr. Melchior began: 'Gentlemen, God's sacrament, im-m-imprison +them all together till they assent; le-le-let none out, though they +should all rot alike in prison. I yesterday thrashed my domestic plague +concerning this. The de-e-vil ta-a-ta-ake me, she must do it or I will +drive her entirely away.' + +"Master Daniel Seiler said: 'My high and most gracious gentlemen, you +can proceed in such a good work with force alone. The captain-general of +the province can give us no commands herein; let him see to himself how +he can bring his heretical wife into the right way, who is no small +vexation to him, and a mirror to our wives. Therefore I beg of you +proceed with speed against the women.' + +"The honourable town-clerk Peter Beyer's vote, was as follows: +'Gentlemen, I know not what to say in this matter. I have a notable +shrew, who snaps about her like the devil. I cannot trust myself to be +able to restrain her. If you can do it, try. But I advise, that we +should begin to speak kindly with the women. Let benches be placed in +the council-room, desire them to sit them down, and see whether it be +possible to convert them by good words, or afterwards by threats. +Perhaps they will take it into consideration.' + +"Hereupon the priest and the King's judge came to a conclusion. They +said: 'The time is short, much delay cannot be given; it is a saying +here, eat or die.' + +"So the King's judge spoke to the town-clerk saying: 'Are the women +without?' He answered: 'No, there are as yet none there.' Then the judge +said: 'Go, and you will find them either at my house or with Frau +Geneussin.' The town-clerk found no one at the house of the King's +judge, but at that of Frau Geneussin there were about fifteen. To these +he said: 'His reverence the priest, together with his honour the King's +judge, and the honourable council, send greeting to the ladies, and beg +that they will come to the council-house, where the gentlemen are +assembled.' + +"Then the wife of the King's judge answered: 'Yea, yea, greet them in +return, and we will come soon.' So the women went two and two, the +judge's and burgomaster's wives foremost, and ascended the stairs of the +council-house, but the other women who had collected at the bread tables +or elsewhere, or in houses, came after them in great numbers, by troops. +Now when the servant had announced to the council that the women were +there, the King's judge said: 'Let them in.' The servant replied: 'Sir, +there will not be room here for them all; I believe that there are five +hundred of them together. The council-house is full of them, part of +them are already sitting on the musicians' stools.' + +"Then the priest began: 'Indeed, we must pause awhile, this is not well. +I only intended at first that the most distinguished wives, such as +those of the council, the justices, and jurymen should be called. Ay, +ay, what have you done?' The servant answered: 'Your reverence must be +informed, that yesterday the King's judge commanded that all the women +who had not been converted, or would not be so, should be summoned, and +to begin with his wife; this I have done, and because it was rather +late, I told most of those whom I met that they should notify this to +the others, that they were to come on the morrow without fail on pain of +punishment. I believe I have done no wrong.' + +"The priest spoke again: 'Ay, ay, gentlemen, gentlemen, this is not +well. I know not how we shall manage to be rid of a portion of these +women.' + +"Thereupon the King's judge said to the priest: 'Let your reverence be +content; we will arrange the business, and in the beginning we will only +call in the women of distinction. When they see that they must really +give in or be imprisoned, the others will soon withdraw themselves and +run away.' + +"It was therefore determined, and made known to the servant, that the +above-mentioned ladies only should enter. + +"Now when the servant announced this, the wife of the King's judge +began: 'We will by no means allow ourselves to be separated; where I +remain, there shall my train remain also. Say that we only beg they will +allow us to enter.' The servant reported this again to the council. Then +the King's judge waxed wrath and said with great vehemence: 'Go out +again and tell these simple women that they must not show themselves +disobedient and refractory, or they will learn how they will be +treated.' Then the servant went out again and delivered the command +seriously, but the good-wives held to their former opinion, and said +that they wished to know why they had been summoned, that none would +separate from the others; as it fared with one so should it fare with +all. On this there was great confusion and murmuring among the women, +which was heard by the gentlemen in the council-room. + +"When the servant returned with this answer, they were sore afraid, and +would rather have seen the women I know not where. They therefore +determined unanimously to send out his honour the town-clerk, that he +might persuade them with earnest yet friendly words, that the most +distinguished of the women should enter, and the others return home, and +none should suffer. But it was all in vain. The women remained firm not +to separate from one another. And the judge's wife began, and said to +the town-clerk: 'Nay, nay, dear friend, do you think we are so simple, +and do not perceive the trick by which you would compel and force us +poor women, against our conscience, to change our faith? My husband and +the priest have not been consorting together all these days for nothing; +they have been joined together almost day and night; assuredly they have +either boiled or cooked a devil, which they may eat up themselves; I +shall not enter there. Where I remain, there will my train and following +remain also.' She turned herself round to the others and said: 'Women, +is this your will?' Then once more there were loud exclamations from the +women: 'Yea, yea, let it be so; we will all hold together as one man.' + +"Hereupon his honour the town-clerk was much affrighted; he went hastily +back to the council, and reported woefully the state of affairs, adding, +that the council was in no small danger, for he had observed that almost +every woman had a large bunch of keys hanging at her side.[39] Upon this +their courage utterly and entirely evaporated; they hung their heads and +were at their wits' end; one wished himself here, another out there. Dr. +Melchior took heart and said to the priest: '_Potz-Sacrament!_ Most +reverend sir, if I had now but two hundred musketeers, I would soon mow +down the whole pa-pa-pack, even those who would fell down on their +knees.' + +"At last his honour the town-clerk bethought himself of a device. +'Gentlemen, I know a way by which we can descend and escape from the +women. If the gentlemen will close both doors of the council-house, we +will silently make off with ourselves by the under council-room, through +the doors of the tower; thus they will not be aware what has become of +us. But I do not know where the keys of the tower are to be found.' This +good counsel pleased them all well, and the keys were sought for +carefully, but meanwhile the town-clerk was called in, and commanded to +signify to the women, that they should have a little patience. And the +town-clerk was to see how one could slip round to the front, and the +other to the back door, that they might suddenly run out and close the +doors behind them. + +"This plan succeeded with the good-wives, of whom two hundred and +sixty-three were thus imprisoned. The town-clerk speedily opened the +tower gates, which had not been done for several years, and running back +exclaimed: 'Away, gentlemen, away, the coast is clear; but silence, for +God's sake silence, that the women may not become aware of it, otherwise +there will be the devil to pay.' + +"Thereupon they ran away as fast as they could, part of them without +hats or gloves; some ran home, others to a neighbour's, each, where in +his hurry he thought he should be secure. All could confess to a state +of frightful terror. The priest ran at full trot up the church lane, +looking more behind than before him, to see whether the women were +following and would shake their keys at him during mass; he closed the +parsonage-house behind him, as the town-clerk had done the +council-house. He was so exhausted that he could neither eat nor drink; +both his ladies had enough to do to cool him. + +"Now when the imprisoned women, most of whom sat by the window, heard +the rumour which was noised about the town, that the honourable +gentlemen had so cunningly gotten off, the wife of the King's judge ran +to the council-door, unlatched it, and called out with great amazement: +'The devil has carried away the rogues; see, there lies a hat, a +pocket-handkerchief and a glove, and all the doors are open. Come, let +us sit in council ourselves and send for our husbands; they shall come +on pain of punishment, and hear our behests.' Thereupon there was great +screaming and laughter amongst the wives, so that they might be heard +over the whole 'Ring.' + +"At last the women divided into small parties by tens and twelves, they +pitied their husbands, children, and babies, who would have nothing to +eat. So they agreed, by means of certain women who were outside the +door, and desirous of joining the prisoners, to beg the King's judge to +free them, and to notify to them wherefore they had that day been +summoned to the council-house. + +"In the meanwhile, however, the King's judge discovered, that he had +returned from the council-house a wiser man than when he had entered it +in the morning, and it struck him that all husbands might not be so evil +disposed towards their wives as he was. He saw also a tolerable +concourse of children and mob collecting round the council-house, who +were disposed to carry food and drink to the women; nay, some good +friends had already prepared a whole quarter cask of beer for the +refreshment of the dear women. Besides this also, a number of men had +collected together, desiring to know what their wives had done, that +they should be thus locked up. Then the King's judge took heart again, +and invited the gentlemen _cito citissime_ to his house for a necessary +conference. The four gentlemen of the council and the town-clerk were +found, but with great difficulty; but the priest had thoroughly +concealed himself, and sent to excuse himself on account of his +exhaustion and his need of rest. But it was determined to send another +embassage to him, to call to his mind that he must appear without fail, +as he had occasioned this transaction. + +"Meanwhile the usher of the council came running to the council-house, +at whose bidding no one knows, and called through the closed door to his +wife, who was in conclave, and said to her: 'Tell the other women that +the gentlemen have reassembled at the house of the King's judge; they +will soon send out and open the council-house, that every one may return +home.' Thereupon the judge's wife answered: 'Yea, we will willingly have +patience, as we are quite comfortable here; but tell them they ought to +inform us why we were summoned and confined without trial.' + +"The priest at last allowed himself to be prevailed on, and came to the +judge's house. They all began by complaining bitterly of their +exhaustion on account of the great anguish and danger they had +undergone, therefore a refreshing drink of wine was speedily passed +round amongst them; but what plans they afterwards made I have not been +able to gather distinctly, because all passed standing, and there was no +protocol concerning it. But certain it is, that as is usual with such +ragamuffins, the biters were bitten, and one threw dirt into the face of +the other. At last, however, they became unanimous to send an embassage +to the imprisoned ladies, to release them from the _cito_, and to +bespeak them in all friendship, that they might be induced to quit the +council-house. The persons empowered for this embassage were Herr Mümer, +Master Daniel, and Herr Notarius. + +"When these arrived the doors were immediately opened, and the envoys +entered into the midst of the circle of women. + +"Then began the town-clerk thus: 'Honourable, very honourable, +excellent, and most especially gracious and dear ladies! his reverence +the priest, together with his honour the King's judge and very wise +council, send greeting to the ladies assembled; they greatly wonder that +the women have so ill conceived and misunderstood their intentions; and +as they have so earnestly desired to know wherefore this has happened, +the aforesaid gentlemen have sent us to explain this in all truth. +First, as now the holy week is approaching, in which there will be held +by the Church special preachings on the Holy Sacrament, it has been +thought advisable to admonish the women christianly and faithfully, to +present themselves zealously thereat. Secondly, it is requested that at +the approaching Easter festival the women will likewise present +themselves collectively and show their benevolence, as his reverence the +priest's dues will be so poor in amount, owing to the small number of +citizens present.' + +"After this harangue of the town-clerk, Master Daniel the joiner, +wishing to improve the matter, said: 'My very gracious ladies! Let it be +understood by the women that this is a friendly conference, and that no +constraint will be used; for it is not customary with my masters and the +very wise council to hang a man before they have caught him.' + +"At this inconsiderate and incautious speech, which did not in the least +serve the council, Herr Mümer and Herr Notarius pushed him away; but +among the assembled wives there was great laughter and uproar. 'Yea! +yea! we understand well enough now; they compare us to people who are to +be hanged. What fellows you are, one with the other! Oh you faithless +rogues! you usurious corn-dealers! you woollen thieves! Thereupon the +judge's wife called out: 'Silence! silence, you women!' and said to +Master Daniel: 'Hear, dear brother-in-law, you do not understand the +matter, and are also too few to compel us against our conscience. Oh, +how God will punish you, and my husband also, who so openly acts against +his conscience! Your dear deceased father, a dignified Lutheran +ecclesiastic, taught you both very differently. Now you say you are good +Roman Catholics. Your new faith is necessary for your roguish tricks; +when you are drunk you speak shamelessly enough of the mother of God +herself, and when you go to your bad women you speak of yourselves as +the brothers of the Virgin Mary. Oh, if your gains were taken away from +you, which you make from your offices and the common property of the +town, and consume again in eating and drinking; if you were obliged to +resume your joiners' trade again, and work vigorously to keep yourselves +warm, how soon you would give up your Popery. May God punish you! Never +shall you deprive us of our faith, you yourselves will yet be hanged on +that account.' + +"The burgomaster's wife said: 'If you had nothing else to say to us, the +priest might have done that from the pulpit, and it would not have been +necessary to confine us on that account. It is not thus I could be +compelled to go to church. Under our former pastors and preachers it was +a great pleasure to me to go to church, for I received there comfort +from the word of God; now I am only scandalized and troubled when I go +there. So that it cries out to God in heaven. As concerns the Easter +offerings, every one is free; he who has to give may do so.' Hereupon +the other women screamed out loudly: 'Yea, we will give to the priest, +the devil, as his due.' The honourable envoys were terrified at such +discourse, and begged to be allowed to withdraw, and said not a word +further, but departed. + +"Now when the honourable envoys returned to the King's judge, the priest +and the other gentlemen had already gone away; they made their report, +and also went home. The women were now released from their arrest. But +this affair worked seriously in the head of the King's judge; he took it +to heart that he had been so ignominiously led astray by his ideas, and +feared that the upshot would bring him to eternal ridicule. He paced up +and down the room, murmuring to himself; at last he said: 'Give me +somewhat to eat.' When the table was spread, and dinner served up by his +maid-servant and children,--a dish of crab, a piece of white bread and +cheese and butter,--the worthy gentleman waxed wrath, took first the +good bread, then the tin butter-mould with the butter, and threw them +out of the window into the market-place; he threw the crab also all +about the room, and seized upon the sausage which was also on the table, +which the children would gladly have had, being hungry, as they had +eaten nothing the whole day. Nay, he was so furious that he ran out of +the room, dashing down the dishes and saucepans, and all that came to +his hand, so that a great concourse of neighbours was brought together. +After that, he ran up to his room and went on calling out and conducting +himself as if it was full of people. The following morning he rose +betimes and stole away, having delivered over his office to Dr. +Melchior. + +"That day the other gentlemen rested till towards evening; then the +priest sent for the beadle, and commanded him to summon in his name and +that of Dr. Melchior, as the vice King's judge, the wife of the +burgomaster and the frau Geneussin to come to him at the parsonage early +in the morning after mass. This the beadle did. The burgomaster's wife +answered: 'Yea, yea, I will come, but I will first tell my lord.' But +when the beadle came to Frau Geneussin, and announced the same to her, +her son-in-law was with her, Herr Krekler, who was afterwards +burgomaster, who thus answered for her: 'Are the priest and Dr. Melchior +your masters? Are they the masters of my honoured mother-in-law? Reply +that she will not come without the commands of the burgomaster.' This +the beadle told to the burgomaster, who reflected thereupon, and at last +said: 'For my part they may go, I am content, so the blame cannot be +laid upon me.' + +"On Friday morning, at the appointed hour, the wife of the burgomaster +went to the priest and likewise the judge's wife, who however was not +summoned, together with Frau Geneussin. Then the priest began to speak +with them in the most friendly way; he begged them very politely to +conform and accept the only holy religion which could make them blessed, +as their lords had done. They would see what comfort they would find in +it, and how well it would fare with them. To this the women forthwith +replied: 'No, we were otherwise instructed by our parents, and former +preachers; according to that we find ourselves right comfortable. We +cannot reconcile ourselves to your religion.' Thereupon the priest said: +'You women may come to church or to me as oft as you please, when you +have anxieties or scruples, and I will assuredly instruct you +assiduously.' The women answered: 'Your reverence need not give yourself +any trouble on our account, as we will not do so.' 'Ay,' said the +priest, 'then set the other women a good example, and at least go to +church and mass, and do not be a cause of offence to others who have +already declared that they would go if the women went.' The women +replied: 'We will not do it ourselves, but we will not prevent others +from doing so; these are matters of conscience whereof none can judge +but God.' Now when the priest saw that all was in vain, he entreated +them thus: 'Ay, ay, yet at least tell the other women that you have +begged for, and also obtained, fourteen days for consideration.' Then +answered the women almost with indignation: 'No, dear sir, we were not +taught to lie by our parents, and we will not learn it from you; we beg +you will excuse us.' So they departed therefrom. + +"But whilst the three women were with the priest, a great multitude of +women collected together with marvellous rapidity, many more than on the +first occasion. Herr Schwob Franze perceiving this, came running panting +with haste to the burgomaster and said: 'Sir, I pray you for God's sake +have a care, and prevent the priest from meddling with the women; they +have assembled together again in a great multitude, the whole of the +bread-market and all the houses in Kirchgasse are full of them; God help +us, they will slay us, together with the priest. I made the best of my +way out from them.' + +"The good burgomaster was so ill in bed that he could neither move hand +nor foot. He sent hastily to the priest and told him in plain German +what a hazardous business he had begun, the like of which had never been +heard of in any town. If he were to meet with any annoyance from the +women the fault would be his own. + +"Thereupon the priest said: 'Ah no! Herr Burgomaster, let not your +worship be thus angered. I see that I have been led astray by that +inconsiderate man Dr. Melchior, who represented the matter quite +otherwise. I beg that your worship will signify to the women, that they +may return to their homes; assuredly what has happened shall not happen +again, of that I hereby assure your worship.' When the women heard this, +and that nothing further had happened to the ladies, as has been related +above, the women were well content, went home and laid aside their +bundles and bunches of keys, nevertheless, not out of reach, that they +might have them at hand day or night in case of need." + +Here ends the old narrative. The priest was obliged the following year +to leave Löwenberg ignominiously, as he would not desist from his +scandalous proceedings. Amongst other things he had a public chop and +beer-house erected for the old Silesian beer. The spiteful Dr. Melchior +became afterwards in desperation a soldier, and was hanged at Prague. +And the valiant women,--we hope they took refuge with their husbands at +Breslau or in Poland. + +After 1632, the town decayed more and more every year, now under Swedish +or Imperial, now under Evangelical, or Roman Catholic ministers; in +1639, the town contained only forty citizens, and had a debt of a ton +and a half of gold; in 1641, the citizens themselves unroofed their +houses in order not to pay taxes, and dwelt in thatched huts. When the +peace came, the town was almost entirely in ruins. Eight years later, in +1656, there were again one hundred and twenty-one citizens in Löwenberg; +and about eight hundred and fifty inhabitants, eighty-seven per cent, of +the population had perished. + + + + + CHAPTER VI. + + THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.--THE PEACE. + + +The peace was signed; the ambassadors had solemnized the ratification by +shaking hands, and trumpeters rode about the streets announcing the +happy event. + +At Nuremberg the Imperialists and the Swedes held a peace banquet in the +great saloon of the council-house; the lofty vaulted hall was +splendidly lighted; betwixt the chandeliers hung down thirty kinds of +flowers and real fruits, bound together with gold tinsel; four choirs +were stationed for festive music, and the six classes of invited guests +were assembled in six different rooms. On the table stood two prodigious +show dishes, a triumphal arch, and a hexagonal mound covered with +mythological and allegorical figures with Latin and German devices. The +banquet was served up in four courses, in each course were a hundred and +fifty dishes, then came the fruits in silver dishes, and on real dwarf +trees by which the whole table was covered; amidst all this, fine +frankincense was burnt, which produced a very agreeable odour. +Afterwards the upper leaves of the table were taken away by pieces, then +the table was covered again with napkins, and plates strewed over wish +flowers made of sugar, and now came the confectionery: among these there +were gigantic marchpanes on two silver shells, each of which weighed ten +pounds. And when the health of his Imperial Majesty of Vienna and his +Kindly Majesty of Sweden was drank, together with the prosperity of the +peace which had been concluded, fifteen large and small pieces were +discharged from the citadel. When this peace banquet had lasted far on +into the night, the Field-marshals and Generals present, wished on +parting to play once more at being soldiers. They caused arms to be +brought into the hall, chose the two ambassadors as captains; his +Illustrious and Serene Highness Herr Carl Gustav, Count Palatine on the +Rhine, afterwards King of Sweden, and his Excellency General +Piccolomini; but for a corporal they chose Field-Marshal Wrangel; and +all the Generals, colonels, and lieutenant-colonels were made +musketeers. Thus these gentlemen marched round the table, fired a salvo, +went in good order to the citadel, and there fired off the pieces many +times. On their return they were playfully discharged by Colonel Kraft +and dismissed the service, as now there was to be peace for ever. Two +oxen were slaughtered for the poor, and there was a great distribution +of bread, also for six hours red and white wine flowed from a lion's +jaw. For thirty years had tears and blood flowed from a greater lion's +jaw. + +Like the honourable ambassadors, the people prepared a festive +celebration in every town, nay in every half-destroyed village. How +great was the effect of the intelligence of peace on the German nation +may be learned from some affecting details. To the old country people +the peace appeared as a return of their youth; they looked back to the +rich harvests of their childhood, thickly populated villages, the merry +Sundays under the hewed-down village lindens, and the happy hours which +they had passed with their ruined and deceased relations and companions. +They saw themselves happier, more manly, and better than they had been +during thirty years of misery and degradation. But the youth of the +country--a hard war-engendered demoralized race--discovered in it the +approach of a wonderful time which appeared to them like a legend from a +distant country. The time when on every acre of field, the thick yellow +ears of corn would wave in the wind; when in every stall the cows would +low, and in every sty a fat pig would be lying; when they themselves +should drive with two horses in the fields, merrily cracking their +whips, and when there would be no enemy's soldiers to snatch rough +caresses from their sisters or sweethearts; when they would no longer +have to lie in wait in the bushes, with pitchforks and rusty muskets, +for the stragglers, nor to sit as fugitives in the dismal gloom of the +wood by the graves of the slain; when the village roofs would be without +holes, and the farm-yards without ruined barns; when the howl of the +wolf would not be heard every night at the yard gate; when their village +churches would again have glass windows, and beautiful bells; when in +the soiled choir of the church, there should arise a new altar with a +silk cover, a silver crucifix and a gilt chalice; and when one day the +young lads would again lead their brides to the altar, bearing the +virgin wreaths in their hair. A passionate, almost painful joy +palpitated through all hearts; even the wildest brood of the war, the +soldiery, were seized with it. The stern rulers themselves, the Princes +and their ambassadors, felt that this great boon of peace would be the +salvation of Germany. The festival was celebrated with the greatest +fervour and solemnity of which the people were capable. From the same +circle of village recollections from which examples have already been +taken, the following description of a festival is placed, in +juxtaposition to that of the Princes and Field-marshals. + +Döllstedt, a fine village in the dukedom of Gotha, had suffered +severely. In 1636 the Hatzfeld corps had fallen upon the place, had +committed great damage, plundered the church, burnt and broken off the +woodwork, as had been prophesied by the pastor Herr Deckner shortly +before. "This dear man," thus writes his successor, the pastor, Herr +Trümper, "had rebuked his flock with righteous zeal on account of their +sins; but they had laughed at his rebukes and warnings, had treated him +with anger and ingratitude, and as he lamented in 1634, with weeping +eyes, had cut down his hops from the poles, and carried off the corn +from his fields. Thus he could only proclaim to them God's righteous +judgment on such hardened hearts. Not only publicly from the pulpit, but +also a few hours before his blessed departure, he had thus lamented: +'Ah! thou poor Döllstedt! it will go ill with thee after my decease!' +Thereupon he turned, with the assistance of the attendants, towards the +church, and raised his weary head, struggling ineffectually with death, +as if he wished once more, from the corner of his room, to see the +church, in the service of which his life had been passed, and said: 'Ah! +thou dear, dear church! How will it fare with thee after my death? They +will sweep thee up with a besom.'" + +His prophecy was fulfilled. The village in 1636 had to liquidate war +damages to the amount 5500 of gulden, and between 1627 and 1637 it +amounted altogether to 29,595 gulden, so that the inhabitants by degrees +disappeared and the place remained quite desolate; in 1636 there were +only two married couples in the village. In the year 1641, after Banner +and, again in the winter, the French had been quartered in it, half an +acre of corn was sown, and there were four couples dwelling there. By +the zealous care of Duke Ernest the Good, of Gotha, the deserted +villages in his country were comparatively quickly occupied by men. In +1650, therefore, the jubilee and peace festival could be solemnized in +Döllstedt. The description of it is given, as it is recorded in the +church books, by the then Pastor Trümper. + +"On the 19th of August, at four o'clock in the morning, we, together +with our coadjutors and some of the householders of Gotha, mounted our +tower, and celebrated with music our morning prayer. Towards six +o'clock, as happened the preceding day at one o'clock; they began to +ring the bells for a quarter of an hour, and again, for the same length +of time, at half after seven. Meanwhile, the whole population, man and +woman, young and old, except those who assisted at the ringing, +assembled before the gate: 1st, the women-folk stood on one side; before +them was a figure of Peace, which the noble maidens had dressed up +beautifully, in a lovely green silk dress and other decorations; on her +head was placed a beautiful green wreath intermingled with gold +spangles, and in her hand a green branch. 2nd. On the other side towards +the village stood the men, and in front of them Justice in a beautiful +white garment, with a green wreath round her head, and bearing in her +hands a naked sword and gold scales. 3rd. Towards the fields on the same +side, stood the young men with guns, and some with naked swords, and +before them Mars, dressed as a soldier, and bearing in his hands a +crossbow. 4th. In the middle near me, stood the scholars, householders, +and the coadjutors. Then did the recollection come across me, of how +often we had been obliged to quit our homes and flee from our gates, our +eyes overflowing with tears, and when the storm was passed, had returned +home again with joy, notwithstanding that we found all devastated, +ruined, and turned topsy-turvy. Now we thought it fitting thus to honour +our dear God, going out in front of our gates, and as He had preserved +us from the like devastation and necessity for flight and escape, by the +gracious boon of the noble and long-desired peace, we desired now to go +to his gates with thanksgiving, and into his courts with praise, and +would for that raise our voices with one accord and sing: 'To God alone +most high be honour, &c.' 5th. Whilst these strophes were being chanted, +Peace and Justice approached one another nearer and nearer. At the +words: 'All feuds are now at an end,' those who held naked swords +sheathed them, and those who had guns fired some salvos and turned +themselves round. Peace beckoned to some who had been hereto appointed; +these took from Mars, who appeared to defend himself his crossbow, and +broke it in twain; Peace and Justice met together and kissed each other. +6th. Thereupon the chanting, which had been begun, was continued, and we +prepared to go. Before the scholars, went Andreas Ehrhardt, adorned to +the utmost, with a staff in his hand wound round with green garlands. +Then followed the scholars with green wreaths on their heads and green +branches in their hands, and they wore short white garments; then came +the assistants and musicians; after these, I, the Pastor, together with +the Herr Pastor of Vargula, who had come to me. After us came the +maidens, the little ones in front, and the taller ones behind, all +adorned to the utmost, and green wreaths on their heads. After these +went Peace, and behind her the boys, who carried a basket of rolls and a +dish of apples, which were afterwards distributed among the children; +item, all kinds of fruits of the field. + +"These were followed by the noble maidens, together with their +relations, whom they had bidden; after them nobles from Seebach, Saxony, +and others who had accompanied them. After these came Justice, and +behind her, magistrates and assessors, all bearing white staves in their +hands, twined with green garlands. Then followed the Ensign Christian +Heum, in his best attire, with a staff in his hand, on which he leant, +but it was encircled with a green garland. Afterwards came the men in +pairs with green bouquets in their hands; the men were followed by Mars +bound, then the young lads with their guns reversed. There followed the +Sergeant-major Herr Dietrich Grün in his finery, with a staff in his +hand like the Ensign; and after him the women-folk, all also in pairs in +their order, and all passed singing through the village to the church. +When the aforesaid song was finished we sang, 'Now Praise the Lord, my +soul.' + +"In the church there was preaching and singing conformable to the royal +ordinance. After the service was completed, we went in the former order +from the church to the Platz in front of the inn; there the men on one +side, and the women on the other, in half-circles, closed in, forming a +fine wide circle, and during their progress they sang, 'Now rejoice +together, dear Christians.' When the circle was formed I gave thanks to +all collectively, that they had not only, according to the proclamation +of the high and mighty princely government, obediently observed this +solemnity, but also had gone out at my desire, all together, noble and +humble alike, to the gates, and had followed me in such beautiful order +to church, &c., and I admonished them to attend again zealously the +afternoon service. And truly, as I said that it would be well for every +one to come from their houses to church in the afternoon, they did all +reassemble as before in front of the inn; Peace and Justice also were +there again in their dress, but Mars had disappeared. When I was +informed of this, I went during the last peal of the bells with the +scholars, the coadjutors, and the householders out by the back gate +through the church lane to the church, when every one again, as before, +followed me into the church. There we then sang, 'Now let us sing unto +the Lord,' &c. From the church we returned in the same order, again +singing, 'Praise the Lord, praise the Lord,' &c., to the above-mentioned +place, where I again gave thanks both to strangers and townspeople, with +heartfelt wishes for peace. And here the six groschen, rolls, and ripe +apples were distributed among the children." + +It is known that the great peace came very slowly, like the recovery +from a mortal illness. The years from 1648 to 1650, from the conclusion +of the peace to the celebration of the festival, were among the most +grievous of that iron time; exorbitant war taxes were imposed, the +armies of the different countries lay encamped in the provinces till +they could be paid off, the oppression which they exercised on the +unhappy inhabitants was so fearful, that a despairing cry arose from the +people, which mingled itself with the wrangling of the negotiating +parties. To this was added a plague of another kind; the whole country +swarmed with a rabble that had no masters; bands of discharged soldiers +with the camp followers, troops of beggars, and great hordes of robbers, +roved about from one territory to another; they quartered themselves by +force on those villages which were still inhabited, and established +themselves in the deserted huts. The villagers also, provided with bad +weapons and disused to labour, thought it sometimes more satisfactory to +rob, than to till the fields, and made secret roving expeditions into +the neighbouring territories, the Evangelical into the Catholic +countries, and _vice versâ_. The foreign children of a lawless race, the +gipsies, had increased in number and audacity; fantastically dressed, +with heavily laden carts, stolen horses, and naked children, they +encamped in great numbers round the stone trough of the village green: +whenever the ruler was powerful and the officials active, the wild +rovers were encountered with energy. The villagers of the dukedom of +Gotha were still obliged, in 1649, to keep watch from the church towers, +to guard the bridges and fords, and to give an alarm whenever they +perceived any of these marching bands. A well-regulated system of police +was the first sign of that new feeling of responsibility which the +governments had acquired: every one who wished to settle down was +encouraged to do so. Whoever was established, had to render an account +of how much land he had cultivated, of the condition of his house and +farm, and whether he had any cattle. New registers of the farms and +inhabitants were prepared, new taxes on money and on natural products +were imposed; and by the severe pressure of these, the villagers were +compelled to labour. The villages were gradually reinhabited; many +families who had fled to the towns during the war repaired their +devastated farms; others returned from the mountains or foreign +countries; disbanded soldiers and camp followers sometimes bought fields +and empty houses with the remainder of their booty, or returned to their +native villages. There was much marrying and baptizing. + +But the exhaustion of the people was still lamentably great. The arable +land, much of which had lain fallow, was sown without the necessary +manure; not a little remained overrun with wild underwood and weeds, and +long continued as osier land. The ruined districts were sometimes bought +by the neighbouring villages, and in some places two or three small +communities united themselves together. + +For many years after the war, the appearance of the villages was most +comfortless; one may perceive that this was the case in Thuringia, from +the transactions with the Government. The householders of Siebleben and +some other communities round Gotha, had held, from the middle ages, the +right of having timber free from the wooded hills. In 1650, the +government demanded from them, for the exercise of this right, a small +tax upon oats: some of the communities excused themselves, as they were +too poor to be able to think of rebuilding their damaged houses. Ten +years after, the community of Siebleben had forty boys who paid small +school fees, and the yearly offering in the church amounted to more than +fourteen gulden. A portion of this offering was spent in alms to +strangers, and it is perceptible, from the carefully kept accounts, what +a stream of beggars of all kinds passed through the country; disbanded +soldiers, cripples, the sick and aged; amongst them were lepers with +certificates from their infirmaries, also exiles from Bohemia and +Hungary, who had left their homes on account of their religion, banished +noblemen from England, Ireland, and Poland, persons collecting money +for the ransom of their relatives from Turkish imprisonment, travellers +who had been plundered by highwaymen, and others, such as a blind +pastor from Denmark with five children; the strangers came prepared +with testimonials. The governments, however, were unwearied in their +efforts against harbouring such vagrants. + +Much has been written concerning the devastation of the war; but the +great work is still wanting, that would concentrate the statistical +notices which have been preserved in all the different territories: +however enormous the labour may be, it must be undertaken, for it is +only from this irrefragable computation, that the full greatness of the +calamity can be understood. The details hitherto known scarcely amount +to a probable valuation of the loss which Germany suffered in men, +beasts of burden, and productive power. The following inferences only +attempt to express the views of an individual, which a few examples will +support. + +The condition of the provinces of Thuringia and Franconia is not ill +adapted for a comparison of the past with the present; neither of them +were more afflicted by the visitation of war than other countries; the +state of cultivation of both provinces, up to the present time, answers +pretty accurately to the general average of German industry and +agriculture: neither of them are on the whole rich: both were hilly +countries, without large rivers, or any considerable coal strata, with +low lands, of which only certain tracts were distinguished by especial +fertility, and were up to modern times devoted to agriculture, garden +culture, and small mining industry. Thus this portion of Germany had +known no powerful stream of human enterprise or capital, nor, on the +other hand, was it the theatre of the destructive wars of Louis XIV.'s +time, and the rulers, especially the grandson of Frederic the Wise, were +even in the worst times tolerably sparing of the national strength. + +There have been preserved to us from these districts, amongst other +things, accurate statistical notices of twenty communities, which once +were in the Hennebergen domain; but now, with the exception of one that +is Bavarian, belong to Saxe Meiningen. It is nowhere mentioned, and from +their condition need not be concluded, that the devastation in them had +been greater than in other portions of the province. The government in +1649 ordered an accurate report to be given of the number of inhabited +houses, barns, and head of cattle that existed when the worst sufferings +of the war began in 1634. According to the reports delivered by the +magistrates of the places, there had perished in the twenty communities +more than eighty-two per cent, of families, eighty-five per cent, of +horses, more than eighty-three of goats, and eighty-two of cows, and +more than sixty-three per cent. of houses. The remaining houses were +described as in many places damaged and in ruins, the still surviving +horses as lame and blind, and the fields and meadows as devastated and +much overgrown with underwood; but the sheep were everywhere altogether +destroyed.[40] + +It is a bloody and terrible tale which these numbers tell us. More than +four fifths of the population, far more than four fifths of their +property were destroyed. And in what a condition was the remainder! + +Precisely similar was the fate of the smaller provincial towns, as far +as one can see from the preserved data. We will give only one example +from the same province. The old church records of Ummerstadt, an +agricultural town near Coburg, famed, from olden times, throughout the +country for its good pottery, report as follows:--"Although in the year +1632 the whole country, as also the said little town, was very populous, +so that it alone contained more than one hundred and fifty citizens, and +up to eight hundred souls, yet from the ever-continuing war troubles, +and the constant quartering of troops, the people became in such wise +enervated, that from great and incessant fear, a pestilence sent upon us +by the all-powerful and righteous God, carried off as many as five +hundred men in the years 1635 and 1636; on account of this lamentable +and miserable condition of the time, no children were born into the +world in the course of two years. Those whose lives were still prolonged +by God Almighty, have from hunger, the dearness of the times, and the +scarcity of precious bread, eaten and lived upon bran, oil-cakes, and +linseed husks, and many also have died of it; many also have been +dispersed over all countries, most of whom have never again seen their +dear fatherland. In the year 1640, during the Saalfeldt encampment, +Ummerstadt became a city of the dead or of shadows; for during eighteen +weeks no man dared to appear therein, and all that remained was +destroyed. Therefore the population became quite thin, and there were +not more than a hundred souls forthcoming." In 1850 the place had eight +hundred and ninety-three inhabitants. + +Still more striking is another observation, which may be made from the +tables of the Meiningen villages. It is only in our century that the +number of men and cattle of all kinds has again reached the height which +it had already attained in 1634. Nay, the number of houses was still in +1849 less than in 1634, although, there the inmates of the smallest +village houses, even the poorest, still anxiously endeavour to preserve +their own dwellings. It is true that there is a trifling increase of the +number of inhabitants in 1849 over that in 1634; but even this increase +is dubious when we consider that the number of inhabitants in 1634 had +probably already experienced a diminution from sixteen years of war. +Thus we are assuredly justified in concluding that two centuries were +necessary, at least for this tract of Germany, to restore the population +and productive power of the country to its former standard. These +assumptions are supported by other observations. The agriculture of the +country, before the Thirty years' war, nay even the relative proportion +of the value of corn to that of silver, at a time when the export of +corn was only exceptional, lead to the same conclusions. + +It is true that during the last two centuries, agriculture, owing to the +mighty effects of foreign traffic, has developed itself in an entirely +new direction. The countryman also now cultivates field vegetables, +clover, and other herbage for fodder, which were unknown before the +Thirty years' war, and agricultural produce is more lucrative for an +equal amount of population. Perhaps our ancestors lived in a poorer +style, and farmed less. We can compare the stock of cattle. The number +of cattle kept now in the villages is precisely the same as before the +war; they have still the short, thick, curly-woolled Spanish herds, +which used to be reared in the pens of the peasants; the old wool fell +in long locks; but judging from the value of the cloth and stuffs woven +from it, and the price of sheep at that time, it must have been good. + +On the other hand, the stock of horses has diminished by three fourths +in comparison with 1634. This striking circumstance can only be thus +explained: that the traditions of the troopers of the middle ages +exercised an influence even upon agriculture; that the rearing of horses +was more profitable than now, on account of the bad roads which made a +distant transport of corn impossible, whilst the lowing of cattle in the +narrow farm-yards of the towns was so general that the sale of milk and +butter paid little; and finally, that a larger portion of the country +people were better able to maintain teams. The breaking up of the ground +was then, as may be seen from the old farm books in Thuringia, +somewhat--but not considerably--less than now. In the present day the +number of goats and of cattle belonging to small farmers has increased, +as also the number of oxen, which probably in Middle and Southern +Germany are now finer and higher bred than formerly. This is a decided +progress of the present day. But on the whole, reckoning the amount of +fodder required, the number of beasts which are maintained with +advantage is very inconsiderably larger at present than in 1634. + +Thus Germany, in comparison with its happier neighbours in England and +the Low Countries, was thrown back about two hundred years. + +Still greater were the changes which the war made in the intellectual +life of the nation. Above all among the country people. Many old customs +passed away, life became aimless and full of suffering. In the place of +the old household gear the rudest forms of modern furniture were +introduced; the artistic chalices, and old fonts, and almost all the +adornments of the churches, had disappeared, and were succeeded by a +tasteless poverty in the village churches, which still continues. For +more than a century after the war the peasant vegetated, penned in, +almost as much as his herds, whilst his pastor watched him as a +shepherd, and he was shorn by the landed proprietors and rulers of his +country. There was a long period of gloomy suffering. The price of corn +in the depopulated country was, for fifty years after the war, even +lower than before. But the burdens upon landed property rose so high, +that for a long time, land together with house and farm, bore little +value, and sometimes were offered in vain as acquittance for service and +imposts. Severer than ever was the pressure of vassalage, worst of all +in the former Sclave countries, in which the peasantry were kept down by +a numerous nobility. With respect to their marriages, they were placed +under an unnatural and compulsory guardianship; strict care was taken +that the son of the countryman should not evade by flight the servitude +which was to weigh down his future. He could not travel without a +written permission; even ship and raft masters were forbidden under +severe penalties to take such fugitives into their service. + +Much to be lamented is the injury to civilization which took place in +the devastated cities, especially the return to luxury, love of +pleasure, and coarse sensuality, the want of common sense and +independence, the cringing towards superiors and heartlessness towards +inferiors. They are the ancient sufferings of a decaying race. That the +self-government of cities was more and more infringed upon by the +princes, was frequently fortunate, for the administrators were too often +deficient in judgment and feeling of duty. + +The new constitution of governments which had arisen during the war, +laid its iron hands on town and country. The old territories of the +German empire were changed into despotic bureaucratic states. The ruler +governed through his officials, and kept a standing army against his +enemies; to maintain his "state," that is, his courtiers, officials and +soldiers, was the task of the people. But to make this possible, it was +necessary to promote carefully the increase of the population, and the +greater tax-paying capacity of the subject. Some princes, especially the +Brandenburgers, did this in a liberal spirit, and thus in this dark +period, by increasing the power of their new state, laid the foundation +of the greatness of their houses. Others indeed lavished the popular +strength, in coarse imitation of French demoralization. + +It was a mortal crisis through which Germany had passed, and dearly was +the peace bought. But that which was most important had been preserved, +the continuity of German development, the continuance of the great +inward process, by which the German nation raised itself from the +bondage of the middle ages to a higher civilization. + +The long struggle, politically considered, was a defensive war of the +Protestant party against the intolerance of the old faith and the +attacks of the Imperial power. This defensive struggle had begun by an +ill-timed offensive movement in Bohemia. The head of the House of +Hapsburg had law and right on his side, so long as he only put down this +movement. His opponents put themselves in the position of +revolutionists, which could only be vindicated by success. But from the +day when the Emperor made use of his victory to suppress by means of +Jesuits and soldiers the sovereignty of the German princes, and the old +rights of the cities, he became in his turn the political offender whose +bold venture was repulsed by the last efforts of the nation. But here we +must take a higher point of view, from which the proceedings of +Ferdinand II. appear still more insupportable. Just a hundred years +before his reign, all the good spirits of the German nation fought on +the side of the Emperor, when he, in opposition to existing rights and +old usages, had founded a German Church and German state. Since that, +the family of Charles V. had for a century, a short time excepted, done +much by laborious scheming, or listless indifference, to destroy the +last source of this new life, independence of spirit, thought and faith: +it was for a century, a short time excepted, the opponent of the +national German life; it had its Spanish and Italian alliances, and had +arrayed the Romish Jesuits against the indigenous civilization of the +nation, aided, alas! by some of the German princes. It was by such means +that it had endeavoured to become great in Germany, and in the same +spirit, an overzealous Emperor called forth the bloody decision. On his +head, not on the German people or Princes, lies the guilt of this +endless war. The Protestant chiefs, with the exception of the lesser +rulers, only sought to submit and make peace with their Emperor. It was +only for a few years they were led into open war, by the arrogance of +Wallenstein, the scorn of Vienna, and the warlike pressure of Gustavus +Adolphus; the alliance of the great electoral houses of Saxony and +Brandenburg with Sweden did not last four years; at the first +opportunity they receded, and during the last period of the war, +neutrality was their strongest policy. + +The princes obtained by the peace the object of their defensive +opposition; the extravagant designs of the Imperial Court were crushed. +Germany was free. Yes, free! Devastated and powerless, with its western +frontier for a century the fighting-ground and spoil of France, it had +still to bear the outpouring of an accumulated measure of humiliation +and shame. But whoever would now clench their hands at this, let them +beware of raising them against the Westphalian peace. The consequences +that followed, the laying in ashes of the Palatinate, the seizure of +Strasburg, the loss of Alsace and Lorraine, were not owing to this +peace. The cause of all this, was long before the Thirty years' war; it +had been foreseen by patriotic men long beforehand. Since the Smalkaldic +war the sovereignty of the German Princes, and the independence of +portions of the empire, were the only guarantee for a national +progressive civilization. One may deeply lament, but can easily +understand this. Now at last this independence had been legally +established by streams of blood. Whoever considers the year 1813,--the +first kindling of the people since 1648,--as full of glory; whoever has +at any time ennobled himself by a sense of duty and enlarged moral +sentiments, acquired from the severe teaching of Kant and his followers; +whoever has at any time derived pleasure from the highest that man is +capable of understanding, and from the nature and souls of his own and +foreign people; whoever has at any time felt with transport the beauty +of the new German poetry, the Nathan, Faust, and Guillaume Tell; whoever +has taken a heartfelt participation in the free life of our science and +arts, in the great discoveries of our natural philosophers, and in the +powerful development of German industry and agriculture, must remember, +that with the peace of Münster and Osnaburg began the period in which +the political foundation of the development of a higher life was in a +great measure secured. + +The war had nevertheless consequences which we must still deeply +deplore; it has long severed the third of Germany from intellectual +communion of spirit with their kindred races. The German hereditary +possessions of the Imperial family have ever since been united in a +special state. Powerfully and incessantly has the foreign principle +worked which there prevails. For a long time the depressed nation +scarcely felt the loss. In Germany the opposition between Romanism and +Protestantism had been weakened, and in the following century it was in +a great measure overcome. Even those territories which were compelled by +their rulers to maintain their old faith, had participated in the slow +and laborious progress which had been made since the peace. It is not to +be denied that the Protestant countries long remained the leaders, but +in spite of much opposition, those of the old faith followed the new +stream, and the results of increasing civilization flowed in brotherly +union from one soul to another; joy and suffering were in general +mutual, and as the political requirements and wishes of the Protestant +and Roman Catholics were the same, the feeling of intellectual unity +became gradually more active. It was otherwise in the distant countries +which Ferdinand II. and his successors had bequeathed as conquered +property. The losses which the German races had experienced were great, +but the injury to the Austrian nationalities was incomparably greater. +To them had happened what must now appear, to any one who examines +accurately, most terrible. Almost the whole national civilization, which +in spite of all hindrances had been developed for more than a century, +was expelled with an iron rod. The mass of the people remained; their +leaders--opulent landed proprietors of the old indigenous race, manly +patriots, men of distinguished character and learning, and intelligent +pastors, were driven into exile. The exiles have never been counted, who +perished of hunger, and the horrors of war; those also who settled in +foreign countries can scarcely be reckoned. Undoubtedly their collective +number amounted to hundreds of thousands. It is thanks to the Bohemian +exiles, that Electoral Saxony recovered its loss in men and capital +quicker than other countries. Yet it is not the numbers, however great, +which give a true representation of the loss. For those who fell into +calamity on account of their faith and political convictions were the +noblest spirits, the leaders of the people, the representatives of the +highest civilization of the time. But it was not the loss of them alone +that made the Emperor's dominions so weak and dormant; the millions also +that remained behind were crushed. Driven by every low motive, by rough +violence or the prospect of earthly advantage, from one faith to +another, they had lost all self-respect and the last ideal which even +the most commonplace man preserves, the feeling that he has a place in +his heart that cannot be bought. Everywhere throughout Germany in the +worst times after the war, there were thousands who were fortified by +the feeling that they also, like their fathers and neighbours, had +resisted armed conversion to the death. In the converted Austrian +territories of the Emperor, this feeling was rare. For almost a century +and a half the Bohemian and German races vegetated in a dreary dream +life. The Bohemian countryman hung the various saints of the restored +church by the side of his pictures of Huss and Zisko, but he kept a holy +lamp burning before the old heretic; the citizen of Vienna and Olmutz +accustomed himself to speak of the Empire and Germany as of a foreign +land; he accommodated himself to Hungarians, Italians, and Croats, but +at the same time he remained a stranger in the new state in which he was +now domiciled. Little did he care for the categorical imperative, +imposed by the new worldly wisdom; later he learned that Schiller was a +German poet. Only then did a new spring begin for the Germans, in which +freedom of mind and beauty of soul were sought for as the highest aim of +earthly life; when the new study of antiquity inspired them with +enthusiasm, when the genius of Goethe irradiated the court of Weimar, +then sounded from dormant Austria, the deepest and most mysterious of +arts, a fullness of melody. There also the spirit of the people had +found touching expression in Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. + + + + + CHAPTER VII. + + ROGUES AND ADVENTURERS. + + +The war had fearfully loosened the joints of burgher society. The old +orderly and disciplined character of Germans appeared almost lost. +Countless was the number of unfortunates who having lost house and farm, +maintenance and family, wandered homeless through inhospitable foreign +countries; and not less numerous were the troops of reprobates who had +habituated themselves to live by fraud, extortion, and robbery. +Excitement had become a necessity to the whole living race, for thirty +years the vagrant rabble of all Europe had chosen Germany as their +head-quarters. + +Thus it happened that after the peace the doings of the fortune hunters, +adventurers, and rogues increased to an extraordinary extent. A contrast +of weakness and roughness is, in the following century, a special +characteristic of the needy, careworn family life, into which the spirit +of the German people had contracted itself. Some particulars of this +wild life will be here related, which will denote the gradual changes it +underwent. For like the German devils, the children of the devil have +also their history, and their race is more ancient than the Christian +faith. + +People are hardly aware of the intimate connection between German life +and Roman antiquity. Not only did the traditions of the Roman empire, +Christianity, Roman law, and the Latin language become parts of the +German civilization, but still more extensively were the numerous little +peculiarities of the Roman world preserved in the middle ages. German +agriculture acquired from the Romans the greater part of its implements, +also wheat, barley, and much of the remaining produce. The most ancient +of our finer kinds of fruit are of Roman origin, equally so our wine, +many garden flowers, and almost all our vegetables; also the oldest +woollen fabrics, cotton and silk stuffs, and all the oldest machines, as +for example, watermills, and the first mining and foundry works; +likewise innumerable other things, even to the oldest forms of our +dress, house utensils, chairs, tables, cupboards, and even the panels of +our folding doors. And if it were possible to measure how much in our +life is gathered from antiquity, or from primitive German invention, we +should still, after the lapse of fifteen centuries, find so much that is +Roman in our fields, gardens, and houses, on our bodies, nay, even in +our souls, that one may well have a right to inquire whether our +primeval ancestors were more under the protection of Father Jove or of +the wild Woden. + +Thus amongst numberless others, the despised race of Gladiators, +Histrions, and Thymelei--or jesters, were preserved throughout the storm +of migration, and spread from Rome among the barbarian races. They +introduced amongst the bloody hordes of Vandals the dissolute Roman +pantomime; they stood before the huts of the Frank chiefs, and piped and +played foreign melodies, which had perhaps once come with the orgies of +the Asiatic gods to Rome; they intermingled with the Gothic +congregation, which poured out of the newly built church into the +churchyard, and there opened their chests in order to show a monkey in a +red jacket as a foreign prodigy, or produced the grotesque figures of +old Latin puppets, the _maccus_, _bucco_, _papus_, and whatever else the +ancient fathers called our jack-puddings, for the amusement of the young +parishioners, who opened wide their large blue eyes at these foreign +wonders. Meanwhile other members of the band of jugglers offered on +payment, to execute gymnastic games before the warriors of the +community, which they performed with sharp weapons and all the artifices +and cunning of the Roman circus; then these foolhardy men formed a ring +and carried on with passionate eagerness, for the sake of pay, the +dangerous hazards of the combat, which the spectators admired the more, +the bloodier it became, whilst they held the unfortunates, who thus +struggled for money, in no greater consideration than a couple of wolves +or hungry dogs. But for the distinguished spectators there were other +more enticing artists. Women also roved with the men amongst the German +tribes, dexterous and bold, dancers, singers, and actresses, in +brilliant cavalcades. When they shook the Greek tambourine or the +Asiatic castanets, in the licentious mazes of the bacchanalian dance, +they were generally irresistible to the German barons, but were +extremely offensive to serious people. In the year 554 a Frank king +interposed with his authority against the nuisance of these foreign +_rovers_, and the worthy Hinkmar, paternally warned his priests also +against these women, whose foreign sounding designation was expressed by +the true-hearted monk with a very well-known but bitter word. + +To these foreign jugglers were speedily added numerous German recruits. +The German races had had wandering singers from the primitive times, +bearers of news, spreaders of epic songs and poems. These also moved +from farm to farm, highly welcome in the large houses of persons of +distinction, honoured guests, trusted messengers, who often received +from their hosts a more affectionate reward than golden bracelets or new +dresses. They had once upon a time sung to the harp by the fireside, of +the adventurous expedition of the thunder god to the world of giants, +and of the tragic fall of the Nibelungen, then of Attila's battle, and +the wonders of southern lands. But to the new Christian faith, this +treasure of old native songs was obnoxious. The high-minded Charlemagne +made a collection of the heroic songs of the German race, but his Popish +son Louis hated and despised them. These songs undoubtedly were so +thoroughly heathen, that the Church had reason to remonstrate against +them in synodical resolutions and episcopal decrees. Together with them, +the race of singers who carried and spread them, fell into disfavour +with the church. The songs did not however cease, but the singers sank +to a lower scale, and finally a portion of them at least fell into the +class of vagrants, and the people were accustomed to hear the fairest +heritage of their past from the lips of despised players. + +Another heritage also from German heathendom fell to these strollers. +Even before the time of Tacitus there were simple dramatic processions +in Germany; on the great feast days of the German gods, there already +appeared the humorous ideas of the pious German regarding his world of +deities, associating with them comic processions of mummers, the figures +of goblins and giants, gray winter and green spring, the bear of Donar, +and probably the magic white horse of Woden, which in the oldest form of +dramatic play opposed each other either in mimic combat, or for their +rights. The wandering jugglers, with great facility, added these German +masks to the grotesque Roman figures which they had brought into the +country; and in the churchyard of the new Christian congregation, the +bear of the bacchanalian Asen bellowed beside the followers of the Roman +god of wine, and the satyr with his goats' feet and horns. + +Thus this race of wanderers soon Germanized themselves, and during the +whole of the middle ages roved about amongst the people--in the eye of +the law homeless and lawless. The Church continued to rouse suspicion +against these strollers by repeated decrees; the clergy would on no +account see or listen to such rabble, nay, they were denied the right of +taking a part in the Christian sacraments. The old law books allowed +hired pugilists to kill each other without penance, like stray dogs; or +what was almost worse, they granted to the injured vagrant only the +mockery of a sham penance. If a stroller was struck by a sword or knife, +he could only return the thrust or blow upon the shadow of his injurers +on the wall. + +This ignominious treatment contrasted strongly with the favour which +these strollers generally enjoyed. Singly, or in bands, they went +through the country, and streamed together by hundreds at the great +court and Church fêtes. Then, it was the general custom to distribute +among them food, drink, clothes, and money. It was thought advisable to +treat them well, as they were well known to be tale-bearers, and would +publish in satirical songs throughout the whole country the scandalous +conduct of the niggardly man, with a vindictiveness which was sharpened +by the feeling that such revenge was the best means of making themselves +feared. It was rarely that a prince like Henry II., or a pious bishop, +ventured to send away these bands from their fêtes without a reward. +Almost everywhere, till quite into the fifteenth century, they were to +be found wherever a large assemblage of men sought for amusement. They +sang ballads, satirical songs and love songs, and related heroic tales +and legends from foreign lands, on the stove-bench of the peasant, in +tins ante-room of the burgher, or the hall of the castle. From the +latter its lord is absent perhaps on a crusade, and his wife and +servants listen anxiously to the fables and lies of the wandering +player. To-day he is the narrator of foreign tales of marvel, and +to-morrow the clandestine messenger betwixt two lovers; then he again +enters for a time the service of knightly minne-singers, whose +minne-songs he accompanies with his music, and undertakes to spread them +through the country, as a journal does now; or he dresses himself up +more strikingly than usual, takes his bauble in his hand, places a +fool's cap on his head, and goes as travelling fool to some nobleman, or +follower of some distinguished ecclesiastic. + +Wherever his fellows collected together in numbers, at courtly +residences and tournaments, or in churchyards at great saints' feasts, +he quickly pitched his tent and booth by the side of those of traders +and pedlers, and began his arts; rope-dancing, jongleur exercises, +sham-fights, dramatic representations in masks, shows of curiosities, +songs, masked artistic dances, and playing for dances and festive +processions. In the churchyard itself, or within the boundaries of some +castle, were heard the sounds of noisy pleasure; and the sun-burnt women +of the band slipped secretly through side doors into the castle or the +priests' house. + +Only some of the practices of these vagrants deserve special mention. +The influence which these musicians exercised on the progress of epic +and lyrical popular poetry, has been already mentioned; it is even now +discerned in heroic poetry, for the players often endeavoured to +introduce fellows of their own class into the old poetry, and took care +that they should play no contemptible rôle. Thus in the Nibelungen, the +brilliant form of the hero Volker the fiddler, is the representation of +a musician; similar figures, grotesque in appearance, but rougher and +coarser, hectored in the later poems and popular legends, as for example +the monk Ilsan in the Rosengarten. + +But it was not only in the German epos, that the strollers smuggled in, +beautiful copies of their own life; despised as they were, they +contrived, with all the insolence of their craft, to introduce +themselves into the nave and choir of the church, though almost excluded +from its holy rites. For even in the first strict ecclesiastical +beginnings of the German dramas, they crept into the holy plays of the +Easter festivals. Already in the beginning of the middle ages the +history of the crucifixion and resurrection had assumed a dramatic +colouring; alternate songs between Christ and his disciples, Pilate and +the Jews, were sung by the clergy in the church choir; a great crucifix +was reverently deposited in an artificial grave in the crypt, and +afterwards there was a solemn announcement, on Easter morning, of the +resurrection, songs of praise by the whole congregation, and the +consecration of psalms. They began early to bring forward more +prominently, individual rôles in dramatic songs, to put speeches as well +as songs into their mouths, and to distinguish the chief rôles by +suitable dress and particular attributes. On other Church festivals the +same was done with the legends of the saints, and already in the twelfth +century whole pieces were dramatically performed in the German churches, +first of all in Latin, by the clergy in the choir. But in the thirteenth +century the German language made its way into the dialogue; then the +pieces became longer, the number of rôles increased, the laity began to +join in it, the dialogues became familiar, sometimes facetious, and +contrasted wonderfully with the occasional Latin songs and responses, +which were maintained in the midst of them, and which also gradually +became German. The personages in the Biblical plays still appear under +the same comic figures, with the coarse jokes and street wit which the +roving people had introduced into the churchyards. Generally the fool +entered as servant of a quack. From the oldest times these strollers had +carried about with them through the country, secret remedies, especially +such as were suspicious to the Church, primitive Roman superstitions, +ancient German forms of exorcism, and others also which were more +noxious and dangerous. At the great Church festivals and markets, there +were always doctors' booths, in which miraculous remedies and cures were +offered for sale to the believing multitudes. These booths also of the +wandering doctors are older than the Augustine age; they are to be seen +depicted on the Greek vases, and came to Germany through Italy, with the +grotesque masks of the doctors themselves and their attendant buffoons, +and were the most profitable trade of the strollers. These doctors and +their servants were introduced as interludes to the spiritual plays, +with long spun out episodes of the holy traffic, in which ribaldry and +drubbing are not wanting. + +But the strollers introduced another popular person into the holy plays, +the devil, probably his first appearance in the church. Long had this +spirit of hell spit out fire under the tents of the churchyard, and +wagged his tail, and probably he had often been beaten and cheated, to +the delight of the spectators, by clever players, before he assisted in +the thirteenth century as a much-suffering fellow-actor, in the holy +Easter dramas, to the edification of the pious parishioners. + +Such was the active industry carried on by these strollers through the +middle ages. Serving every class and every tendency of the times, coarse +in manners and morals, as privileged jesters both cherished and ill +treated, they were probably united amongst themselves in firm +fellowship, with secret tokens of recognition; they were distinguished +by their outward attire, and chiefly by fantastic finery, and by the +absence of long hair and beard, the honourable adornment of privileged +people, which they were forbidden to wear. + +In the fifteenth century the severity of the laws against them were +relaxed, for the whole life of all classes had become more frivolous, +daring, and reckless; an inordinate longing after enjoyment, an +excessive pleasure in burlesque jesting, in music and dancing, in +singing and mimic representations, was general in the wealthy towns. +Thus many of the race of strollers contrived to make their peace with +the burgher society. They became domestic fools in the courts of +princes, the merry-andrews of the towns, associates of the town pipers, +and players to the bands of Landsknechte. + +But besides the players and their followers, there appeared along the +roads of the armies, and in the hiding-places of the woods, other +children of misfortune less harmless and far more awful to the people, +first of all the gipsies. + +The gipsies, from their language and the scanty historical records that +there are of them, appear to be a race of northern border Indians, who +lost their home, and their connection with their Indian relatives, at a +time when the transformation of the ancient Sanscrit into the modern and +popular languages had already begun. In their wanderings towards the +west, which had gone on for centuries, they must have lived in continual +intercourse with Arabians, Persians, and Greeks, for the language of +these people has had a marked influence on their own. They were +possibly, about the year 430 but more probably about 940, in Persia. +They appeared about the twelfth century as Ishmaelites and braziers,[41] +in Upper Germany. They were settled in the fourteenth century in +Cypress, and in the year 1370, as bondsmen is Wallachia. The name of +Zingaro or Zitano, is a corruption from their language; they still call +themselves Scindians, dwellers on the banks of the Indus; their own +statement also, that they came from Little Egypt, may be correct, as +Little Egypt appears then to have denoted, not the valley of the Nile, +but the frontier lands of Asia. + +In the year 1417, they came in great hordes, with laughable pretensions +and grotesque processions, from Hungary, into Germany, and shortly +afterwards into Switzerland, France, and Italy. A band of three hundred +grown-up persons, without counting the children, proceeded as far as the +Baltic, under the command of a duke and count, on horseback and on foot; +the women and children sitting with the baggage on the carts. They were +dressed like comedians, and had sporting dogs with them as a sign of +noble birth; but when they really hunted, they did so without dogs, and +without noise. They showed recommendations and safe-conducts from +princes and nobles, and also from the Emperor Sigismund. They asserted +that their bishops had commanded them to wander for seven years through +the world. But they were great swindlers, and passed their nights in the +open air, for better opportunities of stealing. In 1418, they appeared +in many parts of Germany, and the same year went under the command of +Duke Michael, from Little Egypt into Switzerland. A rendezvous of many +hordes seems to have taken place before Zurich. They numbered according +to the lowest computation a thousand heads. They had two dukes and two +knights, and pretended to have been driven from Egypt by the Turks: they +carried much money in their pockets, and maintained that they had +received it from their own people at home: they ate and drank well, and +also paid well, but they have never shown themselves again like this. +From thence they appear to have turned to France and Italy; in 1422, a +band of them came under a duke from Egypt to Bologna and Forli. They +stated that the King of Hungary had compelled about 4000 of them to be +baptized, and had slain the remainder; the baptized had been condemned +to the penance of seven years' wandering. They wished to go to Rome to +visit the Pope. In 1427, the same band, probably, appeared before Paris +with two dukes. They asserted that they had letters and a blessing from +the Pope. The Pope had held council concerning them, and had decided +that they were to wander through the world seven years, without lying on +a bed; then he would send them to a fine country. For five years they +had journeyed about, and their king and queen had died during their +wanderings, &c. These were followed by other bands. + +In 1424, a new horde appeared before Ratisbon, with letters of safe +conduct from the Emperor Sigismund, one of which was dated Zips, 1423, +and was published by the chroniclers. In 1438, another horde passed +through Bohemia, Austria, and Bavaria; this time they were under a petty +king, Zindelo; they also asserted that they came from Egypt, and +declared that they were commanded by God to wander for seven years, +because their forefathers had refused hospitality to the mother of God +and the child Jesus, on their flight into Egypt. + +In hordes like these they spread themselves, during the fifteenth and +sixteenth centuries, over the whole of Europe. In spite of their +frivolous finery and cunning lies, there were very few places in which +they succeeded in deceiving men. They proved, indeed, everywhere to be +wicked heathens, magicians, fortune-tellers, and most shameless thieves. +They split themselves into small bands during their distant travels; +their leaders, whom they had honoured with all the feudal titles, in +order to give themselves consideration, disappeared. They themselves +were thoroughly decimated by their wandering lives, and the persecutions +of the local inhabitants. + +Their language gives the best explanation of their past. The original +homogeneousness of the gipsy language is distinctly visible amidst the +various changes which it has gone through in many countries. It appears +to be the mode of speech of a single and special Indian race. The gipsy +is apparently not the descendant of a mixed Indian people, or of a +single low caste of Indians, but of a distinct race of people. The men +call themselves everywhere, _rom_; and in contradiction to the western +nations, also _calo_, black: their wives, _romni_, and their language +_romany-tschib_. The names which their race have had in different +countries are numerous and various. + +Their language is in its origin and internal structure a genuine +daughter of the distinguished Sanscrit, but it has become for many +centuries like a beggar and thief; it has lost much of its beauty, its +elegance, and its resemblance to its mother and sisters; instead of +which it has appropriated something to itself from every country in +which these people have tarried in their wanderings, and its dress +appears covered with the tatters of all nations, so that it is only here +and there that the genuine gold threads are still visible. The race have +lost a great portion of their own words, more especially those, that +express ideas which they could not preserve in their paltry miserable +life in foreign countries. They have lost the Indian expression for +parrot, elephant, and lion, also for the tiger and buffalo snake, but +sugar--_gûlo_, silk--_pahr_, and grapes--_drakh_, they call by their +Indian, and wine--_mohl_, by its Persian name. Nay, they have also lost +the Indian words for many current terms: they no longer call the sparrow +by its Indian name: no fish, and hardly any plants; but undoubtedly they +retain those of many large and small animals, amongst others _dschu_, +the louse. But in all countries, new representations, images, and ideas +offered themselves, and too lazy and careless to form words of their +own, they took those of every foreign language and adapted them to the +necessities of their own tongue. The result was, that even the gipsies +who were in bands, being without firm union, were split in pieces among +the various people, so that what they still possessed did not remain +common to all, and there arose in every country a peculiar gipsy idiom, +in which old recollections were mixed up with the language of the +country, in an original way. Finally the _rom_ appropriated to himself +almost everywhere, besides the common language of the country that of +the rogues, the thieves' dialect, to which he imparted, in friendly +exchange, words from his own language. In Germany he understood +gibberish, or _Jenisch_; in Bohemia, _Hantyrka_; in French, _Argôt_; in +England, Slang; and in Spain, _Germania_. + +It is instructive to observe how their hereditary language became +corrupted; for the decadence of one language, through the overpowering +influence of another, proceeds according to fixed laws. First, foreign +words penetrate in a mass, because foreign cultivation has an imposing +effect; next the formation of sentences is taken from the foreign +language, because the mind of the people accustoms itself to think after +the method of the foreigners; and thirdly, they forget their own +inflections; then the language becomes a heap of ruins, a weather-beaten +organism, like a corroded mass of rock which crumbles away into sand or +gravel. The gipsy language has gone through the first and second stages +of decadence, and the third also in Spain. + +The life of this race in Germany was far from comfortable. As their +hands were against the property of every one, so did the popular hatred +work against their lives. Charles V. commanded them to be banished, and +the new police ordinances of the Princes allowed them no indulgence. Yet +they were able to gain money from the country people by soothsaying and +secret arts, by doctoring man and beast, or as horse-dealers and +pedlers. Often, united with bands of robbers, they carried on a new +service during the long war, as camp followers. Wallenstein made use of +them as spies, as did the Swedes also later. The women made themselves +agreeable to the officers and common soldiers. The cunning men of the +band sold amulets and shod horses. + +After the war they went about through the country audaciously, the +terror of the countryman. In 1663 a band of more than two hundred of +them invaded Thuringia, where they distributed themselves, and were +considered as very malevolent, because it was reported of them that they +reconnoitred the country probably for an enemy. They had in fact become +a great plague throughout the country, and the law thundered against +them with characteristic recklessness. Orders were issued everywhere for +their banishment; they were considered as spies of the Turks, and as +magicians, and were made outlaws; even after the year 1700, in a small +Rhenish principality, a gipsy woman and her child were brought in +amongst other wild game which had been slain. A band again broke into +Thuringia in the eighteenth century, and a law in 1722 declared all the +men outlawed. In Prussia, in 1710, an edict was promulgated, commanding +the alarm to be sounded, and the community to be summoned together +against them, whenever they should make their appearance. On the +frontiers, gallows were erected with this inscription: "The punishment +for thieves and gipsy rabble, both men and women." As late as the year +1725 all the gipsies in the Prussian states, over eighteen years of age, +were to be hanged whether they had a passport or not. Even in 1748 +Frederick the Great renewed this strong edict. The conduct of the +civilized nineteenth century forms a pleasing contrast to this. In 1830 +at Friedrichslohra in Thuringia, a philanthropic endeavour was made, and +warmly promoted by the government, to reform a band of about one hundred +men, by the maintenance of the adults and education of the children. The +attempt was continued for seven years, and completely failed. + +The name of Stroller disappeared, and the occupation of these +possessionless rovers became to a certain degree free from the old +defect; but the great society of swindlers maintained a certain +organization. Their language also remained. The gibberish, of which many +specimens remain to us from the latter end of the middle ages, shows +already, before the demoralization of the people by the Hussite war, a +full development of old German rogues' idioms. It consists for the +greater part of Hebrew words as used by persons who were not themselves +Jews; together with these are mingled some of the honoured treasures of +the German language, beautiful old words, and again significant +inventions of figurative expressions, for the sake of concealing the +true sense of the speech by a deceptive figure: thus, windgap for +mantle, broadfoot for goose. Few of their words lead us to expect an +elevated disposition; the rough humour of desperadoes breaks out from +many of them. The practice, like the language of these rogues, developed +itself in greater refinement. The usual form in which the resident +inhabitants were plundered was begging. The works of holiness of the old +Church--an irrational alms-giving--had spread throughout Christendom an +unwieldy mass of mendicancy. In the first century of German Christendom +it is the subject of complaint of pious ecclesiastics. In churchyards +and in public places lay the beggars, exposing horrible wounds, which +were often artistically inflicted; they sometimes went naked through the +country with a club, afterwards clothed, and with many weapons, and +begged at every homestead for their children, or for the honour of their +saints, or as slaves escaped from the Turkish galleys, for a vow, or for +only a pound of wax, a silver cross, or a mass vestment. They begged +also towards the erection of a church, producing letters and seals; they +had much at heart to obtain special napkins for the priest, linen for +the altar cloth, and broken plate for the chalice; they rolled about as +epileptics, holding soap lather in their mouths. In like manner did the +women wander about, some pretending to give birth to monsters (as for +example a toad) which lived in solitude as miraculous creatures, and +daily required a pound of meat. When a great festival was held they +flocked together in troops. They formed a dangerous company, and even +iron severity could scarcely keep them under restraint. Basle appears to +have been one of their secret meeting-places; they had there their own +special place of justice, and the famed "_Liber Vagatorum_" also, seems +to have originated in that neighbourhood. This book, written by an +unknown hand about 1500, contains, in rogues' language, a careful +enumeration of the rogue classes and their tricks, and at the end a +vocabulary of jargon. It was often printed; and Pamphilus Gengenbach of +Basle rendered it into rhyme. It pleased Luther so well that he also +reprinted the clever little book, after one of the oldest impressions. + +To the order of beggars belong also the travelling scholars, who, as +treasure diggers and exorcists, made successful attacks on the savings +of the peasants and on the provisions in their chimneys. "They desired +to become priests," then they came from Rome with shaven crowns and +collected for a surplice; or they were necromancers, then they wore a +yellow train to their coats and came from the Frau Venusberg; when they +entered a house they exclaimed, "Here comes a travelling scholar, a +master of seven liberal sciences, an exorciser of the devil, and from +hail storms, fire, and monsters;" and thereupon they made "experiments." +Together with them came disbanded Landsknechte, often associated with +the dark race of outlaws, who worked with armed hand against the life +and property of the resident inhabitants. + +Throughout the whole of the middle ages it was impossible to eradicate +the robbers. After the time of Luther they became incendiaries, more +particularly from 1540 to 1542. A foreign rabble appeared suddenly in +middle Germany, especially in the domains of the Protestant chiefs, the +Elector of Saxony and Landgrave of Hesse. They burned Cassel, Nordheim, +Göttingen, Goslor, Brunswick, and Magdeburg. Eimbech was burned to the +ground with three hundred and fifty men, and a portion of Nordhausen; +villages and barns were everywhere set on fire; bold incendiary letters +stirred up the people, and at last also the princes. The report became +general that the Roman Catholic party had hired more than three hundred +incendiaries, and the Pope, Paul III., had counselled Duke Henry the +younger, of Brunswick, to send the rabble to Saxony and Hesse. +Undoubtedly much wickedness was laid to the credit of the unscrupulous +Duke; but it was then the interest of Pope Paul III. to treat the +Protestants with forbearance, for earnest endeavours were being made on +both sides for a great reconciliation, and preparation was made for it +at Rome, by sending the Cardinal Contarini to the great religious +conference at Ratisbon. The terror, however, and anger of the Germans +was great and enduring. Everywhere the incendiaries were tracked, +everywhere their traces were found, crowds of rabble were imprisoned, +tried for their lives, and executed. Luther publicly denounced Duke +Henry as guilty of these reckless outrages; the Elector and Landgrave +accused him of incendiarism at the Diet before the Emperor; and in vain +did he, in his most vehement manner, defend himself and his adherents. +It is true that his guilt was pronounced by the Emperor as unproved; but +then he was desirous, above all, of internal peace and help against the +Turks. In the public opinion, however, the stain on the prince's +reputation remained. It is impossible to discover how far the strollers +of that time were the guilty parties. The depositions of those arrested +are inaccurately given, and it cannot be decided how much of it was +dictated by torture. One thing is quite clear, they did not form into +any fixed bands, and their secret intercourse was carried on through the +medium of signs, which were scratched or cut on striking places, such as +inns, walls, doors, &c. These signs were partly primitive German +personal tokens, which, as house-marks, may still be found on the gables +of old buildings, but partly also in rogues' marks. Above all, there was +the characteristic sign of the Strollers, the arrow, once the signal +announcing enmity; the direction of his arrow shows the way which the +marker has taken; small perpendicular strokes on it, often with ciphers +above, give probably the number of persons. These signs are to be found +sometimes still on the trees and walls of the high-roads, and it +betokens now, as it did then, to the members of the band, that the +initiated has passed that way with his followers. + +In addition to the indigenous rovers came also foreign ones; as in the +middle ages, a stream of Italian adventurers again flowed through +Germany. Together with the German player rose the cry of the Italian +orvietan (Venice treacle) vendor, and side by side with the Bohemian +bear were the camels of Pisa. The marvellous Venetian remedies and the +harlequin jacket, mask, and felt cap of the Italian fool wandered over +the Alps, and were added as new fooleries to our old stock. + +The Italian, Garzoni, has given a lively picture of the proceedings of +these strollers in his book, 'Piazza Universale,' a description of all +the arts and handicrafts of his time. His work was translated in 1641, +into German by Matthäus Merian, under the title of 'General Theatre of +all Arts, Professions, and Handicrafts.' The description of the Italian +portrays also in its chief features the condition of Western Germany +after the war. The following extract is given according to Merian's +German translation:-- + +"The wandering comedians in their demeanour are uncivil asses and +ruffians, who consider that they have performed beautifully when they +have moved the mob to laughter by their coarse sayings. Their +_inventiones_ are such, that if the toads acted thus we might forgive +them, and they all tally together without rhyme or reason; they do not +care whether they are sufficiently polished and skilful so long as they +can only obtain money. Though they could easily curtail or cloak +whatever is coarse, they imagine that they give no satisfaction in their +business if it is not set forth in the coarsest manner; on this account +comedy and the whole comic art has fallen into the greatest contempt +with respectable people, and even the high comedians are banished from +certain places, are treated with contumely in public laws and statutes, +insulted and derided by the whole community. When these good people come +into a town they must not remain together, but must divide themselves +among divers inns; the Lady comes from Rome, the Magnificus from +Venice,[42] Ruffiana from Padua, the Zany from Bergamo, the Gratianus +from Bologna, and they must lurk about for certain days, till they have +begged and obtained permission if they wish to maintain themselves and +carry on their profession; they can with difficulty obtain lodgings +where they are known, every one being disgusted with their filth, as +they leave for a length of time a bad smell behind them. + +"But when they come into a town and are permitted to perform their +tricks, they cause it to be made known by handbills, the beating of +drums, and other war sounds, that this or that great comedian has +arrived; then the woman goes after the drum dressed in man's clothes, +girt about with a sword, and thus the people are invited in every place: +'Whoever would see a beautiful comedian, let him come to this or that +place.' Thither come running all the curious people, and are admitted +for three or four kreutzers into a yard, where they find a platform +erected, and regular scenes. First there begins splendid music, just as +if a troop of asses were all braying together; then comes a Prologus, +making his appearance like a vagabond; afterwards come beautiful and +ill-adorned persons, who make such a cackling that every one begins to +find the time long, and if perchance any one laughs, it is more at the +simplicity of the spectators than because he finds somewhat laughable. +Then comes Magnificus, who is not worth three hellers; Zany, who truly +does his best, but waddles like a goose walking through deep mud; a +shameless Ruffiana, and also a lover, whom it would be disgusting to +listen to long; a Spaniard who knows not how to say more than _mi vida_, +or _mi corazon_; a pedant who jumbles all sorts of languages together; +and Buratinus, who knows no other gesture than that of twirling his hat +or his hood from one hand to the other. The best of them has so little +capacity as to be unfit either to boil or roast, so that the bystanders +all become weary, and laugh at themselves for having so long given heed +to such insane tricks. And assuredly they must be idle folk or +superlative fools to allow themselves to be caught there a second time; +the incapacity of the players in the first comedy they perform, is so +well known and cried down, that others of respectability are mistrusted +on their account. + +"There are now-a-days many genuine dramatic performances in vogue at +almost all the market-places and fairs, namely the plays of Ceretani, of +orvietan vendors, and other similar fellows. They are called Ceretani in +Italy because it is presumed they have their origin and first +commencement in a small spot called Cereto, near Spoleto in Umbria, and +afterwards gradually attained such credit and consideration, that when +they were to be heard there was as great a concourse of people assembled +as were ever collected by the cleverest doctor of the liberal arts, nay +even by the best preacher who ever entered a pulpit. For the common +people run together in crowds, gaping with open mouth, listen to them +the whole day, forget all their cares, and God knows how difficult it +is,--even the peasants find it so,--to keep one's purse in such a +throng. + +"When one sees these cheats take a whole lump of arsenic, sublimate, or +other poison, indiscriminately, that they may make proof by it of the +excellence of their orvietan, it should be known that, in the +summer-time before they came to the place, they have filled themselves +with lettuce dressed with so much vinegar and oil that they might swim +therein, and in winter they stuff themselves upon fat ox-brawn well +boiled. And this they do that they may by means of the fat of the brawn +and oiliness of the salad, with the coldness of their nature, obstruct +the internal passage of the body, and thus weaken the sharpness or heat +of the poison. They have besides this also a secure way of managing, +namely, before they enter the place they go to the nearest apothecary, +who generally in the towns is in or near the market; there they ask for +a box of arsenic, from which they select some small bits, and wrap them +in paper, begging the apothecary to deliver the same to them when they +send for it. Now when they have sufficiently extolled their wares, so +that nothing more remains but to make proof of them, they send out one +of the bystanders, in order that there may appear to be no fear of +deceit, to the apothecary, that he may obtain some arsenic for the money +which they give him. This said person runs forthwith, that there may be +no hindrance in such useful work, and as he goes, considers that though +he has been deceived a thousand times, he cannot be so this time, he +will see well to that. Meantime he comes to the apothecary, demands the +arsenic for his money, receives it, and runs with joy to the orvietan +vendor's table to see the marvel; this one holds meanwhile in his hand +little boxes, amongst them one wherein he puts the aforesaid arsenic, he +speaks and addresses the people for a time before he takes it, for in a +case of so much danger there must be no haste; meantime he changes the +aforesaid little box for another, wherein are small pieces of paste made +of sugar, meat, and saffron that they may appear like the former. These +he then eats with singular gestures as if he were much afraid, and the +peasants stand by open mouthed to see whether he will not soon burst +asunder; but he binds himself up firmly that this may not happen, +although he knows that there is no occasion for it; he afterwards takes +a piece as large as a chestnut of his orvietan or stuff, and all the +swelling disappears as if there had been no poison in question. 'This, +dear gentlemen, will be a precious orvietan to you.' Whereupon the +peasants undraw their purse strings, and thank God that they have such a +dear good man, and can obtain in their village such costly wares for so +little money. + +"But who would venture to describe all the cunning practices whereby +these strollers contrive to make and collect money? For my own part I +fear I should never get to the end of it. Yet I cannot refrain from +describing some of their tricks. + +"One rushes through the street, having with him a young girl dressed in +boy's clothes, who bounds about, jumping through a hoop like a monkey. +Then he begins to tell, in good Florentine, some remarkable jests or +pranks, and meanwhile the little maiden sets to work in every kind of +way, throws herself on all-fours, reaches the ring from out of the hoop, +then bends herself backwards, and picks up a coin from under the right +or left foot, with such graceful agility that the lads have pleasure in +looking at her. But finally he also can do nothing farther than to bring +out his wares, and offer the same for sale as well as he can. + +"But those who boast themselves of being of the race of St. Paul, make +their appearance with much consequence, namely, with a great flying +banner, on one side of which stands St. Paul with his sword, but on the +other a heap of serpents, which are so painted that one fears to be +bitten by them. Then one of the party begins to relate their genealogy, +how St. Paul, in the island of Malta, was bitten by a viper without +injury, and how the same virtue was accorded to his descendants; then +they make divers trials, but always keep the upper hand, having a bond +and seal thereupon. Finally they lay hold of the boxes which are +standing on the table or bench, take out of one a salamander, two ells +long and an arm in thickness, from another a great snake, from another a +viper, and relate concerning each how they had caught it when the +peasant was reaping his corn, who would have been in great danger +therefrom, if they had not come to his relief. Thereupon the peasants +become so frightened that they dare not return home till they have had a +draught of the costly snake-powder, and bought still more to take home +to their wives and children, that they may be preserved from the bite of +snakes and other poisonous reptiles; and the game does not end herewith, +for they have still more boxes at hand, which they open, and take out of +one a rough viper, out of another a dead basilisk, out of another a +young crocodile brought from Egypt, an Indian lizard, a tarantula from +the Campagna, or somewhat of the like, whereby they frighten the +peasants, that they may buy the favour of the Holy Paul, which is +imparted to them by small written papers, for a consideration. + +"Meanwhile, because the people are still assembled together, another +comes, spreads his mantle on the ground, places upon it a little dog +which can sing _ut_, _re_, _mi_, _fa_, _so_, _la_, _si_; it makes also +frolicksome somersaults, somewhat less than a monkey, barks at the +command of its master, who is very ill clad, howls when the Turkish +Emperor's name is mentioned, and makes a leap into the air when this or +that sweetheart is named; and finally, for it is done to obtain hellers, +his master hangs a little hat to his paw, and sends him round on his +hind feet to the bystanders, for travelling expenses, as he has a great +journey in prospect. + +"The Parmesan also does not neglect the like opportunity with his goat, +which he brings to the _Platz_; he makes there a palisade, within which +it walks up and down, one foot behind the other, and sits up on a little +platform of hardly a hand's breadth, and licks the salt under its feet. +He makes it also go round upon its hind legs, with a long spear over its +shoulder, making fools of all beholders, who present it with pence for +food. + +"Sometimes a bold rope-dancer is to be seen, who walks on the rope, till +at last he breaks his leg, or falls headlong; or a daring Turkish +juggler who lies on the ground, and allows himself to be struck on the +chest by a great hammer, as if he were an anvil; or by a jerk, tears up +a big pile which has been driven by force into the ground, whereby he +obtains a good sum for his journey to Mecca. + +"Sometimes a baptized Jew makes his appearance, who bawls and cries out, +till at length he collects a few people, when he begins to preach about +his conversion; whereby one comes to this conclusion, that he has become +a crafty vagrant instead of a pious Christian. + +"In short there is no market-place, either in village or town, where +some of these fellows are not to be found, who either perform divers +facetious juggling tricks, or sell various drugs. + +"These are the tricks of charlatans, strollers, and jugglers, and other +idle people, whereby they get on in the world." + +Here ends the narrative of Garzoni. Numberless light-footed people also +of the same class thronged into the German market towns. But besides the +old traders and jugglers, a new class of strollers had come into +Germany, harmless people of far higher interest for these days, the +wandering comedians. The first players that made a profession of their +performances came to Germany from England or the Netherlands, towards +the end of the sixteenth century. They were still accompanied with rope +dancers, jumpers, fencers, and horsebreakers; they still continued to +furnish the courts of princes and the market-places of great cities with +clowns and the favourite figure of jack-puddings, and soon after, the +French "Jean Posset," on bad boarded platforms still continued to excite +the uproarious laughter of the easily amused multitude. Shortly after, +the popular masques of the Italian theatre became familiar in the south +of Germany and on the Rhine. At the same time that the regular +circulation of newspapers commenced, the people received the rough +beginnings of art; the representation of human character and the secret +emotions of restless souls by the play of countenance, gestures, and the +deceptive illusion of action. + +It is remarkable also, that almost precisely at the same period, the +first entertaining novels were written for the people. And these +spontaneously invented pictures of real life had reference to the +strolling people; for the adventures of vagrants, disbanded soldiers, +and in short all those who had travelled in foreign countries, and had +seen there an abundance of marvels, and undergone the most terrible +dangers with almost invulnerable bodies, were the heroes of these +imperfect creations of art. Shortly after the war, Christoph von +Grimmelshausen wrote 'Simplicissimus,' 'Springinsfeld,' 'Landstörzerin +Courage,' and the 'Wonderful Vogelnest,' the heroes of which are +gathered from strollers; these were followed by a flood of novels +describing the lives of rogues and of adventurers. + +The war had rendered the existence of the settled population joyless, +their manners coarse, and their morals lax. And the craving for +excitement was general. Thus at first these modes of representation +allured, by bestowing what was wanting to this ungenial life. They +endeavoured with much detail to represent either an ideal life of +distinguished and refined persons, under entirely foreign conditions, +such as antique shepherds, and foreign princes without nationalities; +this was done by the highly educated; or they tried at least to ennoble +common life, by introducing into it abstractions not less coarse and +soulless, virtues and vices, mythological and allegorical figures; or +they caught endless materials from the lowest circles of life, to whom +they felt themselves superior, but in whose strange mode of life there +was something alluring: they depicted strollers or represented clowns +and fools; and this last development of art was the soundest. Thus these +rough families of jugglers, buffoons, and rogues were of the utmost +significance to the beginning of the drama, theatrical art, and novels. + +But besides the numerous companies, who wandered about either modestly +on foot or in carts, vagrants of higher pretensions rode through the +country, some of them still more objectionable. To be able to +prognosticate the future, to gain dominion over the spirits of the +elements, to make gold, and to renew the vigour of youth in old age, had +for many centuries been the longing desire of the covetous and +inquisitive. Those who promised these things to the Germans were +generally Italians or other foreigners; or natives of the country, who +had, according to the old saying, been thrice to Rome. When the new zeal +for the restoration of the Church brought good and bad alike before the +tribunal of the inquisition in Italy, the emigration of those whose +lives were insecure must have been very numerous. It is probably from +the life of one of these charlatans that the adventures of Faust have +been gathered and formed into the old popular tale. After Luther's +death, it is evident that they penetrated into the courts of the German +princes. It was an adventurer of this kind, "Jerome Scotus," who, in +1593, at Coburg, estranged the unhappy Duchess Anna of Saxe Coburg from +her husband, and brought her into his own power by villainous means. +Vain were the endeavours of the Duke to obtain the extradition of Scotus +from Hamburg, where he lived long in princely luxury. Five-and-thirty +years before, the father of the Duke Johann Friedrich, the Middle-sized, +was long deluded by an impudent impostor, who gave herself out to be +Anne of Cleves (the wife who had been selected for Henry VIII. of +England), and promised him a great treasure of gold and jewels if he +chose to protect her. Another piece of credulity bore bitter fruits to +the same prince, for the influence which Wilhelm of Grumbach, the +haggard old wolf from the herd of the wild Albrecht of Brandenburg, +gained over the Duke, rested on his foolish prophecies concerning the +Electoral dignity and prodigious treasures. A poor weak-minded boy who +was maintained by Grumbach, had intercourse with angels who dwelt in the +air-hole of a cellar, and declared themselves ready to produce gold, and +bring to light a mine for the Duke. It may be perceived from judicial +records, that the little angels of the peasant child had a similarity, +unfavourable to their credibility, to our little old dwarfs. + +There was at Berlin, about the time of Scotus, one Leonhard Turneysser, +a charlatan, more citizen-like in his occupation, who worked as gold +maker and prepared horoscopes; he escaped by flight the dismal fate, +which almost always overtook his fellows of the same vocation who did +not change their locality soon enough. The Emperor Rudolph also became a +great adept, and amalgamated in the gold crucible both his political +honour and his own Imperial throne. The princes of the seventeenth +century at least show the intense interest of dilettanti. During the war +the art of making gold became very desirable. At that period, therefore, +the adepts thronged to the armies; the more needy the times, the more +numerous and brilliant became the stories of alchemy. It was proposed by +an enthusiastic worshipper of Gustavus Adolphus, to make gold out of +lead; and in the presence of the Emperor Ferdinand III. many pounds of +gold were to be made, by one grain of red powder, from quicksilver; a +gigantic coin also was to be struck from the same metal. After the +peace, the adepts resided at all the courts; there were few dwellings +where the hearth and the retorts were not heated for secret operations. +But every one had to beware how he trifled with the reigning powers, as +the paws of the princely lions might be raised against him for his +destruction. Those who could not make gold were confined in prison, and +those who were under suspicion, yet could fabricate something, were +equally put in close confinement. The Italian Count Cajetan was hanged +in a gilded dress, on a gallows at Küstrin the beams of which were +adorned with cut gold; the German Rector von Klettenberg was beheaded at +Königstein, where fourteen years before, Böttiger was kept in strict +cloistral confinement, because he had produced innocent porcelain +instead of gold. There is no doubt that it was the case with the adepts +and astrologers, as it ever has been with the leaders of a prevailing +superstition, that they were themselves convinced of the truth of their +art; but they had strong doubts of their own knowledge, and they +deceived others as to their success, either because they were seeking +the means to attain to greater results, or because they wished to +appear, to the world, to understand what they considered of importance. +These however were not the worst of the lot. + +The most mischievous of all were, perhaps, the skilful impostors, who +appeared in Germany, France, and England, with foreign titles of +distinction, shining with the glimmer of secret art, sometimes the +propagators of the most disgraceful vices, shadowy figures, who by their +worldly wisdom and the limited intercourse of nations were enabled to +bring themselves into notoriety. Their experience, their deceptions, +their secret successes, for a long period overpoweringly excited the +fancies of Germans. Even Goethe considered it worth his while to repair +to the spot and set on foot serious investigations as to the origin of +Cagliostro. + +The changes in the moral diseases of that society, of which we are the +representatives, can be gradually traced. After the war astrology and +horoscopes fell into disuse. The princes sought for red powder, or the +unknown tincture, whilst the people dug for money pots. Dilettante +occupation with physical science introduced again to the people the +ancient divining rod, by which springs, murders, thefts, and always +concealed gold, were to be discovered. The superior classes again +realized in their own minds the ancient belief in mysterious men, who by +unknown proceedings, in unfathomable depths, had obtained the power of +giving supernatural duration of life, and had confidential intercourse +with the spirit world. Besides the honourable order of Freemasons, with +their Humanitarian tendencies, there arose more secret unions, wherein +the weak-minded of the time were enticed to a refined sensuality and +sickly mysticism, and an extensive apparatus of absurd secret teaching. + +Since the end of the last century a vigorous dash of the waves of German +popular strength has washed away these diseased fantasies. The old race +of strollers too have diminished in number and influence. It is only +rarely that Bajazzo, with his pointed felt cap, bewitches the village +youth; the meagre neck of the camel no longer stretches itself to the +flowering trees of our village gardens, the black dog seldom rolls his +fiery eyes at buried chests of silver. Even the impostors have learned +to satisfy higher demands. + + + + + CHAPTER VIII. + + ENGAGEMENT AND MARRIAGE AT COURT. (1661.) + + +It has ever been part of the German character to maintain propriety of +conduct in intercourse with others, to keep up a good appearance, to do +homage to superiors, and to require a respectful demeanour and address +from inferiors. The forms of intercourse were accurately defined, and +the number of significant turns of speech was not small, which +introduced every social arrangement, and like a boundary stone, +preserved the pathway of life. But the groundwork of all this old +precision was a sound self-respect, which gave to individuals a feeling +of certainty as to what was to be conceded or received, and therefore +civility was generally real. If there was any discord in his soul, the +German did not usually conceal it; and then he became so thoroughly +coarse, that he gained evil repute with all the western nations. It is +true, princes were accosted with much devotedness, words of submission +were used as now; but the prince and the citizen, the nobleman and the +artisan, met together as men, and a strong word or a warm feeling often +broke through the most courtly forms. This, however, changed after the +war. The old feeling of decorum was lost, the egotism of the unbridled +was harsh and wounding; the proper, but often narrow-minded pride of +citizen and nobleman was broken, and the simple patriarchal relation +between prince and subject was lost during thirty years of calamity and +distrust. Men had become more prudent, but weaker, and for the most part +worse. + +But the beginning of a new state of society was visible. With all this +ruin Providence had mercifully sent a remedy. By many a roundabout way, +through French and Italian fashions, and after long wanderings in every +foreign nationality, the German mind was to be renewed. It was a +wonderful trial of durability, but it was necessary. Like Prince Tamino +in the magic play, the poor German soul passed through French water and +Italian fire; and from that period a weak flute-like tone sounds only +occasionally in our ears, telling us that the German character has not +yet sunk entirely under foreign phantasies. + +It has been customary to consider the intellectual sway of Italy and +France, from Opiz to Lessing, as a great calamity. It is true, it has +given neither beauty nor strength to the German; but we are no longer in +the position of the great man who for a century struggled against French +taste. It was with him a duty to hate whatever caused a hindrance to the +wakening popular vigour. But we should at the same time remember that +this same foreign element protected the German from the extreme of +barbarism. Our imitation was very clumsy, and there was little worth in +the original; but it was to the countless bonds of international +intercourse that the Germans then clung, that they might not be utterly +lost. The moral restraints upon the wilfulness of individuals had been +broken, and the meagre externals gathered from abroad, of fashion, +respect, gallantry, and a taste for foreign refinements were the first +remedy. It was a new kind of discipline. Whoever wore a large wig, and +later, even powder in the hair, was obliged to hold his head elegantly +still, wild movements and violent running were impossible; if men were +not prevented by their own delicacy of feeling from boldly approaching +too near to women, a hoop and corset were a rampart for them; if the +courtesy of the heart was less, the duty of being gallant in +conversation was a benefit. In a circle where a coarse soldiers' song +had been preferred, a polished song from Damon to Daphne was a great +improvement, and even the fade cavalier, who cut his finger-nails in +society with a gilded knife, and threw himself down with a French +flourish, was by far more estimable in society than an unbridled +drunkard, who in his intoxication did the most unseemly things, and +could not open his mouth without an oath. + +Those who assumed to be the élite in Germany soon fashioned their life +after the foreign model. Even during the war many foreign customs had +become naturalized; not only in court ceremonials and in the intercourse +with ambassadors, but also in the dress and manners of the citizens. +However great was the influence of France, that of Italy was not much +less. The service of the _cicisbeato_, and the "State" ceremonials, had +penetrated from Italy into France; the Roman court long remained the +highest model, in all questions of etiquette, to the diplomats of +Europe. Both countries took their share in holding sway over Germany. In +the south, Italy ruled till the eighteenth century, indeed in Vienna it +continued still longer to influence the aspect of the higher society; +but in the north, especially in the Protestant courts, the French model +prevailed, and this copy, like the other, was a clumsy one. But whilst +at the great courts, for example Vienna, the cavalier assumed at least +something of the impulsive versatility of the Italian; in the smaller +towns social intercourse was slow and prolix, carried on in endless +phrases, which appeared the more grotesque in proportion as the men were +coarse who endeavoured to set themselves off by the use of them. + +Thus was the sunny path, along which men approached the chosen of their +hearts, charmingly strewn with the flowers of foreign manners. Whatever +of indigenous was retained, was adorned with laborious gallantry, and +became still more tedious. Before we attempt to give a specimen of +honourable German love, it will be fitting to disclose to the +sympathizing reader something of the style of courtly wooing and +marriage. Therefore the following gives the course of wooing of a +cavalier, about the year 1650:-- + +"When a person of condition at Vienna wishes to marry some one, he begs +of her parents to allow him to wait upon her, but he must already have +made her acquaintance, and know that she is well inclined towards him. +When this has been granted by her parents, the affair is already half +agreed upon, and he gives his servant a new livery, and dresses himself +in his best. Every day he must write to her early, and inquire what she +is doing, what she has dreamt of, when she will drive out, and where she +intends to dine. Besides this, he sends her a nosegay, for which +sometimes a ducat must be paid. Then she returns him an answer, and he +makes his appearance at her door at the right time, helps her into the +carriage, and rides next it with head uncovered, on the side where his +lady sits. When they arrive, he dismounts, opens the carriage door, and +again hands her out. In Austria they generally offer themselves as +guests to the houses of others. When he has learnt where his lady is to +dine, he offers himself also as guest, and does this half an hour +beforehand. When at table, he presents a finger-glass to his love alone, +even though there may be more distinguished ladies there; he offers, it +is true, the water to others, but none accept; his lady alone does not +refuse. Then he places her chair, waits upon and converses with her; +when she desires to have something to drink, he hands it to her on a +plate, which he holds under the glass whilst she is drinking; he places +fresh plates before her and takes the old away, and he always pledges +her health to his left hand neighbour. After dinner he again hands her +the finger-glass, for which reason he sits next her; he then removes her +chair, fetches her gloves, fan, and veil which she had left, and +presents them with a profound reverence. After the repast is over, the +hostess takes his lady with her to her room. There also he begs for +admittance, which is not refused him, and waits upon her in like manner. +From thence they go to vespers, and then in summer to the Prater, or in +winter in sledges with torches. This state of things continues for at +least three months. + +"Now when these three months are over, the betrothal is celebrated, and +the marriage invitations are written. Then the bridegroom makes three +presents. First a silver casket, wherein are some pairs of silk +stockings, some pieces of silk stuffs, some pairs of gloves, +handkerchiefs, twelve fans, ribands, and laces. The second present +consists of silver ornaments; the third of jewels, bracelets, earrings, +and pendants of precious stones, or pearls for the neck. He also +presents a dress to his mistress's maid. Some send every day a new +present. Then he gives his servant again a new livery, engages more +servants for himself, and at least one page and two lackeys for his +future wife. Court ladies of high distinction, who drive with six +horses, do not bestow presents on their bridegroom, unless it be from +overflowing liberality; but others present a night-dress to their +beloved, their portrait in a small casket, and on the marriage day +linen; six shirts, six collars, six pocket-handkerchiefs, six pairs of +ruffles, and to every servant a shirt. The bride pays the expenses of +the eating and drinking at the marriage, and the bridegroom the cost of +the music. + +"On the wedding-day the bridegroom drives, towards evening, in his own +carriage, or that of an intimate friend, dressed entirely in silver +brocade, just as the bride is dressed; he wears a wreath of diamonds +which are put together from the jewels of friends, and afterwards +returned. Behind him drive all the male wedding guests. He waits in the +church till the bride comes. Her bridal train is three ells long, borne +either by a boy of noble birth, or a young lady. The bridegroom goes to +meet her, helps her out of the carriage and leads her in, and thus they +are united together in matrimony. The wedding ring is generally of gold +and silver mixed, and plaited in the form of a laurel wreath; it has a +precious stone in it, in order to signify that their truth and love +shall be endless. Then they betake themselves to the marriage house, +where the feast is to be celebrated. After the meal the men take +forthwith their swords and mantles, and room is made for the dance, and +then come the two bridesmen. Each has a burning torch in his hand; they +make a bow to the bridegroom and the bride, and ask them to dance. Then +they both dance alone. The nearest relations are next asked, and so on +all the rest in succession. These dances of honour are performed to the +sound of trumpets and kettledrums. The cavaliers then lay aside their +swords and mantles, and all dance together. After the dance the +relations accompany the bride and bridegroom to their bedroom, there the +mother commends the bride to her husband with impressive words. Then all +go out." + +Thus did the wealthy noble woo and wed at Vienna, which after the war +rapidly filled with landed proprietors who thoroughly enjoyed life. New +families were in possession of the confiscated properties, the Imperial +generals and faithful councillors had abundantly taken care of +themselves. A residence in the desolated country was wearisome, and many +great proprietors had no old family interest in their property. Besides +the Imperial nobles, sons of German princes and many of the old nobility +of the Empire thronged to the Imperial city, to seek diversion, +acquaintances, and fortune at court or in the army. + +But in proportion as the devotion of the noble servant to his mistress +was great, the hope of a happy conjugal union was insecure. And the +prospect was not more favourable in the families of the great princes of +the Empire. + +The rulers of Germany attained to a comfortable condition, after the +peace, sooner than others. Whatever could be done by the people, seemed +to be for their advantage. To the old taste for drinking, hunting, and +not always very seemly intercourse with women, was now added the +pleasure of having a body-guard who were drawn up in uniform before +their castles, and rode by their carriages along the roads. After the +war every great prince maintained a standing army; the old feudal lords +of the country had become Generals. It was in this century that the +great princely families of Germany, the Wettiners, the Hohenzollerns, +the Brunswickers, and the Wittelsbachers, gained their influential +position in European politics. Three of them obtained royal thrones, +those of Poland, Prussia, and England, and the head of the +Wittelsbachers for many years wore the diadem of the Roman Empire. Each +of these houses represents a great European dynasty. But however +different their fortunes may have been, they have also met with a +retributive fate. At the time of the Reformation, the Imperial throne +with supreme dominion over Germany was offered to the house of Wettiner; +the family, divided into two lines, did not listen to the high call. At +the battle of Linien, in 1547, it lost the leadership. A hundred years +later, the possibility of founding a powerful house was offered to the +Wittelsbacher, by the union of the Palatinate with the old Bavarian +province and Bohemia, which even the Hapsburgers have never attained to. +But one son of the house killed the other at the Weissen Berge. Only the +Hapsburgers and the Hohenzollerns have understood how to keep together. + +The general misfortune of the German Princes was, that they found little +in their oppressed subjects to excite awe or regard. For the soul of man +is most easily fortified against encroaching passions when his worldly +position makes a strong resistance possible for those who surround him. +A firm feeling of duty is only formed under the pressure of strong law. +Whoever overrides it will find it easier to do great things, but +incomparably more difficult to do permanently what is right. + +At an earlier period the life at courts was rough, often wild, now it +had become frivolous and dissolute. The combination of refined luxury +with coarse manners, and of strict etiquette with arbitrary will, makes +many of the characters of that time especially hateful. + +The sons of Princes were now better educated. Latin was still the +language of diplomacy, to that was added Italian and French; and besides +all knightly arts--in so far as they still existed--military drills, and +above all, _politesse_, the new art which rendered men and women more +agreeable and obliging in society. Some knowledge of state affairs was +not rare, for there were still quarrels with neighbours to be brought +before the supreme court of judicature and the Imperial Aulic Council, +and solicitations to his Imperial Majesty, and complaints to the Diet, +without end or measure. But the person who exercised most quiet power in +the country was the lawyer, who was generally at the head of the +administration; and occasionally a power-loving court preacher. + +The ladies also of the princely houses had the advantage of some degree +of instruction; many of them understood Latin, or at least were +acquainted with Virgil (from a bad translation into German +Alexandrines), and Boccaccio in the original. Quarrels about rank, +ceremonials, dress, the love affairs of their husbands, and perhaps +their own, formed the daily interest of their lives, together with +trivial intrigues and gossiping: the stronger minded conversed with the +clergy on cases of conscience, and sought for consolation in their hymn +book, and occasionally also in their cookery book. But German literature +was little adapted to ennoble the feelings of women, and such as those +times did produce, seldom reached them in their elevated position; a +tasteless court poem, an Italian strophe, and sometimes a thick +historical or theological quarto sent by a submissive author in hopes of +receiving a present of money. The marriage of a princess was concluded +upon reasons of state, and it frequently happened that she was burdened +from the very first day with a dissolute husband. Undoubtedly not a few +of them were consigned to their royal vaults with most choice and solemn +pomp, on whom the sunshine of a deep heartfelt affection had never shone +during life: the care of their own household, and even that sweetest of +all cares, the education of their children, was taken from them by the +new court arrangements. Undoubtedly in many marriages, a good heart made +up for the deficiency of the education of that time; but scandalous +occurrences were frequent in the highest families at that period. + +The domestic relations of these distinguished families belong also to +history, and much is very generally known of them. A picture of one of +these will here be made use of, in order to show that our generation +have no occasion to lose heart in contemplating it. + +When the Imperial party, after the year 1620, persecuted the daughter of +the King of England, Elizabeth, wife of the Palatine, with satirical +pictures, they painted the proud princess, as going along the high road +with three children hanging on by her apron, or, as on the bare ground +eating pap from an earthenware platter. The second of these children +obtained, through the Westphalian peace, the eighth Electorate of the +German Empire. After many vicissitudes of fortune, after drinking the +bitter cup of banishment, and seeking in vain to recover his territory, +the new Elector, Karl Ludwig, looked down from the royal castle at +Heidelberg on the beautiful country, of which only a portion returned +into the possession of his line. His was not a nature which bore in +itself the guarantee of peace and happiness: it is true that in his +family he was considered jovial and good-humoured, but he was also +irritable, hasty, and passionate, covetous and full of pretension, +easily influenced, and without energy, inclined to venture rashly on +deeds of violence, and yet not firm enough to effect anything great. It +appears that he had derived from the blood of the Stuarts, besides a +high feeling of his own rank, much of the obstinacy of his ill-fated +uncle Charles. In the year 1650, he had married Charlotte, Princess of +Hesse, the daughter of that strong-minded woman, who, as Regent of her +country, had shown more energy than most men, and whose powerful +matronly countenance we still contemplate with pleasure, in the portrait +by Engelhard Schäffler. The mother described her own daughter to the +Elector as difficult to rule; the Electress was indeed passionate and +without moderation, and must often have disturbed domestic peace by her +frowardness and jealousy. A young lady of her court, Marie Susanne Loysa +von Degenfeld, daughter of one of the partisans of the Thirty years' +war, a person according to all accounts of great loveliness and much +gentleness, mixed with firmness, excited a passion in the Elector which +made him regardless of all considerations. After many angry quarrels he +divorced his wife and at once married his love, on whom the title of +"Raugräfin" was bestowed by the Imperial Court. The castoff Electress +turned in vain to the Emperor Leopold, to effect a reconciliation with +her husband. This petition is here given according to Lünig, from the +rolls of the German Empire, 1714.[43] + +"We, by the grace of God, Charlotte, Electress, Countess Palatine of the +Rhine, born Landgravine of Hesse, offer to the most august Prince and +Sovereign of Sovereigns, Leopold, by the grace of God, father of the +fatherland, our most dutiful, obedient, and submissive greeting and +service. + +"Although the manifold and weighty business of the Empire with which +your Imperial Majesty is troubled at this time, might well frighten us +from disquieting you with our private affairs, yet we presume with +profound humility to set before your Imperial Majesty our most pressing +distress, and the mighty injuries inflicted upon us at this time without +any fault on our part, because it is well known to us that your Imperial +Majesty is at all times assiduous in helping most graciously the injured +to their rights. + +"It is not, I hope, unknown to your Imperial Majesty that we have, for +nearly eleven years, been united in matrimony with his Most Serene +Highness Prince Karl Ludwig, Count Palatine of the Rhine, Elector of the +Holy Empire. At that time his Princely Highness, in frequent discourse, +both before and after marriage, promised us by the highest oaths, an +ever-enduring faith and conjugal love; and we on our part did the like. +Being then animated by such reciprocal love, we have served his Highness +in all conjugal obedience to the best of our power, so far as our +womanly weakness permitted. We have also, by the grace of God, reared +two young princes and a daughter in all love, so that his Princely +Highness ought in justice to have abstained from divorcing himself from +us. + +"We submissively beg your Imperial Majesty to understand that, after +three very severe confinements, we clearly traced by many tokens, no +slight alienation in the feelings of our lord and husband, which would +justly have given rise to suspicion in our minds, if our confiding +spirit had not attributed what was good and laudable to his Princely +Highness. For when we once, according to princely custom, presented his +Princely Highness with a beautiful Neapolitan dapple-gray colt with all +its appurtenances, he said to us: 'My treasure, we henceforth desire no +such presents, which diminish our treasury;' and the very same day he +presented the horse to one of the lowest of his nobles. This insult did +so grieve us that, with weeping eyes, we lamented it to our gentlewoman, +Maria Susanna von Degenfeld, of whose secret doings we had not at that +time the slightest idea. She thereupon made answer, 'That if at any time +she should meet with the like behaviour from her future consort, she +would refuse all cohabitation with him.' By these words she intended +nothing else than to incense us against our lord and master. Not long +after, a ring was purloined from us by the said von Degenfeld out of our +drawers. This must without doubt have been a concerted plan, for our +lord and husband had required this ring of us, and when we could not +find it, his Princely Highness was greatly irritated against us, and +thus broke out: 'You make me think strange things of you as concerns +this ring; I had thought you would have taken better care of it.' +Whereupon we answered, 'Ah! my treasure, foster no evil suspicions +against me; it has been purloined by some faithless person.' But his +Princely Highness continued: 'Who may this faithless person be? Perhaps +some young cavalier, on whose finger you may yourself have placed it.' +This caused us so much pain, that we were led to speak somewhat severely +to his Princely Highness, and said, 'No honest Prince would thus +calumniate me.' Whereupon he replied, 'Who gave you the right to upbraid +me as a dishonest Prince? If I hear aught further of this kind from you, +you shall be rewarded with a box on the ear!' Thereupon we did not +answer a word, but wept bitterly. But this von Degenfeld comforted us +deceitfully, and spoke thus: 'Make yourself happy, Electoral Highness, +and be not so much afflicted, it will soon be found again.' By these +words she then tranquillized us. But not long afterwards a very +noteworthy Latin epistle was put into our hand by a trusty servant, +which he had found accidentally in the chamber of our lord and husband, +the contents of which I cannot forbear enclosing. It is to this effect-- + +"'To the Most Serene Highness the Elector Palatine Karl Ludwig, Duke of +Bavaria, _dilecto meo_. + +"'I can no longer oppose your Electoral Highness, nor any longer deceive +you as to my inclinations. _Vicisti jamque tua sum_, I unhappy one, + + "'Maria Susanna, Baronissa a Degenfeld.' + +"When, by God's Providence, we got this letter, we forthwith perused the +same with great consternation; but as we are not much versed in the +Latin tongue, we despatched the aforesaid trusty servant to the Most +Noble Lord, Johann Jacob Graf von Eberstein, our dear lord and cousin, +who was accidentally stopping at Heidelberg, bidding him come to us, and +beseeching him as a friend and cousin to lend us his aid in the +interpretation of the said note. This he honestly rendered us. It cannot +be told what great sorrow took possession of our hearts, when it became +evident in how unjustifiable and unprincely a way we had been dealt +with. So distracted, therefore, were we in mind, that we ventured so far +as to break open the coffer of the afore-mentioned Degenfeld, who was +not then present, and after earnest search found three abominable +letters of his Electoral Highness, likewise written in Latin, in which +he equally assures the Degenfeld of his love. + +"Then we could sufficiently see that our lord and husband was minded to +renounce all truth and love towards us. This we wished at a fitting +opportunity to forestal, and give his Princely Highness to understand it +in a covert way. + +"It then came to pass accidentally, that a week after, his Serene +Highness Friedrich, Lord Margrave of Baden, our dearly loved +brother-in-law and brother, together with his loving lady and wife, our +especially beloved cousin and sister, came from Durlach to Heidelberg to +visit us. Now once when we were sitting at table, his Princely Highness +the Lord Margrave, thus spoke to us: 'Wherefore, my lady sister, +wherefore so sorrowful?' To which we answered thus: 'My dear lord and +brother, perhaps there is truly reason for our sorrow.' Whereupon our +lord and husband turning quite red said, 'There is nothing new in my +lady and wife being angry without any cause.' We could not then, for our +honour's sake, leave such a speech unanswered, but replied, 'It is those +that prefer waiting women to wives who make me angry,' &c. Thereupon our +lord and husband was quite taken aback, turned pale with anger, and gave +us, in the presence of the said princely personages, such a severe box +on the ear, that on account of the vexatious nose-bleeding, brought on +by this, we were obliged to leave the table. But his Princely Highness +the Lord Margrave was mightily indignant thereat, and said to our lord +and master: '_Signore Electore, troppo è questo!_' Whereto our lord and +husband answered: '_Mio fratello, Signore Marchese, ma cosi ha voluto._' +But his Princely Highness the Lord Margrave spoke strongly to our lord +and husband, and said that if he could have supposed his inconsiderate +speech would have occasioned such discord, he would a thousand times +rather have been silent; and if our lord and husband did not become +reconciled to us before sunset, his Princely Highness was firmly +determined to leave Heidelberg at an early hour on the morrow, without +bidding him farewell. This worked so with my lord and husband that he +promised his Princely Highness to pay us a visit, in company with him +and his wife. This took place after the lapse of two hours, when our +husband thus addressed us in our chamber: 'Is my treasure still angry +with me?' We answered: 'I assure you, my treasure, that what happened at +table gave me sufficient reason to be angry; but on account of the +presence of my beloved lord and brother, and my lady and sister, to whom +our discord is displeasing, I will forgive it with all my heart.' +Thereupon our lord and master gave us his hand, and said, with a loving +kiss, 'This shall wipe out my past delinquency,' after which they +departed from our chamber. That night, however, we did not appear at +supper, but sent our bedchamber woman and lord steward to make our +excuses, as by reason of the necessary preparation of certain writings +we could not appear. But as our husband feared we might disclose to our +lord and brother what had before passed betwixt us, he came at ten +o'clock in the evening, accompanied by two pages, to my chamber, and did +there knock at the door. Now when we came to the door and found his +Princely Highness, we were not a little amazed at this unhoped-for +visit, and said: 'Why does my treasure visit us so late?' Thereupon his +Princely Highness answered kindly, and sent back both the pages. But as +at that moment those unseemly letters recurred to our memory, and as the +consideration that we were of such high princely parentage, made it +impossible to bear silently with such impropriety, we said: 'My lord and +husband, I am quite resolved to abide alone till your Princely Highness +resolves to deliver up a certain person into my hands, with full powers +to punish the same for her past wickedness.' Our lord and husband +answered: 'I should be glad at last to know who this person is; but I +imagine the offence is not so great as your Princely Highness interprets +it.' But we answered further: 'The offence is so great that the person +can only atone for it with their blood.' 'Nay, my treasure,' said our +husband, 'that verdict is too severe.' But we were minded to reveal +fully to his Princely Highness the cause of our long affliction; we +therefore took out of our pocket the letter which our servant had +brought, and began to read it in an audible voice. Hereupon our lord and +husband laughed and said: 'All a mere jest; my treasure knows right well +that the Fräulein von Degenfeld has from her youth been assiduous in +studying the Latin tongue, therefore I wished to try whether she was +sufficiently versed in it, to answer in the aforesaid language a note +prepared by me for the purpose. This she executed in the like jesting +way; and we are determined to support her on account of her innocence.' +We did not choose to wrangle with his Princely Highness, but said: 'We +have long known how to distinguish between jest and earnest. If it +please my treasure to furnish me with full proof that it was a jest I +will gladly be content.' Hereupon our lord and husband answered: 'Why is +so much proof required? Your Princely Highness is a woman, and has +better means of examining the innocence of Degenfeld than I, in whom it +would not be quite seemly. But I see well that innocent lady has lost +all grace and favour with you. As, however, it is already very late, I +wish my treasure to inform me whether it please her to be reconciled +with me here?' We answered to this: 'I feel myself bound by virtue of my +once given troth not to gainsay you in this.' But our lord and husband, +with a hearty embrace, protested by all that was noble and holy, that, +with the exception of this note, he had not trespassed against us, and +promised yet once more, never henceforth to misbehave towards us, if we, +on the other hand, would again render due obedience to his Princely +Highness. All this we promised, hoping henceforth to live in peaceful +wedlock, which perhaps might have come to pass if the devil had not sown +his tares. + +"For, three days after, when his Serene Highness the Lord Margrave of +Baden had departed, a patent came to Heidelberg from your Imperial +Majesty's illustrious Lord Father, Ferdinand of ever-blessed memory, +whereby our lord and husband was summoned to the Imperial Diet at +Ratisbon, whereto we with our lord and husband betook ourselves at the +appointed time. + +"We deem it unnecessary to relate what great contumely we there suffered +from our lord and husband, as your Imperial Majesty beheld it for the +most part with your own eyes. This caused us to tarry yet a long time at +Ratisbon after the departure of his Princely Highness. But when, after +the lapse of a few weeks, we returned again to Heidelberg, we signified +in a friendly way through one of the nobles to our lord and husband, +that we were minded to greet his Princely Highness. But our lord and +husband said with great displeasure to the said nobleman: 'Tell the bold +Landgravine,' thus it pleased his Princely Highness to call us, 'I will +have nothing to do with any one so pernicious to the country.' + +"Now when this was notified to us we did not venture to accost his +Princely Highness, but straightway went through the adjoining saloon to +our chamber. But scarcely had we entered therein, when forty of the +Swiss guard had already established themselves in our antechamber, who +were commanded to keep guard over us, and not let us go out till they +received farther orders from his Princely Highness. + +"Then did we learn with great anguish of heart that we, a freeborn +princess, had been made a prisoner. We knew not what to do, for we could +not write to our lord brother the Landgrave of Hesse Cassel, because we +had no confidential person left to us whom we could despatch. We had +thus no opportunity of effecting anything, for whenever our servants +came to or went from us, they were always searched by the guard. On this +account we resolved to write ourselves to our lord and husband, and to +entreat his Princely Highness to release us from this most intolerable +durance. We drew up therefore the following petition to his Princely +Highness, and sent the same by a noble youth to his Princely Highness +while at table. + + +"'Most Serene Highness, and dear Lord. + +"'How great annoyance I have suffered during the time which it has +pleased your Princely Highness to place a prodigious garrison before my +chamber, is not to be described. It moves me to remind your Princely +Highness, that if you so behave to me, a poor princess, you will have to +answer for it before God and the whole world. It would be well moreover +to bethink you, whether it is praiseworthy to keep guard over one single +weak woman, with forty well-armed halberdiers, which might be +sufficiently accomplished by two or three. I cannot imagine what offence +I have committed to deserve such harsh procedure. I therefore entreat +your Princely Highness, for God's sake to set me at liberty. For during +this time I have not been able to sleep three hours by reason of the +noisy blustering and clatter of these indiscreet Swiss. + + "'Your Princely Highness's faithful unto death, + + "'Charlotta Palatine of the Rhine.' + + +"After our husband had read this writing, he commanded that all the +Swiss saving four should be withdrawn, which was done forthwith, to our +great content. But his Princely Highness sent us a letter, to the +following tenour. + + +"'To Charlotta, born Landgravine of Hesse. + +"'It surprises me much that you should venture to ask why I have put you +under surveillance. You cannot deny that on my return from Ratisbon to +Heidelberg, I urgently commanded you to follow me without fail the next +day. But you did not do so till some weeks later, and during this period +you spent so much money, that our subjects, who were sufficiently +ruined without this, will for a long time have much, to endure. You also +know well how you disgraced me at Ratisbon by your hunting parties, and +how--because I in my just indignation, on account of your past frivolity +of conduct and wanton indecorum of dress in the presence of the +assembled Diet, have put you only under slight restraint--you have for +the past half-year refused to live with me as a wife. This culpable +conduct has entirely released me from all bonds of wedlock; and I am +fully resolved to separate myself completely from you by a public act. +This, my purpose, has moved me to assure myself of your person, that you +may not as a fugitive, by exasperating your brother and other friends, +bring evil on my country. Finally, if you will keep quiet and retired, +and will consent to the divorce, I promise you on my Electoral faith, +that I will not only entirely free you from restraint, but will assign +you an income which will enable you to maintain yourself right royally. +Thus saying, and expecting a decisive declaration from you, + + "'I remain your loving cousin, + + "'The Elector.' + + +"When this writing was put into our hands, we were in such great +affliction we did not know how to decide. At last we sent a noble +bedchamber woman to our lord and husband, commanding her to signify to +his Princely Highness that we were disposed to consent willingly to all +his desires, except as concerning the divorce. For this, being an affair +of conscience, must be well considered. I begged him therefore for a +little time for deliberation. Undoubtedly if his Princely Highness +should please to accomplish a divorce by his own power, we were much too +weak to hinder him. But we thought we had never given his Princely +Highness any sufficient reason for repudiating us. + +"The bedchamber woman delivered this in the best way she could. But our +lord and husband thus answered: 'Fair lady, tell your mistress we are +now minded to give her henceforth more freedom, and to withdraw the four +Swiss entirely from her apartment. It shall also be permitted to her to +walk below in the garden if agreeable to her; and she may rest assured +that I will find means to content her, but she must not think of writing +to her lord brother concerning our purposes. She must also agree to the +divorce, for I am minded to marry another.' + +"The noble maiden had scarcely given us this answer, when the four Swiss +were with all speed withdrawn from our apartment, and we went the same +evening to breathe the fresh air in the garden. The day following our +lord and husband journeyed to the castle at Ladenburg. In the evening, +about five o'clock, the noble Count von Eberstein, our loving lord and +cousin, came to us. He told us that the von Degenfeld had been +sojourning already three months at the Castle of Ladenburg, and that our +lord and husband had betaken himself thither every week during our +absence; nay he had caused a special road to be made that he might the +sooner reach it. Then we first discovered what had been the aim of our +lord and husband, and we lamented our misfortune with many tears. + +"A week after, our lord and husband sent us a note, the contents of +which ran literally thus:-- + +"'Most Serene Highness, + +"'I wish to inform your Highness in a few words, that in consequence of +our afore-mentioned divorce, I have again engaged myself in marriage +with the noble Lady, Marie Susanna von Degenfeld. I therefore hope that +your Highness will be therewith content, as it cannot now be altered. +For I have already sent for our dear and trusty Samuel Heyland, preacher +of the Lutheran community of our city of Heidelberg, to unite us in +Christian wedlock. But as I know well that your Highness has begotten me +three royal children, it becomes me to furnish your Highness with a +princely allowance for the rest of your life. Therefore we grant unto +your Highness the power to make use at your good pleasure of the half of +the castle of Heidelberg, and you may receive from our lord treasurer +sufficient money for your maintenance; only you must reconcile yourself +to my present wife, and inflict no injury upon her, that I may not have +occasion to withdraw my favour from your Highness. + +"'I remain your Highness's graciously until death, + + "'Your Highness's Elector. + +"'Ladenburg, April 15, 1652.' + + +"My answer was as follows:-- + + +"'Most august Prince and high-born Lord, + +"'From your Princely Highness's letter I have learnt with the greatest +consternation that your Princely Highness is minded now to cast me off +entirely, and never more to recognize me as your wife. I will commend my +cause, woeful as it is, to God, the righteous judge. I will henceforth +consider myself as a widow; whose husband still lives, led astray by a +wanton worthless person, and drawn away from his lawful wife. + +"'For the ample maintenance which your Princely Highness has ordered for +me, I render you hearty thanks. I will also be careful so to behave +myself to your Princely Highness's concubine that she shall have no +cause to complain. Further, a nobleman from Stuttgart is here, who +reports that in ten days his Serene Highness Prince Eberhard von +Würtemberg, our dearly beloved lord cousin and brother, together with +the lady his wife, are coming to visit us at Heidelberg. So your +Princely Highness will undoubtedly come here, and arrange that they +shall have right princely accommodation. + +"'Datum Heidelberg, the 16th of April, 1657. + + "'Your Princely Highness's until death, but now deeply afflicted + lawful Electress of the Rhine.' + + +"After three days our lord and husband returned, bringing with him the +von Degenfeld, under the escort of a hundred newly enlisted dragoons. +Then indeed were we cut to the heart when we saw our former +waiting-woman usurping our place and presented to every one as +Electress, yet could not venture to say the least word against her. We +kept a separate table, and had our own servants, and a body-guard of +twenty cuirassiers appointed for our own selves. + +"At last we bethought us we would once more endeavour to mollify our +lord and husband. We sent for the two Princes our sons, and the Princess +our daughter, dressed ourselves and the children in our best, and waited +near the hall-door till our lord and husband rose from dinner and came +out. Then we, together with our beloved children, prostrated ourselves +before his Princely Highness, hoping thereby to mollify him. For if his +Princely Highness would not recognize us as his lawful wife, our dearly +beloved children after his death might be considered as bastards. + +"Our children wept aloud, as did also the whole surrounding court, for +it would have melted a heart of stone. Our lord and husband let us thus +kneel, and stood in deep thought, not knowing at the moment what to say. +His Princely Highness's eyes were filled with tears. Meanwhile the +mistress von Degenfeld came from within, saw us thus kneeling, and spoke +audaciously to our lord and husband. '_Signore Elettore, servate la +parola di promessa._' At these words our lord and husband clasped his +hands over his head, and went away sighing. We however could no longer +look over such iniquity, but ran into our chamber and seized a loaded +pistol, determined to send a ball through the heart of this wanton, +godless disturber of conjugal rights, this von Degenfeld. But when we +came to her, and were on the point of discharging the pistol, it was +taken away from us by the noble Count and Lord Wolf Julius von +Hohenlohe, and discharged out of a window. But when our lord and husband +heard this shot, he ran hastily out of his apartment, and asked who had +fired. We said: 'Ah, dear treasure, I did it, with the intention of +revenging your Princely Highness's honour on this monster.' But our lord +and husband replied: 'Charlotta, Charlotta, cease these doings, if you +would not be sent away forthwith from hence.' But we went off without +making reply. + +"Four days after a postilion came with a report that his Serene Highness +of Würtemberg would arrive within two hours. Thereupon our lord and +husband sent to notify to us that his Princely Highness, with Mistress +von Degenfeld, would go to meet the said Lord Duke. But we were to +receive his Princely Highness at the castle. And thus it was. Three days +were spent in all kinds of pastimes, in honour of the said Lord Duke, +but we lived neglected, and were not once asked to dinner, +notwithstanding the urgent entreaties of our much-loved lord and brother +Duke Eberhard and his wife. + +"At last we caused a repast to be prepared in our apartment, and invited +thereto both these princely personages, as also our lord and husband, +and our eldest son Prince Karolus. All these came except our lord and +husband, who indeed at the intercession of the Duke would have been +willing to come. But his Princely Highness was prevented by Mistress von +Degenfeld, who, as we afterwards learnt, urged his Princely Highness +with hard words, saying, she would no longer allow his Princely Highness +to live with her, if he went to us. + +"Our lord and husband said also to our Prince Karolus: 'Go thither and +help your mother to entertain the guests, and tell her from me, that at +this present I am prevented from visiting her by ill health, but by +God's providence might be enabled to do so another time.' + +"We discoursed during the repast with both the Princely personages on +the best way of dealing with our affairs, but their Princely Highnesses +advised us not to undertake anything against the life of this von +Degenfeld, since we might thereby make our evil fate worse. Our lord +brother, Duke Eberhard, took our hand, and promised that his Princely +Highness would exert himself to the utmost to unite us again, but his +Princely Highness would especially, immediately on his return home, +write urgently to his vassal, Gustavus von Degenfeld, brother of the +said Archmistress, to require the return of his sister home. If he did +not do this, he would take his feoff from him, and bestow it on another. +Meanwhile I was to supplicate your Imperial Majesty, most humbly, to +move in this matter, and unite us again by your most gracious mediation. + +"We cannot refrain also from adding that our lord and husband has not in +any other way injured us by word or deed these three years, and we hope +his Princely Highness will favourably receive such Imperial +intercession, and again be gracious to us, a much oppressed and +afflicted Princess, and not prostrate us entirely under this heavy +cross. + +"Therefore we most humbly submit ourselves, praying fervently to God +Almighty that He may grant your Imperial Majesty continual health, long +life, a happy reign, victory over your enemies, and all prosperity. + +"Datum Heidelberg, July 26, 1661. Your Imperial Majesty's most humble +and obedient servant, Charlotta Countess Palatine of the Rhine, born +Landgravine of Hesse." + + +Here the letter closes. We can scarcely feel any warm sympathy with +either of the contending parties. The husband appears thoroughly +unworthy: we find vulgar threats, violence, and ill-usage, a perfidious +attempt to deceive his wife, abject baseness in the evening visit, and +intimidation by the clash of arms, and worse than all, was the manner of +his divorce and re-marriage. The Church constitution of the Protestants +remained an unfinished edifice, the rulers were but too much inclined to +give themselves dispensations and licences as superior bishops. And of +the Electress also! What can we say? How gladly would we sympathize with +the deeply wounded wife and mother; but she appears at best not very +lovable; she also was violent, insolent, strong in pouting, complaining, +and weak at the moment when everything depended on her defence of her +just rights. To say nothing of the remarkable scene at the Diet, her +disobedience in remaining behind, gave the Elector, at all events +according to the ideas of that time, a right to think of divorce. Not +all that is most repugnant in this miserable history should be laid to +the charge of the individuals; much of what offends us was then usual. +The respect for women was small, the familiar intercourse of the camp +was a jealously guarded right of royal ladies, the evening visit of the +husband, an honour which was not concealed from the court. But however +much may be laid to the account of the manners of the times, there still +remains so much individual imperfection as to leave a painful impression +on the reader. + +The Electress outlived both her husband and her rival. Soon after this +letter, by the mediation of the Brandenburg court a contract of +separation was concluded by the married couple, which assured to the +Electress a yearly income of eight thousand thalers, with the right of +spending it where she pleased. She resided afterwards at Cassel, and +lived to see her rival give birth to fourteen children. Later she took +the most benevolent interest in these children; and her own daughter, +the celebrated Charlotte Elizabeth Duchess of Orleans, mother of the +Regent of France, was bound by ties of the most intimate friendship with +one of the young Raugravines. We may thank this female friendship for +the beautiful letters of the Princess Charlotte Elizabeth, which are not +only important for the history of that period, but also valuable, as +showing how a prudent, intellectual and honourable German lady remained +uncorrupted in the impure atmosphere of a Parisian court. The mother of +the profligate Regent of France was all her life long a true German. +She speaks with warm affection of her father, and with filial respect of +her mother. + + + + + CHAPTER IX. + + OF THE HOMES OF GERMAN CITIZENS. (1675-1681-1683.) + + +While foreign guests, courtesy and ceremonial were doing their best to +restrain the aftergrowth of a lawless time in the upper classes, the +German citizen was aided by the innate character of his nation, its need +of order and discipline, its industry and feeling of duty. The marriage +tie and family life, his home and his employment were restored to him as +of old. The wooing still proceeded after the old German fashion, the +matrimonial agent still played his part, and the betrothal presents of +the bride and bridegroom were still recorded with their accurate worth +in money. Nay, the wooing had become still more formal, even the mode of +expression was prescribed. The lover had to think over his address to +the maiden carefully; where his own inventive powers were deficient, he +was assisted by the indispensable compliment book, the treasured morsel +of the library. The same style was adopted by the modest young lady; +even where the marriage had been settled for her, it was considered +desirable that she should not at once consent; nay, the strictest +decorum required that she should at first refuse, or at least ask time +for consideration. Then the lover made his addresses a little more +ardent, in rather a higher strain, and then the interdict was withdrawn, +and she was permitted to say, Yes. But they were not pedants, they felt +that long speeches in these cases were pedantic, and that both parties +who were contemplating matrimony, should express themselves in few +words; the lover had to introduce his proposal somewhat thus: +"Mademoiselle! Forgive me kindly, I pray you, for taking a liberty of +which I myself am ashamed; yet my confidence in your kindness emboldens +me so much, that I cannot refrain from acquainting you with the +resolution I have taken, of changing my present condition," &c. Then the +well-conducted young lady had to answer after this fashion: "Monsieur! I +can hardly believe that what it has pleased you to propose to me is +spoken in earnest, for I well know how little charm I possess to please +so agreeable a person," &c. It had all been previously arranged by the +matrimonial agent, they both knew what would be the result, but decorum +required of the citizen, as courtesy did of the noble, that he should +openly express his wishes by a proceeding which should make his +resolution irrevocable. Of the agitation of the man, or the +heart-beating of the maiden, we find nothing recorded; we hope that both +were happy, when they had gone through the trying scene, he without +faltering, she without an outburst of tears. + +In the year 1644, Friedrich Lucä, son of a professor at the Gymnasium, +was born in the capital of the Silesian principality of Brieg. He +studied as a Calvinist, first in Heidelberg, then in the Netherlands and +Frankfort on the Oder, returned after many travels and adventures to his +native city, became the court preacher at Brieg, and, after the death of +the last Piasten Duke at Liegnitz, and the occupation of the country by +the Austrians, was appointed pastor and court preacher at Cassel. He +died after an active life, rich in honours, in 1708. As a copious +historical writer, he was appreciated, but also severely criticised by +his contemporaries. He corresponded with Leibnitz, and some interesting +letters to him from that great man are still preserved to us. He wrote +also an autobiography, which has been piously preserved in his family +for five generations, and was published by one of his descendants. ('The +Chronicle of Friedrich Lucä. A picture of the time, and its manners,' +published by Dr. Friedrich Lucä. Frankfort a. M. Brönner, 1854.) We will +here give Friedrich Lucä's account of his wooing. This event, so replete +with excitement, took place the year he was preacher at Liegnitz. + +"Meanwhile, when my mind was least intent on thoughts of matrimony, and +the other proposals made to me had been unheeded, a foreign lady, +Elizabeth Mercer, whom I had never seen or heard of all my life long, +made known to me her intention of receiving the holy sacrament from me +privately, as she could not wait till it was again publicly given, it +having been so only a short time before. The said lady had come hither +with the noble General Schlepusch and his most dear wife, from Bremen, +and resided at their noble country mansion Klein-Polewitz, a mile and a +half from Liegnitz. + +"On Sunday, the maiden presented herself at divine service, and after +the performance of the same, came from the church to my house, and the +holy communion being devoutly concluded, I took occasion to discourse +with her concerning the condition of the Church at Bremen, as also to +thank her for two capons which she had sent me for my kitchen, and then +I dismissed her with the Lord's blessing. In this my first interview +however with the maiden, I had not only perceived in her a refined and +seemly demeanour towards me, and discovered a beautiful conformity of +mind with mine, but I found in the effervescence of my feelings, and +emotions of my heart, an evident token that the spirit of love had been +somehow remarkably busy with me, for during my whole life I had never +experienced such an ardent affection for any maiden. + +"This my heartfelt but chaste love, I concealed firmly within my breast, +and let no living soul know aught concerning it. The thought of this +maiden accompanied me every evening to my rest, and rose up with me in +the morning. Sometimes I spoke of her to my housekeeper, who was a +well-bred and discreet woman, and she, without adverting to the motive +of my discourse, extolled the maiden highly to me, and the like did also +my sexton. I tormented myself now with secret love thoughts for a length +of time, but at last spoke out my mind, thinking to myself: 'Why should +thy soul afflict itself fruitlessly concerning a stranger maiden, who +will again leave the country, and who will never fall to thy lot?' + +"Half a year after, the good maiden Mercer had entirely passed from my +remembrance, but the already forgotten maiden sent me an amiable +greeting through the page of the Lord Baron Schlepusch, and signified to +me that she was minded to communicate again. This message renewed the +old wounds of my heart, and therefore I made inquiries of the page at +some length concerning the maiden, with respect to one thing and +another; but could learn little or nothing from him. I then sent an +invitation to dinner on the Sunday through my sexton, to the Mistress +Mercer, but this she did not accept, excusing herself by saying that +she was accustomed to fast the whole of the day on which she +communicated. Thus on Sunday, the maiden, all unconscious of my loving +thoughts, came after church to my house. I gave her then, as before, the +communion, and discoursed with her to the same effect on all kinds of +subjects, to give her thereby some diversion. I would gladly in such +discourse have learnt some particulars as to whether she were noble, and +would like to remain in Silesia, but I could not ask such things this +time. After a while the maiden rose to leave my house; and as she +imagined I had a spouse, commended herself to her. I explained to her +forthwith that I was a bachelor, having no wife. During this discourse, +my sexton as well as my housekeeper were present, and to them, as to +myself, the demeanour of the maiden had always given the greatest +contentment, yet they did not fathom my intent. + +"Now did my trouble begin again. After maturely reflecting upon the +matter, I could think of no means whereby I might learn the lineage and +circumstances of the maiden, whom I always looked upon as a noble +person, for I did not deem it expedient to open myself to any one. +Meanwhile, I met one day, Herr Tobias Pirner, the pastor at Nickelstadt, +a pious, honourable, and upright man, although of the Lutheran +confession. Now as I knew that the wife of General Schlepusch, whose +husband had lately died and been buried with great pomp in the church at +Liegnitz, went every Sunday, together with the maiden, to attend divine +service in the Lutheran church at Nickelstadt, I begged of this Herr +Pirner, in a way that made it in no wise remarkable on my part, to +inquire concerning the lineage and other circumstances of the Mistress +Mercer. He undertook this, and promised me the following week a report +thereupon. Herr Pirner faithfully fulfilled his engagement, and at the +end of the week reported to me in _optima forma_, what he had learnt +from the _Frau Generalin_. Mistress Mercer was the daughter of Mr. +Balthaser Mercer, formerly parliamentary assessor at Edinburgh, in +Scotland, who had many times been sent to England by King Charles I. on +weighty commissions, and once on a mission to Hamburg, where he was +decorated with a golden medal of honour. Her mother, also called +Elizabeth, was of noble lineage, born a Kennewy of Scotland. When in +1644 perilous troubles broke forth in England, her honoured father and +also her brother, the court preacher Robert Mercer, as they had been +favourites of the decapitated King, fled the kingdom with the whole +family, from fear of Cromwell and his party; he went with all belonging +to him to Bremen, where he lived on his own means, which were pretty +considerable, till his happy end in 1650, leaving his widow, a pious, +godly matron, with three sons and three daughters. The sons had gone +forth into the world, one to India, another to the Canary Islands; of +the daughters the eldest was married in London to a nephew of Cromwell, +of the noble family of Cleipold, and the youngest to a merchant named +Uckermann at Wanfried in Hess, the second was my love. In the year 1660 +her lady mother also died in Bremen, and was laid beside her honoured +father in the church of St. Stephen, after which Mistress Elizabeth had +lived for a while with the widow of Herr Doctor Schnellen. Meanwhile she +became acquainted with the _Frau_ Schlepusch, who lived at her property +Schönbeck, near Bremen, and when soon after, the General Schlepusch and +his wife departed for Silesia, they took her with them as a playfellow +for their young daughter, to Klein-Polewitz, where she was always held +in good esteem. + +"This report and intelligence increased the ardour of my love for her, +especially as I now knew that she was indeed of distinguished family, +but not of noble extraction, and also because Herr Pirner had highly +commended the maiden on account of her godly behaviour, piety, prudence, +and many domestic qualities; and the _Frau Generalin_ had no hesitation +in trusting her with the whole conduct of the household, during her many +journeys to and fro. Now my whole heart being filled to overflowing with +a stream of chaste love, I poured it out for the first time to this +honourable man, and revealed to his discretion what else I would not +have disclosed to any man in the whole world, namely, that if it were +possible, and provided it were the will of God, I desired to make +Mistress Mercer my wife, and I begged of him to lend me his faithful aid +in this important affair, and help to promote my good purpose. + +"The good man was willing to esteem it the greatest honour to perform +this service for me; he devoted his heart to the work, and gave +expression to my intentions, first to the _Frau Generalin_. Meanwhile I +exchanged letters with him, and soon entertained good hopes. _In summa_, +the affair advanced in a short time in the most satisfactory manner, so +that nothing remained but for me to visit her in person. One Monday +morning, having first sought aid of the Lord, I proceeded on horseback +to Nickelstadt, called for the Herr Pirner there, and went with him to +Klein-Polewitz, which lay about a quarter of a mile from thence. The +son-in-law of the _Frau Generalin_, Herr Heinrich von Poser, the royal +receiver-general of taxes in the principality of Jauer and Schweidnitz, +received us in the baronial mansion, conducted us with great politeness +to the dining-room, where he entertained us with various discourse, like +a highly-talented and well-educated cavalier. Soon afterwards the _Frau +Generalin_ sent for me to her room, and welcomed me with much civility, +receiving my compliments in return most favourably. My proposals +contented her right well, and she gave me good hope that my desires +would meet with a happy issue. In the mean time the table was spread, +and the _Frau Generalin_ with her maiden daughter, and Herr von Poser +with his spouse, made their appearance, followed by good Mistress +Mercer, who received me most courteously. During dinner every variety of +lively discourse was carried on, and my love was the true centre to +which all were attracted. When dinner was ended, the whole company +absented themselves, and left me and my love alone in the dining-room. +On this occasion I opened my heart to her, and begged for her sympathy, +hoping she might in some degree reciprocate my chaste love, and allow +herself to be persuaded, under God's providence, to be united with me in +wedlock. Now as generally in love affairs a maiden's No is as good as +Yes, so I considered my love's first uttered No as Yes, and was not +thereby alarmed, but pursued my intent. Meanwhile, however, the _Frau +Generalin_ and the Herr von Poser passed to and fro, and teased us poor +lovers with polite jests. At last our love could no longer hide itself +under compliments, but burst forth like the moon from behind dark +clouds, and we exclaimed, 'Yes, I am thine, and thou art mine!' And now +we called together the _Frau Generalin_, the Herr Poser, and he who was +my rightful wooer, who then, as assistants and witnesses, confirmed our +verbal Yes, by joining together our hands. As a pledge of my affection, +I hereupon presented my love with a small Bible handsomely embossed with +silver, and a ring with ten diamonds, which had been made for me at +Breslau for fifty-three imperial thalers. But my treasure entered into a +contest of love with me, presenting me with a ring with one diamond, +which, on account of its size, was estimated at ninety imperial thalers. +Now when the affair had in such wise come to an arrangement, we sat down +again to table in the evening, and supped together with gladness of +heart, till at nightfall I and Herr Pirner were conducted to two +comfortable bedchambers. The following morning I expressed to _Frau +Generalin_ my thankfulness for all the honour she had shown me, took +leave of my love and all present, and returned with Herr Pirner to +Nickelstadt, and from thence back to Liegnitz. From there I corresponded +weekly with my love, visited her every Sunday after the performance of +divine service, at Polewitz; treated her each time with a special +present, and finally fixed with her upon St. Elizabeth's day, namely the +19th of November, 1675, for the conclusion of our nuptials. + +"After this fashion did our courtship continue almost five weeks; then +as the appointed nuptial day was approaching, and everything necessary +had been procured, and the wedding guests invited, and more especially +as my former colleague at Brieg, Herr Dares, whom I had requested to +unite us, had arrived at Klein-Polewitz, the _Frau Generalin_ sent two +coaches, the one with six, the other with four horses, to Liegnitz to +fetch me and my guests; but as these coaches could not bring all, the +Captain General, Herr von Schweinichen lent me one, item the Abbess of +Nonnenklosters, item the city councillor, nay one with four horses, +together with certain calèches, whereupon, by God's will, I with my +guests repaired to Polewitz. After the marriage sermon, in which Herr +Dares introduced the names Friedrich and Elizabeth very ingeniously and +emblematically, the wedding took place by the light of burning torches, +about six o'clock in the evening in the large dining-room, whereunto I +was conducted by the Royal Councillors Herr Kurchen and Herr Caspar +Braun, and my love by Herr von Poser and Herr von Eicke, brother to the +_Frau Generalin_. Before the wedding, Fräulein von Schlepusch had +presented me with the wreath, and I had given her in return a beautiful +gold ring. As soon as the marriage was completed we sat down to supper, +which had been provided by my love at our cost, and were all very blithe +and merry. In such fashion did we entertain our guests for the space of +three days with the greatest gaiety and contentment; and it all ended in +confidential union and harmony. On the fourth day, accompanied by Herr +Rath Knichen and his wife, I brought home my love to Liegnitz in the +coach of the _Frau Generalin_, drawn by six horses." + +Here we conclude the narrative of the happy husband; he had won by his +wooing a most excellent housewife. In the midst of flowery expressions +the reader will perhaps discern here the deep emotions of an honourable +heart. + +But the mode of expressing the feelings of the heart was altered. When a +century before, Felix Platter related the beginning of his love for his +maiden, he expresses his feeling in these simple words: "I began to love +her much;" Lucä, on the other hand, already expresses himself thus: +"That the stream of chaste love filled his heart to overflowing." The +bride of the Glauburger still decorously addressed her bridegroom in her +letters as "Dearly beloved Junker;" but now in a tender epistle from a +wife to her husband, she accosts him as "Most beautiful angel." In other +European nations also, we find the same false refinement; with them also +the finest feelings were overloaded with ornament. Through the foreign +and classical poets this style had been brought into Germany, partly a +bad kind of renaissance, which had originated in an unskilful imitation +of the ancients. But nevertheless it satisfied a real need of the heart; +men wished to raise themselves and those they loved, out of the common +realities of life into a purer atmosphere: as angels, they placed them +in the golden halo of the Christian heaven; as goddesses, in the ancient +Olympus; as Chloe, in the sweet perfumed air of the Idylls. In the same +childish effort to make themselves honourable, dignified, and great, +they wore peruques, introduced ridiculous titles, believed in the +philosopher's stone, and entered into secret societies; and whoever +would write a history of the German mind might well call this a period +of ardent aspirations. These aspirations were not altogether estimable, +by turns they became vague, childish, fanatical, stupid, sentimental, +and at last dissolute; but beneath might always be discovered the +feeling that there was something wanting in German life. Was it a higher +morality? Was it gaiety? Perhaps it was the grace of God? The beautiful +or the frivolous? Or perhaps that was wanting to the people, which the +princes had long possessed, political life. With the broken window-panes +of the Thirty years' war, and the choice phrases of the young officers +who banqueted in the tent of General Hatzfeld, this period of aspiration +began; it reached its highest point in the fine minds which gathered +round Goethe, and in the brothers who embraced in the east, and it ended +perhaps with the war of freedom, or amidst the alarms of 1848. + +The home life of the respectable citizen of the seventeenth century was +as strictly regulated as was his wooing, prudent and circumspect, even +in the most minute particulars. His energies were occupied in strenuous +labour from morning to evening, which afforded him a secret +satisfaction. Thoughtful and meditative, the artisan sat over his work, +and sought to derive pleasure from the labour of his hands. The workman +was still full of anxiety, but the beautiful product of his hands was +precious to him. Most of the great inventions of modern times were +thought out in the workshops of German citizens, though they may indeed +sometimes have been first brought into practical use in foreign +countries. Scarcely was the war ended when the workshops were again in +full activity, the hammer sounded, the weavers' shuttle flew, the joiner +sought to collect beautiful veined woods, in order to inlay wardrobes +and writing-tables with ornamental arabesques. Even the poor little +scribe began again to enjoy the use of his pen; he encircled his +characters with beautiful flourishes, and looked with heartfelt pride +on his far-famed Saxon _ductus_. The scholar also was occupied +incessantly with thick quartos; but the full bloom of German literature +had not yet arrived. Everywhere, indeed, interest was aroused in +collecting materials and details, and the industry and knowledge of +individuals appears prodigious. But they knew not how to work out these +details, it was pre-eminently a period of collection. Historical +documents, the legal usages of nations, the old works of theologians, +the lives of the saints, and stores of words of all languages were +compiled in massive works, the inquiring mind lost itself in the +insignificant, without comprehending how to give life to individual +learning. It wrote upon antique ink-horns and shoes it reckoned +accurately the length and breadth of Noah's ark, and examined +conscientiously the length of the spear of the old Landsknecht Goliah. +Thus we find that industry did not obtain the full benefit of its +labour; yet it assisted much in training the genius of our great +astronomer Leibnitz; it also helped to give an ideal purpose to man, a +spirit for which he might live. + +The war had inflicted much injury on the artisan, and it was first in +domestic life that he began to recover from the effects of it. The +weaker minds withdrew entirely into their homes, for there was little +satisfaction in public life, and their means of defence were diminished. +There was now peace, and the old gates of the battered city walls grated +on their hinges, but trivial quarrels distracted the council-table, and +envious tittle-tattle and malignant calumny embittered every hour of the +year to those stronger minds that exerted themselves for the public +good. A morbid terror of publicity prevailed. When in the beginning of +the eighteenth century the first weekly advertisers sprang up, and the +Council of Frankfort-on-Main conceded to the undertakers of it, a weekly +list of baptisms, marriages, and deaths, there was a general burst of +displeasure; it was considered insupportable that such private concerns +should be made public. So completely had the German become a private +character. + +There were few cities then in Germany on whose social life we can dwell +with satisfaction. Hamburg is perhaps the best specimen that can be +given. Even there war and its consequences had caused great devastation, +but the fresh air that blew from the wide ocean through the streets of +the honest citizens of a free town, soon invigorated their energies. +Their self-government, and position as a small state in union with +foreign powers, preserved their community from extreme +narrow-mindedness, and it appears that in the period of laxity and +weakness that followed the Thirty years' war, they became by their +energetic conduct the principal gainers. Land traffic with the interior +of Germany, as also nautical commerce across the North Sea and Atlantic +Ocean, recovered their elasticity soon after the termination of the war. +Hamburg envoys and agents negotiated with the States-general, and at the +court of Cromwell. The Hamburgers possessed not only a merchant fleet, +but also a small navy. Their two frigates were, more than once, a terror +to the pirates of the Mediterranean and of the German Ocean. They +convoyed, now Greenland and Archangel navigators, now great fleets of +from forty to fifty merchantmen, to Oporto, Lisbon, Cadiz, Malta, and +Leghorn, in short, wherever there were Hamburg settlements. + +This commerce, inferior as it may be to that of the present day, was +perhaps, in proportion to that of other German seaports of the +seventeenth century, more important than now. The young Hamburgers went +then to the seaports of the German and Atlantic Ocean, and of the +Mediterranean, as they now do to America, and founded there commercial +houses on their own account. Thus was formed in Hamburg a +cosmopolitanism which is still characteristic of that great city. But it +was undoubtedly more difficult for that generation to conform themselves +to foreign customs, than for the present. It was not devotion to the +German empire, but an attachment to the customs of their daily life and +family ties, which made the Hamburgers then, as now, rarely consider a +foreign country as their fixed home. When they had passed a course of +years abroad, in profitable activity, they hastened home, in order to +form a household with a German wife. The warm patriotism and the prudent +pliancy to foreign customs, which are peculiar to the citizens of small +republics, were produced by this kind of life, and also the love of +enterprise, and the enlarged views, which were seldom to be found then +in the courts of Princes in the interior. Thus the family of a Hamburg +patrician of that period shows a number of interesting peculiarities +which are well worth dwelling upon. + +Such a family was that of the Burgomaster Johann Schulte, whose race +still survives on the female side. Johann Schulte (who lived 1621-1697), +was of ancient family, he had studied at Rostock, Strasburg, and Basle, +had travelled, and married whilst secretary to the city council, and had +then acted as envoy from Hamburg to Cromwell. He became burgomaster in +1668, was a worthy gentleman of great moderation of character, +experienced in all worldly affairs as well as in the government of his +good city, a happy husband and father. Some letters are preserved from +him to his son, who in 1680 entered into partnership in a Lisbon house. +These letters contain many instructive details. But most interesting, is +the pleasing insight we get into the family life at that period; the +terms the father was on with his children, the heartiness of the feeling +on both sides; in the father the quiet dignity, and wisdom of the much +experienced man, with a strong feeling of his distinguished position, +and in all the members of the family a firm bond of union, which, in +spite of all the inevitable disputes within the circle, formed an +impenetrable barrier to all without. + +A journey to Lisbon, and a separation of many years from the paternal +house, was then a great affair. When the son, after his departure amid +the tears and pious blessings and good wishes of parents and sisters, +was detained by contrary winds at Cuxhaven, his father lost no time in +sending him "a small prayer book; item, a book called 'The Merry Club,' +and Gottfried Schulze's Chronicle, also a box of cream of tartar, and a +blue stone pitcher with tamarinds, and preserved lemon-peel for +sea-sickness." The son during his voyage, called to mind that he owed +his brother three marks and six shillings, and anxiously entreated his +mother to withdraw that sum for him from the eight thalers he had left +in her keeping. The father liberally responded, that the eight thalers +should be kept for him undiminished, that his mother would make no +difficulty about three marks. After the son was established at Lisbon, +regular supplies were sent of Zerbster and Hamburg beer, butter, and +smoked meats, as also prescriptions for illnesses, and whatever else the +care of the mother could procure for the absent son; he on the other +hand sent oranges back, and casks of wine. The father accurately +reported the changes which had occurred in the family, and among the +citizens of the good city of Hamburg, and zealously laboured to send his +son, commissions from his Hamburg friends. Soon the son confessed to his +parents from that foreign land, that he loved a maiden at Hamburg; +naturally one of the acquaintances of the family, and the father +sympathized in this love affair, but always treated it as a matter of +serious negotiation, which was to be cautiously and tenderly dealt with. +It is clearly the object of the father to put off the wooing and +proposal till his son had been some years abroad, and with diplomatic +tact he meets his son's wishes just far enough to retain his confidence. + +What however is perhaps most characteristic of that period, is the +advice given by the father to the son as to the necessity of adapting +himself to the usages of foreign countries. The son is a pious zealous +Protestant, whose conscience was much disquieted at having to live among +strict Roman Catholics, and to join the practices so repugnant to him of +Roman Catholic countries. What the father writes to him on this subject, +is here given from the first letters, with the slight alterations +necessary to make them intelligible. + + +"Dear Son, + +"It is a week to-day since the last meeting of the Council, under my +government, for this year, and I sent in the afternoon to the post-house +to inquire whether the Spanish letters had arrived, and received for +answer, No. The following day, at noon on Saturday, Herr Brindts sent +his servant with your letter of the 11/22 of this month. As far as +concerns your letter, we are in the first place all rejoiced that, +thanks to God, you are in good health, which is a great mercy; and then +that you are well pleased with your partners, and on this account +likewise you should thank the Lord, that you have met in a foreign +country with such honourable and well-disposed men. God grant that you +may henceforth pass your time with all contentment, in peace and +harmony, and also in a sound and prosperous condition till it pleases +God to restore you to your country. Nevertheless, in reading your letter +I have remarked that your place of residence, Lisbon, and its +inhabitants, both clerical and lay, are not altogether suited to you, +and you do not find yourself quite right in your present position, owing +to which I discover in you some traces of impatience. It cannot be +otherwise than that the change from Hamburg to Lisbon, the difference +between the inhabitants of one and the other, their customs and +behaviour, and many other things, should strike you with amazement, nay, +even with consternation and anger; but you must remember that there and +in other places, you have had many predecessors in like case, with whom +it has fared the same, and to whom the great change in everything, +especially in religious matters, has appeared very surprising. + +"According to the Latin adage, _post nubila Phœbus_, that is, bad +weather is followed by brighter and more agreeable sunshine, which may +the most benign God in his mercy fulfil to you, and grant that, as you +met with and endured great dangers and bodily weakness by sea, the time +which you may spend in Portugal may sweeten and brighten the former sour +and bitter days, and that you may by degrees forget those bad days, and +be comforted and rejoice in the good ones, which may the Almighty in his +mercy constantly grant and bestow upon you. Amen. + +"Brother-in-law Gerdt Buermeister (who loves you as his child) told me +to-day, that many things would indeed appear surprising to you on your +first arrival at Lisbon, especially the seeing on all sides the forms of +white, black, and gray monks and other persons; but it would be only +three or four months, before you would become accustomed to this and +other things. Now it is certainly true that one gets habituated in time +to everything. I was for four years constantly at Strasburg, and got so +accustomed to it that it became alike to me whether I lived at Strasburg +or Hamburg, and was never disturbed about anything. + +"Believe me and others, you will find equally that a short time and a +little patience will alter and improve all. I trust in God, therefore, +that I shall in the course of eight or ten weeks receive from you more +satisfactory letters, especially as you gradually make progress in the +language. Brother-in-law Gerdt Buermeister says that he was twelve years +old when he arrived at Lisbon, and he could not sufficiently describe +his dissatisfaction; and whenever he descried the monks he thought they +were devils; he would also have poured water on them from above, but +would have got into difficulties thereby: he says, that when he was +obliged to go out he felt terrified, but he soon overcame his fears. As +regards religion, you must be judicious, and as much as possible avoid +all hypocrisy, and never enter into discourse with your partner, nor +with any one, on religious topics, but continue yourself at fitting +times to read thereon, and also pray to God with devotion morning and +evening, and put your firm trust in Him, that as He has so wonderfully +called you to that place, He will also be, and ever remain your gracious +Father and protector under all apparent crosses. + +"You state that you have already once sinned from necessity, when the +consecrated host was carried past--or as it is otherwise called the +venerabile--and ask whether you have well done to pray for yourself, and +whether the good God will hear and forgive you this sin. I cannot +forbear relating to you on this occasion what befel me at Maintz: when, +in 1641, I journeyed from Hamburg to Strasburg, and was obliged to +remain quiet at Frankfort for a fortnight during the fair, I went to +Maintz, which is four miles from thence. It so happened I was there a +Sunday, on which a special feast was kept by the Roman Catholics; so I +ascertained in which church the Elector was to attend mass, betook +myself there, and found in the church many devout people on their knees. +Some had their _rosarium_ or rosaries in their hands, and said the Ave +Maria and Lord's prayer, others smote their breasts with their hands +like the penitent publican, and repented of their sins. I thus in some +sort inspected the people, and thought their devotion commendable, and +wished also that such good devotion in outward demeanour in the church +could be found among us Lutherans. Meanwhile the Elector came, and +entered into the choir. I, as an inquisitive young man, pressed in +together with him, and as I was well dressed, having round me a scarlet +mantle, the halberdiers allowed me to pass, supposing me to be a young +nobleman. In the mean time the Herr von Andlaw chanted the mass in +_pontificalibus_, that is he had a bishop's hat or cap on his head, and +a bishop's staff in his hand. I had good thoughts as I looked on all +these ceremonies, and all was as yet well. But when the Herr von Andlaw +raised the consecrated cup, then all knelt down who were standing by me, +I did the same, and said a Paternoster. To this I was led by my +curiosity, but you were led unavoidably, and I trust in God that He will +forgive me and you this fault. Besides this once, I have been in the +Roman Catholic church frequently in France, and especially at Orleans on +a Sunday afternoon, and have heard good music, but have never found my +limbs tremble as you write that you have experienced. One should not be +like a timid hare, but maintain always a constant steadfast heart. You +mention that in Lisbon there are many priests, and also many churches +and monasteries. Well! let it be so, that is nothing to you; however +many priests there may be there they will not bite you, only take heed +to yourself. No one can compel you to go to mass or into the church, and +if at Easter you can obtain a ticket from an ecclesiastic, as if you had +confessed and communicated, you have no farther need to care about the +priests. But if you see the priests at a distance coming towards you +with the consecrated host, use all caution and turn into a byway, or go +into a house. + +"You write to me also, that many are already envious of you, and that +Frick and Amsing are amongst the number. My son! who is without envious +rivals? The more a person prospers, the more there are who envy them. +Therefore the Dutch say: _idt is beter, beniedt als beklaegt, als idt +man onsen lieven Heer behaegt._ What think you of the many who envy me, +but whereof I know only a few, most of them I know not. On that account +one has to pray in the Litany: 'That it may please the Lord to forgive +our enemies, persecutors, and slanderers, and turn their hearts.' I +should have been glad to see that when Frick and Amsing invited you +twice you had gone to them. You write that they would have +cross-questioned you. But you are not such a child that they could have +cross-questioned you, particularly as you could undoubtedly tell them +what you chose, and what they ought to know. You write also that Frick +did not take off his hat to you; now you are younger than Frick, and +thus it behoved you to greet him first. You tell me also that Amsing +gave good words with his mouth, while gall was in his heart; to that I +answer, that one must set a thief to catch a thief; give always good +words to all, be they ecclesiastics or laymen, and keep to yourself your +own thoughts, that is the way of the world. + +"It is particularly satisfactory to us to find from your letter that you +hope soon to make progress in the Portuguese language, which will cause +you great contentment, and although on account of your deficiency in +that language, you cannot yet give any special help and assistance in +buying and selling, yet you can keep the books, and be assiduous in +setting down and registering everything. + +"Admonish your young Heinrich to fear God, and to that end to pray and +read, and make him read to you in your room on the forenoon of Sunday +from the _Molleri postilla_. + +"Your mother has spoken to Gunther Andreas, and told him he must take +heed, and when a vessel is noted up at the exchange to be laden for +Lisbon, send a ton of beer by it. You have in your mother's hands not +eight marks, ten shillings, but eight good rix-dollars, which I have +before written to you. And if the eight rix-dollars are already gone, a +ton of beer will not signify. You have always as much or more in hand. +We will also, God willing, send you a present of fresh smoked Elbe +salmon, for I have already had two salmon in the smoke three days, one +of which we have destined for you. The salmon fishery promises fair, +though as yet a pound costs one mark. + +"Last Monday we held our Peter's, and yesterday our Matthias's +collation, when I had a convenient opportunity to recommend you and your +brother-partner to Herr Brümmelman. The same reported to me that he had +received letters from you, and the good honest man opened his mind to me +thoroughly, and told me that he would answer you by this post, also that +I need not doubt God would bless you and your brother-partner, and you +would have no cause to complain. God grant you health, patience, and a +constant cheerful spirit, also pleasure in and love for your business +and work of superintendence. A common proverb says: _ora et labora_, and +let God be your councillor. This do, and throw all your cares on the +Lord, and it will be well with you. Wherewith I conclude for this time, +as I brought to a close yesterday my seventh year of administration, and +by God's grace and favour have concluded it; and together with the +friendly greetings of all your dear belongings, I faithfully commend you +to the secure protection of the great God, and remains always + + "Your kindly affectionate father, + + "Johann Schulte, Lt. + +"Hamburg, Feb. 25, 1681. + +"P.S. I have mentioned, in my letter of the 14th of January, if I am not +mistaken, that the pleasant fellow Heinrich Mein served up to us and the +ship's company a rarity, a dish of fish which had been cooked in Lisbon. +Now you might intend sending me a gift of the like in future, but do not +do it, it would cost you trouble and money, and I care not much about +it. Vale. + +"P.S. Your lady mother sends you most kindly greeting from herself, and +is glad to find, _par curiosité_, that you here and there mention in +your letters what kind of weather you have, and what vegetables and +fruit you get in succession; you may also touch lightly upon what meat +and fish or vegetables you eat. And you should look to it that you eat +wholesome food, and above all not too much. Here indeed the Elbe is +open, and there is tolerably mild weather; we have good Elbe and sea +fish, only we have deep muddy roads, and a foggy thick atmosphere, +whilst with you doubtless all is now green and gay and everything in +blossom. + +"P.S. As the price of letters to Spain and Portugal runs somewhat higher +than to other places, I write, contrary to my usual habit and manner, +somewhat small and _compresser_. Write small and light letters, but +tolerably long ones, and _menagire_ also herein. Vale." + + +Thus far the cautious Burgomaster Johann Schulte. He had the pleasure of +seeing his son return safe from the land of monks, and united after +many family negotiations to the maiden of his choice. + +Labour undoubtedly makes men firm and enduring, and it more especially +serves the egotistic interests of men of sound capacity; but to any one +whose vocation it is to be employed for the benefit of others, the +service will be consecrated by a feeling of duty. Every employment which +is capable of maintaining life gives man also a position. The journeyman +is the official of his master, the housewife has the office of the keys, +and every work develops even in the smallest circle a domain of moral +duties. The German has never been deficient in a feeling of the duties +of home and of his trade. There always have been citizens who were not +only ready to die for their city, but who have sometimes passed a life +of self-sacrifice for it. The Reformation elevated the feeling of duty +to a higher domain of earthly action and the self-denial and +self-sacrifice of the pious shepherd of souls should always be highly +esteemed; but on closer observation, we perceive that the foundation of +this more elevated feeling of duty was more especially of a religious +nature. It was the command of God which men sought to obey; where the +Scripture did not command with powerful voice, the feeling for the +universal good was not so strongly developed, and the perception of the +duties of their own position was uncertain. + +It is instructive to notice that it was the armies brought together by +the war which first raised the citizen's idea of the duties of his +calling. The soldier's feeling of honour not only developed itself in a +noble esprit de corps, but became the source gradually of official +honour in the citizen. First of all it gave him honour in the eyes of +others when he fulfilled his duty, but also it afforded himself internal +satisfaction and a just pride. Thus after the fidelity of the middle +ages and the piety of the Reformation there arose a new domain of moral +requirements. There was more of feeling than of the result of thought in +it, but it was still an advance; though at first indeed only among the +best. + +Two years after the paternal admonitions of Herr Burgomaster Schulte to +his son, at a little distance south of Lisbon, the life of a Hamburger +was put an end to by a fearful catastrophe. The account of it is given +in an old narrative. + +Berend Jacob Carpfanger was one of the captains at Hamburg. He was born +in that city in 1623; he got his schooling, as was the custom, in the +merchant service; he early became a member of the admiralty, and at last +as captain of convoys, commander of one of the vessels of war which had +to defend the merchantmen against pirates. These marine officers of the +city, besides having to exercise the highest official control in their +fleet, had to perform diplomatic negotiations in the harbours, and +sometimes were sent for the same purpose to foreign courts. It was +necessary for them to have some practice in business, and to know how to +associate with great lords, so as to maintain the honour and fame of +their city. Carpfanger was considered in his city an elegant, smart man, +who knew better than most how to conduct himself. He had an earnest +countenance, almost melancholy, a high forehead, large eyes, and a chin +and mouth of great power. His health appeared rather less strong than +was desirable in a seaman. He had given proof that he understood how to +conduct a sea-fight, and had often been in bloody actions. For the +Barbary pirates still continued their depredations both on sea and land. +Not only in galleys, but in large frigates did these birds of prey bear +down upon the swarm of commercial vessels. It was just at that period +that the 'Hund' was the terror of European seas. Far over the channel, +from Gibraltar onwards, on the great ocean, nay, on the coasts of the +Northern Sea, his swift vessels made their appearance; dreadful were the +harbour tales of their temerity, violence, and bloodthirstiness. In the +year 1662, a squadron of eight Hamburg merchantmen had become the booty +of these "barbarians." + +In 1674, the burgomaster of the admiralty girded the silver sword on +Captain Carpfanger, and handed to him the admiral's staff. Then the +seaman swore before the senate, that he would manfully defend the fleet +intrusted to him, and sacrifice everything, body and soul, rather than +abandon his ship. + +During the ten years that passed after that, up to his death, he made an +annual voyage, starting with his fleet in the Spring and returning home +in August. He had many severe struggles with storm and waves, and often +complained how unfavourable the elements were to him. + +Thus he went to Cadiz and Malaga, to the Northern frozen ocean, and to +Lisbon. From an expedition to Greenland, his fleet of fifty vessels +brought home a booty of five hundred and fifty whales. Once when +returning home he was attacked at the north of the Elbe by five French +privateers; in the course of a twelve hours' fight he sent two to the +bottom by his shot, and they sank before his eyes with every man and +mouse on board, the remainder escaped to the open sea. He was also +engaged with the Brandenburg privateers. It happened that the admiral's +red flag of Hamburg floated on the gaff of the Besan threateningly +against the red eagle of Brandenburg; for in 1679 the great Elector was +not favourably disposed towards the Hamburgers, and his little vessels +of war had already captured many of theirs. The opponents met, but +Carpfanger had strict instructions to keep on the defensive, therefore +it came to a good issue. The large ship inspired the Brandenburgers with +respect; they sent the long-boat with two officers to salute him, and +"in order to inspect the arrangements of the ship." The Hamburger +regaled them with wine in his cabin, and then they politely took leave. +Their vessel fired a salute, which Carpfanger answered with equal +courtesy, and then both sailed away. + +Again the captain on one of his voyages met with a fleet of Spanish +galleons in fight with Turkish pirates. The combat was taking an +unfavourable turn for the Spaniards; some heavy galleons had been cut +out and overpowered by the pirates. Carpfanger attacked the pirates, and +by a broadside freed the Spanish vessels. He was on this account invited +to the court of Charles II., and presented by the king with a golden +chain of honour. + +When in August he exchanged the winds and waves for the narrow streets +of the old city, even there little rest was allowed him. First there +were disputes with the senate about expenses, a writing of reports, the +vindication of particular arrangements which did not appear clear to the +gentlemen of the council-table, or injured some private interest, and +all the vexations of the counting office which are so hateful to the +seaman. For there is no lack of petty trading spirit in old Hamburg. In +the winter of 1680, his dear wife died in the prime of life. + +Again and again he convoyed merchantmen to Cadiz and Malaga: in 1683 he +commanded the frigate 'The Arms of Hamburg.' The passage had been +lengthened by a storm, and a leaking vessel in the fleet, but it had +already been made known at the Hamburg Exchange that the captain was +about to return from Spain _viâ_ the Isle of Wight. Then there came +instead of him, sorrowful tidings. These will be here given; it is an +example of the old method by which news was rapidly spread. + + + "Sorrowful tidings from Cadiz in Spain. + + "From Cadiz 12/22 October. + +"Good and dear friend, + +"I could have wished that this my letter might have awakened joy rather +than occasioned sorrow. But when we mortal men are in the highest tide +of happiness, and think of nought but gladness, misfortune hovers over +our heads. + +"Such, alas! contrary to all expectation, has been the case with me and +all who together with me came in the convoyship 'The Arms of Hamburg.' + +"On October 10/20, I and our chief officers, as also the noble captain's +son and his cousin, had the honour of taking supper with our noble +captain. When it was about eight o'clock and we were on the point of +rising from table, our cabin-watch brought the sad tidings that there +was fire in the hold of our ship. Thereupon our noble captain and we all +sprang up terrified from the table and hastened to the spot, where we +found all the cordage in the hold already in full blaze. By the order of +the captain, buckets and water-casks were speedily brought; much water +was poured on it, and some holes opened because this place was not +easily reached; all this in hopes of extinguishing the fire. Our people, +especially the soldiers, who were valiantly urged on by their commander, +worked assiduously, but all in vain, for no diminution could be +perceived in the fire, but only increase. Divers guns were fired as +signals of distress, in order to procure help, but fruitlessly, as the +other vessels afterwards pretended they did not know what such firing +signified. + +"Thus the captain was obliged to send our lieutenant in the small cutter +to the surrounding vessels, to acquaint them with our unhappy condition, +to entreat the aid of their cutters and boats, and procure some +pump-hose. They came, it is true, but stopped at a distance; for the +fire was very near the place where the powder, which used to lie in the +fore-part of the ship, was kept, and it was impossible, on account of +the great heat, to bring it away; so every one feared that the ship, and +we all, one with another, should be blown up, if the flames were to +reach it. On this account many of the seamen gave up the work, and +retreated into the boats and the large cutter behind the ship, or made +away in foreign boats, however much we implored of these not to carry +off our people. + +"To those in our boat and great cutter, the captain called out from the +cabin window, that they should remember the oath they had sworn to him +and the magistracy, and not abandon him, but return on board, as at +present there was no danger, and by God's help the fire might be +extinguished. + +"These certainly obeyed the command, and began to work again earnestly, +but it all was of no avail for the fire increased more and more. After +working assiduously but fruitlessly for two hours, the lieutenant and +shipmaster, as also the other officers, went to the captain, and +informed him that, alas! there was no more help, that it was impossible +to save the good ship, and it was now high time to save themselves, if +they did not intend to be burned in the ship or blown up with it. For +between the fire and the powder there was now only a plank of a +finger-breadth remaining. But the captain, who still thought to preserve +the ship, and prized his honour more than life and everything in the +world, answered that he would not leave the ship, but would live and die +therein. His son fell on his knees before him, and besought him for +God's sake to think better of it, and seek to preserve his life. To whom +he replied: 'Away with you, I know better what is intrusted to me.' + +"Thereupon he commanded the quartermaster to place this his son, +together with his cousin, in another vessel, which was then done. He +would not allow the least bit of his own property to be removed, that +the men might not be disheartened thereby. + +"Meanwhile it was suggested by some that it would be best to cut a hole +in the ship and let her go to the bottom; to this however the captain +would not consent, but said he had still hopes of saving her. Others +advised to cut the cable and strand the ship. This was at last agreed +to, and the order given to cut the cable. But just as this was about to +be done, when the mizen and foremast were on the point of falling, and +the people were still sitting on the fore-yard, the powder in the +fore-part of the ship caught fire. The force of it however being broken +by the pouring in of a large body of water it only blew up with a whizz. +The fire burnt through the deck almost to the foremast, and as a stiff +east wind blew above, and the vessel lay to the wind, it ran up the mast +into the shrouds and sails, and in a moment over the whole ship. + +"When the people who were still in the vessel saw this, they sought to +fly with pitiful shrieks. Some ran to the cabin, hoping to find safety +there; others to the gun-room. At the door of this last, the +lieutenant, by order of the captain, had placed himself, together with a +soldier with a loaded gun, to prevent any one from running through the +room into the large cutter, which lay fastened just behind it. The +lieutenant was pressed through the door, and thus obliged to betake +himself to the cutter, followed forthwith by a throng of people: many +sprang into the boat. As this however, was already pushed off, because +the fire from behind burnt quite over, and as it appeared likely that +the fire would reach the powder at the back of the ship, and all who +were around and near it would be blown up, the poor men who were still +in the ship, and did not wish to be burnt, determined to abandon +themselves to the waves, and sprang into the water. It would have melted +a heart of stone to have heard the cries and shrieks of these miserable +men, driven about in shoals in the water, so that nothing but heads +could be seen. Now whilst the fire was driven by the wind from the +fore-part to the stem with great power, its violence increasing with its +duration, I stood in the cabin with divers persons round the captain; +they moaned and wept before him, and at the same time exhorted him, +saying there was no time now to remain any longer. + +"I went from them to the window, to see whether there was yet a boat at +hand, and found that the large cutter was still fastened to the ship. I +took my resolution, and commending my life to God, sprang through the +cabin window into the boat; which succeeded so well that I was saved +therein without suffering any damage. As I turned my back to the +captain, he, with the persons remaining by him, among whom were the +commander and some soldiers and seamen, went out of the door. I thought +they were seeking to save themselves, as indeed they were willing to do; +for I perceived that they went to the great blaze with the intention of +forcing the captain into a boat. But finding none, as the flames were +already over their heads they left the captain and sprang overboard. + +"As soon as I was in the large cutter, the lieutenant became visible; I +asked him whether the captain was out of the ship, he answered that a +Dutch captain had saved him. Now when we thought we were assured +thereof, we loosened the cutter in all haste, for there were many people +swimming about in the water, seeking to save themselves therein; and the +cutter was almost dragged down by them, as many clung to its side. It +was also to be feared that we should be blown up when the flames reached +the powder. + +"When we had gone about a cable's length from the ship, many pieces of +it fell asunder by reason of the heat of the fire; and the grenades +sprang one after another. The fire, at last, towards one o'clock, +reached the powder in the powder room, and with one hollow clap the +stern of the vessel blew up; whereupon the remaining portion, with all +that was still therein, went to the bottom, after the good ship had been +burning about five hours. + +"Meanwhile we came with our cutter to another ship lying in the bay, and +put out the people who had been saved, with the exception of the +necessary rowers; with whom the lieutenant, during the remaining portion +of the night, sought sorrowfully after the noble captain among all the +vessels in the bay. But in vain, as he was nowhere to be found. + +"On the following day, about ten in the forenoon, notice was given by +the English cutter of Captain Thompson's ship, that the body of our +captain, alas! had been driven on to their boat's cable, and had been +rescued by them. + +"Thereupon, the now deceased good man was forthwith brought from the +vessel of the said Captain Thompson, and as was fitting, was clothed in +clean linen, for which Captain Thompson was paid with gratitude. + +"Of all the men who lost their lives by this great misfortune (of seamen +two-and-forty, of soldiers two-and-twenty), the deceased noble captain +was the first that was found. Preparations were forthwith made for his +funeral, and when everything needful was provided, on Saturday the 13th +of this month, he was consigned to the grave according to Christian +usages, here behind the Puntales, in the place where it is the custom to +bury those of foreign nations. Our _Domine_ first preached a fine +funeral discourse; the body was convoyed by some twenty cutters, wherein +were many distinguished captains and merchants; in each the flags were +half mast high, as a sign of mourning; in like manner all the English, +Dutch, and Hamburg ships lying here, testified their condolence by +hoisting their flags and Jacks half-mast high, amid the firing of guns, +whereof above three hundred were heard. + +"Who caused this fearful fire and misfortune, or by what negligence it +originated, is unknown. The boatswain's son, who had been in the hold, +and had to watch the lamp which usually burnt there, stated that he had +gone from the hold upon deck, in order to speak to another youth, and on +his return to the hold, found it in flames. God preserve other ships +from a like misfortune, and comfort the widows and orphans of those who +have been lost." + +Here we conclude the news from Cadiz. According to another account the +captain walked alone about his ship up to the last; others declare that +they saw him at an open port-hole, raising his clasped hands to heaven; +and according to others, he last of all committed himself to the waves, +either to be preserved or to sink as God willed it; and it is no wonder +that the weakly old gentleman, after the mental and bodily exertions of +the last hours, should have gone to the bottom. A great marvel had been +observed by the sailors: three doves had for several hours hovered over +the burning ship, to the time of its blowing up.[44] King Charles II. of +Spain caused a monument to be erected on the grave of the Hamburg +seaman; which, according to consular records, was only destroyed in the +Spanish war, the beginning of this century. + +We rejoice that the deceased kept his oath. The honour of his calling +demanded his death, and he died. For it is better that once in a while, +a brave, honest, and able man, though he were still able to save +himself, should go down with his good ship, than that mariners should in +the hour of danger want a model of enduring energy. He died as became a +sailor, silent and collected; he laconically dismissed his own son; his +whole soul was in his employment. May the German citizen never come to +such a pass as to consider the deed of this man, strange and unheard of. +In the inland provinces also, many hundreds of peaceable citizens since +his time have died in the performance of their duty to the utmost of +their power, and beyond it; pastors in the midst of contagion, doctors +in the lazar house, and helpful citizens in dangers from fire. And we +hope that the reader will discern that this is the path of duty, and the +general rule with us. + +And still our hearts heave with the thought that in the same year in +which Strasburg was so ignominiously lost, a fellow-countryman felt even +as we should feel, namely, that there is not much cause for +astonishment, and no occasion for crying and moaning, when any one dies +in the performance of duty. And his memory should be honoured both by +those who traverse the sea, and those who never hear its roar. The +German had much degenerated after 1648, but he yet deserved a better +life; for he still understood how to die for an idea. + + + + + CHAPTER X. + + GERMAN LIFE AT THE BATHS IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. + + +Civilization was undoubtedly, in spite of war and devastation, making +continual progress, for it was not as in ancient times carried on by one +people alone, but by large families of nations; and the blessing of this +higher development in Germany first elevated the life of individuals. +The century of the Reformation had increased the individual independence +of men, and developed what was spontaneous and characteristic in various +directions. After the war, the gap between the classes became greater; +not only was there a difference in their dress, but in their social +manners, their language and mode of life; each class endeavoured to +close its ranks against that which was just beneath it. But this, +however objectionable, was the first result of political progress. At +one time the great classes of princes, nobles, citizens and peasants, +lived in established relations to one another. The religious movement +had created a social ferment, which was a bond of union between the +cities and country aristocracy: now during the war all classes had been +shaken together; a large portion of the nobility had been driven into +the cities, and the impoverished landed proprietor sought a place in the +service of the new state, or in the city community. Undoubtedly there +lay within this the beginning of a higher life, but the old pretensions +did not on that account immediately disappear; the less was the inward +ground for social separation, the more carefully were outward +distinctions preserved. + +Servility towards persons of distinction became general; it extended +from outward marks of courtesy, such as addressing them by their titles, +to the actual sentiment. It was considered an honour by the citizen's +daughter to receive compliments from a cavalier, and he expressed his +bold addresses more smoothly, than her neighbour the poor pedantic +_Magister_, or the awkward merchant's son. + +The social intercourse also of the citizens amongst each other, was +deteriorated by foreign manners. In the past century, the style of +expression when at their ease, was not particularly delicate; but at +that time it was considered thoroughly harmless, and had therefore not +endangered the morality of the women. Now many honourable old words were +proscribed, and in their place _double entendres_ were prevalent; to be +bold and skilful in words, not to speak out what was unseemly, but to +signify it cleverly, became the fashion; and the women and maidens soon +learnt to give a smart answer. The choice pleasantries, the attacks and +repartees that we find in the small compendiums of civilities, which +were for the use of the unassuming citizen, are so pitiable that they +will not be given here. + +But there was no want of hearty cheerfulness: the young people long +continued to play the familiar games which are now confined to children; +they journeyed to Jerusalem, and played at blindman's-buff, which, under +the appearance of accident, gave fine opportunities of venturing on +liberties; games of forfeits with witty fines appear not to have been +usual yet, but sarcastic verses and riddles were in vogue; if at table +there was liver served with the roast or fish, rhymes were made upon it +by turns, no trifling affair, for it was necessary to produce something +neat, and a dunderhead or a simpleton exposed himself dreadfully. +Conversation was considered a serious matter, for which one should be +well prepared; anecdotes and remarkable occurrences were with that view +read beforehand, and he was highly esteemed who could introduce +pertinently some pretty German verse. + +After the war, dancing was frequent in family circles in the evening; +and waltzing was the favourite dance with the citizens: before the lady +was led to the dance she was greeted with a small speech, and if she +were married or a bride, the bridegroom was so likewise: then the dancer +had to lead her, so that her finger lay lightly on his. In the dance he +was not to spring about, nor to oblige her to make unnecessary springs, +which might toss her dress up to her girdle, nor was he to tear her +dress with his spurs. After the dance there was another short speech and +answer. Finally he was to take her home, and in doing so it was +necessary to be on his guard that there was no rival lurking for him +with a cudgel, as was often the case. When arrived at the dwelling, he +had first to make his excuses to the parents for having, by escorting +her, allowed his homage to be perceived, and then to the lady, whom he +commended to the gracious protection of the Most High, and tenderly +signified that he would wish to kiss her pillow. + +It is not easy to form any true idea of the old society from the general +literature, for the numerous writers of comedies and novels give us +mostly caricatures; they find their account in bringing everything down +to a low level. It is for this reason, therefore, that the unbiassed +records of cotemporaries are so instructive. + +In the olden time there were as now, baths to which all those resorted +who wished for social amusement; and the bath life shows at least the +forms of easy intercourse away from home; therefore a number of small +pictures will be given here from the baths of Zurich, the most famous of +all the German baths at the conclusion of the middle ages. The doings of +the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries will be better explained by +comparing with them, the former period of the fifteenth and sixteenth +centuries. + +Switzerland was by the peace of Westphalia entirely detached from the +Empire; but the political separation had not led the German burgher life +into foreign channels. The unity of mind remained, more than once have +the literary men, the poets and artists of Switzerland, had an important +share in the development of the German mind. Even now is this inward +unity undiminished, and Germans and Swiss alike have reason to +congratulate themselves on it. After the great war, the Swiss had +honestly participated in the pleasures and sorrows of the German; they +also had suffered by the war, and were in political troubles; a +narrow-minded patrician government oppressed the country; there also, +energy, public spirit and conscience, had been weakened. + +The following narrative paints the state of things at Baden, and equally +portrays the Bath life of Germans in the interior of the Empire. + + + Bath Life in the year 1417. + +The Florentine, Francis Poggio (1380-1459), one of the great Italians +who spread the Humanitarian literature throughout their native country, +then held the office of Papal secretary; in this capacity he was +actively employed at the Council of Constance, and visited Baden from +thence. He describes his impressions of travel in an elegant Latin +letter to his friend, the learned Nicolo Nicoli; he himself was then an +ecclesiastic. In order to understand thoroughly how much the reformation +of the Church, which took place a century later, was brought about by +the excited moral feeling of the people, we should pay attention to the +cool, haughty freedom of tone of the following letter. Poggio was a +great scholar and a prudent statesman; he was one of the most refined +among the highly cultivated Italians; nay, more, he had a fierce, manly +spirit, and was always exhorting his literary friends to seriousness. +But with his classical literature he had also adopted the spirit of a +distinguished Roman of the time of Tiberius, and it makes a disagreeable +impression to find how mildly and good-humouredly the secretary of the +Pope, the priest, the scholar, the offshoot of the civilization of his +time, viewed the profligacy of both ecclesiastics and laity. His letter, +which follows here, is abbreviated in some places:-- + +"Baden itself affords the mind little or no diversion; but has in all +other respects such extraordinary charm, that I could often dream that +Venus had come from Cypress, for whatever the world contains of beauty +has assembled here, and so much do they uphold the customs of this +goddess, so fully do you find again her manners and dissoluteness, that +little as they may have read the speech of Heliogabalus, they appear to +be perfectly instructed by Nature herself. + +"About a quarter of an hour's drive from the town, on the other side of +the river, there is a beautiful village, established for the use of the +baths; in the middle of the village is a large _platz_, surrounded by +splendid inns, which contain a multitude of people. Each house has its +own bath, which can only be made use of by those who reside there. The +number of public and private baths amounts altogether to full thirty. +Two special places, open on all sides, are appointed for the lowest +classes of the people; and the common crowd, men, women, boys, and +unmarried maidens, and the dregs of all that collect together here, make +use of them. In these baths there is a partition wall, dividing the two +sexes, but this is only put up for the sake of peace; and it is amusing +to see how, at the same time, decrepit old beldames and young maidens +descend into it naked, before all eyes, and expose their charms to the +gaze of the men. More than once I have laughed at this splendid +spectacle; it has brought to my mind the games of Flora at Rome, and I +have much admired their simplicity who do not in the least see or think +anything wrong in it. + +"The special baths at the inns are beautifully adorned, and common to +both sexes. It is true they are divided by a wainscot, but divers open +windows have been introduced therein, through which they can drink with, +speak to, see, and touch each other, as frequently happens. Besides +this, there are galleries above, where the men meet and chatter +together, for every one is free to enter the bath of another, and to +tarry there, in order to look about, and joke and enliven his spirits, +by seeing beautiful women nude when they go in and come out. No guard +watches the avenues here; no door, and, above all, no thought of +impropriety hinders them. In many baths both sexes have access to the +bath by the same entrance, and it not unfrequently comes to pass, that a +man meets a naked woman, and the reverse. Nevertheless, the men bind a +cloth round their loins, and the women have a linen dress on, but this +is open either in the middle or on the side, so that neither neck, nor +breast, nor shoulders are covered. The women eat frequently in the bath +itself, of dishes contributed by all, which are placed on a table +floating upon the water, whereto the men naturally resort. In the house +where I bathed, I also was invited to such a feast; I gave my +contribution, but went away, although they did urge me much to stay. And +truly not from shyness, which we here consider as stupid and boorish, +but because I did not understand the language, for it appeared to me +absurd that an Italian, ignorant of German, should pass a whole day +amongst lovely, fair ladies, in a bath, dumb and speechless, merely +eating and drinking. Two of my friends however, who were present, ate, +drank and toyed, spoke to the ladies through an interpreter, fanned +them, and in short enjoyed themselves much. My friends were clothed in a +linen dress, such as the men wear here when they are invited to a +ladies' bath. I saw all from the gallery, their manners and customs, +their good eating, and their free and easy intercourse. It is wonderful +to see in what innocence they live, and with what frank confidence they +regard the men; the liberties which foreigners presume to take with +their ladies does not strike their attention; they interpret everything +well. In Plato's Republic, according to whose rules everything was to be +in common, they would have behaved themselves excellently, as they +already, without knowing his teaching, are so inclined to belong to his +sect. + +"Many visit daily three or four of these baths, and pass there the +greatest part of the day, in singing, drinking, nay in waltzing, and +they play the lute if they are not seated deep in the water. But there +can be nothing more charming than to see budding maidens, or those in +full bloom, with pretty kindly faces, in figure and deportment like +goddesses, strike the lute, then they throw their flowing dress a little +back in the water, and each appears like a Venus. It is the custom of +the women to beg for alms jestingly from the men who view them from +above; one throws to them, especially to the pretty ones, small coins, +which they catch with their hands or with the outspread linen dress, +whilst one pushes away the other, and in this game all their charms were +frequently unveiled. In like manner one threw them down twined wreaths +of divers flowers, with which they adorned their heads while they sat in +the bath. + +"I bathed only twice a day, but attracted by the rich opportunity of +such a spectacle and such fun, I spent the remaining time in visits to +other baths, and threw coin and wreaths like the others. + +"Then the playing of flutes, the tinkling on the guitar and singing +resounded everywhere; there was no time either for reading or thinking; +to have been here the only wise one would have been the greatest folly, +especially for one who will be no self-tormentor, and to whom nothing +human is strange. I was deprived of the highest enjoyment, the main +point, the interchange of speech. So there remained nothing for me but +to feast my eyes on the fair ones, to follow them, to conduct them to +the games, and to escort them back again. There was also such +opportunity for near intercourse, and so great freedom therein, that one +needed not to trouble oneself about regulating it. + +"Besides this varied enjoyment, there was yet another of not less charm. +Behind the courtyards, near the river, lies a large meadow shaded by +many trees. Here every one comes after dinner and diverts himself with +singing dancing, and sundry games. The most part played at ball, but not +after our fashion, but the men and women throw to one another, each to +the one he likes best, a ball, wherein are many bells. All run to catch +it; whoever gets it, wins, and throws it again to his love: all stretch +out their hands again to catch it, and whoever succeeds make pretence as +if they would throw it now to one person now to another. Many other +sports I pass over for brevity's sake. I have recounted this to you, in +order to show how completely they are the disciples of Epicurus. + +"But the most striking thing is the countless multitude of nobles and +plebeians, who collect here from the most distant parts, not so much for +health as for pleasure. All lovers and spendthrifts, all pleasure +seekers, stream together here, for the satisfaction of their desires. +Many women feign bodily ailments, whilst it is really their heart that +is affected; therefore one sees numberless pretty women, without +husbands and relations, with two maid-servants and a man, or with some +old beldame of the family who is more easily deceived than bribed. All +the women come attired to their utmost with smart dresses, gold, silver, +and precious stones, not as if for the baths, but as though it were for +the grandest wedding. There are here also virgins of Vesta, or rather of +Flora; besides, abbots, monks, lay-brothers, and ecclesiastics, and +these live more dissolutely than the others, some of them also live with +the women, adorn their hair with wreaths, and forget all religion. All +have the same object, to fly from melancholy and seek cheerfulness, and +to think of nothing but a merry life of enjoyment; they do not wish to +take the property of others, but to impart their own freely. And it is +remarkable that among the great number, almost thousands of men of +different manners and such a drunken set, no discord arises, no tumults, +no partisanship, no conspiracies, and no swearing. The men allow their +wives to be toyed with, and see them pairing off with entire strangers, +but it does not discompose or surprise them; they think it is all in an +honest and housewifely way. + +"How different are these manners from ours! We put the worst +construction upon everything: we find a pleasure in slander and calumny; +the slightest suspicion is sufficient for us, and equivalent to a clear +transgression. I often envy the composure of the people here, and curse +our perversity, always restlessly seeking, and restlessly desiring. We +compass heaven, earth, and ocean, to procure money, are contented with +no gain, satisfied with no profit. We are continually in fear of future +disaster, and are cast down by unceasing mischances and anxieties, and +in order to preserve ourselves from being unhappy, we never cease to be +so. But here they live for the day, contented with a little; every day +is a festival, they desire no great riches, which would be of no use to +them, but they enjoy what they have, and fear not the future. If they +meet with misfortune they bear it with good courage. But enough, it is +not my purpose to praise them and blame ourselves. I wish this letter to +be lively in order that you, my distant friend, may find in it some +portion of the amusement I have enjoyed at the baths." + +Here we have the elegant representation of the Italian statesman. The +fifteenth century was truly a time of luxury and refined enjoyment, but +what the foreigner relates is not so bad as the way in which he relates +it. + +The Reformation came. It exercised an influence even on the frivolous +people who visited the baths. Life became more earnest and thoughtful, +and the superintendence exercised by the authorities and pastors more +strict. The number of married persons became greater, for it was one of +the favourite tenets of the Protestant opposition, to promote marriage +and domestic discipline. Much fewer became the number of those prelates +and their ladies, monks and roving women, who were not joined in lawful +matrimony. Thus after the time of Luther and Zwinglius, towards the end +of the sixteenth century, we have a very different description of the +baths of Baden, written by an honest German, the doctor of medicine +Pantaleon, a Basle man, rector of the high school and of the +philosophical faculty. Here follow some characteristic fragments. + +"Bath life, 1580.--The free bath, called also burgher bath, is under the +open heaven. It is so long and broad, that above a hundred men can bathe +therein at a time. It is bordered round about with stone pavement, and +many seats are disposed therein. One corner, a fourth part of the bath, +is closed in by a wooden lattice, arranged for the accommodation of the +women. But as the women in general come there, some are wont to go to +the larger bath. In this every one, stranger or native, may bathe +gratis, and divert himself for as long or short a time as he likes. On +Saturday, especially, the people from the city and country come in +crowds, and husbands and wives desire to have their pastime, and to +beautify themselves. But herein one is much surprised, that they in such +wise misuse cupping; for every one will be cupped, and they think for +the most part that they have not bathed if they have not had as many +lancets stock in them as the bristles of a hedgehog. And yet it would be +far more useful to them to obtain a little additional blood. + +"Poor people come oft to the baths of St. Verena, especially in May, +some hundreds together. But they must first look about for an inn, that +they may have some sort of home and not be about in the streets, and +there are three or four inns near the baths. The poor are daily +maintained by the alms of pious people. They place their bowls in a +circle on the wall round the bath, and remain sitting in the bath, and +no one may point out his bowl. Then money, bread, wine, soup, meat, or +other things are put in the bowls, and no one knows to whom they belong. +Great hoards are sometimes collected; the warder who has his little +house near the bath, distributes the gifts in due order, and exhorts the +poor to pray and be thankful. After that, each takes what is in his +bowl, and goes out. But as also there are oft mixed up among the honest, +many bad rogues and idlers who will not work, but take the bread out of +the mouths of others who are in need, it would be useful, were each poor +person who is desirous to obtain alms, to bring a certificate from his +magistrate that he is in need of it, and that the alms will be well +applied. Many bad rogues would then be ashamed. If the poor do aught +that is contrary to order and discipline, they are punished by the +warder, and placed in the lock-up that stands below, near the house +called the Lock and Key. When their month's stay at the bath is ended, +they receive a dismissal from the warder; nay he desires them, according +to the nature of their illness, to go away, to make room for others. +They must attend to him also, under pain of severe punishment. + +"The 'Stadthof' is a large cheerful inn, adorned with many beautiful +rooms, saloons, and chambers. There are two large kitchens, one of which +belongs to the landlord, who provides the guests with all kinds of +meals, or with single dishes, according to every one's need. In the +other, there is a special cook, for all those who buy their own food, +and wish to have it cooked to their own fancy, for this is allowed to +every one. In this house there are eight good baths, of which five are +in common, the remaining three are let out to certain persons by the +week for a fixed sum of money, with the chambers belonging thereto. The +first is the gentlemen's bath, in which men, both noble and others, +ecclesiastics and laymen, young and old, Catholic or Evangelical, come +together without any disputes or quarrels, friendly and peaceably. + +"This bath is almost the same height as the court, and whosoever sits +therein, can look out through the doors into the court, and behold every +one. Whoever wishes to use these baths, pays on entrance two +_doppelvierer_,[45] or one _angster_,[46] and three _kreuzers_. Moreover +the members of the bath community give breakfast at six o'clock every +morning by turns, one much, another little, according as they wish to +distinguish themselves. Although much eating and drinking is not good +with the baths, yet it oft happens that many who sit three or four hours +in the bath, need a little soup, and cannot go on without somewhat to +drink. Yet it were well for some rule to be established, that each +person should not have more than a quart of wine; this would give the +baths a better repute, and they could not then openly write and put in +print, that here is a tippling bath wherein drunken matins are sung. For +the members of the bath community can unite to settle these matters +according to their pleasure. They pray before and after breakfast, and +return thanks to the host in a pleasant song, hoping that he may live +long in all honour, till he gives another breakfast. After that they +nominate him whose turn it is to be the next host, place a garland on +him, and threaten him in a song that they will come to him the morrow +with fifes and drums. But on Sundays and great festivals they +discontinue their breakfasts and songs. + +"At this bath a mayor is chosen by the majority of the bath community, +likewise a governor, treasurer, chaplain, apparator, bailiff, and +executioner, who after breakfast sit in judgment, in order to put an end +to or punish any offences against order and discipline, which may have +been committed in this or the other baths of the house. Each member of +the bath community must also put his left hand on the mayor's staff, and +swear to obey him. The fines which fall in, they give to the poor, or +for wine, or they spend it amongst one another. Thus passes the morning +in pastime. When any one has finished bathing, he takes a friendly +leave, and gives an honourable farewell present. + +"The second bath is the women's bath, in which divers honourable women +and maidens meet together. In this the women also choose, every day, in +turn a hostess, have a cheerful breakfast, thank the hostess, and with a +wreath and pleasant song select another, as in the gentlemen's baths. +They have also a special treasurer who keeps their money and presents in +the treasury, which they spend in a friendly way together. But if +anything unseemly or worthy of punishment takes place, they bring it +before the mayor and court of the gentlemen, that some decision may be +pronounced thereupon, according to old custom. + +"In the third bath--the kettle--come all kinds of people, women and men, +as many as fifty people together; they are modest and friendly with one +another, and eat what they can, and what pleases them. These also are +subject to the court of the gentlemen's bath. Any one also, out of the +gentlemen's or ladies' bath, may go into the kettle. On the other hand, +those in the kettle bath, may not go into the others, unless they pay +their share of the breakfasts. This bath has a very salutary effect, and +the lame and paralytic are often brought here, who soon become vigorous +and straight, and are able of themselves to go away, as in the year +1577, happened to a maiden from Waldshut, who did not over-eat herself, +and bathed according to due order. + +"The Margraves' bath was let out to special persons. The serene and +right honourable Jörg Friedrich, Margrave of Brandenburg, who there +bathed in person in 1575, was painted sitting therein on a horse. When I +think of this bath, I cannot help laughing at a wonderful pleasantry +that took place therein, and which is worth relating. In the aforesaid +year a burgomaster and honourable councillor of the praiseworthy and +far-famed city of Zurich, had sent a handsome bath present to the right +honourable the Prince of Brandenburg, of wine and oats, and commanded +Herr Heinrich Lochmann, the Banneret of Zurich, to present and deliver +this. Now when he appeared with the present at Baden, it happened that +the Prince was somewhat heated and weakened by the bath, so that for +some days he could not appear at table, but kept quiet in his bedroom or +in the bath. Meanwhile he commanded Duke Johann of Liegnitz and his +councillors, to receive the foreign guests and provide them well. Now +what they had made good cheer, and the Banneret was desirous to see the +Prince, it was signified to him that the Prince received no one at +present, but kept in his bedroom or the bath. Then the Banneret swore +and vowed by his honour that he would be received by the Prince, and +would on the morrow before he departed, if it could not be done +otherwise, enter the bath with boots and spurs, and offer the Prince his +hand, that he might tell his superiors he had seen the Prince. Now as I +had sat at the table with him, and had been invited in the morning to +bathe alone with the Prince. I respectfully signified to him what +conversation had been carried on at supper, and what the Banneret +threatened him with. I at the same time told the Prince of the great age +of the Banneret, and his upright, valiant spirit, and begged of his +Princely Grace, in case it should so happen, not to take it +ungraciously. We sat thus together two hours, and spoke with one another +of divers matters, when lo! there comes my good Lochmann, who like an +old simple associate, wished the Prince good day, waded in his boots and +spurs through the water, and offered the Prince his hand. I remarked +that the Prince changed colour. Thereupon the Banneret stepped back and +begged the Prince to forgive him, as he had done it with good intent, +that he might tell his superiors of the benignity and friendliness of +the Prince. Then did the Prince, like a wise and eloquent gentleman, +thank first the Banneret's superiors, and then also himself for the +gift, and commended himself also to the favour of the men of Zurich. +Thus he forgave him this boldness, which had proceeded from a good +true-hearted spirit, and drank to his good friendship in a large goblet +of wine. I received the goblet from the Prince and handed it to the +Banneret, who pledged the Prince and drank to me from the goblet. He +thereupon parted from the Prince quite humbly and joyfully." + +Such is the narrative of the prudent Pantaleon. He is not like Poggio, a +stranger who frankly, and in a spirit of curiosity, describes foreign +manners, who perhaps had every wish to draw a friendly picture of the +life at the baths, and who belonged to a nation which, as Poggio himself +says, is surprised at nothing. But in the same degree as his character +and conceptions differ from those of the Italian, so does the aspect of +the baths appear altered in the century of the Reformation. A greater +earnestness, prayer, and an organized self-police are not to be +mistaken. The last, especially at that time, a general German idea, +deserves attention. The state authorities also had taken the bath life +under their supervision. Gifts were presented to the bath travellers in +the sixteenth century, as they still continued to make presents on their +departure to those who remained behind. As these gifts fostered vanity +and luxury to an extravagant excess, the governments took serious steps +to put a stop to them. + +In the century of the Thirty years' war and of Louis XIV. much of the +self-control and political feeling of the men, and piety of the women +which had been perceptible at the baths, as a consequence of the +Reformation, was lost. Switzerland suffered like Germany. The government +was narrow-minded and tyrannical, and among the subjects there was a +deficiency of self-respect, an aping of foreigners and of French +manners. Again did enjoyment at the baths become dissolute. But even +this is different from the frivolous, wanton behaviour of the fifteenth +century. The citizens thought it an honour to court the adventurous +cavalier from foreign parts, and to be his parasite; the coquetry of the +women also was more forward and common, and their almost unblushing +connection with the foreign bath visitors showed an empty heart, and too +often a great absence of modesty. There is a characteristic account of +these famous baths at this period also, by a frivolous Frenchman, De +Merveilleux, preserved by a branch of the German family Wunderlish. +'Amusements des Bains de Bade,' &c., London, 1739. + + + Life at the Baths at the end of the Seventeenth Century. + +"Much had been told us of the splendid entrance of the French Ambassador +at Baden during the Swiss Diet.[47] We hoped to find a princely court, +but the present Ambassador in no respect resembles his predecessor. He +has no pages; the Count de Luc had six, as they tell me, as many +secretaries, and a like number of gentlemen of the bedchamber. The +present man has a secretary, who they assure me has been a servant, and +no gentleman of the bedchamber. His predecessor kept open table of fifty +covers, with three courses, and thus dined and supped every morning and +evening, in order to show honour to the Swiss. The present one has his +table laid with a kind of _déjeuner à la fourchette_, soup, roast, +entremets, and dessert, but no variety; every day the same, and nothing +good or hot. Instead of one silver dish they would give one, six of +pewter. The foreigners and the Swiss do not seem content with this. + +"But what does this signify to us? We live with our Bernerins; and have +good living. They would gladly get rid of some of Bacchus's favourites +from their town; amongst them the son of a delegate, we will endeavour +to get him away if we can. + +"We go little into the city; all people of distinction go to the +promenade, where there is pleasant intercourse. As many towns have Swiss +fashions, which are not similar to the French, such as the dress of the +women of Basle, Lucerne, Zurich, and other distant cantons, it gives one +the impression of a right gay masquerade, when all the visitors at the +baths are assembled for a dance. The Swiss men and women are much given +to gallantry. The ladies of Zurich have little opportunity of amusing +themselves, except at the bath season at Baden, and they understand how +to use this opportunity to the utmost. But if the French Ambassador is +not at Baden or does not keep open table, there is not very much +amusement. Every Swiss of any importance, is accustomed to have good +repasts at the Ambassador's yearly at Baden, so that they are much +dissatisfied with the comparison of the present with the past. The +mothers tell their daughters of the pleasures they had in former times +at the baths, and the young maidens are thereby incited to endeavour to +procure some likewise. They labour to this end to the best of their +powers, and the foreign cavaliers who know how to take advantage of the +simplicity of these young city maidens, find themselves well off. For +they are the daughters of magisterial persons, who have plenty of means +to spend in Baden, and their marriages with the sons of their country +are as good as settled, with such at least as speculate on places in the +state, which are conferred principally by the fathers of these maidens; +and thus it comes to pass that these little flirtations at the baths, +cause no disturbance in the arrangement which has been made concerning +their marriage. + +"We had the honour of an invitation from the minister, he invited us to +a dinner with many ladies. Among others were two Mademoiselles S----, +from Schaffhausen, daughters of good families. One of them has wounded +more than one cavalier. There was much good entertainment that day; nay, +there was even some table plate won in a lottery. The ambassador found +Mademoiselle S---- charming, and held her on his knee almost the whole +evening of the ball, though he was suffering with his foot. The dance +had one effect on the demoiselles which astonished us much. When they +had danced very vigorously, and were very warm, lice made their +appearance on the locks of their beautiful hair. That was rather +unpleasant; but the maidens had such beautiful skins that it became +quite a pleasure to take off the vermin as soon as they became visible. +The waters of Baden have the effect of producing these with young +people; therefore the Germans apply powder after powder but without +combing themselves properly. + +"These demoiselles were not the only beauties of this ball; there were +many pretty women there with their husbands and adorers. The Zurich +ladies also would gladly have been there, but they were not allowed to +visit the house of the French Ambassador, as their canton was averse to +the renewal of the alliance with the King; nay, it was a transgression +for a Zuricher even to enter the French hotel, therefore their wives and +daughters only took a walk in the Ambassador's garden, who did not fail +to betake himself there in an arm-chair on account of his bad foot. +Every one on entering made him a reverence, and that procured him the +pleasure of giving a kiss to each of these pretty city ladies, both +mothers and daughters." + +Here we conclude the narrative. These insipid and absurd proceedings +ceased gradually towards the end of the last century. Even before the +fever of the French revolution had seized the nations of Europe, the +forms of social intercourse had changed, and still more so the feelings +of men. The burgher life was still insipid, stiff, and _philliströs_; +but the need of new ideas and deeper excitement had become general. Even +the adventurers and cavaliers could no longer impose upon the credulity +of their cotemporaries, by their old frivolity; it was necessary for +them to be to some extent performers of prodigies, in order to get hold +of the purses of others. + +The Germans meanwhile, had found other places of amusement. The +pleasure-seeking youths wandered to Spa and Pyrmont; hardly any now but +the citizens of Switzerland assembled at the baths of Zurich. In +conclusion, the society at Baden, as it was at the end of the last +century, is thus shortly described. + + + Life at the Baths at the end of the Eighteenth Century. + +"The magistracy stand in high esteem with the citizens, and endeavour to +maintain this by the most formal behaviour. Owing to this adherence to +forms, a journey to Baden was at that period a great state transaction. +Farewell visits were first made to relations and acquaintances. The +distinguished people of Zurich ordered, as early as possible, the +quarters where they were to be accommodated in Hinterhof, that they +might not be mixed up with the common burgher class, who then put up at +the Stadthof. The wealthy artisans whom one met with there, were still +greeted by the title of 'master,' and generally in the second person; +and the patrician families kept exclusively together. Immediately after +an arrival visits of ceremony were paid, each one made deep obeisance to +the other, and observed strictly the customary etiquette. There was more +solemnity than frivolity, and the freer proceedings of the young people +were considered as deviations from the rule. They always showed +themselves also at the baths, dressed to the best of their power, +according to their condition in life, and even the négligé was carefully +chosen, and showed the quality of the person. The gentlemen appeared in +the morning in dressing-gowns of woollen damask, out of the wide sleeves +of which, ruffles of fine cambric fell over the hands, and the +_Badehren_ (bath mantles) of both sexes were trimmed with lace, and +after the bath, in order to be dried, were spread out ostentatiously as +a show, on the bars before the windows of the rooms. In Zurich they +restricted the advance of expenditure by moral laws, prudent considering +the period, but frequently carried to exaggeration. The material was +accurately prescribed in which both sexes were allowed to be dressed. +The women especially were kept under strict observation, and they were +forbidden to wear blond, fringes, thread or silk lace, except on their +caps; all openwork embroidery, all dresses of gauze, and all trimmings, +except of the same material as the dress. The ordinance on dress says +further: 'Married women may be allowed to curl their hair, but over the +curls there must be nothing fastened but a simple silk ribbon; +consequently the wearing of so-called tocquets, and of all feathers and +other ornaments for the hair, were altogether forbidden; farther, the +wearing of all enamel work and of portraits painted in miniature or +other representations.' The men were forbidden not only all upper +garments of silk or velvet, but even a lining of the like material; +farther, all gold or silver stuffs and lacing, and all gallooned or +embroidered horse covers and housings, except at the quarter musterings; +and to both sexes most especially all real or mock jewels on a penalty +of fifty pounds. The tribunal, appointed by the government, which drew +up these laws, and was charged to administer them, was called +_Reformation_. Meanwhile the power of the _Reformation_ did not extend +beyond the frontier of the canton, although in one special article they +endeavoured to stretch the mandate to those Zurichers who lived in other +parts of the confederation, and especially in Baden. Here alone nothing +was prescribed, and they indemnified themselves for restraint elsewhere, +by adorning themselves with just those things which were forbidden at +home. Many proud ladies and gentlemen, procured themselves objects of +luxury for a visit to the baths of a few weeks, which were quite useless +to them for the remainder of the year, and displayed themselves therein, +in defiance of any reformers who chanced to be present. Gallooned +dresses, which had once been worn in foreign parts, were here brought to +light again out of the chests wherein they had been preserved, unused +for years. The few jewels inherited from great-grandmothers were taken +out of their cases to ornament the ears, neck, and stomacher; and in +delicately holding a cup of coffee, the little finger was stretched to +the utmost, that the ring, brilliant with diamonds, rubies, or emeralds, +might glitter before the eye. In great pomp, like the dressed-up altar +figures, they passed along the dirty courts and alleys to admire and be +admired; but in order that their attire might not be injured, they +seldom went further in this beautiful country than to the meadows or to +the play. It was a period of stiff buffoonery! That the young people of +both sexes, often left alone together till late in the night, danced +more perhaps than now-a-days; that the gentlemen sometimes sacrificed +largely to Bacchus; and that all, after their fashion, enjoyed +themselves right well, may easily be understood. People of rank, some +already smartly attired, others in choice morning dresses, assembled +usually before dinner in the Hinterhofe, round a small stone table +called the _Täfeli_, where they usually returned again after the repast. +Here they gossiped good-humouredly on everything far and wide; no news +was left untouched, and many witty and delicate allegorical jests were +ventured upon and listened to. The return from Baden took place +generally in a very slow formal manner. After manifold long, wordy and +drawling compliments, and farewell formularies, packed at last in the +lumbering coach, they go; step by step, slowly, still making salutations +right and left from the coach door, up to the Halde." + +Now Baden has become a respectable, modest, summer residence, little +different from fifty other similar institutions. Still however one may +observe, not in Baden itself, but at other baths in Switzerland, the +ancient arrangement that persons of the same sex may bathe together in a +bath, amusing themselves without constraint; and not long ago at the +Leuker baths there were galleries round the baths, from which many +strangers might watch the bathers. But everywhere the proceedings of +men, even in these works of idleness, take another form; and the +garlanded maidens of Poggio, the costly suppers of the time of +Pantaleon, and the frivolous patrician daughters, who, in defiance of +father and bridegroom, went about from bath to bath with foreign +cavaliers, have vanished, and forgotten is the tedious ceremonial by +which particular classes were closed to one another. + + + + + CHAPTER XI. + + JESUITS AND JEWS. (about 1693.) + + +The Churches in Germany, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, suffered +from the weakness of the nation. Both had to pass through struggles and +sufferings, which threatened destruction to every exclusive Church +system; they became too narrow to embrace the whole spiritual and +intellectual life of men. Since the war, men had gradually felt the need +of toleration. With the Protestants, Luther's principle again revived, +that only inward conviction could bring men into the Church. It was +later, that the old Church yielded a grumbling toleration. Science had +discovered, amongst other things, that in spite of some passages of Holy +Scripture, the sun does not turn round our earth, but our earth round +the sun. Unwillingly did the Church receive this, after the discovery +had occasioned her many a heart's pang. + +The Protestant Church had fewer difficulties to overcome, but the +aristocratic structure of the Roman Catholic Church, again so firmly +united, and supported by great political interests, would naturally find +it far more difficult to yield to necessity. + +Whoever should wish to write a history of the religious conscience of +Germans, would have to examine how it was, that after the war there +arose in both confessions, precisely at the same time, a reaction of the +heart against the ruling parties, which in spite of the difference of +dogmas, shows a great similarity in the representations of this +tendency. The need of elevation of soul, in a period which was poor in +feeling, made the Protestant Spener, and the Catholic Spee and Scheffler +into pietists, and mystics. It is true, the restraining power of the +Protestant Church could no longer check the development of +individuality. Through it the scientific man could easily satisfy +himself, when he came, from the study of history, from observation of +the heavens, from the secret of numbers, and through the weighing and +measuring of the powers of the elements, to a new representation of the +world of creation, and thereby to new views of the being of the Godhead. +Thus the genius of the great Leibnitz was the growth of the Protestant +Church. Any one also whose fancy took a wild flight, or to whom deep +thought and meditation disclosed some peculiar aspect of the Deity, +might easily release himself from Church-communion with his +fellow-citizens, and unite himself perhaps with congenial spirits in +some special community. Thus did Böhme, and the eccentric Kuhlmann, +Zinzendorf, and Herrnhuter. This was incomparably more difficult in the +Roman Catholic Church. Whoever attempted to go his own way, had to +experience the anger of a strict mistress, and rarely did a powerful +mind break loose from the restraint. + +But the ruling majority of ecclesiastics had even in the old Church lost +much of their energy. The warlike champion of the restored Church, the +order of Jesuits, had itself suffered in its greatness; it had become +powerful and rich, the connection between the provinces and Rome had +been loosened, the independence of individual houses was greater, and +the curse had fallen on it which pursues the prosperous. It became +pre-eminently the representative of modern courtly splendour in church +and school. Even in earlier times the order had not disdained brilliant +displays, nor to enter into the feelings of the great world, but then it +had been like the prophet Daniel, who only wore the Persian dress in +order to serve his God among the heathen; now Daniel had become a +satrap. Through the Westphalian peace, the great mission work of the +order was limited. Still however, did it continue skilfully to draw +within its circle the souls of individuals, whoever was rich or +distinguished was firmly ensnared. Its main object was not the salvation +of souls, but the fame which would accrue to the order. The greatest +amount of work was done in the Emperor's territory. Wherever heresy +still flickered, the lay authorities assisted. But one race, more +stubborn and stiff-necked than the sons of the Hussites, or the Moravian +brothers, incessantly excited the spirit of conversion in the order, it +was the Jews. + +Already in the time of the Romans, the Jews may have dwelt within the +colonies on the Rhine, near the temple of Jupiter of golden Maintz, and +the baths of the proud Agrippina; they afterwards established themselves +within the German cities. In respect to German law they were as +foreigners; they were placed under the protection of the Emperor, who +transferred his power over them to the Archbishop of Maintz, the +Chancellor of the Empire. As the Emperor's dear servitors, besides the +other taxes, they had to pay him and the princes a penny offering, which +was raised on Christmas-day. This tax, one of the sources of the +Emperor's revenue, should have been security for his protection, but it +became an opportunity for the worst oppression; and they were drawn upon +for contributions on every occasion that money was wanted. Their taxes +reached to an exorbitant height. On sudden money emergencies, or as an +act of favour, the Emperor sold, or gave away his right of taxation to +the Princes and cities; and the year's rent of three, four, or even one +hundred Jews, was a secure and important income. Thus it was a source of +gain to the Princes and Sovereigns to possess many Jews, from whom they +raised money to the utmost. + +On the other hand it was an exclusive right of the Jews to lend out +money on interest for notes of hand or mortgages, which was strictly +forbidden to the Christians of the middle ages by the Pope and Emperor. +Thus naturally the whole of the money dealing came into the hands of the +Jews. And by the high interest which they received--especially on short +loans--they must rapidly have acquired great wealth. But this boundless +right was not secure against sudden attacks, both Pope and Emperor +sometimes took the liberty of giving the creditor a dispensation from +the payment of the interest, nay even of the capital. + +Thus they became the financiers of the olden time in both great and +little traffic, the richest persons in the country, in spite of +monstrous imposts. + +But this opulence stimulated still more the hate and covetousness of the +multitude. In the early part of the middle ages they appear to have been +seldom persecuted by Christian fanaticism. But after the Crusades, the +declining Church and the populace of the towns vied with each other in +seeking their lives and treasure. A tradition which continues up to the +present day was brought forward against them. They were supposed to +poison wells, to introduce the plague, to murder Christian children, use +their blood at their Passover, and feed on their hearts; and to whip the +consecrated host with rods, &c. Persecutions, plundering of houses, and +extensive murders were almost periodical. Christianity was forced upon +them by the sword, torments, and imprisonment, but usually in vain. No +warlike people ever withstood brutal violence, with more heroic courage +than this defenceless race. The most magnanimous examples of enduring +heroism are mentioned by Christian writers themselves. Thus it went on +during the whole of the middle ages, and still in the sixteenth century +we find the Sovereigns endeavouring to fill their empty coffers from the +money bags of the Jews, and the populace still storming their houses, as +in the wild Jewish outbreak at Frankfort-on-Main in 1614. Some great +scholars, physicians, and natural philosophers among them, acquired a +repute which spread through all the countries of Europe, inspiring even +Christians with involuntary respect, but these were rare exceptions. + +Amidst all these adverse circumstances, the indestructible vital +energies of this people still continued, as we find them among the Jews +of the present day: privileged by the Emperor, helpless before the law +of the country, indispensable, yet deeply hated, desired, but cursed, in +daily danger of fire, robbery, and murder, yet the quiet, masters of the +property and welfare of hundreds, in an unnatural adventurous position, +and yet always steadily occupied, amidst the densest mass of Christians, +yet separated from them by iron boundaries, they lived a twofold life; +in presence of Christians they were cold, stubborn, patient, timid, +cringing, and servile, bowed down under the oppression of a thousand +years: yet all the pride of noble blood, great wealth, and superior +talent, the full glow of southern feeling, every kindly emotion and +every dark passion were to be found in that race. + +After the Thirty years' war, the Jews obtained scarcely more protection +from the fury of the multitude, and their spiritual trials became +greater. If the Protestants, who were then weak and embarrassed, vexed +them more by repulsive arrogance than by their arts of proselytism, the +old Church was the more zealous. They were more prosperous in trade and +usury since the Westphalian peace, indeed a splendid prospect had opened +for them. The diminution of international wholesale business, the ruin +of old commercial houses at Nuremberg and Augsburg, the continued +depreciation of the coinage, the unceasing need of money, with the +territorial lords, small and great, was favourable to the multifarious +activity of the Jewish business, which found skilful instruments +throughout all Germany, and connections from Constantinople to Cadiz. +The importance to German trade of the close cohesion of the Jews amongst +themselves, at a period when bad roads, heavy tolls, and ignorant +legislation, placed the greatest limits upon commerce, is not yet +sufficiently appreciated. With unwearied energy, like ants, they +everywhere bored their secret way through the worm-eaten wood of the +German Empire: long before the letter post and system of goods carriers +had spread a great network over the whole circuit of the country, they +had quietly combined for these objects; poor chafferers and travelling +beggars, passed as trusty agents between Amsterdam and Frankfort, Prague +and Warsaw, with money and jewels under their rags, nay concealed within +their bodies. In the most dangerous times, in spite of prohibitions, the +defenceless Jew stole secretly through armies, from one German territory +into another; and he carried Kremnitzer ducats of full weight to +Frankfort, while he circulated light ones among the people. Here he +bought laces and new church vestments for his opponents, the +ecclesiastics; there he smuggled through an enemy's territory, to some +prince, arms and implements of war; then he guided and accompanied a +large transport of leather from the interior of Russia to the fair of +Leipzig, he alone being capable by flattery, money, and brandy, of +overmatching the covetousness of the Sclave nobles. Meanwhile, the most +opulent sat in the well-grated rooms of their Jewish town, concealing +securely, under lock and key, the bills of exchange, and mortgages of +the highest lords, they were great bankers, even according to our +present standard. + +The Jews of that period were probably richer in proportion to the +Christians than now, and at all events, from the peculiarities of their +traffic, more indispensable. They had friendly protectors alike at the +Imperial court, in the harem of the Sultan, and in the secret chamber of +the Pope; they had an aristocracy of blood, which was still highly +respected by their fellow-believers, and at bridal feasts they wore with +pride, the jewels which some ancestor, long perhaps before the days of +Marco Polo, had brought from India, while exposing his life to manifold +dangers; or another had got by bartering, from the great Moorish king at +Granada. But in the streets the Jew still bore the degrading mark of the +unhonoured stranger; in the Empire, a yellow cockade on his coat, and in +Bohemia the stiff blue cravat; as in the middle ages he had worn the +yellow hat, and in Italy the red mantle. It is true he was the creditor +and employer of numerous Christians, but in most of the greater cities +he still lived closely confined to certain streets or portions of the +city. Few German Jewish communities were larger or more opulent than +that in Prague, and it was one of the oldest in Germany. Seldom does a +traveller neglect to visit the narrow streets of the Jewish quarter, +where the small houses, clustered together like the cells of a beehive, +enclosed at once the greatest riches and the greatest misery of the +country, and where the angel of death so long caused tears of gall to +trickle into the mouth of the believer, till every inch of earth in the +dismal churchyard became the ashes of men. At the end of the seventeenth +century, near six thousand industrious men dwelt there in a narrow +space; the great money lenders, as well as the poorest frippery dealers +and porters, all closely united in firm fellowship and common interests, +indispensable to the impoverished country, yet in continual warfare +against the customs, coarseness, and religious zeal of the newly +converted kingdom. + +For the second generation were then living, of the new Bohemia, which +the Hapsburgers by scaffolds, expulsion, and fearful dragooning, had won +back after the battle of Weissen Berge. The old race of nobles was, for +the most part, rooted out; a new Imperial nobility drove in gilded +carriages through the black Hussite city; the old biblical learning had +wandered into foreign lands, or died away in the misery of the long war; +in the place of the chalice priests and the Bohemian preachers, were the +holy fathers and begging monks; where once Huss defended the teaching of +Wickliff, and Zisk rebuked the lukewarmness of the citizens of the old +town, the gilded statue of the queen of heaven now rose triumphant. +Little remained to the people of their past, except the dark stones of +Königsstadt, a rough populace, and a harsh piety. + +There remains to us a little pamphlet of this time, for which we are +indebted to two of the Prague celebrities of the order of Jesuits, the +Fathers Eder and Christel, the first of whom, wrote it in Latin, and the +second translated it into German; both writers are otherwise known, the +second as a zealous but insipid German poet. From this writing the +following narrative is taken. + +"Thus in a few years a hundred and seventy persons of the Jewish +persuasion, were purified in the saving waters of baptism, by one single +priest of our society, in the Academical church of Our Saviour, of the +college of the Society of Jesus. + +"I will by the way, here shortly mention, the wonderful bias of a Jewish +child for the Christian faith. A Jewess in the Zinkower domain was in +the habit of carrying her little daughter in her arms; one day she +accidentally met a Catholic priest, to whom she proposed to show her +child, and taking the veil off its little face, boasted what a +finely-shaped child she had brought into the world. The priest took +advantage of this preposterous and unexpected confidence, to bless the +unveiled child with the sign of the holy cross, admonishing the mother +at the same time to bring up the said child in the love and fear of God, +but leaving all else in the hands of Divine Providence. And behold this +little Jewess had hardly began to walk, when she forthwith considered +herself a Christian, knelt with them when they knelt, sang with the +singers, went out with them into the meadows and woods, made hay, +plucked strawberries, and picked up wood with them; besides this, she +learnt of them the paternoster and the angel's salutation, as also to +say the belief; in short she made herself acquainted with Christian +doctrine, and desired earnestly to be baptized. The high-born and Right +Honorable Countess of Zinkow, in order to fulfil this maiden's desire, +to her great delight took her in her carriage to Prague, that she might +there, out of sight of her parents, more securely obtain the privilege +of baptism. But after the parents had discovered that their daughter, +who had for so long a time carefully kept her designs secret, had become +a Christian, they bitterly lamented it, and were very indignant with the +priest who had blessed her in her mother's arms with the sign of the +cross, for they ascribed to him all their daughter's inclination for +Christianity. + +"But by what intrigues the perfidious Jews endeavoured to frustrate +every conversion, I have myself not long since had experience, when for +the first time, a disciple in the faith of the Jewish race, Samuel +Metzel, was placed under me for instruction. The father, who had four +children yet minors, was a true Israelite, out of the Egypt of the +Jewish town, and had endeavoured, much and zealously, to bring them all, +together with himself, out of bondage. But, behold! Rosina Metzelin, his +wife, who then had a great horror of the Christian faith, would not obey +him; and when she found that the four children were immediately +withdrawn from her, this robbery of her children, was, like the loss of +her young to a lioness, hard to bear. She summoned her husband before +the Episcopal consistory, where she sued for at least two of the four +purloined children, which she had given birth to, with great labour, +pain, and weariness, both before, at, and after the time. But the most +wise tribunal of the Archbishop, decided that all the children belonged +to the husband, who was shortly to be baptized. Then did the wife lament +piteously, indeed more exceedingly than can be told or believed; and as +she was afeard that her fifth offspring, which was yet unborn, would be +stolen from her after its birth, she endeavoured earnestly to conceal +from the Christians the time of her delivery. Therefore she determined +first of all to change her place of abode, as her present one was known +to her husband and children. But there is no striving against the Lord! +The father discovered it by means of his innocent little daughter, who +for some months had been constantly kept in a Christian lodging, and was +unwarily admitted by her mother into her concealed dwelling. On +receiving this information, I sought out the Imperial Judge of the +_Altstadt_ of Prague, who, without delay, despatched his clerk to the +house, to demand the new-born child from the woman, and (in case she +refused) from the Elder of the Jewish people, as belonging to the now +baptized father. But as these crafty Jews would not consent to deliver +up the child, a Christian midwife was ordered for the Jewish woman, that +the same might, by some womanly, pious contrivance, carry off the child +from the mother. This midwife was accompanied by certain prudent +matrons. The conductress was to be Ludmilla, well known for her great +godliness, wife of Wenzeslaus Wymbrsky, who had gone through the baptism +of water and blood. Her husband Wenzeslaus was, with this his wife and +five children, baptized in our church by his Eminence the Cardinal and +Archbishop of Prague in 1464. It was above all displeasing to the +furious Jews, to see thirteen men of other families, following the +example of Wenzeslaus, abjuring Judaism the same year. At last it became +insupportable to them that Wenzeslaus, by whose shop many Jews had daily +to pass to their frippery market, should publicly set up in it the image +of the crucified Saviour, and every Friday keep a burning lamp before +it. Therefore he was greatly hated by the Jewish rabble, and often +assailed with derision and scoffing. Now, once when he went, according +to his daily custom, to the Teynkirche, an hour before day, three armed +Jews fell on him, by whom he was mortally wounded with two poisoned +pistol-balls, so that on the fifth day thereafter, he devoutly departed +this life, without having been persuaded to name the murderers. The +ringleader was caught later, and condemned to the wheel, but acting as +his own executioner hanged himself with a rope. Now the widow of the +deceased man, Ludmilla, could not slip in, with the little troop of +pious women, unperceived, because the Hebrews with their sharp lynx-eyes +watched narrowly. At that moment, many of them combined together and +pushed their way into the room of the Jewish woman about to be +confined. But Ludmilla did not take alarm at their presence, nor at the +possible danger of death. She handed over the consecrated water she had +brought with her, to the midwife, calling upon her in strong language, +to deliver the woman and baptize the child. And so it took place, and +the nurse took the child and baptized it. But the woman who had been +confined sprang frantically from her bed, and with vehement cries, tore +the child violently from the hands of the midwife. Forthwith, the city +judge made his appearance with armed men, in order to separate the now +little Christian son from the mother. But as she, like a frantic one, +held the child so firmly clasped in her arms, that it was feared it +would be stifled in extricating it from her, the judicious judge of the +city contented himself with strictly forbidding the old Jews there +assembled, to make the child a Jew. Thereupon it was commanded, by his +Excellence, the Lord Count of the Empire, Von Sternberg, Chief Burgrave +of the Kingdom of Bohemia, that this fifth child should be delivered +over to the father. Not long after, the mother also, who had so +stubbornly adhered to Judaism, gave in, and was baptized. + +"The father of the Jewish boy Simon Abeles, was Lazarus, and his +grandsire Moses Abeles who for many years had been Chief Rabbi of the +Jews. Whilst already of tender years, there had been discovered in this +boy a special leaning of the spirit towards Christianity. Whenever he +could, he separated himself from the Jewish youths, and associated with +the Christian boys, played with them, and gave them sweets which he had +collected from his father's table, in order to gain their good will. The +Jewish cravat, stiffened with blue starch, which the Jews wear round the +neck, thereby distinguishing themselves here in Bohemia from the +Christians, was quite repugnant to Simon. As the light of his reason +became brighter, he took every opportunity of learning the Christian +mysteries. It happened that he was many times sent by his father, who +was a glove dealer, on business to the house of Christopher Hoffman, a +Christian glover. There he tarried in contemplation of the sacred, not +the profane, pictures that hung on the walls, although the last were +more precious and remarkable as specimens of artistic painting, and he +inquired with curiosity of the Christian inmates, what was signified in +these pictures. When in reply they told him, that one was a +representation of Christ, another of the mother of Christ, the +miracle-working mother of God, by Buntzel, and another, the holy +Antonius of Padua, he exclaimed, from his heart, sighing: 'Oh, that I +could be a Christian!' Moreover, a Jew called Rebbe Liebmann bore +witness, that the boy sometimes passed whole nights among Christians, +and did not appear at his father's house. + +"Now many maintained that this leaning to Christianity arose from a +supernatural source, and was produced by the baptismal sign, which had +been impressed upon him by a Christian, whilst he was in the cradle. +When later this report had been carefully investigated, it was certified +that a preceptor, Stephen Hiller, was once sent to Lazarus Abeles to +obtain payment of a debt, that he there found a child lying alone in the +cradle, and had, from deep impulse of heart, baptized him with the +elemental water which was at hand. On being examined by the consistory +of the Right Reverend the Archbishop, this preceptor, who is now +invested with a chaplaincy, said that he did not know whether the child +was the little son of Lazarus; nay, his supposition had been far +stronger, that it was the son of a Jewish tailor. From such evidence +this weighty point remained doubtful. + +"After some years, the steadfast leaning of Simon's spirit to +Christianity, having so much increased that it began to be clearly +perceived at home, the astute boy, foreseeing well that his parents and +relations would spare no pains to put impediments in his way, was minded +to prevent this, by flying from his father's house and Jewish friends, +before the path was closed against him. Now while, on the 25th of July, +1693, Lazarus the father, kept the solemn day of rest in the Jewish +school, his son betook himself to a Christian house near the Jewish +town, which was inhabited by the newly baptized Jew, Kawka, and that +same evening summoned to him Johannes Santa, a Jew who many years before +had been converted with his whole family, of whom he had already heard a +good repute, as a zealous man and assiduous guide. For this man had, at +the risk of his life, brought away Jews who had a desire for the +Christian faith, and their newly baptized children from the Jewish town, +had placed them under instruction in our college of St. Clement, had +provided them with food, clothes, and lodging, and had for hours +together read spiritual books, especially the Life of Christ, with deep +devotion to such as could not read, and whose greatest pleasure it was +to see them cleansed in holy baptism. To him Simon honestly opened his +heart, and entreated that Johannes would take him to the college of the +Society of Jesus. + +"There was no necessity for entreating, the man borrowed clothes of a +Christian youth, covered Simon's head, which was shorn after the Jewish +fashion, with a peruke, and conducted him across the Altstadter Platz to +the college. In the middle of the said Platz, stands the large +richly-gilded image of the holy mother of God, carved out of one stone. +Johannes explained to his Christian scholar, that this richly-gilded +image represented the Queen of heaven, the faithful mediator of +believers with God. This Simon listened to with great eagerness, took +off his hat without delay, bowed his whole body low, and commended +himself with pious sighs, to the blessed mother of God, as her foster +child. Hereupon he turned to his guide and thus addressed him: 'If my +father saw this, he would straightway kill me.' Thus they reached our +college between seven and eight o'clock in the evening. I was called to +the door, and Simon imparted to me his desires with marvellous +eloquence, and at the same time begged with such fervent zeal to be +instructed in the Christian faith, that I was much amazed. I presented +him the same evening to the Reverend Father Rector of the college. It +almost seemed as if this twelve-year-old boy behaved himself, as afore +time Jesus among the doctors, seeing that he answered various questions +with an eloquence, acuteness, and judgment which far surpassed his age. +When it was objected to him, that his arrival excited a suspicion that +he had committed some evil deed in the Jewish town, and sought a refuge +in the ecclesiastical house, Simon answered with cheerful countenance: +'If there is a suspicion of any misdeed, let the truth be searched out +by proclamation, as is usual in the Jew town. If I were conscious of any +evil deed, I should have more hope of remaining unpunished among the +Jews than among the Christians, for I am a grandson of Moses Abeles, +their chief Rabbi.' Then when it was suggested that he had come among +the Christians in order to wear a peruke, a little sword, and +fashionable dress, the boy made a face and said: 'I must confess that +for a long time, I have not worn the Jewish collar. Nevertheless, I do +not desire to shine among Christians in any fashionable clothes, and +will be content with my old rags.' After he had given this earnest +answer, he began to strip his hands of his gloves, to ungird his little +sword, to tear the peruke from his head, and to unhook the clean, little +upper coat, determined were it necessary to follow the destitute Jesus, +unclothed. + +"By such unexpected answers and heroic resolution, he drew tears from +the eyes of all present. But when he was commanded to put his clothes on +again, he soon dressed himself, and declared in strong words, which he +oft repeated, that he withdrew from the Jews on account of their wicked +course of life, and associated himself with Christians to secure his +salvation, because he knew well it was impossible to be blessed without +faith. But when he was asked who had taught him, that faith was +necessary to gain eternal life, he answered seven or eight times: 'God, +God, God alone,' therewith he oft sighed and smote his breast with both +hands. Then he went first to one priest, then to another, kissed their +hands, fell on his knees to them, exclaiming: 'Fathers, abandon me not; +do not reject me, do not send me again among the Jews; instruct me +quickly, quickly and' (as if he had a foreboding, and saw the impending +evil floating before his eyes), 'baptize me quickly.' Now when Simon +received the assurance that he would be reckoned among the scholars in +the Christian faith, he clapped his hands, and jumped for joy. His whole +discourse was as mature and discreet, as ready and free from hesitation, +as if he had long beforehand reflected upon it in his mind, and learnt +it by heart from his tablets, so that one of the four priests present +turned with astonishment to another, and said in Latin: 'This boy has a +miraculous understanding, which if not supernatural, is yet truly beyond +his age.' + +"Meanwhile, the darkness of night had come on. But as there was not +convenient sleeping room at present for this new little Nicodemus, he +was with much inward striving of my spirit, left again in that Christian +house from whence he had been brought hither, in order to spend the +night in peace with the newly baptized Jew, George Kawka. This one was +called to the door of the college, and the boy was intrusted to him, +with an express order to bring him again to the college at the earliest +hour on the following morning, that they might provide him with a secure +dwelling. + +"In the interim, Lazarus became aware of the absence of his son. Not +finding him either with his friends nor among other Jews, and being a +person of sound judgment, it occurred to him that his son must have gone +over to the Christians. Early on Sunday Lazarus betook himself to the +Christian house of the glove-maker Hoffmann, whom he did not find at +home. He concealed the loss of his son and his sorrow, and begged the +glove-maker's wife Anna, instantly to call George Kawka there, because +he had some weighty business to transact with him who was his debtor. +After a long Hebrew conversation with Lazarus, George Kawka came in all +haste to the college, but to my great sorrow, unaccompanied by the +Christian disciple. He appeared painfully disquieted, but did not tell +me a word of his conference with the father, but only said that Simon +was not sufficiently secure in his dwelling, and that it was necessary +to take good heed, or he would be entrapped by the crafty devices of the +Jews. After a sharp reproof for not bringing the boy with him when in +such danger, according to my strict orders, I commanded him to go to the +house forthwith and bring the boy hither. This he promised but did not +perform. Now when George Kawka returned home, he pretended that he +wished to go to church, and Simon prayed of him, as though he foreboded +some impending treachery, with many words and tears, not to leave him +behind, as the Jews would without fail lie in wait for him that day, and +seize him in the house; but that he would take him with him to church +and so bring him to the college. Now when he with great sorrow of spirit +perceived that George Kawka only answered with subterfuges, he withdrew +himself again, after the departure of the same, into his hiding-place +under the roof. + +"Hardly had George crossed the threshold, when Katherina Kanderowa, a +lodger, came from the country into her lodging-room, which was close to +Simon's hiding-place, and saw the boy in his little Jewish coat, which +he had again been obliged to put on. As therefore the said Katherina +understood from the Jews who were standing round the house-door that +they were seeking for the son of a Jew, who had fled from his father, +and as she did not know that Simon was a disciple of the Christian +faith, she drew him out of his corner, and dragged him down to the front +part of the house. When the father saw his son, he presented to this +woman thirty silver groschen, that she might thrust the boy, who was not +strong enough to free himself from her hands, over the threshold. The +boy called upon the Christians to support him against such violence, but +in vain, for two robust Jews seized upon him each by an arm, and bore +him along as if he floated through the air, to the Jew town and his +father's house. But the father went craftily step by step slowly behind, +in order to chat with the Christians, and make them believe that his son +had only fled to the Christians, in order to escape lawful and deserved +punishment. He easily persuaded the populace of this. + +"But George Kawka betook himself after the end of this tragedy to me, +and related the lamentable kidnapping of Simon with many light worthless +excuses. But I spoke sharply to him, put clearly before his eyes, how +evident it was that he had played with the Jews under the rose, and +sternly charged him if he would not be made answerable before the +tribunal, for the treacherous betrayal of Simon, to use all means +without delay, and on the requisition of a Christian judge to recover +him from the hand, of the Jews, and deliver him up to the college. And +truly it appeared as if he obeyed the command faithfully and +assiduously. Ha searched the whole Jew town many days, and examined +almost all the houses, as was testified of him by the person who +accompanied and was associated with him. He thereby turned almost all +the suspicion of treachery from him; and as Simon was nowhere to be +found, he confirmed the report that he had secretly been removed to +Poland. At a later period, George Kawka himself was driven, by a bad +conscience to take refuge in Poland, and has remained invisible to this +day. + +"But Simon was dragged with violence to his father's house, and after +that day, was never seen outside the threshold. After their arrival at +home, the father could no longer control his anger, and beat his son +with a stick so savagely, that the Jews present began already to fear +that he would kill him. They therefore locked up Simon in a room in +which lived Sarah Bresin, afterwards a witness. But the father +endeavoured to break open the door of the room by repeatedly running at +it with violence, and at last angrily left the house. When his anger was +a little allayed, the Jews gave up to him the severely-beaten boy, +advising to tame him by fasting. So Simon was locked up in another room. +There he passed seven painful months, in hunger and imprisonment, daily +loaded with curses and oft threatened with death. But when the father +saw that his son's spirit was inflexible, and that on the Saturday +before Shrove Sunday, Simon again, before all the family, declared +undauntedly, that he would be baptized; he determined to go to +extremities. And that affection might not restrain his hand, he chose +for assistant a Jew, Levi Kurtzhandl, a man of savage spirit and in the +vigour of youth, who had already before advised him to poison the boy. +Levi Kurtzhandl invited the boy into the room of his stepmother, and +held converse with him out of the Talmud, in order to convert him. But +when Simon persevered in his intentions, he was knocked down by Levi, +and dragged by him and the father into the next room; there both fell +upon him furiously, broke his neck, and drove his head violently against +the corner of a wooden chest, whereby the glorious soldier of Christ +received a last blow on the left side of the temple. + +"Whilst this barbarity was going on, Lia, the stepmother of Simon, +together with the journeyman Rebbe Liebmann, were occupied in the next +room making gloves. On hearing the moaning of the boy, and the noise of +the murderers, she hastened into the room. There she saw the dead body +on the floor, and both the murderers on their knees by him. Thereupon +the woman was so frightened, that she fainted, and had to be restored to +her senses by Kurtzhandl pouring vinegar over her. + +"After the deed, Hennele, Lazarus's cook, came back, who had been sent +out of the house with the little children. These, when supper-time was +approaching, inquired where Simon was. They were obliged to take an oath +to keep the affair secret; whereupon, their father himself told them +that he, with Levi Kurtzhandl, had deprived the boy of life as an +apostate from the law of Moses, after the example of the patriarch +Phineas. + +"After that, Lazarus took counsel with Levi how to keep the crime +secret, not only from the Christians, but also from the Jews, +especially from the family of Burianer, who were very hostile to all +that belonged to the Abeles. Levi offered while it was yet night, to +carry the body of Simon to his own house, and bury it himself in the +cellar. But Lazarus feared lest some of the Burian adherents should +discover it. They therefore decided on having the corpse buried in the +public burial-ground of the Jews. And truly, the neck of the body was +discoloured with blood, but otherwise there was no open wound to be +seen, with the exception of a blow on the left temple of about the size +of a ducat; so Lazarus called his household together, instructed and +made them swear, that they would say unanimously that Simon had become +insane, and in that state had fallen against the corner of the chest, +whereby he had been mortally wounded on the left temple. + +"On the following morning early, this glorious soldier of Christ was +buried in great secrecy by two Jews, Jerochem and Hirsches Kesserlas, +the coroners. + +"After the burial of Simon, from his grave arose the first great +summoner, the worm of conscience, which began to gnaw the heart of the +godless Lazarus. Memory unceasingly persecuted his conscience, and the +fear of worldly punishment ever hovered before his eyes. This fear was +much increased by the journeyman glove-maker, Rebbe Liebmann. The same +had after the deed, straight left Abele's house and made off, and had +only again returned to his work after the burial. When Lazarus began to +relate the particulars, Rebbe interrupted him, protesting that he did +not desire to hear a word about the evil deed, as he had already heard +the whole of yesterday's tragedy, related by the Jewish children in the +public streets. This burst upon the astonished Lazarus like a thunder +clap; without delay he collected and packed up all his light goods, sold +his house in the Jew town, and resigned his hired shop in an +aristocratic house, in order to settle himself in Poland. He was already +prepared, on the following day, to take flight; but it was +providentially ordained that the noble landlord of the house, who had +leased the shop to him, was just then hindered by palsy in his hand from +signing the release himself. + +"Meanwhile, on the 23rd of February, one Johel, a Jew, not evil-disposed +towards the Christians, went into the Jew town through the Sommer-thor, +where he met some children playing, who were relating to one another, +how Simon Abeles had three days before been fresh and healthy, and had +early yesterday been buried without any funeral pomp. Johel betook +himself without delay to the burial-ground, and found a freshly-raised +grave; reflected upon all the other circumstances and reports, and came +to the sensible conclusion that Lazarus was the murderer of his son. +This he confided forthwith to a writer of the royal government in great +secresy. After I had received intelligence thereof, and had earnestly +admonished the Jewish informer to give a faithful report; he wrote down +the following day all the lamentable particulars, in order to deliver +them to the most noble government. They commanded the body of Simon to +be disinterred, and to be closely examined by a doctor appointed for the +purpose; and finally to take into custody those who were suspected of +the deed, as also their accomplices. All this was set on foot cautiously +and without delay. The body was disinterred under an armed guard; the +Jews who had collected, and the Jewish doctor who was called in, +declared that a bad blow on the head, and lastly a fit of insanity, had +killed the boy. But the medical gentlemen gave their opinion, that many +indications, the broken neck and a small round wound on the temple, +showed that the boy had died from a violent blow. + +"Thereupon Lazarus Abeles was brought to see the body of his son. He +turned pale and trembled, and was so confused that he remained silent, +and for a good while could not say anything intelligible, nor answer +anything distinctly. At last as the Herr Commissary continued urging him +to say whether he knew the body of the boy, he answered with bent head +and weak voice that it was the body of his son Simon; and when it was +further put to him what was the cause of the wound on the left temple, +he gave a confused and contradictory answer. He was therefore again +taken to prison, but the body of the boy was put into a Christian +coffin, and placed meanwhile in the cellar of the council-house. The +_Herren_ commissaries were unwearied in cross-questioning Christians and +Jews. But in spite of all indications, Lazarus, and the women who were +in special custody, Lia, his wife, and Hennele, his cook, were almost +unanimous in their evidence: Simon had not taken flight from his +father's house to become a Christian, but for a long time had been +affected with a disease of the head, and therefore kept in the house; at +last he had felt an extreme repugnance for food, had become subject to +violent fits of insanity, and thus had met with his death. All means of +extracting the truth were unavailing; Lazarus Abeles and the two only +witnesses then known of, remained obstinate. + +"One afternoon, the honourable Franz Maximilian Baron von Klarstein, the +official commissary, was reflecting on this matter as he went home, and +ascended the steps of his house; when it suddenly seemed to him that he +received a violent blow on the side, he turned round crossly, when +behold there appeared to him on the landing which divided the steps from +one another, a boy standing, who bowed his head, and smiled sweetly with +cheerful countenance, clothed in a Jewish winding-sheet, wounded on the +left temple, and in size and age like Simon, as this gentleman had seen +him with his own eyes, on inspection of the body, when a lively image of +him had been impressed on his memory. The gentleman was amazed, and +whilst he was sitting at table with his wife and some guests, pondered +in his mind what this might signify. Then he heard the tapping of a +person's finger several times on the door of the dining-room. The +servant was sent out, and informed him that an unknown maiden desired +instantly to be admitted. Having entered, and being kindly accosted, the +little maiden of fourteen answered that her name was Sarah Bresin, that +she now dwelt among the Christians to be instructed in the Christian +faith, and had shortly before lived as servant to the tenant in the +house of Lazarus Abeles; there she had seen with her own eyes how +cruelly Lazarus had attacked his son Simon, because he had fled to the +Christians, in order to be baptized. Upon this and other evidence Sarah +was confronted with Lazarus; before whom she declared freely, with much +feeling and in forcible language, all that she knew. But Lazarus roundly +denied it all; and with frantic curses called down all the devils upon +her head. But when he returned to his prison, confusion and despair +seized his soul; he perceived that his denials would no longer help him +before the court, and determined by a last expedient to escape judicial +proceedings. Although both his legs and one hand were impeded by his +fetters, yet he contrived to wind the girdle, called a _Tephilim_, +wherewith the Jews bind their heads and arms during prayer, instead of a +cord, round the iron window grating, and strangled himself thereby. Thus +on the following morning, he was found strangled. For the Jews +erroneously consider it allowable to throttle themselves, and oft-times +do the like. Judgment was passed on his dead body. + +"After his death his wife Lia and the servant-maid Hennele being +confronted with Sarah Bresin, made a public confession; the fugitive +journeyman glover, Rebbe Liebmann, was also produced and confessed. His +Princely Grace the Archbishop decided that Simon should be buried in the +Teynkirche, in the chapel of St. John the Baptist, by the baptismal +font, within a vault of polished marble, in a fine oak coffin covered +with red velvet, and guarded by a lock and three keys. Further, that the +coffin was to be borne to the burial place by innocent and noble youths +dressed in purple. The most noble Frau Silvia, born Gräfin Kinskey, wife +of his Excellency the Lord Count of the Empire, Schlick, had a double +costly dress prepared for this day, an under dress of white satin and an +upper one of red, interwoven with gold, trimmed with gold buttons and +adorned with gold lace-work; she provided also stockings of the like +material to cover the feet, and an exceedingly beautiful garland of gold +and silver lilies and roses to crown the head of the innocent martyr. + +"Hardly had his most precious body been attired and laid in the costly +coffin, when the high nobility of both sexes arrived, and pressed with +godly impetuosity into the chapel, where all were amazed, and praised +the God of all marvels when they saw that the holy pledge (the body of +Simon) was unchanged five weeks after his death, that no exhalation of +odour could be discovered or perceived, and that from his death wounds +there dropped continually fresh rose-coloured blood. Wherefore persons +even of the highest consideration caught up this precious liquor with +their pocket-handkerchiefs. But others who were not provided with clean +handkerchiefs, or who could not get near enough for the great throng, +made their way to the old grave and tore away the bloody clippings which +lay therein. Afterwards the revered body was exposed to view on this and +the following day in the great hall of the council-house. But even there +it was exceeding difficult to approach it. At last on the 31st of March +the funeral was performed. An armed force in three ranks surrounded the +council-house for two whole hours; throughout the whole city resounded +the pealing bells of seventy churches. Meanwhile the synagogue and the +whole body of Jews were ready to swoon away with anguish, because they +feared the vengeance of the Christian populace would fell upon them. It +was indeed almost a miracle that no deed of violence was committed, for +in the past year, the Christians had more than once for the most +trifling reasons, fallen upon and plundered the frippery market and Jew +town, and had also, as is well known, attacked the Jews themselves, +severely injuring and even murdering some. + +"When towards ten o'clock, the painters had finished a double +representation of the martyr Simon, the church ceremonies began. After +the coffin had been closed, the commissaries prepared to seal up the +keyhole, but as the paper which was to be sealed over the lock might be +injured, they desired to have a suitable silk ribbon, and when this +became known to the most noble persons present, they tore what they had +of such material from their heads, stomachers and arms. His Excellency +the Reichsgraf von Martinez also unbound the ribbon that was hanging +from his sword-hilt. But a ribbon of red satin was chosen for this +purpose, which the most noble and right honourable the Countess Kolowrat +had worn; this was cut in two and placed over the lock and sealed. After +this the martyr's coffin was covered with a costly red velvet pall +prepared for the occasion; in the middle of the funeral bier was a fine +picture of Our Lady, and on both sides angels with palm branches. +Sixteen good youths of noble descent bore the funeral bier on their +innocent shoulders; they wore red mantles with gold lace glittering on +them, and wreaths of silvered roses wound with red silk. Then the +pealing of bells sounded through all the three towns; the clouds +suddenly cleared from off the heavens; the multitude covered every roof, +and occupied every window; they had flocked together, not only from the +three neighbouring vine-clad mountains but from distant places and +cities. + +"The city authorities led the host of the funeral train; after them +followed the lately baptized young Jews, adorned with red badges, before +whom two church banners of like material were borne. Next a countless +multitude of schoolboys from all the schools of the three towns, ranged +under eight purple flags; thirdly all the young students from the under +Latin schools. Fourthly above four hundred heads of the Latin +brotherhood from the schools, before whom was carried cross and banner +under a canopy with lighted wax tapers. They were followed by a fifth of +the higher student brotherhood of Our Lady; among them many doctors, and +assessors, and divers nobles of the Empire; before them also were borne +the cross and banner with the canopy, and in their hands they carried +burning wax tapers, and flaming white torches. Sixthly came the first +set of choristers, then the clergy in their vestments, then the second +set of choristers; after them the deacons, parish priests, and the very +reverend the prebendaries with the officiating priests, and beside them +went the city soldiers in long rows. Seventhly came the sixteen finely +attired youths bearing the glorious corpse of the martyr Simon. On both +sides of the coffin went twelve boys with burning red torches, dressed +in exquisitely beautiful purple linen. Eighthly following the coffin +came the most noble the President and Governor of Königreichs, all +holding red torches in their hands; they were followed by the most +distinguished nobility of both sexes in great numbers, and lastly a +countless multitude of God-fearing people. + +"The accomplice of the murderer, Levi Hüsel Kurtzhandl, was the son of +wealthy parents at Prague; he was tall, and twenty years of age, with a +daring countenance, was passionate, had a bold eloquence and ready wit, +and was perfectly acquainted with the Talmud, which he had studied +eleven years. He had concealed himself with his Jewish bride nine miles +from Prague. After diligent inquiries, armed men were despatched there +who put him in irons, and brought him in a carriage to Prague on the +22nd of March. Although the commissaries, having formerly had similar +cases, doubted whether the least atom of truth could be extracted from +this flint, yet they confronted him with the witnesses. But +notwithstanding the affidavits of three witnesses, he acknowledged +nothing. He was threatened with the executioner and the rack, but that +had no more effect upon him than threatening a crab with drowning. For +he trusted he should be able to endure the rack, and so escape. Nay, he +was hardy enough to say, that this trial was carried on contrary to all +law and justice. Thus he was, according to law, condemned to the wheel +on the evidence of three witnesses, though without his own confession. + +"He however hindered the execution of the sentence for seven months, +having by means of a Jewish relation brought the affair before his +Imperial Majesty Leopold. The proceedings were now delayed by Jewish +tricks, and so tardily carried on, that it might plainly be seen, that +the culprit was only seeking a delay of some years in order to obtain a +mitigation of punishment or to obviate it by a voluntary death. At last +the tribunal obtained an order that the accused should deliver in his +defence within fourteen days; his frivolous pleas were rejected, and the +sentence of the tribunal confirmed by his Imperial Majesty. He however +adhered to his declaration: 'I am innocent of the blood of the murdered +boy.' This he oft repeated before Father Johannes Brandstedter of the +Society of Jesus, an unwearied apostolical labourer, who met a blessed +death four days after Kurtzhandl, from the virulent poison he had +imbibed in the work of love by a sick bed. When he inquired of the +condemned whether he could meet death with resignation, and exhorted him +to the reception of the saving faith, Levi answered with a cheerful +aspect and without embarrassment: 'I care as little for death as for +this straw'--he held one in his hand, which he thereupon threw +away--'but as concerns the faith, we will now argue out of the holy +Scriptures which of us two holds the true faith. But the father must not +think he has a common simple man before him, for I studied the Talmud +for eleven years.' + +"Thus began a controversy concerning the faith; the priest attacked the +Talmud with powerful theological evidence, and Levi apprehended +everything by the strong capacity of his understanding. At last he threw +his Jewish bible away from him, impatiently saying: 'Let it be as it +may, I abide by the faith in which I was born.' As on the following day +the obdurate youth began to harp upon the same string, the priest set +about the matter again in another way; he no longer spoke to him, but +turned to his fellow-prisoners, and read to them divers evidence from +the holy Scriptures, whereby he proved that the Messiah had already +come. + +"This, Levi listened to quietly and thoughtfully, and although he gave +no indications of being inclined to the holy faith, yet it might be seen +by his countenance that he was not as averse to the presence of the +priest as yesterday. On the third day Levi, hardened as he might be in +other respects, yet desired that the father should return in the +afternoon, as his presence was a special comfort to him in his miserable +position. When the priest promised him this as an encouragement, the +stony heart appeared softened. In the afternoon, the father in his holy +simplicity placed such reliance on the Jew, that he removed all the +others, and remaining alone with him, kindly and urgently begged of him +to give both himself and him consolation, by relating at his pleasure, +as the greatest secret, truly and faithfully, what he knew of the death +of Simon. At this unexpected address Levi was quite amazed; he continued +long silent; but at last struck with the rare confidence shown by a +Christian priest in a Jew, he conceived a high esteem for his +uprightness, and persuaded by the father's promise of secresy, confessed +before him and one of his fellow-prisoners, with great signs of sorrow, +with bent shoulders and head hanging down on the left side, that he had, +at the instigation of the father Lazarus Abeles, laid violent hands on +Simon, and caused his death from zeal for the law of Moses. + +"Upon receiving this confession the priest was exceeding joyful, and +strove with all his powers, by arguments and urgent entreaties, to +persuade him to turn himself magnanimously to God. But to this Levi +would not return any satisfactory answer; and when, as evening twilight +was creeping on, the priest prepared to go home, Levi raised his eyes to +heaven, and said with a deep sigh: 'Father, where shall I be at this +time to-morrow?' Whereto the priest replied: 'My son, in heaven, if you +embrace the Christian faith; but if you die in Judaism, in hell as a +hardened Jew.' Thereupon he in the most friendly way wished him a good +night and a blessed end, and went away. + +"On the following day the priest found the condemned man dressed in +white linen for the impending tragedy, as if he had prepared himself to +be baptized. After a friendly greeting the father asked him in which +faith he had at last resolved to die? Hereunto Levi returned this +answer: 'I will die in the same faith in which Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob +died. And as in the olden time Abraham offered up his son, so will I +to-day sacrifice myself for my sins.' When the priest made a further +rejoinder, he said with a pleasant countenance and in a calm manner: 'I +humbly beg of you, father, not to trouble me any more about baptism, for +I will now pray from the Psalms and prepare myself for a happy death.' +Thereupon he began to repeat the Psalms, but without the girdle called a +_Tephilim_, although the Jews usually consider prayer without binding +the forehead and hands a sin. But he prayed with such contrition of +heart and such vehement beating of the breast, and penitential tears, +that his fellow-prisoners and all present were greatly astonished at his +remorse. + +"After a prayer that had lasted more than two hours he gave himself up +quickly into the hands of the executioner, and thus accosted him with a +cheerful countenance: 'Do to me what God and my judges have commanded +you.' He then turned to his fellow-prisoners, took a friendly leave of +them, and humbly begged of them to forgive his past failings. + +"After ten o'clock they took him, amidst the gaze of countless +multitudes, from the prison, and bound him in a hide, whereat he showed +no sign of impatience or displeasure. Only he sometimes raised his bound +hands in prayer to heaven. Thus was he dragged by a horse to the field +of action. When he perceived that the accompanying priest in the middle +of the Platz was in danger of being severely injured by a horse, he +begged with sympathizing voice that he might go in front to avoid the +danger." + +Thus far the Jesuit's narrative. On the scaffold Levi made a manly +confession of his deed before all the people, with a request that the +witnesses who had only spoken the truth should no longer be kept in +prison. The details of the execution were particularly horrible; the +experienced executioner could not--so the writer states--break the +strong body of the criminal on the wheel. At last Levi called to the +priest by his side and asked him in a clear voice what he would promise +if he should consent to be baptized? When the father promised him, +besides forgiveness of all his sins, also a speedy death, Levi answered: +'I will be baptized.' The Church triumphant hastened to impart private +baptism, much disposed to attribute this unheard-of bodily strength and +calm of the malefactor to a special miracle of Divine Providence. Levi +repeated the prescribed formula with a strong voice, and received calmly +the now effective stroke of death. + +This is the sorrowful history of Simon Abeles. Whoever judges the Jesuit +narrative impartially will discover in it something which the narrator +wishes to conceal; and whoever contemplates with horror the fanatical +murder, will nevertheless not spend much sympathy on the fanatical +priests. They tear the scarcely born child out of the arms of its +mother; they consider it a pious contrivance to steal the suckling +secretly from her, by means of spies and tale-bearers; by promises and +threatenings, and excitement of the imagination, they win hosts of +proselytes in baptism to their God, who is very unlike the God of the +gospel; with the skill of experienced managers, they make use of a +miserable murder, for the sake of bringing on the scene a real tragedy, +and of the dead body of a Jewish boy, in order by pomp and glitter and +enormous processions, and if possible by miracles, to recommend their +faith to both Christians and Jews. Their fanaticism, in alliance with +the burgher magistracy and the compliant law, stands in comparison with +that of a despised, persecuted, and impulsive race; cunning, violence, +malice and a corrupt morality, are to be discovered on both sides. + +During yet two generations, the zeal of the Jesuits against the Jews +continued to work, the struggle of two foreign communities on German +ground. The one consisted of the sons of the old dwellers in the +wilderness, whose leader, the Lord Jehovah, brought them forth with +their flocks and herds, going before them in the fiery pillar, and +pouring his wrath on all who fell away from him. And opposed to these +were the followers of a Spanish nobleman, who had undertaken the +monstrous task of forming the souls of men like the wheels of a machine, +making all the highest intellectual powers serve the one single object, +of a priesthood to the one appointed officer of the great head of the +church militant, Jesus. + +What were Loyola and his school to the ancient Abeles and to Levi +Kurtzhandl? How ancient was Loyola? Their fathers had slaughtered the +sacrificial victim three thousand years before the first Jesuit had +tortured a Jewish heart; their descendants, they were sure, would offer +sacrifice three thousand years later in the kingdom of Messiah, after +the last Jesuit had been collected to his mother Lilith. The fearful S. +J. which shone in gold on the stones of the college, how long would it +last? In the time of their grandfathers it had its origin, in the time +of their grandchildren it would be erased. What was this new device to +the seed of Abraham? An extravagance, a short plague of Egypt. Proudly +did the Roman Catholic church look back on seventeen hundred years of +victory and conquest, but more proudly did the despised Jew look upon +his past, which stretches back to the dawn of the world, for his faith +was seventeen hundred years old when Christ was baptized. Both the +judgment of the pious fathers of the Church and the pious Jews was +narrowed, and their comprehension of the Highest disturbed by old +traditions. + +When Jehovah spoke to Moses on the mountain, his law became the +groundwork of a higher moral law, to the hordes in the desert; when +Jesus proclaimed to the apostles the gracious message of love, his +teaching was a holy treasure for the human race. Since then, the Jews +have continued unweariedly to solemnize their Passover; still do they +shun the meat of the swine, and swing the young cocks on atonement day; +but the foundation of their faith has long vanished, also their pastoral +state on the borders of the Syrian wilderness. For many centuries also, +the pious fathers of the Roman Catholic church have offered their holy +sacrifice daily; but they also, have already ceased to be the most +pre-eminent of those who live under the law of the new covenant. The +Bohemian peasant, who benevolently raised up the sick Jew on the high +road, without tormenting the soul of the stranger with efforts to +convert him, was more Christian than they; that man of science, who +risked his life under the anger of the Church, that he might understand +how the lightning was made by God, and the earth caused to revolve, was +more a proclaimer of the Eternal, than they; and that citizen who died +for his duty, in order to teach that the general weal is of more value +than that of individuals, was nearer the most perfect pattern, than +they. Among them also, undoubtedly, were many good high-minded men; the +Jesuit, Friedrich Spee, met his death in a pesthouse, like that sailor +in the flames. But those who thus lived, are precious to us because they +showed themselves to be good men; whether they were considered good +priests we know not. When this same Spee protested so vehemently against +the burning of witches, which his Church so zealously carried on, he +published his writings, without his name, in a Protestant place. + +Since Moses, and since the first feast of Pentecost, the Lord had never +left himself without witnesses; he had given the nations of the earth a +new culture, had led them to a higher civilisation. He had given them a +new code of morals, he had unlocked the other half of the earth, he had +willed that the new spirit in men should be contained in the narrow +space of one book, which might pass from hand to hand, from one soul to +another, from one century to every succeeding one. Restlessly and +unceasingly did the Divine Spirit agitate and stir the hearts of men; +ever more mighty and more holy did these manifestations of the Eternal, +appear to men of powerful intellect; it was a different manifestation to +that of the old writings, it was also another word of God, another +aspect of the Eternal, which was discovered. Thus men now sought the God +of the human race, of the earth, of the universe, not only in the old +faith but also in science. Together with the Jesuits and Jews there was +Leibnitz. + +This new culture has elevated the Jews; their fanaticism has vanished +since the Christian zeal which persecuted them has ceased, and the +descendants of that wandering Asiatic race have become our countrymen +and fellow combatants. But the ecclesiastical community of the Society +of Jesus, already once expelled, then revived again, remains to this day +what it was at the beginning of its emigration into Germany--alien to +the German life. + + + + + CHAPTER XII. + + THE WASUNGER WAR. (1747.) + + +The great century of enlightenment began with blood and the thunder of +cannon. The Spanish war of succession raged on the western frontier, +within the distracted realm. Bavaria and Cologne fought under the ban of +the Empire, in alliance with Louis XIV. against the house of Hapsburg. + +The constitution of the Empire had become weak. In the east the +Hohenzollerns already held a powerful position by the side of the +Hapsburgers; from the beginning of the century they had become kings +independent of the Empire, and the Electoral house of Saxony, had +shortly before obtained the insecure possession of the Polish Electoral +throne. + +Condemned witches were still burnt on the funeral pile; the +ecclesiastics of three persuasions still carried on a wearisome strife; +the intolerance of the Church, the pressure of poverty, want of great +political interests, and the pitifulness of the small sovereigns and +their courts, still weighed upon the masses. + +Ever wider became the separation of classes. Etiquette only permitted +the princes to have intercourse with the citizens in particular cases, +and under prescribed forms. It therefore occurred sometimes that a good +paternal ruler disguised himself as a private man, withdrew into a +chamber apart, put on his old dressing-gown, and took a pipe in his +mouth, in order to be enabled to have direct intercourse with his +citizens, and thus learn their wishes from themselves. During such hours +his princely dignity was, to a certain degree, suspended, but instantly +he quitted the room he was again within courtly interdict. + +Yet it was just at this period that numerous mesalliances took place. +Among many of the higher nobility, wild nature broke through the +restraint of court usage, and more than once a city maiden had the +doubtful advantage of becoming the persecuted wife of a Prince of old +family. Seldom did the wife obtain from the Emperor the rights of equal +birth; the marriages were generally morganatic, and the children refused +the succession. + +Among the German princes, the course of whose life was changed by a +union of this kind, was Anthony Ulrich, Duke of Saxe Meiningen; born in +1687, the youngest of three brothers, he became, according to the custom +of his house, joint ruler of the country, that is to say, the elder +brother exercised the rights of sovereignty, but the younger ones +received a portion of the revenues of the country. In his youth, this +prince had travelled; in the war of succession he had served through +some campaigns as an Imperial officer; and at the peace of Rastatt, he +quitted the army with the rank of Major-general. A fiery youth, +courteous and accomplished, affable as becomes young princes, not +without an interest in intellectual pursuits, he had, following the +prevailing fashion, zealously collected objects of art and natural +curiosities; with a lively disposition and chivalrous demeanour, he was +the favourite of the country which he only nominally ruled. Whatever +entered into his head, he carried on wilfully and recklessly, with an +iron perseverance which might have led him to great things. Then it +became his lot to fall in love with Philippine Cesar, the daughter of a +Hessian captain, lady of the bedchamber to his sister, the Abbess of +Gandersheim; he took her to Holland and married her. + +For many years he did not avow his marriage. His life became unsettled; +he kept his wife concealed in Amsterdam, and strictly commanded his +servants to keep secret his place of residence; he received letters from +home in roundabout ways, and was always moving to and fro in the land of +his fathers. But when his wife became more precious to him, and sons +were born, the stubbornness of his nature was brought forth, he revealed +his marriage, and required of his family the recognition of it, and the +right of succession for his children. + +The displeasure of his proud house now broke out. The recognition was +denied. Such a marriage was considered by the Court altogether +monstrous, but it was always doubtful whether the decisions of feudal +law were competent to declare this marriage invalid. Therefore the Dukes +of Saxony met together in 1717, and decided that all unequal unions in +their house were to be considered as only morganatic, and the children +were never to be allowed the rights of succession.[48] + +Anthony Ulrich remained firm. He solicited the Imperial court, and +strove unweariedly against the council of the country, who took +advantage of this quarrel to diminish the revenues of the Duke. But his +nature was not easily bent. When in 1722, the last feudal tenant of +Altenstein, one Hund von Wenckheim lay dying, and the commissaries of +the government were standing by the death-bed to take possession of the +vacant fief, Anthony Ulrich rode suddenly into the court of the castle, +and in spite of the protest of the councillors, who were also his +servants, entered the chamber of the dying man, sang with him the +evening song and the penitential hymn, and passed the night, armed with +pistols and other weapons, in the castle. As soon as the vassal had +closed his eyes, he entered the room, and according to the old usage +took possession of the vacant fief, and seating himself in a red velvet +arm-chair, said: "I hereby take possession of my third share, without +prejudice to the two-thirds of my brothers." He then called in his +attendants as witnesses, and according to the prescribed usage, struck +his hand forcibly on the table, so that a jug upset, symbolical of the +movable property, and caused a chip to be cut out of the door of the +chamber of death, and of the dining-room. After this he swore into his +service all who had not fled; he then rode out, cut splinters from the +oak wood, and bits of turf from the meadows, as further tokens of having +taken possession, and went back to Meiningen. But when he returned to +the castle, he found the gates closed and guarded by grenadiers, and all +his threats and protestations were of no avail. + +He afterwards wished to take his wife and children to one of his own +possessions, and lead a peaceable life at home. But such was not his +happy lot. His brothers obtained a decision from the Imperial high court +of judicature, according to which he was not to take his wife and +children into the country of his fathers, and if he should venture to do +so, he was never to usurp for them the title of princes. He now however +went himself to Vienna and so worked there, with the help of large sums +of money, and through the medium of his military acquaintances--the +Spanish minister, the Marquis of Perlas was his supporter--that the +Emperor Charles VI. raised his wife Philippine to the dignity of +Princess of the holy Roman Empire, and her sons and daughters to be +dukes and duchesses of Saxony, with all the privileges and rights, +_i.e._ those of the succession. + +Against this, the whole house of Saxony, and those of Hohenzollern and +Hesse, who were interested by the settlement of succession, rose in +opposition. At first, however, Anthony Ulrich was victor. His eldest +brother died, and the second was a weak man. So he became in 1729, the +real ruler of the country. Then he brought his wife and eldest son under +the ducal roof at Meiningen. For eleven years the stubborn prince +rejoiced in having established his own will. But the struggle with his +house had embittered him; and added to restlessness and violence, a +litigious spirit had come over him. Peevish and endless were the +disputes about the government, and the discord with his brothers and his +favourites; the little country was divided into two parties; ministers +and officials threw themselves on the one or the other side, and +sometimes the machine of government stood still. The Duke lived +generally with his wife and children out of the country, at Vienna. The +legal proceedings with the agnates about the equality of birth, which +still continued, and vexatious quarrels with neighbours, gave him but a +gloomy satisfaction. He had gained no trifling knowledge of the forms of +public law, and conducted all his suits himself. They seem to have taken +up the greater part of his time. + +But the victory was to be followed by a sad reverse. The new Emperor of +the house of Wittelsbacher, Charles VII., was with very evident +reference to Anthony Ulrich's affair, bound on oath not to legitimatize +any notorious mesalliances, and to declare the right of inheritance of +such children null and void. Therefore the rank given to the Duchess of +Meiningen and her children was repealed. Anthony Ulrich had recourse to +the Diet. But in vain. This also declared that his application must be +refused, and the Emperor Francis I. of Lorraine confirmed this decision. + +It was a cruel stroke of destiny. The wife of the Duke had the good +fortune not to outlive the last Imperial decision; she died a few weeks +previous to it; whilst her husband was fruitlessly setting heaven and +earth in motion at Frankfort to ward off this fate. But the two parties +quarrelled even over her coffin. The brother, and co-ruler with the +Duke, refused to allow the corpse to be buried in the royal hereditary +vault, nay even denied her the usual tolling of the bells for royal +personages. Anthony Ulrich rushed furiously from Frankfort and commanded +the tolling and the burial in the royal vault. Orders and counter orders +crossed each other during several weeks; now the tolling began and now +it was stopped. As Anthony Ulrich, who had again hastened to Frankfort, +had commanded that the coffin should not be deposited anywhere but in +the royal burial place, it was kept in a room in the castle covered over +with sand; there it remained a year and a half, till in 1746, Anthony +Ulrich's last brother died. Then the Duke in order to give satisfaction +to his wife even in death, caused his brother's corpse after lying in +state, to be placed in the same room next his wife's coffin and like +hers to be covered over with sand. There the two coffins remained for a +year, when they were both quietly deposited at the same time in the +royal burial place. + +Now Anthony Ulrich, once the youngest of his family, remained sole ruler +and the eldest of his race, but Meiningen was a source of annoyance to +him. He could not take his dear children home as Dukes, therefore he +went to them at Frankfort. His agnates could scarcely conceal the +impatience with which they awaited for his death in order to take +possession of the inheritance of the last of the Meiningens. He had +passed the greater part of his life in struggle with them; now he would +be revenged. Out of spite to them he married at the age of sixty-three a +Princess of Hesse-Philippsthal. He had ten children by his first wife +and eight by his second. He announced every fresh birth to the agnates +on a sheet of the largest royal folio. + +He died at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1763. Even in his last testament the +stubborn determination breaks forth, of bringing the two sons of his +first marriage into the country as co-heirs. All the children of the +first marriage died unmarried. + +His was an unprofitable life, but it well deserves the sympathy of a +later generation. A strong passion disturbed his days up to his last +hours. Mixed with a great love, a stream of gall penetrated into his +heart, flowing unceasingly; his time, his money and all his talents were +spent in the most sorrowful of all struggles--in family disputes. His +brilliant youth gave great promise, yet how profitless to others, nay to +himself, was his whole manhood. In his old age he dwelt in a foreign +city, divided between his past and his new domestic life, to which he +could never get thoroughly accustomed. His spirit, once so lively and +active, and his unbending will, were so engrossed with his personal +affairs, that when he became the real ruler of his country he no longer +took an interest in doing his duty. + +It was not unnatural that Anthony Ulrich should, from his own +experience, entertain a repugnance to the pretensions of the lower +nobility at court, and it was quite in accordance with his character, to +display his hatred when opportunities offered. This he did shortly after +the death of his first wife, to the bereaved court at Meiningen. + +In the royal palace at Meiningen the _Frau Landjägermeisterin_, (wife of +the Grand Master of the chase), Christiane Auguste von Gleichen held the +highest rank. Among the other ladies who had a right to be there, was a +Fran von Pfaffenrath, born Countess Solms, but yet only the wife of a +councillor, who had only just been ennobled, and to whom she had been +married in a not very regular way, for her husband had been tutor in her +parents' house: she had eloped with him, and had after many troubles +accomplished a reconciliation with her mother, and obtained a diploma of +nobility for her husband. Now Duke Anthony Ulrich, who was residing at +Frankfort, protected her, because, as the court whispered, her sister +had the advantage of being in the good graces of the old gentleman. +Naturally, she ought only to have ranked according to the patent of her +husband, but alas! she raised pretensions because she was of high +nobility. When therefore in October 1746, the doors of the dining-room +were to be opened, and the page was standing ready to repeat grace, the +Master-of-the-Horse entered and said to the _Frau Landjägermeisterin_: +"His most Serene Highness has commanded that the Frau von Pfaffenrath +shall take rank before all other ladies." Frau von Gleichen answered +that she would never consent to that, but the Frau von Pfaffenrath had +placed herself favourably and took the precedence of the _Frau +Landjägermeisterin_ before she could prevent it. Yet this determined +lady was far from submitting tamely. She hastened round the table to the +Duke's cabinet minister, and declared to him, as became a lady of +character after such an insult: "If _Frau von_ Pfaffenrath again goes +before me to table, I will pull her back even to the sacrifice of her +hooped gown, and will say a few words which will be very disagreeable to +her." The cabinet minister was in a great embarrassment, for he knew the +resolute character of _Frau von_ Gleichen. At last he advised her to +rise from the table before grace, then she would at all events go out +first and so get the precedence. Thus the _Landjägermeisterin_ +maintained her place, but she was much offended, and so was the whole +court, which split into two parties. This quarrel of the ladies made a +commotion in the whole of the holy Roman Empire, occasioned a campaign +between Gotha and Meiningen, and was only ended by Frederick the Great, +in a manner which reminds one of the fable of the lion which took the +royal share for himself. + +_Frau von_ Gleichen appealed to the absent Duke for reparation. She only +received a strong and ungracious answer. Irritated at this, she made +inquiries into the former life of her enemy, and propagated an anonymous +writing, in which the love affairs of the Countess were described with +more energy than delicacy. The _Frau von_ Pfaffenrath complained of this +lampoon to the sovereign at Frankfort, and afterwards began a course of +proceedings against the _Frau Landjägermeisterin_ which even then was +considered harsh and cruel. She was called upon to crave pardon of the +_Frau von_ Pfaffenrath, on her knees entreating her most penitently for +forgiveness; and when she refused with these words: "I would die first," +she was taken in arrest to the council-house and there guarded by two +musketeers; her husband also was put in an unhealthy prison. Unshaken by +such great sufferings the _Frau Landjägermeisterin_, in a beautiful +letter full of self-reliance and noble sentiments, petitioned the Duke +for her husband's freedom, her own dismission from the service of the +court, and permission to institute a legal defence against the +Pfaffenrath. All this was denied her. She was on the contrary carried by +two musketeers into the room of the Pfaffenrath in order to beg pardon, +and when she again refused, she was taken into the market-place of +Meiningen surrounded by a circle of soldiers, and the sheriff read aloud +a decree, in which it was proclaimed to the people, that the lampoon was +to be burnt before the eyes of the _Landjägermeisterin_ by the hangman, +and every one was forbidden, on pain of six weeks' imprisonment and a +fine of a hundred thalers, ever to speak again on the subject. The +letter was burnt by the hangman and _Frau von_ Gleichen again taken back +to prison. + +But now the friends of the Gleichen brought a complaint before the +Imperial chamber. But the repeated mandates of the Chamber to Duke +Anthony Ulrich and his government, to give freedom to the Gleichens and +to proceed according to law, were not obeyed. After that Duke Friedrich +III. of Gotha, received a commission from the same tribunal to defend +_Frau von_ Gleichen and her husband from farther violence, and to +deliver them from imprisonment in Meiningen, yet keep them in honourable +custody. Duke Friedrich demanded the delivery of the prisoners from +Meiningen, but his commissioners were not admitted into the city, nor +his letter accepted; but it was signified to him, that if Gotha should +attempt to free them by force, there was plenty of powder and shot at +Meiningen. Betwixt Meiningen and Gotha there were endless quarrels and +great bitterness. + +Thereupon Duke Friedrich of Gotha prepared himself for armed +intervention. He was a warlike Prince, who maintained a subsidiary force +of six thousand infantry and fifteen hundred horse in the Dutch and +Imperial service. He had, besides a large number of guns, a strong corps +of officers and several Generals. On the other hand the military +strength of Meiningen was small; it consisted almost entirely of the old +fortifications and unskilled militia. These were assembled, and +Meiningen was fortified as well as was possible in such haste. But it +was not destined that Meiningen itself should become the scene of +action, for the fury of war raged only about the town of Wasungen. It +was indeed a remarkable coincidence that this place should become the +theatre of war, for scandal says that it was considered the shield or +place of refuge of Meiningen; and in the country there is a lying story +about its councillors and a large gourd. The councillors mistook the +gourd for the egg of a foreign horse which was to be hatched for the +good of the town by the united powers of the councillors. + +The struggle which then took place in the centre of Germany, between the +Thuringian states of Gotha and Meiningen, is known by the name of the +Wasunger war. In a military point of view it is of no importance, but is +characteristic of the period. All the misery in the German Empire, the +decaying state of the burgher life, the coarse immorality of the +politics of that time, the meannesses, pedantry, and helplessness of the +Imperial army, are shown to such an extent, that they might be a source +of amusement, if they did not give rise to a more serious and better +feeling, bringing to light the helplessness of the German Empire. + +The narrative is here given by Lieutenant Rauch of Gotha, who took part +in the war. He speaks in his diary as follows:-- + +"Early on the 15th of February, precisely at one o'clock, our whole +division broke up from Tambach, and marched with burning torches through +the wood beyond the so-called Rosengarten, in order that we might enter +at break of day the Hessian village Flohe; we knew not whither we were +going. We continued our march through the city of Smalkalden up to +Middle Smalkalden. + +"When the cavalry came to the Meiningen village Niederschmalkalden, a +Lieutenant, with about four-and-twenty militia men, stood right across +the road, and would not let us pass. Here all three corps were obliged +to halt. Major von Benkendorf, together with the Lieutenant-Colonel, +rode up to the Lieutenant who was commanding there; and the Major asked +him what he meant by not letting us pass, and whether this was not a +public road? The Lieutenant answered: 'Yes! it was a high road, but he +had orders not to let us pass. Major Benkendorf might say what he liked, +the Lieutenant would not listen to him.' The Major then took a letter +out of his pocket which he wished to show him; but neither would he take +that. Whereupon the Major said to the Lieutenant: if he would not let +him pass with his people he would force his way. + +"The Lieutenant answered shortly, that we might do so, as he had not +sufficient force to prevent him. The Major rode immediately to the +guards, drew his sword, and approached the Lieutenant to see whether he +would consent to treat; but he would not stir from the spot. The Major +asked him once more, whether he would yield up the ground? But he +remained firm. Thereupon the Major gave his orders to the guard: March! +March! and broke through. + +"While they were passing, it happened that one of the horses pushed +against the Meiningen Lieutenant and threw him down. But he soon +recovered himself, seized his weapon, and shot the serjeant-major of the +guards, Starke, and then took to flight. A horseman however, whose name +was Stähm, pursued him forthwith, and would have cut his head in two, +but the Lieutenant held his weapon obliquely over his head, so that the +horseman Stähm cut in half the powder sack on the barrel. But my good +old Lieutenant thought he would run further, and sprang over a ditch, +where the horseman might not be able to follow him, and thought he was +now safe. But the grenadier Hellbich fired and shot my old Lieutenant +Zimmermann behind the right ear as he ran, so that he fell suddenly to +the ground, and not a muscle quivered. The militia still standing there +looked on at the game; but the grenadiers fired some grenades among +them, and they then took to their heels and ran away. + +"Meanwhile all the streets of the village had been barricaded with carts +and wagons; but the Mayor and the peasants seeing their old Lieutenant +lying dead, whom they had at all times considered as their bulwark, and +observing that some grenades had fallen into their gardens, were in +great terror, and began to ring the alarm bells that all the peasants +might speedily assemble. + +"In a moment all the wagons and carts were moved out of the way so that +we might march. The militia had fled to the village of Schwallungen, +through which also we had to pass, and where again there was an officer +in command of thirty militia, to whom they reported what had taken place +in the village of Niederschmalkalden. So the officer, who was a +shoemaker by profession, when he heard this report from the fugitives, +took such of his men as would go with him and tore off to Wasungen +before he had even caught sight of us. + +"When we came to the afore-mentioned village, we formed ourselves in +column, fixed our bayonets, and thought what will now take place? We +marched on, and when we came to the gate the officer and all the troops +had fled, and there to not a single man to make resistance. We marched +straight through with fixed bayonets; then we saw the portion that had +remained of the runaway shoemaker-Ensign's troop in their uniform, with +their cartridge boxes, peeping out of the windows. + +"My good shoemaker-Ensign was off, and had posted himself and the men +who thus went out with him at the gate of Wasungen, where again a +Lieutenant, who was a good barber--as I knew by experience, having +myself been shaved by him--had posted himself, and was awaiting us. The +gate of Wasungen was firmly closed with strong double doors, but a +sentinel stood without; so Major von Benkendorf called to him that the +gate must be opened. But the sentinel excused himself, saying he could +not. The said Major asked him, 'Who is there besides?' He answered: 'The +Lieutenant.' The Major said he must call his Lieutenant; whereupon he +ran hastily and fetched him out. Then came up my good barber-Lieutenant; +the man was already well nigh dead of fright, and his face was whiter +than his shirt. The Major accosted him sharply, asking how it was that +the gates were fastened, and whether a public high road did not pass +through there? He answered, Yes! So Major von Benkendorf said he must +that instant open the gates, or we would do it ourselves. When he heard +this, being half dead with fright, he begged for pardon, saying it was +not he that could open the gates, but the councillors who had closed +them. The answer was, that he must forthwith produce the councillors. +Good gracious! was there ever any one more glad than the good barber, +who ran as if his head was burning; but meanwhile there was nothing seen +or heard of the shoemaker-Ensign. + +"At last the councillors came. + +"When I saw these men creeping out of the little gate, I thought, 'What +the devil! are these councillors? they are a fine lot!' The councillors +looked a little respectable, but the burgomaster was up to the knees +in cow-dung, and must have been fetched from clearing away the dung in +the stable. Hereupon, Major von Benkendorf asked whether they were the +councillors? They answered: 'Yes, and what did we desire?' The Major +asked whether this was not the highroad to Nuremberg? They said, 'Yes.' +'Why then were the gates closed and barricaded, and we not allowed to +pass through?' Then the president of the council answered: 'They were +commanded by their government not to let any troops pass through, +therefore they must keep the gates closed; they must do what their +master commanded them.' But Major von Benkendorf repeated his former +words, and said to them: 'They must open to us, and that quickly, for +that we must march further; and if they did not open, we would do it +ourselves.' The president of the council answered this, and said: 'We +might do as we liked, but he could not open the gates to us.' But the +dung-bespattered burgomaster then began: 'Nay! if you wish to march +further, you can do so by the back road.' I thought to myself, 'If thou +couldst but kill that cursed dirty fellow!' The Major then forthwith +called to me, and desired that all the carpenters of the whole division +should be summoned; which was done in a moment. Hereupon he asked once +more whether they would amicably open the gate? if not, he would have +them immediately hewn open. They might now see that we ourselves would +open the gates if they did not prefer preserving them whole. + +"The Major thought they would resolve to open them, but they said they +would not, and we might do what we liked. Hereupon the Major called out: +'Proceed carpenters! hew the gates down!' Thereupon the carpenters set +to work. When the knocking and cracking began, it was well worth seeing +how the councillors, among whom was the Burgomaster, and the +frightened barber-Lieutenant, began to ran, as if carried off by the +devil. In a moment both gates were hewn down, and the whole detachment +marched with trumpets, drums, and fifes, into the city. + +"As we marched in through the gates, the good barber-Lieutenant, and the +shoemaker-Ensign, with their men, presented arms, and saluted both the +officers of our detachment. + +"Here we stopped, just as we were; everyone was hungry and thirsty. We +officers made the citizens fetch us something to drink, and stood +looking at and questioning one another. The snow was lying on the +ground, and our men began to be impatient. I went to the inn where the +Lieutenant-Colonel was in consultation with his officers; they were +deliberating, and I could not speak with them. The citizens were already +beginning to kindle their lights, and it did not appear how the affair +was to end. + +"At last the Lieutenant-Colonel came and sent forthwith to the +councillors, who were already assembled in their council-room, +deliberating what report they should make to Meiningen concerning the +hewing down of their gates. But the president of the council had got +scent of it, so he kept apart, and left the others to themselves, for +all men could see that we could not go any further, as it was night. Now +as the president was away, no one would go to the Lieutenant-Colonel, +and each kept calling upon the other to go. At last one consented, and +said: 'Some one must go, let what will happen.' When therefore he came +to the Lieutenant-Colonel, it was represented to him that the town must +provide us with accommodation for the night, whether they liked or not. +The Lieutenant-Colonel also added, that we should march very early on +the morrow; that the citizens were not bound to give the smallest thing +to the soldiers, who had to live on their pay; therefore he need not +deliberate any more about it. The councillor begged to be excused, but +said he could do nothing himself, he must lay the matter before his +colleagues, and see what they were disposed to do. + +"Hereupon I marched forth again with the good councillor to the +Schlundhouse, where the other councillors were sitting. When I entered +the room with the plenipotentiary, he delivered the Lieutenant-Colonel's +message to them, in his own words: 'That the Commander desired to have +night-quarters for his men, and that on the morrow at sunrise, they +would again march; that he could not help the citizens; they must do so +whether they chose or not; if they would not do it, they must tell +Lieutenant Rauch; in which case, he would quarter the soldiers in houses +according to the custom with troops; they would get what they wanted, +for soldiers must live on their pay. No citizen was bound to give them +anything but a warm room and a place of rest.' + +"Now every one shall hear what passed amongst these councillors. The +first who began, said: 'I do not assent to this. Who asked them to wait +so long here? they might long ere now have marched away, if they had +chosen.' Another said: 'You are right, cousin Kurtz; I would rather tear +myself in pieces than consent.' The third then said: 'So, ho! first they +hew down our gates, and then, forsooth, they cannot go further, and +expect us to give them quarters: most decidedly not!' The fourth now +spoke: 'The honourable Commander seems to be an honest man, but let him +say what he will, there is no doubt that we must provide food for them, +for truly they bring nothing with them.' The fifth then began: 'That is +right, cousin Hopf: do you not remember how it fared with us when the +Imperial cavalry came? they behaved in like manner; and afterwards we +could not get rid of them, but were obliged to keep them with a good +grace.' The sixth said: 'This will never do; we cannot provide them with +quarters till we have received orders from our government, otherwise we +shall be punished.' The seventh spoke thus: 'Did I not tell you, +gentlemen, what would happen, by keeping these people so long outside? +Truly the President, Herr Läufer, has made off, and slips his head out +of the noose, leaving us to bear the brunt. Take heed; they say they +will be off to-morrow, but they have been marching yesterday and to-day, +and to-morrow they will make a day of rest, as they will need repose. +Rest assured that I am right; what think you, gentlemen? suppose we were +to send a messenger on horseback to Meiningen?' + +"I had listened to all the discussions of the councillors, and now I +began, and said: 'Gentlemen, you come to no conclusion; I will inform my +Commander of it, let it fare with you as it may.' But he who had gone +with me to the Lieutenant-Colonel, begged me to wait but a little, and +they would just send to the treasurer and city clerk to confer with +them. Here the strife began again, none would go thither. At last one of +them allowed himself to be persuaded, but soon returned again, saying +they had both ridden off when we hewed down the gates. Then I said, +'Now, gentlemen, do what you like; I will not wait a moment longer.' + +"Thereupon the eighth and last began to speak, he who had accompanied me +to the Lieutenant: 'Gentlemen, what shall we do; here they are, and you +have heard what the Commander says: if we will allot them no quarters, +he will let his soldiers go into whatsoever houses they please; if they +fill your houses it is no fault of mine. I go home to close mine. As +many as come to my share I will take; the others I will show to your +houses. You have heard of to-day's misfortunes. At Smalkalden, friend +Böhler's brother-in-law, Lieutenant Zimmermann, is dead; our gates have +been hewn down; below are the soldiers thundering out curses. Gentlemen, +let us billet them. The soldiers in the market-place say they only wish +they had shot the peasants who were with the Lieutenant. What a calamity +that would have been! They say also that more shall be shot; that one +shall not be the last. Thus you see that the same misfortune might come +upon us also. Ah! gentlemen, if we had but such a prince as he of Gotha +is! but ours troubles himself not about us; he lives comfortably at +Frankfort, and let what will come to us, he cares not. And who knows +wherefore this has begun? These soldiers assuredly have not come for a +pastime. One can learn nothing from them. And how soon one night will +pass, or even two! They are our border neighbours too; why should we not +give them a night's lodging?' + +"They all agreed to this and sought for their old rate of tax; whereupon +I had to tell them the whole strength of our division. + +"After that, I received an order to enjoin upon the soldiers, when they +received their billets, that they were not to undress themselves, but +were each of them to place his weapon by his bedside, and soon as a call +was heard, every soldier was instantly to join his commanding officer +fully armed, and if any one was found in a state of drunkenness, he was +to be punished by running the gauntlet of the whole division; therefore +an order was to be given directly to the assistant executioner, to cut +this very evening six hundred rods. + +"None of the officers undressed themselves; for the most part they +remained in company together, in order to be alert on the morrow. When +morning approached, the citizens as well as the officers were listening +for the beating of the drum. They also had probably passed an unquiet +night; wherefore? because they were badly provided with beds, and had +given them up perhaps to the soldiers for a douceur. This one might +conclude, as in all the houses lights were to be seen throughout the +night. In the morning, instead of the call from the staff of the +grenadier guards, the reveille was beaten. Now, every soldier knows +well, that beating the reveille signifies remaining quiet, or a day of +rest; so we put our heads together to guess what this might mean. The +citizens, also, when they saw that the soldiers did not break up, and +prepare to march, laid their heads together likewise, and there was a +great amount of whispering among them. My host, himself a councillor, +came and asked me what was the meaning of our not marching further? I +could give him no information. + +"Now the misery began; there was only food for him who had brought +bread. The citizens quarrelled with the soldiers, and asked why they had +not marched away yesterday or early to-day, and whither we had intended +to go? They told them the truth. It was such an uproar as is impossible +to describe. The poor citizens who possessed no goods or houses, fled, +and their dwellings were broken open by the soldiers, and one excess was +committed after another. + +"Meanwhile, all the councillors and burgomasters were called to +Meiningen, where they were charged by their government, on pain of +punishment, to signify to the citizens that they were not to provide +anything for the Saxe-Gotha soldiers. The bakers were not to bake, nor +the butchers to slaughter the beasts; the innkeepers were not to prepare +any food, nor the brewers to brew. This the councillors actually +proclaimed to the citizens. And truly I was not able to get even +three-pennyworth of cheese. The citizens who were prudent people, begged +of us not to take it amiss of them; as we must accept good words instead +of what they would have given us. If I wanted bread I had to send to +Smalkalden for it, and give more pay to the messenger than for the +bread. + +"Thus we remained there, expecting the Meiningens, who never came. +Meanwhile we found provisions; we got most of them from Smalkalden; the +beer was bought in the Hessian village of Tambach, and the Jews brought +us meat. At last the Wasungers became disloyal, turned round on their +magistrates and said: 'We have all the troubles, and the other states +the enjoyment; this does not suit us; we have promised to obey our +government, but then they should protect us. If they cannot rid us of +these people, we will bake, brew, and cook.' And from that hour they +began to do all. For many years the citizens had not brewed nor sold so +much beer as after this; every week three and four brews; bakers began +to bake, who had long shut up shop; the butchers did the like. Then the +wise councillors went off again to Meiningen and reported everything; +whereupon the citizens were again cited to the town house, on a penalty +of twenty gulden. But they were refractory and would not go, but sent +thither their barefooted children, and heeded no more commands. When +these wise councillors found this, they themselves began to brew. + +"On the 22nd of May, on Whit Monday, 1747, an order must probably have +come from Major S---- of which we officers learnt nothing. Hereupon +there was a running and scampering to the Privy Councillor Flörcke at +the 'Bear,' which was quite astounding; now they ran in and now out. I +thought: 'What the devil is the matter?' yet I thought, if something is +passing, I shall hear of it. The citizens also began to inquire: +'Wherefore is all this running to the commander at the "Bear?"' But I +could give no answer. + +"Whilst all this running hither and thither was going on, I went with +Ensign Köhler to inspect the sentinels, and when we arrived at the upper +gate, Majors von S---- and von B---- and Captain von W---- met us. Major +von S---- came straight up to me and asked me secretly, whether I had +heard any news? I answered, No; whereupon he inquired of me, whether I +knew that the Meiningens meant to attack us that night? I replied: 'Well +and good; if they come they must knock pretty loud, we will be ready for +them.' He then said, would I wish to send my wife away? 'No,' said I, +'she only came on holy Whitsun eve, and will not go away till the day +following Whit Sunday.' 'Indeed,' he continued; 'but if the Meiningens +come?' 'I shall gird a sword round her,' was my answer, 'and she may +defend herself.' + +"Then Major S---- continued, saying, 'I was to make my dispositions +here, and see that all the gates and posts were defended.' This is truly +being deceived with one's eyes open; to make dispositions before the +eyes of men and not to keep them! + +"When I came down I called out to the soldiers: 'Attention! cease that +chattering.' Then I began to arrange the right wing, but had hardly +placed four or five files, when Captain W---- came running, and asked +me, whether I had not heard that I was to come with him directly. Here +came out the first result of their council of war. I did not delay long, +but ran directly to the Major, and asked what commands he had to give +me; whereunto he answered, that I was to take thirty dragoons and march +them to the 'Bear,' and there report myself to the Privy Councillor +Flörcke, in order to bring him in safety to Schwallungen. I forthwith +replied: 'I beg your pardon, Major, but that is not befitting me, and I +shall not do it; there are other officers there who may be ordered to do +this, but not I.' Now, in short, I heard that the Privy Councillor +wished to have me. Who would have dreamt of such a trick? As if I would +have escorted the Privy Councillor from Wasungen! I would sooner have +taken him into the Werra. But no remonstrances would serve; they said I +must and should go. This was the first trick! Hereupon I replied to the +Major: 'So I must consider it an honour, that the Privy Councillor +places such confidence in me, when there are so many officers in the +division;' hereupon I received an order, to tell the officer at the +lower gate that he should give information as soon as I had passed +through with the Privy Councillor; this was the second trick. Who could +have imagined such a trick? I will not write what I think of it. When I +found it out I wished that all the horses of the carriages had died, +that I might not be taken away from Wasungen by such cunning. + +"Now I went forth, taking with me a corporal named Görnlein, and +nine-and-twenty dragoons, and marched to the 'Bear,' where I found a +carriage at the door, but saw the servant sitting within in the doorway. +I called to him to inform his master I was there; whereupon the Privy +Councillor called out to me from the carriage, 'I am already here.' +Whereupon, I detached the corporal with fourteen men to go behind the +carriage, while I went in advance with the others. + +"Now when I came to the lower gate, I called to the serjeant, and bade +him tell the major that I and the privy councillor had passed out. +Meanwhile the soldiers were in great confusion at the rendezvous; but +when the corporal announced that I had passed out with the Privy +Councillor, the major immediately gave orders that all the soldiers +should pile their arms, and go to their quarters to fetch their baggage; +when they had dispersed, he sent to the guard to desire them to go +forthwith and assemble at his quarters, which was done. Thus all the +outposts were forgotten. At last the noise and bawling was so great, it +reached the ears of the outposts, who went off without orders. Now when +the soldiers from the guards came to the market-place, they saw some of +the soldiers coming back from their quarters with their baggage, so they +piled their arms and went off for theirs. + +"But this was not enough. Either the time appeared to him too long +before the soldiers were again assembled, or the fear of death had +already come upon him, or he was incited to it by his comrades; but in +short, he determined at once to leave, and going down to the soldiers he +called out, 'Allons! March!' although the men had not nearly all +assembled. Then Captain Brandis, who had not consented to this at their +council of war, asked what this meant? whereto the Major von S---- +answered, they were to march into the district of Britungen. The good +man who was standing in front of the Meiningen gate, then ran quickly to +his house, collected his things together, and threw them into his +portmanteau. He had well nigh been left behind. + +"Now when Captain Brandis, and the musketeer who had packed up his +things, returned to the place of rendezvous, all were gone, and there +were only a few weapons remaining there. So he sent on his servant, and +waited for the remainder of the men. Now every one should know, in the +first place, that Major von S----, had not waited till all the soldiers +were collected together, still less had he thought of the artillery; he +had thought of nothing but calling out 'March! march!' and the sick +officers (Captain Rupert among them), and sick soldiers were forgotten; +besides this, he never set the troops in order, but marched them out as +a shepherd drives his cattle through the gate; and such a shameful sight +was never seen, nor can it be described. + +"Captain Brandis now came marching through the town with the soldiers he +had collected; whereupon the citizens began to call out after him: +'There they run like vagabonds; they entered in the daylight and run +away at night, like thieves and rogues; the good Major von S---- is up +and away.' Captain Brandis swallowed all this patiently, and continued +marching slowly with his troops. When he had come to a height in front +of the town, some Wasungers, who were lying in ambush, fired at him; and +when he had marched a short distance further, he found our artillery +lying in a defile, without a single man to guard it, and it lay now with +the wheels, now with the wagons uppermost, and hardly a piece was +standing; for as there was a deficiency of chains, the gunners had +fastened the guns with tow to the powder wagons, and these were breaking +every moment. Captain Brandis with his men, remained with the artillery. + +"Now I had to make my arrangements carefully. When I arrived at +Schwallungen, I stopped my soldiers and the carriage, and went up to the +Privy Councillor to inquire where I should convey him; whereto he, half +dead with fear, answered, 'To the upper Inn.' Where the devil that was I +did not know, till I found a dragoon, who having been there formerly, +conducted us to the place; for I knew nothing about the village, nor +where the inn lay; it was dark as pitch, and rained as if the water was +poured from heaven in buckets. When I arrived at the inn he had +designated, I caused the gates to be opened, and the carriage to drive +into the court; the Privy Councillor alighted with his clerk who +accompanied him, and retired into an upper room, for he knew the place +better than I. I put a sentry on each side of the carriage, because the +chancery papers lay therein. I desired the rest of the soldiers to place +their arms in the house that they might be safe from the rain, and +placed a sentry to guard both the arms and the Privy Councillor. I did +not care any more about the said Privy Councillor, for I had, according +to the orders of Major von S----, brought him to a place of security; +where he would probably be about as safe as a cake among rats, for it +was a Meiningen village; and according to all accounts there were no +worse rogues in the whole country, than the inhabitants of Schwallungen. + +"Having therefore executed my orders, I sent my sergeant to Lieutenant +Griesheim, who was stationed with forty or fifty dragoons in the said +village, to inform him that I had brought the Privy Councillor hither, +and that he should come and release me from my charge. A short time +after, the Lieutenant made his appearance, and was much amazed that I, +being adjutant, should have come hither with a detachment, and could not +help remarking on it. + +"I said, it appeared to me more serious. However, this was now nothing +to the purpose. I begged of him to set to work, and send for his +soldiers, that I might march back to Wasungen with my detachment; +whereupon he took the trouble of going himself for them. When he had +collected about fifteen men, I told him he must take charge of the +posts, as I wished at once to resume my march; the which he did, and so +released me. Now it was right to pay my respects to the Privy +Councillor, and ask him whether he had any commands for Wasungen? +whereupon the man addressed me as if I were a thrasher, and asked me +whether I had no orders to remain here? but I was prepared and answered +him with the most perfect indifference, 'No, the devil has given me no +orders to remain here; and it was no part of my duty to bring you here.' +That he said I might settle with Major von S----. Whereunto I replied, +'I will most certainly do so.' After that he inquired of me more kindly +what I wished to do at Wasungen, as the whole division were on the +march, and would speedily be here. Then I said, 'Is that the way the +cards are shuffled? that is good, truly.' Now whilst I was still +standing in the room with the Privy Councillor, I heard the tramping of +horses; I rushed down stairs and asked who it was. I received for +answer, 'We are all here.' Then I was so horrified that I almost lost my +senses; there were the two majors, who forthwith dismounted, hastened up +stairs into the councillor's room, and I after them. + +"Now they were beginning to relate to each other how fortunately they +had escaped from the besieged Wasungen, but I would not let Major von +S---- say a word, but asked him: 'Herr Major, what manner of conduct is +this, to send me so cunningly away from Wasungen, without telling me +that you were going to march out, and I have left there my wife and +child, and all my property? Is this the custom of war? I know not +whether you have received money for acting thus, or what I am to think +of it. Are these your secret projects which are brought to light to-day? +In the devil's name, I am not so young, nor have only become a soldier +to-day; perhaps I know as well or better than you, what is the way to do +things.' I was in such a rage, I would have staked my life against him. + +"Now my dear reader, you must observe, that up to this moment I had +neither seen nor heard a single man of the whole division, and did not +know how matters stood. Major von S---- tried to comfort me, saying I +need not be unhappy about my things; he would be surety for them; but I +answered him quickly: 'Herr Major, how can you answer for my things? Why +did you not tell me the truth instead of sending me out of Wasungen by +such deceit? that is not allowable.' Then the Privy Councillor would +have his say, and truly to this effect, that the Major was right in +sending me away; that was his opinion. But I replied: 'By ---- I require +no clerks to give me orders; if I were a commander, I would tell those +who were under me, what was going to take place, and what they were to +do; but to act in such a way as this, is not honourable.' + +"Thereupon I left the room, and when I came to the guard in the court, +one Pleissner, a citizen of Gotha, a tinman, who had been at that time +on a visit at Wasungen, entered the court, and said to me of his own +accord; 'God help us, Herr Lieutenant, what a sight that was at +Wasungen! it filled me with sorrow and vexation when our people marched +out in that way, for I am a citizen of Gotha. When our soldiers marched +out through the lower gate, the militia of the country entered in +through the upper gate, and visited every house; and sent off to +Meiningen, Christian, Ensign of Captain Brandis's company, who had been +forgotten on guard, and was going to his quarters to fetch his baggage. +The devil is in the militia; they visited every house, and said they +would carry off all to Meiningen.' + +"I will ask anyone to think what kind of temper I was in then; Captain +Ruprecht and many soldiers had been left ill at Wasungen; my wife and +child and my small chattels were also there; and now I heard that the +musketeer Huthmann had already been carried off to Meiningen, so +everything wore a black aspect. I asked the citizen where our soldiers +were? 'Ah,' said he, 'they lie without, all in troops under the trees, +and Captain Brandis is still at Wasungen; the field-pieces lie all on +the road upside down; they cannot get on, as they have no chains to +couple them together, but they have made use of the tow for that +purpose, which breaks every minute. I remained near them some time, but +the Wasungers began to fire at us from behind; it was the devil to pay, +and as it also rained heavily, I thought I would get under cover. Our +people are lying so dispersed about the roads, that it would take two +hours to collect them, and I saw no officer but Captain Brandis: the +soldiers were swearing enough to bring down heaven upon them; I was +frightened out of my wits and hastened away.' + +"After hearing this I stood there, not knowing what to do; there was not +a man of the whole detachment to be heard or seen, and it rained +terribly. At last the old grenadier corporal came into the village with +about ten grenadiers, wading through the mud; I knew his voice from +afar, and his soldiers were swearing astoundingly; so I called out to +them, 'What is the use of swearing? it cannot be helped now.' 'Aye, +zounds,' said the corporal, 'I have gone through two campaigns, but +never had such a business as this. Is this to be allowed? There is our +captain lying ill at Wasungen, and our major, who ought to take charge +of us, is gone with Major S---- to the devil; we are poor forsaken +soldiers, but, the devil take me, I will march to Gotha with the few men +I have here.' I asked him where the other grenadiers were; but he did +not know whether they were in advance or behind. 'We have not an +officer,' he said, 'and no one took charge of us,' so each one went +where he chose. He did not know that the two majors were at the inn; but +if the old corporal was foul-mouthed, his grenadiers were still worse. + +"I had enough to do to mollify the grenadiers, and thus things went on; +every quarter or half-hour a small troop came in, and if the first had +made a clamour, the others were still worse; finally, the artillery +came, though it is usual, under whatever circumstances one may march, to +place the artillery either in front or in the middle, and guard them as +one would guard one's soul. It might plainly be seen that this commander +had never seen a corps or army marching with artillery, which must, +according to the usages of war, always be protected. + +"The soldiery became more and more disorderly, and I had to admonish +them to be on their good behaviour before the peasants, who were looking +at and listening to us from their windows, and making their jests upon +us. + +"At last, thank God, the rain ceased; a dragoon had led us to a meadow +which lay hard by the road, along which I stationed the right wing, and +taking command, told the force off into divisions and half-divisions. +Whilst I was doing this I heard some horses in the distance coming at a +great pace, so I thought, here comes the enemy; I forthwith called out +to the right wing to send out some men and challenge the new-comers; at +the same time I ran up to one of the grenadiers, and taking his musket +from his hand, as during the process of dividing the men I had given up +mine, I placed myself with some grenadiers in the middle of the road, +and called out, 'Who goes there?' I was answered by a well-known voice, +which I immediately recognized as that of Major von Benkendorf, as he +did mine likewise. When I challenged him, he called to me, 'Do you not +know me?' 'Yes, thank God!' I knew him by his voice, but could not do so +before he spoke, on account of the darkness. Thus did God send to the +children of Israel in the wilderness; here was the word fulfilled: God +forsakes none who trust in him always. + +"The first words of the major were: 'Children, what are you doing here?' +I answered, Herr Major, God only knows, not I; we have been brought away +in such a fashion, that we hardly know how we have come here.' He asked +further: 'Did you all march?' 'Yes, there is no longer any one there +except the sick, and those they have taken prisoners.' '_Oh, mon Dieu!_' +exclaimed he, 'we must return thither, even were we to sit down before +the gates; where are your majors?' 'At the Schwallungen inn.' Then he +called out, 'Allons, children! march away;' and galloped in all haste to +the inn, where he may have found them at a good bottle of wine, but what +kind of greeting he gave them, or compliments, I have not heard." + +Thus far we have the valiant Rauch. In the farther part of his diary he +relates how the Gotha troops regained courage, returned to Wasungen and +there drove out the Meiningens, who were equally eager to run away, as +they had done, and again established themselves there. + +Immediately after the first capture of Wasungen, the government at +Meiningen, in great consternation, had sent Frau von Gleichen with her +husband there in a carriage, attended by Gotha troops. But it was no +great pleasure to them to see that the cause of the quarrel was done +away with; so the poor court dignitaries met with a cold reception; the +health of both was broken by sorrow, vexation, and long imprisonment. +In 1748, Herr von Gleichen died, and his wife soon after. Meanwhile, +flying-sheets and memorials, mandates of the Imperial chamber, and +ministerial missives concerning this affair, flew all over Germany; the +Gotha troops kept possession of Wasungen. Anthony Ulrich obstinately +refused to acknowledge the claims of Gotha to indemnification, and the +voices of numerous princes were loud in condemning the sentence of the +Imperial chamber, and the execution of it by Gotha, as a violation of +the sovereign rights of a German ruler. Frederick the Great did so +likewise. + +Just then, when the Duke of Saxe-Gotha was in a desperate position, a +new prospect and a new subject of quarrel presented themselves to him. +The Duke of Weimar had died, and had settled that his cousin of Gotha +was to be guardian to his only son during his minority. The Duke of +Gotha speedily entered upon the guardianship, and caused homage to be +sworn to him: upon this, a violent altercation again sprang up between +him, and the Duke of Coburg and Anthony Ulrich, who both contested the +right of the Gotha prince to the guardianship. Then Frederick II. of +Prussia offered his services to the Duke of Gotha, who was reduced to +great extremities, on condition that he should obligingly offer him the +small gift of two hundred picked men from the guards of Weimar. This was +done; thus the Duke of Gotha purchased the administration of this +country, and the settlement of the Wasunger strife, with two hundred men +of the Weimar guards. Two hundred children of the soil of Weimar, to +whom the quarrel mattered not in the least, were arbitrarily given away +like a herd of sheep. Contrary to all justice, they were chaffered away +by a foreign prince. + +The two hundred followed King Frederick in the seven Years' war. + + + + + CONCLUSION. + + +This work ends with the name of the great king. The social condition of +the country in his time, although very different from the present, is +well known to us; and even minute particulars, have become, through its +history and literature, the common property of the people. Frederick +became the hero of the nation. The Germans have exalted him even more +than Gustavus Adolphus. He ruled the minds of men far beyond the +boundaries of his limited dominions. In the distant Alpine valleys, +among men speaking another tongue, and holding another faith, he was +reverenced as a saint both in pictures and writings. He was a powerful +ruler, a genial commander, and what was more valued by the Germans, a +great man in the highest of earthly positions. It was his personal +appearance and manners which made foreigners and even enemies admire +him. He inspired the people again with enthusiasm for German greatness, +zeal for the highest earthly interests, and sympathy in a German state. +In the course of three centuries, he was the third man round whom the +national love and veneration had entwined itself; the second to whom it +was granted to elevate and improve the character of the nation. For the +Germans became better, richer, and happier, when they were carried +beyond the narrow interests of their private life, and beyond their +petty literary quarrels, by the appearance of a great character daringly +aspiring to the highest objects, struggling, suffering, persevering, and +firm. He was of their own blood, and in spite of his passion for what +was French, he was a thorough child of Germany, reared in a hard time, +and belonging to them. Under him, the grandsons of those citizens who +had passed through the great war, began for the first time after a +century to feel their own powers. We delight to see, how the poor poet +sings the praises of him, who would so little appreciate the odes of the +German Sappho, or the outpouring of elevated poetry; still more do we +rejoice in seeing the whole people, even in Austria, contending on his +behalf, his image penetrating into every family, and his name exciting +everywhere party spirit, new interests, and political passions. This has +been the greatest blessing of his whole life. He forced the private +individual to take part in political life; he created a state for the +German, which whether loved or hated, must become a continual object of +care and watchfulness. + +But though enthusiasm for a hero perhaps gives a capacity for the +development of powers, it does not give stability. The Germans had yet +to go through severe trials after the death of the great king. He had +bequeathed to them the first beginning of a German State, but the ruins +of the Empire of the middle ages lay defenceless against the western +enemy. The curse which since the time of Charles V. had rested on the +German Empire had not yet changed into a blessing. Once more was Germany +overrun by a great army, once more did a league of German princes unite +with a foreign conqueror, even the state of the great Frederick was +shattered, the last hope seemed to have vanished, the German people were +crushed. + +But in the rooms of the German peasants, the picture of the old king, in +his three-cornered hat and small pigtail, did not turn his earnest look +in vain on the life he had revived; nor in vain had the mothers of the +present generation run to the churches to pray for a blessing on his +arms. Now it was that the full blessing of his energetic life truly +manifested itself. The spirit of that great man lived again in the +German people. Fifty years after the return of the king from the seven +years' war, three hundred years after Luther strove earnestly to find +his God, the German nation roused itself for the greatest struggle it +had ever yet successfully carried on. The fathers now sent out their +sons, and the wives their husbands to the war; the Germans encountered +death with a song on their lips, to seek a body for the German soul, a +state for the fatherland. + +In the year 1813, we find the conclusion of that great struggle which +began in 1517. From the time of the contest of the Wittenburger +Augustine against indulgences, to the march of the German volunteers +against Napoleon, the German spirit carried on a great defensive war +against a foreign influence, which issuing from Rome well nigh +overwhelmed those who had once been the conquerors of the Roman Empire. + +From this life-and-death struggle of three hundred years, Germany passed +from the bondage of the middle ages into freedom. But though the spirit +of the people became free, the reality of a German state was lost to +them. The nation was almost annihilated by this unnatural condition. +After a death-like exhaustion it recovered itself slowly; the +resuscitated spirit was helpless, its form weak and sickly; it was +seeking unity of government. By a powerful development of strength, the +foundation of it was laid in the beginning of this century. + +Henceforth German Protestantism became a living, sound, and manly +acquisition, a great national principle, the expression of the German +popular mind, the peculiar German characteristic in every domain of +ideal and practical life. + +We all still feel how deficient and unfinished is the development of +this, the highest principle of life in the German nation. But it is this +feeling which gives us courage and leads us to struggle onwards. + +What are here given from the old records are narratives of individuals +of past generations. They are some of them unimportant passages from the +lives of insignificant persons. But, as the outward appearance of any +stranger we meet, his mode of greeting, and his first words, give us an +impression of his individuality, an imperfect, an unfinished impression, +but still a whole; so, if we are not mistaken, does each record, in +which the impulses of individuals and their peculiar working are +portrayed, give us with rapid distinctness a vivid picture of the life +of the people; a very imperfect and unfinished picture, but yet, also a +whole, round which a large portion of our knowledge and intuitive +perceptions rapidly concentrate, like the radii round the centre of a +crystal. + +If every such picture gives us an impression, that in the soul of each +man a miniature picture may be found of the characteristics of his +nation; something will be learnt from a succession of these narratives, +arranged according to their periods, however much there may be in them +that is incidental and arbitrary. We shall discover the stirring and +gradual development of a higher intellectual unity, which likewise meets +us here in the shape of a distinct individuality; and therefore, these +little sketches will perhaps help us to a more lively comprehension, of +what we call the life of a nation. + +Everywhere man appears to us, by his customs and laws, by language and +the whole genial tendencies of his nature, as a small portion of a +greater whole. It is true also that this greater whole, appears to us as +an intellectual unity, which like an individual, is earthly and +perishable, a thing which accomplishes its earthly existence in a +century, as a man does his in a certain number of years. Like an +individual, a people developes its intellectual capacities in the course +of time, but more powerfully and on a grander scale. And further, a +people consists of millions of individuals the tide of human life flows +in millions of souls, but the conscious and unconscious working together +of these millions, produces an intellectual whole, in which the share of +individuals often vanishes from our eyes, so that the soul of a whole +people seems to us, a self-creative living unity. Who was the man who +created languages? who devised the most ancient law of nations? who +first thought of giving poetical expression to an elevated tone of mind? +It was not individuals who invented these for practical purposes, but a +universal intellectual life, which burst forth among thousands who lived +together. All the great productions of national power, law, customs, and +the constitution of states, are not the work of individual men, but +organic creations of a higher life, which in every period shine forth in +individuals, yet in all periods seem to unite the intellectual +capacities of individuals, in one mighty whole. Each man bears and +cultivates within his soul, part of the intellect of the nation; each +one possesses its language, a certain amount of knowledge, and a sense +of justice and propriety; but in each, this general nationality is +coloured, concentrated, and limited by his individuality. Individuals do +not represent the language or the moral feelings of the whole; they only +are, as it were, the single notes, which joined together produce a +harmonious chord as part of the collective nation. One may therefore +fairly, and without mysticism, speak of a national soul. + +And if one examines more narrowly, one perceives with astonishment, that +this law of development of a higher intellectual unity, differs +remarkably from that which binds or makes an individual free. A man +chooses freely for himself, between what will injure or be beneficial to +him and his interests; judiciously does he shape his life, and prudently +does he judge the conceptions which reach his soul from the great world. +But less conscious, less full of purpose and judgment than the +determination of man's will, is the working of the life of the nation. +In history, man represents freedom and judgment, but national energy, +works incessantly with the mysterious instinctive impulse of a primitive +power, and its intellectual conceptions correspond sometimes in a +remarkable way, with the process of formation of the silently productive +powers of nature, which bring forth from the seed, the stalk, leaves, +and flowers of the plant. From this point of view, the life of a nation +passes in unceasing alternations from the whole body to the individual, +and from the man to the whole body. The life of each man, even the most +insignificant, gives a portion of its substance to the nation, and a +portion of the collective powers of the nation lives in each man; he +transmits soul and body from one generation to another; he adds to the +language, and preserves the consciousness of right; all the results of +his labours are beneficial to the nation as well as to himself. The +course of life of millions runs smoothly and imperceptibly along with +the stream. But important personalities develop themselves from the +multitude in all directions, gaining a great influence on the whole +body. Sometimes a powerful character arises, which in some wide field of +action, long rules the spiritual life of the people, and stamps the +impress of its individual mind on the age. Then the life of the whole +nation, which also flows through our heads and hearts, becomes as +familiar to us as is possible for the soul of any individual man; then +the whole powers of the people seem for some years working for the one +individual, and obeying him as a master. These are the great periods in +the formation of a people. Such was Luther to the Germans. + +But no nation develops its life independent of others. As the life of +one individual works on that of another, so does it happen with nations. +Each nation communicates some of its intellectuality to another. Even +the practical forms of national existence, its state and its Church, are +either advanced, or checked and destroyed by foreign powers. Close is +the union of the minds of the nations of Europe, though manifold the +contradiction of their interests. How constantly does one nationality +derive strength, or experience trouble and disturbance from another! +Sometimes the energetic development of some particular national +characteristic, exercises for centuries a preponderating influence on +another. Thus once did the Jews, the Greeks, and the Romans. The German +nation has experienced this foreign influence, both for good and for +evil. From the ancient world came the holy faith of the Crucified One, +to the wild sons of our forefather Tuisco: at the same time this warlike +race received countless traditions from the Roman Empire, transforming +their whole life. Through the whole of the middle ages, the nation was +earnestly endeavouring to make these new acquisitions their own. Again, +at the end of this period, after a thousand years had passed, began a +new influence of the ancient world. From it came the ideal of the +Humanitarians, the forerunners of Luther, and the ideal of the German +poets, the forerunners of the war of freedom. On the other hand, from +the Romish world, came upon Germany, with the highest claims, the +pressure of the despotism of Gregory VII., and Innocent III., the +devotion of the restored Church, and the lust of conquest of France. +Then did Germany become depopulated, and the national life was +endangered; but the foreigners who had penetrated into it with such +overpowering force, aided its recovery. All that Italians, French, and +English had attained to in science and arts, was introduced into +Germany, and to these foreign acquisitions did German culture cling, +from the Thirty years' war up to the time of Lessing. + +It is the task of science to investigate the productive life of nations. +To her the souls of nations are the highest fields of investigation that +man is capable of knowing. Searching out every individuality, tracing +every received impression, observing even the broken splinters, uniting +all discernible knowledge, more guessing at truths and pointing out the +way, than apprehending them, she seeks, as her highest aim, to prove the +intellectual unity of the whole human race upon earth. Whilst pious +faith with undoubting certainty places before man the idea of a personal +God, the man of science reverently seeks to discover the Divine, in the +great conceptions, which however they may surpass the understanding of +the individual, yet are all attached to the life of the world. But +however little he may consider their importance, in comparison with that +which is incomprehensible in time and eternity, yet in his limited +circle lies all the greatness that we are capable of understanding, all +the beautiful which we ever enjoy, and all the good which has ennobled +our life. But in those spheres which we do not yet know, and are +anxiously investigating, there remains a boundless work. And this work +is to seek the development of the Divine power in history. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +Footnote 1: Even the great Imperial army that assembled before the +battle of Nördlingen, in 1634, was a combination of several armies; that +of Wallenstein, an Italian army, Spanish auxiliaries, and troops of +Maximilian of Bavaria, altogether perhaps sixty thousand men, they only +remained together a short time. + +Footnote 2: This machine consisted of a number of short barrels, which, +bound in parallel rows, formed a nearly cubic mass, the front of which +showed from six to ten rows of as many mouths arranged in a square. This +system of barrels rested on a carriage, and was fired in rows. Every +single barrel was loaded with three or more balls, and could be fired +separately or together. Fronsperg boasts that after one loading there +could be a thousand shots from the hundred barrels of the gun. + +Footnote 3: Wallhausen, 'Archiley Art of War,' 1617. For the +corresponding French system of this time, a good description is to be +found in the 'Etude sur le passé et l'avenir de l'artillerie par le +Prince Napoléon Louis Bonaparte.' T. I. + +Footnote 4: In the battle of Breitenfeld the metal guns of Sweden were +overheated; there the leather cannon did their last great service +against the Croats. + +Footnote 5: Thus generated the ingenious comparison of guns with birds +of prey; the thirty-six pounders were called eagles, the twenty-four +pounders falcons, twelve pounders vultures, six pounders hawks, three +pounders sparrowhawks, and the sixty-pound mortars owls. + +Footnote 6: Yet he himself had a brigade which was called red. + +Footnote 7: The lieutenants carried partisans, the non-commissioned +officers halberds. + +Footnote 8: About 1600 one gulden of the coin of the Empire was equal +to forty silver groschen of our money; thus sixteen of these was equal +to forty-two of our thalers. + +Footnote 9: Wallhausen 'On the Art of War.' + +Footnote 10: A name given to bands that went about pillaging the +fields, orchards, and gardens. + +Footnote 11: Because they slide and skate. + +Footnote 12: A mocking allusion to the mountainous country of Bavaria. + +Footnote 13: It was especially John the Baptist, who, according to the +third chapter of St. Luke, was the merciful protector of soldiers; but +at the beginning of the Reformation the difference between the Baptist +and Evangelist was little understood by Landsknechte, nor indeed by all +ecclesiastics. + +Footnote 14: Bilwiz-kind, same as child of the devil. Bilwiz is an old +name for magician or hobgoblin. + +Footnote 15: One is tempted to change this passage to an old heathenish +form: "Whoever falls by honourable weapons on the field of battle, will +be carried to Walhalla by the virgins of battle; those who contend with +the sorcery of the gods of death, Helja takes to herself." We find the +name of Black Kaspar for the devil even in the sixteenth century. + +Footnote 16: Königl. schwedischer Victorischlüssel a. a. O. + +Footnote 17: Zimmermann, Goth. Msc. a. a. O. + +Footnote 18: Grimmelshausen speaks of the art of rendering invulnerable +as credible, but as a thing long known. He was more interested in the +superstition which was prevalent in 1660--the art of becoming invisible +and of witchcraft. At the end of the century magic rods were common, and +familiar spirits powerful. Wunderbares Vogelnest. ii. Th. Satyrischer +Pilgram ii. Th. + +Footnote 19: Müllenhof, Sagen. S. 231.--Femme, Pommesache Sagen. Nr. +244. + +Footnote 20: Philander von Sittewald, "Gesicht von Soldatenleben." + +Footnote 21: Grimmelshausen, "Seltsamer Springinsfeld." + +Footnote 22: _Dionys Klein. Kriegsinstitution_, 1598, 8. _S_. 288. + +Footnote 23: Simplicissimus i. 3, 9, and Philander von Sittewald, +'Soldatenleben.' + +Footnote 24: Grimmelshausen, 'Springinsfeld.' + +Footnote 25: Lump, German for ragamuffin. + +Footnote 26: Philander von Sittewald, 'Soldatenleben.' + +Footnote 27: Moscherosoh und Grimmelshausen, a. v. O. + +Footnote 28: At the beginning of the war it was customary for people to +conceal their treasures in the dung-heaps. + +Footnote 29: The parish receiver, Johann Martin at Heldburg, writes, +for example, on the 13th September, 1640, on behalf of the helpless +pastor, and proposes his removal, because in this village there remained +only a widow and another woman, and he himself could not obtain a +groschen from the annual fees of his district, which formerly amounted +to some hundred thalers. + +Footnote 30: This was the time in the Thirty years' war when the German +princes and dukes coined base money. When one prince had obtained +possession of the coinage of another he melted it, and made it into new +money by alloying it with copper and other metals. + +Footnote 31: Bötzinger gives this account to his children. + +Footnote 32: In a sheet of this kind, entitled, 'A Noteworthy Hungarian +and the Netherlands New Newspaper,' 1599, has already the form and +contents of a modern newspaper. It contains a short correspondence with +different cities, in the form of eleven letters; amongst them reports of +four vessels which had come to Amsterdam with spices, and of a new toll +which the court at Brussels had levied on merchants' goods, of ten +stivers on each pound of silk. + +Footnote 33: The sources of the following description were taken from +the flying-sheets and brochures, first of the year 1620-24, and also +from the later writings of the sixteenth century upon coinage, a rich +literature. + +Footnote 34: The new money was almost pure copper boiled and blanched; +this lasted a week, and then it became glowing red. The bottles, +kettles, pipes, gutters, and whatever else was of copper, were taken +away to the mint, and made into money. An honest man could not venture +to lodge any one, as he could not but fear that his guest might wrench +away his copper in the night, and carry it off. Wherever there was an +old copper font in a church, it was taken to the mint; its sanctity did +not save it; those sold it who had been baptized in it. Müller, +'Chronika von Sangerhausen.' + +Footnote 35: A batz was four kreuzer. + +Footnote 36: In the decrees of the Diet the words do not occur before +the Thirty years' war; they appear to be new in 1621. + +Footnote 37: In 1770 the population was only 2126; but in 1845 it had +increased again to 4500. + +Footnote 38: The Emperor was sovereign of Silesia, as King of Bohemia. + +Footnote 39: The bunch of keys in the middle ages was not only an +important symbol of right, but also the popular weapon of women. + +Footnote 40: We have to thank Professor Brückner of Meiningen, for the +communication of the following summary: it is printed in 'Memorials of +Franconian and Thuringian History and Statistics,' 1852. + +In nineteen villages of the former domain of Henneberg there were in the +years-- + 1634 1649 1849 + + Families 1773 316 1916 + Houses 1717 627 1558 + In 17 villages--Cattle 1402 244 1994 + 13 " Horses 485 73 107 + 12 " Sheep 4616 -- 4596 + 4 " Goats 158 26 286 + +Footnote 41: Brazier here means tinker and scythe-sharpener. The oldest +accounts of them are in a free paraphrase of the 1st Book of Moses, in +rude verses, which were at all events written before 1122; printed in +'Hoffmann's Fundgrubben,' 2. There they are represented as foreign Jew +traders. These remarkable verses are as follows:-- + + "From Ishmael come the Ishmaelitish people; + They go peddling throughout the wide world; + We call them braziers. + Oh! what a life and habits are theirs! + On all they have for sale + There is a blot, and it is unsound. + If he, the brazier, buys anything, + Good or bad, one must give him somewhat over; + And if he sells his wares + He never replaces the damaged ones. + They have neither house nor home-- + Every place is alike to them; + They rove through the country, + And cheat the people with their tricks: + Thus they deceive mankind. + They rob, but not openly." + +Footnote 42: Here, and further on, he gives the fixed characters of the +old Italian comedy. + +Footnote 43: Some tedious passages are shortened, and it is necessary +in one place to soften the angry expressions for the reader of this +book. + +Footnote 44: They did not fail to make an engraving of the mysterious +doves, which appeared shortly after with an interpretation. + +Footnote 45: A copper coin in the south of Germany. + +Footnote 46: A Swiss farthing. + +Footnote 47: The Diet was then held at Baden, because the foreign +diplomatist could best be entertained there. + +Footnote 48: It was particularly offensive to them, as an elder sister +of Anton Ulrich's wife had just married the master of the Ducal Chapel, +Schurmann, at Meiningen. + + + THE END. + + + LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET. + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PICTURES OF GERMAN LIFE, +VOL. 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