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diff --git a/33721-0.txt b/33721-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c82db7f --- /dev/null +++ b/33721-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8497 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Barren Ground Caribou of Keewatin, by Francis Harper + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Barren Ground Caribou of Keewatin + +Author: Francis Harper + +Release Date: September 14, 2010 [EBook #33721] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BARREN GROUND CARIBOU OF KEEWATIN *** + + + + +Produced by Louise Hope, Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, some +images courtesy of The Internet Archive and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +[Transcriber’s Note: + +This e-text comes in two forms: Unicode (UTF-8) and Latin-1. Use the +one that works best on your text reader. + + --If the tables use the male and female symbols (“Mars” and “Venus”), + and apostrophes and quotation marks are “curly” or angled, you have + the UTF-8 version (best). If any part of this paragraph displays as + garbage, try changing your text reader’s “character set” or “file + encoding”. If that doesn’t work, proceed to: + --In the Latin-1 version, symbols have been changed to the simple + letters M and F. Apostrophes and quotation marks will be straight + (“typewriter” form). + +Except for illustrations and footnotes, all brackets are in the 1955 +original. The same applies to question marks and similar editorial +punctuation. + +Typographical errors are listed at the end of the e-text. To reduce +visual clutter, italic markings have been omitted from all references +in the form “1951a” (printed “1951_a_”). + +_Geographical Note:_ Lake Nueltin straddles the border between Nunavut +and Manitoba. The area covered by the map is in southern Nunavut, in the +region now written Kivalliq. “Eskimo Point” is modern Arviat. + +The opinions expressed in this book are not necessarily those of the +transcriber.] + + + + + [Illustration: MAP 1. The Windy River area at the northwestern + extremity of Nueltin Lake, Keewatin. (Most of the smaller features + bear merely local or unofficial names.)] + + [Illustration: COVER A Caribou buck signaling with a sprawling + posture of the left hind leg. Drawing by Earl L. Poole; based upon + a motion-picture film taken August 24, 1947, near the Windy River + post.] + + + + + THE + BARREN GROUND + CARIBOU + OF KEEWATIN + + By + Francis Harper + + + University of Kansas + Lawrence · Kansas + + + + + University of Kansas + Museum of Natural History + + + Editor: E. Raymond Hall + + _Miscellaneous Publication No. 6, pp. 1-164, 28 figs., 1 map_ + _Published October 21, 1955_ + + + Means for publication were supplied by: + National Science Foundation + Wildlife Management Institute + American Committee for International Wildlife Protection + + + Printed in U.S.A. + + THE ALLEN PRESS + Lawrence, Kansas + 1955 + + + + +CONTENTS + + + INTRODUCTION 5 + + MIGRATIONS 7 + Southern limits of winter range 7 + Spring migration in the Churchill region 11 + Spring migration in the Nueltin Lake region 12 + Summer interlude 18 + Fall migration in the Nueltin Lake region 18 + Retrograde autumnal movement 32 + Fall migration in the Churchill region 38 + + SUMMATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 39 + + ECOLOGY 41 + Habitats 41 + Trails 41 + Influence of weather on distribution 43 + Influence of food supply on distribution 44 + Influence of insects on distribution 45 + Effect of combined environmental factors on distribution 46 + Relations to man 47 + Ethnological material from caribou products 59 + Relations to Black Bears 62 + Relations to foxes 62 + Relations to Wolves 63 + Relations to birds of prey 67 + Relations to miscellaneous animals 69 + Relations to flies 69 + Ectoparasites 73 + Relations to Reindeer 74 + + NUMERICAL STATUS 78 + + GENERAL HABITS 79 + Daily periods of activity and rest 79 + Organization of herds 81 + Disposition 83 + Senses 86 + Gaits 86 + Tracks 87 + Swimming 88 + Shaking off moisture and insects 95 + Signaling 96 + Food 98 + Scatology 99 + Voice 100 + Reproduction 101 + Fawns 103 + Growth 104 + Antlers 105 + Rubbing trees 108 + + MORPHOLOGY AND TAXONOMY 108 + Pelage and molt 108 + Albinism 112 + Foot-glands 112 + Mastology 113 + Fat 113 + Body measurements and weights 114 + Measurements of skulls 115 + Measurements of antlers 115 + Measurements of testes 115 + Geographical variation 116 + + LITERATURE CITED 120 + + ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES TO + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ 134 + + INDEX 161 + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +No other large North American land mammal is of such primary importance +as the Barren Ground Caribou (_Rangifer arcticus arcticus_) as a source +of food and clothing for so many primitive Eskimo and Indian tribes; no +other performs such extensive and spectacular migrations; no other may +be seen in such vast herds; no other exhibits so close an approach to a +Garden-of-Eden trustfulness in the presence of man. And perhaps no other +is more worthy of being cherished and safeguarded in its natural haunts +for the benefit and enjoyment of future generations. + +The original valid designation, in technical nomenclature, of the Barren +Ground Caribou of the Mackenzie-Keewatin region dates back to 1829, when +Sir John Richardson described it in the _Fauna Boreali-Americana_ as +_Cervus tarandus_ var. _arctica_. The type locality is Fort Enterprise +(about lat. 64° 30´ N., long. 113° W.), on Winter Lake, an expansion of +Snare River, Mackenzie. Since the typical subspecies appears to lack a +distinguishing common name, it would seem fitting to associate with it +the name of its worthy describer; thus, Richardson’s Barren Ground +Caribou. The author’s intimate acquaintance with the animal should have +enabled him to draw up a somewhat fuller and more adequate description +than he did. Previous travelers in the Barren Grounds, among whom Samuel +Hearne (1795) was particularly notable, had contributed accounts of the +species, without differentiating it from the Lapland Reindeer (_Rangifer +tarandus_) or without giving it a distinctive technical name. + +Since Richardson’s time the mainland form of western Canada has been +discussed by many zoologists and explorers. The most comprehensive +account of its life history hitherto published is that by Seton (1929, ++3+: 95-135),[1] whose personal experience was gained in the region of +Artillery, Clinton-Colden, and Aylmer lakes. Dearth of adequate material +(particularly from the type locality or adjacent areas) makes it all but +impossible to determine whether there is any significant geographical +variation between the herds of central Mackenzie and those of Keewatin. + + [Footnote 1: This statement, written long before the appearance + of Banfield’s work of 1954, no longer applies.] + +The foremost objective of an expedition I made in 1947 to Nueltin Lake, +in southwestern Keewatin, was a study of the Barren Ground Caribou. The +expedition was supported by the Arctic Institute of North America, with +funds supplied by the Office of Naval Research. My headquarters were at +the little Windy River trading post, at the northwestern extremity of +Nueltin Lake (map 1). There, for a period of six months, I enjoyed the +fine hospitality of Charles Schweder and Fred Schweder, Jr. They had +lived on intimate terms with the Caribou during most of their youthful +lives, and they freely shared with me the knowledge they had thus gained +concerning the ways of life of these wonderful creatures. They secured +nearly all the specimens that went into my collection. The three other +residents of the post also deserve my gratitude for their general +helpfulness and friendliness; they were 10-year-old Mike Schweder +(brother of Charles and Fred), 15-year-old Anoteelik (an Eskimo boy), +and the latter’s sister, 5-year-old Rita. + +In a previous paper (1953) I have endeavored to express to various +officials and friends my sincere appreciation of their courtesy and +generosity in furthering the work of the expedition; and I can scarcely +forbear to repeat here the names of at least a few of them: Dr. A. L. +Washburn, at that time executive director of the Arctic Institute of +North America; Mr. R. A. Gibson, deputy commissioner of the +Administration of the Northwest Territories; and Mr. G. W. Malaher, +director of the Game and Fisheries Branch, Manitoba. For the loan of a +motion-picture camera, which secured for me some extremely gratifying +scenes of the migrant hosts on the Barrens, I am greatly indebted to Mr. +William C. Morrow. Dr. Ralph S. Palmer has kindly read, and made helpful +comments upon, a preliminary draft of the present report. + +Through the courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History, the +United States National Museum, and the United States Fish and Wildlife +Service, I have been able to examine important comparative material in +their collections. + +A grant from the National Science Foundation has enabled me to carry the +investigation through to completion. + + + + +MIGRATIONS + + +The Barren Ground Caribou is the outstanding migratory land mammal of +North America at the present day. (Some of the bats, though extensively +migratory, obviously belong in a category too distinct for comparison.) +We know as yet extremely little concerning the movements of individual +Caribou;[2] but it is fairly safe to assume that among those reaching +the southern limits of the winter range in central Manitoba or +northwestern Ontario, there must be many whose summer range is at least +500 or 600 miles to the northward. The latitudinal extent of such +wanderings is comparable with, or equivalent to, an annual round trip +between Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and Charleston, South Carolina. +There is perhaps less information available concerning the migrations of +the wild Reindeer of the Old World than concerning the movements of the +Barren Ground Caribou of North America (_cf._ Jacobi, 1931: 191-200). + + [Footnote 2: One means of gathering information on this subject + would be to capture fawns as they swim across lakes or wide rivers + on the autumn migration, then to affix numbered metal tags to + their ears and to release them in time to rejoin their mothers. + This would simply be a modification of the leg-banding method + that has proved so highly successful in the study of bird + migration. It would also be particularly useful in studies on + age and growth.] + + +_Southern limits of winter range_ + +In years long past the winter range extended at least occasionally as +far south as Fort McMurray in Alberta and Cree Lake and the upper +Mudjatick and Foster rivers in Saskatchewan, and rather regularly to +Reindeer Lake (Preble, 1908: 137); and “on rare occasions as far south +as Cumberland House on the Saskatchewan River” (Buchanan, 1920: 105). At +an early date Richardson believed (1829: 243) that “none” of these +Caribou “go to the southward of Churchill.” + +There are, however, records of long ago that deal with mass occurrences +of Caribou on the lower courses of the Nelson, Hayes, and Severn rivers, +emptying on the west coast of Hudson Bay. The records are very puzzling +in several respects. Most of them do not definitely differentiate the +species involved from the Barren Ground Caribou, but some of them (by +Hearne, Richardson, and Preble) indicate that it is the Woodland +Caribou. The direction of the migrations, as reported in some instances, +is just the reverse of that taken at the present time by the Barren +Ground species during its normal movements at corresponding seasons. +Finally, it is all but impossible to reconcile the numbers reported with +such knowledge as we have of the status of the Woodland Caribou at any +other period or in any other region. + +Perhaps the earliest account is by Dobbs (1744: 22): + +“They [residents at Fort Bourbon-York Factory] also take great numbers +of Cariboux or Rain-Deer [sp.?]. In _March_ and _April_ they come from +the North to the South, and extend then along the River 60 Leagues; they +go again Northward in _July_ and _August_; the Roads they make in the +Snow are as well padded, and cross each other as often as the Streets in +Paris.” + +In discussing the “Indian deer” or Woodland Caribou in the vicinity of +Great Slave Lake, Hearne remarks (1795: 225): “This is that species of +deer which are found so plentiful near York Fort and Severn River.” + +According to Thompson (1916: 100-101), an immense herd of “Rein Deer” +[sp.?], estimated at the rather preposterous figure of 3,564,000 +individuals, crossed the Hayes River 20 miles above York Factory in late +May, 1792. The direction of this migration is not indicated. + +Richardson writes (“1825”: 330) of the Woodland Caribou: “In the +beginning of September, vast numbers of this kind of deer pass near York +Factory . . . on their journey towards the north-west.” + +And again (1829: 250): + +“They cross the Nelson and Severn Rivers in immense herds in the month +of May, pass the summer on the low, marshy shores of James’ Bay, and +return to the northward, and at the same time retire more inland in the +month of September. . . . I have been informed by several of the +residents at York Factory that the herds are sometimes so large as to +require several hours to cross the river in a crowded phalanx.” + +The implication is that the herds passed _southward_ in May. It should +be borne in mind that these were apparently not personal observations of +Richardson’s; and in his belief that the Barren Ground species did not +go south of Churchill, he may have merely assumed that the animals in +the York Factory region were the Woodland species. + +“Near York Factory, in 1831, this propensity [Indian destructiveness] +. . . led to the indiscriminate destruction of a countless herd of +reindeer [sp.?], while crossing the broad stream of Haye’s River, in the +height of summer. . . . The deer have never since visited that part of +the country in similar numbers.” (Simpson, 1843: 76). + +Referring to the York Factory region in 1837, John McLean writes +(1932 [1849]: 195). “Not many years ago this part of the country was +periodically visited by immense herds of rein-deer; at present there is +scarcely one to be found.” + +A later account of Richardson’s (1852: 290) is somewhat ambiguous as to +the species to which it refers: + +“The reindeer that visit Hudson’s Bay travel southward toward James’s +Bay in spring. In the year 1833, vast numbers of them were killed by the +Cree Indians at a noted pass three or four days march above York +Factory. They were on their return northward, and were crossing Hayes +River in incredible multitudes.” + +Pike writes (1917 [1892]: 50) that “within the last three years [_i.e._, +about 1888] the [Barren Ground?] caribou have appeared in their +thousands at York Factory . . . where they have not been seen for over +thirty years.” + +Preble (1902: 41) quotes Dr. Alexander Milne as thinking, after 14 +years’ residence at York Factory, that the small bands of “Woodland +Caribou,” found between Churchill and Cape Churchill, form the “northern +fringe of the bands which migrate to the coast in spring, the great +majority of which in their journey cross to the south of Nelson River.” +At that time, however, Preble (1902: 42), like Richardson before him, +seems to have regarded the Churchill River as the southern limit of the +Barren Ground species, and thus he may not have considered the +possibility of the animals of Cape Churchill and the Nelson and Hayes +rivers belonging to the same species. + +It is difficult to draw any sure conclusions from the confusing records +just quoted. Possibly chief reliance should be placed upon the testimony +of such high authorities as Hearne, Richardson, and Preble when they +refer to the animals as Woodland Caribou. Furthermore, none of the early +writers identify them unequivocally as the Barren Ground species. It +remains fairly evident that long ago some species of Caribou in great +numbers did actually cross these rivers in a southerly direction in the +spring, pass the summer on the coastal tundra east of York Factory, and +return northward or northwestward in late summer or autumn. Whichever +species it was, it represented a segment of the population that must +have become reduced to utterly insignificant numbers, if not entirely +extirpated, some decades ago. In any event, it does not seem very likely +that we shall ever be able to reconstruct the actual movements of the +“incredible multitudes” in the York Factory region of more than a +century ago. + +Since the beginning of the present century, until very recent years, +there seem to have been few or no Manitoba records of _R. a. arcticus_ +from any locality so far to the southeast as York Factory. In 1947, +however, Mr. G. W. Malaher, director of the Game and Fisheries Branch in +Manitoba, informed me that during the previous couple of winters the +animals had ranged southward on a broad front to the latitude of Oxford +House, where they had not been known for 40 or 45 years. It was surmised +that the recent burning of large areas north of The Pas, resulting in +the destruction of the Caribou’s normal winter food of lichens, had +deflected the animals toward the southeast and had caused them to extend +their migration beyond its normal limit. The Split Lake band of Indians +(on the Nelson River) were said to have killed 4,000 Caribou during the +winter of 1946-47, and to have used half of them for dog feed. + +Arthur H. Lamont, in charge of the meteorological office at Fort +Churchill, gave me information concerning Caribou that he had seen +during a plane flight from that point to Edmonton on March 18, 1947. At +midday he had sighted hundreds, in bands averaging 20 to 30 individuals, +on some little lakes, averaging a quarter of a mile in diameter, near +the southwestern end of Reindeer Lake. The animals were right in the +middle of the frozen lakes (evidently for a noonday rest), and some of +them were lying down. They paid no attention to the plane at a height of +6,000 feet, but were frightened when it came down to 200 feet. This was +the only area where Caribou were sighted during the entire flight. + +Duncan A. McLeod, of Winnipeg, informed me that he had seen thousands +and thousands of Caribou on April 16, 1941, while he was flying from +Isle à la Crosse to Beaverlodge on Lake Athabaska. They were nearer to +Lake Athabaska than to the starting-point. They were congregated on +frozen lakes about the middle of the day. + +“Their nomadic migrations during the past 10 years have brought caribou +herds during winter months to northwestern Ontario (Little Sachigo +Lake); central Manitoba (Cormorant, Cross, and Island Lakes); northern +Saskatchewan (Churchill River); northeastern Alberta (Clearwater and +Athabaska Rivers and Lake Claire)” (Banfield, 1949: 478, fig. 1). + + +_Spring migration in the Churchill region_ + +The Hudson Bay Railway is perhaps the only one in North America from +which Barren Ground Caribou of the present subspecies have been seen. On +May 21, 1947, a passenger reported three or four of the animals near +Mile 326, between Gillam and Amery. Farther north, between Herchmer and +Chesnaye, the railway passes for perhaps 30-40 miles through the western +edge of a tundra area, interspersed with small spruce timber; this is +known as the “Little Barrens.” It was a thrilling experience to see my +first Caribou here, during a period of three-quarters of an hour on the +afternoon of May 21, from Mile 453 to about Mile 475. There were eight +bands, varying in number from 2 to 60 or 70 and averaging about 20 +individuals. The first and largest band was loping away from the train, +at a distance of perhaps 350 yards. A band of 9 or 10, at about 250 +yards, exhibited both a trotting and a loping gait. Others, as far off +as half a mile or a mile and therefore less alarmed, seemed to content +themselves with trotting. They maintained a noticeably close formation +while fleeing from the train. Yearlings, appearing only about half the +size of the adults, were readily distinguishable. The animals were in +the midst of their spring migration and were evidently moving in a +general northerly direction over the snow-covered Barrens. The ice of +the small lakes was still solid enough for the Caribou to trot over it. + +Two weeks previously a large movement had passed through this area, as I +learned from several sources. A member of the Royal Canadian Mounted +Police detachment at Churchill, for example, had traveled through the +Caribou for a distance of 15 miles without coming to the end of them; he +estimated their numbers at more than 5,000. Joe Chambers, a trapper of +Goose Creek, said the animals had been very plentiful in April, moving +generally northward. He spoke of finding a good many Caribou that Wolves +had killed, contenting themselves with eating only the tongue and the +unborn fawn. + +According to a railway conductor, only 12 Caribou were seen from the +train as it passed through the Little Barrens on May 25, and none on May +28. + +John Ingebrigtsen, of Churchill, reported passing a frozen lake +somewhere east of the Duck Lake Post, that was “absolutely full” of +Caribou. It was about a mile and a half long by half a mile wide, and he +estimated the number of animals at not less than 20,000. This was in the +early part of May, 1942 or 1943, when the spring migration was no doubt +under way. + +During a plane flight from Eskimo Point to Baker Lake on May 22, 1947, +John M. Bourassa and Don Gallagher sighted numbers of Caribou, including +one herd of about 500. On May 28 the former saw a Caribou between +Churchill and Fort Churchill. From other sources I learned that small +numbers occasionally pass along the outskirts of Churchill during the +migrations. + +Professor Hazel R. Ellis (_in litt._, April 13, 1953) reports seeing +several bands of Caribou from the train as it approached Churchill on +June 8, 1947; also a band between Churchill and Fort Churchill on June +13 and 21, 1949, and a single animal on June 28, 1949, on the west side +of the river near Churchill. On July 5, 1949, she filmed a herd of over +40 Caribou at Bird Cove on Cape Churchill. + +Preble writes (1902: 41): “Between York Factory and Fort Churchill a few +small bands [of Woodland Caribou] are found throughout the year on the +‘Barrens’.” He includes reports to this effect from several sources, +including J. W. Tyrrell (1898). The latter, however, does not specify +which species of Caribou his party encountered. It might be expected +that _R. a. arcticus_, rather than _R. caribou sylvestris_, would be the +proper inhabitant of this tundra area. It is beyond question that the +animals seen in recent years on the “Little Barrens” between the +Churchill and the Nelson Rivers are the Barren Ground species. +Furthermore, Mr. G. W. Malaher, of the Manitoba Game and Fisheries +Branch, informed me that a considerable number of this species spend the +summer and have their fawns on the Barrens in this area. + + +_Spring migration in the Nueltin Lake region_ + +The general pattern of this migration, as manifested particularly about +the northwestern portion of the lake, was explained by Charles Schweder. +As a rule, practically all the local Caribou spend the winter in the +wooded country to the southward. When the northward movement starts in +the spring, the does precede the bucks; they migrate through this area +mostly in May (and apparently more commonly in the latter half of the +month), but to some extent in April or even earlier. During June the +majority of the animals passing by are bucks. According to Fred +Schweder, Jr., the spring migration here is more regular, less erratic, +than the fall migration. + +When I arrived at Nueltin Lake on May 31, the spring migration was in +full swing; it continued through June in gradually lessening force, and +the last northbound band was seen on July 1. In the meantime many +interesting details of caribou behavior came to light. + +While flying from Churchill to Duck Lake Post on May 31, at a height of +about 500 feet, we detected three bands on the frozen surface of Seal +River, where they were evidently taking a noonday rest. They numbered +approximately 40, 20, and 6 individuals. Within 20 minutes after +resuming our journey, from Duck Lake Post to Nueltin Lake, we saw four +more bands, numbering from two to a dozen individuals. Finally, just +before landing on Windy Bay, we noticed a band of perhaps 20 crossing +the bay a mile from its head. + +Observations during the following 10 days showed that this was a very +definite crossing-place for the Caribou, as if some invisible barrier on +each side kept them to a certain line of march. Moreover, Charles +Schweder informed me that they followed this identical route year after +year. An examination of the local topography (map 1) soon revealed the +reason. The rugged south side of Windy Bay rises steeply for some 500 +feet to the summit of the Windy Hills, and over a considerable distance +there are precipices and talus slopes barring the passage of such +animals as Caribou. But the mile-long South Bay, meeting Windy Bay at +right angles, affords a convenient break in the hills; and the slopes +thereabouts are gradual enough to be negotiated readily by the Caribou. +So here they converge from the neighboring heights, making long, +slanting trails through the snow that are visible for miles; they pass +out of the narrow mouth of South Bay as through a funnel, then follow +the beaten path of their predecessors across the ice of Windy Bay toward +the farther shore, until they are lost to view among a cluster of +islands. It may be further remarked that their course northeastward from +the mouth of South Bay is less obstructed by islands than almost any +near-by portion of Windy Bay. + +From our camp, a mile or so distant, Caribou in bands of approximately +the following numbers were observed using this crossing-place during the +early part of June: June 1--7, 10, 18, 20, and several other bands of +unrecorded size; June 2--10, 3, 7; June 3--4, 4, 10, 30, 70, and others; +June 4--3, 40?; June 5--40, 50, 75; June 6--25; June 10--8. Of course +many others must have passed while our attention was elsewhere engaged. +In most cases my records indicate the time of day when the bands were +crossing Windy Bay. The periods were mainly from 10 to 11 a.m., from +2:30 to 5 p.m., and in the evening. Perhaps the infrequency of midday +passages was due to the habit of the Caribou of resting at this period. +One of the last bands to pass during the evening of June 1 consisted of +about 20 individuals. Two big bucks were in the lead, and apparently a +few others were scattered along the line. At the very rear was a big, +extra-dark buck, immediately preceded by a yearling barely half its +size. + +In crossing the bay ice, the animals traveled habitually in long files, +one after the other, and yet not altogether in single file. In watching +the endlessly interesting spectacle from camp, we could not always count +the individuals exactly, for here and there a few would get abreast of +others and be partly concealed. The general formation of each band was +that of a much strung-out procession. For the most part the animals +progressed at a moderate walking gait; there were no flies to spur them +on at this season. On one occasion the forward element of a large band +was actually running, but those in the rear were going calmly, and there +was no visible cause of alarm. At mid-morning of June 6 most of a band +of 25 were lying down to rest on the bay ice, while a few remained +standing. + +Meanwhile Caribou in some numbers were advancing northward by crossing +Windy River, the ice on which did not break up generally till June 14. +On June 3, for example, as I peeped out of my tent at 4 a.m., there was +a band of about 15 making a crossing a quarter of a mile above camp. +Late in the afternoon several dozen did likewise close to the same +place. At this period I did not get farther upstream to note how many +might be passing there. On June 14, while the river ice was breaking up +but while the bay ice was holding firm, two bucks moved about on the +latter, just off the river’s mouth. They appeared to be seeking a safe +crossing. The smaller of the two almost invariably preceded, just as if +it were aware that it would be less likely to break through than its +companion. For the most part they walked rather sedately, but now and +then took up a very leisurely trot. On the following day a dozen crossed +Windy Bay at about the same place. These were the last ones seen on the +ice in June. Though the ice remained on the bay for some days longer, it +had evidently become unsafe. + +Thereafter the Caribou obviously preferred the short passage of Windy +River (no more than 50 or 60 yards wide in places) to a swim of half a +mile or so across Windy Bay. So they appeared in considerable numbers on +the south bank of the river, reconnoitering for a suitable place to +cross. Many were deterred by movements or sounds in our camp on the +north bank, including the yelping invariably set up by the tethered +Husky dogs whenever they would catch sight of Caribou; the latter would +then be likely either to retreat behind the ridges or to pass upstream +along the south bank. Along the half-mile extent of this bank visible +from our camp, I noted the following making the passage of the river by +swimming: June 18, a band of half a dozen; June 20, a band of three +landing practically in our dooryard and about 14 crossing at the mouth; +June 21, six crossing at the mouth; June 24, about 10 (mostly big bucks) +landing just above the camp. On the morning of July 1 a buck swam across +the bay just off the river’s mouth, and a little later a band of about +11--the last seen on the spring migration--were trotting upstream along +the south bank. + +Various groups observed during June, principally on the south side of +the bay and the river, furnished memorable spectacles. Besides resorting +to open areas on the frozen lakes and rivers for their resting periods, +the Caribou will also select some commanding hilltop for the same +purpose. On June 3 a band of 75 appeared in midday on the summit of a +rocky hill (“Caribou Knoll,” map 1) rising to a height of some 150 feet +on the far side of Windy River. While some kept on feeding, many of them +lay down on snowbanks, apparently preferring these to the plentiful +patches of bare ground, and doubtless passing the time by chewing their +cuds. The velvet of the bucks’ new antlers was plainly visible through +field-glasses. In the variety of their attitudes on this rocky height +the animals were disposed perhaps more like alpine Chamois than like the +generally conceived masses of Caribou on the low Barrens. What a subject +for a Millais! + +It appears likely that the higher elevations may serve for the nocturnal +rest as well as for a noonday siesta. During the evening of June 1, for +instance, some 75 Caribou in a loose aggregation were feeding over the +summit of Josie’s Hill, beyond the junction of Windy and South bays. On +June 20 I was enjoying a wonderfully clear and golden light that was +cast on the imposing mass of this hill as the sun was setting at my back +about 9 o’clock. The glory of that scene was enhanced by picking out +with the naked eye, at a distance of a couple of miles, two separate +bands of 12 to 15 Caribou making their way upward toward the broad, +plateaulike summit. Meanwhile a lone Caribou was outlined against the +sky on one of the rocky ridges to the south. Might not these various +movements have indicated a common urge to spend the semi-darkness of the +Arctic summer night on some high, open area where a good lookout for +Wolves could be kept? + +About 2 p.m. on June 15, a herd, perhaps half a hundred strong, appeared +on a ridge directly across the river from camp. The animals made a +lovely spectacle as they stood for a time, despite certain human +movements in camp. Then they moved off upstream. A couple of hours later +about 15 Caribou were feeding quietly on the south bank. On the +following morning a band of 20 were doing likewise in nearly the same +place. Among them were a patriarchal buck (apparently the leader), +several other bucks, various does (one with hard horns), and a large +proportion of yearlings. The bucks in general were lighter in +color--more buffy; the does and yearlings, a sort of smoke gray. They +seemed to be feeding to some extent on the patches of crowberry and +dwarf birch. Presently they trotted off upstream, almost but not quite +in single file, for a couple marched out of line with the others. + +On June 17 a band of about 20 appeared at a distance of 125 yards on the +brow of a low hill near Stump Lake. Nearly all were big bucks, with +velvety antlers up to about 20 inches in length. Perhaps three in the +band were hornless--if not does, then young bucks that had very recently +shed their antlers. Two of the bigger bucks were in the lead. At first +the band came toward me, then went off at a tangent at a good pace, +splashed across a little stream in a spirited action, and disappeared +over the next ridge. + +Out of several bands appearing on June 20 on the opposite side of the +river, one of about 14 individuals came down the slope near the mouth, +took to the water at once, and made for the north shore. A strong buck +landed first, and farthest upstream; others did nearly as well, but some +of the smaller animals were swept by the strong current down into the +bay and probably landed beyond the point. On reaching the shore, and +even some minutes afterward, several of the Caribou could be seen +shaking the water from their fur in doglike fashion. + +On the morning of June 21 a dozen came to the ridge across the river, +briefly inspected the camp, and retreated. In a short time they +returned, four antlered bucks in the lead, and some hornless individuals +in the rear (almost in a separate band). Three of the bucks stood side +by side, looking long and earnestly at the camp, while the others +grazed. Finally dissatisfied with the prospect, they made off upstream. + +A little before 7 p.m. on the same day six Caribou appeared on the same +ridge. For once the dogs were inattentive and silent. After promenading +back and forth along the brow, the Caribou disappeared on the far side +of the ridge; but in a few moments they were in the water at the river’s +mouth, in very close formation, three of them swimming abreast. There +were three good bucks and three smaller, hornless animals. After they +got ashore at the opposite point, there was wagging of tails and shaking +of ears, heads, and bodies, while the water flew off in a spray. Then +they leisurely proceeded along the shore and around the point. + +About 7 p.m. on June 24 some 10 Caribou (mostly big bucks) swam the +river and landed immediately above our camp. The last two, I noted, were +heading almost upstream in the current that was running 6-8 miles per +hour. They swam high, with the whole line of the back 2 or 3 inches out +of the water and with the antlers tilted back to keep the snout above +the surface. On landing, the animals hastened to the top of the Camp +Ridge and ran off along it, while the chained and frustrated dogs +expressed their feelings in the usual manner. + +As I was retiring to my tent on the Camp Ridge in the twilight about +11:30 p.m. on June 29, I noticed a Caribou in the opposite edge of the +river, about 125 yards away. For the most part it stood in about a foot +of water and kept watching upstream. After some minutes I moved closer, +right along the skyline; I waved a white pillow at it and shouted +several times, but still it would not leave. Eventually it did move a +few feet back from the water’s edge and there appeared to browse on some +dwarf birches. + +The next day, watching from Pile o’ Rocks northwest of camp, I noticed +three Caribou passing on a northeasterly course. They walked for the +most part, but now and again trotted. They were two well-antlered bucks +and a smaller individual with shorter horns. One of the former paused to +graze in a green-sprouting sedge bog. It was perhaps such fresh summer +vegetation that had helped to produce fat an inch thick on the haunches +of an animal secured about this date. + +The area near the western border of Keewatin, lying at some distance +south of Dubawnt Lake and west of the upper Kazan River, does not appear +to attract large numbers of Caribou. Just once, in May, Charles Schweder +has found them crossing a lake which he considered Dubawnt, but may have +been Kamiluk. In his trapping excursions in that area he has found +trails and other signs all along the way, indicating that the animals at +least pass through on their migrations. + + +_Summer interlude_ + +After July 1 no more Caribou were seen about the Windy River for five +weeks. From information supplied by Charles Schweder, it appears that +virtually all of the animals desert the southern portion of the Barren +Grounds at this season. Before dropping their fawns, the does pass on +for an undetermined distance to the northward of that portion of the +upper Kazan River lying immediately below Ennadai Lake. The rear guard +of the northward migration seems to be composed mainly of bucks and a +few barren does. + +A general veil of mystery seems so far to have enshrouded most of the +natal places (except the islands along the Arctic mainland coast) and +the first few weeks in the life of the Caribou fawns. + + +_Fall migration in the Nueltin Lake region_ + +In former times the southward migration reached the Nueltin Lake region +in July (_cf._ Downes, 1943: 203-237), sometimes as early as the middle +of the month. Suddenly the time of arrival shifted to (early) August, +and has so remained. In Charles Schweder’s experience, the bucks nearly +every year precede the does on the southward migration; this suggests +that at least the majority of the bucks may not go so far north as the +does. In a certain year the does actually appeared first in coming +south. In normal years, according to Fred Schweder, Jr., the migration +continues till October or November, by which time the animals have +passed into the wooded country for the winter. + +Charles Schweder described the general pattern of fall migration as +follows. At first two or three animals will appear, then a few more, and +after several days a big movement, lasting three or four days, will pass +through. Thereafter the numbers dwindle, though the migration continues. +Curiously enough, there is a definite retrograde movement northward into +the Barrens in September--sometimes as early as the first part of the +month. Then there is a final movement toward the south in November, at +the time of the first good snows; the largest herds of the year may then +be seen. Just how far the migration in 1947 conformed to this pattern +(outlined in early August) will be seen in the following pages. + +The big August movement occurs occasionally as early as the first days +of the month, whereas it was delayed till the last week in 1947. About +the first of August, 1943, according to Fred Schweder, Jr., a thousand +Caribou swam across the mouth of Windy River in the course of an hour, +and there were other thousands during a two weeks’ period. But such a +large migration strikes this point only once in several years. In other +years it may pass southward farther to the west, as in the vicinity of +Simons’ Lake. + +In the fall of 1946--the very season when the Caribou bypassed the +Eskimo camps on the upper Kazan River--there were said to have been far +more than the normal numbers in the Windy River area. Thousands passed +in one day, about October 10. The hills about Four-hill Creek then gave +Fred Schweder, Jr., the impression of “moving with Deer.” By comparison, +the numbers along the Windy River in 1947 were considered by the local +residents to have been below normal, however impressive they may have +been to a zoological visitor. On the other hand, it seemed to Charles +Schweder, during his trip down the Thlewiaza River in late August of +1947, that Caribou were still very numerous; and he reported that people +along the west coast of Hudson Bay were then getting more of the animals +than in previous years. + +Only rarely do limited numbers of Caribou remain all winter in the Windy +River area. During Charles Schweder’s years of residence there (about +1936-47) the animals had done so just once--on the Windy Hills. In +1946-47 Fred Schweder, Jr., found about 300 of them remaining all winter +about the north end of Ennadai Lake. He said that the locally wintering +animals are all bucks. Katello, an elderly Eskimo of the upper Kazan +River, informed Charles Schweder that the Caribou used to remain there +all winter, but now very rarely do so. + +By the end of July, after both men and dogs had subsisted for several +weeks on a diet devoid of caribou meat, an air of expectancy began to +pervade the Windy River camp. The hunters roamed the Barrens or watched +from some lookout post such as the Pile o’ Rocks (fig. 27). No Caribou +were detected during plane trips to the upper Kazan River and return on +July 31 and August 3, though their ancient, well-marked trails were +visible along the ridges. It was not until August 6 that the first buck +of the return movement was encountered. On the following day another +animal was secured. On August 10 and 11 only a few Caribou--not over 25 +in a band--were seen by Charles Schweder and Fred Schweder, Jr., from +the air between the Windy and the Kazan rivers. It began to be feared +that the bulk of the migration might pass somewhere to the westward. On +August 13, however, at a distance of some miles from camp, Fred sighted +20 Caribou; all of them were does and fawns except for one buck. On +August 17 he secured a good-sized buck (specimen No. 1065; figs. 3, 4) +at Bear Slough and saw five other bucks elsewhere. Two days later +Anoteelik reported a band of 13. + +On August 20 Fred reported about 300 Caribou moving in our direction +across the Barrens east of Lake Charles; they proved to be the advance +guard of a big movement. On the same afternoon I had filmed several +bucks going their separate ways on the slopes about Pile o’ Rocks and +Stony Man. They were moving along somewhat hurriedly, in a manner very +different from the placid grazing of sheep or cattle. One or two does +with fawns also appeared in the vicinity. (The passage of a Keewatin +Tundra Wolf over the same ground a short time previously had no effect, +as far as I observed, on the behavior of the animals at this time.) +A grander, though more distant, spectacle gradually unfolded off to the +eastward, beyond Little River, where several groups, numbering from 3 to +20 or 25 individuals, were feeding quietly over the open Barrens. Their +fresh dark autumn coats showed up much more conspicuously than had the +cream-buff of their winter coats in June. Presently the scene became +livelier, as the largest band, composed of does and fawns as well as +lordly bucks, started to romp northward over the Barrens. One or more of +the various kinds of insects that bring life-long misery to the Caribou +may have stampeded them. This band swept past a group of half its size +without at once involving it. A doe and a fawn remained lying down as +the others passed. + +As the eye swept farther over that lonely land, still other Caribou were +disclosed singly or in groups scattered over a couple of square miles. +There was no strong herd instinct as they grazed at will. Even when on +the march, they straggled along, some as much as 20 to 30 yards apart. +As the sun sank lower, and the black flies became less active with the +dropping temperature (about 53°), a lull ensued in the movements of the +Caribou. + +The big movement of the fall migration finally began to materialize on +Sunday, August 24. This and the next few days were filled with memorable +experiences. The throngs of Caribou passing at such times around the +head of Windy Bay and across the lowermost portions of Little and Windy +rivers may be accounted for, in part, by the local topography (map 1). +The upper part of Windy Bay, occupied by numerous islands of various +sizes and extending about 5 miles in an east-west direction, opposes +something of a barrier to the Caribou in their southward trek. The +easiest way to overcome this barrier is to by-pass it. So the migrant +herds approaching the north shore of the bay turn westward toward Little +River. At a point half a mile short of this stream a rather minor +proportion of the Caribou actually do essay a passage of Windy Bay. They +cross an island lying very close to the north shore, then steer for a +small rocky islet a quarter of a mile northwest of the mouth of South +Bay. Here they get a brief respite from swimming by walking through the +shallow bordering waters, then continue straight on to the rugged south +shore of Windy Bay. This course is roughly parallel to, and a quarter of +a mile west of, the one pursued northward or northeastward across the +ice in the spring migration. The Caribou were seen to follow this water +route on various days from August 24 to September 8, and again on +October 7. Like the one across the ice, it is probably a regular, +well-established, annual route. + +The greater number of the migrants proceed along the north shore of the +bay to Little River and are there confronted with a choice of various +further routes. Some continue for an indefinite distance up the +northeastern bank, passing Lake Charles on their right, though other +animals, coming from the north, may be following this bank in the +opposite direction. Probably most of the Caribou arriving from the +eastward either plunge into Little River at its mouth and swim across +(figs. 9, 10, 12) or pass upstream for a bare quarter of a mile and then +wade across at a rapid (figs. 7, 8). + +Without human interference, a large proportion of those that cross the +lower part of Little River would doubtless proceed more or less directly +to Windy River and cross near its mouth. But the human and canine +inhabitants of the Windy River post seem to exert a strong influence in +deflecting the Caribou northwestward along several more or less parallel +ridges that rise to a maximum height of 40 or 50 feet. These are Little +River, Middle, and Camp ridges (map 1). Many animals follow the first of +these to its northwestern end, then cross a bog and ascend the Middle +Ridge. Some cross the southeastern end of Little River Ridge, scramble +down its steep sides by strongly marked trails (fig. 2), and then move +across the Eastern Bog to the Middle Ridge. But when they reach the +summit, they can see the post directly ahead, and generally hurry off +northwestward along the ridge. Presently some may cross the Camp Slough +(fig. 13) to the Camp Ridge and then proceed either westward or +northwestward. The Caribou have a strong predilection for following the +treeless summits of the ridges wherever they are available and extend in +a more or less desirable direction. On reaching the vicinity of the Bear +Slough, where the three ridges are interrupted or peter out, the animals +doubtless turn more or less southwestward to make a passage of Windy +River at various points above its mouth. Under the conditions outlined +above, it is obvious that some of the finest opportunities for +close-range observation and photography lie at the two well-established +crossings near the mouth of Little River. + +On the dark and drizzly morning of August 24 (temp. 47°-48°) I noticed a +number of Caribou, in groups of 2 to 20, traveling northwestward along +Middle and Little River ridges. This indication of general activity +enticed me to the top of the latter, whence I had a view of perhaps 8 or +10 animals scattered over the Barrens beyond Little River. Several were +lying down just beyond the summit of a ridge between the river and +Glacier Pond, so that little more than their antlers was visible. With +the idea of finding out how closely I could approach these resting +animals, I waded knee-deep across a rapid about 100 feet in width, and +worked my way up the opposite slope until I once more caught sight of +the tips of several antlers. Under cover of a rock and some dwarf +birches, I crept ahead on hands and knees, with a miniature camera at +the ready. I had arrived within 50 yards when the nearest buck got to +its feet and stood looking at me. In hopes of photographing the rest +while they were still lying down, I rose to my knees and hastily exposed +the last bit of film in the camera. Still there was no immediate +reaction on the part of the Caribou. Fortunately there was a cross wind. +The first buck was so little alarmed that it leisurely sprinkled the +ground. But presently it turned and walked off, presumably giving some +signal of voice or posture (such as an erect tail) to the rest; for they +got to their feet, not the half a dozen I expected, but half a hundred +of them! Though they trotted off toward Windy Bay, they paused within a +hundred yards and turned to stare at me. Several more relieved +themselves as the first buck had done. By this time I saw that some of +the Caribou, including a little fawn, were carrying their tails quite +erect, as an expression of suspicion or a signal of alarm. Evidently a +majority of the band were bucks, but there were some does, with +foot-long horns, and their fawns. On my way back to camp I noticed +several groups of Caribou swimming across Windy Bay; perhaps they +included the very animals I had so recently disturbed. + +In the early afternoon it became evident that a further northwesterly +movement was under way along the ridges between camp and Little River. +The animals had doubtless made the passage of the river near its mouth. +I followed some of them to a bog at the upper end of Little River Ridge, +where I began to film several bucks and a lone, inquisitive, one-horned +doe. While the latter was approaching me within a hundred feet, I caught +a movement out of the corner of my eye, and all at once the bog seemed +full of Caribou. There were 75-100 of them, chiefly bucks, and not more +than 50 yards or so distant across the open bog. They presently moved +on, without haste, and ascended the Middle Ridge. + +Several hours later about 50 more Caribou passed through this bog. Then +a band of 17 came along, composed chiefly of does and their fawns, with +a couple of young bucks; they did not even turn their heads in my +direction as I stood in the open 50 yards away. Eventually a herd of +about 150 (the largest I saw during the whole season) passed along the +well-worn trails on the summit of the Middle Ridge. It seemed to include +all sexes and ages, with possibly a majority of does and fawns; bringing +up the rear was a limping patriarch with huge antlers, a heavy mane, and +a lingering winter coat. + +During the remainder of the afternoon several other groups appeared in +that general area. About 15 individuals descended Little River Ridge +(fig. 2) to the Eastern Bog, but retraced their course after coming +close to several of us; they were mostly does, with four fawns and a few +bucks. Another band, of all ages and sexes and numbering perhaps a +hundred individuals, crossed at the rapid on Little River. The +temperatures that had prevailed during this day’s marked migratory +movements varied from about 45° to 50°. They were low enough to keep the +black flies completely in abeyance, and the mosquito season was +virtually over. Although I noticed none of the parasitic flies, possibly +enough of them were present to keep the Caribou moving actively against +a moderate to brisk northerly wind. Now and again a big buck could be +seen fairly jumping out of its skin with the vigor of vibrating its +sides to shake off the tormentors. + +On August 25 (the second day of the big movement) I watched and filmed +the pageant of Caribou migration from the southwestern bank of Little +River. The turfy slopes of the Barrens, carpeted with low ericaceous +shrubs, mosses, and reindeer lichens, and dotted here and there with +little thickets of dwarf birch, spruce, and tamarack, stretched +invitingly before me. Temperatures ranging from 40° to 51°, with a brisk +northwest breeze sweeping down the river, happily suppressed most of the +black flies. + +The Caribou came along at intervals from the eastward, in bands up to 75 +strong, either to make the passage of the river or to continue upstream +along the opposite ridge. A small number might make the crossing in one +or two files, but one of the larger bands might spread out widely in the +shallow rapid. One of the photographs (fig. 7) shows approximately 75 +Caribou going divergent ways at this rapid: about 20 passing upstream +along the ridge on the far side, including some pausing to feed on the +low vegetation; 8 or 9 moving down the slope of the ridge to the water’s +edge; about 10 bucks, 16 does, and 6 fawns making the passage of the +river; and about 13 arriving on the near shore and pausing to feed. The +adults were able to step across in the swift water, while the fawns swam +part of the way. The bucks were apparently in the minority again on this +day. + +One group of some 40 does and fawns, after swimming the river near its +mouth, came hurrying along the ridge in close array directly toward my +station, and did not take alarm until they had arrived within 100 feet. +Then they turned tail and, each with its flag erect, beat a hasty +retreat. The maneuver made a scene of considerable charm and interest. +While I was filming a dozen Caribou in the Eastern Bog from the Middle +Ridge, a stray fawn came up and halted for some seconds within a rod of +me. The bewildered look in its big eyes was comical though pathetic. In +presently dashing on, it passed within a dozen feet. + +Late in the afternoon Fred Schweder, Jr., reported about a thousand +Caribou, in various bands up to 100 strong, crossing Little River here +and there a mile or so above its mouth. They were traveling southwest. + + August 26 was marked by mist squalls, a maximum temperature of + 45°, and a slackening in the numbers of passing Caribou. Late in + the morning a band of more than 30 bucks, does, and fawns + crossed the rapid on Little River. In the early afternoon + scattering individuals and a band of 15 or 20 did likewise. + Presently another band of about 22 animals came (fig. 8); it + consisted chiefly of does and fawns, but there were several + medium-sized bucks bringing up the rear. They crossed the rapid + in a somewhat V-shaped formation, open at the front. The + vanguard reached a rocky strip 25 yards in front of my camera + and began to feed contentedly on the low vegetation. However, + a couple of does still in the water eyed me intently and + presumably communicated their misgivings to the others, for all + turned and went back through the river without panic or haste, + although they trotted on reaching the farther shore. Later there + were about 25 Caribou crossing the bay, and nearly as many on + Little River Ridge. + + The weather on August 27, while mostly sunny, included + occasional snow or sleet flurries; the northerly wind was brisk + to strong; and the temperature, ranging from 37° to 50°, + prevented the appearance of black flies. By 10:20 a.m. a band of + about 10 does and fawns crossed the rapid on Little River. Two + hours later 12-15 animals followed the same course, and + presently 75-100 passed upstream on the far side, with a good + deal of grunting. About 2:35 p.m. nearly a hundred Caribou, + perhaps alarmed by a passing plane, dashed north out of the + Eastern Bog. By 4:45 p.m. 20 or more bucks, does, and fawns swam + across Little River at its mouth; several of the biggest bucks, + with enormous antlers, led the advance into the water. An hour + later, on the eastern side of the river, half a dozen of the + animals were lying down, but with heads erect, and facing down + wind. At this period of the day several more bands of moderate + size swam over to the west side of the river. A goodly number of + the animals fed within 25 yards of me for a considerable time. + + The following day was nearly cloudless; wind moderate, westerly; + temperature, 37.5° to 66°--high enough to bring out the black + flies (but extremely few mosquitoes) after several days of + virtual freedom from these scourges. Between 11:30 a.m. and 3 + p.m. at least 500 Caribou, coming from the east, must have + passed the mouth of Little River, some swimming across at that + point (figs. 9, 12), and others proceeding various distances + upstream before undertaking the passage. A few of the larger + bands numbered approximately 30, 40, and 75 individuals. Some + consisted largely of does and fawns, some of big bucks. One of + the larger bands approached the river on the run, plunged in + recklessly, and landed on the western shore some 30 feet + directly in front of my battery of cameras. Most of the animals + on this and similar occasions were remarkably indifferent to me + as I operated the cameras in full view of them. Some among them + would approach within a rod or less and stare me in the face + without alarm (figs. 11, 14). + + August 29 was a cloudy, nearly calm day, with temperatures + ranging from 49.5° to 73°--conditions more propitious for black + flies than for their victims. There was comparatively little + local movement among the Caribou--in the morning two or three + swimming across the bay and a band of 20 (6 old bucks, the rest + does and fawns) swimming south across the mouth of Windy River; + in mid-afternoon a band of 10 running along the ridge on the + eastern side of Little River; and about 100 reported during the + day in the vicinity of Windy Bay by Fred Schweder, Jr. The “big + movement” had passed its peak. + + The next day was largely sunny, with a light easterly or + southeasterly wind and temperatures of 50° to 68°. There were + comparatively few black flies and fewer mosquitoes. During a + five-hour vigil near the mouth of Little River I noticed only + about 50 Caribou, most of them passing westward by ones, twos, + and intermediate numbers up to 17 (does and fawns) in a band. + Mike Schweder reported a total of about 200 animals seen within + a few miles of camp. + + The morning of August 31 was dismal and overcast, with a heavy + shower; in the afternoon the sky cleared; wind brisk, south to + west; temperature, 47° to 74.5°. Several Caribou passed along + the eastern side of Little River, and Fred Schweder, Jr., + reported about 300 some miles north of camp, moving in a + southwesterly direction. + + Clouds and rain ushered in the morning of September 1; the + afternoon was sunny; wind light to strong, west to northwest; + temperature, 48° to 60°. The next day was partly cloudy, with a + mist squall or two; wind light to brisk, northwesterly; + temperature, 38° to 51.5°. No Caribou were reported on either + day. + + September 3 was largely cloudy, with some mist squalls; wind + light to moderate, northerly to easterly; temperature, 40° to + 51°. There were enough black flies to be slightly troublesome. + Two bucks, two does, and a fawn were noted at Bear Slough. + + September 4 was partly cloudy, with drizzling rain; wind light, + east to south and southwest; temperature, 43° to 58°. I saw + about 22 Caribou (largely does and fawns), in several different + groups, at Bear Slough and vicinity, and Fred Schweder, Jr., + reported about 200 in the same area. Two were noted swimming to + the south side of Windy Bay. + + September 5 was marked by a driving, day-long rainstorm; wind + brisk, easterly; temperature, 43° to 50°. A band of about 20 + Caribou (mostly does and fawns, with several middle-aged bucks), + besides one or two single animals, were encountered at Bear + Slough. + + September 6 was a cloudy, raw day, with several snow flurries; + wind brisk, northerly; temperature, 33° to 35°. Not a fly was + abroad. Two Caribou moved northwest along Little River Ridge; + a band of about 75 (mainly does and fawns, but with a fair + number of big bucks) passed in the same direction along the + Middle Ridge; and about 25 others grazed along the eastern side + of Little River. Later about 15-20 more were seen about the + mouth of Little River and on a near-by island, and eight swam + across Windy Bay to the south side. Fred reported seeing about + 300 during the day north and west of camp; they were moving in a + northerly direction. + + It was cloudy nearly all day on September 7; wind moderate, + northerly; temperature, 33° to 40°. No black flies were in + evidence. A dozen or more Caribou took to the water from an + island in Windy Bay and made for the north shore. A band of + about 25 passed along Little River Ridge toward the river’s + mouth. + + September 8 was mostly cloudy; wind moderate to strong, + southeasterly; temperature, 37° to 42°. Fred reported a band of + about 100 Caribou crossing the mouth of Little River toward the + west. A dozen or more swam southward over Windy Bay at the usual + crossing-place. Anoteelik brought in 13 tongues from that many + freshly killed Caribou; he had secured them with a .22 rifle. + + A driving gale from the east, with rain and sleet, continued + through the day on September 9; temperature, 36° to 37°. A + solitary buck inspected our camp from the south side of Windy + River, then retreated. + + An overcast sky, with some drizzle and sleet, prevailed on + September 10; wind light, east to northeast; temperature, 35.5° + to 42.5°. No flies present for some days past. Fred reported + about 20 Caribou moving westward in the vicinity of Little + River. + + On September 11 clouds and mist squalls in the morning gave way + to sunshine in the afternoon; wind light, easterly; temperature, + 37° to 45.5°. Caribou were noted as follows: five on the east + side of Little River; two does and a fawn on an island in Windy + Bay; a doe and a fawn swimming northward across this bay; half a + dozen on Josie’s Hill. During a flight from Churchill to Nueltin + Lake on this day, Charles Schweder detected no Caribou at all, + and concluded that the bulk of the migrating herds had by this + time passed to the southward of his course. During the latter + part of August, while descending the Thlewiaza River from + Nueltin Lake to Hudson Bay, he had seen thousands of the + animals--as many as 5,000 in a single day, although no more than + 500 in a single herd. + + Sun, clouds, and rain marked September 12; wind moderate to + light, south to west; temperature, 48° to 60°. Only two Caribou + were reported. + + September 13 was cloudy, with intermittent mist squalls and a + little sun; wind light to brisk, northerly; temperature, 34° to + about 44°. Two bands of Caribou (of four and five animals) + appeared near the mouth of Windy River. + + It was generally cloudy, with a snow squall, on September 14; + wind brisk to light, northerly; temperature, 33° to 41°. A doe + and a fawn, proceeding northward, and four or five other Caribou + appeared on the near-by ridges. + + The weather was clear on the 15th, with a moderate to brisk + north wind and temperatures of 29° to 48°; ice at edge of the + river. Fred reported about 100 Caribou (none of them bucks) + north of camp, and Anoteelik secured 13 east of Little River. + + On the morning of the 16th intermittent snow flurries left a + thin cover on the ground, but it was practically dissipated by + the afternoon sun; wind brisk, northerly; temperature, 30° to + 39°. Fred reported three old does without fawns, and no bucks. + + September 17 was mostly cloudy, with a little sun; wind light, + northwest and west; temperature, 30° to 43°. A single Caribou + was seen on the south side of Windy River. + + Clear skies prevailed on September 18; wind brisk, westerly; + temperature, 35° to 53.5°; ice at edge of the river. A solitary + black fly appeared. No Caribou reported. + + September 19 was another clear day; wind moderate to brisk, + west-southwest; temperature, 42° to 60°. Anoteelik, camping on + the Barrens about 2 miles to the north of camp for the past + couple of days, reports having killed 20 Caribou (only one of + them a buck). + + Light rain, soon changing to sleet, and then frequent snow + squalls, provided the principal weather elements on September + 20; wind light to strong, west to north; temperature, 27° to + 43.5°. The ground became partly covered with snow. A big buck, + followed several hours later by a doe and a fawn, swam across to + the north side of Windy River at its mouth. Ten more Caribou + were taken by Anoteelik. Charles considered that the retrograde + movement to the north was definitely under way. There had been + indications of it on various days from September 6 on. + + Except for a few snow flurries, it was largely sunny on the + 21st; wind brisk to moderate, north to northwest; temperature, + 26° to 34°. About a quarter of an inch of snow remained in + sheltered places. A doe and a fawn appeared near camp. + + There was considerable snowfall on the 22nd; wind light to + moderate, westerly; temperature, 30° to 33°; ice in edge of the + river. A large buck left tracks in the snow along the Windy + River. + + September 23 was partly cloudy; wind brisk, north-northwest; + temperature, 21° to 32°; about a quarter of an inch of snow on + the ground, and a tundra pond mostly frozen over. Several small + groups of Caribou (a doe and a fawn; three does and two fawns; + and three others) appeared on the near-by ridges. + + September 24 was mostly cloudy; wind moderate to brisk, + northerly; temperature, 26° to 41°; nearly an inch of fresh snow + on the ground. About 15 does and fawns were resting or feeding + quietly on the east side of Little River, and tracks of about + half a dozen were noted on Camp Ridge. Charles Schweder reported + about 50 Caribou, in three slightly separated bands, appearing + during the evening on the south side of Windy River about 2 + miles above its mouth, as if contemplating a crossing. He + thought they may have been alarmed by Wolves. + + September 25 was a cloudy day; wind moderate to light, northerly + to westerly; temperature, 31° to 36°; open ground largely bare + by afternoon; ice forming on Windy Bay. Some Caribou tracks were + noted on the north side of Windy River. + + There were clouds, a sprinkle or two of rain, and a little + sunshine on the 26th; wind brisk to moderate, southwest to west; + temperature, 36° to 47.5°; ground becoming practically bare. + Three Caribou were seen beyond Little River, and a doe and a + fawn on the south side of Windy River. + + The 27th was mostly cloudy, with a thick snow flurry; wind + brisk, northwest; temperature, 33° to 40°. Two tundra ponds, + previously frozen, were mostly open. Three bucks, a doe, and a + fawn were noted on the south side of Windy River. + + September 28 was mostly cloudy; wind brisk to light, + north-northwest; temperature, 28.5° to 40°; a little snow on the + ground disappearing. Seven large bucks (six in one band, moving + northward) passed over Camp Ridge, and a dozen other Caribou + (including does) were seen beyond Little River. + + The 29th was chiefly sunny; wind very light to brisk, west to + southwest; temperature, 29° to 48°; ground bare. A band of about + 15 Caribou appeared on the north side of Windy River at its + mouth. They included four large and two smaller bucks, the + remainder being does and fawns. They were apparently traveling + south. + + The 30th was cloudy, with a sprinkle of rain; wind light, + westerly; temperature, 39° to 48°; ground bare. A few black + flies were brought out by the mild weather. During an + all-morning trip to Point Lake, Charles saw no Caribou, but in + the afternoon he reported about 200 on the eastern side of + Little River. There were also half a dozen bucks on the south + side of Windy River. + + October 1 was a rare, fine, sunshiny day in the Barrens; wind + moderate to brisk, south to southwest; temperature, 37° to 61°; + ground bare; tundra ponds mostly ice-covered. A blowfly crawled + over a caribou carcass, and possibly a few black flies were + abroad. Two bucks passed from the shoal water of Duck Bay over + Little River Ridge. Charles reported about 40 Caribou moving + north a mile or two north of camp, and I saw a single buck + likewise engaged. During the preceding week or so Fred had seen + a good many of the animals between the upper Kazan River and + Nueltin Lake; they were moving south and west. + + The 2nd was another clear day; wind moderate, southwest; + temperature, 41° to 65°; ground bare. About five does and fawns + were seen at dusk in the spruce tract near Four-hill Creek. + + The next day was drizzly and foggy throughout; wind light, + southwest to southeast; temperature, 41° to 43.5°. No Caribou + sighted. Eskimos arriving in camp reported them scarce along the + way from the upper Kazan River. + + October 4 was a dismal, dark day, with steady light rain + throughout; wind very light, easterly; temperature, 36° to + 42.5°. Fred reported 20 Caribou north of camp. + + Snow fell throughout the 5th; wind light, north-northwest; + temperature, 31° to 35°. No Caribou sighted. + + With 6 inches of snow on the ground in the morning, there was + some additional precipitation during the overcast day of + October 6; wind moderate to brisk, northeast; temperature, 31° + to 33°; waters clear of ice. No Caribou sighted. + + October 7 was a generally cloudy day; wind moderate to very + light, northerly; temperature, 24° to 29°; watercourses largely + open. In the morning Charles reported a couple of hundred + Caribou swimming southward across Windy Bay; he considered this + a part of the final southward movement into the timbered + country--apparently initiated by the recent snowstorm. Later he + saw an approximately equal number 2 miles north of camp, moving + toward the bay; and Fred encountered about 50 on the north side + of the bay. + + Late on the 8th clouds gave way to sunshine; nearly calm to a + gentle breeze from west and southwest; temperature, 26.5° to + 33.5°; 6 inches of snow on ground. I obtained a distant view of + about 100 Caribou resting near Glacier Pond. Perhaps less than a + quarter of them were old bucks; the remainder, younger bucks, + does, and fawns. + + October 9 was largely sunny, with light rain in the evening; + wind light to moderate, southwest to south; temperature, 29° to + 38°; ground with a 6-inch snow covering. No Caribou sighted. + + Some snow fell on the 10th, though the day was partly sunny; + wind very light, south to west; temperature, 33° to 36°. No + Caribou sighted. + + Clouds prevailed on the 11th; wind no more than very light, + westerly; temperature, 33° to 38°; about 4 inches of snow on + ground. Charles reported about a thousand Caribou scattered over + a long hill several miles to the northwest; they were not + traveling. + + October 12 was marked by clouds, mist, and rain; wind light to + moderate, southwesterly; temperature, 32° to 40°. No Caribou + sighted. + + There was a little sun on the 13th; wind light to moderate, west + to east; temperature, 37° to 45.5°; ground largely bare and + tundra ponds open. In the afternoon we set out for Simons’ Lake, + and camped about 4 miles up the Windy River. No Caribou sighted. + + On the 14th we reached the upper end of Simons’ Lake, for a + several days’ stay at a deserted trading-post. There were snow + flurries and a little rain; wind brisk, westerly; temperature, + 35° to 36°; ground mostly bare. A band of about 15 Caribou, + a solitary buck, and many tracks and droppings were seen along + the way. + + October 15 was partly cloudy; wind very light to light, west to + northwest and east; temperature, 21° to 36°. Four Caribou + sighted. + + October 16 was a stormy, cloudy day; wind brisk, easterly; + temperature, 30.5° to 34°. About a dozen Caribou were noted in + the vicinity of Simons’ Lake. + + A strong easterly gale during the night, with heavy rain, was + followed during the day of the 17th by steady rain, with + moderate to light easterly or southeasterly wind; temperature, + 35° to 38°. A single Caribou seen. + + October 18 was partly cloudy; wind brisk to light, westerly; + temperature, 31° to 41°; waters open; some small patches of snow + in sight. Four Caribou (at least two of them bucks) passed by. + + The 19th was partly cloudy; nearly calm to moderate wind, west + and northwest; temperature, 30° to 40°. About five or six bucks + (three of them together) appeared, perhaps moving south. + + The weather on the 20th was raw, dismal, and gusty; wind brisk, + northwest; temperature, 27° to about 35°; some ice on Simons’ + Lake; a little fresh snow on higher hills. No Caribou sighted. + + October 21 was somewhat foggy; nearly calm; temperature, 25° to + 32°; Simons’ Lake partly frozen; ground generally bare. A lone + fawn was seen as we started on the return trip to the Windy + River post. + + The 22nd was largely sunny; wind very light to brisk, + southwesterly; temperature, about 30° to 46°. A medium-sized + buck was seen near the mouth of Windy River. + + The 23rd was largely cloudy; wind brisk, southwest; temperature, + 35° to 39°; ground practically all bare; bay and river open. + A buck started to cross to the north side of Windy River, but + went back. + + For the better part of a week, till October 29, I found no + further fresh indications of Caribou in our vicinity. In the + meantime the weather was largely cloudy, with some rain and snow + (4-5 inches of the latter on the 27th); winds very light to + moderate, swinging from east to south and west; temperature, 27° + to 50°; waters generally open. + + October 29 was largely cloudy; a gentle wind, south to east; + temperature, 29° to 35°; 4-5 inches of snow on ground; thin ice + on a tundra pond. The fresh track of a buck (fig. 20) was found + near camp. + + On the 30th gentle rain changed to snow; calm to a moderate + wind, northeast to north; temperature, 30° to 33°. Tracks showed + the passing of about a dozen Caribou, including half a dozen + that swam westward across the mouth of Little River, breaking + through a rim of ice at the edge. + + Clouds prevailed on the 31st; wind moderate to brisk, northerly; + temperature, 17° to 25.5°; 5-6 inches of snow on ground, with + drifts up to a foot deep; river and lake open. Fred reported + three Caribou. + + November 1 marked the long-delayed “freeze-up.” Windy Bay and + the edges of Windy River were frozen, while pieces of ice + floated down the river. The day was cloudy, with continual snow + flurries after noon; wind light to brisk, southeast; + temperature, 21° to 31°; about 6 inches of snow on ground. + + The 2nd was cloudy, with some rain and sleet; wind moderate to + brisk, southeast to west; temperature, 29° to 34°. No Caribou + sighted for two days. + + On the 3rd it was cloudy all day; wind light, northwest; + temperature, 16° to 20°. A herd of about 50 Caribou (largely + does, with a few fawns and well-antlered bucks) hurried down the + side of Little River Ridge onto the ice of Duck Bay, with the + apparent intention of crossing to the south side of Windy Bay; + but they were intercepted by a hunter and retreated + northwestward along the ridge. Fred secured three + southward-traveling bucks at a distance from camp. + + No Caribou were sighted on the three following days (November 4 + to 6), which were more or less cloudy, with some snow; wind + light to brisk, southerly to northerly; temperature, 13° to + 24.5°; ice 3 inches thick on Windy Bay; about 6 inches of snow + on ground. + + There was snow during the night of November 6 and the morning of + the 7th, resulting in drifts up to a yard deep; wind brisk, + northerly; temperature, -3° to 13°. Fred reported “lots” of + Caribou some 10 miles to the north, moving south. + + The next three days (November 8 to 10) varied from cloudy (with + a snow flurry) to sunny; wind moderate to strong, northwest and + north; temperature, -10.5° to 1°; 6-8 inches of snow (much + drifted); Windy River gradually becoming ice-covered. No Caribou + sighted. + + November 11 was partly sunny; wind moderate to brisk, northerly; + temperature, 3° to 6.5°; about 8 inches of snow on the average. + Mike Schweder reported five does moving south across the mouth + of Windy River on the ice. + + Thereafter, until my departure on December 4, no more Caribou + were actually seen in the vicinity of the headquarters on Windy + River. There were, however, tracks of single animals on November + 15 and 16. Moreover, during the period from about November 7 to + 15, while traveling northward to the upper Kazan River, Charles + Schweder saw thousands of Caribou, in herds up to 300, moving + southward. He surmised that their course took them somewhere + between Ennadai and Nueltin lakes. Fred also reported many to + the northward on the 7th, as already noted. This was perhaps the + last large migratory movement of the year in our general area. + Thereafter virtually all of the animals were presumably in the + timbered area to the southward. None was sighted from the plane + during the flight to Churchill on December 4. + + On November 7 the temperature had taken a sharp downward turn, + dropping below zero for the first time that season; and it did + not again rise above 6.5° till November 12. This cold spell, + combined with a snow blizzard from the north on the 6th and 7th, + coincided at least in part with the large migratory movement + noted above, and it may have been the stimulus for it. + + The general weather conditions that obtained from November 12 on + may be summarized as follows. It was at least predominantly + cloudy on all but four or five days. There was snowfall on six + days, and drifting snow in the air on several other days. The + winds were predominantly north, northwest, and west; less + commonly, east and southeast. They were a little more frequently + light than moderate or brisk. The extremes of temperature during + this period were 22.5° and -23°; the average daily mean, + approximately 1°. There was an average of probably at least 8 + inches of snow on the ground, with deeper drifts. The river was + not wholly frozen over at least up to the end of November. + + +_Retrograde autumnal movement_ + +It would doubtless be difficult to find, among other animals, any exact +parallel to this curious feature of caribou migration. According to +Charles Schweder, it takes place in the Nueltin Lake region in +September--sometimes as early as the first of the month. Herds up to 200 +strong may then be seen moving northward, but generally the numbers are +smaller--say 10 to 30 in a band. Some of the more notable autumnal +movements toward the north, as reported by Charles, were the following: +at Simons’ Lake in 1936 and again in 1938, when herds of fat bucks were +streaming past for a month and a half; likewise at Josie’s Bay in 1940; +and through the Windy Hills and across Windy River in 1943. Fred +Schweder, Jr., said that most of the animals, in returning northward at +this season, cross Windy River 4 miles above its mouth or Windy Bay 4 +miles from its head; comparatively few pass the mouths of Windy and +Little rivers. He remarked further that it is mostly bucks, with few +does and fawns, that make the passage on Windy Bay. + +More or less evidence of such a movement toward the north in 1947 has +been presented in preceding pages, in the notes for September 6, 7, 11, +14, 20, 24, and 28, October 1, and even October 23. The numbers observed +so involved on each of these days varied from a solitary buck or a doe +with a fawn to about 300 of the animals. On some of these days, however, +other Caribou were observed making their way toward the south. It is +thus obvious that there was no universal impulse among the Caribou of a +given area to move simultaneously in a certain direction. + +The general weather conditions on the nine above-mentioned days may be +summarized as follows. Every day but one was largely or wholly cloudy; +snow falling on three days, but ground bare on other days; wind +predominantly from the north; extreme temperatures, 26° and 61°; mean +daily average, 37.5°. Whether or not there is significance in the +matter, it appears that on those days within the period extending from +September 6 to October 1, when the Caribou were not definitely observed +moving northward, the winds were less likely to be northerly. +Furthermore, within this period there was never enough snow to interfere +appreciably with the animals’ feeding on the ground lichens of the +Barrens. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1. Half a dozen caribou trails along the + Middle Ridge, looking SE. Ground plants: _Ledum decumbens_, + _Empetrum nigrum_, _Arctostaphylos alpina_, _Loiseleuria + procumbens_, and various lichens, including _Cladonia_. A + miniature “glacier” in the distance. June 24, 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 2. Caribou trails on the 50-foot-high Little + River Ridge. _Picea mariana_, _Betula glandulosa_, and _Empetrum + nigrum_. June 19, 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 3. A Caribou buck (specimen No. 1065) being + skinned by Fred, Mike, and Rita at the Bear Slough. August 17, + 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 4. Skull, antlers, skin, and hind quarter of + the same Caribou being transported to camp along the Camp Ridge. + August 17, 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 5. Anoteelik and Mike preparing to bring in a + load of caribou meat with dogs and travois. Windy River post, + August 19, 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 6. Anoteelik and Mike pegging out caribou + hides to dry on a gravelly ridge near the mouth of Windy River. + August 23, 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 7. About 75 Caribou (bucks, does, and fawns) + at a rapid on Little River. August 25, 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 8. About 22 Caribou crossing Little River at a + rapid. Chiefly does and fawns, with several bucks bringing up the + rear. August 26, 1947.] + +By October 6 there were 6 inches of snow on the ground, and on the +following day 200 Caribou swimming southward across Windy Bay may have +marked the beginning of the final movement into the timbered country. It +appears possible that a considerable fall of snow may have a definite +influence in inducing the Caribou to retreat from the Barrens. + +On a trip from Windy River north to the Kazan River region in September, +1946, Charles Schweder found, during the first 45 miles, that the +Caribou were moving north; at the Kazan they were moving south, although +some were merely loitering. Northwest of the Kazan, the animals were +taking a westward course. During the latter part of his return trip to +Windy River, 11 or 12 days later, they had reversed the previous +direction and were traveling south. + +For such a distinct and regular feature in the life cycle of the species +as the retrograde autumnal movement there must be some biological +explanation. Several possible factors appear reasonably clear. Perhaps +we may consider the Barren Grounds the true and preferred home of +_Rangifer arcticus_, from which a proportion of the population is driven +during part of the year under stress of insect attacks or shortage of +food. When the animals begin to enter the woods in August, there is no +shortage of food; thus an insect-induced frenzy may possibly be regarded +as a potent force driving them southward. In September a state of +comparative peace descends upon the caribou world: the current crop of +adult insects has subsided; the larvae of warble and nostril flies have +not attained the formidable size of the following spring and perhaps are +not yet causing any severe discomfort; little or no snow covers up the +food supply; the lakes and rivers, still unfrozen, offer a ready way of +escape from pursuing Wolves; moderate or even balmy weather gives nature +a pleasant mood. In short, both man and beast may well look upon early +autumn as the very finest time of year both on the Barrens and in the +adjacent wooded country. + +Under these circumstances a definite retrograde movement out of the +wooded country in September on the part of many Caribou must indicate +their preference for the Barrens at this season. In any event, the +movement begins just after the insect menace has subsided to a +negligible stage. Possibly another inducement for retreating from the +wooded country in the early fall is the dearth of open areas in which +the animals may spend their resting periods, in comparative safety from +Wolves. It is only after the freeze-up that the surfaces of the lakes +and rivers supply this desideratum. This condition lasts from November +to June--precisely that part of the year in which the Caribou are +present in the wooded country in the greatest numbers. + +But by November what are the conditions on the Barrens? The weather has +become severe; snow has covered up a large part of the ground lichens; +tree lichens are not to be had. And so at this season, with the coming +of the first heavy snows, there is a final movement out of the Barrens +into the shelter of the woods, leaving only a minority of the animals to +face a bleak and bitter winter in the open country. The biggest herds of +the year may then be seen passing southward. A few bucks are said to +remain during most winters in the Windy River area. + +Far to the westward, toward Great Slave and Great Bear lakes, the +retrograde movements are somewhat different and more complicated +(Clarke, 1940: 96). + +“Mr. Carl Buchholz, of Churchill, describes the caribou migration at the +60th parallel, north of Churchill, as a southward migration in August, +northward in September, and then south in the autumn” (Clarke, 1940: +97). (See also the next paragraph.) + + +_Fall migration in the Churchill region_ + +The following notes for 1947 were kindly furnished me by Angus MacIver. +He reported large numbers of Caribou moving southward across Caribou +Creek (25 miles south of Churchill) about November 10, a day after the +local freeze-up. He would then see thousands in a day. Prior to that +time (perhaps in September?) there had been two “runs” to the northward +and northwestward; these presumably represented the normal retrograde +migration in the fall. The herds engaged in these two northerly +movements must have previously passed southward farther inland. He +reported also that the rutting season this year had commenced a little +later than the usual October 15. + + _References on migration._--Dobbs, 1774: 20, 22; Hearne, 1795: + 39, 40, 56, 66, 74, 85-87, 286, 299; Franklin, 1823: 241-242; + Sabine, in Franklin, 1823: 667; Richardson, “1825”: 328-329, and + 1829: 242-243; Godman, 1831, +2+: 283-284; John Ross, 1835a: + 328, 330, 337, 376, 390, 529-530, 628; J. C. Ross, in John Ross, + 1835b: xvii; Richardson, in Back, 1836: 498; Simpson, 1843: + 76, 196, 233, 277, 301, 320-321, 328, 386; Rae, 1850: 93; + Richardson, 1852: 290, 296; Rae, 1852a: 79; J. Anderson, 1857: + 326, 328; Murray, 1858: 203; Richardson, 1861: 274, 275; B. R. + Ross, 1861: 438-439; Osborn, 1865: 223-224, 226; Kumlien, 1879: + 54; R. Bell, 1881: 15C; Caton, 1881: 108; Gilder, 1881: 196-197; + Nourse, 1884: 235, 356; Schwatka, 1885: 77-79, 83; Boas, 1888: + 502; Collinson, 1889: 244, 290; Pike, 1917 (1892): 48-49, 50, + 89-91, 101, 174, 204, 209, 220; J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128-130; + Dowling, 1893: 103, 107; J. B. Tyrrell, 1894: 442, 1896: 13, 63, + and 1897: 10, 19, 21, 49-50, 76, 124, 140, 142, 165; Russell, + 1895: 48, and 1898: 88, 226; Whitney, 1896: 157, 238, 241; + Lydekker, 1898: 48; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 77-78, 80; + Jones, 1899: 368, 374; Hanbury, 1900: 66-67, 69, 71; A. J. + Stone, 1900: 50, 53; W. J. McLean, 1901: 5, 6; Elliot, 1902: + 259, 260, 274-275; Preble, 1902: 42; J. W. Tyrrell, 1924 (1902): + 26, 31; Hanbury, 1904: 10, 30, 32, 34, 58, 93, 108, 120, 121, + 139; Hornaday, 1904: 137; Stone and Cram, 1904: 52; MacFarlane, + 1905: 683-685; J. A. Allen, 1908a: 490; Amundsen, 1908, +1+: + 97, 102-106, 200, 247, 326-329; Preble, 1908: 137-139; Cameron, + 1912: 127; Wheeler, 1912: 199-200; R. M. Anderson, 1913a: 6, + and 1913b: 502; Stefánsson, 1913a: 94-96, 99, 100, 103, 106, + 1913b: 203-204, 224-225, 263-265, 269, 294, 348-350, and 1914: + 39, 41, 54; Chambers, 1914: 93; Hornaday, 1914, +2+: 101-104; + Wheeler, 1914: 58; Harper, 1915: 160; Camsell, 1916: 21; + Thompson, 1916: 99-101; Kindle, 1917: 107-108; Camsell and + Malcolm, 1919: 46; Whittaker, 1919: 166-167; Buchanan, 1920: + 105-108, 128-129; Hewitt, 1921: 60-63; Stefánsson, 1921: 401; + Jenness, 1922: 15, 17, 25-26, 125; Blanchet, 1925: 32-34, and + 1926b: 46-48; Mallet, 1926: 79; Preble, 1926: 137-138; + Rasmussen, 1927: 54, 214-217, 246; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 51, + 56, 101, 106; Seton, 1929, +3+: 122, 125-128; Blanchet, 1930: + 49-52; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 58, 192-196; Hoare, 1930: 13, + 14, 16, 21, 22, 27, 31, 33, 36-38; Kitto, 1930: 87; Mallet, + 1930: 20-23, 27; Jacobi, 1931: 80-84, 192-210; Harper, 1932: 30, + 31; Munn, 1932: 58; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 79, 81; Weyer, + 1932: 40; Birket-Smith, 1933: 91-94, 112, 118; Ingstad, 1933: + 34, 134-135, 156-159, 161, 163, 225, 229-231, 280, 291, 293, + 296, 324; Weeks, 1933: 65; R. M. Anderson, 1934a: 81, 1937: + 103, and 1938: 400; Hornby, 1934: 105-107; Birket-Smith, 1936: + 91; Hamilton, 1939: 244-247, 359; Murie, 1939: 244; Clarke, + 1940: 8-9, 11, 85-100; G. M. Allen, 1942: 298-299; Soper, 1942: + 143; Downes, 1943: 215, 221, 224, 249, 250, 253-256, 260; + Manning, 1943a: 52, and 1943b: 103; Porsild, 1943: 389; Soper, + 1944: 248-249; Wright, 1944: 186, 190; Gavin, 1945: 227-228; + R. M. Anderson, 1947: 178, and 1948: 15; Manning, 1948: 26-28; + Rand, 1948a: 212, and 1948b: 149; Banfield, 1949: 478, 481; + Harper, 1949: 226-230, 239-240; Banfield, 1951a: 6, 9-12, 28, + and 1951b: 120; Anonymous, 1952: 267; Barnett, 1954: 96, 103. + + + + +SUMMATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION + + +The localities from which hitherto unpublished notes on _Rangifer +arcticus arcticus_ are presented in this paper include the following. +Keewatin: Nueltin, Windy, “Highway” (at source of Putahow River), and +Ennadai lakes; Little Dubawnt, Kazan, Red, Windy, Little, and Thlewiaza +rivers; between Eskimo Point and Baker Lake. Manitoba: Nueltin (southern +part), Nejanilini, Reindeer, and Split lakes; Seal River; Churchill; +Cape Churchill; “Little Barrens” south of Churchill; between Churchill +and Knife Lake; Caribou Creek, 25 miles south of Churchill. +Saskatchewan: small lakes southwest of Reindeer Lake; lakes south of +Lake Athabaska. Details as to occurrence and status in these localities +are supplied on other pages. + +The Caribou have been so thoroughly distributed over the approximately +300,000 square miles of the mainland Barren Grounds between Hudson Bay +and the Mackenzie Valley that it is fairly safe to say that there is +scarcely one square mile in this vast territory that has not been trod +by the animals during the past century. See maps by Preble (1908: pl. +19), Seton (1929, +3+: 60), Clarke (1940: figs. 3, 4), Banfield (1949: +479), and Anonymous (1952: 267). + + The appended annotated bibliography supplies, in abstract form, + most of the hitherto published information on the geographical + distribution of _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. In its preparation + I have included records of Caribou from the Arctic islands north + to Lancaster Sound, Barrow Strait, Viscount Melville Sound, and + McClure Strait--all approximately in latitude 74° N. This has + been done as a matter of having a convenient, well-defined + regional boundary, not with any conviction that _arcticus_ has + ranged so far to the north in the more westerly islands, + especially in recent years, when it is said to have become + restricted to the southern fringe of the islands (Clarke, 1940: + 98; R. M. Anderson, 1947: 178; Banfield, 1949: fig. 1). The + islands north of latitude 74° are doubtless the exclusive domain + of _Rangifer pearyi_. It is possible that this species may also + occur to some extent on Banks, Victoria, Prince of Wales, and + Somerset islands. The typical _R. a. arcticus_, as currently + recognized, ranges eastward to Baffin, Salisbury, Coats, and + Southampton islands and to the western shore of Hudson Bay. (The + animals of the last three islands may be distinct insular + forms.) The southern limits of the winter range in northwestern + Ontario, central Manitoba, northern Saskatchewan, and + northeastern Alberta have been discussed in preceding pages. On + the west the range extends to the Mackenzie Delta (formerly), + Great Bear and Great Slave lakes, Wood Buffalo Park, and Lake + Claire. The timbered country (Hudsonian and Canadian Zones) is + practically entirely deserted by the Barren Ground Caribou in + mid-summer. At this season, in Keewatin at least, the animals + tend to draw away also from the southernmost portions of the + Barren Grounds. + + _References._--Since practically every paper in the entire + bibliography presents some data on geographical distribution, + only a few, containing more than an average amount of new or + summarized information on the subject, have been selected for + inclusion in the following list of references: Hearne, 1795; + Franklin, 1823; Lyon, 1824; Franklin and Richardson, 1828; + Simpson, 1843; Pike, 1917 (1892); Russell, 1898; Preble, 1902; + Hanbury, 1904; Amundsen, 1908; Preble, 1908; R. M. Anderson, in + Stefánsson, 1913b; Stefánsson, 1913a, 1913b, and 1921; Hewitt, + 1921; Jenness, 1922; Rasmussen, 1927; Seton, 1929, +3+; + Blanchet, 1930; Critchell-Bullock, 1930; Hoare, 1930; Jacobi, + 1931; Clarke, 1940; Manning, 1943a; Wright, 1944; R. M. + Anderson, 1947; Manning, 1948; Banfield, 1949 and 1951a. + + _Distributional maps._--Grant, 1903: map following p. 196; + Preble, 1908: pl. 19; Dugmore, 1913: 138; Hewitt, 1921: 57; + Seton, 1929, +3+: 60, map 2; Jacobi, 1931: 77, fig. 17; R. M. + Anderson, 1934b: 4062, fig. 6; Murie, 1939: 241; Clarke, 1940: + figs. 3, 4; Banfield, 1949: 479, fig. 1, and 1951a: figs. + 4-10; Anonymous, 1952: 267. + + + + +ECOLOGY + + +_Habitats_ + +Within their natural range the Caribou apparently resort to practically +every type of terrestrial and aquatic habitat (other than cliffs and +precipices). On the Barren Grounds proper they frequent the open summits +and slopes of the ridges, the dwarf birch thickets, the sedge bogs, and +the peat bogs. Their trails traverse all the upland spruce and tamarack +tracts, the wooded muskegs, and the willow thickets along the rivers. In +the summer and fall they swim the rivers and the narrower lakes, and +during the winter and spring they cross these on the ice. They do not +avoid rapids; in fact, they seek the shallower ones as fords, and they +swim the deeper ones (_cf._ Clarke, 1940: 88). They also cross the +tundra ponds on the ice, but probably walk around these smaller bodies +of water, as a rule, when they are not frozen. While they may prefer to +approach the river crossings over open slopes, they do not hesitate to +maintain trails through the dense thickets of willow on the banks. + +The winter habitat of the major part of the Barren Ground Caribou +population comprises the Hudsonian and upper Canadian Zones. This +forested habitat is characterized by sparser and smaller timber in the +Hudsonian Zone and by denser and taller timber in the Canadian Zone. +Important among the features of this winter habitat are the frozen +surfaces of the lakes and rivers, where the Caribou are wont to +congregate for their daily periods of rest (_cf._ Mallet, 1926: 79; +Ingstad, 1933: 86). + + +_Trails_ + +The favorite migratory highways are the long, sinuous ridges that +stretch across the Barren Grounds in a sufficiently approximate +north-south direction to serve the needs of the Caribou. Here their +age-old trails are particularly in evidence and may even be detected +from the air. A single small ridge may bear half a dozen or more such +trails (fig. 1), roughly parallel but anastomosing at frequent +intervals. They probably change but little from generation to +generation. They provide the smoothest courses available, avoiding rocks +and shrubs and traversing intervening bogs at the most suitable points. +The summits of the ridges constitute vantage points from which the +animals may keep a wide lookout for Wolves and human enemies, and on +which they may obtain the maximum benefit from fly-deterring breezes. +Man himself is glad to utilize these trails, whether on the Barrens or +in the timber tracts, wherever they lead in a direction he desires. They +are kept open by the hurrying feet of hundreds or thousands of Caribou +every year. + +Along a well-used trail extending through low Barrens near Duck Bay, +I found a certain grass (_Agrostis scabra_) growing. I did not recognize +or collect it elsewhere during the season. Is this perhaps like certain +other species, such as _Juncus tenuis_ (_fide_ Dr. Edgar T. Wherry) and +_Eleocharis baldwinii_, in curiously thriving on beaten paths? + +When the Caribou arrive at some lake or river, they generally follow the +shores for a greater or lesser distance, seeking either a way around or +a suitable crossing-place. The trails thus formed are generally on the +nearest ridges rather than on the immediate shores. Their direction, as +they conform to the winding shores, may diverge very widely from the +desired migratory course. + +In many parts of the Barren Grounds there must be as many as 10 linear +miles of caribou trails to every square mile of territory. Even if there +were only one mile of such trails to each square mile, the total, on the +Barrens of Keewatin and Mackenzie alone, would equal or exceed all the +railway mileage in the United States. + +In contrast to the narrow ridges, the broader hilltops in the Barrens +offer such freedom of movement to the Caribou that trails are much less +likely to be formed in such places, even when they are frequented by +large numbers of the animals. Thus I found the broad summit of Josie’s +Hill practically without well-defined trails, despite the regularity +with which many migrant bands resort thither. In feeding or traveling +over such an area, there is no occasion for restricting themselves to a +narrow course. In crossing from one ridge to another through an +intervening bog, the animals may leave numerous scattered and temporary +trails in the dense sedge growth to mark their passage (fig. 13). On the +uniform surface of such a bog, as on the broad hilltops, there is no +need to confine their steps to any particular course. + +It might be supposed that the Barren Ground Caribou would have some +reluctance in entering thickly wooded tracts, where Wolves naturally +have a much better chance of a close approach than on the open Barrens. +As already stated, however, their trails may be found more or less +throughout the spruce and tamarack growth in the Windy River area. One +of these tracts, covering probably several square miles on the west side +of Four-hill Creek, is fairly crisscrossed with trails. At deep dusk on +October 2, while several of us were skinning a Black Bear in this thick +timber, about five does and fawns trotted up quite close to us. Perhaps +they were on their way to the open Barrens to pass the night. While +wintering in the forested Hudsonian Zone, the animals may spend their +nights as well as their diurnal resting periods on the frozen lakes and +rivers. + +Fred Schweder, Jr., says that Caribou are somewhat fearful of sand hills +or eskers, and that he has never seen one lying down in such a place; he +believes this is because the Wolves frequent the eskers in summertime. +On the other hand, Mr. G. W. Malaher spoke of a long esker that extends +down the west side of Nueltin Lake and far to the southward; this, he +said, forms a migration highway for the Caribou. + + _References on habitats and trails._--J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 129, + and 1895: 445; W. J. McLean, 1901: 6; Blanchet, 1925: 33, and + 1926a: 73, 96-97; Mallet, 1926: 79, 80; Seton, 1929, +3+: + 100-102, 122, 127-128; Jacobi, 1931: 186-187; Ingstad, 1933: 86; + Murie, 1939: 246; Manning, 1948: 26-28; Rand, 1948a: 212; + Harper, 1949: 226, 228; Banfield, 1951a: 3. + + +_Influence of weather on distribution_ + +In the section on _Migrations_ the meteorological conditions in 1947 +have been reported for any possible bearing they may have had on the +daily movements of the Caribou, particularly during the fall migration. +The temperature has an important effect on the activity of the insect +pests (see _Influence of insects on distribution_) and thus, to a +certain extent during summer and fall, on the behavior and probably the +distribution of the Caribou. + +Low winter temperatures on the Barren Grounds do not appear to be a +factor of prime importance in the seasonal distribution of _R. a. +arcticus_. “Some individuals and small herds remain in the northern part +of the range at all seasons” (R. M. Anderson, 1947: 178). Peary’s +Caribou (_R. pearyi_) inhabits the more northerly Arctic islands +throughout the year, without engaging in such extensive migrations as +its relative to the south. + +The forceful winds that blow over the Barren Grounds so much of the time +are of distinct benefit to the Caribou during the summer in abating the +very serious scourge of flies. If other things were equal (as they are +not), this factor alone would make the Barrens a more favorable summer +habitat than the forested country. (See _Retrograde autumnal movement_.) +Air movements of similar strength during the winter must, through the +wind-chill factor (_cf._ Siple and Passel, 1945), make life so much the +harder for any living being; on the other hand, they tend to sweep the +ridges bare of snow, thereby making readily available the Caribou’s +principal winter food of reindeer lichens (_Cladonia_ spp.) + + _References._--Armstrong, 1857: 479; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: + 192, 194-196; Hoare, 1930: 33; Jacobi, 1931: 193, 195; Clarke, + 1940: 96, 99; Banfield, 1951a: 27-29. + + +_Influence of food supply on distribution_ + +The strong winter winds on the Barrens affect the Caribou in still +another way. While they pack the snow so firmly that man may dispense +with snowshoes, this condition naturally increases the difficulty that +the Caribou experience in pawing through the snow to reach the lichens +that are covered by it. The limited grazing capacity of such areas as +are laid bare by the wind may force a reduction in the wintering +population. Although the snow in the timbered regions to the south +covers virtually the whole surface of the land, it is evidently less +compact and so offers more favorable feeding conditions than the areas +of hard-packed snow on the Barrens. (Charles Schweder states that Willow +Ptarmigan will fly out of the Barrens to spend the night in tracts of +timber, where the snow is softer and thus more suitable for the +nocturnal burrows of these birds.) + +Another apparent inducement for resorting to the tracts of timber in +winter is the abundance there of tree lichens, such as _Alectoria_ and +_Usnea_ (_cf._ Richardson, 1829: 243; J. B. Tyrrell, 1894: 441; Dix, +1951: 287), upon which the Caribou may feed without regard to snow +conditions. (See also _Retrograde autumnal movement_.) + +Reindeer lichens (_Cladonia_ spp.) and doubtless other lichens are of +such slow growth that forest fires may deprive the Caribou of this +indispensable food for a period of years. According to Mr. G. W. +Malaher, the recent burning of a large area north of The Pas may have +deflected the animals toward the southeast, causing them to extend their +migration to an abnormal distance in that direction. For a similar +reason in years past, according to Pike (1917 [1892]: 50), they avoided +“great stretches of the country” near the Mackenzie River, and also on +the south side of Great Slave Lake. A quarter of a century after Pike’s +time, Dogribs reported that Caribou had not come to the lower Taltson +River for several years, “because the timber had been burned off” +(Harper, 1932: 30). Some years ago, extensive fires in Manitoba were +said to have been deliberately set by prospectors with the aim of +exposing the underlying rock. + +Charles Schweder believes that the Caribou show a certain predilection +for rocky places, owing to the more luxuriant growth of lichens there. + + _References._--Richardson, “1825”: 328-329; Bompas, 1888: 24; + Pike, 1917 (1892): 50; Wheeler, 1914: 60; Blanchet, 1930: 52; + Jacobi, 1931: 192, 194, 195; Harper, 1932: 30; Ingstad, 1933: + 34, 161, 163; Hornby, 1934: 105; R. M. Anderson, 1938: 400; + Clarke, 1940: 100, 106-107; G. M. Allen, 1942: 299; Downes, + 1943: 261; Porsild, 1943: 389; Wright, 1944: 186; R. M. + Anderson, 1948: 15; Banfield, 1951a: 5, 11, 27-29. + + +_Influence of insects on distribution_ + +It is quite possible that the blood-sucking mosquitoes (_Aedes_) and +black flies (_Simulium_) and the parasitic warble flies (_Oedemagena_) +and nostril flies (_Cephenemyia_) have a definite and important +influence on the extent and dates of caribou migration. + +As far as I am able to judge from my own experience, mosquitoes are more +or less equally numerous and ferocious in the Canadian, the Hudsonian, +and the Arctic Zones of the Northwest. Naturally the season begins +earlier in the more southerly localities. In two seasons (1914, 1920) at +the western end of Lake Athabaska they began to be troublesome about the +middle of June, whereas at Nueltin Lake this stage was reached about the +first of July. In the Athabaska and Great Slave lakes region (Canadian +and Hudsonian Zones) I have never had occasion to regard black flies as +serious in respect to either numbers or ferocity; but there is universal +agreement that conditions are vastly different and worse on the Barren +Grounds. At Nueltin Lake the _Simulium_ hordes become troublesome at +approximately the same time as the mosquitoes. Toward the end of August +there is a merciful diminution in the numbers of both mosquitoes and +black flies on the Barrens, and after the first of September they may be +practically disregarded, except on an occasional day of unseasonable +warmth. + +It may be remarked in passing that one of the insect terrors of the +Athabaska region, the so-called “bulldog” (a species of Tabanidae), did +not come to my attention as a pest at Nueltin Lake though I collected +two species of _Tabanus_. Malloch (1919), in reporting on the Diptera of +the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 1913-18, does not include a single +species of Tabanidae. On the other hand, Twinn (1950: 18) states that 17 +species have been found at Churchill; he refers to tabanids as “very +abundant in forested regions of the North.” The “bulldog” may be +presumed to contribute to the summer misery of the Woodland Caribou and +the Moose as well as of man. + +The season during which the adult warble flies and nostril flies harass +the Caribou probably lasts only a few weeks in July and August. While +the adults evidently cause no pain, they no doubt arouse an instinctive +dread in the prospective hosts of their larvae. While I have no +information as to whether they follow the hosts into the wooded country, +it would appear quite likely that they do so if we are to credit +statements by Franklin (1823: 242), Richardson (1829: 251), and B. R. +Ross (1861: 438) that these pests infest the Woodland Caribou as well as +the Barren Ground species. Furthermore, _Cephenemyia_ has been reported +in Pennsylvania as a parasite of the White-tailed Deer (_Odocoileus_) +(Stewart, 1930?). The scarcity of available study material may be judged +from the fact that the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 1913-18 secured +only three adults of _Oedemagena_ and none of _Cephenemyia_ (Malloch, +1919: 55-56). + +From the foregoing it may be seen that the wooded country represents a +virtually fly-free haven for the Barren Ground Caribou during nearly ten +months of the year. Is it any wonder, then, that they hasten throughout +August toward or into the shelter of the woods, to gain freedom from the +winged scourges of the Barrens? (See also _Retrograde autumnal +movement_.) + +In the spring migration of 1947 the last of the Caribou passed the Windy +River area on July 1, just before the mosquitoes and black flies had +become seriously troublesome. It might be surmised that the animals keep +marching northward in advance of the appearance of these flies, as long +as that is feasible; and that when fairly overwhelmed by the winged +hordes, they desist from further progress in that direction. The fawns +are born at such a time (in late May or June) as to pass their first few +tender weeks before becoming subject to serious insect attacks. + +(See also _Retrograde autumnal movement_; _Relations to flies_.) + + _References._--Richardson, “1825”: 328-329; Hoare, 1930: 33, + 37-38; Jacobi, 1931: 193-195; Soper, 1936: 429; Hamilton, 1939: + 247, 301; Clarke, 1940: 95-96; Porsild, 1943: 389; Banfield, + 1951a: 27-29. + + +_Effect of combined environmental factors on distribution_ + +The sum total of environmental factors apparently makes the Barren +Grounds a distinctly more favorable summer habitat for the present +species than the wooded country, since the latter region is virtually +entirely deserted at that season. In general, the wooded country must be +a more favorable winter habitat, since the bulk of the animals evidently +resort to it at that time; yet its advantages are by no means clear-cut +or overwhelming, since a very considerable proportion of the Caribou +elect to spend the winter on the Barrens (Hanbury, 1904: 93, 120, 139; +Hoare, 1930: 22; Clarke, 1940: 8-9, 11, fig. 4; Anonymous, 1952: 267). + + +_Relations to man_ + +The Caribou dominates the thoughts, the speech, and the general human +activities of the Barren Grounds. As the chief food resource of that +region and the adjacent timbered country, it plays a highly important +role in the economy of both primitive and civilized man. As long as +those regions were occupied only by native Eskimos and Indians, +employing such primitive weapons as bows and spears, the species was in +no danger. Its vast numbers were maintained steadily from generation to +generation, and were perhaps limited only by the grazing or browsing +capacity of their range. + +With the advent of civilized man and the placing of firearms in the +hands of the natives, the situation has deteriorated at a rate that +becomes accelerated with the passage of time. If it had not been for the +encroachment of civilization and the introduction of its instruments of +destruction, the natives would have been assured of a proper meat supply +for an indefinite period. Here and there some of them would miss a +caribou migration and starve to death; yet the animals have been so +generally available that many of the natives even today lack the +foresight to put up an adequate supply of fish as an alternative winter +food. + +Almost everywhere the annual slaughter is both excessive and wasteful. +Few inhabitants of the North, whether native or white, stay their hands +while Caribou are present and ammunition is available. There is undue +reliance on a continuation of past abundance, and an indifference to the +welfare or rights of posterity. The whole culture of the inland Eskimos +and the northern Indians (the Caribou-eater Chipewyans in particular) is +so thoroughly based upon Caribou that the decimation of these animals +would mean a fundamental modification or virtual extermination of their +culture. + +The average trapper of the Barren Grounds apparently aims at killing +annually at least 100 Caribou. Only a small portion is required to feed +himself and his family. The rest is designed for use as fox bait and dog +feed. In September he goes over his trap-line, perhaps 100 miles long, +and endeavors to kill Caribou at convenient intervals throughout its +length. (In October, 1944, a single trapper killed 90 during two days of +a big movement.) The animals are left where they fall. Presently spells +of warm weather may render the meat unsuitable for any one with more +fastidious tastes than a hardy man of the Barrens. In any event, the +beasts of the field evidently get the lion’s share, even when the +trapper endeavors to cover the carcasses with rocks or spruces. Bears, +Wolves, Foxes, Weasels, Wolverines, Lemmings, Rough-legged Hawks, +Ravens, and Canada Jays help themselves to the free feast. Bears in +particular are likely to consume the whole carcass; in the autumns of +1944 and 1947 they thus disposed of about 70 and 40 caribou bodies, +respectively, within a few miles of the Windy River post. If the season +turns out to be a particularly poor one for Arctic Foxes, the trapper +may abandon his trap-line for that winter, and dozens or scores of +Caribou will have been sacrificed in vain. + +Fish, which are available in abundance nearly everywhere, would serve +well enough for both fox bait and dog feed. But the average trapper +prefers to secure Caribou--a less laborious matter than putting up a +winter’s supply of fish; at the same time he may admit that fish are +easier to handle in feeding and are preferable from that point of view. +Charles Schweder has rarely found Caribou along his trap-line between +the upper Kazan River and Dubawnt Lake. By using fish (out of the Little +Dubawnt River) for fox bait, he avoids the necessity of making an early +fall trip over that long distance to secure Caribou for his winter +operations. A trapper from northern Manitoba informed me that the local +Indians were complying with a recent government regulation that each +owner must put up a certain number of fish for the consumption of his +dogs--but, they were still feeding them with Caribou. The Split Lake +band of Indians on the Nelson River, Manitoba, were reported to have +killed 4,000 of the animals during the winter of 1946-47; the greater +part of these were utilized ingloriously as dog feed. + +The hunting of such an extraordinarily unwary animal as the Barren +Ground Caribou calls for extremely little skill. Scarcely anything more +is required of the hunter (at least in southwestern Keewatin) than to +place himself on their line of march and to await their arrival. No +concealment is necessary, but quick movements are to be avoided, and the +direction of the wind should be such that it will not carry the dread +human scent to the animals. Even in perfectly open terrain one may +generally walk slowly up to within shooting distance of resting Caribou. +But if they are on the march and have already gone past, the hunter may +not succeed in getting close to them. Pursuing them on the run is likely +to send them off in a panic. (There is some evidence that on the Arctic +Coast and in the Barren Grounds of Mackenzie, where hunters are probably +more numerous than in southwestern Keewatin, the Caribou are usually +much more wary--_cf._ Amundsen, 1908, +1+: 103; Stefánsson, 1913b: +278; Blanchet, 1925: 34; Ingstad, 1933: 88.) In the section on +_Disposition_ the destruction of about a quarter of a herd of 100 or +more by a single hunter is described. On September 9 an Eskimo boy +killed 13. On November 3 eight out of a herd of 50 were secured by +another hunter in a few minutes’ time. During the autumn migration of +1947 one of the Eskimos on the upper Kazan had killed 85 before the end +of September. This band of Eskimos is said to have once slaughtered 500 +animals, half of them in the river, where they did not even bother to +pull them out; they had killed for the sheer delight of killing rather +than for utilization. It is customary for them to spear more animals +than they shoot. A trader’s family in the Nueltin Lake region used to +kill 500 Caribou per year for their own use and for their 23 dogs. In +one instance a number of Caribou were shot from across a river; several +hours elapsed before a canoe became available, and by that time the +bodies were frozen so stiff that no attempt was made to use them. It was +reported that tractor crews operating between Reindeer Lake and Flin +Flon brought out many hind quarters to sell illegally at the latter +point, leaving other parts of the bodies along the way. In the winter of +1944-45 Nueltin Lake was said to have been covered with the bodies of +Caribou that the Chipewyans had shot for “fun” and had neglected to +utilize. It was also reported that in May, 1947, there were many +neglected bodies in the vicinity of Duck Lake, the local Chipewyans +having killed the animals during the previous fall; meanwhile the spring +migration had commenced and was furnishing all the fresh meat required. + +In the Windy River area nearly all the Caribou were secured with rifles. +A few, however, were speared by the Eskimo boy as they swam across Windy +Bay. The spears used here are manufactured articles of iron, fitted to a +wooden shaft. + +Katello, a Kazan River Eskimo, informed Charles Schweder that his people +used to construct snow-covered pits for the Caribou to fall into. The +present generation is considered too lazy to undertake such a task. +Although information is lacking in the present case, urine may have been +employed to entice the Caribou into these pits, as reported by Hanbury +(1904: 114-115, 123, fig.). + +A general deterioration of antler size in the Barren Ground Caribou +seems to constitute a case parallel with that of the European Red Deer +(_Cervus elaphus elaphus_). The reason is evidently the same in each +case--the long-continued selection by hunters of old males with the best +“heads.” Only the motive differs decidedly in each case: the European +hunter looks upon the antlers themselves as the main prize; the Eskimo +and the Indian are indifferent to these ornaments, but realize that the +bucks with great antlers provide the most meat and _fat_. The bucks are +said to become much fatter than the does. The Eskimos are especially +keen on getting the big bucks. According to Charles Schweder, the old +antlers left at the river crossings from bygone days are superior in +size to those of the present day. He himself has never secured a set of +antlers equal to one (fig. 25) lying on the shore of Simons’ Lake; it +may have been there for 20 or 30 years prior to 1947. + +From about mid-September to nearly mid-October the flesh is counted upon +as being in especially fine condition. In August, 1947, the animals had +scarcely any fat, but by the middle of September the roasts were +delicious. On October 8 the fresh strips of back fat from several bucks +weighed about 5 to 10 lbs. each. A good many of these strips were put in +a storehouse at Windy River for winter use. Charles Schweder remarked on +having seen such a piece of fat 3 inches thick. At the rutting season, +which commences about mid-October, the bucks become very poor and thin. +They neglect their feeding and do not have full stomachs, as earlier in +the season. Their fat becomes tinted with red, and the flesh becomes so +musky that even the dogs and the Wolves disdain it. (See also the +section on _Fat_.) + +In some cases, when a local Caribou is being dressed, a part of the +stomach is utilized as a receptacle into which the blood is dipped from +the body cavity with the hands, in Eskimo style. The blood goes into the +making of soup. The tripe also is relished. Once I found the children of +our camp boiling up a section of the aorta as a delicacy. The ribs are +commonly impaled on a stick thrust into the ground and roasted in front +of an open fire. Leg bones may be cracked to render the raw marrow +accessible; if they are cooked, the marrow may be blown out of the open +ends with the mouth. The Padleimiut consume much of the meat in the raw +state, and frequently wash it down with hot tea. + +Much needless wounding and suffering of the Caribou, as well as waste of +valuable resources, result from extensive use of such a small-calibred +rifle as the .22. It may seem remarkable that such a large animal should +succumb at all to such a slight weapon; but it does happen, usually +after a number of shots. For example, an Eskimo boy secured 13 Caribou +in a single day with a .22. On the other hand, many of the animals must +get away from the hunter, only to die, after much suffering, at a +considerable distance, where they are not likely to be recovered and +utilized. The absolute outlawing of the use of the .22 on such large +game would seem to be in order. + +Once Charles Schweder shot a doe whose jaw had been broken by a bullet. +A piece of the bone had “grown into the tongue” but the jaw was healed. + +At the Windy River post, in the latter part of summer, portions of the +caribou bodies are placed in the river not merely for refrigeration, but +for protection from blowflies. Such meat is used mainly for the dogs. +The Eskimos are said not to engage in this practice. Consequently, some +of the caribou bodies lying about their camps become masses of maggots. + +On the last day of September I observed how Charles Schweder prepared a +fresh caribou body in the field and endeavored to protect it from beasts +and birds. First he cut off the head with his hunting-knife; then the +hind legs, which were severed very readily at the hip joint. Next he +opened the body cavity and pulled out the viscera, setting aside a mass +of fat (apparently the omentum). The hind legs were placed beneath the +body, and the head was thrust into the opening of the abdominal cavity, +as an obstacle to such scavengers as Herring Gulls, Rough-legged Hawks, +Canada Jays, Ravens, and Foxes (_cf._ Downes, 1943: 227, 228). The skin +was left on the body, and the whole was covered with small spruce tops. + +An interesting device in the hunting of Caribou consists of “stone men” +(Harper, 1949: 231, fig.). They are made of rocks, piled one upon +another in such a manner as to faintly suggest a human figure. “Moss” +(either moss or lichens) is added to some of them to enhance the +human appearance. A considerable number may be seen in the Windy River +area, where they are generally placed along the summits of the ridges. +Construction was probably begun many years ago by natives, and has been +continued by the present residents. When Caribou, in fleeing from a +hunter, catch sight of these “stone men,” they are likely to pause in +suspicion of the figures, and to be deflected from their chosen course. +This may give the hunter a chance to come within range of the animals. +The Kazan River Eskimos are said to use converging lines of such rock +piles to direct migrating Caribou to certain river-crossings, where the +hunters lie in wait for them. Occasionally a single pile is erected +merely to mark the spot where a caribou body is left until the hunter +can return with a dogteam to fetch the meat. + + [Transcriber’s Note: “... stone men”: Inuksuit (sing. inuksuk).] + +On first securing one of the animals, the hunter makes a practice of +cutting out the tongue and carrying it to camp in a pocket or a +game-bag. On a subsequent trip, if there is sufficient snow on the +ground, the meat is generally transported by dog sleigh or toboggan +(_cf._ Harper, 1949: 231, fig.). Occasionally a hunter will carry it on +his shoulder (fig. 4) or in a pack. + +In all the Canadian North, as far as I am aware, the Windy River post is +virtually the only place where summer transportation is accomplished by +dog-drawn travois (fig. 5). This device, consisting of two trailing +poles, with a small platform midway, is recognizable immediately by +readers of Parkman’s _Oregon Trail_ (1849), where its use by Indians of +our Western Plains is mentioned again and again. The travois was +introduced into this region by the late Charles Planchek?, a Czech? +trapper of somewhat sinister repute, whose headquarters were at Putahow +Lake. He was the “Eskimo Charlie” of Downes (1943: 160-161, pl.). In +years gone by he took a travois with him on a visit to the Windy River +area, and it was thereupon copied and subsequently used regularly by the +Schweder family. Their Eskimo friends of the upper Kazan will +occasionally borrow one, but I am not aware that they have made any +travois of their own. During the summer the two younger boys of the +Windy River post made a practice of hauling in caribou meat from the +surrounding Barrens by means of travois. + +In the latter part of summer some small pieces of caribou meat were +occasionally laid on a stone for drying, in front of the door at the +post. Other pieces were said to have been hung up in the air for the +same purpose, without fire or smoke, out in the field where the animals +were killed. Apparently blowflies did not pay much attention to this +meat. No considerable quantity seemed to be preserved locally in this +way. Three Caribou-eater Chipewyans from the south end of Nueltin Lake, +who visited our camp in late October, were carrying dried meat with them +as travel rations and eating it without cooking. + +The larvae of the warble fly (_Oedemagena tarandi_), found beneath the +skin of the Caribou, are relished by the Eskimos, being eaten apparently +while alive and raw. The Eskimo boy of our camp continued this practice +after his little sister had given it up. Hearne (1795: 197) reported the +Indians as eating the warbles in his day. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9. A band of Caribou swimming across Little + River at its mouth and landing on the western shore. Toward the + left, a doe standing broadside and enveloped in a cloud of spray + being shaken off. August 28, 1947. (From a 16-mm. motion + picture.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 10. Two Caribou bucks standing in the edge of + Little River at its mouth after swimming across. August 28, 1947. + (From a 16-mm. motion picture.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 11. A one-horned doe, a hornless doe, a fawn, + and a two-horned doe among a band of Caribou approaching the + camera within a rod after swimming across Little River. August 28, + 1947. (From a 16-mm. motion picture.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 12. A band of Caribou (chiefly big bucks) + swimming across Little River at its mouth. August 28, 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 13. Camp Slough, with trails showing the + recent passage of Caribou through the sedge growth (predominantly + _Carex chordorrhiza_). Black spruce in the foreground and + distance. August 29, 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 14. A Caribou _Elysium_: a hornless doe + approaching within 15 feet of the photographer at the mouth of + Little River. August 30, 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 15. Anoteelik in caribou-skin clothing, + holding a caribou spear. A buck on the skyline. Mouth of Windy + River, September 7, 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 16. Katello, a Padleimiut Eskimo from the + upper Kazan River, in a coat (_attigi_) and boots (_komik_) of + caribou skin. Windy River, Oct. 6, 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 17. Charles Schweder with the fresh, + warble-infested hide of a Caribou buck (specimen No. 1033). Windy + River, June 3, 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 18. Hide of a Caribou doe, about four years + old, with about 130 small warbles or warble scars (concentrated on + the rump). Windy River, September 15, 1947.] + +Only a small proportion of the hides of the locally killed Caribou are +preserved. A hide that would fetch only a dollar at Reindeer Lake would +not be worth transporting more than 250 miles from Nueltin Lake. Hearne +long ago (1795: 84) remarked on the remoteness of the hunting grounds +from the trading posts as a barrier to trade in the skins; and this +condition prevails to a large extent to the present day. Thus only such +hides as are required for domestic use are kept. Tanning, while done by +the Eskimos of the upper Kazan, is not undertaken by the residents on +Windy River. Here the task of drying the hides is left mainly to the +children of the camp. Most of them are pegged out on the summit of a +gravelly ridge, wooden pegs being driven with a rock through slits in +the edges of the skin (fig. 6). Now and then one is nailed to the outer +wall of a log cabin (fig. 18). + +One of the main uses of the hides is for winter clothing. The Windy +River residents have their garments made by Eskimo women of the upper +Kazan, whose tanning process leaves the fur intact. Early autumn hides, +with new, comparatively short fur, are the ones in demand. The season +for securing such hides is said to extend to mid-September. At that +season the larvae of the warble fly have not developed far enough to +have injured the hide appreciably. The long winter fur is much less +suitable for clothing. In moderately cold weather a single coat +(_attigi_), with the fur inside (fig. 16), is worn by the Eskimos. This +coat, when made for a man, extends very little farther downward at the +rear than at the front; but a woman’s coat is considerably longer at the +rear. The bottom is generally provided with a fringe consisting of small +strips of caribou skin, perhaps 4 inches long and 1/16 inch wide. In +mid-winter another coat, with the fur outside (fig. 15), is slipped on +over the other. Both are provided with hoods. Trousers, with the fur +outside, are cut rather short at the bottom; some such material as rope +is passed around the waist, without belt loops, to hold the trousers up. +Boots (_komik_) of tanned caribou skin (fig. 16), reaching nearly to the +knees, with the fur inside, make exceptionally warm footgear in winter. +An extra piece is sewed on the sole, with the fur outside, but the hairs +soon wear off. The seams are sewed with sinew. Another sort of boot, for +summer use, is made of untanned skin, without the fur, and is more or +less waterproof. Mittens (_pahloot_) have the fur outside; the thumb +piece, of a length suitable for a short Eskimo thumb, does not properly +fit a white man. + +In the autumn of 1947 the migrating Caribou did not reach the territory +of the Chipewyans about the south end of Nueltin Lake till about +November 1--by which time the fur had grown so long that it was not +suitable for clothing. When I inquired of Charles Schweder how these +natives managed under such circumstances, he replied that nowadays they +use very little skin clothing--just manufactured clothing. Certainly the +latter type was being worn by three men of this tribe that visited the +Windy River post in late October. In this connection it is interesting +to note that in November Charles brought to Windy River a bundle of fawn +skins that he had secured from an Eskimo on the upper Kazan. Presently +he traded them to a Cree halfbreed from the Putahow River, who was to +have them made into a coat for himself. In years gone by the +above-mentioned Chipewyans must have found some means of securing +caribou skins for themselves in August or September; they could have +accomplished this by moving to the northern part of Nueltin Lake, +provided the animals had not reached the southern part at the proper +season. + +From Charles Schweder I learned that the Hudson’s Bay Company acquires +caribou skins (apparently tanned) from the Duck Lake Chipewyans at about +a dollar apiece, puts them up in bales of perhaps 10 to 20 skins, and +ships them by steamer from Churchill to Baffin Island or thereabouts, +for use by the Eskimos. He had seen about 25 or 30 such bales being +loaded on a steamer in September, 1947. This trade evidently results +from the present scarcity of Caribou on Baffin Island (_cf._ Manning, +1943a: 47-50; Soper, 1944: 247-250; Banfield, 1949: 481). Moccasins of +caribou skin, made by the Duck Lake Chipewyans, were on sale at +Churchill. + +The three Caribou-eater Chipewyans from the south end of Nueltin Lake +brought mittens, gloves, and moccasins of caribou skin to trade at Windy +River. Similar gloves were brought by a Cree halfbreed from the Putahow +River. + +At the Windy River post furred caribou skins served in upholstering the +seat, back, and arms of a couple of home-made chairs. They were used +also as mattresses or blankets, in the making of sleeping bags, and even +as insulating material on the outside of the cabin (Harper, 1949: 226, +228, figs.). The Schweder boys also maintain tents of caribou skin at +various points on their long trap-lines; they are much warmer than +canvas tents, and require no outlay of cash. The skins are nailed on +poles arranged in tepee form; the height of such a tent is about 10 +feet, and the diameter 9 or 10 feet. There is a home-made stove inside, +with the smoke-pipe projecting outside about halfway to the top of the +tent. + +The Eskimos of the Kazan River have large summer tents of caribou skin, +and smaller ones of canvas. The former are the ones in which the drum +dances are held. These Eskimos never make their winter houses wholly of +snow, according to Charles Schweder, but use caribou skins for the roof. + +In illustration of the primary importance of the Caribou to both +primitive and civilized man in the Arctic and the sub-Arctic, the +numerous cases of partial or complete starvation in the absence of +Caribou may be cited. The chronicles of northern explorers are replete +with them. A notable case is that of John Hornby and his two companions +on the Thelon River in the winter of 1926-27 (Hoare, 1930: 25; +Christian, 1937). In the autumn of 1946 only a small fraction of the +normal caribou migration passed by the Eskimo camps on the upper Kazan +River. These happy-go-lucky, utterly improvident people did not take +steps to secure an alternative winter’s supply of fish, and by the +following spring eight out of the band of 27 persons had succumbed +directly or indirectly to starvation. (It is suspected that several were +accounted for by anthropophagy.) Women, children, and dogs were the +victims; no adult male succumbed. The casualties would doubtless have +been more numerous if Charles Schweder had not reported the plight of +the band when he made a trip to Reindeer Lake in March. Thereupon the +government shipped emergency rations by plane as far as Nueltin Lake, +and Charles transported them from that point by sleigh to the Kazan. +Meanwhile he rescued two of the orphan children, took them to the Windy +River post, and in a few more months formally adopted them. + + +_Ethnological material from caribou products_ + +In addition to the utilization of caribou products for the primary +purposes of food, clothing, and shelter, as discussed in preceding +pages, certain other uses of an ethnological nature may be mentioned +here. + +Charles Schweder spoke of the former Eskimo use of splint bones from the +legs of Caribou as needles, after a hole had been drilled or burned +through the larger end. They are about the same length as a large +darning needle. These people commonly use the back sinew as thread or as +wrapping on tools, drums, and the like. I saw a piece of back sinew +being dried for future use at the Windy River post. + +Either lard or caribou fat serves as fuel for an “Eskimo candle”; the +wick is a bit of rag or moss. The heat of the flame melts the fat where +it is spread out in some small receptacle like a can cover. When our +other means of illumination gave out at the Windy River post, I worked +or wrote notes for many hours by the light of one of these candles. It +gives approximately as much illumination as an ordinary tallow candle. +One disadvantage of using caribou fat for this purpose is the +considerable amount of smoke that it produces. + +The Eskimos make odd use of an antler as a brake for a sleigh, to +prevent the harnessed dogs from running after any Caribou they may +sight; on other occasions it retards the sleigh in descending a hill. +Such an antler, that I found at the Windy River post, is notched near +the base; a rope or thong, 2 or 3 feet in length, is fastened at one end +to this notch, and at the other to the side of the sleigh. To apply the +brake, the driver simply presses down the points of the antler into the +snow or ice. + +The drums used in the ceremonial dances of the Kazan River Eskimos are +made of a piece of caribou skin stretched tightly over a circular frame +of spruce and fastened in place with caribou sinew. They are about 3 +feet in diameter. + +In an Eskimo fish spear from the upper Kazan River an iron barb on one +of the prongs is supported by a small piece of caribou antler and +fastened with back sinew. The two large lateral prongs, of metal, are +tied to the wooden shaft of the spear with braided sinew. + +Two snow-knives have handles of antler, about 10 and 11 inches in +length. One of the handles has been planed down, and is wrapped with +sinew. + +The handle of another implement, used in cleaning out grains of wood +from a hole being drilled in wood, is also a piece of antler. + +A woman’s knife, or _ooloo_, has a section of antler for a handle. + +Strands of beads, used either for an ear pendant or for ornaments at the +peak of a hood, have a caribou incisor fastened at the tip. The opposite +end of the pendant is provided with a thin strip of caribou hide for +fastening to a perforated ear lobe. + +The willow stems of pipes are wrapped with back sinew. + +Antler and sinew went into the making (by Anoteelik) of a “ring and pin” +game. + + _References on relations to Eskimos and Indians._--Isham, 1949 + (1743): 152-154; Dobbs, 1744: 19; Hearne, 1795: 35, 78, 80-84, + 96, 119, 195-197, 297, 316-319, 321-325; Franklin, 1823: + 243-244; Lyon, 1824: 119, 123, 130, 144, 198, 229, 238, 241, + 282, 311-317, 324, 327, 336; Parry, 1824: 289, 380, 403, + 494-497, 505, 508, 512, 537; Richardson, “1825”: 330, 331; + Franklin and Richardson, 1828: 200, 275; Richardson, 1829: + 242-244, 245-249; John Ross, 1835a: 243-244, 252, 352, 512, + 537; J. C. Ross, in John Ross, 1835b: xvii; Richardson, in + Back, 1836: 499; Simpson, 1843: 76, 208, 312, 347, 355; J. + McLean, 1932 (1849): 195, 359; Richardson, 1852: 290; J. + Anderson, 1856: 24, and 1857: 321; Armstrong, 1857: 149, 154, + 155, 166, 194; M’Clintock, 1860?: 212; Richardson, 1861: 274; + B. R. Ross, 1861: 439-440; Kennicott, in Anonymous, 1869: 170; + Kumlien, 1879: 19, 23-25, 36-37, 54; Caton, 1881: 366-371; + Gilder, 1881: 11, 23, 25, 26, 28, 43, 50, 59, 61, 64, 67, 71, + 137-146, 154, 245-255; Nourse, 1884: 220, 232; Schwatka, 1885: + 59-86; Boas, 1888: 419, 429, 461-462, 501-503, 508-509, 522, + 555-560; Bompas, 1888: 61, 100; Collinson, 1889: 277; + MacFarlane, 1890: 32-34, 38; Pike, 1917 (1892): 51-56, 59-60, + 82, 209; J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128-130; Dowling, 1893: 107; J. B. + Tyrrell, 1894: 445, 1895: 440-444, and 1897: 122, 126-127, + 131-132, 151, 166-167; Russell, 1895: 49-51, and 1898: 91, 134, + 168-172, 176, 178, 187-189, 227-229; Whitney, 1896: 161, 175, + 176, 213, 237, 240, 242, 262; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 80-81, + 123-141, 241; Jones, 1899: 342, 429; Hanbury, 1900: 64, 65; + J. M. Bell, 1901a: 16, and 1901b: 252, 255, 258; Boas, 1901: + 52, 54, 81, 102, 107, and 1907: 465, 493, 501; W. J. McLean, + 1901: 5; Elliot, 1902: 276-279; J. W. Tyrrell, 1924 (1902): 28, + 37; Hanbury, 1904: 41, 43, 67, 70, 72, 75, 82, 114-115, 120, + 121, 123, 137, 143; MacFarlane, 1905: 680-683; Amundsen, 1908, + +1+: 120, 201, 237, 326-329, and +2+: 110; Preble, 1908: 137; + Seton, 1911: 259-262; Cameron, 1912: 127, 309; Wheeler, 1912: + 199-200; R. M. Anderson, 1913a: 5, 6, 8, and 1913b: 502-505; + Stefánsson, 1913a: 105, and 1913b: 203, 215, 221, 281, 337-338, + and 1914: 48, 56-59, 97, 137, 139-141, 147-148, 150, 296, 353; + Hornaday, 1914, +2+: 97, 100; Wheeler, 1914: 52, 56, 58; Nelson, + 1916: 460-461; Thompson, 1916: 19, 99; J. B. Tyrrell, in + Thompson, 1916: 16; Buchanan, 1920: 113-151; R. M. Anderson, + in Stefánsson, 1921: 743, 750; Hewitt, 1921: 58, 59, 64-66; + Stefánsson, 1921: 401-402; Jenness, 1922: 47, 48, 61, 78-81, 97, + 100-103, 124, 127-142, 148-151, 182-189, 244, 248, 249; + Blanchet, 1925: 34, 1926a: 98, and 1926b: 47; Preble, 1926: 121; + Craig, 1927: 22; Henderson, 1927: 40; Rasmussen, 1927: 5, 23, + 59-60, 65, 67, 68, 73-76, 103-106, 145, 166-167, 245, 246; + Anthony, 1928: 532; Kindle, 1928: 72-73; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): + 9, 47, 52-53, 56, 57, 86, 89, 90, 94, 96, 98, 101, 102, 104, + 106-112, 133-144, 171, 186, 191, 196, 199-223, 232, 239-251, + 262, 263, 268-271; Seton, 1929, +3+: 111-122, 133-134; Blanchet, + 1930: 50-51, 53; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193, and 1931: 32-33; + Kitto, 1930: 87-88, 90; Mallet, 1930: 13, 32, 85, 87, 89, 90, + 92, 95, 102, 116, 131-140; Jacobi, 1931: 156, 157, 159; Harper, + 1932: 30, 31; Jenness, 1932: 47, 48, 51, 58, 59, 75, 406-408, + 411, 412, 414, 415; Munn, 1932: 191-192, 210, 214, 255, 271, + 278; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 80-83, 86-87; Weyer, 1932: 38, + 39; Birket-Smith, 1933: 100; Ingstad, 1933: 118, 122, 135, 139, + 162-163, 167, 186-187, 247, 253-254, 257-259; R. M. Anderson, + 1934a: 81, and 1937: 103; Godsell, 1934: 273-276, and 1937: 288; + Hornby, 1934: 105; Birket-Smith, 1936: 90, 91, 110, 111, + 115-116; Hamilton, 1939: 246, 352, 359; Clarke, 1940: 5-9, 84, + 110, 112; G. M. Allen, 1942: 297; Manning, 1942: 29, 1943a: 47, + 50, and 1943b: 103; Downes, 1943: 215, 227-228, 261-262; Soper, + 1944: 248-250; Wright, 1944: 185, 187, 188, 193; Rand, 1948b: + 149; Yule, 1948: 288; Banfield, 1949: 477, 478, 481, and 1951a: + 1, 11, 14-15, 42-50; Harper, 1949: 226, 230, 231; Hoffman, 1949: + 12; Polunin, 1949: 230; Scott, 1951: 127; Anonymous, 1952: 264. + + _References on relations to civilized man._--Kennicott, in + Anonymous, 1869: 166; Schwatka, 1885: 59-86; A. J. Stone, 1900: + 57; Grant, 1903: 186; Cameron, 1912: 309; R. M. Anderson, + 1913a: 5, 6; 1913b: 504, and 1938: 400; Stefánsson, 1913b: 27; + Hornaday, 1914, +2+: 100; Wheeler, 1914: 56; Hewitt, 1921: + 11-12, 59; Critchell-Bullock, 1931: 33; Godsell, 1937: 288; + G. M. Allen, 1942: 298-299; Manning, 1942: 28; [U.S.] War + Department, 1944: 77; Harper, 1949: 239; Banfield, 1951a: 1, + 14-15. + + +_Relations to Black Bears_ + +It is hardly to be expected that Black Bears (_Ursus americanus_ subsp.) +commit any depredations on adult, able-bodied Caribou unless under very +exceptional circumstances. Since they do not normally venture to an +appreciable distance into the Barren Grounds, their contacts with +Caribou are mainly in the forested zone. For an untold period in the +past there has been a very interesting tripartite relationship between +Bears, Caribou, and Caribou-eater Chipewyans about the south end of +Nueltin Lake. For information concerning it I am indebted to Charles +Schweder. The Indians of that area have been in the habit of killing +large numbers of Caribou, especially on the spring and fall migrations, +and leaving many of the bodies, or parts of the bodies, out in the +“bush.” The Bears have become accustomed to taking advantage of the +situation, especially, perhaps, in the matter of fattening up for +hibernation. This probably resulted in a certain concentration of the +animals thereabouts. But of late years the local native population has +seriously declined by reason of fatal illness and removal to other +parts. Consequently, as Charles Schweder expressed it, there are no +longer enough people there to feed the Bears! Three of the Chipewyans +reported in late October, 1947, that they had lost a good many of their +Caribou to the Bears during that season. + +This recent change in the food situation about the south end of Nueltin +Lake has apparently resulted in, or at least coincided with, an influx +of Bears in the Windy River area, where they were unknown until 1944. +During the next four years seven Bears were killed locally. The animals +are said to have consumed about 70 Caribou bodies in the fall of 1944, +and about 40 in the fall of 1947 within a few miles of the Windy River +post; thus they became a somewhat serious factor in the human economy of +the area. The Caribou is evidently the chief loser in this curious +relationship, but even the Bear, which may be regarded as the chief +beneficiary, suffers from man’s retaliatory efforts. + + +_Relations to foxes_ + +The demand for Arctic Fox furs on the part of the fashionable women of +the world sends the trapper on his winter rounds over the bleak and +bitter Barren Grounds, where he depends upon his autumn kill of Caribou +for sustenance for himself and his dogs as well as for fox bait. It is +thus quite obvious where a large share of the responsibility for the +dwindling numbers of the Caribou lies. + +Both Arctic and Red Foxes (_Alopex lagopus innuitus_ and _Vulpes fulva_ +subsp.) are among the scavengers that help to consume caribou bodies +that are left unguarded in the wilds. According to Charles Schweder, +foxes of both species seem to follow the Wolves, presumably in the hope +of securing the leavings of their kills. + +Charles also gave me an account of a remarkable sort of play between a +Red Fox and a small buck Caribou. He had witnessed it in September, +1943, about 18 miles north of Windy River, from a distance of half a +mile. The Fox would approach the Caribou closely; the latter would then +walk up to the Fox, which would retreat, not allowing the Caribou to +come close enough to touch it. Neither animal was afraid of the other. +They kept up this performance for about 5 minutes. The Fox then went +among some bushes, where the Caribou tried to follow it. The larger +animal was still there, feeding, when Charles passed on out of sight. He +regarded the whole performance as a matter of playfulness. His recital +put me in mind at once of a slightly similar play between a Newfoundland +Caribou and a Red Fox, as recorded by Millais (1907: 302-303). +Stefánsson (1921: 623-624) describes a game of tag between an Arctic Fox +and several yearlings of _Rangifer pearyi_ on Melville Island. + + _References._--Blanchet, 1925: 34; Birket-Smith, 1929(1): 101; + Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 143; Munn, 1932: 278; Ingstad, 1933: + 90, 157-159; Freuchen, 1935: 128; Banfield, 1951a: 36. + + +_Relations to Wolves_ + +Aside from man, the principal predatory enemy of the Barren Ground +Caribou is undoubtedly the Wolf. A comparison of a distributional map of +Caribou by Banfield (1949: 479, fig. 1) with a distributional map of +Wolves by Goldman (1944: 414, fig. 14) indicates that the latter species +is a considerably more plastic animal. No less than six subspecies of +Wolves seem to occur in parts of the currently recognized range of a +single subspecies of Caribou (_Rangifer arcticus arcticus_), as follows: +_Canis lupus arctos_, Prince of Wales and Somerset islands; _Canis lupus +manningi_, Baffin Island; _Canis lupus bernardi_, Victoria Island; +_Canis lupus hudsonicus_, Keewatin, eastern Mackenzie, northern +Manitoba, and northeastern Saskatchewan; _Canis lupus mackenzii_, +northern Mackenzie; _Canis lupus occidentalis_, southern Mackenzie and +northern Alberta and Saskatchewan. + +The Keewatin Tundra Wolf (_C. l. hudsonicus_) is presumably the only one +that concerns us here. However, its extension into the forested zone of +northern Manitoba and northeastern Saskatchewan, as indicated on +Goldman’s map, is still problematical. Goldman’s text (1944: 428-429) is +quite indefinite on this point. There are such distinct differences +between the general fauna of the Arctic Zone and that of the Hudsonian +Zone that the Wolf of the latter zone may well prove to be +differentiable from _hudsonicus_, whose type locality is at Schultz Lake +in west central Keewatin. It is an interesting question whether any +Wolves of the Barren Grounds follow the Caribou southward into the +timbered country in the fall; likewise, whether any individual Wolves of +the latter region accompany the Caribou on their spring migration out +into the Barrens. Little light on the subject seems available at +present. There is no doubt, however, that a good many Wolves remain +during the winter on parts of the Barren Grounds that have been deserted +by the Caribou at that season. Furthermore, at the time of the spring +migration, mature Wolves of the forest zone would be restricted to their +home territory by the necessity of caring for their young ones. + +A Wolf is by no means able to capture a Caribou at will. During the +season of open water the latter may effect a ready escape by plunging +into the nearest river or lake and crossing to the other side. There is +reason to believe that islands provide a good sanctuary during the +summer (Seton, 1929, +3+: 108-109; Gavin, 1945: 228). In the winter the +Caribou must depend primarily on its fleetness of foot. Even the fawns +are reputed to be able to outdistance Wolves in a chase that is not too +prolonged. An adult, if brought to bay after a long chase, is probably +able to stand off a single Wolf indefinitely. Its powerful hoofs are its +principal means of defense. Even if the antlers are brought into play, +they are effective only during the limited period when they are +fullgrown, hard, and free of velvet. When two or more Wolves manage to +bring a Caribou to bay, the outcome is probably almost invariably in +their favor. Charles Schweder has never known a Caribou to kill one of +these predators in defending itself. In several cases reported by Fred +Schweder, Jr., the last stand was made on the ice of lakes. The Caribou +itself may choose such a place, as if aware that it may be more +sure-footed on the ice than its enemy. + +After listening to wolf tales by residents of the frontier settlements +rather than by real men of the “bush,” one might almost expect to see a +couple of these bloodthirsty animals harrying the rear of every band of +Caribou and keeping up a relentless pursuit. However, during a sojourn +of six months on one of the best Caribou ranges in Keewatin, where +trapping has very little effect on Wolves, I saw just one of these +animals alive, heard the howling on several occasions, and noted a +single Caribou that had probably been killed by them. It is far from a +common experience for the resident trappers to witness actual pursuit by +Wolves or even to find their kills. The following instances, related by +Fred Schweder, Jr., comprised his only direct observations on Wolves in +pursuit of Caribou up to and including 1947, when he was eighteen years +old. + +During the northward migration in May, 1945, a silent black Wolf pursued +a band of 100 Caribou over the ice of Windy Bay. At one time it came +within 100 feet, but thereafter they forged ahead. After half a mile the +band split up, and the Wolf desisted. In October, 1946, Fred noticed a +Caribou fighting off two Wolves on the ice of Nueltin Lake near its +outlet. It used both horns and hoofs against its attackers. While one +Wolf was in front, the other would try to get in the rear of the Caribou +and hamstring it. This went on for two hours until darkness hid the +scene. The next morning the Caribou was dead and half eaten. On October +16, 1947, a white Wolf was seen in pursuit of four fast-moving Caribou +near Simons’ Lake. It was about half a mile in their rear, and presently +halted, probably by reason of catching sight of Fred. + +November 7, 1947, was a blizzardy day; the air was full of drifting +snow. Under these conditions a gray Wolf chased a buck and a doe right +into the dooryard of one of Fred’s trapping camps 10 miles north of +Windy River. It was only about 30 feet behind them. When the buck broke +through the ice of a little creek, the Wolf went right past it in +pursuit of the doe. The latter nearly ran into Fred’s toboggan, and he +shot it at a distance of 20 feet. The Wolf came within 40 feet, but by +the time it was recognized as not just another Caribou, it was 100 feet +away. Fred then shot but merely wounded it, the sight being off his +rifle. Meanwhile the buck escaped, but 3 miles away Fred met with it +again and secured it. He recognized it as the same animal because at +both encounters it was limping from a previous wound and was hornless as +well. + +In late November Fred found two fullgrown bucks and a doe on the ice of +Windy Lake, where they had been killed by Wolves. The bucks were +antlered and had probably met their end several weeks previously. Yet +their flesh was so musky and unpalatable, in consequence of the rutting +season, that it had not been devoured. A long trail of blood and hair +led to the spot where the doe had fallen, apparently a couple of weeks +previously; it was still only half eaten. + +In Fred’s opinion, Caribou are apprehensive of sandy eskers as the haunt +of Wolves, and do not linger there. + +On October 15 Charles Schweder pointed out the body of a Caribou in a +little pond in the delta area at the head of Simons’ Lake. He considered +it killed by Wolves some weeks previously; its antlers were in the +velvet, and it had been eaten only about the head and hind quarters as +it lay in the water. + +Joe Chambers, a trapper of Goose Creek (south of Churchill), stated that +Wolves select the fattest Caribou, and that during the winter of 1946-47 +they had been devouring only such choice parts as the tongue and the +unborn young. + +Caribou bodies are the primary bait for Wolves and Foxes on the Barren +Grounds. Two traps are commonly placed at each carcass. + +Up to a couple of centuries ago, when the baneful effect of civilized +man began to be felt, the Caribou throve and multiplied to a point where +they probably strained the grazing capacity of the Barren Grounds. +Neither primitive man nor the Wolf had any serious effect on the size or +condition of the herds. The Caribou were numbered by millions, and they +doubtless owed their vigor and their success as a species in no small +measure to their friendly enemy, the Wolf. Through long ages the latter +had tended to eliminate the weaklings, the sickly, and the less alert +individuals, leaving the fitter animals to propagate their kind. Here +was a fine example of natural selection operating to the advantage of +the Caribou. Thus the Wolf may be safely considered a benefactor of the +species as a whole--a regulator and protector of its vitality. + +There are only two regions of the world where Caribou (or Reindeer) have +not long shared their territory with the Wolf--Spitsbergen and the Queen +Charlotte Islands. And what sort of situation do we find there? Instead +of thriving in the absence of such a natural predator, the animals of +both regions are the runts of the whole Caribou-Reindeer tribe, and +those of the Queen Charlottes have become virtually or wholly extinct +(_cf._ Banfield, 1949: 481-482). Furthermore, the Newfoundland Caribou +suffered a very serious decline after the Newfoundland Wolf became +extinct at about the beginning of the present century. The lesson is +obvious: it is folly for man to imagine that he can benefit the Caribou +by eliminating the Wolves. + +It is virtually axiomatic that no predatory species (other than modern +man) exterminates its own food supply. Long ago nature must have +established a fairly definite ratio between the populations of the Wolf +and the Caribou. Although a certain fluctuation of that ratio could be +expected from time to time, each fluctuation would be followed by a +return to more or less normal conditions. The trend of evolution has +doubtless been toward perfecting the Wolf in its ability to capture the +Caribou, but at the same time toward perfecting the Caribou in its +ability to escape the Wolf. Unequal progress of this sort on the part of +the two species would presumably have been rather disastrous to the one +or the other. But it is nature’s way to have preserved a proper balance +between the abilities of the two species, and thus between their +populations. This balance (a rather delicate one) has probably been +upset to some extent by the advent of civilized man with his devices to +the Barren Grounds. + +The Caribou “exemplify the survival of the fittest; none but the perfect +are allowed to live and breed, hence their perfection. We believe that +the wolf is in no small degree responsible for this high standard, +and that were he killed off the species as a whole would suffer.” +(Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 161.) + +“It is doubtful if the efforts of white or native hunters are of any +importance whatever in the control of wolves in the caribou country, or +could, under present circumstances ever be of any importance.” (Clarke, +1940: 109). + + _References._--Franklin, 1823: 242, 327, 344, 486, 487; John + Ross, 1835a: 402, 530, 534, 564; Back, 1836: 128-129; Simpson, + 1843: 232; Armstrong, 1857: 395, 480-481, 488, 525; Osborn, + 1865: 227-228, 231, 232; Kumlien, 1879: 53, 54; Gilder, 1881: + 61; Bompas, 1888: 60; Collinson, 1889: 244; Pike, 1917 (1892): + 56-58; Whitney, 1896: 239; Jones, 1899: 374-375; Preble, 1902: + 41, and 1908: 214; Hanbury, 1904: 89; MacFarlane, 1905: 692-693; + Amundsen, 1908, +1+: 102; Seton, 1911: 225-226; R. M. Anderson, + 1913b: 516; Stefánsson, 1913a: 93, and 1921: 248-249, 475-476; + Blanchet, 1925: 34; Mallet, 1926: 79; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): + 51; Seton, 1929, +1+: 344-346, and +3+: 108-109; Blanchet, 1930: + 54-55; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 159-162; Hoare, 1930: 22; Kitto, + 1930: 89; Jacobi, 1931: 240-241; Harper, 1932: 31; Sutton and + Hamilton, 1932: 33, 35, 36, 81, 82, 84, 85; Ingstad, 1933: + 157-159, 165-166, 207, 302-304, 306-307; Hornby, 1934: 106, 108; + Freuchen, 1935: 93, 120-122; Murie, 1939: 245; Clarke, 1940: + 107-109; Manning, 1942: 29, and 1943a: 55; Downes, 1943: 262; + Young, 1944: 236-238, 243; Yule, 1948: 288; Harper, 1949: + 230-231, 239; Banfield, 1951a: 37-41; Anonymous, 1952: 263-265. + + +_Relations to birds of prey_ + +These relations are not so much of the living Caribou as of their bodies +after death. The principal avian scavengers in the Windy River area seem +to be the Rough-legged Hawk (_Buteo lagopus sancti-johannis_), the +Herring Gull (_Larus argentatus smithsonianus_), the Canada Jay +(_Perisoreus canadensis canadensis_), and the Raven (_Corvus corax +principalis_). These birds are evidently attracted to the vicinity of +camps and trap-lines by reason of the numbers of caribou bodies lying +about. On their first arrival in late May or early June, before the +lakes have opened up and while food in general is scarce, Herring Gulls +seem particularly prone to assemble where Caribou have been recently +killed. For example, up to June 3 only a handful of these birds had been +seen about Windy River. On that day several Caribou were killed, and on +June 4 about 100 Herring Gulls had gathered at the scene. Their +scavenger activities make it especially necessary to protect the caribou +bodies in the way described in the section on _Relations to man_. In a +few days one of the bodies (apparently not so protected) had been almost +entirely consumed. The Herring Gulls operate locally only from May to +September, being absent during the rest of the year. A few Ring-billed +Gulls (_Larus delawarensis_) appeared meanwhile and attacked a caribou +carcass. + +The Rough-legged Hawk is far less numerous than the Herring Gull and so +is a much less serious scavenger. Now and then, however, it may be noted +feeding on a caribou carcass. Even the Long-tailed Jaeger (_Stercorarius +longicaudus_) is reported in such a role. The Canada Jay and the Raven +are permanent residents and are undoubtedly helped through the +inhospitable winter by man-killed Caribou. On the other hand, a good +many Ravens fall victims to the fox traps placed about the bodies. +Charles Schweder has frequently seen Ravens following Wolves, as if in +expectation of a kill. Buchanan remarks (1920: 248) concerning the +Reindeer Lake region, that the Ravens “appear to remain in the vicinity +of the Caribou herds all th[r]ough winter.” In the Windy River area the +Canada Jay became noticeably more numerous in August, after the Caribou +had returned from the north. The Ravens and the Rough-legs exhibited a +similar increase in September and October. + +The depredations of these carnivorous birds result to the detriment of +the living Caribou in that they virtually force the hunters and trappers +to kill a larger number of the animals than would otherwise be +necessary. + + _References._--Hanbury, 1904: 135; Stefánsson, 1913a: 93; + Seton, 1929, +3+: 108; Ingstad, 1933: 157-159; Downes, 1943: + 228; Banfield, 1951a: 36, 42; Harper, 1953: 28, 60, 62-64, 72, + 74, 76. + + +_Relations to miscellaneous animals_ + +The Schweder boys spoke of Arctic Hares (_Lepus arcticus andersoni_) +being in the habit of eating the stomach contents of Caribou after the +animals have been dressed in the field. This represents merely harmless +utilization of a normally waste product, although it serves some of the +natives as _nerrooks_ or “Eskimo salad” (_cf._ Richardson, 1829: 245). +Wolverines, Mink, Weasels, and Lemmings help to consume unprotected +caribou bodies. (In the Old World the Wolverine is regarded as a serious +enemy of live Reindeer [Jacobi, 1931: 243; Harper, 1945: 473].) + + _References._--Pike, 1917 (1892): 56-58; Seton, 1911: 252, 1929, + +2+: 413, 424, 443, and 1929, +3+: 108; Harper, 1932: 23; + Ingstad, 1933: 157-159; Freuchen, 1935: 93, 99; Hoffman, 1949: + 12; Banfield, 1951a: 36, 41; Harper, 1953: 40, 41. + + +_Relations to flies_ + +Flies of various kinds perhaps cause more wide-spread, year-round misery +to the Caribou than all other pests and enemies combined. It is safe to +say that not a single individual in the whole population escapes their +attacks, and some even succumb to mosquitoes (Gavin, 1945: 228). The +various biting and parasitic flies have already been discussed to some +extent in the section on _Influence of insects on distribution_. +Harassment by these pests is believed to be the leading cause of the +haste with which the Caribou are frequently seen passing over the +Barrens in summer. Downes (1943: 204) has commented on the habit of +Chipewyan hunters in the Nueltin Lake region of examining the legs of +Caribou for swellings caused by mosquito bites. In a buck secured on +August 17 the legs exhibited numerous little bumps of this sort; +furthermore, black flies covered the buck’s body, while scarcely +troubling those of us who were preparing the specimen. Fortunately the +suffering from mosquitoes and black flies on the Barrens is largely +limited to the months of July and August. + +Even at this season the Caribou are granted occasional relief from the +blood-sucking flies. The characteristic strong winds of that region help +greatly in keeping the insects in abeyance. Furthermore, both mosquitoes +and black flies become more or less inactive whenever the temperature +drops to the neighborhood of 45° (_cf._ Weber, 1950: 196), and this +happens fairly frequently even in mid-summer. Finally, the black flies +retire during the hours of darkness; and short as these hours are, the +relief they bring is very noteworthy. These conditions offer something +of a contrast to those surrounding the Woodland Caribou. It is difficult +to see how that animal can secure a moment’s respite from mosquito +attacks, by day or night, through most of the summer. In its forested +habitat there is not sufficient lowering of the temperature nor +sufficient penetration of strong winds. Hard as the life of the Barren +Ground Caribou may be, it seems to have a few advantages not available +to the Woodland Caribou; and possibly it is these that have enabled it +to attain a vastly greater population than the other species. + +Of 52 mosquito specimens brought back from the Windy River area, 39 were +_Aedes nearcticus_ Dyar, 2 were probably _Aedes fitchii_ (F. and Y.), +and the remaining 11 were of the same genus but not in condition for +specific determination (_cf._ Dyar, 1919; Weber, 1950: 196). _Ae. +nearcticus_ is holarctic in distribution; in North America it occurs +chiefly on the Barren Grounds, but is known from as far south as +Montana. _Ae. fitchii_ ranges through the northern United States and +Canada, north to the limit of trees. Of 26 black flies, all were +_Simulium venustum_ Say, which occurs in northern Europe, Alaska, and +Labrador, south to the Adirondacks, Illinois, Iowa, Georgia, and +Alabama. (Names and ranges supplied by Dr. Alan Stone, of the United +States Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.) These mosquitoes and +black flies were presumably the species attacking the Caribou in the +Nueltin Lake region. + +The effects of the two parasitic flies are felt nearly throughout the +year. The adult warble fly (_Oedemagena tarandi_) is seen in the Windy +River area in August, when the Caribou are on their southward march. On +August 22 Fred Schweder, Jr., secured three of them on freshly killed +Caribou and another that alighted on himself--all on an island in Windy +Bay. His name for them is “deer fly.” He reported seeing about 50 of +them on this day (more than ever before), although he sighted only 10 +Caribou. As he remarked, these fuzzy flies look much like bumblebees. +Three days later, along Little River, something buzzed past me while a +band of Caribou were near. It was probably this species, although it +suggested a hummingbird almost as much as a bumblebee. On several +subsequent August days, while numbers of Caribou were passing very close +to me, I detected no more of the warble flies. In general, they might +well have escaped my notice owing to my preoccupation with photography; +but on August 30, when I looked for them on one of the nearest animals, +I saw none. Evidently they are not sufficiently numerous (like +horse-flies on cattle) to be constantly in attendance on each Caribou. +In fact, a comparative scarcity (or at least difficulty of capture) may +be surmised from the fact that the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913-18 +brought back only three adult females--one from Teller, Alaska, and two +from Bernard Harbour, Dolphin and Union Strait (Malloch, 1919: 55). +Weber (1950) collected no Oestridae in Arctic Alaska. + +Apparently there has been scarcely any published study of the egg-laying +or other habits of the adult _Oedemagena_ in relation to _Rangifer +arcticus arcticus_, other than a few recent notes by Banfield (1951a: +31-32, fig. 17); but its behavior in relation to the Lapland Reindeer +seems to be fairly well known, and it is summarized by Jacobi (1931: +245-246). In the case of the Reindeer, the fly’s eggs are laid (during +the summer) generally on the legs, belly, and tail region of the victim; +the larvae, on hatching, bore through the skin, travel widely through +the body, and finally (in the autumn) reach the place for further +development--beneath the skin of the back on both sides of the vertebral +column. Each one makes a breathing-hole through the skin, and uses this +as an exit when leaving the host in the following June. Only the younger +animals, from one to about four or five years old, are heavily infested; +those still older are spared, possibly having learned to guard +themselves better against the fly. Curiously enough, the fawns are said +to escape this parasitism entirely. + +My own observations on the larvae were restricted to a few Caribou +specimens in June and in the autumn. As with the Reindeer, the Caribou +fawns in their first autumn showed no visible infestation, as I noted in +looking over some fresh hides on September 10, and as was noted again in +a fawn of September 26. Fred Schweder, Jr., made the remark that larvae +would be evident in the fawns by the following spring; this may indicate +that the larvae have not, in the autumn, completed their journey to +their final position on the Caribou’s back. I learned of no immunity on +the part of old adults. + +Fullgrown larvae still remained in bucks secured on June 3 (fig. 17) and +18. According to Charles Schweder, they drop out in June. In the buck of +June 3 there were perhaps several dozen warbles, each surrounded by a +mass of repulsive tissue; in another buck of June 18, there were +apparently more than 75. “It may be assumed,” says Johansen (1921: 24), +“that the pupae lie on the ground for about a month before the flies +appear.” He found (1921: 29) the adult flies abroad at Dolphin and Union +Strait by July 14. + +In a buck of August 17 the new warbles (or perhaps merely warble scars +from the previous June--_cf._ Banfield, 1951a: 32) on the inside of +the skin were not very numerous. Some were medium-sized, but most were +so small that it was not deemed necessary to scrape them off; they had +comparatively little fatty tissue about them and were merely allowed to +dry up. The number of warbles (or warble scars) found in autumn +specimens varied considerably, up to a maximum of roughly 200. They were +situated mostly along the mid-dorsum, and more on the lower back or rump +than farther forward. The number appeared to be approximately 130 in the +skin of an adult doe that was nailed to the log wall of a cabin for +drying on September 15 (fig. 18). A doe of September 21 seemed to have +less than the usual number of warbles. + +The nostril fly (_Cephenemyia_) is another serious dipterous parasite of +the Caribou. The life history of the European _C. nasalis_ (L.) (or +_C. trompe_ [L.]) and its effect on Reindeer are discussed by Bergman +(1917), Natvig (1918), and Jacobi (1931: 245) as follows. + +This fly attacks the host from June to September, depositing its +viviparous larvae in the nostrils. The Reindeer attempts to fend off the +fly, striking at it with its hoofs and keeping its nostrils closed as +far as possible. Once deposited, the lively larvae crawl into the inner +nasal passages and as far as the larynx, where they fasten themselves +and live on the mucus. A Reindeer may harbor as many as 130 of these +parasites. They range from 6 to 26 mm. in length. Their particular +growth begins at the end of March, and they are ready for pupation up to +May. The host assists their exit by continual sneezing and snuffling. In +the last stages they are a great affliction for the host, and they +sometimes cause its death. Pupation takes place in or on the ground, +under some sort of cover, and it lasts for 15-19 days. The flies have +been found emerging from July 12 to 31. + +The corresponding parasite of the Barren Ground Caribou is a similar or +perhaps identical species, with a parallel life history. Its chief +activity as an adult doubtless occurs in July and August. A number of +the mature larvae were found in the throat of the buck of June 3; two of +them that were preserved measure approximately 7 mm. in diameter and 27 +and 30 mm. in length. A large mass of such sizable parasites in the +throat might easily become a serious obstacle to comfortable living or +even to survival on the part of the host. Presumably the larvae drop to +the ground at about the same period as those of _Oedemagena_. Fred +Schweder, Jr., remarked concerning the buck of August 17 that these +larvae are never found at that season, and Charles Schweder made the +same remark concerning a doe specimen of September 21. It would appear +either that they remain so small as to escape detection at this time or +that they do not reach the throat on their short journey from the +nostrils until some later period of the year. Johansen (1921: 24) +records larvae only 2-3 mm. long in the nasal passage at the end of May. + +Since the bulk of the Caribou population has passed well to the +northward of the Nueltin Lake region by the time the larvae of +_Oedemagena_ and _Cephenemyia_ drop out of the bodies of their hosts to +pupate briefly on or in the ground (say in the latter part of June), one +is tempted to speculate on the possibility that the adult flies found +here in August may have followed their prospective victims for many +miles in their southward migration. However, Porsild remarks (1943: 386) +that they “apparently do not travel very far.” + +Certain kinds of behavior exhibited by the Caribou in attempting to fend +off the parasitic flies are discussed in the section on _Shaking off +moisture and insects_. + +The adults of _Oedemagena tarandi_ (L.) were determined by Mr. C. W. +Sabrosky, of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine; and the +larvae of _Oedemagena_ and _Cephenemyia_ by Dr. W. W. Wirth, of the same +bureau. The larvae of the latter genus are regarded as probably _C. +trompe_ (L.); they were new to the collection of the United States +National Museum. + + _References._--Hearne, 1795: 197; Franklin, 1823: 241; + Richardson, “1825”: 328-330, and 1829: 242; Godman, 1831, +2+: + 284; Murray, 1858: 210; B. R. Ross, 1861: 438; Pike, 1917 + (1892): 58-59; J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128, and 1894: 442; Whitney, + 1896: 239; Russell, 1898: 228-229; Jones, 1899: 411; Hanbury, + 1900: 67, and 1904: 32, 137, 194; Preble, 1902: 41; R. M. + Anderson, 1913b: 504; Stefánsson, 1913b: 204, 212-213, 333; + Douglas, 1914: 191-192; Malloch, 1919: 55-56; Hewitt, 1921: 67; + Johansen, 1921: 22-24, 29, 35, 37; Stefánsson, 1921: 247; + Blanchet, 1925: 32, and 1926b: 47; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 56, + 133; Seton, 1929, +3+: 109-111; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193; + Hoare, 1930: 33, 37-38; Kitto, 1930: 89; Jacobi, 1931: 244-245; + Munn, 1932: 58; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 84-86; Birket-Smith, + 1933: 90, 92; Ingstad, 1933: 48, 135; Hornby, 1934: 105; Soper, + 1936: 429; Henriksen, 1937: 25, 26; Hamilton, 1939: 247, 301; + Murie, 1939: 245; Clarke, 1940: 70, 95; Downes, 1943: 226, 255; + Manning, 1943a: 53; Porsild, 1943: 386; Gavin, 1945: 228; + Harper, 1949: 228; Banfield, 1951a: 31-33; Barnett, 1954: 104. + + +_Ectoparasites_ + +It was in vain that I searched a number of fresh specimens for lice, +mites, fleas, or ticks. The Schweder boys spoke of never having noticed +any such parasites. Seton (1929) mentions none, and Jacobi (1931: 243) +records only a louse (_Linognathus tarandi_) from the Reindeer. “Lice +are not known from caribou according to Ferris (in conversation)” +(Weber, 1950: 154). + + +_Relations to Reindeer_ + +Recent discussions of the possibility or advisability of introducing +domesticated Reindeer to replace, or to augment the diminishing supply +of, native American Caribou in various new localities prompt a brief +review of the subject. + +It may be remarked at the outset that acclimatization attempts in the +Old World have generally been abortive. Wild Reindeer introduced from +Finmark into Iceland in the eighteenth century flourished for a time, +but by 1917 they were almost exterminated. A number of different +introductions into Great Britain, Denmark, Germany, Austria, +Switzerland, and Italy came to naught. On the other hand, the +introduction of Lapland Reindeer on the subantarctic island of South +Georgia in 1908 seems to have turned out successfully. (Jacobi, 1931: +158-165; Harper, 1945: 473-474.) A saving feature in each of the +above-mentioned cases was the absence of any native Reindeer whose +racial purity might have been destroyed by the newcomers. + +Decrease of local American stocks of Caribou, and consequent suffering +of native populations who had in past generations depended upon these +animals for a major portion of their food supply, have led to +introduction of foreign Reindeer in several regions of North America, +from Newfoundland and Labrador in the east to Alaska in the west. The +persons responsible were doubtless inspired by high humanitarian +motives; but it is doubtful if they could have thoroughly considered or +foreseen the serious biological consequences of their efforts. + +In Alaska, importation of domesticated Siberian Reindeer began in 1892. +By the 1930’s the herds had increased to an estimated total of 600,000. +For various reasons, however, the industry has so far declined that by +1949 the total number of Alaskan Reindeer had become reduced to about +28,000 head. Disinclination of Eskimos for reindeer-herding and mixture +of their stock with wild Caribou were important reasons for this +decline. (Lantis, 1950.) From the biologist’s point of view, the most +unfortunate result was the large-scale interbreeding with the native +Grant’s Caribou (_Rangifer arcticus granti_) and the progressive +extermination of that fine animal in a pure form by dilution with +inferior alien blood. Among Alaskan Reindeer, “constant inbreeding has +led to a noticeable reduction in the prolificness of the females, and +degeneration is to be observed in many herds” (Hewitt, 1921: 323). + +In 1908 Dr. Wilfred T. Grenfell brought 300 Lapland Reindeer to +Newfoundland. After some years they were transferred to the north shore +of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and finally to the island of Anticosti. +(Hewitt, 1921: 324-328; Seton, 1929, +3+: 92.) In 1911, 50 of these +Reindeer were shipped from Newfoundland to the Slave River region. Most +of them escaped (probably to contaminate the local stock of Caribou), +and by 1916 the last survivor of this band in captivity had succumbed +(Hewitt, 1921: 329-330). + +“A large part of the reindeer in Alaska are south of the Arctic Circle +on the comparatively mild shores of Bering Sea, where there are several +months of open tidewater navigation; vegetation is more luxuriant [than +in Arctic Canada] and conditions easier in general. There the reindeer +were introduced into a country where the wild caribou had been virtually +exterminated, and a large native population were anxious to take up a +new mode of support. The percentage of profits has appeared unduly large +in Alaska because statisticians have been unable to take into account +the value of the services of a large body of devoted missionaries, +government teachers, and other unselfish persons who put their best +efforts into years of unpaid extra work to make the reindeer successful +and beneficial to their charges. + +“Canada has a large area of Arctic and sub-arctic lands beyond the reach +of possible cultivation, still occupied by large numbers of wild caribou +and remnants of musk-oxen, with native inhabitants who derive a living +from them and add to the national wealth by fur production. These +Indians and Eskimos are still far from being either able or willing to +enter upon a pastoral stage of existence, and moreover, they are now +enjoying an era of prosperity from the fur industry which may be +temporary, but which they will not relinquish for the slower and less +profitable prospects of the herder.” (R. M. Anderson, 1924: 330-331.) + +In 1921 some Norwegian Reindeer were landed at Amadjuak, Baffin Island +(Seton, 1929, +3+: 92). The lack of further reference to the Baffin +Island animals by such subsequent investigators as Manning and Soper +would seem to indicate that the reindeer have not survived, unless +through mixture with the native Caribou. An attempt in 1922 at +acclimatization in Michigan “ended in total failure” (Seton, 1929, +3+: +93). + +“The Barren Grounds . . . still feed enormous herds of caribou. . . . +The greatest danger to this industry [reindeer-raising] is just these +wild herds, which would be very apt to absorb the tame animals. This +problem may perhaps become a fatal one to the Eskimos, for there might +very easily come a most difficult transitional period, when the caribou +would be too few in numbers to form a definite basis for the existence +of the people, but on the other hand numerous enough to make reindeer +breeding difficult.” (Birket-Smith, 1933: 121.) + +In northwestern Alaska “large numbers of reindeer are constantly +escaping the herders and joining the wild caribou. It seems that it will +be but a short time until there will be no pure bred caribou along that +part of the coast. . . . As the reindeer are protected, and the caribou +are killed at every opportunity, the former will doubtless prove the +dominant animal and in time overcome the caribou, with hybridization the +inevitable result.” (Bailey and Hendee, 1926: 22.) + +“The caribou’s greatest menace is not the wolf, nor the hunter, but +man’s economic developments, principally the raising of reindeer. +Wherever reindeer herds are introduced, caribou must of course +disappear, for both cannot occupy the same range. The disappearance of +the caribou along the Bering Sea and Arctic coasts, while regrettable, +was unavoidable in view of the development of reindeer herding in this +section, which is ideal for the purpose. . . . + +“The mingling of reindeer with the main caribou herds should be avoided. +Reindeer herds maintained in close contact with migrating caribou suffer +frequent losses through strays. Already the domestic reindeer are +mingling with the caribou herd of Mount McKinley National Park. . . . +[Hybridization] would be regrettable in interior Alaska, which has +produced a splendid type of wild caribou, coming near at least to being +the largest on the continent.” (Murie, 1935: 7.) + +Murie’s extensive experience with these animals in Alaska has led him to +remark further (1939: 245): + +“The greatest hazard to the Caribou is the possible occupation of the +range by man’s agricultural activities. . . . The most serious danger is +introduction of domesticated Reindeer on wild Caribou range, for the +wild herds must be removed in order to make possible the safe herding of +the domestic animals. . . . There is not room for both of these animals +on the same or closely adjacent ranges.” + +Porsild points out (1943: 386, 389) that sparsely covered grazing areas +are suitable for Caribou but not for Reindeer; and that the former +disappear before expanding Reindeer culture. + +“Perhaps the worst threat of all to the caribou has been the +introduction of reindeer culture along the arctic coast. This has +resulted in interbreeding between the wild caribou and their inferior +domesticated relatives. When and if this mixture extends to all the +herds of the Barren Grounds, the caribou may be written off the record +as a pure species; the animal will have become extinct through dilution, +as the biologists express it.” (Harper, 1949: 239.) + +The American Society of Mammalogists, at its annual meeting in 1950, +passed the following resolution (_Jour. Mammalogy_ +31+ (4): 483, 1950): + +“That the American Society of Mammalogists urges that the Canadian +Government not undertake the introduction of reindeer into Ungava. +Before any introduction even is seriously considered, those persons +involved in any planning are urged to make a thorough study beforehand +of the problems of integrating lichen ecology, reindeer biology, and +native culture--serious problems that have not been solved to date on +any workable scale on the North American continent. It would be +particularly deplorable if an introduction, to aid the natives, led to +early successes and high hopes, then eventual failure.” + +Porsild, who knows the Reindeer thoroughly at first hand, has made +(1951: 53) the following observation: + +“Thus far these experiments [at introduction into America] have met with +only partial or indifferent success, because reindeer nomadism is +incompatible with present trends of cultural development and because the +North American Arctic is too thinly populated to provide a ready market +for reindeer products.” + +Referring to the region of the Brooks Range in northern Alaska, Rausch +says (1951: 190): + +“The mixture of inferior reindeer bloodlines with the native caribou is +serious. This has already occurred to a considerable degree, and it is +hoped that proper control will be exercised if the reindeer industry is +revived in Alaska. Ear-notched animals have been killed in the Anaktuvuk +Pass country, and white reindeer have been seen running with the +caribou. The number of unrecognized reindeer passing through could be +great.” + +At present the Barren Ground Caribou is apparently the third most +abundant member of the deer family on our continent, being exceeded by +the White-tailed Deer and the Mule Deer (_cf._ Jackson, 1944: 7-8). No +other member of this family could be expected to be so eminently and +thoroughly adapted to its Arctic environment or to thrive so well on the +very ground where nature has been molding and perfecting its characters +for thousands of years. No naturally occurring relative--Moose, Deer, or +Woodland Caribou--undertakes to compete with it on its own particular +range. It requires practically nothing for the maintenance--and +increase--of its present numbers, other than an enlightened policy of +conservation. (As indicated on a previous page, the feminine wearers of +Arctic Fox furs must bear a heavy share of responsibility for the +decline of the Barren Ground Caribou in recent decades.) Our highest +authorities have pointed out the impracticability of Caribou and +Reindeer occupying the same range. + +Would it not be the part of wisdom to exclude the inferior domesticated +alien, with its difficult and generally unsuccessful culture in North +America, and thereby to give the wonderful wild Caribou of the Barrens +its best chance for survival? + + _References._--Chambers, 1914: 350-351; Hornaday, 1914, +2+: + 105-108; Hewitt, 1921: 323, 329-330; R. M. Anderson, 1924: 330; + Kindle, 1928: 74; Seton, 1929, +3+: 92-93; Blanchet, 1930: + 53-54; Birket-Smith, 1933: 121; Godsell, 1934: 276; Murie, + 1935: 7, 1939: 245-246, and 1941: 435; Porsild, 1943: 386, 389; + Rousseau, 1948: 96; Harper, 1949: 239; Polunin, 1949: 24; + Lantis, 1950; Hustich, 1951; Porsild, 1951: 53; Rausch, 1951: + 190; Scheffer, 1951. + + + + +NUMERICAL STATUS + + +There seems to be a general impression, among those who have known the +Barren Ground Caribou at first hand for a considerable period, that the +population has been reduced by something like a half during the past +generation. “Recent preliminary aerial survey has indicated that their +numbers, although less than the previous estimates of 3,000,000 (R. M. +Anderson, 1938; Clarke, 1940), which were based upon the carrying +capacity of the Arctic tundra, are probably comparable to their +primitive numbers in the central portions of the range” (Banfield, 1949: +478). A definite reduction is indicated along the Arctic coast and on +the Arctic islands (R. M. Anderson, 1937: 103, and 1938: 400; Banfield, +1949: 478, 481, and 1951a: 13-14). While large numbers still remain in +southwestern Keewatin, there are no reports of any such mass occurrence +as was witnessed by the Tyrrell brothers on the upper Dubawnt River on +July 29, 1893; that throng was estimated at 100,000 to 200,000 animals +(J. B. Tyrrell, 1897: 165). + +During the big movement of the last week of August, 1947, I may have +seen as many as 500 Caribou on one or two days, in herds numbering up to +150 individuals. A striking proportion of those observed seemed to occur +in bands of roughly 25 animals. On August 25 Fred Schweder, Jr., +reported about a thousand crossing Little River, in bands of as many as +100 individuals. On October 11 Charles Schweder observed a thousand +Caribou resting on a hill 3 miles long in the vicinity of Four-hill +Creek. In November he found thousands, in herds up to 300 strong, moving +south from the upper Kazan River. These figures may give a faintly +approximate idea of the numbers occurring in the general region of +Nueltin Lake in a year considered less good than an average one. On the +other hand, toward the coast of Hudson Bay, there were reports of a +greater number of autumn migrants than in ordinary years. + +In October, about 1944, tracks indicated that 2,000 or 3,000 animals had +crossed Windy River in the vicinity of Four-hill Creek in the night +(_fide_ Charles Schweder). About October 10, 1946 (a year of unusual +abundance), Fred Schweder, Jr., witnessed the passage of thousands in +one day in this vicinity; he got the impression of “the hills moving +with Deer.” (Yet this was the season when the Caribou passed mainly to +one side of the upper Kazan River, so that nearly one-third of the local +band of Eskimos starved to death.) In the first part of May, about 1942 +or 1943, John Ingebrigtsen came to a nameless lake, about half a mile by +a mile and a half in extent, somewhere east of Duck Lake, Manitoba. It +appeared “absolutely full of Caribou,” and he estimated their number at +not less than 20,000. This would mean a density of no more than about 50 +per acre. + + _References._--Jones, 1899: 368, 374; J. B. Tyrrell, 1894: 442, + and 1897: 10, 49-50, 165; Whitney, 1896: 240; Seton, 1911: 220, + 258-260; R. M. Anderson, 1913b: 502; Hornaday, 1914, +2+: + 225-226; Nelson, 1916: 460; Thompson, 1916: 100-101; Kindle, + 1917: 108-109; Buchanan, 1920: 130-131; Hewitt, 1921: 56, 64-66; + Stefánsson, 1921: 255; R. M. Anderson, 1924: 329; Blanchet, + 1926b: 48, and 1930: 52; Kindle, 1928: 72-73; Seton, 1929, + +3+: 131-134; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 159-160; R. M. Anderson, + in Hoare, 1930: 52-53; Kitto, 1930: 87; Jacobi, 1931: 201-202; + Munn, 1932: 58; Birket-Smith, 1933: 89; Ingstad, 1933: 160; + R. M. Anderson, 1938: 400; Clarke, 1940: 65, 84-91, 101-104; + Downes, 1943: 258-260; Wright, 1944: 185-188, 191, 193; Yule, + 1948: 287-288; Banfield, 1949: 478, 481, and 1951a: 9, 13-14; + Harper, 1949: 231, 239; Anonymous, 1952: 261; Barnett, 1954: 96. + + + + +GENERAL HABITS + + +_Daily periods of activity and rest_ + +According to Charles Schweder, the Caribou do not move about much at +night; that seems to be their principal time for sleep. They exhibit a +definite tendency to pause and rest also toward the middle of the day. +Several instances have already been given of the animals resting at such +a time on frozen lakes and rivers: lakes southwest of Reindeer Lake, +March 18; lakes south of Lake Athabaska, April 16; Seal River, May 31; +Windy Bay, June 6 (mid-morning). Open hilltops are evidently sought +likewise for both nocturnal and mid-day rests: knoll by Windy River, +June 3; Josie’s Hill, June 20; ridge by Little River, August 24 (about 9 +a.m.). (For details, see sections on _Winter range_, _Spring migration_, +and _Fall migration_.) + +Although we noted a small band of Caribou passing through a thick and +extensive stand of spruce at dusk on October 2, Fred Schweder, Jr., +remarked that they do not rest in such a place; they are safer from +Wolves in open areas. Charles Schweder reported about 50 Caribou, in +three slightly separated bands, appearing on the south side of Windy +River near Four-hill Creek during the evening of September 24, but not +making up their minds to cross; he thought they might have been scared +by Wolves. Possibly there was a similar explanation for the crossing of +the river at this point by large numbers of the animals during an +October night several years previously. + +According to Fred Schweder, Jr., a day’s movement of Caribou past the +mouths of Little and Windy rivers during the fall migration generally +does not commence before 10 a.m. and ends about 3 p.m. The explanation +of such a phenomenon is none too obvious; and in any event, there were +exceptions enough, though the general statement may hold true for the +bulk of the migrants. As remarked in the section on _Spring migration_, +the daily periods when the Caribou crossed the ice of Windy Bay were +mainly from 10 to 11 a.m., from 2:30 to 5 p.m., and in the evening. + +On August 27, about 5:50 p.m., a majority (say half a dozen) of a small +band of Caribou were lying down on a slope near the mouth of Little +River. They faced down wind to watch for enemies in that direction, +while their noses would warn them of any approaching from the opposite +direction. Their attitude was very much like that of Norway Reindeer +figured by Seton (1929, +3+: pls. 11, 15, 18). + +Charles Schweder spoke of having seen whole herds lying down to rest, +while none of the animals remained standing up on guard. He had noted +one such herd of 600 or 700 along the Thlewiaza River in August. He +further stated that when the Caribou lie down to rest and to chew the +cud, they hold the head up. They may also sleep in this position. In the +hard winter of 1944-45, when the snow was deep and the animals were +tired and hungry, he came up to a resting herd. All but one of them got +up and moved away. That one remained sleeping, head up and eyes closed; +Charles walked up to within 10 feet and shot it. He has also seen +resting Caribou lay their heads down on the side, but only for a few +moments at a time. + + _References._--J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 129; Jones, 1899: 359; + Harper, 1949: 227; Banfield, 1951a: 23. + + +_Organization of herds_ + +The Barren Ground Caribou is a distinctly gregarious species. It goes in +herds for at least the greater part of the year; this is especially true +of the spring and autumn migration periods and of the winter months. We +know comparatively little of the behavior of the does at fawning time in +June; but probably there is a tendency toward solitariness on their part +at that season. It is true that solitary Caribou may be met with at +almost any season of the year; but this doubtless represents merely +temporary rather than permanent segregation of such individuals. At the +very end of the spring migration and at the beginning of the autumn +migration, there may be, among the sparse southernmost elements of the +population, a larger proportion of solitary animals. + +While marching over the Barrens and feeding as they go, the smaller +bands maintain a fairly loose organization, as apparently best suiting +their needs. On the other hand, the huge herds of former times, such as +the Tyrrells met on the upper Dubawnt in 1893 (J. B. Tyrrell, 1897: +49-50, pl. 1; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908: pls. facing pp. 80, 81; Seton, 1929, ++3+: pl. 22), obviously maintained very compact ranks. In my limited +experience, the animals bunched more closely in crossing the rivers than +was normally the case on land among feeding herds. While swimming, they +would follow each other in files at minimum intervals; but in stepping +across rapids they might extend these intervals somewhat. + +When merely covering ground, without stopping to feed, or when following +a trail through brush or along a narrow ridge, there is a strong +tendency for the animals to go in a single file, or at least in a +procession many times longer than wide. This was also apparent when they +were crossing the ice of Windy Bay in June. + +When Caribou flee from some source of alarm, a distinct tendency toward +compact bunching may be observed. This may have been developed as a +measure of protection from pursuing Wolves; the latter could naturally +overcome a straggling or isolated individual more readily than one in a +compact herd. The Caribou running away from the train in the “Little +Barrens” south of Churchill very clearly demonstrated the tendency +toward a close formation. (See also, in the section on _Disposition_, +the account of a herd attacked by a hunter near Lake Charles.) + +The larger herds of the autumn migration seemed to be generally composed +of all sexes and ages; yet some sizable bands were made up chiefly of +bucks on the one hand, or of does and fawns on the other hand. The rear +guard of the spring migration and the vanguard of the autumn migration +are generally composed of bucks, traveling either singly or in small +bands; this state of affairs is looked upon as evidence that the +majority of the bucks do not advance so far to the north in June and +July as the does do. + +The following are a few examples of the composition and leadership (or +rear-guarding) of groups of Caribou. (Other examples are mentioned in +the sections on _Migration_.) A band of about 20, after feeding for a +time on the south bank of Windy River on June 16, moved off upstream, +mostly in single file, with a patriarchal buck in the lead. The +remainder of the band included several lesser bucks and various does and +yearlings. On the following day a band of equal size, composed chiefly +of bucks but including three hornless individuals (does?), was led by +two of the bigger bucks. When a band of some 40 does and fawns +approached Little River to cross it on August 25, a doe came first to +the water’s edge to make a careful inspection. On the same day I +remarked having noted several times that a buck brought up the rear of a +band. On August 26 I noted that a distinct majority in the herds of the +previous two or three days were does and fawns, although there were +generally a few bucks present also. At this period I got the impression +that the number of individuals in a band was frequently not far from 25. +On August 28, when a band of 40 crossed the mouth of Little River, three +or four bucks plunged in first, but a doe was almost even with them. At +the Bear Slough, on September 3, a group consisted of two bucks, two +does, and a fawn. On September 15 Fred Schweder, Jr., reported seeing +about 100 Caribou, with not a buck among them. On September 24 about 15 +does and fawns were resting or feeding quietly by Glacier Pond. On +September 28 a band of six large bucks crossed the Camp Ridge. On +October 1, an older and a younger buck appeared in the shoal waters of +Duck Bay. On November 3, in the same locality, a band of about 50 was +composed largely of does, but included a few fawns and a few +well-antlered bucks. On November 11 five does were reported crossing the +mouth of Windy River on the ice. + +Charles Schweder remarked that the leader of a band is generally a doe; +but sometimes it is a buck, or even a fawn. There is virtually no way of +telling whether the same doe habitually leads a band. In the big migrant +herds, bucks bring up the rear. Once in September, in a herd of about +100 animals, the front half was composed of does and fawns, the rear +half of bucks. In the rutting season the does are naturally in the lead, +the bucks following them. + + _References._--Hearne, 1795: 198; Richardson, “1825”: 329; + Simpson, 1843: 277, 281, 381; J. Anderson, 1856: 24, and 1857: + 324; Schwatka, 1885: 83; Pike, 1917 (1892): 49, 174, 204, 209; + Dowling, 1893: 107; Stone and Cram, 1904: 52; Blanchet, 1925: + 32-33, and 1926b: 48; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 192-196; Hoare, + 1930: 13, 33, 37; Kitto, 1930: 88; Mallet, 1930: 20-23; Jacobi, + 1931: 190, 203-204; Hornby, 1934: 106; Birket-Smith, 1936: 112; + Hamilton, 1939: 247; Clarke, 1940: 95; Downes, 1943: 256; + Manning, 1943a: 52; Harper, 1949: 228, 229; Banfield, 1951a: + 23-26. + + +_Disposition_ + +The Barren Ground Caribou comes close to holding the palm for unwariness +among the larger land mammals of North America. It is fortunate that its +range lies so far from the centers of civilization. It is scarcely +conceivable that it could survive, as the White-tailed Deer does, in +some of our most thickly settled areas. At the river crossings, where I +watched the pageant of migration for day after day, some of the animals +would come up to within a rod while I handled my cameras in the open, +with no more cover than knee-high bushes and rocks (figs. 11, 14). Where +else, among the larger creatures of the wilderness, could one find such +a close approximation to a Garden-of-Eden existence? Until they detected +the human scent, they would stare at me at such close quarters with +little more concern than so many barnyard cattle. (For examples, see the +section on _Fall migration_.) Moreover, there were occasions when they +must have gotten my wind and still did not show panic. There is an +obvious deficiency of eyesight or judgment, or both. + +To account for their behavior on such occasions, I speculated as +follows. The species has scarcely any predatory enemies save man, the +Wolf, and (perhaps to some extent) the Wolverine. In their normal +experience, any such enemy, if within close range, would be making an +attack. Thus a questionable figure, not becoming evident to them until +they are within close range, and then making no motion to attack, may be +dismissed by them as something different and therefore harmless. + +The attitude of unconcern has probably been developed in past +generations through the habit of the Caribou of traveling in vast +throngs. The threat of danger to a given individual in a herd of, say, +100,000 is practically negligible. From time immemorial the river +crossings have represented a particular point of attack on the part of +the natives. Yet when a large band of Caribou come to such a crossing, +they may plunge in with little pause or hesitation. On the other hand, +when a lone doe with her fawn approaches the river bank, she may be very +circumspect, taking time to look carefully upstream and down, and +across, before venturing into the water. I also saw another doe with a +fawn exercise similar precaution, when she was merely the first of a +band of 40 to reach the river’s edge. It is probably concern for her +fawn that renders a doe more circumspect than a buck. + +When Fred Schweder, Jr., was endeavoring to intercept a Wolf on +September 6, a fullgrown buck came feeding around a tree within 10 feet +of him. The animal winded Fred without apparently seeing him, and went +back and forth uncertainly for about a minute; finally it moved off very +slowly. + +Stefánsson’s account (1913b) of his various adventures with Caribou +near the Arctic coast of Mackenzie indicates a far wilder animal in that +region than the one in Keewatin. It appeared a great deal easier for me, +with no particular effort at caution, to get within photographic range +(say a dozen feet to 50 yards) than for him to approach within rifle +range (several hundred yards). + +Even after being fired upon, a single animal or a band in the Nueltin +Lake region will rarely put distance between themselves and a hunter +with all possible dispatch, as an alert White-tailed Deer would, but +will run hither and thither in confusion, with frequent pauses to +display their befuddlement. On October 8 I was a distant and saddened +spectator of a scene of slaughter. A hundred or more Caribou were +resting or feeding quietly on a bare ridge south of Lake Charles. They +were distributed in a narrow formation, 75-100 yards long and from one +to several animals deep. A hunter, approaching close to the south end of +the herd, began firing. With one accord they made toward the north, but +very shortly executed a sharp turn and came back rapidly in the opposite +direction, passing in a narrow, compact column within 30 feet of the +hunter, who continued shooting. In 200 or 300 yards they paused and +allowed the hunter to come up with them and resume shooting. The process +was repeated over a distance of three miles; but the pursuer now and +then circled ahead of the herd instead of following in its tracks. The +final toll: 29 Caribou hit and 22 or 23 secured--virtually a quarter of +the herd destroyed and most of it to be used for dog feed. + +It is said that the attachment between a doe and its fawn is such that +when one of them is killed, the hunter can approach within 50 feet of +the surviving doe or within 20 feet of the surviving fawn. A fawn is apt +to linger for days in the vicinity where its dam has been killed. + +Charles Schweder has never seen fawns playing with each other or with +their mothers; two or three times he has seen one frisking by +itself--such as jumping about or running in a circle--but never for more +than half a minute at a time. Seriousness of life for a Caribou seems +confirmed from its infancy. + +In the hard winter of 1944-45, when the Caribou were tired and hungry, +Charles had the rare experience of driving his dogteam right through +herds on Nueltin Lake; the animals merely moved aside enough to let him +pass. In like vein Joe Chambers spoke of encountering such numbers of +migrating Caribou on or near the “Little Barrens” south of Churchill in +the spring of 1947 that his dogs “went wild” and he had to halt for a +time; the animals came within about 100 yards of his team. + +A Caribou bold enough to attack a man is very rarely heard of. Yet that +was the experience of 15-year-old Anoteelik on September 8. Having run +out of ammunition, he undertook to kill a 2-year-old buck with a rock in +a patch of timber. (Possibly the animal had already been wounded with +Anoteelik’s .22 rifle.) When the missile failed of its mark, the buck +made for the boy, who escaped by climbing a tree. Perhaps this is the +first case on record of a man or a boy (especially an Eskimo!) being +treed by a Barren Ground Caribou. Jenness mentions (1922: 150) a case of +an Eskimo being fatally gored by a Caribou on Victoria Island. +Otherwise, under all general circumstances, and in contradistinction to +the Bison, the Muskox, the Moose, and even the White-tailed Deer, the +Caribou may be regarded as quite innocuous to man. + +The restlessness so frequently exhibited by Caribou during the summer, +in trotting rapidly over the Barrens or in feeding hurriedly here and +there while constantly forging ahead (in contrast to the placidity of +grazing sheep and cattle), may be attributed in large part to the +relentless scourge of fly pests. + +(See also _Relations to man_.) + + _References._--Lyon, 1824: 336-337; J. McLean, 1932 (1849): 359; + Simpson, 1843: 207; Armstrong, 1857: 478-479, 481-482; Gilder, + 1881: 78; Schwatka, 1885: 85; Pike, 1917 (1892): 51-52, 90; + Whitney, 1896: 242; Hanbury, 1904: 85; Amundsen, 1908, +1+: 103; + Stefánsson, 1913b: 278, and 1921: 251; Hornaday, 1914, +2+: + 104; Jenness, 1922: 150; Blanchet, 1925: 34; Birket-Smith, 1929 + (1): 106; Seton, 1929, +3+: 105-107; Jacobi, 1931: 219, 220; + Ingstad, 1933: 88, 293, 297; Downes, 1943: 236-237; Porsild, + 1943: 389; Harper, 1949: 229-230; Banfield, 1951a: 22. + + +_Senses_ + +There is fairly general agreement on the Caribou’s keen sense of smell, +good hearing, and less well-developed vision. But perhaps the +last-mentioned attribute does not so much constitute poor eyesight as +lack of _perception_ or _recognition_. In other words, is it not +possible that the animal is merely deficient in interpreting what it may +see clearly enough? + + _References._--R. M. Anderson, 1913a: 8, and 1913b: 504; + Stefánsson, 1913b: 164, 1914: 58, and 1921: 307; Blanchet, + 1925: 34, and 1926b: 48; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 106; Seton, + 1929, +3+: 104; Murie, 1939: 245; Banfield, 1951a: 22. + + +_Gaits_ + +The three principal gaits of the Caribou are walking, trotting, and +loping. The animal seems to be in such a constant hurry that trotting is +fairly habitual. The speed of this gait varies with the urgency of the +occasion; also, according to Stefánsson (1921: 248), with sex and age. +When frightened by an enemy, a Caribou may start off with a loping gait, +but it soon settles down to its space-consuming trot, which keeps it +safely ahead of a Wolf in any brief chase. The initial leap takes all +four feet off the ground at once (_cf._ Buchanan, 1920: 126). According +to Charles Schweder, it is usually a single animal that reacts in this +way; but he has seen as many as six together leaping into the air. Fred +Schweder, Jr., has seen both bucks and does in this performance. My own +observations covered two lone adults (at least one a buck) and a lone +fawn. One of the former turned and took a step or so before making the +leap. The fawn (at Simons’ Lake in October), after allowing a canoe to +approach within 100 feet, started off twice in succession, and each time +with an initial leap into the air before settling down to a trot. + +Even a summer fawn is reputed to be able to outdistance a Wolf. Lyon +(1824: 67) found a Caribou too fleet for a greyhound. + +In trotting rapidly, a Caribou points its snout pretty straight to the +front, thus tilting the antlers backward a little. This gait, with front +legs stretching well out in front and hind legs thrust backward +correspondingly, gives a very characteristic and distinctive stamp to +the appearance of a fast-trotting Caribou. (Compare the sketches of +trotting Norway Reindeer by Seton, 1929, +3+: pls. 15, 18.) It is +apparently quite different from any normal gait of the White-tailed +Deer. A buck’s well-grown antlers are of such weight as apparently to +force it to hold its head rather rigidly while going at speed. If its +head swayed appreciably, the top-heavy antlers might tend to throw the +animal off balance. In a trotting gait, the hind foot may be planted +just beyond the spot where the front foot had rested. In walking, the +print of the hind foot may be superimposed on that of the other (fig. +20). The white “spats” just above the hoofs show to fine advantage when +the Caribou trots; they fairly twinkle. In a retreating animal the white +rump-patch appears in marked contrast to the dark brown adjacent fur. + +In stepping across a shallow rapid in peaceful surroundings, the +rhythmic splashings of the water to the front and the sides of the +alternately descending hoofs make a scene of rare charm. In moving +through deeper water, where the bottom is rough, rocky, and slippery, +the animals may pick their way quite slowly. When alarmed near the +water’s edge from some such cause as detecting a human scent, they may +make great splashing leaps into a river or bay, fairly enveloping +themselves in huge clouds of spray. There can be few more spirited +scenes of animal life in the North. + +I have seen several of the animals running with open mouths, even when +they had gone no more than a quarter of a mile from a point of alarm. +Every now and then a Caribou will be seen limping--perhaps from wounds, +perhaps because of a leg sprained in rough terrain. + + _References._--Lyon, 1824: 67; Osborn, 1865: 227; Russell, 1895: + 50, and 1898: 90; Hanbury, 1904: 131; Nelson, 1916: 460; + Buchanan, 1920: 126; Stefánsson, 1921: 248; Blanchet, 1925: 33, + and 1926b: 47; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193; Sutton and + Hamilton, 1932: 83; Ingstad, 1933: 87; Murie, 1939: 245; Downes, + 1943: 236-237; Harper, 1949: 226, 229; Banfield, 1951a: 21. + + +_Tracks_ + +Caribou trails, resulting from the impact of countless hoofs on the same +restricted courses for unnumbered years, have been discussed in the +section on _Ecology_. The placing of the feet has been touched upon in +the section on _Gaits_. The individual tracks remain to be considered. + +Each of two foot-prints photographed in mud was approximately 4 inches +(102 mm.) long and 4½ inches (114 mm.) wide. Another such photograph +(fig. 19) shows tracks about 114 by 95 and 102 by 102 mm. The foot +sketched by Seton (1929, +3+: 129) is obviously a front foot, though not +so labeled; the hoofs as drawn are approximately 89 and 93 mm. in +length; the width of the foot is approximately 100 mm. + +A track (fig. 20) photographed in 2-inch snow represents a hind +foot-print superimposed upon a front foot-print in a walking gait; +including the marks of the dew claws, it was approximately 6 inches (153 +mm.) long and 5 inches (127 mm.) wide. The “square-toed” appearance is +very characteristic. + +A front hoof is a little broader as well as longer than a hind hoof +(fig. 24). The extreme and average lengths of the front hoofs in five of +my adult male specimens are 80-92 (85.2); of the hind hoofs, 74-84.5 +(79.8). In an adult doe a front hoof measures 77; a hind hoof, 72. + + _Reference._--Banfield, 1951a: 19. + + +_Swimming_ + +In their extensive and long-continued migrations over a territory +composed in large part of lakes, ponds, and rivers, the Caribou have +almost daily need, from June to October, of surmounting these barriers +by swimming. The low temperature of the water seems to have no deterring +effect on them. Yet it appears that some of the animals may fail in +attempting the passages of wide waters. Charles Schweder spoke of +finding a number of dead Caribou, including bucks as well as fawns, that +had apparently succumbed in crossing a 4-mile-wide lake on the Thlewiaza +River. (Or had they perhaps come to grief in some upstream rapid and +finally been washed ashore on the lake?) Bones on the shore indicated +that this sort of tragedy might be more or less of an annual occurrence. +Perhaps some of the victims had been wounded or were otherwise in poor +condition. + +The buoyant, hollow hairs of a Caribou’s coat enable the swimming animal +to keep almost the whole median dorsal line of its body perhaps 2 or 3 +inches above the surface (figs. 9, 12). In a doe noticed on August 28 +the lowest point on the top of the neck, just in front of the shoulders, +was practically level with the surface, but elsewhere the dorsal line, +from snout to tail, was out of the water. In both doe and fawn the head +is held so high that the lower side of the snout at the tip does not +touch the water; in the older bucks of the autumn, however, the weight +of their antlers presses the head down until the lower side of the snout +is frequently in contact with the water. The swimming position tilts the +antlers backward until the basal portion is practically horizontal +(figs. 9, 12). All ages and sexes, while swimming, hold the tail nearly +erect; but the very tip (perhaps only the tuft of hairs) inclines toward +the rear. + + [Illustration: FIG. 19. Caribou tracks in mud; one about 114 by 95 + mm.; another, 102 by 102 mm. Between Bear Slough and Eider Pond, + September 3, 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 20. Caribou track in 2-inch snow; hind foot + superimposed on track of front foot. Combined track about 153 by + 127 mm. Camp Ridge, October 29, 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 21. A Caribou doe (specimen No. 1101). Mouth + of Windy River, September 21, 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 22. A Caribou buck (specimen No. 1111). Mouth + of Windy River, September 29, 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 23. A male Caribou fawn (specimen No. 1095), + in its first, woolly pelage. Mouth of Windy River, September 7, + 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 24. Hoofs of a male Caribou fawn (specimen No. + 1072); hind hoofs in the middle. Mouth of Windy River, August 21, + 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 25. Enormous set of old antlers of a Barren + Ground Caribou, with exceptional palmation. (A 10.5-inch length of + a steel rule visible.) Simons’ Lake, October 15, 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 26. Rubbing trees: two small black spruces + (_Picea mariana_)--the larger 4 feet high--broken and barked by + Caribou in rubbing velvet off the antlers. Simons’ Lake, October + 18, 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 27. Pile o’ Rocks, an ancient enclosure + erected as a game lookout on the summit of a hill 1.5 miles NW. of + the mouth of Windy River. June 30, 1947.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 28. Adult male Western Woodland Caribou + (_Rangifer caribou sylvestris_) (No. 235361, U.S. Biol. Surveys + Coll.). Stony Mountain, about 27 miles S. of Fort McMurray, + Alberta, October 22, 1920. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.)] + +On October 30 tracks indicated that half a dozen Caribou had swum across +Little River near its mouth, breaking through a 10-foot rim of ice on +the near side. When a herd of 2,000 or 3,000 crossed Windy River during +an October night about 1944, as reported by Charles Schweder, they broke +three channels through the thin ice that covered the river. + +Once Charles saw a buck cross the 100-yard-wide Nahiline Rapids on +Kasmere River, where it drops about 40 feet in a quarter of a mile; yet +the animal did not seem to be carried far downstream. When about 10 +Caribou (mostly big bucks) crossed the Windy River at our camp on June +24, the last two, I noted, were pointing almost upstream in the 6- to +8-mile-per-hour current. + +The usual formation in which a small number of Caribou cross a bay or a +quiet stretch of river is a single file, but a larger band is likely +to make the passage in several simultaneous files. The fawns, in +particular, follow as closely as possible behind their mothers. + +Although the Caribou are strong and speedy swimmers, the natives are +able, in canoe or kayak, to overtake and spear them. In 1947 several +fawns were speared in Windy Bay by Anoteelik. + +Other notes on swimming may be found in the sections dealing with +_Migrations_. + + _References._--Back, 1836: 367; Simpson, 1843: 76, 310; Rae, + 1850: 27; Richardson, 1852: 290; Schwatka, 1885: 68, 71-72; + W. J. McLean, 1901: 6; R. M. Anderson, 1913b: 503; Blanchet, + 1925: 34; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 109-110; Seton, 1929, +3+: + 107; Hoare, 1930: 27, 31; Jacobi, 1931: 216; Clarke, 1940: + 88-90; Downes, 1943: 256; Harper, 1949: 227, 229, 230; Banfield, + 1951a: 21. + + +_Shaking off moisture and insects_ + +The long, dense fur of the Caribou holds so much moisture that when the +animal emerges from swimming it endeavors to rid itself of the extra +burden and cooling agency. This is effected to a large extent by a +vigorous shaking of the body, head, and ears and a switching of the +tail. The initial performance, lasting for perhaps a second or two, may +be undertaken while the animal’s lower extremities are still in the +water; and it is likely to be repeated from one to several times as it +moves over the shore and ascends the adjacent ridge. The cloud of spray +flying off is a sight to behold (fig. 9). The action is very much like +that of a dog under similar circumstances. The fur may remain wet for a +least 10 or 15 minutes after emergence from the water. In driving rain +on September 5, I noticed an individual in a band of 20 Caribou shaking +itself and sending the rain drops flying off in spray, just as when one +emerges from the water. + +The Caribou also go through a very similar but perhaps still more +strenuous performance for the obvious purpose of shaking off flies +(perhaps primarily the warble flies, _Oedemagena_). On August 20 a buck +passing along a ridge in the Barrens agitated the hide on its body +several times with considerable vigor. A young animal (fawn or yearling) +thus shook itself on August 28 as it approached the far side of Little +River. I got the distinct impression that the hide was shaken +horizontally in the case of moisture, but vertically in the case of +insects; for the present, however, this is best considered as just an +impression, and not a statement of fact. The muscles that agitate the +skin of the sides should be particularly well developed through frequent +practice with water and flies during the warmer part of the year. + +At the mouth of Little River, on August 30, I heard one of the Caribou +in a large band “blow its nose,” so to speak, with vigor. The sound +suggested that produced by a horse in vibrating its nostrils by +forcefully expelling air through them. I suspect that the Caribou uses +the same means, in an effort to fend off a nostril fly (_Cephenemyia_) +bent on depositing its larvae. + + _Reference._--Harper, 1949: 230. + + +_Signaling_ + +Apparently the commonest method employed by the Caribou for indicating +or communicating suspicion or alarm is erecting the stub of a tail to a +vertical position. This brings its white under side into full view, as +the silent flashing of a danger signal to other Caribou. However, +a solitary animal will exhibit signaling behavior as well as one in a +band. The tail remains erect, whether the animal stands to stare +uneasily at a suspicious object or flees from it in alarm. The action is +common to old and young of both sexes. It is so characteristic of a +fleeing animal as to give significance to the expression, “high-tailing +it.” In normal, unalarmed progress the tail extends backward in a +drooping curve (figs. 11, 12). + +I was not fortunate enough to detect any flashing of the white throat, +as described by Preble (1902: 42). + +Another silent signal is a most peculiar sprawling posture of the hind +legs, attained by thrusting one of them well out to one side and setting +the foot down. The legs are not then symmetrically placed; the one not +moved obviously bears most of the weight of the hind quarters. I managed +to film this stance in a buck standing on a sky-line on August 24 +(cover). On September 9 another buck assumed the posture while looking +over our camp from a ridge on the opposite side of Windy River. +According to Charles Schweder, this is an expression of suspicion or +alarm, designed to communicate the same feeling to other Caribou. When +the others notice it, they stop and assume the same pose; it may be +observed in does and even fawns. Charles added that the tail is erected +at the same time--a very natural accompaniment, though I failed to +notice it. + +In all the literature on the Barren Ground Caribou, I have found just +one reference to this posture, and that a distinctly fragmentary one: + +“While [the Caribou are] thus circling around I have often been amused +at the manner in which they carry one hind leg. A novice in the hunting +field, after having fired a shot in their direction, would think that he +had broken one hind leg of each member of the herd.” (A. J. Stone, 1900: +53.) + +The author makes this observation just after mentioning a herd sighted +near the shore of Franklin Bay. A virtually identical posture in the +Norway Reindeer has been sketched by Seton (1929, +3+: 112, pl. 18), who +labels it “surprize.” An analogy to the posture of the Caribou might be +found in a hand thrust out, with fingers spread, by a military scout as +a signal of warning or caution to his fellow scouts. A sprawling leg is +perhaps the nearest approximation to the human signal that a Caribou can +attain. + +As noted in the section on _Gaits_, an alarmed Caribou may set off by +taking an initial leap into the air. According to Dugmore, such an act +on the part of the Newfoundland Caribou plays an important role in its +system of communications, not by means of sight or sound, but through +the olfactory sense. He observes (1913: 89-90): + +“For hours afterwards _every_ Caribou, on arriving at the place where +the frightened ones had jumped, has started violently, and has on nearly +every occasion turned and run in a manner that showed every indication +of fear, even though my presence was entirely unknown to them. My idea +is that when the animal is suddenly frightened it expels a certain fluid +from the glands in the foot, and that this fluid is a signal of alarm, +a silent and invisible warning, but none the less so positive that none +dare ignore it.” + +As for the foot click--a presumptive means of communication (_cf._ +Seton, 1929, +3+: 69; Jacobi, 1931: 212-216)--I must confess that I was +always so engrossed with photography whenever the Caribou were close +at hand (up to within a dozen feet) that I had no thought of this +phenomenon and did not detect it. + + _References._--Richardson, 1829: 242; A. J. Stone, 1900: 53; + Preble, 1902: 42; Seton, 1929, +3+: 105; Murie, 1939: 245; + Harper, 1949: 230; Banfield, 1951a: 19, 27. + + +_Food_ + +The ground lichens (including the various species of _Cladonia_) in the +Windy River area in 1947 did not seem, for the most part, to have a +height of more than 2 or 3 inches. The average length of several local +specimens of _Cladonia_ is approximately 51 mm. This condition was in +considerable contrast to the great spongy masses I had noted in the +Tazin River basin, between Athabaska and Great Slave lakes, in 1914. +I have no means of knowing whether the condition in Keewatin represented +severe cropping by Caribou in past years and subsequent slow recovery, +or whether it is a normal condition. According to Charles Schweder, the +growth depends upon rain, and so varies from year to year. During the +warmer months, from June to September, the local Caribou seemed to me to +be feeding very largely on the higher vegetation, such as willow, dwarf +birch, alder, and sedges. I had no definite evidence of their consuming +lichens during that period. By early October the species of _Cladonia_ +seemed to have attained a somewhat fuller growth than they had exhibited +several months previously. Perez-Llano discusses (1944: 29-30) the +utilization by Reindeer of various lichens. Dix has reported (1951) on a +collection of lichens from the Windy River area. + +Some miscellaneous observations along Windy and Little rivers follow: +June 16, 20 Caribou feeding apparently on patches of crowberry +(_Empetrum_) and dwarf birch (_Betula glandulosa_) on a ridge; June 29, +a Caribou feeding apparently on dwarf birches; June 30, a buck grazing +in a sedge bog; August 26, several bucks browsing on willow tops +(probably _Salix planifolia_) in a riverside thicket, and some does on +dwarf birch and perhaps tall grass or low willow; August 27, numbers +feeding largely on willow and dwarf birch; August 28 and 30, low alders, +willow, and dwarf birches nibbled off. By early October the leaves of +the three last-mentioned shrubs were no longer available, having dropped +off. During the summer they had seemed to be preferred above the +lichens. Cabot has remarked (1912: 46) on the fondness of _Rangifer +arcticus caboti_ for dwarf birch in Labrador. + +Charles Schweder reported as follows on the food of Caribou. In summer +they live chiefly upon leaves, especially those of dwarf birch, and to +some extent upon “grass” (probably largely sedges). Toward the last of +June a Caribou was killed with fat an inch thick on its +haunches--perhaps the effect of recent feeding on the fresh green +vegetation. In August and September the animals also eat mushrooms and +get very fat on them; they seem to be especially fond of a certain red +kind, which Charles has found in their stomachs. The Eskimos’ name for +mushrooms signifies “deer food.” The Caribou feed upon dead “grass” +(perhaps mostly sedges) in the fall, but not in the winter. Charles has +seen them digging through 4 feet of snow to get at the reindeer lichens; +but for the most part their winter feeding in this region is on the tops +of the hills, which remain bare. They also eat tree lichens, especially +in the winter time. + +Charles has seen Caribou chew the cud while standing as well as while +lying down. He once saw a buck thus occupied while standing on a hill +for half a day in a breeze that kept the mosquitoes down. + +Among the hundreds of Caribou observed at the river crossings and +elsewhere, I do not recall seeing a single one pause to drink. + +The _Influence of food supply on distribution_ of the Barren Ground +Caribou has been discussed in a previous section. + + _References._--Hearne, 1795: 317; Franklin, 1823: 242; + Richardson, “1825”: 329, and 1829: 243; Godman, 1831, +2+: 284; + Richardson, in Back, 1836: 498, and 1861: 275; Murray, 1858: + 202; B. R. Ross, 1861: 439; Kumlien, 1879: 54; J. B. Tyrrell, + 1894: 441; Russell, 1898: 226; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 80; + Lydekker, 1898: 49; Elliot, 1902: 276; Stone and Cram, 1904: 53; + Buchanan, 1920: 105-106, 131; Hewitt, 1921: 61; Blanchet, 1925: + 33; Seton, 1929, +3+: 107-108; Kitto, 1930: 87; Jacobi, 1931: + 223; Harper, 1932: 30; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 84; Weyer, + 1932: 39; Hornby, 1934: 105; Murie, 1939: 245; Clarke, 1940: + 106-107; G. M. Allen, 1942: 299; Soper, 1942: 143; Downes, 1943: + 228; Porsild, 1943: 383; R. M. Anderson, 1948: 15; Manning, + 1948: 26-28; Rand, 1948a: 212; Harper, 1949: 230; Banfield, + 1951a: 11, 19-20, 28-29; Barnett, 1954: 106. + + +_Scatology_ + +The pellets of the Caribou are small, more or less blackish, very +irregular in shape, somewhat compressed, and generally deposited in +little piles, in which the individual components do not stand out very +distinctly, being pressed against each other. They are quite unlike the +oblong, curvilinear, comparatively symmetrical scats of the White-tailed +Deer and the Moose. I did not observe, nor learn of, any particular +seasonal variation in the shape or other characters. + + _References._--Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 81; Manning, 1943a: + 50. + + +_Voice_ + +My impression of the adult Caribou is that it is a comparatively silent +animal during most of the year. At the rutting season, however, when the +bucks do their fighting with a clash of antlers, their voice is heard, +as Fred Schweder, Jr., informed me. It is about as loud as the fawn’s +grunt, but a different sort of sound. Fred has also known a doe to call +when its fawn was shot. + +The only vocal sound that I heard from the Caribou was the grunt or +bawling of the fawns on the fall migration, and only during the last +week of August, when the “big movement” was under way. It was uttered +chiefly at the river crossings, apparently as a result of the fawns’ +anxiety lest they be separated from their mothers during the slight +uncertainty or confusion of these passages, when a considerable number +of animals were participating. It seemed to be a fair equivalent of a +human child’s crying out: “Don’t leave me behind!” or “Where are you, +mamma?” The grunt is very different from the bleating of a lamb or the +bawling of a domestic calf. It is a surprisingly raucous or guttural, +almost explosive, yet not very loud note, which I rendered at various +times as _gwuf_, _goff_, _gowk_, or _gorr_. Perhaps the last rendering +comes nearest to the actual sound. With one or two exceptions, I did not +identify any individual uttering one of these grunts; but the Schweder +boys, from their intimate knowledge of the species, assured me that this +was the voice of the fawn. In one case the sound came rather definitely +from a fawn that had become somewhat separated from its band in going up +the adjacent ridge after crossing Little River. But for the most part +the grunts seemed to come from swimming animals. + +On August 30 another sort of sound--probably not a vocal one--seemed to +come from one of the older animals among a large band crossing Little +River. It was probably produced by a vigorous vibration of the nostrils. +It is further discussed in the section on _Shaking off moisture and +insects_. + +It is rather astonishing that Seton, after seeing and studying many +Caribou at close range in Mackenzie, should say no more about their +voice than: “They snort a good deal and grunt a little” (1911: 210). In +his later monographic account he practically ignores the topic, merely +referring to the animals’ “sniffing, snorting” (1929, 3: 105). + + _References._--Lyon, 1824: 336; Pike, 1917 (1892): 89; Stone and + Cram, 1904: 53; Seton, 1911: 210, and 1929, +3+: 105; Hornaday, + 1914, +2+: 103; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193; Sutton and + Hamilton, 1932: 84; Murie, 1939: 245; Downes, 1943: 226, + 256-257; Harper, 1949: 230; Banfield, 1951a: 22. + + +_Reproduction_ + +By the time the rutting season arrived in mid-October, there were +comparatively few Caribou left in the Windy River area. Consequently my +information on the subject was derived mainly from Charles Schweder and +Fred Schweder, Jr. Weeks before the scheduled season, there were certain +manifestations of the sexual urge. For example, on September 5 about 20 +Caribou were passing the Bear Slough. The band consisted mostly of does +and fawns, but included several middle-aged bucks (with antlers much +less than the maximum size) and possibly some younger bucks. Twice I saw +one of the animals attempt to cover another, but driving rain and the +compactness of the band prevented me from determining the sex or age of +those involved. During a trip to the Kazan River, lasting from September +17 to October 1, Fred observed a good deal of fighting among the +Caribou--obviously a prelude to the mating season. In Charles’ opinion, +these early contests are not very much in earnest; the real fighting +begins about October 15. On October 8 Charles and Fred referred to +fighting that was going on among a herd of about 100 between Glacier +Pond and Lake Charles. Perhaps less than a quarter of this herd were +older bucks; the rest, younger bucks, does, and fawns. + +In former years, while living at the “Old Post” on Red River, Charles +used to go out and watch the fighting on a big open muskeg, about a mile +square, where the Caribou would congregate practically every year at the +rutting season, up to a thousand strong. They would stay for three or +four days, then disappear. Nothing on the same scale had come to his +notice in the vicinity of the Windy River post. At this season, when the +animals are in large herds, the bucks utter their calls, as mentioned in +the section on _Voice_. According to Fred, one sees in October a good +many bucks with an antler broken off in the fighting. The break +generally occurs at about the middle of the antler. On September 29 +Charles reported a buck with a broken antler, which he interpreted as +evidence of the beginning of the fighting season. During the rutting +season he once shot a buck with a broken jaw, and another with an eye +gone. The possible inference was that these injuries had been sustained +in fighting. A buck secured on October 16 had apparently been wounded in +fighting; there was pus in its neck, and it was considered unfit for +eating. I heard nothing as to the possible use of hoofs in contests +between bucks, as reported by Jacobi (1931: 233) for the Reindeer. + +During the rutting season the herd is likely to be a large one, and to +do little traveling. It is composed of fawns as well as adults. The +bucks pursue the does, and sometimes chase each other. Charles thinks +the young bucks keep away from the does at this time, being unable to +fight the older bucks with larger antlers. Fred reports a proportion of +about 10 bucks to 50 does in these herds--a probable indication of +polygamy. He expressed the opinion that the bucks do not mate until 8-10 +years old, and the does not until about four years old. However, he was +basing his estimate of the age on the total number of points on the +antlers--one point for each year; and on this basis the age was probably +much overestimated. Earlier sexual maturity on the part of the doe might +be another indication of polygamy in the species. + +At the onset of this season, the bucks neglect their feeding to some +extent; consequently those killed have stomachs only partly filled, +instead of completely filled, as at other times. By mid-October their +fat becomes tinted with reddish, and the whole flesh becomes so rank and +musky that it is disdained not only by human beings but even by the +Wolves. This condition seems to be considerably more pronounced in the +Caribou than in the White-tailed Deer. The hunters forego eating the old +bucks for a period of several weeks. Meanwhile the younger bucks, not +engaged in mating, remain fit to eat. Hearne (1795: 69) reported the +flesh of bucks as still unpalatable as late as December 30. + +The rutting season is said to continue through October into November. +The end of the period is uncertain, but it may coincide with the +shedding of the antlers of the old bucks. + + _References._--Hearne, 1795: 72, 198-199; Richardson, “1825”: + 327-328, 1829: 243, and 1861: 274; Pike, 1917 (1892): 48, 90; + J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 80; Hanbury, 1904: 73; Stone and + Cram, 1904: 52; Blanchet, 1925: 33; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 51, + 56; Seton, 1929, +3+: 124-125; Jacobi, 1931: 232; Sutton and + Hamilton, 1932: 81, 84-86; Weyer, 1932: 40; Ingstad, 1933: 158; + Hornby, 1934: 105; Murie, 1939: 244; Manning, 1943a: 52; + Banfield, 1951a: 10, 26, 31. + + +_Fawns_ + +Since the fawning takes place far to the north of the Nueltin Lake +region, practically no local information concerning it was obtained. +Charles Schweder stated that in the spring migration the pregnant does +pass to an undetermined distance north of the upper Kazan River (below +Ennadai Lake). Although the migration at Nueltin Lake continues +throughout June, the rearguard is composed largely of bucks, and the +comparatively few does accompanying them toward the last may be barren. +Fisher (1821: 199) and Parry (1821: 183) report a small fawn of _R. +pearyi_ on Melville Island on June 2. Richardson states (“1825”: 329) +that the young are born in May and June. There is evidently some +geographical and individual variation in the time of birth (_cf._ +Jacobi, 1931: 232). Apparently the gestation period in the Caribou +covers approximately eight months or a little less. In the domesticated +Reindeer it is 231 to 242 days, according to Jacobi (1931: 234); in the +White-tailed Deer, 205 to 212 days, according to Seton (1929, +3+: 258). + +Fred Schweder, Jr., stated that he had never found more than a single +unborn fawn in any one of the animals he had secured; yet he has seen as +many as four fawns following a doe. Of course there is no proof that +this individual was the actual mother of so many fawns; a stray or +bereaved youngster might well endeavor to attach itself to a foster +mother. On August 28, at Little River, I saw a doe being followed by two +fawns. On September 16 Fred reported seeing three old does without +fawns. Presumably most of the does do not bear young until they are two +years old (_cf._ Jacobi, 1931: 235); thus many yearling does without +family cares should be observed during the summer. + +On September 12 Charles Schweder stated that the does would soon be +losing their milk; yet on occasion he has found them with milk as late +as November (_cf._ Jacobi, 1931: 235). On September 21, when he secured +a doe (fig. 21) that was accompanied by a fawn, I asked if he thought +the latter was still nursing. By way of answer, he squeezed a couple of +the doe’s mammae, and some milk exuded. Thus the mammary glands were +still functioning at that date; they appeared well developed. By August +27, at an age of perhaps two and a half months, the fawns were browsing +on their own account, and their teeth were well developed. Fred +Schweder, Jr., then spoke of having seen fawns nursing four times during +that month, the last occasion having been on the 25th. On the 27th I had +the rare privilege of witnessing such a nursery rite across the mouth of +Little River. The wilderness baby was so large that it was obliged to +lower its forequarters very decidedly in order to reach the maternal +font (from a lateral position). This attitude left its hind quarters +thrust high and ludicrously into the air. I did not notice that it +wriggled its tail as a bovine calf might have; but Charles Schweder +spoke of having seen a fawn hold its tail erect while nursing. He also +said that the bigger fawns kneel down with their front legs while so +engaged. In his opinion, when a doe is killed in the autumn, its fawn +does not go and join other Caribou, but lingers near the fatal spot +until a Wolf or some other enemy overcomes it. For this reason it is his +practice to secure the fawn also, if possible, when he takes the mother. +On September 13 a fawn remained by its dead mother, permitting one of +the hunters to approach within 30 feet and to throw rocks at it three +times, finally taking it by that means. After a doe was killed on +September 21, its fawn lingered in the vicinity for a day or two. + + _References._--Franklin, 1823: 242; Richardson, “1825”: 329; + John Ross, 1835a: 432; Simpson, 1843: 277, 281, 381; J. + McLean, 1932 (1849): 359; Armstrong, 1857: 477-478; Murray, + 1858: 202; Osborn, 1865: 227; Nourse, 1884: 264-265; Pike, 1917 + (1892): 204, 209; Dowling, 1893: 107: Russell, 1895: 51; R. M. + Anderson, 1913b: 504-505; Hewitt, 1921: 62; Blanchet, 1926b: 47; + Seton, 1929, +3+: 124-125; Blanchet, 1930: 49, 53; + Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 192, 193; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: + 86; Ingstad, 1933: 161; Clarke, 1940: 88-90; Gavin, 1945: 228; + Banfield, 1951a: 26, 27; Scott, 1951: 179, 180; Barnett, 1954: + 96. + + +_Growth_ + +During late August and early September the fawns probably averaged about +50 lb. in weight. (For the measurements of two specimens, see the +section on _Measurements_.) Yet they varied so much in size that some +appeared nearly twice as big as others. On September 7 an exceptionally +small fawn was secured (estimated weight, 35 lb.) (fig. 23). Its coat +was soft and woolly, representing an earlier stage than that seen in any +of the other fawns of that season. It was molting into the next pelage, +and its hide was unprime. It must have been born at an unusually late +date. Fred Schweder, Jr., remarked that he sometimes sees this stage in +the growth of fawns when the Caribou come down early from the north +(about the first of August), but it seems remarkable that it should have +been found in a September fawn. The present specimen has actually +smaller measurements than one secured on August 2 at Artillery Lake +(Seton, 1929, +3+: 97). The collector reported that the parent doe +appeared of ordinary size--not a particularly small or young one. The +yearlings noted on the spring migration in May (south of Churchill) and +in June (at Nueltin Lake) appeared roughly half the size of the adults. + +Evidently several years are required for the attainment of full growth. +The younger adult bucks, with smaller antlers, are appreciably inferior +in body size to the older bucks, with better developed antlers. + + _References._--Seton, 1929, +3+: 97, 98; Banfield, 1951a: 30. + + +_Antlers_ + +In late August and early September antlers were already in evidence on +the fawns, at an age of less than three months. They consisted of bony +knobs, covered with skin, and were an inch or two long. I obtained no +information as to when the fawns may shed the velvet or the antlers +themselves. By analogy with the Reindeer (_cf._ Jacobi, 1931: 237), the +fawns might be expected to drop their antlers in late winter. + +When the adult Caribou return from the north in August, the antlers of +all are still in the velvet. However, completely hornless does are not +particularly uncommon at this season; in Charles Schweder’s opinion, +some remain permanently in that condition. Hornless does are reported in +various forms of Caribou or Reindeer in both hemispheres (Jacobi, 1931: +48). I saw also a few one-horned does on the autumn migration. In a +single group of three adult does photographed at close range on August +28, one was hornless and another one-horned (fig. 11). A considerable +proportion of my other photographs of Caribou groups at this season show +one or more animals with a single antler or none. The hornless condition +appears to be astonishingly more common in Keewatin than in regions +farther west. Stefánsson, whose field operations were chiefly in +northern Mackenzie and southwestern Franklin, remarks (1913b: 151) on +having found, at any season when Caribou are normally horned, just three +hornless animals among a thousand at whose killing he had been present. +Murie (1935: 20) speaks of having observed only one hornless doe in +Alaska, in September. + +By late August the bucks’ antlers have attained nearly their full +growth, though still in the velvet. The largest head of the season was +obtained on August 22. Its measurements were: right antler, in straight +line from base to tip of longest prong, 995; left antler, 980; distance +between main tips of the two antlers, 620; brow tine, from base to upper +tip, 335; to lower tip, 290. For the older bucks, the principal period +for shedding the velvet is September 10 to 20, although Charles Schweder +once observed a buck that had completed the process by September 1, and +Fred secured one in that condition on September 6, 1947. In Alaska old +bucks shed the velvet more or less regularly in September (Murie, 1935: +26). Sick or wounded animals are said to retain the velvet for an +indefinite period. For example, a buck secured on September 29 had some +velvet hanging in shreds from the tips of its antlers, and it was found +to have been shot in the mouth sometime previously. The younger bucks +and the does lose their velvet somewhat later than the older bucks (say +toward the end of September). In a doe of September 21 (fig. 21) the +antlers were covered with velvet and still had soft tips. A young buck +of October 2 was just shedding the velvet. + +Charles Schweder spoke of noting as many as 30-33 points on the antlers +of old bucks. (He probably included the brow and the bez tines in this +count.) He also referred to an exceptional set of antlers at Simons’ +Lake with about 40 points; he had first noted it about 10 years +previously, and it had doubtless been there for years before that. He +had never been able to secure its equal. When I saw and photographed it +in October (fig. 25), some of the points were broken off, so that an +accurate count was impossible; but there must have been close to 40 +originally, even without the brow tines, which were missing. The +palmation was much broader than I have seen in any other Caribou. + +The prong projecting backward at the angle of the main beam is by no +means so uncommon in the animals of this region as a Chipewyan hunter +seemed to indicate to Downes (1943: 227-228). + +Charles Schweder found a pair of locked antlers about 1940 near Josie’s +Bay. This was the only case of which he had any knowledge. An instance +of locked antlers in _Rangifer pearyi_ is mentioned by Peary (1907: 84). + +There is marked variation in the dates of shedding the antlers, +according to sex, age, and physiological condition of the individual. +This has resulted in various conflicting statements in the literature. +In the present region, the old bucks with 25 or more points are said to +shed their antlers about the end of October or in November, at the close +of the rutting season. (Fred Schweder, Jr., encountered a hornless buck +as early as November 7, 1947.) The younger bucks, with 15 to 20 points, +and the does retain their antlers till late May or June of the following +year. A doe of June 3 and another of June 16 were still horned. In +Alaska “the young bucks may carry their old antlers until late in April, +while does carry theirs until the middle of May, some of them until +June” (Murie, 1935: 26). + +John Ingebrigtsen reported having seen two or three shallow lakes, +between Churchill and (South?) Knife Lake, whose bottoms were fairly +covered with caribou antlers. They were visible through clear ice. It +appears probable that these lakes, while ice-covered, were favored +resorts of large numbers of Caribou for their midday or nocturnal rests +at a period when they were shedding their antlers (November for the old +bucks, May or June for the does and young bucks). + +It is natural that the season at which the new antlers of the Barren +Ground Caribou begin to grow should vary greatly according to sex and +age, just as the shedding of the antlers does; probably also, for the +various forms of _Rangifer_, according to locality (_cf._ Jacobi, 1931: +237). On Southampton Island “the new antlers begin to appear in the +males in March and April” (Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 85). In Alaska +Murie (1935: 24) “has found old bucks late in April with velvet knobs +well begun.” Seton’s account (1929, +3+: 102-103) of the seasonal change +of antlers is not only meager but largely at variance with the +information I assembled in Keewatin. Recently gathered information is +supplied by Banfield (1951a: 17-18). + +Measurements of the length of antlers in the velvet (right and left, +respectively) were recorded as follows: adult male, June 18, 420, 440; +adult male (figs. 3, 4), August 17, 1165, 1205; adult female (fig. 21), +September 21, 220, 165. + +Scratching or anointing of antlers in the velvet with a hind hoof was +observed in an adult buck on June 16, and in a fawn on August 27. + +While there is undoubtedly some correlation between the age of a Caribou +and the number of points on its antlers, I am not aware that such a +correlation has been worked out to a satisfactory degree. The Schweder +brothers judged a Caribou’s years by the number of points on both +antlers, yet freely admitted that they had limited confidence in such a +criterion. Probably they would be nearer the actual facts if they +counted the points on only one antler. The situation is complicated by +the fact (if we are to credit Jacobi, 1931: 238) that bucks in other +forms of _Rangifer_ exhibit the best development of antlers at six to +eight years. + + _References._--Hearne, 1795: 198-199; Franklin, 1823: 240-241; + Lyon, 1824: 270; Richardson, “1825”: 327-328, and 1829: 241; + Richardson, in Back, 1836: 499; Armstrong, 1857: 478; Murray, + 1858: 199-206; B. R. Ross, 1861: 439; Osborn, 1865: 227; Pike, + 1917 (1892): 49; J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128; Dowling, 1893: 107; + Russell, 1895: 51, and 1898: 225; Whitney, 1896: 238-239; J. W. + Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 79-80; A. J. Stone, 1900: 53; W. J. + McLean, 1901: 6; Elliot, 1902: 279-280; Hanbury, 1904: 95, 116, + 133; Hornaday, 1904: 138; J. A. Allen, 1908a: 488; R. M. + Anderson, 1913b: 505; Stefánsson, 1913b: 151; Buchanan, 1920: + 126; Blanchet, 1925: 33, 1926b: 47-48, and 1930: 49; + Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 50, 89, 239-251; Seton, 1929, +3+: + 102-103; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 192; Jacobi, 1931: 237; Sutton + and Hamilton, 1932: 81-86; Ingstad, 1933: 159; Hornby, 1934: + 105; Murie, 1935: 20, and 1939: 244; Clarke, 1940: 95; Downes, + 1943: 228; Manning, 1943a: 52-53; Harper, 1949: 228; Banfield, + 1951a: 17-18; Barnett, 1954: 104. + + +_Rubbing trees_ + +Charles Schweder gave the following account. The bucks hasten the +shedding of the velvet in the autumn by rubbing their antlers on various +trees--willow, spruce, or tamarack. The individual may complete the +operation in possibly half a day. It is thought, however, that most of +the velvet comes off at the first tree. The animals usually select a +tree standing by itself rather than one in a thicket. It is usually a +small tree--say 4 feet high and 1 inch in diameter. Perhaps a spruce is +most often selected. Branches are broken and much of the bark is scraped +off in the process. The velvet soon dries up, so that it is little +noticed. Charles did not recall having seen any hanging in a tree. + +The numbers of rubbing trees that I noticed at Simons’ Lake in +mid-October indicated that Caribou must have been much more numerous +there during the previous month than in the vicinity of the Windy River +post. These trees were particularly in evidence on the outskirts of a +spruce and tamarack thicket at the head of the lake. They were mostly +tamaracks, with some black spruces. Of the two spruces shown in figure +26, the larger was about 4 feet high. Many of the young trees had been +killed. The branches and the tops had been pretty generally broken off +and were lying on the ground. Most of the damage was fresh, but some of +it dated from previous years. + + _Reference._--Hanbury, 1904: 232. + + + + +MORPHOLOGY AND TAXONOMY + + +_Pelage and molt_ + +When the Caribou migrate northward through the Nueltin Lake region in +May and June, they still retain their winter pelage. It is now worn and +faded, and harsh as well, in contrast to the fresh, dark, soft autumn +coat. + +This stage is represented by an adult buck (No. 1046) of June 18. The +general color above is Cream-Buff (capitalized color terms are derived +from Ridgway, 1912), changing gradually to Isabella Color on sides of +head and body; no distinct dark longitudinal stripe on lower sides (such +as appears in summer and autumn pelage); tail Cream-Buff above, the rest +Cartridge Buff; rump-patch varying from Cartridge Buff to Cream-Buff; +tip of snout and chin dirty whitish; small area below nostrils near +Mummy Brown; triangular area behind nostrils Cream-Buff; crown Cartridge +Buff; ears Olive-Buff on outer surface, Cartridge Buff on inner surface; +posterior venter Cartridge Buff; legs Isabella Color in front, remainder +Cream-Buff; hoofs black, bordered above with Cartridge Buff hairs, +forming a band ½-2 inches in width; antler velvet in this and other +specimens Olive-Brown. The marked difference between the dark brownish +and white pelage of the autumn and the Cream-Buff coat of early June +presumably results from wear and fading, without molt. The does and the +yearlings in June appear grayer than the adult bucks. + +In another adult male (No. 1033), collected June 3, the darker part of +the pelage is Buffy Brown rather than Cream-Buff. + +The molt of the bucks begins in June but takes place chiefly in July, +while the animals are somewhere to the north of the Nueltin Lake region. +On their return in August they have largely completed their summer +transformation in appearance. A buck of August 17 had just a little of +the winter fur still clinging to its lower back; and another on August +20 was in similar condition. At this season the white mane is developed +only on its lower portion (figs. 9, 10, 12), but by the end of September +the white has spread upward over practically the whole neck (fig. 22), +and in some cases over the shoulders. + +In an adult male (No. 1144) of October 16, representing the pelage of +the rutting season, the posterior crown is near Tilleul Buff, the +anterior crown somewhat browner; sides of head and upper throat between +Verona Brown and Buffy Brown; area about and between eyes somewhat +darker; triangular area behind nostrils (apex extending halfway to eyes) +and lower chin between Mummy Brown and Warm Blackish Brown; tip of snout +and chin Cartridge Buff; ears pale creamy white on both surfaces; whole +neck and shoulder mantle whitish, washed with Cartridge Buff, and +changing gradually to the brownish of the sides of the head; long hairs +along median ventral line of the neck tipped with Natal Brown; dorsal +area, from shoulders to rump, Prout’s Brown; stripe on lower sides Mummy +Brown, separated from dorsal area by an ill-defined lighter stripe, +mixed with whitish hairs; top of tail slightly paler than back, the rest +white; small rump-patch mostly white; chest Mummy Brown; mid-venter +varying from Deep Olive-Buff anteriorly to Cream-Buff posteriorly; +posterior venter white; forelegs near Bone Brown; hind legs between +Mummy Brown and Olive-Brown, with a pale spot on the inner side of the +heel (this spot noticeable also in doe and fawn); hoofs black, bordered +above with whitish hairs. The hides of this specimen and of two other +adult bucks (No. 1111, September 29, and No. 1132, October 16) were +prime. The dark lateral stripe, which shows quite distinctly in summer +and fall specimens of both sexes (figs. 7, 8, 10, 21, 22), from fawns +(except very young ones) to adults, and which is also a prominent +feature in Old World Reindeer (_cf._ Flerov, 1933), has been largely or +wholly overlooked in some descriptions of _Rangifer a. arcticus_. + +The summer molt occurs later in the does than in the bucks. Some of the +former return toward the end of August while still retaining most of the +winter pelage. Others exhibit remnants of it in patches, especially on +the lower back; this was true even of an adult doe (No. 1101) secured as +late as September 21 (fig. 21). Its hide, however, was prime. In this +specimen the crown is near Verona Brown, with varying admixture of +whitish hairs; sides of head Verona Brown; upper throat a little paler; +a poorly defined area behind nostrils, and lower chin, Mummy Brown; tip +of snout and chin Cartridge Buff; ears Drab, varying to Pale Olive-Buff, +especially on inner surface; neck Drab dorsally, mixed with whitish +hairs, the remainder Pale Olive-Buff; dorsal area, from shoulder to +rump, Mars Brown; lateral stripe on lower sides Mars Brown, separated +from dorsal area by a poorly defined but conspicuous area of Light +Cinnamon-Drab; top of tail like back, the rest whitish, washed laterally +with Pale Pinkish Buff; small rump-patch mostly white; chest Mummy +Brown; venter Light Drab, becoming whitish in inguinal region; forelegs +Natal Brown, slightly darker in front; hind legs Natal Brown, with a +pale spot on the inner edge of the heel; hoofs black, bordered above +with whitish “spats” varying from ½ to 1½ inches in width. + +Another doe, secured on November 3 but not preserved, was apparently in +long, full winter pelage, with whitish mane and shoulders. The dorsum +generally was grayish; the top of the rump, buffy gray. The white +rump-patch appeared to be more extensive, and to contain longer hairs, +than in the doe of September 21; likewise the white “spats” appeared +much more extensive. + +As winter comes on, the fur of the Caribou grows longer and paler gray. +One incipient stage of such a change from the summer coat began to be +noticeable as early as September 13. A buck that came trotting down out +of the Windy Hills on September 27 revealed the splendor of its new +winter coat, with an amazing amount of creamy white, chiefly on the mane +and shoulders. The long mane wears off during the winter, according to +Charles Schweder. It looks best, he added, when the bucks start to fight +in the fall. A yearling or large fawn on October 21 was distinctly +creamy about the neck and shoulders. After describing a winter female +from Wager River, Seton remarks (1929, +3+: 98): “The general impression +is of a creamy white animal, with a gray blanket on its back.” + +For the first couple of months of its life the fawn wears a soft and +woolly coat. An example was furnished by a male fawn (No. 1095; fig. 23) +of September 7, which must have been born several weeks later than the +average date. It was actually smaller and less developed than another +male fawn collected on August 20. It was molting into the next pelage +(described in the following paragraph), and its hide was unprime. The +general color is Deep Brownish Drab; this is overlaid with longer hairs +of Pale Olive-Buff on the median dorsal line of the neck, on the venter, +and on part of the legs; a median stripe on the back near Hay’s Brown; +no distinct lateral stripe; ears and posterior crown Cartridge Buff; +forepart of crown Deep Brownish Drab; area above eye Cream-Buff; snout +varying from Deep Brownish Drab above to Pale Gull Gray on sides; +transverse band behind nostrils Dusky Brown; tip of snout whitish; tail +Deep Brownish Drab above, pale creamy on sides, and white beneath; +rump-patch whitish; chin anteriorly whitish, posteriorly Dusky Drab; +throat whitish to Pale Gull Gray; lower part of legs, in front, Buffy +Brown; hoofs black, bordered above with a very narrow (¼-inch) strip of +whitish hairs. A very similar young fawn, taken on August 2, 1907, has +been described by Seton (1929, +3+: 98). + +In a male fawn (No. 1072) collected on August 20 the general color is +between Olive-Brown and Natal Brown; a paler longitudinal area +separating the lateral stripe from the dorsal area; ears Clove Brown +externally, pale creamy internally; transverse band behind nostrils +Blackish Brown; tip of snout whitish; sides of head varying from +Cream-Buff above eyes to Cartridge Buff below; tail Bone Brown above, +white below; rump-patch whitish; legs Buffy Brown, darker in front; chin +anteriorly whitish, posteriorly Hair Brown; throat Cartridge Buff; +venter Light Drab; hoofs black, bordered above with a narrow (¼- to +½-inch) strip of whitish hairs. + + _References._--Franklin, 1823: 240-241; Richardson, 1829: 242; + B. R. Ross, 1861: 439; Schwatka, 1885: 60-61; J. B. Tyrrell, + 1892: 128; Russell, 1898: 91, 226; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): + 79; A. J. Stone, 1900: 52; Hanbury, 1904: 194; MacFarlane, 1905: + 682-683; Blanchet, 1925: 33, and 1926b: 47; Seton, 1929, +3+: + 98-99, 104; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193; Jacobi, 1931: 236; + Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 81, 84-86; Murie, 1939: 244; Clarke, + 1940: 89, 90; Downes, 1943: 226; Manning, 1943a: 53; Harper, + 1949: 228, 229, 230; Banfield, 1951a: 15-17. + + +_Albinism_ + +In _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ this appears to be an exceptionally rare +phenomenon. There are references to albinos by the following authors: +Russell (1895: 51; 1898: 91, 226), Whitney (1896: 237), Boas (1901: 150, +501), MacFarlane (1905: 682-683), Ingstad (1933: 312), and Degerbøl +(1935: 49, 51). + + +_Foot-glands_ + +I dissected out the glands from the hind feet of an adult male Caribou +(No. 1046). Seton (1929, +3+: 68) has discussed these structures in the +Woodland Caribou and the Norwegian Reindeer; and Pocock (1911: 960-962, +fig. 138B) and Jacobi (1931: 22, fig. 4), in the Reindeer. Many hairs +had their base in the glands, and there was a fatty secretion on the +hairs adjacent to the glands. I judged that the opening to the exterior +extended in a more or less dorso-anterior direction. One of the +suggested functions of these glands is anointing the velvet covering of +the antlers. I was highly interested, therefore, in seeing an old buck +on June 16 rub the tips of its growing antlers with each hind foot in +turn. Meanwhile it inclined its antlers alternately to one side and +backwards to place one of them at a time within convenient reach of the +hind foot on that side. It seemed to rub its snout as well as the antler +tips. In Charles Schweder’s experience this action was always carried +out with the hind foot, not the forefoot. The latter contains a similar +but smaller gland, according to Jacobi (1931: 22), while Pocock (1911: +960-961) gives contrary testimony. On August 27 I also saw a fawn +rubbing a knob of its skin-covered antlers with a hind foot. + +Another function of the foot-glands is suggested by an observation of +Dugmore’s (1913: 89-90), which has been mentioned in the section on +_Signaling_. I could not definitely connect any of the various occasions +of panic that I observed, with scent from the foot-glands of preceding +Caribou that had been frightened. + + _References._--Caton, 1881: 265; Pocock, 1911: 960-962; Seton, + 1929, +3+: 68, 105; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 84; Harper, 1949: + 230. + + +_Mastology_ + +Very little seems to have been published on this subject. Jacobi (1931: +24) merely remarks that in the Reindeer the mammae number four, or +occasionally six, but that the supernumerary ones are not functional. +The four rudimentary mammae in a male fawn of _arcticus_ (No. 1072) of +August 20 seemed remarkable for their arrangement in a nearly straight +transverse row--quite different from the more rectangular pattern in a +domestic Cow or in a male Moose, as figured by Seton (1929, +3+: 221). +In an adult doe (No. 1101) of September 21 the anterior pair are about +twice as far apart as the posterior pair; each of the mammae appears no +more than a couple of inches from the one nearest to it. The arrangement +in a two-year-old buck, as shown by Seton (1929, +3+: 106), is +approximately intermediate between linear and rectangular. + + +_Fat_ + +A Caribou (probably a buck) secured about the end of June was reported +to have back fat half an inch thick--possibly resulting from the fresh +green spring feed. In August, however, scarcely any fat was to be found +on the animals; perhaps the annual renewal of pelage and the summer +harassment by flies had been deterrents to the storage of fat. In +September and early October the Caribou were in prime condition. On +September 19 there was a fresh piece of back fat half an inch thick; two +days later there was another piece three times as thick. In 1943 (a year +of great mushroom growth) the animals were said to have become +particularly fat. According to Charles Schweder, the doe never becomes +so fat as the buck; one of September 21, still nursing, was just +slightly fat. An adult buck of September 29 was recorded as “somewhat +fat”; two of October 16 were “rather fat” and “quite fat.” Charles has +seen as much as 3 inches of fat on a buck. The strips of back fat +brought into camp on October 8 from several bucks weighed about 5 to 10 +lb. apiece. Such fatness evidently prepares the bucks for the strain of +the rutting season, when they neglect their feeding and become very poor +and thin. This loss of fat occurs in about two weeks. The does also lose +some fat at this season, but slowly. In some winters the Caribou remain +fat, but in other winters they do not. In the latter case there may be +deep snow that hinders their feeding. In the spring the Caribou become +fat again, and they are in that condition when they arrive from the +south in May. + +The eagerness of the Eskimos and the Indians for fat results in their +selection of the biggest bucks, which generally carry the most fat. +Charles Schweder spoke of the tail of such an animal almost +disappearing, apparently engulfed in fat! Besides its use in the native +diet, the fat goes into the making of “Eskimo candles” (see section on +_Relations to man_). + + _References._--Franklin, 1823: 240; Armstrong, 1857: 477-478; + Whitney, 1896: 161; Elliot, 1902: 276; R. M. Anderson, in + Stefánsson, 1913b: 505-506; Stefánsson, 1921: 231-234, + 246-247, 252; Jenness, 1922: 48, 101, 248; Birket-Smith, 1929 + (1): 48, 90; Seton, 1929, +3+: 113-114; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: + 193; Weyer, 1932: 40; Hornby, 1934: 105; Hamilton, 1939: 109; + Downes, 1943: 228; Manning, 1943a: 53. + + +BODY-MEASUREMENTS AND WEIGHTS + + Columns: + + A: No. + B: Sex and age + C: Date + D: Length + E: Tail + F: Foot + G: Ear from crown + H: Height at shoulder + I: Shoulder joint to hip joint + J: Circumference of neck at base + K: Circumference of body behind shoulders + L: Length of front hoof + M: Length of hind hoof + N: Estimated weight (lbs.) + + ====================================================================== + A B C D E F G H I J K L M N + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + 1033 ♂ ad Jun 3 1820 160 516 130 1000 1000 81.5 78 140 + 1046 ♂ ad Jun 18 1880 190 546 137 1029 92 84.5 + 1065 ♂ ad Aug 17 1750 146 555 120 1080 1010 1185* 80 74 200 + 1111 ♂ ad Sep 29 1710 155 532 129 1020 740 82.5 78 200 + 1132 ♂ ad Oct 16 1710 120 530 120 1002 975 200 + 1144 ♂ ad Oct 16 117 545 120 1110 90 84.5 200 + Average of ♂ ♂ ad 1774 148 537 126 1080 995 740 1093 85.2 79.8 188 + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + 1101 ♀ ad Sep 21 1590 113 490 134 870 860 490 77 72 160 + 1095 ♂ juv Sep 7 960 90 360 85 620 525 290 610 49 45 35 + 1072 ♂ juv Aug 20 1150 125 423 89 750 645 60.5 55.5 50 + + [Footnote *: _After skinning._] + ====================================================================== + + +MEASUREMENTS OF SKULLS + + Columns: + + A: No. + B: Sex and age + C: Date + D: Condylobasal length* + E: Zygomatic width + F: Interorbital width + G: Length of nasal + H: Maxillary tooth-row + I: Mandibular tooth-row + + ====================================================================== + A B C D E F G H I + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + 1065 ♂ ad Aug 17 373 130 140 125 94 101 + 1144 ♂ ad Oct 16 356 135 140 122 82 + 1111 ♂ ad Sep 29 359 134 138 112 82 + 1046 ♂ ad Jun 18 374 131 135 121 97 104 + 1132 ♂ ad Oct 16 350 136 138 117 83 91 + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Average of ♂ ♂ ad 362.4 133.2 138.2 119.4 87.6 98.7 + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + 1101 ♀ ad Sep 21 324 117 121 101 85 + 1036 ♀ ad Sep -- 118 120 83.5 79 83.5 + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + 1072 ♂ juv Aug 20 215 92 85 54 + 1095 ♂ juv Sep 7 189 85 77 42 + + [Footnote *: _Tip of premaxillary to posterior plane of condyles._] + ====================================================================== + + +MEASUREMENTS OF ANTLERS + + Columns: + + A: No. + B: Sex and age + C: Date + D: Total length, right antler + E: Total length, left antler + F: Brow antler, length + G: Brow antler, width + H: Greatest spread of beams (outside measurement) + I: Total number of points + + ============================================================== + A B C D E F G H I + -------------------------------------------------------------- + 1065 ♂ ad Aug 17 1165* 1205* 875* + 1144 ♂ ad Oct 16 1200 1180 290 232 668 32 + 1111 ♂ ad Sep 29 1080 1080 279 235 655 32 + 1132 ♂ ad Oct 16 960 903 225 197 677 30 + -------------------------------------------------------------- + Average of last 3 1080 1054.3 264.7 221.3 666.7 31.3 + + [Footnote *: _Antlers in velvet. Unless otherwise specified, + lengths of antlers were measured along the curve._] + ============================================================== + + +MEASUREMENTS OF TESTES + +Seasonal change in the size of testes in adult males is indicated by the +following data: June 3, 30×18 mm.; June 18, 51×28.5; August 17, 50×35; +September 29, 61×38; October 16, 60×40. Two male fawns: August 20, 18×7; +September 7, 15×8.5. + + _References on measurements._--J. C. Ross, in John Ross, + 1835b: xviii; J. A. Allen, 1910: 8; Seton, 1929, +3+: 97; + Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 87; Flerov, 1934: 240; Murie, 1935: + 75; Soper, 1944: 248; Banfield, 1951a: 30. + + _References on weight._--Parry, 1824: 305; Richardson, 1829: + 241, and 1852: 290; Armstrong, 1857: 475, 498; Baird, 1857: 635; + M’Clintock, 1860?: 184; Osborn, 1865: 227; Schwatka, 1885: + 84-85; Collinson, 1889: 153; J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128; Whitney, + 1896: 237; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 79; Jones, 1899: 329; + Hornaday, 1904: 138, and 1914, +2+: 104; J. A. Allen, 1910: 8; + Seton, 1929, +3+: 97-98; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 55; Hornby, + 1934: 105; Banfield, 1951a: 15, 30. + + +_Geographical variation_ + +The comparatively few specimens available indicate that different +populations on the mainland, between Hudson Bay and the Mackenzie River, +vary in size. Final judgment on the significance of this variation must +await the accumulation of more and better material. The lack of +topotypical material from the Fort Enterprise area, Mackenzie, is a +particular handicap. + + The extreme and average body measurements of five adult males + from the Windy River area (see accompanying table) may be + compared with those of three adult males, taken by R. M. + Anderson, 1910 and 1912, at Langton and Darnley Bays (Nos. + 34431, 34432, and 34435, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.): length, 1980-2095 + (2052); tail (two specimens), 152-165 (158.5); height at + shoulder, 1066-1167 (1117); shoulder to hip (one specimen), 964. + The average length of these specimens exceeds that of the Windy + River specimens by 278 mm.; the average height at the shoulder, + by 37 mm. The length of an adult male from Artillery Lake (J. A. + Allen, 1910: 8) exceeds the Windy River average by 156 mm., and + its shoulder height (Seton, 1929, +3+: 97), by 10 mm., but the + length of its hind foot, as recorded, is 17 mm. less than the + Windy River average. + + The measurements of four adult females, taken by Anderson, 1910 + and 1911, at Langton Bay, Horton River, and Great Bear Lake + (Nos. 34429, 34434, 34441, 34442, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.) are: + length, 1625-1815 (1736); height at shoulder, 825-1066 (968); + shoulder to hip (one specimen), 863. The average length of these + specimens exceeds that of a Windy River adult female by 146 mm.; + the average height at the shoulder, by 98 mm. The length of an + adult female from Aylmer Lake (J. A. Allen, 1910: 8) exceeds + that of the Windy River specimen by 112 mm.; the length of its + hind foot, by 18 mm.; and the height at the shoulder (Seton, + 1929, +3+: 97), by 43 mm. + +Thus there appears to be a fairly uniform tendency toward greater body +measurements from southwestern Keewatin to northwestern Mackenzie. The +weight of Seton’s male from Artillery Lake (270¾ lb.) considerably +exceeds the maximum (200 lb.) that I estimated for any of the Windy +River males. Maximum measurements are furnished by winter specimens from +the region of Langton and Darnley Bays. + + The skulls of two adult males from Horton River and Artillery + Lake (Nos. 34502 and 29031, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.) measure, + respectively: condylobasal length (tip of premaxillary to + posterior plane of condyles), 381, 371; zygomatic width, 138, + approximately 142; interorbital width, 143, 144; nasal, 126, + 112; maxillary tooth-row, 87, 84; mandibular tooth-row (of No. + 29031), 93. The rostral profile of the former is slightly + convex; of the latter nearly flat. Comparison with Windy River + adult males (see accompanying table) indicates a longer and a + broader skull in the more northwesterly specimens. The + measurements of the skulls of Southampton Island specimens as + presented by Sutton and Hamilton (1932: 87), suggest a somewhat + larger animal than the mainland form. + + The left antler of an adult male from Horton River (No. 34502, + Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.) measures: length, 1248; length of brow + tine, 345; width of brow tine, 360; total points (both antlers), + 16 + 14 = 30. The corresponding measurements of two sets of + antlers from Fort Reliance in the American Museum of Natural + History are: No. 121471 (left), 1242-285-108; (right), + 1244-412-294; total points, 16 + 23 = 39; No. 121473 (left), + 1312-360-290 (broken); (right), 1230 (approx.), brow tine a + spike, not palmated; total points, approximately 19 + 13 = 32. + The Fort Reliance specimens were selected by George G. Goodwin + from a large number of old antlers lying about, and they are + naturally above the average in size. The antlers of adult males + from the Windy River area (see accompanying table) measure + distinctly less than those just mentioned. + +Anderson (1913b: 505) and Stefánsson (1913a: 106, and 1913b: 241, +276-277) have called attention to certain rather well-defined +differences between the Caribou on both sides of Coronation Gulf and +those elsewhere in northern Mackenzie. It may be assumed that the summer +home of the former type is on Victoria Island. Many of these animals in +former years crossed over to the mainland in the autumn after the +freezing of Dolphin and Union Strait, Coronation Gulf, and Dease Strait +made such a migration possible; and they recrossed to the island in the +spring. During recent years this migration has greatly dwindled +(Blanchet, 1930: 50; Birket-Smith, 1933: 93; Clarke, 1940: 98; Gavin, +1945: 227; Godsell, 1937: 288; Banfield, 1949: 481); consequently the +Victoria Island population now seems to be largely confined to that +island throughout the year. In the American Museum of Natural History I +have examined several of Anderson’s specimens of 1911-1912 that are +obviously of this form, and I should scarcely hesitate to give them +nomenclatural recognition except for the fact that there has obviously +been some confusion in the labeling of the specimens (after they reached +the museum). Needless to say, a specimen selected as a type should bear +unquestionable data. + +During the winter there is some interchange of populations between Banks +and Victoria islands across the frozen Prince of Wales Strait +(Armstrong, 1857: 297, 336). The description that Armstrong gives (1857: +478), based ostensibly on Banks Island specimens, indicates that the +animals of that island are very close to, if not identical with, +_Rangifer pearyi_ of the more northerly Arctic islands. Yet there is no +known interchange of populations across the frozen McClure Strait or +other wide sea channels in approximately latitude 74° N. + +The Caribou of Boothia Peninsula and Somerset and Prince of Wales +islands are said to be a small form (Wright, 1944: 195). + +The Caribou of the Dubawnt River region, as far as may be judged from +J. B. Tyrrell’s photographs (1897: pl. 1; Seton, 1929, +3+: pl. 22), are +indistinguishable from those of the Nueltin Lake region. + +The Southampton Island antlers figured by Sutton and Hamilton (1932: +pl. 8) are so strikingly different from all but one (No. 1132) of those +that I noticed in southwestern Keewatin that I should be much inclined +to regard them as representing a separate subspecies, provided they are +typical of that island. In most of the bucks of the Windy River area the +beams are deeply and fairly uniformly bowed, although there is a strong +tendency for approximately the basal third to be nearly straight, with a +pronounced forward bend just above it (_cf._ figs. 3, 4, 9, 10, 12, 22, +25). The bend at this point in the Southampton antlers is extremely +slight by comparison. In mainland specimens the beam in cross-section +is generally more or less round, with rarely any tendency toward +flattening, such as may be seen in the Southampton set and in my No. +1132. Furthermore, I cannot recall in the mainland animals a single such +pronounced zigzag effect as may be seen in the Southampton antlers. In +extremely few of them does the bez tine originate at such a distance +(apparently 8 inches or so) above the base, as in Sutton and Hamilton’s +figure. The lack of palmation in the bez tines of their specimen is +noteworthy. + +There is a distinct likelihood that the isolated herd of Coats Island +(Wright, 1944: 188; Banfield, 1949: 481), and also that of Salisbury +Island in Hudson Strait (Grant, 1903: 189; Tweedsmuir, 1951: 37), may be +distinct from the populations on the nearest large land bodies. + +I have briefly examined a dozen or more heads (skulls with antlers) of +the Labrador Barren Ground Caribou (_R. a. caboti_ G. M. Allen) in the +United States National Museum; they were collected by L. M. Turner in +the 1880’s. Some of these antlers appear longer than any I saw in +Keewatin. Furthermore, the tips of the bez tines in these specimens +seem, on the average, more strongly incurved than in _R. a. arcticus_. + +For the purpose of comparing the Barren Ground Caribou with the Western +Woodland Caribou, _Rangifer caribou sylvestris_ (Richardson), the +following notes are offered on an adult male of the latter form in the +United States Biological Surveys Collection (No. 235361; fig. 28). It +was secured by a Cree Indian on Stony Mountain, about 27 miles south of +Fort McMurray, Alberta, on October 21, 1920, and it was measured and +prepared by myself. The general dorsal color is near Prout’s Brown, +overlaid more or less with longer whitish hairs; outer surface of ears +near Prout’s Brown, with an admixture of grayish white hairs; tip of +snout, between nostrils and upper lip, Cartridge Buff; this area of more +restricted extent than the similar patch in _arcticus_; neck creamy; +longest hairs of throat fringe about 20 mm. (longer than in _arcticus_); +no appreciable dark longitudinal stripe on lower sides, but an +ill-defined lighter patch on the side behind the shoulder; rump-patch +apparently less extensive than in _R. a. arcticus_; venter near Buffy +Brown, posteriorly creamy; creamy white “spats” above hoofs ¼ to 1½ +inches wide, not extending up hind leg as indicated by Seton (1929, +3+: +pl. 10). Length, 2025; tail, 225; foot, 625; front hoof, 109; hind hoof, +101; estimated weight, 300 lb. The Western Woodland Caribou is thus a +distinctly larger animal than _R. a. arcticus_, with a noteworthy +difference in the virtual absence of a light lateral stripe, setting off +a darker stripe below it. The specific distinctness between the two +animals seems abundantly clear. + + _References to general descriptions (including geographical + variation)._--Richardson, 1829: 239, 241-242; Armstrong, 1857: + 478; Baird, 1857: 635; Caton, 1881: 105; Lydekker, 1898: 47-48, + 1901: 38-40, and 1915: 254; Elliot, 1901: 37, and 1902: 281-282, + 286-287; Preble, 1902: 42-43; Stone and Cram, 1904: 52; J. A. + Allen, 1908a: 488; Millais, 1915: 261; Buchanan, 1920: + 125-126; Anthony, 1928: 530-531; Seton, 1929, +3+: 98-99; + Jacobi, 1931: 78-80; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 88; Degerbøl, + 1935: 48-51; R. M. Anderson, 1937: 103; Hamilton, 1939: 109; + Murie, 1939: 239; G. M. Allen, 1942: 297-298; Wright, 1944: 195; + Rand, 1948a: 211-212; Banfield, 1951a: 15-17; Mochi and Carter, + 1953: text to pl. 9. + + _References to illustrations._--Parry, 1824: pl. facing p. 508; + Richardson, 1829: 240; Caton, 1881: 207; Pike, 1917 (1892): pl. + facing p. 89; J. B. Tyrrell, 1897: pl. 1; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 + (1898): pls. facing pp. 80, 81; Grant, 1903: 6th and 7th pls. + following p. 196; J. A. Allen, 1908a: 500-503; Seton, 1911: + 254, 256, 262, and pls. facing pp. 222, 224, 226, 228, 234; + Buchanan, 1920: pl. facing p. 132; Hewitt, 1921: pls. 3, 5; + Blanchet, 1926b: 47; Seton, 1929, +3+: pls. 17, 21, 22, 23; + Blanchet, 1930: 50; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: pl. 8, fig. 4; + Ingstad, 1933: pl. facing p. 178; Clarke, 1940: frontisp., 85, + 87, 89; Harper, 1949: 224, 229; Banfield, 1951a: figs. 1, 2, + 12-16, 20, 21, 23; Anonymous, 1952: 261, 263, 266, 267; Mochi + and Carter, 1953: pl. 9; Barnett, 1954: 90-91, 103-105. + + + + +LITERATURE CITED + + +ALCOCK, F. J. + +1936. Geology of Lake Athabaska region, Saskatchewan. _Canada Dept. +Mines, Geol. Survey Mem._ 196: [1]+41, 8 pl., 6 maps. + +ALLEN, GLOVER M. + +1942. Extinct and vanishing mammals of the Western Hemisphere with the +marine species of all the oceans. [New York]: xv + 620, 1 pl., 24 fig. + +ALLEN, J. 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Preliminary report on the occurrence of the nose fly (Cephenomyia) +in the deer of Pennsylvania. _Board Game Commissioners Pennsylvania +Bull._ (12) rev.: 61-65, 2 fig. + +STOCKWELL, C. H. + +1933. Great Slave Lake--Coppermine River area, Northwest Territories. +_Canada Dept. Mines, Geol. Survey, Summary Rept. 1932_, pt. C: 64-72, +1 map. + +STONE, A. J. + +1900. Some results of a natural history journey to northern British +Columbia, Alaska, and the Northwest Territory, in the interest of the +American Museum of Natural History. _Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist._ +13+ +(5): 31-62, 2 fig., 3 maps. + +STONE, WITMER, and WILLIAM EVERETT CRAM. + +1904. American animals, a popular guide to the mammals of North America +north of Mexico. . . . New York: xxiii + 318, 86 pl., 17 fig. + +SUTTON, GEORGE MIKSCH, and WILLIAM J. HAMILTON, JR. + +1932. The mammals of Southampton Island. _Mem. Carnegie Mus._ +12+, +pt. 2, sect. 1: 1-111, 5 pl., 4 fig. + +THOMPSON, DAVID. + +1916. David Thompson’s narrative of his explorations in western America +1784-1812. Edited by J. B. Tyrrell. _Publ. Champlain Soc._ 12: xcviii + +582, 21 pl., 2 maps. + +TWEEDSMUIR, [LORD]. + +1951. Hudson’s Bay trader. New York: 1-195, 8 pl., 1 map. + +TWINN, C. R. + +1950. Studies of the biology and control of biting flies in northern +Canada. _Arctic_ +3+ (1): 14-26, 11 fig. + +TYRRELL, JAMES W. + +1908. Across the sub-Arctics of Canada. Ed. 3. Toronto: i-viii, 9-280, +18 pl., 66 fig., 3 maps. (Orig. ed. in 1898.) + +1924. Report on an exploratory survey between Great Slave Lake and +Hudson Bay, districts of Mackenzie and Keewatin. Dept. Interior, Ottawa: +1-38, maps. (Reprinted from _Ann. Rept. Dept. Interior_ 1901 [1902].) + +TYRRELL, J. BURR. + +1892. The winter home of the Barren Ground Caribou. _Ottawa Naturalist_ ++6+ (8): 128-130. + +1894. An expedition through the Barren Lands of northern Canada. _Geog. +Jour._ +4+ (5): 437-450, 1 map. + +1895. A second expedition through the Barren Lands of northern Canada. +_Geog. Jour._ +6+ (5): 438-448, 1 map. + +1896. Report on the country between Athabasca Lake and Churchill River +with notes on two routes travelled between the Churchill and +Saskatchewan Rivers. Ann. _Rept. Geog. Survey Canada_ +8+ (n.s.), 1895, +rept. D: 1-120, 3 pl., 1 map. + +1897. Report on the Doobaunt, Kazan and Ferguson Rivers and the +north-west coast of Hudson Bay, and on two overland routes from Hudson +Bay to Lake Winnipeg. _Ann. Rept. Geol. Survey Canada_ +9+ (n.s.), 1896, +rept. F: 1-218, 11 pl., 3 maps. + +[UNITED STATES] WAR DEPARTMENT. + +1944. Arctic manual. _Technical Manual_ 1-240. Washington: 1-131, 21 +fig., 1 map. + +WEBER, NEAL A. + +1950. A survey of the insects and related arthropods of Arctic Alaska. +Part 1. _Trans. Am. Entom. Soc._ +76+ (3): 147-206, 7 pl. + +WEEKS, L. J. + +1933. Maguse River and part of Ferguson River basin, Northwest +Territories. _Canada Dept. Mines, Geol. Survey, Summary Rept. 1932_, +pt. 64-72, 1 map. + +WEYER, EDWARD MOFFATT, JR. + +1932. The Eskimos: their environment and folkways. New Haven: xvii + +491, 6 fig., 23 maps. + +WHEELER, DAVID E. + +1912. Notes on the spring migration at timber line, north of Great Slave +Lake. _Auk_ +29+ (2): 198-204, 1 map. + +1914. The Dog-rib Indian and his home. Bull. _Geog. Soc. Philadelphia_ ++12+ (2): 47-69, 3 pl., 1 map. + +WHITNEY, CASPAR. + +1896. On snow-shoes to the Barren Grounds. . . . New York: x + 324, 35 +pl., 77 fig., 2 maps. + +WHITTAKER, E. J. + +1919. Notes on midwinter life in the Far North. _Ottawa Naturalist_ +32+ +(9): 166-167. + +WRAY, O. R. + +1934. In the footsteps of Samuel Hearne. _Canadian Geog. Jour._ +9+ (3): +138-146, 15 fig., 2 maps. + +WRIGHT, J. G. + +1944. Economic wildlife of Canada’s eastern Arctic--caribou. _Canadian +Geog. Jour._ +29+ (4): 184-195, 12 fig., 1 map. + +YOUNG, STANLEY P. + +1944. The wolves of North America. Part 1. Their history, life habits, +economic status, and control. Washington: 1-385, 74 pl., 4 fig., 8 maps. + +YULE, ROBERT F. + +1948. The disappearing caribou. _Canadian Medic. Assoc. Jour._ +58+: +287-288, 1 fig. + + + + +ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES + +TO + +_Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ + + +These references are arranged chronologically, year by year; but within +a given year, the arrangement for the most part is alphabetical by +authors. The full citations of the publications (here designated merely +by author and year) may be found in the preceding “Literature Cited.” + +The name or names at the beginning of each entry are those by which the +animal is referred to in that particular publication. If the author +supplies a technical name (such as _Rangifer arcticus_), that name alone +is furnished here. The authority for the technical name is included or +omitted according to the usage of each author. If he omits a technical +name, the common name or names he employs (such as “Caribou” or +“Reindeer”) are supplied. + +In some of the earlier accounts, particularly, more than one form of +_Rangifer_ (_e.g._, Peary’s Caribou, the Labrador Caribou, or even the +Woodland Caribou, in addition to the typical Barren Ground Caribou) may +have been treated under a single designation, such as “Reindeer” or +“_Cervus tarandus_.” In such case the word “part” is added in +parentheses after the name at the beginning of the entry. As far as +is possible or feasible, the references are here limited to _R. a. +arcticus_. They constitute a partial summary of the nomenclatural +history of the typical subspecies. + +The annotations aim to provide a sort of abstract of, or unalphabetized +index to, the treatment of this animal in each publication. Each topic +or rubric of the annotations (such as migration, distribution, food, +voice, antlers, or relation to Wolves) is accompanied by page +references. + +In the earlier part of the present publication, at the end of the +discussion of each topic, references are given (merely by author, year, +and page) to previous literature on the same topic. The Annotated +Bibliographical References now supplied represent an amplification of +those earlier and briefer references--an intermediate stage between +them and the original literature. It is hoped that they will prove +particularly helpful to those who may not have ready access to all the +items of the original literature. My own coverage of the literature has +not been by any means exhaustive; limitations of time and insufficient +accessibility of some of the rarer publications have been the principal +factors involved in this deficiency. + +The chronological arrangement of the entries throws an interesting light +on the gradual acquisition, during more than two centuries, of our +present stock of information on the distribution, taxonomic characters, +life habits, and general status of _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. It may +be remarked, however, that one of the very earliest accounts (Hearne, +1795) was one of the fullest. It contributes toward bringing into focus +the remarkable attainments of that pioneer explorer-naturalist of the +Barren Grounds. + + “Deer” (one of three kinds): Isham, 1949 (1743): 151 + (description); 152 (inhabit Barren Grounds); 152-153 (snares); + 154 (Eskimos hunting with spears and arrows). + + “Rain-deer” or “Cariboux”: Dobbs, 1774: 9, 78, 94 (Marble + Island); 19 (Indians living on Caribou W. of Hudson Bay); 20 + (herds of up to 10,000 between Churchill and Nelson rivers); 22 + (migration [of Barren Ground or Woodland species?] near York + Factory--S. in March-April, N. in July-August); 47, 59 (N. of + Churchill); 73-74 (Wager Inlet); 80 (Cape Fullerton). + + “Deer”: Hearne, 1795: 4, 7, 8, 14, 24 (vicinity of Seal River or + Shethanei Lake); 28 (near Baralzon Lake); 35 (spearing by + Chipewyans on upper Kazan River); 39, 40 (W. of upper Kazan + River, July 22-30); 40-42, 50-52 (vicinity of upper Dubawnt + River); 50 (skins suitable for clothing in late August); 56, 66 + (vicinity of Egg River, Manitoba, November and December); 67-68 + (E. of Nueltin Lake); 69, 72, (Nueltin Lake); 69 (flesh of bucks + still unpalatable on December 30); 73, 74 (W. of Nueltin Lake, + January); 76 (plentiful W. of Kasba Lake); 77 (Snowbird Lake); + 78 (Indians living all winter on deer at Wholdaia Lake); 78-80 + (description of a pound); 80-84 (deer in Indian economy); 84 + (remoteness a barrier to trade in skins); 85-87 (W. of Wholdaia + Lake, plentiful, March); 87 (“Thelewey-aza-yeth” Lake [on Thelon + River], numerous, April); 96 (Indians living all winter on deer + near Clowey Lake); 112, 114 (“Peshew” [Artillery?] Lake and + vicinity); 117 (plentiful, vicinity of Thoy-noy-kyed and + Thoy-coy-lyned lakes); 119, 123 (N. of Cogead Lake, where + Indians kill deer at a river crossing); 139 (N. of Buffalo + Lake); 141 (E. of Coppermine River); 142, 143, 147, 171 + (Coppermine River and vicinity); 184 (Stony Mountains); 195 + (Thaye-chuck-gyed Lake [Lac de Gras?]; great numbers killed); + 196-197 (use for clothing, boots, tents, etc.); 197 (warbles + eaten by Indians); 198 (rutting season in October; subsequent + segregation of sexes); 198-199 (old bucks’ antlers shed in + November; young bucks still retain theirs at Christmas, and does + till summer); 201, 204 (Point Lake); 222 (between Great Slave + and MacKay lakes); 275 (large numbers reported on upper Taltson? + River); 281 (W. of Hill Island Lake); 285, 286 (plentiful in + April on Thee-lee-aza [Thelon?] River, NE. of Hill Island Lake); + 293 (near Wholdaia Lake); 295, 296 (W. and E. of Kazan River); + 297 (method of drying meat); 299 (plentiful in June, Nueltin + Lake region); 300 (vicinity of Egg River, Manitoba); 316-319 + (stomach contents, unborn young and uterus eaten by Indians); + 321-322 (Indians driving deer between converging rows of + sticks); 322-323 (tents of deerskin); 323-325 (skins used in + manufacture of sledges, snowshoes, and clothing). + + “Rein-deer”: Parry, 1821: 273 (E. coast of Baffin Island). + + “Reindeer” or “deer”: Franklin, 1823: 215-227, 285 (Yellowknife + River region); 230-232, 239-240, 245, 248, 268-271, 285, 297, + 299, 309, 315-320, 438-440, 459-462, 480-488 (Winter Lake + region); 233, 324-325, 418-426, 446-447 (Point Lake region); 240 + (back fat; rutting season); 240-241 (antler and pelage change); + 241 (larvae of warble and nostril flies); 241-242 (migration); + 242 (fawning; food; weight; predation by wolves); 243-244 + (Indian hunting methods); 327, 328, 333, 337, 344 (Coppermine + River region); 327 (pursuit by a wolf); 344 (driven by wolves + over a precipice); 363-374 (coast of Coronation Gulf); 379-395 + (Bathurst Inlet region); 397-400 (Hood River region); 404-413 + (Contwoyto Lake region); 478 (Marten Lake); 486, 487 (pursuit + and killing by wolves, Winter Lake region). + + _Cervus Tarandas_. . .: Sabine, in Franklin, 1823: 665, 667 + (Barren Grounds, migrating in summer to Arctic islands). + + “Deer” or “reindeer”: Lyon, 1824: 48, 58-60 (Frozen Strait); 54 + (Repulse Bay); 64-67 (Gore Bay; too fleet for a greyhound); 70, + 74, 76, 77, 80, 82 (Lyon Inlet and vicinity); 119, 123, 130, + 144, 203, 212 (Winter Island; food of Eskimos; bows made of + antlers; use of sinews; deerskin clothing); 192-198, 217, 221, + 223, 229, 238, 241, 282-283, 311-317 (Melville Peninsula, E. + coast; deerskin clothing of Eskimos); 257, 269-270 (near Fury + and Hecla Strait; buck shedding velvet, September 4); 324, 327 + (Eskimo use of antlers in sledges and bows); 336 (Melville + Peninsula, in summer; voice; inquisitiveness); 336-337 (Eskimo + hunting with bow and spearing in water); 415, 419-423, 430, 436 + (near Igloolik, Melville Peninsula, in June). + + “Deer” or “reindeer”: Parry, 1824: 42 (Southampton Island); 52, + 61, 69, 71, 72, 83, 84, 92, 101, 106-108, 214, 230, 235, 236, + 245, 254, 265 (s. Melville Peninsula and vicinity); 289, 305, + 308, 324, 329, 332, 339, 343, 434, 438, 439, 441, 446, 447, + 453-460 (Fury and Hecla Strait); 289 (stomach contents eaten by + Eskimos); 305 (estimated weight 220 lb.); 380 (venison supplied + by Eskimos); 403 (15 deer killed by an Eskimo during a summer); + 494-497 (deerskin clothing of Eskimos, Melville Peninsula); 505 + (their dependence on reindeer for food); 508 (Eskimo spear for + killing deer in water); 512 (Eskimo methods of hunting deer); + 513 (numerous, Cockburn Land); 537 (Eskimo use of skins and + sinew). + + _Cervus tarandus_ L.: Richardson, “1825” (= 1827?): 326 (native + names); 327-328 (antler growth and change); 328 (rutting season + and strong-tasting meat, about beginning of October; warble + flies); 328-329 (migrations, in relation to attacks of parasitic + flies and to food; does precede on northward migration); 329 + (fawns born in May and June; stragglers in every part of the + country at all seasons); 330 (utilization of Caribou--including + fly larvae--as food by natives; nostril flies); 331 (marrow used + as hair-dressing by native women). + + _Cervus tarandus_. . .: J. C. Ross, 1826: 94 (North Somerset + Island). + + “Rein-deer”: Franklin, in Franklin and Richardson, 1828: 54, 57, + 60, 64, 71, 72, 288 (Great Bear Lake). + + “Rein-deer”: Richardson, in Franklin and Richardson, 1828: 200 + (sinews used in Eskimo bows); 209, 218 (between Mackenzie River + and Cape Dalhousie); 224 (Liverpool Bay); 231 (E. of Cape + Bathurst); 241, 246 (near Cape Lyon); 249 (Cape Young); 255 + (Dolphin and Union Strait); 269-273 (lower Coppermine River); + 275 (stalking device of Hare Indians); 277 (Dease River); 282 + (Great Bear Lake). + + _Cervus tarandus_, var. [Greek: alpha] _arctica_ Richardson: + Richardson, 1829: 241-242 (original description); 239 (type + locality, neighborhood of Fort Enterprise, Mackenzie); 241 + (rutting season); 241-242 (antler change); 242 (pelage change; + infestation with warble fly; foot click); 242-245 (economic uses + of hide, flesh, bones, and antlers; migration; not wintering S. + of Churchill); 242-244 (reproduction); 243, 245 (food); 245 + (organization of herds; easy of approach); 245-249 (native + methods of hunting). + + _Cervus tarandus_ L.: Godman, 1831, +2+: 283-284 (migration); + 284 (food; gadfly attacking both Woodland and Barren Ground + Caribou); 285-293 (quotations from Franklin, 1823). + + “Deer” or “reindeer”: John Ross, 1835a: 130-376, _passim_ + (Boothia Peninsula); 243-244 (Eskimo clothing of deerskin); 252 + (Eskimo method of hunting); 328, 330 (only small numbers up to + late April); 337 (many, early May); 352 (stomach contents as + food for Eskimos); 376 (migrating N., May 26); 389 (large herd); + 390 (hundreds, June 4); 402 (pursued and eaten by wolves); 432 + (with fawns, June 10); 438 (many in June); 512 (many killed by + Eskimos); 529 (many tracks, May 15); 530 (many passing, followed + by a wolf); 534 (many, May 21, with two wolves); 537 (Eskimos + killing deer in winter); 564 (a number pursued by a wolf); 612 + (two, October 30); 628 (first tracks, March); 704 (tracks, + Somerset Island, late June). + + _Cervus tarandus_. . .: J. C. Ross, in John Ross, 1835b: xvii + (great numbers, Boothia; weight 250 lb.; does arriving in April, + bucks in May; fawns hunted by Eskimos with dogs; utilization by + Eskimos; food; great numbers speared in water in autumn + migration; stragglers found in winter); xviii (measurements). + + “Rein-deer” or “deer”: Back, 1836: 86 (Thelon River); 105 (Great + Slave Lake); 116 (Hoar-frost River); 128-129 (near Artillery + Lake, reindeer chased by wolves); 138-143 (Clinton-Colden and + Aylmer lakes); 156-157 (head of Great Fish River); 178, 205 + (near Fort Reliance); 216, 225, 234 (remaining on Barren Grounds + near Great Slave Lake during winter); 261, 267, 268, 273, 280, + 281, 285, 286 (Artillery Lake); 290, 292 (Lake Aylmer); 299, + 307, 311, 320, 323, 325, 328, 337 (upper Back’s River); 367 + (lower Back’s River, deer drowned in rapids); 420 (Chantrey + Inlet); 435, 439 (lower Back’s River). + + _Cervus tarandus_ Linn.: Richardson, in Back, 1836: 498 (Barren + Grounds; migration; food); 499 (utilization by Indians and + Eskimos; antlers). + + “Reindeer” or “deer”: Simpson, 1843: 76 (destruction in 1831 of + a countless herd [of Woodland or Barren Ground species?] + crossing Hayes River in summer); 196, 198 (Great Bear Lake, + September); 206, 226, 232, 242, 247, 249, 250 (between Great + Bear Lake and Coppermine River); 207 (solicitude of a buck for a + wounded doe); 208 (antlers worn by Indian hunter as a decoy); + 232 (deer driven over a cliff by wolves); 233 (numerous near + Dease River, early April); 255, 256, 261, 264 (lower Coppermine + River, June); 266, 271, 273 (Coppermine River to Cape Barrow, + July); 277 (does apparently crossing the ice to islands for + fawning); 278, 279 (Cape Barrow to Bathurst Inlet); 281 (first + does with fawns seen, August 3); 284 (Bathurst Inlet); 295, 297, + 301 (E. of Cape Franklin, migrating S., late August); 309, 310 + (lower Coppermine River, September; drowned in rapids); 312 + (deer snares, Dease River); 320-321 (retiring in winter to + Coppermine River and country south of Great Bear Lake); 328 + (numerous between Great Bear Lake and Mackenzie River in + winter); 342 (between Great Bear Lake and Coppermine River, + June); 347 (Eskimos hunting on Richardson River, summer); 352 + (lower Coppermine River); 355 (Eskimos at Cape Barrow gone + inland to hunt deer, July); 361 (Ellice River, July 31); 365, + 367 (Adelaide Peninsula); 370, 374 (Elliot Bay); 379 (King + William Island); 381 (does and fawns near Ogden Bay, early + September); 382 (Melbourne Island); 386 (Victoria Island, early + September); 391 (great numbers, lower Coppermine River, + September 20). + + “Rein-deer”: J. McLean, 1932 (1849): 195 (immense herds + [Woodland or Barren Ground sp.?] in York Factory region prior to + 1837; their disappearance reducing Indians to want); 359 + (Yellowknife Indians reported to have the art of taming fawns, + which follow them like dogs till killed and utilized). + + “Deer” or “rein-deer”: Rae, 1850: 26, 27 (Rankin’s Inlet); 27 + (Eskimos spearing deer while crossing Chesterfield Inlet); 28 + (Cape Fullerton); 31, 32 (near Whale Point); 35, 39 (Eskimo + clothing of caribou skin, Repulse Bay); 40, 64, 65, 73, 74, 76, + 80, 84, 91, 92, 133, 134, 166, 169, 177 (Repulse Bay); 44 (stone + monuments erected by Eskimos to deflect deer); 44, 68, 99 (Rae + Isthmus); 52, 54, 55, 130, 132, 145, 160, 161 (Committee Bay); + 79 (use by Eskimos for clothing and food); 93 (migrating N., + Repulse Bay, early March); 116 (Pelly Bay); 149, 151 (Melville + Peninsula); 150 (use of stomach contents as food); 170 (Eskimo + drum of caribou skin); 184, 186 (near Chesterfield Inlet). + + “Deer”: Osborn, 1852: 74 (near Pond Inlet). + + “Deer”: Rae, 1852a: 75 (Victoria Island, near Richardson + Islands); 79 (many crossing Dolphin and Union Straits to + Victoria Island). + + “Deer”: Rae, 1852b: 83 (lower Coppermine River); 91, 95 + (Victoria Island, vicinity of Albert Edward Bay). + + “Barren Ground reindeer”: Richardson, 1852: 156 (Point + Atkinson); 158 (Cape Brown); 166 (Franklin Bay); 173 (Buchanan + River); 188 (Rae’s River); 198 (Kendall River region); 290 + (Great Bear Lake; weight; great numbers [of Woodland or Barren + Ground species?] crossing Hayes River, 1833, and slaughtered + there by Indians); 296 (Great Bear Lake, migrating N. in May). + + “Reindeer” or “deer”: Hooper, 1853: 296 (dried meat as winter + fare at Fort Norman); 302 (few along Bear River, November); 342 + (Kendall Island); 343 (Richard Island); 378, 381 (meat as winter + fare at Fort Simpson); 391-393 (method of preparing pemmican). + + “Rein-deer”: Kennedy, 1853: 128 (numerous tracks, North + Somerset, early April); 133 (Bellot Strait); 144, 150 (numerous, + Prince of Wales Island, late April). + + _Rangifer caribou_ . . . (_C. tarandus, var. A. Arctica_ + Richardson): Audubon and Bachman, 1854, +3+: 114 (quotations + from Richardson, 1829, and Hearne, 1795; “in every part of + Arctic America, including the region from Hudson’s Bay to far + within the Arctic circle”). + + “Deer”: J. Anderson, 1856: 24 (about 100, mostly bucks, Adelaide + Peninsula, early August; Eskimos at Lake Franklin preparing to + hunt deer); 25 (a few does at Lake Macdougall, mid-August; + numerous at Aylmer and Clinton-Colden Lakes, early September). + + “Deer”: J. Anderson, 1857: 321 (Eskimos hunting deer, Lake + Franklin, July 30); 322 (mouth of Back’s River, July 30); 323 + (fat bucks killed, Montreal Island, August 2-3); 324, 325, 327 + (100, mostly bucks, Adelaide Peninsula, August 6, 7, 11); 326 + (all tracks going S., August 9); 328 (25 going S., Lake Pelly; + good deer passes between Lakes Pelly and Garry and at Hawk + Rapids). + + “Reindeer” or “Deer”: Armstrong, 1857: 149, 154, 155 (Eskimos + with Reindeer meat and skins, Point Warren, E. of Mackenzie + River); 166 (skins and meat at Eskimo camp near Cape Dalhousie); + 194 (deerskin clothing of Eskimos on coast of Mackenzie); 210, + 316, 322, 384, 391, 395, 417 (Banks Island); 254, 335, 364, 365 + (Victoria Island, in October, May, July, and August); 297, 336 + (Prince of Wales Strait, January and May); 395 (predation by + wolves, Banks Island); 475-488, 497-499, 505-510, 514, 515, + 521-530, 545-556, 568 (Banks Island; maximum weight 240 lb.; + distribution; remain during winter; fawning; 112 killed at Bay + of Mercy; quality of meat varying with season; wariness; antler + change; description; graze with heads to wind; pursuit by + wolves). + + _Rangifer groenlandicus_ (Kerr) (part): Baird, 1857: 635 + (description; weight); 635-636 (distribution). + + _Cervus Tarandus_, var. [Greek: a] _arctica_ Richardson: Murray, + 1858: 191 (Chesterfield Inlet region); 193-198 (comparison with + Lapland reindeer); 199-206 (antlers and shedding); 201-204 + (quotations from previous literature on antlers, food, fawning + season, and winter range); 206 (teeth); 206-210 (fur); 210 + (damage by warble flies). + + “Reindeer” or “deer”: M’Clintock, 1860?: 147 (s. shore of Pond + Inlet); 167, 176, 177, 184-188, 191, 194, 201, 203, 217, 289, + 290, 295, 299 (Bellot Strait); 184 (buck at Bellot Strait, minus + paunch, weighing 354 lb.); 212 (Eskimo clothing of reindeer + skins, Boothia Peninsula); 219 (Somerset Island); 239 (Adelaide + Peninsula); 244 (Montreal Island); 245 (Chantrey Inlet); 252, + 279, 280 (King William Island). + + “Rein-deer” (part): Richardson, 1861: 274 (migration; rutting + season; utilization by Indians and Eskimos); 275 (moving N. at + Repulse Bay, March 1; food). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ . . .: B. R. Ross, 1861: 438 (between Hudson + Bay and Arctic Ocean; infested by larvae of warble and nostril + flies); 438-439 (migrations); 439 (antler and pelage change; + food); 439-440 (value to Indians for food, clothing, etc.). + + _Rangifer Groënlandicus_ . . .: B. R. Ross, 1862: 141 + (distribution). + + “Reindeer” or “deer”: Osborn, 1865: 70 (Cape Bathurst); 80, 110, + 162, 170, 173, 182, 186, 188, 189, 192, 199, 206-208, 219 (Banks + Island); 98, 139, 146 (Victoria Island); 112 (Prince of Wales + Strait, January); 223-224 (resident in Arctic archipelago, + including Banks Island); 226 (no migration across Barrow Strait + or Melville Sound); 227 (weight; gait; antler change; fawning); + 227-228, 231, 232 (wolf predation). + + “Reindeer”: Kennicott, in Anonymous, 1869: 166 (dried reindeer + meat one of chief foods at Fort Simpson); 170 (caribou clothing + used by Yellow Knives). + + _Rangifer tarandus_ (Linné) Bd.: Kumlien, 1879: 19 (Eskimo + hunting at Cumberland Sound); 23-25 (Eskimo clothing of + deerskin); 36-37 (Eskimo arrows and bows of antlers); 53, 54 + (pursuit by wolves); 54 (abundant in Cumberland Sound region; + migration; food; hunting and utilization by Eskimos). + + “Barren ground caribou”: R. Bell, 1881: 15C (migrating in great + numbers, Reindeer Lake). + + _Rangifer Groenlandicus_ “Baird” (part): Caton, 1881: 105 + (description); 106 (Mackenzie River to Hudson Bay); 107 (food); + 108 (habits; migration); 366-371 (hunting by Indians and + Eskimos). + + “Reindeer” or “deer”: Gilder, 1881: 11 (Eskimos near Lower + Savage Islands, Hudson Strait, with skins and meat); 23, 25, 26, + 28 (hunting by Eskimos near Connery River, Keewatin); 42, 46 + (near Chesterfield Inlet); 43 (Eskimo drum of deerskin); 50 (dog + harness of deerskin); 59, 61, 64, 67, 71 (522 reindeer killed by + Schwatka’s party between Hudson Bay and King William Island); 61 + (pursued by wolves); 78 (wariness in winter); 83, 192 (Adelaide + Peninsula); 122, 132, 153, 157, 161, 162 (King William Island); + 137-146 (Eskimo use of skins and meat); 154 (Eskimos use of fat + and meat); 196-197 (reindeer collecting in immense herds to + cross Simpson Strait on ice in early October); 217, 218 (lower + Back’s River, December); 223, 224, 225, 226 (numerous between + Back’s River and Chesterfield Inlet, January); 254-255 + (deerskins as Eskimo bedding). + + “Reindeer” or “deer”: Nourse, 1884: 220 (Eskimos dressing skins + near Wager Bay); 232 (37 killed by Hall’s party in July, Wager + Bay); 235 (a thousand passing in a day; many cached near North + Pole River, late September; seen from September to January, and + reappearing in March); 256 (deer-hunting, Melville Peninsula); + 264-265 (18 deer and a fawn near Cape Weynton); 351 (found + abundant by Schwatka between Wager Bay and Back’s River); 354 + (King William Island); 356 (plentiful, Terror Bay; immense + herds, Simpson Strait, September to October 14). + + “Reindeer” or “Arctic deer”: Schwatka, 1885: 59-60, 65, 67-71, + 73-75, 81-82, 86 (hunting by Eskimos and whites in n. Keewatin); + 60-64 (skins for clothing, bedding, and drums); 60-61 (molt); + 65, 67 (use of meat); 68, 71-72 (swimming); 72 (many on King + William Island); 77-79 (migrating across Simpson’s Strait, June + and October); 79 (Boothia and North Somerset); 81 (near mouth of + Back’s River); 83 (rarely seen in herds of more than 100; + migrations); 84-85 (weight); 85 (unwariness). + + “Deer”: Boas, 1888: 419 (deer in Eskimo economy); 429, 461-462, + 501 (Baffin Island; hunting by Eskimos in summer by spear or + line of cairns); 438 (varying numbers on Cumberland Peninsula); + 502 (migration, Baffin and King William Islands); 502-503 (bows + made of antlers); 508-509 (stalking and trapping by Eskimos); + 522 (dressing of skins by Eskimos); 555-560 (clothing of + deerskin). + + “Reindeer”: Bompas, 1888: 24 (deflected in their migrations in + Mackenzie district by burning of the country); 60 (attacked by + wolves); 61 (Indian methods of hunting); 62 (palatability of the + flesh); 100 (utilization of hides and meat). + + “Deer”: Collinson, 1889: 153 (Banks Island; weight); 166, 171, + 173-175, 181, 186, 197, 209, 220, 237, 264, 272-274 (Victoria + Island); 200, 203, 229 (Prince of Wales Strait); 235 (Dolphin + and Union Strait); 243, 247, 281, 283 (Cambridge Bay); 244 + (large herds waiting to cross Dease Strait, October; trailed by + wolves); 277 (stone monuments of Eskimos for deflecting deer, + Dease Strait); 290 (large numbers migrating in autumn from + Victoria Island to mainland). + + “Reindeer”: MacFarlane, 1890: 32-34 (Anderson River; Eskimos + hunting reindeer there; their clothing in part of deerskin); 38 + (Eskimo fish nets of deer sinew); 38, 43, 47 (numerous on + Anderson River). + + “Barren Ground caribou”: Pike, 1917 (1892): 43, 64 (near Lake + Mackay); 44-46 (Lake Camsell); 48 (Arctic islands to s. part of + Hudson Bay and vicinity of Fort Smith, W. to Mackenzie River; + rutting season in October); 48-49 (migration); 49 (segregation + of sexes; antler change); 50 (migration deflected by burning of + country; thousands [Barren Ground or Woodland species?] at York + Factory, about 1888-1890; depletion by hunting); 51-55 (Indian + methods of hunting; economic uses); 51-52, 90 (unwariness); + 56-58 (relations to Eskimos, wolves, and wolverines); 58-59 + (parasitic flies); 59-60 (Indian superstition); 67, 72 + (Coppermine River above Lac de Gras); 76 (near Lake Mackay; Lake + Camsell); 81-82 (S. of Lake Mackay; curing of meat and hides); + 89-91 (la foule); 90 (rutting season over and bucks too strong + to eat, late October); 101 (mostly passed into the woods by + November 11); 108 (Lake Mackay); 134 (near Lac de Mort); 148 + (near Gros Cap, Great Slave Lake, January); 171, 174, 177 (N. of + Great Slave Lake); 174 (bucks leaving woods in early June); 182 + (Lake Aylmer); 186, 199 (Back’s River, July); 201, 204 (near + Lake Beechey; females with young, late July); 209 (females and + young in great numbers, upper Back’s River); 217 (Clinton-Colden + Lake, early August); 220 (thousands at Ptarmigan Lake, August); + 221 (Artillery Lake); 224, 227 (Pike’s Portage). + + _Rangifer Groenlandicus_ Linn.: J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128 (use in + economy of northern Indians; weight; antler shedding; pelage + change; infestation with warbles); 129 (wintering between + Churchill River and Lake Athabaska; collecting on frozen lakes); + 130 (Indian hunters killing 100-400 apiece; Fond du Lac, Lake + Athabaska, on a main migratory path). + + _Rangifer Groenlandica_ Linn.: Dowling, 1893: 89 (Bear Head Lake + [N. of Great Slave Lake]); 92 (near Lake Mackay, June 22); 103 + (a favorite crossing on Great Fish River near Musk-ox Lake); 107 + (Pike’s expedition living mainly on caribou; migrations; does + fawning near the sea-coast, bucks following behind; horns in + velvet prized as food by Indians). + + “Barren Ground caribou”: J. B. Tyrrell, 1894: 441 (_Alectoria + jubata_, a lichen, at Daly Lake, as food of caribou); 442 + (immense herd--“tens of thousands”--at Carey Lake, July 29; + tormented by black flies; animals lean and poor); 445 (Eskimo + wearing deerskin coat; Lady Marjorie Lake, lower Dubawnt River); + 446 (caribou plentiful in country traversed as far as Baker + Lake; last one shot there September 3). + + “Barren Ground Caribou”: Russell, 1895: 48 (a mass of caribou + passing Fort Rae for 14 days in 1877); 49 (a section of antler + used by Indian as a powder horn); 49-50 (caribou N. of North Arm + of Great Slave Lake, November); 50 (leaping high in air at + start; Indian hunting methods); 51 (Indian use of meat; albino + specimen; antler growth and shedding; thousands near Bathurst + Inlet, April; does fawning along sea coast in June). + + “Deer”: J. B. Tyrrell, 1895: 440 (deer meat bartered by + Chipewyans at Brochet); 442-443 (Indians hunting deer at Ennadai + Lake; large numbers encountered there; Eskimos skinning deer on + upper Kazan River); 444 (deerskin clothing purchased from + Eskimos on Kazan River); 445 (no deer seen in rocky country + along Ferguson River). + + _Rangifer Graenlandicus_ . . .: J. B. Tyrrell, 1896: 13 (S. in + winter to Reindeer Lake and Mudjatick and Foster Rivers); 63 + (migrating past Fond du Lac, Lake Athabaska). + + “Caribou”: Whitney, 1896: 157, 238, 241 (migrations); 161 (fat, + pemmican, and dried meat); 175 (use of dried meat by Dogribs); + 176 (tepees of caribou skin); 202-206 (vicinity of Fort + Enterprise); 210 (near Point Lake); 210, 213 (Dogrib hunting + methods); 237 (importance to Indians; weight; an albino); + 238-239 (antler shedding); 239 (warble and nostril flies; + persecution by wolves); 240 (seasonal condition of flesh; + distribution; recent decrease); 242 (wasteful killing by + Indians; variation in wariness); 252, 268-269 (S. of Coronation + Gulf); 262 (shoulder-blade as Indian talisman). + + _Rangifer Groenlandicus_. . .: J. B. Tyrrell, 1897: 10, 49-50, + 165 (herd of 100,000 to 200,000 at Carey Lake, Dubawnt River, + late July); 12 (plentiful near Thelon-Dubawnt junction; scarce + at Baker Lake, early September); 14 (S. of Dawson Inlet); 19, + 124 (large numbers, Ennadai Lake, mid-August); 21, 140, 142 + (plentiful along Ferguson River, September); 76 (plentiful along + Dubawnt River); 122, 131-132 (hunted by Chipewyans, Ennadai Lake + and Kazan River); 126-127, 131-132 (hunted by Eskimos, upper + Kazan River); 134 (many near Yathkyed Lake); 150-151 (near + source of Owl River, Manitoba; hunted by Indians, Wapinihikiskow + Lake); 166-167 (hunting by Chipewyans and Eskimos; use for food, + clothing, and kayaks). + + _Rangifer tarandus arcticus_. . .: Lydekker, 1898: 47-48 + (description); 48 (distribution); 48-49 (migration; food). + + _Rangifer tarandus_ (Linn.): Russell, 1898: 88 (great numbers + passing Fort Rae for 14 days in 1877); 89 (N. of Fort Rae); 90 + (leaping into air at start); 91 (use of flesh by Dog Ribs; + albino specimen); 111, 113, 119 (upper Coppermine River region, + abundant in March); 134 (caribou-skin clothing worn formerly by + Loucheux at Fort McPherson); 139 (on Mackenzie Delta in 1850); + 168 (caribou-skin lodge at Fort Rae); 169-172 (caribou-skin + clothing among Dog Ribs); 176 (caribou-skin drum at Fort Rae; + use of sinew); 178 (caribou-skin gun cases among Indians); + 187-189 (caribou-skin clothing among Eskimos); 225 (antler + change); 226 (albino; food; distribution and migrations); 227 + (abundant along coast between Mackenzie River and Cape Bathurst, + 1894; deer snares; spearing; hunting); 228-229 (utilization by + Eskimos and Indians; parasitic flies). + + “Barren Ground Caribou,” “deer,” or “reindeer”: J. W. Tyrrell, + 1908 (1898): 77-78 (Barlow Lake; Carey Lake, thousands, late + July); 79 (weight 100-400 lb.; molt); 79-80 (antler change); 80 + (relation of prongs to age; migration; food; reproduction); + 80-81 (utilization of meat, skins, and sinew); 87-88 (Dubawnt + Lake); 97 (lower Dubawnt River); 98 (Wharton Lake); 123-138 + (utilization by Eskimos); 139-141 (hunting by Eskimos); 174-177 + (near Dawson Inlet); 206-207 (E. of Churchill River); 215 (mouth + of Nelson River [Woodland or Barren Ground species?]); 241 + (importance to natives). + + “Caribou” or “reindeer”: Jones, 1899: 328-332, 342-343, 353-355 + (Fort Reliance and vicinity); 329 (weight); 338, 340, 365, 394 + (Artillery Lake and vicinity); 342 (Indian corral or trap); 359 + (noonday rest of caribou); 368 (immense band, Clinton-Colden + Lake, early March); 374 (tens of thousands of does daily, + Clinton-Colden Lake, moving N., March); 374-375 (relations to + wolves); 381 (abundant, near mouth of Dubawnt River, March); 390 + (near lower Dubawnt River); 411 (suffering from insects); 429 + (spearing by Indians). + + “Deer”: Lofthouse, 1899: 275 (mouth of Tha-anne River, early + July). + + “Caribou or deer”: Hanbury, 1900: 64 (Eskimos bringing venison + to Churchill and reporting deer numerous along the coast); 65 + (importance of deer in northern travel; scarce along west coast + of Hudson Bay in May and early June); 66-67 (very scarce at + Baker Lake in June, plentiful in July); 67 (flesh unpalatable in + fly-time; large bands at Aberdeen Lake, August); 69 (absent in + winter on lower Thelon River; very scarce on Hanbury River, + August); 71 (plentiful, Artillery Lake to Great Slave Lake, + September). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson) (part): A. J. Stone, 1900: 50 + (distribution; migration); 51 (Richards Island); 53 (antlers; + does and fawns moving N. in May, Franklin Bay; sprawling posture + of hind leg); 57 (disastrous results of whalers’ demands for + meat; Darnley Bay; Bathurst Isthmus). + + “Caribou”: J. M. Bell, 1901a: 16 (vast herds near Dismal Lake; + use by Eskimos). + + “Caribou”: J. M. Bell, 1901b: 252 (furnishing food and + clothing for Hare Indians, Great Bear Lake); 255 (use by Eskimos + near Coppermine River; vast herds); 258 (plentiful, but + decreasing, S. of Great Bear Lake; wanton killing by Indian and + Eskimos). + + “Caribou”: Boas, 1901: 52, 54 (Eskimo garments of caribou skin, + Cumberland Sound); 81 (Eskimos hunting caribou with harpoons); + 102, 107 (Eskimo clothing of caribou skin, w. coast of Hudson + Bay); 150 (albino caribou).--1907: 465 (Eskimos W. of Hudson Bay + dependent on caribou); 474 (caribou plentiful on Southampton + Island and larger than on mainland); 493 (caribou-hunting at + Pond’s Inlet); 501 (taboo against killing albino caribou, W. of + Hudson Bay). + + [_Rangifer_] _arcticus_ (Rich.): Elliot, 1901: 37 (“Barren + grounds of Arctic America, north of the tree limit, to the + shores and islands of the Arctic Ocean”; diagnosis). + + _Rangifer tarandus arcticus_ . . . (part): Lydekker, 1901: 38-40 + (description). + + “Reindeer and caribou (Rangifer caribou)”: W. J. McLean, 1901: 5 + (Great Slave Lake, annual arrival on August 12; hunting and + utilization by Indians); 6 (antler growth and change; migration; + trails; swimming). + + _Rangifer tarandus_ . . . (part): Beddard, 1902: 298 + (“circumpolar”). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ . . .: Elliot, 1902: 259 (“in 1856 they + migrated to latitude 47° in great numbers to Lake Huron” [???]); + 260, 274-275 (migrations); 273 (Arctic regions, W. to Coppermine + and Mackenzie Rivers); 276 (food; fat); 276-277 (utilization by + Indians and Eskimos); 277-279 (native hunting methods); 279-280 + (antlers shed by old bucks in December and January, carried by + young bucks till spring, and by does till birth of fawns); + 281-282, 286-287 (description). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Preble, 1902: 41 (50 and 25 + miles S. of Eskimo Point; pursued by wolves; attacks of + insects); 42 (flashing a white throat-patch; summation of + previous records; ranging S. to Churchill River and Reindeer + Lake); 42-43 (pelage described). + + “Caribou”: J. W. Tyrrell, 1924 (1902): 15 (Fort Reliance, Great + Slave Lake); 17 (Pike’s Portage); 18-20 (Artillery Lake); 26 + (nearly all gone farther N., only stragglers remaining along + Hanbury River, early July); 27-28 (numerous tracks but few + animals, middle Thelon River, early July; hundreds killed by + spring ice or Eskimos); 31 (large band moving S., Thelon River, + July 23); 33-35 (between Thelon River and Artillery Lake); 37 + (great bands of caribou the chief food supply in Thelon River + region). + + _Rangifer articus_ . . . (part): Grant, 1903: 186 (Barren + Grounds W. of Hudson Bay, W. to Mackenzie River, S. in winter to + Churchill River and Reindeer Lake; threatened with extinction by + whalers); 189 (Salisbury Island). + + “Deer”: Hanbury, 1903: 185 (between Lake Pelly and Arctic coast, + May). + + “Caribou” or “deer”: Hanbury, 1904: 8 (Marble Island and + Chesterfield Inlet, June); 9 (Baker Lake, July); 10 (large bands + migrating S., Aberdeen Lake, early August); 14 (scarce, Hanbury + River); 16 (plentiful, Lockhart River); 30 (Pike’s Portage, late + July); 31 (Artillery Lake); 32 (Abbott Lake; scourged by warble + flies); 34 (large bands migrating S., Hanbury River, late July); + 41 (hunted by Eskimos near Thelon-Dubawnt junction); 43-44, 47 + (Schultz Lake); 43 (voice; spearing by Eskimos); 48 (scarce, + Baker Lake, early September); 49 (Chesterfield Inlet); 51 + (plentiful near Marble Island, mid-September); 58 (leaving the + coast, late September); 67 (dressing of skins by Eskimos); 70, + 72 (killed by Eskimos, Baker Lake); 73 (thousands at Baker Lake; + fierce combats between old bucks in October rutting season); 75 + (deerskin roof of igloo); 82 (deerskin clothing of Eskimos); 84, + 88-90 (NW. of Baker Lake, November); 85 (unwariness); 89 + (pursuit by wolves); 93 (bucks remaining all winter on Back’s + River); 95 (numerous, Chesterfield Inlet; in December the old + bucks had dropped their antlers); 100 (near Depot Island); + 104-107 (Chesterfield Inlet region); 108 (does migrating N. in + April); 111 (plentiful, Baker Lake, March); 113 (many, Schultz + Lake, March); 114-115, 123 (snow pitfalls made by Eskimos); 115, + 116 (numerous, Aberdeen Lake, March); 116 (antlers of bucks + commencing to grow); 118 (NW. of Aberdeen Lake; buck weighing + 280 lb.); 119 (Buchanan River); 120 (migration; many remaining + on Barrens all winter; deer meat essential to Eskimos on Back’s + River); 121 (frequent famine among Indians and Eskimos; caribou + formerly migrating S. and W. to Forts Simpson and Providence); + 127-131 (Pelly Lake and vicinity); 131 (antics; jumping and + trotting); 133-137 (near Ogden Bay); 133 (majority of does + shedding antlers by late April); 135 (ravens feeding on + carcasses); 137 (warbles eaten by Eskimos); 139 (caribou + wintering on Kent Peninsula, at Cape Barrow, and on Victoria + Island); 143 (Arctic coast Eskimos going inland, summer and + fall, to live on deer); 149 (White Bear Point); 153-167 + (mainland near Kent Peninsula); 164-174 (Bathurst Inlet); 177, + 185-197 (scarce, Cape Barrow to Coppermine River); 194 (molting, + July; suffering from mosquitoes); 200-208 (lower Coppermine + River); 209, 210 (Kendall River); 215-221 (Dismal Lake); 223, + 229-233 (Dease River); 232 (rubbing trees). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ . . . (part): Hornaday, 1904: 136 (Great + Bear and Great Slave Lakes to Cape Bathurst); 137 (Carey Lake; + migration); 138 (weight; antlers). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Stone and Cram, 1904: 52 + (description; Arctic islands to Hudson Bay and Mackenzie River; + migration; rutting in October; sexual segregation); 53 (food; + Mackay Lake; grunting). (Chiefly quoted from Pike, 1892.) + + _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson) (part): Elliot, 1905: 401 + (“Barren grounds of Arctic America north of the tree limit, to + the shores and islands of the Arctic Ocean”). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): MacFarlane, 1905: 680 + (Mackenzie Basin; depletion through wanton slaughter by + Indians); 681-682 (Anderson River, in winter; hunting and + utilization by Eskimos and Indians); 682-683 (albino); 683 + (trade in skins; wintering at Prince of Wales Strait and Mercy + Bay, Banks Island; migration between Arctic islands and + mainland); 684-685 (table of migration at Reindeer Lake); + 692-693 (predation by wolves). + + _R[angifer] arcticus_. . .: J. A. Allen, 1908a: 488 (specimens + from near Wager River described); 490 (migration). + + _Rangifer arctica_ (Richardson): J. A. Allen, 1908b: 584 (type + locality, Fort Enterprise). + + “Reindeer”: Amundsen, 1908, +1+: 76 (Boothia); 83-84 (King + William Island, September); 97 (reported formerly at Simpson + Strait in large herds in autumn); 99 (20 killed, King William + Island, late September); 102-106 (common in October, passing S. + over Simpson Strait; very shy; no wolves on King William + Island); 120 (Eskimos trading skins); 200 (King William Island, + first reindeer of season seen, June); 201 (supplied by Eskimos); + 224 (Simpson Strait); 235, 241-243 (King William Island, + September); 237 (Eskimos hunting in September); 247 (large herds + passing over ice of Simpson Strait); 248 (King William Island, + October 15); 326-329 (hunting and utilization by Eskimos in + Boothia; few reindeer coming N. as early as May).--1908, +2+: + 110 (many killed by Eskimos, King William Island); 311-316 + (several, April); 322-325 (Royal Geographical Society Islands). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson) (part): Preble, 1908: 137 + (Barren Grounds and islands northward; Great Bear Lake to Hudson + Bay; economy; probably two or more races; E. of Fort Smith in + winter; long ago S. to Fort McMurray); 138 (in 1902-03 to Cree + Lake; large numbers, Great Slave to Great Bear lakes; lower + Coppermine River); 139 (migration); 139-143 (summation of + previous records); 214 (wolves living largely on caribou). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): J. A. Allen, 1910: 8 (7 August + specimens from Artillery and Aylmer lakes; measurements and + weight). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Seton, 1911: 206-262, 341 + (Artillery, Ptarmigan, Clinton-Colden, and Aylmer lakes; + habits); 210 (voice); 220, 258-260 (numbers); 225-226 (relation + to wolves); 259-262 (slaughter by natives and whalers). + + _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Cameron, 1912: 127 (place in economy + of Caribou-eater Chipewyans; migration; on Lake Athabaska in + winter); 309 (Fort Rae as a “meat-post” for the Mackenzie + District). + + “Caribou”: Wheeler, 1912: 199 (Fort Enterprise and Coppermine + River; 1910 a very poor caribou year; females and yearlings + taken in April; females [only?] wintering between Rae and + Enterprise, and largely exterminated; usual numbers in 1911; + large migration of males commenced May 18); 200 (between + Coppermine River and Bathurst Inlet; by June 10 all caribou + beyond [N. of] Coppermine River). + + “Barren ground caribou”: R. M. Anderson, 1913a: 5 (recent + great decrease); 6 (stragglers left in Mackenzie Delta region; + great diminution along Arctic coast E. to Cape Parry, since + recent advent of whaling ships; great numbers on Victoria Island + in summer, crossing to mainland for winter; Great Bear Lake and + Coppermine River; drives and spearing by Eskimos); 6, 8 + (importance to Eskimos for clothing and meat); 8 (poor sight of + caribou; hunting methods). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): R. M. Anderson, in Stefánsson, + 1913b: 502 (importance in native economy; recent enormous + decrease; few left in Eskimo Lakes region, on Cape Bathurst, and + at Langton and Darnley Bays; great number in summer on Victoria + Island, migrating to the mainland); 503 (Great Bear Lake; + Coppermine River; occurrence on Arctic coast at any season; + Eskimos driving them between lines of stone monuments into water + and there spearing them); 504 (hunting methods; senses; + infestation by bot-fly); 504-505 (fawning); 505 (geographical + variation; antler growth and change); 505-506 (fat); 516 + (relations to wolves). + + _“Caribou”_: Stefánsson, 1913a: 93 (ravens in Arctic feeding + on caribou left by wolves); 94 (caribou moving N., Prince Albert + Sound, Victoria Island, May 12); 95-96 (migrating across Dolphin + and Union Strait, March and May); 99 (plentiful on Dease River, + winter of 1910-11; abundant on lower Coppermine River, March; no + great numbers cross central Coronation Gulf; wintering on coast + E. of Coppermine; many moving N. across w. Coronation Gulf and + Dolphin and Union Strait, April and May, and w. Victoria Island, + May); 100 (migration across Kent Peninsula and in se. Victoria + Island); 102 (E. of Cape Bexley); 103, 106 (numbers wintering on + Banks Island, but few or none on Victoria Island); 105 (Eskimos + hunting caribou in summer on s. Victoria Island); 106 (caribou + wintering from Cape Bathurst to Kent Peninsula; migration N. + across Coronation Gulf and Dolphin and Union Strait, April 1-May + 20, and S. in the fall as soon as the ice is strong enough; tens + of thousands on Dease River in late October; differences between + Victoria Island and mainland specimens). + + “Caribou”: Stefánsson, 1913b: 27 (Fort Smith a “meat post”); + 29 (abundant at Fort Norman 50 years previously); 127, 128, 156, + 158 (Langton Bay); 130, 135, 137, 141, 142 (Horton River); 146 + (Cape Parry); 151 (extreme scarcity of hornless caribou); 163 + (Cape Lyon); 164 (Port Pierce; human eye keener than caribou’s); + 203 (summer hunting by Eskimos S. of Dolphin and Union Strait); + 203-204 (migration N. to Victoria Island); 204 (bot-fly larvae); + 205 (near Dolphin and Union Strait); 210, 212, 213 (lower + Coppermine River); 212-213 (seeking protection from mosquitoes + on snow banks); 214 (Dismal Lake); 215 (summer hunting by + Eskimos on Dease River); 219 (Great Bear Lake); 221 (August + skins for Eskimo clothing); 224-225 (hundreds of thousands, + Dease River, October); 228, 235 (N. of Great Bear Lake); 231, + 232 (Horton River); 238, 239 (Kendall River); 241 (lower + Coppermine River); 241-244 (geographical variation in caribou); + 263-265, 269 (migrating N. across Coronation Gulf and Dolphin + and Union Strait, early May); 274, 278, 287, 289, 297, 298, 301 + (Victoria Island); 276-277 (variation from mainland animals); + 278 (habitual wariness); 281 (caribou-skin tents and Eskimo + hunting, Victoria Island); 289 (Banks Island); 294 (few on + Victoria Island in winter); 324 (Cape Parry); 333 (Langton Bay; + skins spoiled by warble fly larvae, June and early July; skins + thick in summer and fall); 335 (“Endicott” [= Melville] + Mountains); 337-338 (Eskimo methods of hunting and curing meat); + 348-350 (migrating NW., Horton River, October); 364 (Langton + Bay, February-March). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Chambers, 1914: 93 (immense + herd, between Churchill and Owl River, December); 291-294 (Great + Bear and Great Slave Lakes); 294 (Mackenzie Delta region); + 342-350 (summation of records on the Barren Grounds). + + “Caribou”: Douglas, 1914: 103, 167, 168, 179, 180 (Dease River); + 121, 190, 192, 196, 214 (lower Coppermine River); 137 (Great + Bear Lake); 157, 158 (very scarce, Great Bear Lake, winter); 185 + (Dismal Lakes); 191-192 (larvae of warble and nostril flies). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ . . . (part): Hornaday, 1914, +2+: 97 + (importance to Indians); 100 (the great mass between Cape + Bathurst and Great Slave Lake; tens of thousands killed by + natives for whalers); 101-104 (migrations); 103 (voice); 104 + (tameness of large numbers; weight); 225-226 (numbers). + + “Caribou” or “deer”: Stefánsson, 1914: 13 (former abundance from + Mackenzie River eastward); 26 (scarce near +Rae River+); 39 + (common the year round on Banks Island; abundant in summer, but + scarce in winter, Victoria Island); 41 (migrating S. across + Coronation Gulf in November); 48 (stomach contents and droppings + eaten by Eskimos, Coronation Gulf); 54 (crossing ice in + migrating N., April and May); 56 (chief source of Eskimo food in + summer, Coronation Gulf); 57 (hunting with spear and bow); 58 + (poor eyesight); 58-59 (use as food by Eskimos); 97 (kayak used + in spearing caribou); 137, 139 (former hunting in Mackenzie + Delta region); 140-141 (skin clothing in Mackenzie Delta + region); 147-148 (methods of removing and drying skins, + Mackenzie Delta region); 150 (use of skins and sinew); 275 + (status about Great Bear Lake); 296 (droppings and warbles eaten + by Eskimos, Victoria Island); 353 (caribou taboos); 355-356 + (many on Mackenzie coast). + + “Caribou”: Wheeler, 1914: 52 (Dog-rib clothing of caribou + skins); 54 (between Forts Rae and Enterprise); 56 (Fort Rae’s + early trade in caribou meat and skins); 58 (countless thousands, + moving E., Great Slave Lake; Indian use of meat); 60 (caribou + scarce N. of Great Slave Lake after burning of country); 65 + (plentiful, Little Marten Lake); 67 (near Lake Providence). + + _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Harper, 1915: 160 (Tazin-Taltson + Basin). + + _Rangifer tarandus arcticus_ (Richardson): Lydekker, 1915: 254 + (bibliographical references; type locality; description; Baffin + Island). + + _Tarandus rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Millais, 1915: + 255-256 (considered conspecific with Woodland Caribou); 258, 263 + (supposed interbreeding with Woodland Caribou); 261 + (description; in winter ranging “west to the Rockies above Fort + Vermilion”[!]). + + “Barren Ground Caribou”: Camsell, 1916: 21 (Tazin-Taltson Basin, + autumn and winter). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ . . . (part): Nelson, 1916: 460 (Arctic + barrens; numbers; Artillery Lake; gait); 460-461 (use as food). + + “Rein Deer”: Thompson, 1916: 19 (Eskimo lances pointed with + leg-bone); 99 ([Barren Ground or Woodland species?] numerous in + spring on Hayes River, where snared by Indians); 100-101 + (immense herd estimated at 3,564,000 individuals, crossing Hayes + River 20 miles above York Factory in late May, 1792). + + “Caribou”: J. B. Tyrrell, in Thompson, 1916: 16 (Eskimos on + Kazan River subsisting chiefly on caribou, killing them with + spears and using their skins for clothing and kayaks). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ . . .: Kindle, 1917: 107-108 (tens of + thousands E. of Slave River, early winter); 108-109 (previous + accounts of great numbers). + + “Barren Ground Caribou”: Camsell and Malcolm, 1919: 46 (e. + border of Mackenzie Basin; migration). + + “Barren Ground caribou”: Malloch, 1919: 55-56 (larvae of + _Oedemagena tarandi_ from skin of caribou, Dolphin and Union + Strait, Bernard Harbour, and Coronation Gulf); 56 (larvae of + _Cephenemyia_ sp. from nasal passages of caribou, May 25, + Bernard Harbour). + + “Caribou”: Stefánsson, 1919: 310 (hunting in the Arctic). + + “Caribou”: Whittaker, 1919: 166 (in greater numbers than usual, + E. of Slave River, winter); 167 (1,000 does crossing Great Slave + Lake in March toward Barren Grounds). + + _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Buchanan, 1920: 105 (S. in winter to + Reindeer Lake and Churchill River, rarely to Cumberland House); + 105-108, 128-129 (migration); 105-106, 131 (food); 113-125, + 134-137, 142-151 (hunting by Indians and others); 122, 124 + (traveling upwind); 125-126 (description); 126 (antler change; + gait); 130-131 (numbers); 135-136 (snares); 136-140 (economic + uses by Indians). + + “Caribou”: R. M. Anderson, in Stefánsson, 1921: 743, 750 + (Eskimos killing caribou, Victoria Island); 749 (Hood River); + 750 (Bathurst Inlet). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ . . . (part): Hewitt, 1921: 11-12 (as a + source of meat and clothing); 56 (most abundant of the larger + land mammals of the world); 58, 64-66 (place in native economy; + range and numbers becoming restricted by excessive slaughter); + 59-60 (distribution); 59 (destruction by Eskimos and whalers); + 60-63 (migration); 61 (food); 62 (fawning); 67 (warble flies, + black flies, and mosquitoes). + + _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Johansen, 1921: 22-24 (larvae and + adults of _Oedemagena tarandi_ and larvae of _Cephenemyia_ sp., + both parasites of caribou, at Bernard Harbour); 29 (adult _Oe. + tarandi_, Dolphin and Union Strait); 35, 37 (larvae of _Oe. + tarandi_, lower Coppermine River and Victoria Island). + + “Caribou”: Stefánsson, 1921: 18 (abundant, Banks Island, + winter); 227-230 (Norway Island [W. of Banks Island]); 231-234 + (qualities of meat and fat); 242-249, 255, 258, 262, 281-283, + 358, 364, 397, 369, 372, 473, 475, 476 (hunting on Banks + Island); 246-247 (fat); 247 (attacks by insects); 248 (speed + according to sex and age); 248-249 (pursuit by wolves); 251 + (wariness on Banks Island); 252 (back fat); 255 (perhaps + 2,000-3,000 caribou on Banks Island in summer); 307 (sight); 401 + (hunting on Victoria Island, September; some migrating S. to + mainland); 401-402 (stone monuments used by Eskimos for driving + caribou to ambush); 475-476 (relations of caribou and wolves). + + “Caribou” or “deer”: Jenness, 1922: 15, 17 (migration between + mainland and Arctic islands; one route across Cape Krusenstern); + 20-21 (Coppermine River to Great Bear Lake); 22 (Cape Barrow to + Bathurst Inlet); 25-26 (Victoria Island in summer); 47 (spearing + from kayaks in Coppermine region); 48, 101, 248 (use of fat for + fuel); 61 (skins as bedding); 78-81 (skins as tent material); 97 + (stomach contents eaten by Eskimos); 100-103 (Caribou as food of + Eskimos; hunting on ice of Coronation Gulf and on Victoria + Island; Coppermine River to Bathurst Inlet); 124 (summer hunting + by Eskimos about Dolphin and Union Strait); 125 (October passage + from Victoria Island to mainland); 127-142 (hunting on Victoria + Island, April to October); 148-151 (Eskimo hunting methods about + Coronation Gulf and on Victoria Island; attacks on Eskimos by + Caribou); 182-189 (Eskimo superstitions concerning Caribou); + 244, 249 (scarcity and destruction at Coronation Gulf). + + _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: R. M. Anderson, 1924: 329 (varying + estimates of numbers; Barren Grounds of central mainland); 330 + (relations to reindeer). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Miller, 1924: 491 + (nomenclature; type locality). + + “Caribou”: Blanchet, 1925: 15 (upper Coppermine); 32-34 + (migration); 32-33 (sexual segregation); 33 (fawning; food; + torment of flies; gait; molt; antler growth and change); 34 + (senses; utilization by Indians; wariness; swimming; relations + to wolves and foxes; Great Slave Lake to Great Bear Lake and + Back’s River). + + “Caribou”: Blanchet, 1926a: 73 (trails, Nonacho Lake); 96-97 + (trail and signs, Lake Eileen); 98 (caribou in economy of the + Caribou-eater Chipewyans). + + _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Blanchet, 1926b: 46-48 (migrations); + 47 (fawning in early June; attacks of flies; gait; molt; + utilization of hides); 47-48 (antler change); 48 (senses; + segregation by sex and age; numbers in millions; Lake MacKay, + Great Bear Lake, Lac de Gras, Clinton-Colden and Aylmer lakes; + wintering S. to Cree, Foster, and Reindeer lakes). + + _Rangifer_ spp.: Ekblaw, 1926: 101 (s. Arctic Archipelago). + + “Caribou”: Mallet, 1926: 79 (migration; wintering about + Reindeer, Cree, Wollaston, and Nueltin lakes and Pakatawagan; + predilection for frozen lakes; predation by wolves); 80 + (dependence of travelers on Caribou for food; hunting on the ice + of lakes). + + _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Preble, 1926: 119 (Barren Grounds); + 121 (depletion along Arctic coast E. to Coppermine River); 125 + (Yellowknife Preserve); 137 (Back’s River Preserve; great + numbers; migration); 138 (Arctic islands; partial migration); + 139 (Banks and Victoria islands). + + “Caribou”: Blanchet, 1927: 145 (Abitau River); 149 (sw. + tributary of Dubawnt River, July 5). + + “Caribou”: Craig, 1927: 22 (Admiralty Inlet; former abundance; + depletion by hunting). + + “Caribou”: Henderson, 1927: 40 (Clyde River, Baffin Island; + annual caribou hunt by Eskimos). + + “Caribou”: Rasmussen, 1927: 5 (Eskimos clad in caribou skin, + Melville Peninsula); 20-21 (hunting on Melville Peninsula); 23 + (Eskimo stores of caribou meat); 54 (caribou moving N., Baker + Lake, May); 59-60, 103, 105 (hunting by Eskimos, lower Kazan + River); 63, 68 (Yathkyed Lake); 65 (warble fly larvae as Eskimo + delicacy); 67 (decrease in Eskimos and caribou at Yathkyed + Lake); 68 (stone cairns for deflecting caribou); 73-77 (Eskimo + hunting methods); 104-106 (Eskimos starving for lack of caribou, + lower Kazan River); 145 (Eskimos hunting near Admiralty Inlet); + 166-167 (caribou obtained by Eskimos, Pelly Bay); 205 (King + William Island); 214-217 (migration, September 15-21, King + William Island); 245 (Eskimos of Victoria Island living on + caribou in summer and autumn); 246 (enormous herds crossing + delta of Ellice River; Kent Peninsula becoming depopulated of + Eskimos through failure of caribou). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Anthony, 1928: + 530-531 (description); 532 (Barren Grounds; former abundance; + destruction). + + “Caribou”: Kindle, 1928: 72-73 (numbers estimated at more than + 30,000,000; utilization by natives for clothing and meat); 74 + (economic value of reindeer). + + _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 9, 47, 57 + (importance to Caribou Eskimos); 48 (back fat); 50 (wintering on + Barren Grounds; moving against wind; antler shedding; poor + quality of winter meat); 51 (wolves hunting caribou; does first + on spring migration; fawning in June); 52-53 (Eskimos feasting + on caribou in spring); 56 (fawning in late June and early July; + great migration at Baker Lake, late July; plagued by _Oedemagena + tarandi_; most important Eskimo hunting in late summer and early + autumn); 86 (tents of caribou skin among Caribou Eskimos); 89 + (Eskimo spade made of antler); 90 (bags of caribou skin; fat for + illumination); 94 (skins for household use); 96 (the principal + diet among Caribou Eskimos); 98 (hunting by means of fences); + 100 (Yathkyed Lake); 101 (heedless slaughter by Eskimos; + migration always incalculable; fox-trapping replacing + caribou-hunting); 102 (former use of bow in hunting); 104 + (arrowheads of caribou bones); 106 (hunting by Eskimos; + wariness; keen hearing and smell; buck attacking a man at + Vansittart Island; deer-crossings in region of Baker Lake and + Kazan River); 107 (Eskimo hunting methods); 108 (snow pitfalls); + 109-110 (spearing in water; swimming ability); 110-111 (driving + between lines of cairns); 112 (snares); 133 (gadfly larvae as + Eskimo delicacy); 134-135 (seasonal hunting); 135 (frequent + starvation of Eskimos in lack of caribou); 137 (staple food of + Caribou Eskimos); 138-139 (taboos in use of meat); 140-147 + (Eskimo dressing of carcasses); 141-144 (raw, cooked, and dried + meat in Eskimo diet); 171 (meat as dog food); 186 (deerskin for + kayaks); 191, 196, 199-223 (Eskimo clothing of deerskin); 232, + 239-251 (various Eskimo uses of skin, bones, and antlers); 262, + 263 (Eskimo laws for hunting caribou); 268-271 (drums of + deerskin). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Seton, 1929, +3+: + 95-135 (monographic); 97-99 (measurements, weight, color); 102 + (distribution); 102-103 (antlers); 104 (molt; senses); 105 + (communication; voice); 105-107 (disposition); 107 (aquatic + ability); 107-108 (food); 108-109 (Wolves and other predators); + 109-110 (effect of mosquitoes); 110-111 (warble and nostril + flies); 111-116 (utilization of flesh and hide by natives and + civilized man); 113-114 (fat); 117-122 (hunting by Eskimos and + Indians); 122 (Artillery Lake to Back’s River; Arctic islands; + migration); 124-125 (reproduction); 125-127 (migration); 127-128 + (wintering between Great Bear, Great Slave, and Athabaska lakes + and Hudson Bay); 131 (Mackenzie River to Cape Bathurst; Langton + and Darnley Bays); 131-134 (numbers perhaps 30,000,000); 133-134 + (destruction by Indians, whalers, and Eskimos). + + “Caribou”: Blanchet, 1930: 49 (E. of Great Bear, Great Slave, + and Athabaska Lakes; fawns born in late May or June; antler + growth and shedding); 49-52 (migration; Lac de Gras, Lake + MacKay, Beverly, Aberdeen, and Baker lakes; Coppermine, + Lockhart, Taltson, Dubawnt, Kazan, and Ferguson rivers; S. to + Cree and Reindeer lakes and Churchill; only a small migration + now from Victoria Island to mainland; Wager and Repulse bays); + 50-51 (importance to Indians and Eskimos; Dawson Inlet to North + Seal River; inland from Eskimo Point and Nunalla; Padlei); 52 + (food destroyed by fire; several millions); 53 (fawning area); + 53-54 (possibilities for reindeer); 54-55 (relation of wolves to + caribou). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 55 + (Artillery Lake; weight; therapeutic value of meat); 58 (Thelon + River, thousands, late July); 143 (use as fox bait); 159-160 + (numbers); 159-162 (useful role of Wolf as Caribou predator); + 192 (wind direction scarcely affecting migration; Artillery + Lake, mostly bucks, September to November; bucks getting lean, + October 17; antlers dropping and flesh improving, November 7; + practically all (buck) antlers dropped, November 19; Artillery + Lake, several hundred does, November 4, then continuing to pass + N. during winter; bands of bucks passing S., November 26 to + December 9; young bucks with does during winter; does dropping + antlers, March 24 to mid-April; all does gone N. by April 27; + bucks moved N. of Hanbury River by June 20; main s. migration, + Thelon River, July 23; all sexes and ages, in bands up to + 2,000--total number 10,000+); 193 (scourged and driven by + insects; voice; stage of pelage differing in sexes; delta of + Dubawnt River; possibly yearling doe with fawn; flies gone + August 24, animals putting on fat; does massing in September, + hundreds slaughtered by Eskimos at Thelon-Dubawnt mouth; last + seen, Baker Lake, September 5); 194-196 (table of Caribou + movements--localities, dates, numbers, sex, wind.)--1931: 32 + (conservation); 33 (trade in hides; Back’s River Eskimos living + “solely” on Caribou). + + “Caribou”: Hoare, 1930: 13 (bucks migrating NE., June, Artillery + Lake to Ford Lake); 14 (10,000+ near Campbell Lake, going SW., + late July); 16 (bands near Smart Lake, August); 21 (Ford Lake, + early December); 22 (Artillery Lake and Pike’s Portage, + numerous, December; wolf predation); 27 (small bands swimming + lower Thelon River, late June); 31 (swimming Hanbury River, + July); 33 (great numbers of bucks going S. Thelon River, July + 22; relation of migrations to insects and storms); 36 (circular + migration about e. end of Great Slave Lake; ne. migration in + spring down Thelon River); 37-38 (relation of migration to + mosquitoes); 52-53 (summation by R. M. Anderson: carrying + capacity of range--60 acres per Caribou; probably total not over + 3,000,000). + + _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Kitto, 1930: 87 (food; economy; + numbers and depletion; migrations); 88 (effect of firearms; + segregation of sexes and ages); 89 (wolves; insect pests); 89-90 + (conservation measures); 110 (Keewatin, mainland and Southampton + and Coats islands; Churchill, Eskimo Point, and Baker Lake). + + “Caribou”: Mallet, 1930: 13 (Eskimo clothing of skins, Kazan + River); 20-23 (great migrant herd, led by a doe, crossing Kazan + River near Yathkyed Lake); 27 (small herds migrating S., Ennadai + Lake, August); 32 (Chipewyan drum of caribou skin); 85 (Eskimos + between Nueltin and Baker lakes living on caribou); 87 (Eskimo + clothing of caribou fur); 89 (Eskimos starving for lack of + caribou); 90 (500 consumed per winter by 20-odd Eskimos); 92 + (caribou-skin gloves; tongues as provisions for journey); 95 + (Eskimos eating raw frozen caribou in winter and “lukewarm meat” + in summer); 102 (Eskimo tent of skins on Kazan River); 116 + (Indians eating caribou on Kasmere River); 131-140 (Eskimo band + succumbing to starvation for lack of caribou). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ Richardson: Jacobi, 1931: 78-80 + (description); 80-84 (N. to Baffin Island and other Arctic + islands; E. to Hudson Bay, Southampton Island, and Melville + Peninsula; S. to Churchill River, Reindeer Lake, and Fort + McMurray; W. to Athabaska and Mackenzie Rivers); 140 + (phylogeny); 156, 157, 159 (depletion by natives, whalers, and + traders); 186-187 (habitat); 190 (occurrence in herds); 192-210 + (migrations: causes, extent, routes, numbers, behavior, + segregation by sex and age, dates, winter quarters); 216 + (swimming); 219, 220 (unwariness; curiosity); 223 (food); 232 + (reproduction); 236 (molt); 237 (change of antlers); 240-241 + (predation by wolves); 244-245 (parasitic flies). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Harper, 1932: 30 + (Lake Athabaska; excessive slaughter by Indians; Tazin + Highlands; food; Thainka Lake; junction of Tazin and Taltson + Rivers; avoiding lower Taltson River after fire); 31 (Great + Slave Lake; “near Artillery Lake” [= Stark Lake?]; Indians + spearing hundreds in water; migration; havoc by wolves; + Caribou-eater Chipewyans). + + “Caribou”: Jenness, 1932: 47, 48, 58, 59 (caribou in Indian + economy); 51, 58, 75, 406-408, 411, 412, 414, 415 (caribou in + Eskimo economy). + + “Cariboo” or “deer”: Munn, 1932: 57 (Artillery Lake); 58 (great + migration of perhaps 2,000,000 between Artillery and Great Slave + lakes; relation to mosquitoes); 168 (Baffin Island); 191-192 + (Eskimo sleeping-bags and clothing of caribou skin, Baffin + Island); 210, 214 (Eskimos hunting deer, Southampton Island); + 255 (trade in skins from Melville Peninsula); 271 (depletion of + Baffin Island herds); 278 (decimation of caribou in w. Arctic + due to Eskimos trapping white fox instead of sealing in winter). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Sutton and Hamilton, + 1932: 33, 35, 36, 81, 82, 84, 85 (predation by wolves, + Southampton Island); 79 (formerly abundant, but no longer); 79, + 81 (migration); 80-83, 86-87 (hunting and utilization by + Eskimos); 81 (scatology); 81, 84-86 (reproduction); 81-86 + (antler growth and shedding); 83 (standing on hind legs); 84 + (food; foot-glands; voice); 84-86 (parasitic and other flies); + 87-88 (description); 88 (previous records on Southampton + Island). + + _Rangifer tarandus arcticus_. . .: Weyer, 1932: 38 (most + important land animal to Eskimos); 39 (utilization by Eskimos; + food); 40 (fawning period; seasonal fat; migration). + + _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Birket-Smith, 1933: 89 (immense + numbers on Barren Grounds, but recently declining); 90 (gadflies + plaguing caribou); 91-92 (migration); 92 (thousands at Baker + Lake, late July; scourged by mosquitoes); 93 (no longer + migrating from Victoria Island to mainland); 94 (occurrence in + autumn and winter at Repulse Bay); 100 (good hunting near Whale + Point, Roe’s Welcome; use of cairns in hunting by Eskimos); 106 + (not many near Eskimo Point); 112 (great migration at Baker Lake + beginning in June); 118 (deer crossings on lower Kazan River); + 121 (difficulty of reconciling reindeer culture with presence of + caribou). + + “Caribou”: Ingstad, 1933: 34 (caribou deflected on s. side of + Great Slave Lake by forest fires); 48 (buck on Barren Grounds + harassed by black flies); 85, 110 (E. of Great Slave Lake); 86 + (asleep on ice of lakes); 87 (leaping into air before running + off); 88 (varying wariness); 90 (carcass as fox bait near + Artillery Lake); 118, 122 (use of meat and hides by Indians, + Great Slave Lake); 134-135, 324 (spring migration across Great + Slave Lake); 135 (antler velvet eaten by Indians; larvae of + nostril and warble flies); 139 (Indian drum of caribou skin); + 156-159 (migration; followed by wolves, ravens, foxes, and + wolverines); 158 (rutting season and behavior); 159 (antler + shedding); 160 (numbers); 161 (migration influenced by grazing + available; fawning on Arctic islands); 162 (separation into + different herd groupings); 162-163 (destruction by Eskimos with + firearms along Arctic coast); 163 (migration deflected by + burning of country); 165-166 (conservation; wolf predation); 167 + (dependence of Caribou-eater Indians on this animal); 176, 181 + (Stark Lake and vicinity); 186-187 (use of meat by + Caribou-eaters); 204, 216, 218, 220, 222 (upper Thelon River + region); 207 (predation by wolves); 225, 229-231 (Nonacho Lake + area); 247, 253 (dependence of Barren Ground Indians on + caribou); 253-254 (former hunting with spears, bows, dogteams, + barriers, snares); 257-259 (Indian use of meat and hides); 280 + (migrating near e. end of Great Slave Lake); 291, 293, 296 + (thousands in winter on Barrens E. of Great Slave Lake); 293, + 297 (unwariness); 302-304, 306-307 (predation by wolves on + Barren Grounds); 312 (albino caribou). + + “Barren land caribou”: Stockwell, 1933: 45 (large herds in + August, Point, Thonokied, and MacKay lakes and Coppermine + River). + + “Caribou”: Weeks, 1933: 65 (very plentiful on Maguse River after + August 4). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): R. M. Anderson, + 1934a: 81 (utilization of skin and meat; migrations; Melville + Peninsula, Boothia Peninsula, and Baffin Island). + + _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: R. M. Anderson, 1934b: 4062, fig. 9 + (map shows range of subsp. arcticus extending N. only to Arctic + coast and over Baffin Island). + + _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Flerov, 1934: 240 (cranial + measurements). + + “Caribou”: Godsell, 1934: 273-276 (trade with Eskimos on Arctic + coast resulting in great slaughter of caribou); 276 (importation + of reindeer to Mackenzie Delta region to replace caribou). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Hornby, 1934: 105 (food; + weight; fat; migrations influenced by natives, unfrozen large + lakes, and fires; effects of flies; rutting season and behavior; + antler shedding); 106 (irregular migrations; sexual segregation; + wolf predation); 106-107 (movements, numbers, and dates in + region between Great Slave and Baker lakes); 108 (beneficial + effect of wolves on caribou). + + “Caribou”: Wray, 1934: 141 (abundant, Lac de Gras, 1932); 144 + (few S. of Mackay Lake). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Degerbøl, 1935: 48-51 + (specimens from Baffin Island and Melville Peninsula, including + an albino from Rae Isthmus; descriptions). + + “Caribou”: Freuchen, 1935: 93 (abundance of rabbits supposed to + lessen wolf predation on caribou); 99 (wolverine reputed to + attack sleeping caribou); 120 (pursuit by wolves near Wager + Inlet); 121 (followed by wolves, Melville Peninsula; predation + by wolves, Southampton Island); 122 (wolves said not to follow + caribou across streams; wolf methods of hunting caribou); 128 + (caribou carcasses consumed by Arctic foxes). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Murie, 1935: 74, 75 + (type locality; skull measurements). + + “Barren ground caribou”: Alcock, 1936: 9 (Lake Athabaska). + + _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Birket-Smith, 1936: 90 (importance to + Eskimos); 91 (migration; snow pitfalls, baited with urine; + hunting with spears, rows of stone cairns, snares, and bows); + 110 (dependence of Caribou Eskimos on Caribou); 111 (frequent + famine and cannibalism among them for lack of Caribou; lookout + knolls for Caribou); 112 (sexual segregation in herds); 115-116 + (clothing of caribou skin). + + “Caribou”: Soper, 1936: 429 (resorting to Grinnell Glacier, + Baffin Island, to escape mosquitoes). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): R. M. Anderson, 1937: + 103 (lower Mackenzie River to Hudson Bay; use of skin and meat; + scarce on coast W. of Bathurst Inlet; concentration between + Bathurst Inlet, Great Slave Lake, and Baker Lake; S. into Wood + Buffalo Park; use of rifles by Central Eskimos resulting in + decrease; apparent intergradation with _R. a. pearyi_ in + northern islands). + + “Caribou”: Godsell, 1937: 288 (caribou migrating between + mainland and Arctic islands exterminated by Eskimos with + ammunition supplied by traders); 289 (reindeer imported to mouth + of Mackenzie to replace vanished caribou). + + _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Henriksen, 1937: 25 (larvae of + _Cephenomyia trompe_ L. from nasal passage, Baker Lake, May 2); + 26 (larvae of _Oedemagena tarandi_ collected from caribou in + May, Gore Bay, Lyon Inlet, and Melville Peninsula). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. . .: R. M. Anderson, 1938: 400 + (perhaps no great reduction in numbers, but some shifting of + range from human encroachments and fire; wintering S. to n. + Manitoba and Saskatchewan and ne. Alberta; estimate of + 3,000,000). + + _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Hamilton, 1939: 109 (hoofs; function + of fat); 244-247 (migrations); 246, 352, 359 (importance to + Indians and Eskimos); 247 (influence of mosquitoes on movements; + sexual segregation); 301 (distribution determined by insect + pests); 359 (immense herd in ne. Saskatchewan). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ Richardson: Murie, 1939: 239 + (Mackenzie River to Hudson Bay and Baffin Island, including some + of the Arctic islands; diagnosis); 244 (antlers; pelage; + migration; rut in September and October); 245 (food; ankle + click; voice; gait; senses; insect pests; Wolves and other + predators); 245-246 (danger from introduction of Reindeer); 246 + (adaptation to environment). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Clarke, 1940: 5, 7 (dependence + of Indians and Eskimos on caribou); 8-9 (Rum Lake country a + wintering ground; Eskimos from Back’s River to Wager Inlet and + Baker Lake dependent on winter caribou; likewise those at + Beverly, Aberdeen, and Schultz lakes); 11 (great winter herd S. + and W. of Bathurst Inlet); 65 (fluctuations; current abundance + in Hanbury-Thelon region and scarcity at Baker Lake); 70 + (parasites; diseases); 84 (economic importance); 85-86 + (migrating southward in late July in Thelon Game Sanctuary and + at Tourgis Lake, in early August at Hanbury, Artillery, + Clinton-Colden, and Aylmer lakes, and from early August to late + September at Taltson River and Thekulthili and Nonacho lakes; in + autumn near Lac de Gras and on upper Back’s River; in autumn and + winter at Reliance and Snowdrift); 87-90 (at least 100,000 + migrating N. in early July at Hanbury and Thelon rivers, + including does with month-old fawns); 89, 90 (molt); 91 + (previous records in Thelon Sanctuary region); 92-93 (near Lake + Athabaska and Slave River and at Hill Island Lake in early + August; Wood Buffalo Park in winter; the various groups and + their movements defined); 93-95 (early ideas of migrations); 95 + (fallacies; sexual segregation; antlers; influence of flies); + 96-97 (details of migratory movements; retrograde autumnal + movement); 98 (extermination of bands formerly migrating from + mainland to Victoria and King William islands); 98-100 + (irregular migrations; influences--such as wide open waters, + overgrazing, and fires--affecting migrations); 101-104 (carrying + capacity of range; numbers estimated at 3,000,000; increase and + decrease); 104-106 (accidents); 106-107 (effects of fire and + overgrazing; food); 107-110 (wolves and other predators); 110 + (hunting and its effects); 112 (importance to natives). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): G. M. Allen, 1942: + 297 (mainstay of Eskimos and Indians); 297-298 (description); + 298-299 (Hudson Bay to Mackenzie River, N. to Banks and Victoria + Islands, Boothia, Southampton and Baffin Islands, S. to + Churchill River, Reindeer Lake, and ne. Alberta; migratory + habit; shift of range due to human crowding and destruction of + winter forage by fire); 299 (increased slaughter in winter + range; reduction on Southampton Island). + + “Caribou”: Manning, 1942: 28 (rapidly reduced on Southampton + Island after establishment of a post in 1924); 29 (insufficient + skins for Eskimo clothing); 29 (wolves, for lack of caribou, + became extinct on Southampton by 1937). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Soper, 1942: 143 (in + 1932-33, E. of Fort Smith, S. to 30th base line; along N. shore + of Lake Athabaska to Fond du Lac; W. of Slave River, between + Lobstick Creek and Grand Detour and into Wood Buffalo Park; + Tethul River to Tsu Lake and Taltson River; in 1933-34, crossing + Slave River from E. in vicinity of Caribou and Stony Islands and + Buffalo Landing, and feeding on goose grass [= _Equisetum, fide_ + Raup, 1933: 39]). + + “Caribou”: Downes, 1943: 203 (Windy Lake, late July); 215 + (1925-26 and 1938-39 bad years for caribou on upper Kazan River; + consequent mortality among Eskimos); 221 (Red River, July 28); + 224, 249, 250 (Simons’ Lake); 226 (grunting; shaking heads on + account of flies; buck with winter pelage); 227 (butchering + operation); 228 (use of antlers and hoofs; feeding on dwarf + birch; protecting carcasses from gulls); 236-237 (antics of a + buck); 253 (Red River); 255 (warble and nostril flies); 256 + (does beginning to appear; swimming ability); 256-257 (snuffing, + snorting, and coughing); 258-260 (estimates of numbers); 260 + (change of migration routes through human activities and forest + fires); 261-262 (effect of natives and wolves); pl. following p. + 296 (Kasmere River). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Manning, 1943a: 47 (recent + depletion by Eskimos); 49-52 (w. Baffin Island; Koukdjuak and + Hantzsch rivers; Bowman, Taverner, Wordie, and Harbour bays; + Tweedsmuir Islands; Baird Peninsula; Lake Nettilling; Cumberland + Sound; Fury and Hecla Strait); 50 (summer and winter droppings; + exterminated from most of Foxe Peninsula); 51 (estimated + population in central western Baffin Island 10,000); 51-52 + (migratory movements); 52 (sexual segregation and herding; + females bearing young at end of second year); 52-53 (antler + growth and shedding); 53 (molt; development of warble flies, and + their scarcity in fawns; accumulation of fat); 55 (annual kill + by wolves on w. Baffin Island estimated at 2,000 animals over + one year of age). + + “Caribou”: Manning, 1943b: 103 (former migration--now + ceased--from the S. to Melville Peninsula, where the animals are + now scarce; still numerous on Baffin Island N. of Fury and Hecla + Strait; fairly numerous, Repulse Bay to Chesterfield Inlet; + dearth of skins for Eskimo clothing; numerous herds about + Piling, Baffin Island). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. . .: Porsild, 1943: 383 (food); + 386 (warble and nostril flies “apparently do not travel very + far”; sparsely covered grazing areas suitable for caribou but + not for reindeer); 389 (migration affected by rotational grazing + and seasonal and local abundance of mosquitoes or flies; + wariness varying with size of herd; caribou disappear before + expanding reindeer culture). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Soper, 1944: 274-250 + (great reduction in southern coastal region of Baffin Island; + few left on Foxe Peninsula; Hantzsch and Soper rivers; Bowman, + Amadjuak, and Frobisher bays; Lake Harbour; Nettilling Lake; Big + Island; Grinnell Glacier; Cockburn Land); 248 (measurements); + 248-249 (migrations); 248-250 (utilization by Eskimos). + + “Caribou”: [U.S.] War Department, 1944: 40 (Canadian mainland + and Arctic islands); 77 (importance as food). + + “Barren ground caribou”: Wright, 1944: 185 (late summer skins + for clothing; high value of the meat; reduction in numbers); 186 + (migration routes changed by overgrazing, fires, and excessive + hunting; numbers); 187 (annual consumption in Keewatin not less + than 22,000; decrease on Boothia and Melville peninsulas; + locally plentiful in w. Baffin Island; scarce on King William + Island; none on Adelaide Peninsula; great decrease on + Southampton Island); 188 (small herds on Coats Island; varying + numbers on Baffin Island, where skins are imported for clothing; + a herd on Bylot Island); 189 (scarce at Arctic Bay and on + Brodeur Peninsula); 190 (migration on Baffin Island); 191 + (Baffin population estimated at 25,000); 193 (tables of numbers + taken annually on Baffin Island and in Keewatin); 195 (smaller + caribou on Boothia Peninsula and on Somerset and Prince of Wales + islands). + + “Caribou”: Young, 1944: 236-238, 243 (predation by wolves in the + Barren Grounds, including Southampton Island and Artillery + Lake). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Gavin, 1945: 227-228 + (recent increase at Perry River and Bathurst Inlet; partly + resident on mainland but also migratory, a few crossing to + Victoria Island); 228 (many fawning on small coastal islands and + Kent Peninsula; many succumbing to mosquitoes; damage by larvae + of warble fly). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): R. M. Anderson, 1947: + 178 (type locality; Mackenzie and Keewatin, from Hudson Bay and + Melville Peninsula W. to lower Mackenzie Valley, and N. to s. + fringe of islands N. of the mainland Arctic coast; migrating S. + to Churchill River or beyond, Reindeer Lake, Lake Athabaska, and + occasionally the Wood Buffalo Park in ne. Alberta). + + _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: R. M. Anderson, 1948: 15 (decrease; + shift of range attributed to fire or overgrazing; need of + protection; killing from planes; Northwest Territories; northern + Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Manning, 1948: 26-28 (Eyrie, + Big Sand, Neck, Sandhill, Malaher, Boundary, Boulder, South + Henik, Camp, Carr, Alder, Victory, Ninety-seven, Twin, and Baker + lakes; Tha-anne and Kazan rivers; W. of Padlei; Christopher + Island; Chesterfield Inlet; Tavani; most numerous in the more + southerly and westerly of these localities in Manitoba and + Keewatin; heavy grazing on lichens where the caribou had been + numerous; migration; trails). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ Richardson: Rand, 1948a: 211-212 + (diagnosis); 212 (Northwest Territories, wandering southward in + winter as far as Fort McMurray (formerly) and Wood Buffalo Park; + food; habitat). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ Richardson: Rand, 1948b: 149 (numerous at + Burnt Wood River, W. of Nelson House, winter of 1944-45, and in + Herb Lake area, Manitoba, winters of 1944-45 and 1945-46; + hundreds killed by Indians). + + “Caribou”: Yule, 1948: 287 (a losing battle for survival; not + half as many as a few years previously); 288 (considerable herds + between Churchill and Gillam, but fewer to the westward; + excessive kill; consumption by dogs and wolves; disaster + confronting Indians and Eskimos through diminishing supply of + caribou). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. . .: Banfield, 1949: 477 + (economy); 478 (Mackenzie and Keewatin; numbers less than + previous estimate of 3,000,000; S. in winter to nw. Ontario, + central Manitoba, n. Saskatchewan, ne. Alberta, Wood Buffalo + Park, and Norman Wells; small bands remaining on Boothia and + Adelaide peninsulas, S. of Pelly Bay, on Somerset, Prince of + Wales, and Russell islands, and at Daly Bay; believed extirpated + on King William Island; Melville Peninsula); 481 (near Wager + Bay; fairly plentiful along Arctic coast from Back’s River to + Horton River, in Perry River district, and on Kent Peninsula, + where a few cross to Victoria Island; population on Southampton + Island estimated at 300, on Coats Island at 1,000 and on Baffin + Island at 25,000; apparently extirpated on Bylot Island in 1941; + Eskimo pressure on Baffin Island herds). (Fig. 1 suggests n. + limit at s. Victoria Island and Prince of Wales and Somerset + islands.) + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. . .: Harper, 1949: 226 (Kazan + River; Eskimos starving for lack of caribou); 226-230, 239-240 + (migration and its pattern); 226 (wintering S. to Churchill and + Nelson rivers; Nueltin Lake); 226, 228 (habitat; trails); + 226-227, 229-230 (locomotion); 227 (daily periods of rest); 228, + 229, 230 (pelage and molt); 228 (insect pests); 228, 229 + (organization of herds); 229 (antlers); 229-230 (disposition); + 230 (grunting; shaking water off; foot-glands; food); 230-231 + (utilization of hides and meat); 230-231, 239 (the wolf a + beneficial predator); 231, 239 (numbers); 239 (civilized man the + chief enemy; menace of reindeer culture). + + “Caribou”: Hoffman, 1949: 12 (herds of 50,000 in Mackenzie + region spotted by aircraft; Indians and Eskimos thus directed to + them; caribou hides shipped to Eskimos along Arctic coast, who + are thus giving up seal-hunting). + + _Rangifer arcticus_ agg.: Polunin, 1949: 24 (contemplated + introduction of Reindeer to replace Caribou); 72 (Frobisher + Bay); 227, 230 (reported increase in NE. of Southampton Island); + 230 (Eskimos on Southampton Island learning conservation + methods); 233, 238, 262, 264 (Christopher Island, Baker Lake). + + “Caribou”: Porsild, 1950: 54 (relatively plentiful, 1949, Banks + and Victoria islands). + + “Barren-ground caribou”: Banfield, 1951a: 1 (importance in + northern economy); 3 (physical environment); 4 (former and + present distribution); 4-5 (winter ranges); 5 (influences of + fire on distribution); 6 (summer ranges; retrograde autumnal + movement); 9 (estimated mainland population 670,000); 9-12 + (migration); 10 (retrograde autumnal movement; rutting in + October or November); 11 (influences of excessive hunting and + fires on migration); 12-15 (changes in range and status); 13 + (estimated population of 1,750,000 in 1900); 14-15 (destruction + by whalers and natives); 15-17 (description; pelage and molt); + 15 (weight); 17-18 (antler growth and change); 18 (tooth wear + with age); 19 (body form; foot-prints; foot-click); 19-20 + (food); 21 (locomotion; swimming); 22 (voice; senses; + disposition); 23-24 (group behavior); 24-26 (sexual + segregation); 26 (rutting behavior); 27 (fawning behavior; + warning behavior); 27-29 (influence of food, weather, and flies + on migration); 30 (vital statistics; growth); 31 (sexual + maturity); 31-33 (warble flies); 33 (nostril flies, mosquitoes, + and black flies); 33-35 (internal parasites); 35 (bacterial + diseases); 35-36 (accidents); 36-37 (relations to other + animals); 37-41 (relations to wolves; annual loss from wolf + predation estimated at no more than 5 percent); 41 (wolverine + only a scavenger); 42 (few kills by barren-ground grizzlies or + golden eagles); 42-43 (effect of firearms and wastage by + natives); 43-44 (caches); 44-45 (meat used as human food, dog + feed, and fox bait); 46-47 (hides used for clothing, upholstery, + tents, moccasins, etc.); 47 (use of sinew, antlers, and fat); + 47-50 (human population in caribou range; annual kill estimated + at 93,000 as a minimum). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Banfield, 1951b: + 120 (Mackenzie; wintering in forest, summering on tundra; + specimens). + + “Caribou”: Scott, 1951: 17 (Musk Ox Lake, Mackenzie); 19 (near + Beechey Lake); 37, 41, 83, 87, 88, 175, 214, 216 (Perry River, + Keewatin); 127 (use by Eskimos); 179, 180 (doe with fawn, July + 21); 199 (several thousand, July 27); 234 (Baker Lake). + + “Caribou”: Tweedsmuir, 1951: 18 (reduction on Baffin Island); 37 + (Salisbury Island); 111 (gone from Foxe Land). + + “Caribou”: Anonymous, 1952: 261 (decline in numbers from + 1,750,000 in 1900 to 670,000 in 1952); 263, 265, 267 (wolves + harrying herds); 264 (annual kill estimated at 100,000; natural + enemies account for 68,000 more); 267 (summer and winter ranges + mapped). + + _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. . .: Mochi and Carter, 1953: + pl. 9, fig. 3, and accompanying text (description; + distribution). + + “Caribou”: Harper, 1953: 28 (caribou bodies in Nueltin Lake + region fed upon by Rough-legged Hawks, Ravens, and Herring + Gulls); 40 (lack of Caribou leading to large consumption of + Ptarmigan as dog feed); 41 (Caribou preferred to Ptarmigan as + Eskimo food); 60 (Long-tailed Jaegers feeding on caribou + bodies); 62, 63 (depredations by Herring Gulls on caribou + bodies); 64 (Ring-billed Gulls feeding on caribou bodies); 72 + (Canada Jays as substitute for dog feed when caribou are + lacking; these birds as scavengers on caribou bodies); 74 + (Ravens and Canada Jays as scavengers); 76 (Ravens feeding upon + caribou bodies and following Wolves in expectation of a caribou + kill). + + “Caribou”: Barnett, 1954: 96 (migration; fawning; numbers); 103 + (migration); 104 (warble fly; antlers); 106 (lichens as food). + + + + +INDEX + + +The principal items selected for inclusion in this index are: names of +animals other than Richardson’s Barren Ground Caribou (_Rangifer +arcticus arcticus_); names of plants; names of institutions; and names +of authors and other persons. + +The index does not cover the bibliographical references in smaller type +inserted at the end of each section, from pages 38 to 119; nor does it +cover the two large sections devoted wholly to bibliography (pp. +120-160). + + _Aedes_, 45 + _fitchii_, 70 + _nearcticus_, 70 + _Agrostis scabra_, 42 + Alder, 98 + _Alectoria_, 44 + Allen, J. A., 116 + _Alopex lagopus innuitus_, 63 + American Committee for International Wild Life Protection, + reverse of title-page + American Museum of Natural History, 6, 117 + American Society of Mammalogists, 77 + Amundsen, Roald, 49 + Anderson, R. M., 40, 43, 75, 78, 116, 117 + Anonymous, 40, 47 + Anoteelik, 6, 26, 27, 35 (fig.), 56 (fig.), 60, 85, 95 + Arctic Institute of North America, 5, inside of back cover + _Arctostaphylos alpina_, 33 (fig.) + Armstrong, Alex, 117 + + Bailey, Alfred M., and Russell W. Hendee, 72 + Banfield, A. W. F., 5, 10, 40, 58, 63, 66, 71, 76, 78, 107, 117, 118 + Bear(s), Black, 42, 48, 62 + Bergman, Arvid M., 72 + _Betula glandulosa_, 33 (fig.), 98 + Birch, dwarf, 16, 17, 22, 24, 41, 98, 99 + Birket-Smith, Kaj, 76, 117 + Bison, 85 + Blanchet, G. H., 49, 117 + Blowfly(ies), 29, 51, 52 + Boas, Franz, 112 + Bourassa, John M., 12 + Buchanan, Angus, 7, 68, 86 + Buchholz, Carl, 38 + “Bulldog” (Tabanidae), 45 + _Buteo lagopus sancti-johannis_, 68 + + Cabot, William B., 99 + Calf, bovine, 104 + _Canis_, + _lupus arctos_, 63 + _lupus bernardi_, 63 + _lupus hudsonicus_, 63, 64 + _lupus mackenzii_, 63 + _lupus manningi_, 63 + _lupus occidentalis_, 63 + _Carex chordorrhiza_, 55 (fig.) + Caribou, + Grant’s, 74 + Labrador Barren Ground, 118 + Newfoundland, 63, 66, 97 + Peary’s, 43 + (Western) Woodland, 7-9, 12, 45, 46, 70, 78, 112, 94 (fig.), 119 + _Cephenemyia_, 45, 46, 72, 73, 96 + _nasalis_, 72 + _trompe_, 72, 73 + _Cervus elaphus elaphus_, 50 + Chambers, Joe, 11, 66, 85 + Chipewyans, Caribou-eater, 47, 49, 52, 58, 62, 69 + Christian, Edgar, 59 + _Cladonia_, 33 (fig.), 44, 98 + Clarke, C. H. D., 38, 40, 41, 47, 67, 78, 117 + _Corvus corax principalis_, 68 + Cow, domestic, 113 + Critchell-Bullock, James C., 67 + Crowberry, 16, 98 + + Deer, + European Red, 50 + “Indian,” 8 + Mule, 77 + White-tailed, 46, 77, 78, 83-85, 87, 100, 102, 103 + Degerbøl, Magnus, 112 + Dix, W. L., 44, 98 + Dobbs, Arthur, 8 + Dogs, (Husky), 15, 17, 19, 21, 47-52, 59, 60, 62, 85 + Downes, P. G., 18, 51, 52, 69, 106 + Dugmore, A. Radclyffe, 97, 112 + Dyar, Harrison G., 70 + + _Eleocharis baldwinii_, 42 + Ellis, Hazel R., 12 + _Empetrum nigrum_, 33 (figs.), 98 + Eskimo(s), 5, 6, 19, 29, 34 (figs.), 35 (figs.), 47, 49-52, + 56 (figs.), 57-60, 74-76, 79, 99, 114 + “Eskimo candle(s),” 60, 114 + “Eskimo Charlie,” 52 + + Fish, 47, 48, 59, 60 + Fisher, Alexander, 103 + Fleas, 73 + Flerov, Constantine C., 110 + Fly(ies), 14, 23, 27, 41, 43, 69, 85 + black, 20, 23-28, 45, 46, 69, 70 + “deer,” 70 + nostril, 37, 45, 46, 72, 73, 96 + warble, 37, 45, 46, 52, 56 (figs.), 57, 70-72, 96 + Fox(es), 47, 48, 51, 62, 66, 68 + Arctic, 48, 62, 63, 78 + Red, 63 + Franklin, Sir John, 46 + + Gallagher, Don, 12 + Gavin, Angus, 64, 69, 117 + Gibson, R. A., 6 + Godsell, Philip H., 117 + Goldman, Edward A., 63, 64 + Goodwin, George G., 117 + Grant, Madison, 118 + Grass(es), 98, 99 + Gull(s), + Herring, 51, 68 + Ring-billed, 68 + + Hanbury, David T., 47, 49 + Hares, Arctic, 69 + Harper, Francis, 44, 51, 52, 58, 69, 74, 77 + Hawk(s), Rough-legged, 48, 51, 68 + Hearne, Samuel, 5, 7-9, 57, 102 + Hewitt, C. Gordon, 75 + Hoare, W. H. B., 47, 59 + Hornby, John, 59 + Horse, 96 + Hudson’s Bay Company, 58 + + Indian(s), 5, 47, 48, 50, 52, 57, 75, 114 + Chipewyan. _See_ Chipewyans, Caribou-eater + Cree, 58, 94 (fig.) + Ingebrigtsen, John, 11, 79, 107 + Ingstad, Helge, 41, 49, 112 + Insects, 20, 37, 43, 45, 46 + + Jackson, Hartley H. T., 77 + Jacobi, Arnold, 7, 69, 71, 72, 74, 98, 102, 103, 105, 107, 112, 113 + Jaeger, Long-tailed, 68 + Jay(s), Canada, 48, 51, 68 + Jenness, Diamond, 85 + Johansen, Frits, 71, 73 + _Juncus tenuis_, 42 + + Katello, 19, 49, 56 (fig.) + + Lamont, Arthur H., 10 + Lantis, Margaret, 74 + _Larus_ + _argentatus smithsonianus_, 68 + _delawarensis_, 68 + _Ledum decumbens_, 33 (fig.) + Lemmings (_Dicrostonyx_), 48, 69 + _Lepus arcticus andersoni_, 69 + Lice (or louse), 73, 74 + Lichens, 37, 38, 44, 45, 51, 98, 99 + reindeer, 24, 44, 99 + _Linognathus tarandi_, 74 + _Loiseleuria procumbens_, 33 (fig.) + Lyon, George F., 86 + + MacFarlane, Roderick, 112 + MacIver, Angus, 38 + McLean, John, 9 + McLeod, Duncan A., 10 + Malaher, G. W., 6, 10, 12, 43, 44 + Mallet, Thierry, 41 + Malloch, J. R., 45, 46 + Manning, T. H., 58, 75 + Millais, J. G., 15, 63 + Mink, 69 + Mites, 73 + Moose, 45, 78, 85, 100, 113 + Morrow, William C., 6 + Mosquito(es), 23, 25, 45, 46, 69, 70, 99 + Moss(es), 24, 51, 60 + Murie, Olaus J., 105-107 + Mushrooms, 99, 113 + Muskox, 85 + + National Science Foundation, reverse of title-page, 6 + Natvig, L. Reinhardt, 72 + + _Oedemagena_, 45, 46, 96 + _tarandi_, 52, 70, 71, 73 + Office of Naval Research, 6 + + Padleimiut, 50 + Palmer, Ralph S., 6 + Parkman, Francis, 52 + Parry, William Edward, 103 + Peary, R. E., 106 + Perez-Llano, George A., 98 + _Perisoreus canadensis canadensis_, 68 + _Picea mariana_, 33 (fig.), 92 (fig.) + Pike, Warburton, 9, 44 + Planchek?, Charles, 52 + Pocock, R. I., 112 + Poole, Earl L., cover + Porsild, A. E., 73, 76, 77 + Preble, Edward A., 7, 9, 12, 40, 96 + Ptarmigan, Willow, 44 + + _Rangifer_ + _arcticus caboti_, 99, 118 + _arcticus granti_, 74 + _caribou sylvestris_, 12, 94 (fig.), 119 + _pearyi_, 40, 43, 63, 103, 106, 118 + _tarandus_, 5 + Rausch, Robert, 77 + Raven(s), 48, 51, 68 + Reindeer, 7, 66, 69, 74, 76-78, 110 + Lapland, Norway, or Norwegian, 5, 71, 72, 74, 75, 80, 87, 97, + 103, 105, 112 + Siberian, 74, 75, 77 + Richardson, Sir John, 5, 7-9, 44, 46, 69, 103 + Rita, 6, 34 (fig.), 35 (fig.), 56 (fig.) + Ross, Bernard R., 46 + Russell, Frank, 112 + + Sabrosky, C. W., 73 + _Salix planifolia_, 98 + Schweder, + Charles, 6, 12, 13, 17-19, 27-29, 31, 32, 37, 44, 45, 48-51, + 56 (fig.), 58, 59, 62-64, 66, 68, 69, 71, 73, 79-81, 83, 85, + 86, 88, 95, 97-108, 111-114 + Fred, Jr., 6, 12, 18-20, 24-27, 29-32, 34 (figs.), 43, 58, + 64-66, 69-71, 73, 79, 80, 82, 84, 86, 100-104, 106, 107 + Mike, 6, 26, 31, 34-35 (figs.) + Sedge(s), 17, 42, 55 (fig.), 98, 99 + Seton, Ernest Thompson, 5, 40, 64, 73, 75, 80, 81, 87, 88, 97, 98, + 100, 101, 103, 104, 107, 111-113, 116, 118, 119 + Simpson, Thomas, 8 + _Simulium_, 45 + _venustum_, 70 + Soper, J. Dewey, 58, 75 + Spruce, 24, 41, 42, 51, 60, 108 + black, 55 (fig.), 92 (fig.), 108 + Stefánsson, Vilhjálmur, 49, 63, 84, 86, 105, 117 + _Stercorarius longicaudus_, 68 + Stewart, Norman H., 46 + Stone, A. J., 97 + Stone, Dr. Alan, 70 + Sutton, George M., and William J. Hamilton, Jr., 107, 117, 118 + + _Tabanus_, 45 + Tamarack, 24, 41, 42, 108 + Thompson, David, 8 + Ticks, 73 + Turner, L. M., 118 + Tweedsmuir, Lord, 118 + Twinn, C. R., 45 + Tyrrell, + James W., 12, 78, 81 + J. Burr, 44, 78, 81, 118 + + United States Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, 70, 73 + United States Fish and Wildlife Service, 6 + United States National Museum, 6, 118 + _Usnea_, 44 + _Ursus americanus_, 62 + + _Vulpes fulva_, 63 + + Washburn, Dr. A. L., 6 + Weasels, 48, 69 + Weber, Neal A., 69, 71, 74 + Wherry, Dr. Edgar T., 42 + Whitney, Caspar, 112 + Wildlife Management Institute, reverse of title-page + Willow, 41, 60, 98, 108 + Wirth, Dr. W. W., 73 + Wolf(ves), + Keewatin Tundra, 11, 16, 20, 28, 37, 38, 41, 42, 48, 50, 63-68, + 80, 81, 83, 84, 86, 102, 104 + Alaska, 76 + Newfoundland, 66 + Wolverine(s), 48, 69, 83 + Wright, J. G., 118 + + + * * * * * + * * * * + * * * * * + + +Errors and Inconsistencies + +Inconsistent capitalization is unchanged, as is the variable spelling of +“Dog Rib” : “Dog-rib” : “Dogrib”. + +In references and bibliographies, irregular spellings such as “rain +deer” or “cariboo”, and variant forms of scientific names, are assumed +to be reproduced from their original sources. + + +_Spelling_ + + August 29 was ... in mid-afternoon [afternon] + References on relations to ... Stefánsson [Stefansson], 1913a + The numbers of rubbing trees ... on the outskirts [outskirits] + _Rangifer Graenlandicus_, _R. Groënlandicus_, _R. articus_ + [_all spellings unchanged_] + + +_Punctuation and Typography_ + + September 13 was ... brisk, northerly; [brisk, northerly:] + Amundsen, 1908; Preble, 1908; [1908:] + J. B. Tyrrell, 1894: 441; Dix, 1951: 287 [1894;] + Hoare, 1930: 22; Clarke, 1940 [22,] + J. W. Tyrrell, 1924 (1902): 28, 37; Hanbury, 1904 [1924 (1902);] + “stone men” (Harper, 1949: 231, fig.). + [_sentence-final period missing_] + Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 9, 47, 52-53 ... [1929 (1);] + Harper, 1932: 30, 31; Jenness, 1932 [30, 31,] + Clarke, 1940: 5-9, 84, 110, 112; G. M. Allen, 1942 [112,] + Kennicott, in Anonymous, 1869: 166 [1869;] + R. M. Anderson, 1913a: 5, 6; 1913b: 504 [5, 6,] + R. M. Anderson, 1913b: 516; Stefánsson, 1913a [516:] + recent notes by Banfield (1951a: 31-32, fig. 17) + [_open parenthesis missing_] + Seton, 1929, +3+: 109-111; Critchell-Bullock, 1930 [1929:] + Murie, 1939: 245; Clarke, 1940 [1939;] + R. M. Anderson, 1913b: 502; Hornaday, 1914 [502:] + J. W. Tyrrell, 1908: pls. facing pp. 80, 81 [pls facing] + J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128 [1892:128] + J. A. Allen, 1910: 8 [_period after A invisible_] + 1908a. The Peary caribou (_Rangifer pearyi_ Allen). + [_final i in “pearyi” not italicized_] + 1928. Field book of North American mammals. New York--London + [New York-London] + J. A. Allen, 1910: 8; Seton, 1929 [1910: 8,] + London: xv + 783 [London xv] + _Canadian Geog. Jour._ +24+ (1) [_number 24 both bold and italic_] + “Reindeer and caribou (Rangifer caribou)”: W. J. McLean, 1901: 5 + [_anomalous roman (non-italic) type in original_] + _“Caribou”_: Stefánsson, 1913a [_anomalous italics unchanged_] + 162-163 (destruction by Eskimos [162-163 destruction] + Barrens E. of Great Slave Lake); [Lake;] + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Barren Ground Caribou of Keewatin, by +Francis Harper + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BARREN GROUND CARIBOU OF KEEWATIN *** + +***** This file should be named 33721-0.txt or 33721-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/7/2/33721/ + +Produced by Louise Hope, Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, some +images courtesy of The Internet Archive and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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