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+Project Gutenberg's The Barren Ground Caribou of Keewatin, by Francis Harper
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Barren Ground Caribou of Keewatin
+
+Author: Francis Harper
+
+Release Date: September 14, 2010 [EBook #33721]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BARREN GROUND CARIBOU OF KEEWATIN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, some
+images courtesy of The Internet Archive and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber’s Note:
+
+This e-text comes in two forms: Unicode (UTF-8) and Latin-1. Use the
+one that works best on your text reader.
+
+  --If the tables use the male and female symbols (“Mars” and “Venus”),
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+  (“typewriter” form).
+
+Except for illustrations and footnotes, all brackets are in the 1955
+original. The same applies to question marks and similar editorial
+punctuation.
+
+Typographical errors are listed at the end of the e-text. To reduce
+visual clutter, italic markings have been omitted from all references
+in the form “1951a” (printed “1951_a_”).
+
+_Geographical Note:_ Lake Nueltin straddles the border between Nunavut
+and Manitoba. The area covered by the map is in southern Nunavut, in the
+region now written Kivalliq. “Eskimo Point” is modern Arviat.
+
+The opinions expressed in this book are not necessarily those of the
+transcriber.]
+
+
+
+
+    [Illustration: MAP 1. The Windy River area at the northwestern
+    extremity of Nueltin Lake, Keewatin. (Most of the smaller features
+    bear merely local or unofficial names.)]
+
+    [Illustration: COVER A Caribou buck signaling with a sprawling
+    posture of the left hind leg. Drawing by Earl L. Poole; based upon
+    a motion-picture film taken August 24, 1947, near the Windy River
+    post.]
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+  BARREN GROUND
+  CARIBOU
+  OF KEEWATIN
+
+  By
+  Francis Harper
+
+
+  University of Kansas
+  Lawrence · Kansas
+
+
+
+
+  University of Kansas
+  Museum of Natural History
+
+
+  Editor: E. Raymond Hall
+
+  _Miscellaneous Publication No. 6, pp. 1-164, 28 figs., 1 map_
+  _Published October 21, 1955_
+
+
+  Means for publication were supplied by:
+  National Science Foundation
+  Wildlife Management Institute
+  American Committee for International Wildlife Protection
+
+
+  Printed in U.S.A.
+
+  THE ALLEN PRESS
+  Lawrence, Kansas
+  1955
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  INTRODUCTION                                                     5
+
+  MIGRATIONS                                                       7
+    Southern limits of winter range                                7
+    Spring migration in the Churchill region                      11
+    Spring migration in the Nueltin Lake region                   12
+    Summer interlude                                              18
+    Fall migration in the Nueltin Lake region                     18
+    Retrograde autumnal movement                                  32
+    Fall migration in the Churchill region                        38
+
+  SUMMATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION                          39
+
+  ECOLOGY                                                         41
+    Habitats                                                      41
+    Trails                                                        41
+    Influence of weather on distribution                          43
+    Influence of food supply on distribution                      44
+    Influence of insects on distribution                          45
+    Effect of combined environmental factors on distribution      46
+    Relations to man                                              47
+    Ethnological material from caribou products                   59
+    Relations to Black Bears                                      62
+    Relations to foxes                                            62
+    Relations to Wolves                                           63
+    Relations to birds of prey                                    67
+    Relations to miscellaneous animals                            69
+    Relations to flies                                            69
+    Ectoparasites                                                 73
+    Relations to Reindeer                                         74
+
+  NUMERICAL STATUS                                                78
+
+  GENERAL HABITS                                                  79
+    Daily periods of activity and rest                            79
+    Organization of herds                                         81
+    Disposition                                                   83
+    Senses                                                        86
+    Gaits                                                         86
+    Tracks                                                        87
+    Swimming                                                      88
+    Shaking off moisture and insects                              95
+    Signaling                                                     96
+    Food                                                          98
+    Scatology                                                     99
+    Voice                                                        100
+    Reproduction                                                 101
+    Fawns                                                        103
+    Growth                                                       104
+    Antlers                                                      105
+    Rubbing trees                                                108
+
+  MORPHOLOGY AND TAXONOMY                                        108
+    Pelage and molt                                              108
+    Albinism                                                     112
+    Foot-glands                                                  112
+    Mastology                                                    113
+    Fat                                                          113
+    Body measurements and weights                                114
+    Measurements of skulls                                       115
+    Measurements of antlers                                      115
+    Measurements of testes                                       115
+    Geographical variation                                       116
+
+  LITERATURE CITED                                               120
+
+  ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES TO
+          _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_                           134
+
+  INDEX                                                          161
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+No other large North American land mammal is of such primary importance
+as the Barren Ground Caribou (_Rangifer arcticus arcticus_) as a source
+of food and clothing for so many primitive Eskimo and Indian tribes; no
+other performs such extensive and spectacular migrations; no other may
+be seen in such vast herds; no other exhibits so close an approach to a
+Garden-of-Eden trustfulness in the presence of man. And perhaps no other
+is more worthy of being cherished and safeguarded in its natural haunts
+for the benefit and enjoyment of future generations.
+
+The original valid designation, in technical nomenclature, of the Barren
+Ground Caribou of the Mackenzie-Keewatin region dates back to 1829, when
+Sir John Richardson described it in the _Fauna Boreali-Americana_ as
+_Cervus tarandus_ var. _arctica_. The type locality is Fort Enterprise
+(about lat. 64° 30´ N., long. 113° W.), on Winter Lake, an expansion of
+Snare River, Mackenzie. Since the typical subspecies appears to lack a
+distinguishing common name, it would seem fitting to associate with it
+the name of its worthy describer; thus, Richardson’s Barren Ground
+Caribou. The author’s intimate acquaintance with the animal should have
+enabled him to draw up a somewhat fuller and more adequate description
+than he did. Previous travelers in the Barren Grounds, among whom Samuel
+Hearne (1795) was particularly notable, had contributed accounts of the
+species, without differentiating it from the Lapland Reindeer (_Rangifer
+tarandus_) or without giving it a distinctive technical name.
+
+Since Richardson’s time the mainland form of western Canada has been
+discussed by many zoologists and explorers. The most comprehensive
+account of its life history hitherto published is that by Seton (1929,
++3+: 95-135),[1] whose personal experience was gained in the region of
+Artillery, Clinton-Colden, and Aylmer lakes. Dearth of adequate material
+(particularly from the type locality or adjacent areas) makes it all but
+impossible to determine whether there is any significant geographical
+variation between the herds of central Mackenzie and those of Keewatin.
+
+    [Footnote 1: This statement, written long before the appearance
+    of Banfield’s work of 1954, no longer applies.]
+
+The foremost objective of an expedition I made in 1947 to Nueltin Lake,
+in southwestern Keewatin, was a study of the Barren Ground Caribou. The
+expedition was supported by the Arctic Institute of North America, with
+funds supplied by the Office of Naval Research. My headquarters were at
+the little Windy River trading post, at the northwestern extremity of
+Nueltin Lake (map 1). There, for a period of six months, I enjoyed the
+fine hospitality of Charles Schweder and Fred Schweder, Jr. They had
+lived on intimate terms with the Caribou during most of their youthful
+lives, and they freely shared with me the knowledge they had thus gained
+concerning the ways of life of these wonderful creatures. They secured
+nearly all the specimens that went into my collection. The three other
+residents of the post also deserve my gratitude for their general
+helpfulness and friendliness; they were 10-year-old Mike Schweder
+(brother of Charles and Fred), 15-year-old Anoteelik (an Eskimo boy),
+and the latter’s sister, 5-year-old Rita.
+
+In a previous paper (1953) I have endeavored to express to various
+officials and friends my sincere appreciation of their courtesy and
+generosity in furthering the work of the expedition; and I can scarcely
+forbear to repeat here the names of at least a few of them: Dr. A. L.
+Washburn, at that time executive director of the Arctic Institute of
+North America; Mr. R. A. Gibson, deputy commissioner of the
+Administration of the Northwest Territories; and Mr. G. W. Malaher,
+director of the Game and Fisheries Branch, Manitoba. For the loan of a
+motion-picture camera, which secured for me some extremely gratifying
+scenes of the migrant hosts on the Barrens, I am greatly indebted to Mr.
+William C. Morrow. Dr. Ralph S. Palmer has kindly read, and made helpful
+comments upon, a preliminary draft of the present report.
+
+Through the courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History, the
+United States National Museum, and the United States Fish and Wildlife
+Service, I have been able to examine important comparative material in
+their collections.
+
+A grant from the National Science Foundation has enabled me to carry the
+investigation through to completion.
+
+
+
+
+MIGRATIONS
+
+
+The Barren Ground Caribou is the outstanding migratory land mammal of
+North America at the present day. (Some of the bats, though extensively
+migratory, obviously belong in a category too distinct for comparison.)
+We know as yet extremely little concerning the movements of individual
+Caribou;[2] but it is fairly safe to assume that among those reaching
+the southern limits of the winter range in central Manitoba or
+northwestern Ontario, there must be many whose summer range is at least
+500 or 600 miles to the northward. The latitudinal extent of such
+wanderings is comparable with, or equivalent to, an annual round trip
+between Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and Charleston, South Carolina.
+There is perhaps less information available concerning the migrations of
+the wild Reindeer of the Old World than concerning the movements of the
+Barren Ground Caribou of North America (_cf._ Jacobi, 1931: 191-200).
+
+    [Footnote 2: One means of gathering information on this subject
+    would be to capture fawns as they swim across lakes or wide rivers
+    on the autumn migration, then to affix numbered metal tags to
+    their ears and to release them in time to rejoin their mothers.
+    This would simply be a modification of the leg-banding method
+    that has proved so highly successful in the study of bird
+    migration. It would also be particularly useful in studies on
+    age and growth.]
+
+
+_Southern limits of winter range_
+
+In years long past the winter range extended at least occasionally as
+far south as Fort McMurray in Alberta and Cree Lake and the upper
+Mudjatick and Foster rivers in Saskatchewan, and rather regularly to
+Reindeer Lake (Preble, 1908: 137); and “on rare occasions as far south
+as Cumberland House on the Saskatchewan River” (Buchanan, 1920: 105). At
+an early date Richardson believed (1829: 243) that “none” of these
+Caribou “go to the southward of Churchill.”
+
+There are, however, records of long ago that deal with mass occurrences
+of Caribou on the lower courses of the Nelson, Hayes, and Severn rivers,
+emptying on the west coast of Hudson Bay. The records are very puzzling
+in several respects. Most of them do not definitely differentiate the
+species involved from the Barren Ground Caribou, but some of them (by
+Hearne, Richardson, and Preble) indicate that it is the Woodland
+Caribou. The direction of the migrations, as reported in some instances,
+is just the reverse of that taken at the present time by the Barren
+Ground species during its normal movements at corresponding seasons.
+Finally, it is all but impossible to reconcile the numbers reported with
+such knowledge as we have of the status of the Woodland Caribou at any
+other period or in any other region.
+
+Perhaps the earliest account is by Dobbs (1744: 22):
+
+“They [residents at Fort Bourbon-York Factory] also take great numbers
+of Cariboux or Rain-Deer [sp.?]. In _March_ and _April_ they come from
+the North to the South, and extend then along the River 60 Leagues; they
+go again Northward in _July_ and _August_; the Roads they make in the
+Snow are as well padded, and cross each other as often as the Streets in
+Paris.”
+
+In discussing the “Indian deer” or Woodland Caribou in the vicinity of
+Great Slave Lake, Hearne remarks (1795: 225): “This is that species of
+deer which are found so plentiful near York Fort and Severn River.”
+
+According to Thompson (1916: 100-101), an immense herd of “Rein Deer”
+[sp.?], estimated at the rather preposterous figure of 3,564,000
+individuals, crossed the Hayes River 20 miles above York Factory in late
+May, 1792. The direction of this migration is not indicated.
+
+Richardson writes (“1825”: 330) of the Woodland Caribou: “In the
+beginning of September, vast numbers of this kind of deer pass near York
+Factory . . . on their journey towards the north-west.”
+
+And again (1829: 250):
+
+“They cross the Nelson and Severn Rivers in immense herds in the month
+of May, pass the summer on the low, marshy shores of James’ Bay, and
+return to the northward, and at the same time retire more inland in the
+month of September. . . . I have been informed by several of the
+residents at York Factory that the herds are sometimes so large as to
+require several hours to cross the river in a crowded phalanx.”
+
+The implication is that the herds passed _southward_ in May. It should
+be borne in mind that these were apparently not personal observations of
+Richardson’s; and in his belief that the Barren Ground species did not
+go south of Churchill, he may have merely assumed that the animals in
+the York Factory region were the Woodland species.
+
+“Near York Factory, in 1831, this propensity [Indian destructiveness]
+. . . led to the indiscriminate destruction of a countless herd of
+reindeer [sp.?], while crossing the broad stream of Haye’s River, in the
+height of summer. . . . The deer have never since visited that part of
+the country in similar numbers.” (Simpson, 1843: 76).
+
+Referring to the York Factory region in 1837, John McLean writes
+(1932 [1849]: 195). “Not many years ago this part of the country was
+periodically visited by immense herds of rein-deer; at present there is
+scarcely one to be found.”
+
+A later account of Richardson’s (1852: 290) is somewhat ambiguous as to
+the species to which it refers:
+
+“The reindeer that visit Hudson’s Bay travel southward toward James’s
+Bay in spring. In the year 1833, vast numbers of them were killed by the
+Cree Indians at a noted pass three or four days march above York
+Factory. They were on their return northward, and were crossing Hayes
+River in incredible multitudes.”
+
+Pike writes (1917 [1892]: 50) that “within the last three years [_i.e._,
+about 1888] the [Barren Ground?] caribou have appeared in their
+thousands at York Factory . . . where they have not been seen for over
+thirty years.”
+
+Preble (1902: 41) quotes Dr. Alexander Milne as thinking, after 14
+years’ residence at York Factory, that the small bands of “Woodland
+Caribou,” found between Churchill and Cape Churchill, form the “northern
+fringe of the bands which migrate to the coast in spring, the great
+majority of which in their journey cross to the south of Nelson River.”
+At that time, however, Preble (1902: 42), like Richardson before him,
+seems to have regarded the Churchill River as the southern limit of the
+Barren Ground species, and thus he may not have considered the
+possibility of the animals of Cape Churchill and the Nelson and Hayes
+rivers belonging to the same species.
+
+It is difficult to draw any sure conclusions from the confusing records
+just quoted. Possibly chief reliance should be placed upon the testimony
+of such high authorities as Hearne, Richardson, and Preble when they
+refer to the animals as Woodland Caribou. Furthermore, none of the early
+writers identify them unequivocally as the Barren Ground species. It
+remains fairly evident that long ago some species of Caribou in great
+numbers did actually cross these rivers in a southerly direction in the
+spring, pass the summer on the coastal tundra east of York Factory, and
+return northward or northwestward in late summer or autumn. Whichever
+species it was, it represented a segment of the population that must
+have become reduced to utterly insignificant numbers, if not entirely
+extirpated, some decades ago. In any event, it does not seem very likely
+that we shall ever be able to reconstruct the actual movements of the
+“incredible multitudes” in the York Factory region of more than a
+century ago.
+
+Since the beginning of the present century, until very recent years,
+there seem to have been few or no Manitoba records of _R. a. arcticus_
+from any locality so far to the southeast as York Factory. In 1947,
+however, Mr. G. W. Malaher, director of the Game and Fisheries Branch in
+Manitoba, informed me that during the previous couple of winters the
+animals had ranged southward on a broad front to the latitude of Oxford
+House, where they had not been known for 40 or 45 years. It was surmised
+that the recent burning of large areas north of The Pas, resulting in
+the destruction of the Caribou’s normal winter food of lichens, had
+deflected the animals toward the southeast and had caused them to extend
+their migration beyond its normal limit. The Split Lake band of Indians
+(on the Nelson River) were said to have killed 4,000 Caribou during the
+winter of 1946-47, and to have used half of them for dog feed.
+
+Arthur H. Lamont, in charge of the meteorological office at Fort
+Churchill, gave me information concerning Caribou that he had seen
+during a plane flight from that point to Edmonton on March 18, 1947. At
+midday he had sighted hundreds, in bands averaging 20 to 30 individuals,
+on some little lakes, averaging a quarter of a mile in diameter, near
+the southwestern end of Reindeer Lake. The animals were right in the
+middle of the frozen lakes (evidently for a noonday rest), and some of
+them were lying down. They paid no attention to the plane at a height of
+6,000 feet, but were frightened when it came down to 200 feet. This was
+the only area where Caribou were sighted during the entire flight.
+
+Duncan A. McLeod, of Winnipeg, informed me that he had seen thousands
+and thousands of Caribou on April 16, 1941, while he was flying from
+Isle à la Crosse to Beaverlodge on Lake Athabaska. They were nearer to
+Lake Athabaska than to the starting-point. They were congregated on
+frozen lakes about the middle of the day.
+
+“Their nomadic migrations during the past 10 years have brought caribou
+herds during winter months to northwestern Ontario (Little Sachigo
+Lake); central Manitoba (Cormorant, Cross, and Island Lakes); northern
+Saskatchewan (Churchill River); northeastern Alberta (Clearwater and
+Athabaska Rivers and Lake Claire)” (Banfield, 1949: 478, fig. 1).
+
+
+_Spring migration in the Churchill region_
+
+The Hudson Bay Railway is perhaps the only one in North America from
+which Barren Ground Caribou of the present subspecies have been seen. On
+May 21, 1947, a passenger reported three or four of the animals near
+Mile 326, between Gillam and Amery. Farther north, between Herchmer and
+Chesnaye, the railway passes for perhaps 30-40 miles through the western
+edge of a tundra area, interspersed with small spruce timber; this is
+known as the “Little Barrens.” It was a thrilling experience to see my
+first Caribou here, during a period of three-quarters of an hour on the
+afternoon of May 21, from Mile 453 to about Mile 475. There were eight
+bands, varying in number from 2 to 60 or 70 and averaging about 20
+individuals. The first and largest band was loping away from the train,
+at a distance of perhaps 350 yards. A band of 9 or 10, at about 250
+yards, exhibited both a trotting and a loping gait. Others, as far off
+as half a mile or a mile and therefore less alarmed, seemed to content
+themselves with trotting. They maintained a noticeably close formation
+while fleeing from the train. Yearlings, appearing only about half the
+size of the adults, were readily distinguishable. The animals were in
+the midst of their spring migration and were evidently moving in a
+general northerly direction over the snow-covered Barrens. The ice of
+the small lakes was still solid enough for the Caribou to trot over it.
+
+Two weeks previously a large movement had passed through this area, as I
+learned from several sources. A member of the Royal Canadian Mounted
+Police detachment at Churchill, for example, had traveled through the
+Caribou for a distance of 15 miles without coming to the end of them; he
+estimated their numbers at more than 5,000. Joe Chambers, a trapper of
+Goose Creek, said the animals had been very plentiful in April, moving
+generally northward. He spoke of finding a good many Caribou that Wolves
+had killed, contenting themselves with eating only the tongue and the
+unborn fawn.
+
+According to a railway conductor, only 12 Caribou were seen from the
+train as it passed through the Little Barrens on May 25, and none on May
+28.
+
+John Ingebrigtsen, of Churchill, reported passing a frozen lake
+somewhere east of the Duck Lake Post, that was “absolutely full” of
+Caribou. It was about a mile and a half long by half a mile wide, and he
+estimated the number of animals at not less than 20,000. This was in the
+early part of May, 1942 or 1943, when the spring migration was no doubt
+under way.
+
+During a plane flight from Eskimo Point to Baker Lake on May 22, 1947,
+John M. Bourassa and Don Gallagher sighted numbers of Caribou, including
+one herd of about 500. On May 28 the former saw a Caribou between
+Churchill and Fort Churchill. From other sources I learned that small
+numbers occasionally pass along the outskirts of Churchill during the
+migrations.
+
+Professor Hazel R. Ellis (_in litt._, April 13, 1953) reports seeing
+several bands of Caribou from the train as it approached Churchill on
+June 8, 1947; also a band between Churchill and Fort Churchill on June
+13 and 21, 1949, and a single animal on June 28, 1949, on the west side
+of the river near Churchill. On July 5, 1949, she filmed a herd of over
+40 Caribou at Bird Cove on Cape Churchill.
+
+Preble writes (1902: 41): “Between York Factory and Fort Churchill a few
+small bands [of Woodland Caribou] are found throughout the year on the
+‘Barrens’.” He includes reports to this effect from several sources,
+including J. W. Tyrrell (1898). The latter, however, does not specify
+which species of Caribou his party encountered. It might be expected
+that _R. a. arcticus_, rather than _R. caribou sylvestris_, would be the
+proper inhabitant of this tundra area. It is beyond question that the
+animals seen in recent years on the “Little Barrens” between the
+Churchill and the Nelson Rivers are the Barren Ground species.
+Furthermore, Mr. G. W. Malaher, of the Manitoba Game and Fisheries
+Branch, informed me that a considerable number of this species spend the
+summer and have their fawns on the Barrens in this area.
+
+
+_Spring migration in the Nueltin Lake region_
+
+The general pattern of this migration, as manifested particularly about
+the northwestern portion of the lake, was explained by Charles Schweder.
+As a rule, practically all the local Caribou spend the winter in the
+wooded country to the southward. When the northward movement starts in
+the spring, the does precede the bucks; they migrate through this area
+mostly in May (and apparently more commonly in the latter half of the
+month), but to some extent in April or even earlier. During June the
+majority of the animals passing by are bucks. According to Fred
+Schweder, Jr., the spring migration here is more regular, less erratic,
+than the fall migration.
+
+When I arrived at Nueltin Lake on May 31, the spring migration was in
+full swing; it continued through June in gradually lessening force, and
+the last northbound band was seen on July 1. In the meantime many
+interesting details of caribou behavior came to light.
+
+While flying from Churchill to Duck Lake Post on May 31, at a height of
+about 500 feet, we detected three bands on the frozen surface of Seal
+River, where they were evidently taking a noonday rest. They numbered
+approximately 40, 20, and 6 individuals. Within 20 minutes after
+resuming our journey, from Duck Lake Post to Nueltin Lake, we saw four
+more bands, numbering from two to a dozen individuals. Finally, just
+before landing on Windy Bay, we noticed a band of perhaps 20 crossing
+the bay a mile from its head.
+
+Observations during the following 10 days showed that this was a very
+definite crossing-place for the Caribou, as if some invisible barrier on
+each side kept them to a certain line of march. Moreover, Charles
+Schweder informed me that they followed this identical route year after
+year. An examination of the local topography (map 1) soon revealed the
+reason. The rugged south side of Windy Bay rises steeply for some 500
+feet to the summit of the Windy Hills, and over a considerable distance
+there are precipices and talus slopes barring the passage of such
+animals as Caribou. But the mile-long South Bay, meeting Windy Bay at
+right angles, affords a convenient break in the hills; and the slopes
+thereabouts are gradual enough to be negotiated readily by the Caribou.
+So here they converge from the neighboring heights, making long,
+slanting trails through the snow that are visible for miles; they pass
+out of the narrow mouth of South Bay as through a funnel, then follow
+the beaten path of their predecessors across the ice of Windy Bay toward
+the farther shore, until they are lost to view among a cluster of
+islands. It may be further remarked that their course northeastward from
+the mouth of South Bay is less obstructed by islands than almost any
+near-by portion of Windy Bay.
+
+From our camp, a mile or so distant, Caribou in bands of approximately
+the following numbers were observed using this crossing-place during the
+early part of June: June 1--7, 10, 18, 20, and several other bands of
+unrecorded size; June 2--10, 3, 7; June 3--4, 4, 10, 30, 70, and others;
+June 4--3, 40?; June 5--40, 50, 75; June 6--25; June 10--8. Of course
+many others must have passed while our attention was elsewhere engaged.
+In most cases my records indicate the time of day when the bands were
+crossing Windy Bay. The periods were mainly from 10 to 11 a.m., from
+2:30 to 5 p.m., and in the evening. Perhaps the infrequency of midday
+passages was due to the habit of the Caribou of resting at this period.
+One of the last bands to pass during the evening of June 1 consisted of
+about 20 individuals. Two big bucks were in the lead, and apparently a
+few others were scattered along the line. At the very rear was a big,
+extra-dark buck, immediately preceded by a yearling barely half its
+size.
+
+In crossing the bay ice, the animals traveled habitually in long files,
+one after the other, and yet not altogether in single file. In watching
+the endlessly interesting spectacle from camp, we could not always count
+the individuals exactly, for here and there a few would get abreast of
+others and be partly concealed. The general formation of each band was
+that of a much strung-out procession. For the most part the animals
+progressed at a moderate walking gait; there were no flies to spur them
+on at this season. On one occasion the forward element of a large band
+was actually running, but those in the rear were going calmly, and there
+was no visible cause of alarm. At mid-morning of June 6 most of a band
+of 25 were lying down to rest on the bay ice, while a few remained
+standing.
+
+Meanwhile Caribou in some numbers were advancing northward by crossing
+Windy River, the ice on which did not break up generally till June 14.
+On June 3, for example, as I peeped out of my tent at 4 a.m., there was
+a band of about 15 making a crossing a quarter of a mile above camp.
+Late in the afternoon several dozen did likewise close to the same
+place. At this period I did not get farther upstream to note how many
+might be passing there. On June 14, while the river ice was breaking up
+but while the bay ice was holding firm, two bucks moved about on the
+latter, just off the river’s mouth. They appeared to be seeking a safe
+crossing. The smaller of the two almost invariably preceded, just as if
+it were aware that it would be less likely to break through than its
+companion. For the most part they walked rather sedately, but now and
+then took up a very leisurely trot. On the following day a dozen crossed
+Windy Bay at about the same place. These were the last ones seen on the
+ice in June. Though the ice remained on the bay for some days longer, it
+had evidently become unsafe.
+
+Thereafter the Caribou obviously preferred the short passage of Windy
+River (no more than 50 or 60 yards wide in places) to a swim of half a
+mile or so across Windy Bay. So they appeared in considerable numbers on
+the south bank of the river, reconnoitering for a suitable place to
+cross. Many were deterred by movements or sounds in our camp on the
+north bank, including the yelping invariably set up by the tethered
+Husky dogs whenever they would catch sight of Caribou; the latter would
+then be likely either to retreat behind the ridges or to pass upstream
+along the south bank. Along the half-mile extent of this bank visible
+from our camp, I noted the following making the passage of the river by
+swimming: June 18, a band of half a dozen; June 20, a band of three
+landing practically in our dooryard and about 14 crossing at the mouth;
+June 21, six crossing at the mouth; June 24, about 10 (mostly big bucks)
+landing just above the camp. On the morning of July 1 a buck swam across
+the bay just off the river’s mouth, and a little later a band of about
+11--the last seen on the spring migration--were trotting upstream along
+the south bank.
+
+Various groups observed during June, principally on the south side of
+the bay and the river, furnished memorable spectacles. Besides resorting
+to open areas on the frozen lakes and rivers for their resting periods,
+the Caribou will also select some commanding hilltop for the same
+purpose. On June 3 a band of 75 appeared in midday on the summit of a
+rocky hill (“Caribou Knoll,” map 1) rising to a height of some 150 feet
+on the far side of Windy River. While some kept on feeding, many of them
+lay down on snowbanks, apparently preferring these to the plentiful
+patches of bare ground, and doubtless passing the time by chewing their
+cuds. The velvet of the bucks’ new antlers was plainly visible through
+field-glasses. In the variety of their attitudes on this rocky height
+the animals were disposed perhaps more like alpine Chamois than like the
+generally conceived masses of Caribou on the low Barrens. What a subject
+for a Millais!
+
+It appears likely that the higher elevations may serve for the nocturnal
+rest as well as for a noonday siesta. During the evening of June 1, for
+instance, some 75 Caribou in a loose aggregation were feeding over the
+summit of Josie’s Hill, beyond the junction of Windy and South bays. On
+June 20 I was enjoying a wonderfully clear and golden light that was
+cast on the imposing mass of this hill as the sun was setting at my back
+about 9 o’clock. The glory of that scene was enhanced by picking out
+with the naked eye, at a distance of a couple of miles, two separate
+bands of 12 to 15 Caribou making their way upward toward the broad,
+plateaulike summit. Meanwhile a lone Caribou was outlined against the
+sky on one of the rocky ridges to the south. Might not these various
+movements have indicated a common urge to spend the semi-darkness of the
+Arctic summer night on some high, open area where a good lookout for
+Wolves could be kept?
+
+About 2 p.m. on June 15, a herd, perhaps half a hundred strong, appeared
+on a ridge directly across the river from camp. The animals made a
+lovely spectacle as they stood for a time, despite certain human
+movements in camp. Then they moved off upstream. A couple of hours later
+about 15 Caribou were feeding quietly on the south bank. On the
+following morning a band of 20 were doing likewise in nearly the same
+place. Among them were a patriarchal buck (apparently the leader),
+several other bucks, various does (one with hard horns), and a large
+proportion of yearlings. The bucks in general were lighter in
+color--more buffy; the does and yearlings, a sort of smoke gray. They
+seemed to be feeding to some extent on the patches of crowberry and
+dwarf birch. Presently they trotted off upstream, almost but not quite
+in single file, for a couple marched out of line with the others.
+
+On June 17 a band of about 20 appeared at a distance of 125 yards on the
+brow of a low hill near Stump Lake. Nearly all were big bucks, with
+velvety antlers up to about 20 inches in length. Perhaps three in the
+band were hornless--if not does, then young bucks that had very recently
+shed their antlers. Two of the bigger bucks were in the lead. At first
+the band came toward me, then went off at a tangent at a good pace,
+splashed across a little stream in a spirited action, and disappeared
+over the next ridge.
+
+Out of several bands appearing on June 20 on the opposite side of the
+river, one of about 14 individuals came down the slope near the mouth,
+took to the water at once, and made for the north shore. A strong buck
+landed first, and farthest upstream; others did nearly as well, but some
+of the smaller animals were swept by the strong current down into the
+bay and probably landed beyond the point. On reaching the shore, and
+even some minutes afterward, several of the Caribou could be seen
+shaking the water from their fur in doglike fashion.
+
+On the morning of June 21 a dozen came to the ridge across the river,
+briefly inspected the camp, and retreated. In a short time they
+returned, four antlered bucks in the lead, and some hornless individuals
+in the rear (almost in a separate band). Three of the bucks stood side
+by side, looking long and earnestly at the camp, while the others
+grazed. Finally dissatisfied with the prospect, they made off upstream.
+
+A little before 7 p.m. on the same day six Caribou appeared on the same
+ridge. For once the dogs were inattentive and silent. After promenading
+back and forth along the brow, the Caribou disappeared on the far side
+of the ridge; but in a few moments they were in the water at the river’s
+mouth, in very close formation, three of them swimming abreast. There
+were three good bucks and three smaller, hornless animals. After they
+got ashore at the opposite point, there was wagging of tails and shaking
+of ears, heads, and bodies, while the water flew off in a spray. Then
+they leisurely proceeded along the shore and around the point.
+
+About 7 p.m. on June 24 some 10 Caribou (mostly big bucks) swam the
+river and landed immediately above our camp. The last two, I noted, were
+heading almost upstream in the current that was running 6-8 miles per
+hour. They swam high, with the whole line of the back 2 or 3 inches out
+of the water and with the antlers tilted back to keep the snout above
+the surface. On landing, the animals hastened to the top of the Camp
+Ridge and ran off along it, while the chained and frustrated dogs
+expressed their feelings in the usual manner.
+
+As I was retiring to my tent on the Camp Ridge in the twilight about
+11:30 p.m. on June 29, I noticed a Caribou in the opposite edge of the
+river, about 125 yards away. For the most part it stood in about a foot
+of water and kept watching upstream. After some minutes I moved closer,
+right along the skyline; I waved a white pillow at it and shouted
+several times, but still it would not leave. Eventually it did move a
+few feet back from the water’s edge and there appeared to browse on some
+dwarf birches.
+
+The next day, watching from Pile o’ Rocks northwest of camp, I noticed
+three Caribou passing on a northeasterly course. They walked for the
+most part, but now and again trotted. They were two well-antlered bucks
+and a smaller individual with shorter horns. One of the former paused to
+graze in a green-sprouting sedge bog. It was perhaps such fresh summer
+vegetation that had helped to produce fat an inch thick on the haunches
+of an animal secured about this date.
+
+The area near the western border of Keewatin, lying at some distance
+south of Dubawnt Lake and west of the upper Kazan River, does not appear
+to attract large numbers of Caribou. Just once, in May, Charles Schweder
+has found them crossing a lake which he considered Dubawnt, but may have
+been Kamiluk. In his trapping excursions in that area he has found
+trails and other signs all along the way, indicating that the animals at
+least pass through on their migrations.
+
+
+_Summer interlude_
+
+After July 1 no more Caribou were seen about the Windy River for five
+weeks. From information supplied by Charles Schweder, it appears that
+virtually all of the animals desert the southern portion of the Barren
+Grounds at this season. Before dropping their fawns, the does pass on
+for an undetermined distance to the northward of that portion of the
+upper Kazan River lying immediately below Ennadai Lake. The rear guard
+of the northward migration seems to be composed mainly of bucks and a
+few barren does.
+
+A general veil of mystery seems so far to have enshrouded most of the
+natal places (except the islands along the Arctic mainland coast) and
+the first few weeks in the life of the Caribou fawns.
+
+
+_Fall migration in the Nueltin Lake region_
+
+In former times the southward migration reached the Nueltin Lake region
+in July (_cf._ Downes, 1943: 203-237), sometimes as early as the middle
+of the month. Suddenly the time of arrival shifted to (early) August,
+and has so remained. In Charles Schweder’s experience, the bucks nearly
+every year precede the does on the southward migration; this suggests
+that at least the majority of the bucks may not go so far north as the
+does. In a certain year the does actually appeared first in coming
+south. In normal years, according to Fred Schweder, Jr., the migration
+continues till October or November, by which time the animals have
+passed into the wooded country for the winter.
+
+Charles Schweder described the general pattern of fall migration as
+follows. At first two or three animals will appear, then a few more, and
+after several days a big movement, lasting three or four days, will pass
+through. Thereafter the numbers dwindle, though the migration continues.
+Curiously enough, there is a definite retrograde movement northward into
+the Barrens in September--sometimes as early as the first part of the
+month. Then there is a final movement toward the south in November, at
+the time of the first good snows; the largest herds of the year may then
+be seen. Just how far the migration in 1947 conformed to this pattern
+(outlined in early August) will be seen in the following pages.
+
+The big August movement occurs occasionally as early as the first days
+of the month, whereas it was delayed till the last week in 1947. About
+the first of August, 1943, according to Fred Schweder, Jr., a thousand
+Caribou swam across the mouth of Windy River in the course of an hour,
+and there were other thousands during a two weeks’ period. But such a
+large migration strikes this point only once in several years. In other
+years it may pass southward farther to the west, as in the vicinity of
+Simons’ Lake.
+
+In the fall of 1946--the very season when the Caribou bypassed the
+Eskimo camps on the upper Kazan River--there were said to have been far
+more than the normal numbers in the Windy River area. Thousands passed
+in one day, about October 10. The hills about Four-hill Creek then gave
+Fred Schweder, Jr., the impression of “moving with Deer.” By comparison,
+the numbers along the Windy River in 1947 were considered by the local
+residents to have been below normal, however impressive they may have
+been to a zoological visitor. On the other hand, it seemed to Charles
+Schweder, during his trip down the Thlewiaza River in late August of
+1947, that Caribou were still very numerous; and he reported that people
+along the west coast of Hudson Bay were then getting more of the animals
+than in previous years.
+
+Only rarely do limited numbers of Caribou remain all winter in the Windy
+River area. During Charles Schweder’s years of residence there (about
+1936-47) the animals had done so just once--on the Windy Hills. In
+1946-47 Fred Schweder, Jr., found about 300 of them remaining all winter
+about the north end of Ennadai Lake. He said that the locally wintering
+animals are all bucks. Katello, an elderly Eskimo of the upper Kazan
+River, informed Charles Schweder that the Caribou used to remain there
+all winter, but now very rarely do so.
+
+By the end of July, after both men and dogs had subsisted for several
+weeks on a diet devoid of caribou meat, an air of expectancy began to
+pervade the Windy River camp. The hunters roamed the Barrens or watched
+from some lookout post such as the Pile o’ Rocks (fig. 27). No Caribou
+were detected during plane trips to the upper Kazan River and return on
+July 31 and August 3, though their ancient, well-marked trails were
+visible along the ridges. It was not until August 6 that the first buck
+of the return movement was encountered. On the following day another
+animal was secured. On August 10 and 11 only a few Caribou--not over 25
+in a band--were seen by Charles Schweder and Fred Schweder, Jr., from
+the air between the Windy and the Kazan rivers. It began to be feared
+that the bulk of the migration might pass somewhere to the westward. On
+August 13, however, at a distance of some miles from camp, Fred sighted
+20 Caribou; all of them were does and fawns except for one buck. On
+August 17 he secured a good-sized buck (specimen No. 1065; figs. 3, 4)
+at Bear Slough and saw five other bucks elsewhere. Two days later
+Anoteelik reported a band of 13.
+
+On August 20 Fred reported about 300 Caribou moving in our direction
+across the Barrens east of Lake Charles; they proved to be the advance
+guard of a big movement. On the same afternoon I had filmed several
+bucks going their separate ways on the slopes about Pile o’ Rocks and
+Stony Man. They were moving along somewhat hurriedly, in a manner very
+different from the placid grazing of sheep or cattle. One or two does
+with fawns also appeared in the vicinity. (The passage of a Keewatin
+Tundra Wolf over the same ground a short time previously had no effect,
+as far as I observed, on the behavior of the animals at this time.)
+A grander, though more distant, spectacle gradually unfolded off to the
+eastward, beyond Little River, where several groups, numbering from 3 to
+20 or 25 individuals, were feeding quietly over the open Barrens. Their
+fresh dark autumn coats showed up much more conspicuously than had the
+cream-buff of their winter coats in June. Presently the scene became
+livelier, as the largest band, composed of does and fawns as well as
+lordly bucks, started to romp northward over the Barrens. One or more of
+the various kinds of insects that bring life-long misery to the Caribou
+may have stampeded them. This band swept past a group of half its size
+without at once involving it. A doe and a fawn remained lying down as
+the others passed.
+
+As the eye swept farther over that lonely land, still other Caribou were
+disclosed singly or in groups scattered over a couple of square miles.
+There was no strong herd instinct as they grazed at will. Even when on
+the march, they straggled along, some as much as 20 to 30 yards apart.
+As the sun sank lower, and the black flies became less active with the
+dropping temperature (about 53°), a lull ensued in the movements of the
+Caribou.
+
+The big movement of the fall migration finally began to materialize on
+Sunday, August 24. This and the next few days were filled with memorable
+experiences. The throngs of Caribou passing at such times around the
+head of Windy Bay and across the lowermost portions of Little and Windy
+rivers may be accounted for, in part, by the local topography (map 1).
+The upper part of Windy Bay, occupied by numerous islands of various
+sizes and extending about 5 miles in an east-west direction, opposes
+something of a barrier to the Caribou in their southward trek. The
+easiest way to overcome this barrier is to by-pass it. So the migrant
+herds approaching the north shore of the bay turn westward toward Little
+River. At a point half a mile short of this stream a rather minor
+proportion of the Caribou actually do essay a passage of Windy Bay. They
+cross an island lying very close to the north shore, then steer for a
+small rocky islet a quarter of a mile northwest of the mouth of South
+Bay. Here they get a brief respite from swimming by walking through the
+shallow bordering waters, then continue straight on to the rugged south
+shore of Windy Bay. This course is roughly parallel to, and a quarter of
+a mile west of, the one pursued northward or northeastward across the
+ice in the spring migration. The Caribou were seen to follow this water
+route on various days from August 24 to September 8, and again on
+October 7. Like the one across the ice, it is probably a regular,
+well-established, annual route.
+
+The greater number of the migrants proceed along the north shore of the
+bay to Little River and are there confronted with a choice of various
+further routes. Some continue for an indefinite distance up the
+northeastern bank, passing Lake Charles on their right, though other
+animals, coming from the north, may be following this bank in the
+opposite direction. Probably most of the Caribou arriving from the
+eastward either plunge into Little River at its mouth and swim across
+(figs. 9, 10, 12) or pass upstream for a bare quarter of a mile and then
+wade across at a rapid (figs. 7, 8).
+
+Without human interference, a large proportion of those that cross the
+lower part of Little River would doubtless proceed more or less directly
+to Windy River and cross near its mouth. But the human and canine
+inhabitants of the Windy River post seem to exert a strong influence in
+deflecting the Caribou northwestward along several more or less parallel
+ridges that rise to a maximum height of 40 or 50 feet. These are Little
+River, Middle, and Camp ridges (map 1). Many animals follow the first of
+these to its northwestern end, then cross a bog and ascend the Middle
+Ridge. Some cross the southeastern end of Little River Ridge, scramble
+down its steep sides by strongly marked trails (fig. 2), and then move
+across the Eastern Bog to the Middle Ridge. But when they reach the
+summit, they can see the post directly ahead, and generally hurry off
+northwestward along the ridge. Presently some may cross the Camp Slough
+(fig. 13) to the Camp Ridge and then proceed either westward or
+northwestward. The Caribou have a strong predilection for following the
+treeless summits of the ridges wherever they are available and extend in
+a more or less desirable direction. On reaching the vicinity of the Bear
+Slough, where the three ridges are interrupted or peter out, the animals
+doubtless turn more or less southwestward to make a passage of Windy
+River at various points above its mouth. Under the conditions outlined
+above, it is obvious that some of the finest opportunities for
+close-range observation and photography lie at the two well-established
+crossings near the mouth of Little River.
+
+On the dark and drizzly morning of August 24 (temp. 47°-48°) I noticed a
+number of Caribou, in groups of 2 to 20, traveling northwestward along
+Middle and Little River ridges. This indication of general activity
+enticed me to the top of the latter, whence I had a view of perhaps 8 or
+10 animals scattered over the Barrens beyond Little River. Several were
+lying down just beyond the summit of a ridge between the river and
+Glacier Pond, so that little more than their antlers was visible. With
+the idea of finding out how closely I could approach these resting
+animals, I waded knee-deep across a rapid about 100 feet in width, and
+worked my way up the opposite slope until I once more caught sight of
+the tips of several antlers. Under cover of a rock and some dwarf
+birches, I crept ahead on hands and knees, with a miniature camera at
+the ready. I had arrived within 50 yards when the nearest buck got to
+its feet and stood looking at me. In hopes of photographing the rest
+while they were still lying down, I rose to my knees and hastily exposed
+the last bit of film in the camera. Still there was no immediate
+reaction on the part of the Caribou. Fortunately there was a cross wind.
+The first buck was so little alarmed that it leisurely sprinkled the
+ground. But presently it turned and walked off, presumably giving some
+signal of voice or posture (such as an erect tail) to the rest; for they
+got to their feet, not the half a dozen I expected, but half a hundred
+of them! Though they trotted off toward Windy Bay, they paused within a
+hundred yards and turned to stare at me. Several more relieved
+themselves as the first buck had done. By this time I saw that some of
+the Caribou, including a little fawn, were carrying their tails quite
+erect, as an expression of suspicion or a signal of alarm. Evidently a
+majority of the band were bucks, but there were some does, with
+foot-long horns, and their fawns. On my way back to camp I noticed
+several groups of Caribou swimming across Windy Bay; perhaps they
+included the very animals I had so recently disturbed.
+
+In the early afternoon it became evident that a further northwesterly
+movement was under way along the ridges between camp and Little River.
+The animals had doubtless made the passage of the river near its mouth.
+I followed some of them to a bog at the upper end of Little River Ridge,
+where I began to film several bucks and a lone, inquisitive, one-horned
+doe. While the latter was approaching me within a hundred feet, I caught
+a movement out of the corner of my eye, and all at once the bog seemed
+full of Caribou. There were 75-100 of them, chiefly bucks, and not more
+than 50 yards or so distant across the open bog. They presently moved
+on, without haste, and ascended the Middle Ridge.
+
+Several hours later about 50 more Caribou passed through this bog. Then
+a band of 17 came along, composed chiefly of does and their fawns, with
+a couple of young bucks; they did not even turn their heads in my
+direction as I stood in the open 50 yards away. Eventually a herd of
+about 150 (the largest I saw during the whole season) passed along the
+well-worn trails on the summit of the Middle Ridge. It seemed to include
+all sexes and ages, with possibly a majority of does and fawns; bringing
+up the rear was a limping patriarch with huge antlers, a heavy mane, and
+a lingering winter coat.
+
+During the remainder of the afternoon several other groups appeared in
+that general area. About 15 individuals descended Little River Ridge
+(fig. 2) to the Eastern Bog, but retraced their course after coming
+close to several of us; they were mostly does, with four fawns and a few
+bucks. Another band, of all ages and sexes and numbering perhaps a
+hundred individuals, crossed at the rapid on Little River. The
+temperatures that had prevailed during this day’s marked migratory
+movements varied from about 45° to 50°. They were low enough to keep the
+black flies completely in abeyance, and the mosquito season was
+virtually over. Although I noticed none of the parasitic flies, possibly
+enough of them were present to keep the Caribou moving actively against
+a moderate to brisk northerly wind. Now and again a big buck could be
+seen fairly jumping out of its skin with the vigor of vibrating its
+sides to shake off the tormentors.
+
+On August 25 (the second day of the big movement) I watched and filmed
+the pageant of Caribou migration from the southwestern bank of Little
+River. The turfy slopes of the Barrens, carpeted with low ericaceous
+shrubs, mosses, and reindeer lichens, and dotted here and there with
+little thickets of dwarf birch, spruce, and tamarack, stretched
+invitingly before me. Temperatures ranging from 40° to 51°, with a brisk
+northwest breeze sweeping down the river, happily suppressed most of the
+black flies.
+
+The Caribou came along at intervals from the eastward, in bands up to 75
+strong, either to make the passage of the river or to continue upstream
+along the opposite ridge. A small number might make the crossing in one
+or two files, but one of the larger bands might spread out widely in the
+shallow rapid. One of the photographs (fig. 7) shows approximately 75
+Caribou going divergent ways at this rapid: about 20 passing upstream
+along the ridge on the far side, including some pausing to feed on the
+low vegetation; 8 or 9 moving down the slope of the ridge to the water’s
+edge; about 10 bucks, 16 does, and 6 fawns making the passage of the
+river; and about 13 arriving on the near shore and pausing to feed. The
+adults were able to step across in the swift water, while the fawns swam
+part of the way. The bucks were apparently in the minority again on this
+day.
+
+One group of some 40 does and fawns, after swimming the river near its
+mouth, came hurrying along the ridge in close array directly toward my
+station, and did not take alarm until they had arrived within 100 feet.
+Then they turned tail and, each with its flag erect, beat a hasty
+retreat. The maneuver made a scene of considerable charm and interest.
+While I was filming a dozen Caribou in the Eastern Bog from the Middle
+Ridge, a stray fawn came up and halted for some seconds within a rod of
+me. The bewildered look in its big eyes was comical though pathetic. In
+presently dashing on, it passed within a dozen feet.
+
+Late in the afternoon Fred Schweder, Jr., reported about a thousand
+Caribou, in various bands up to 100 strong, crossing Little River here
+and there a mile or so above its mouth. They were traveling southwest.
+
+  August 26 was marked by mist squalls, a maximum temperature of
+  45°, and a slackening in the numbers of passing Caribou. Late in
+  the morning a band of more than 30 bucks, does, and fawns
+  crossed the rapid on Little River. In the early afternoon
+  scattering individuals and a band of 15 or 20 did likewise.
+  Presently another band of about 22 animals came (fig. 8); it
+  consisted chiefly of does and fawns, but there were several
+  medium-sized bucks bringing up the rear. They crossed the rapid
+  in a somewhat V-shaped formation, open at the front. The
+  vanguard reached a rocky strip 25 yards in front of my camera
+  and began to feed contentedly on the low vegetation. However,
+  a couple of does still in the water eyed me intently and
+  presumably communicated their misgivings to the others, for all
+  turned and went back through the river without panic or haste,
+  although they trotted on reaching the farther shore. Later there
+  were about 25 Caribou crossing the bay, and nearly as many on
+  Little River Ridge.
+
+  The weather on August 27, while mostly sunny, included
+  occasional snow or sleet flurries; the northerly wind was brisk
+  to strong; and the temperature, ranging from 37° to 50°,
+  prevented the appearance of black flies. By 10:20 a.m. a band of
+  about 10 does and fawns crossed the rapid on Little River. Two
+  hours later 12-15 animals followed the same course, and
+  presently 75-100 passed upstream on the far side, with a good
+  deal of grunting. About 2:35 p.m. nearly a hundred Caribou,
+  perhaps alarmed by a passing plane, dashed north out of the
+  Eastern Bog. By 4:45 p.m. 20 or more bucks, does, and fawns swam
+  across Little River at its mouth; several of the biggest bucks,
+  with enormous antlers, led the advance into the water. An hour
+  later, on the eastern side of the river, half a dozen of the
+  animals were lying down, but with heads erect, and facing down
+  wind. At this period of the day several more bands of moderate
+  size swam over to the west side of the river. A goodly number of
+  the animals fed within 25 yards of me for a considerable time.
+
+  The following day was nearly cloudless; wind moderate, westerly;
+  temperature, 37.5° to 66°--high enough to bring out the black
+  flies (but extremely few mosquitoes) after several days of
+  virtual freedom from these scourges. Between 11:30 a.m. and 3
+  p.m. at least 500 Caribou, coming from the east, must have
+  passed the mouth of Little River, some swimming across at that
+  point (figs. 9, 12), and others proceeding various distances
+  upstream before undertaking the passage. A few of the larger
+  bands numbered approximately 30, 40, and 75 individuals. Some
+  consisted largely of does and fawns, some of big bucks. One of
+  the larger bands approached the river on the run, plunged in
+  recklessly, and landed on the western shore some 30 feet
+  directly in front of my battery of cameras. Most of the animals
+  on this and similar occasions were remarkably indifferent to me
+  as I operated the cameras in full view of them. Some among them
+  would approach within a rod or less and stare me in the face
+  without alarm (figs. 11, 14).
+
+  August 29 was a cloudy, nearly calm day, with temperatures
+  ranging from 49.5° to 73°--conditions more propitious for black
+  flies than for their victims. There was comparatively little
+  local movement among the Caribou--in the morning two or three
+  swimming across the bay and a band of 20 (6 old bucks, the rest
+  does and fawns) swimming south across the mouth of Windy River;
+  in mid-afternoon a band of 10 running along the ridge on the
+  eastern side of Little River; and about 100 reported during the
+  day in the vicinity of Windy Bay by Fred Schweder, Jr. The “big
+  movement” had passed its peak.
+
+  The next day was largely sunny, with a light easterly or
+  southeasterly wind and temperatures of 50° to 68°. There were
+  comparatively few black flies and fewer mosquitoes. During a
+  five-hour vigil near the mouth of Little River I noticed only
+  about 50 Caribou, most of them passing westward by ones, twos,
+  and intermediate numbers up to 17 (does and fawns) in a band.
+  Mike Schweder reported a total of about 200 animals seen within
+  a few miles of camp.
+
+  The morning of August 31 was dismal and overcast, with a heavy
+  shower; in the afternoon the sky cleared; wind brisk, south to
+  west; temperature, 47° to 74.5°. Several Caribou passed along
+  the eastern side of Little River, and Fred Schweder, Jr.,
+  reported about 300 some miles north of camp, moving in a
+  southwesterly direction.
+
+  Clouds and rain ushered in the morning of September 1; the
+  afternoon was sunny; wind light to strong, west to northwest;
+  temperature, 48° to 60°. The next day was partly cloudy, with a
+  mist squall or two; wind light to brisk, northwesterly;
+  temperature, 38° to 51.5°. No Caribou were reported on either
+  day.
+
+  September 3 was largely cloudy, with some mist squalls; wind
+  light to moderate, northerly to easterly; temperature, 40° to
+  51°. There were enough black flies to be slightly troublesome.
+  Two bucks, two does, and a fawn were noted at Bear Slough.
+
+  September 4 was partly cloudy, with drizzling rain; wind light,
+  east to south and southwest; temperature, 43° to 58°. I saw
+  about 22 Caribou (largely does and fawns), in several different
+  groups, at Bear Slough and vicinity, and Fred Schweder, Jr.,
+  reported about 200 in the same area. Two were noted swimming to
+  the south side of Windy Bay.
+
+  September 5 was marked by a driving, day-long rainstorm; wind
+  brisk, easterly; temperature, 43° to 50°. A band of about 20
+  Caribou (mostly does and fawns, with several middle-aged bucks),
+  besides one or two single animals, were encountered at Bear
+  Slough.
+
+  September 6 was a cloudy, raw day, with several snow flurries;
+  wind brisk, northerly; temperature, 33° to 35°. Not a fly was
+  abroad. Two Caribou moved northwest along Little River Ridge;
+  a band of about 75 (mainly does and fawns, but with a fair
+  number of big bucks) passed in the same direction along the
+  Middle Ridge; and about 25 others grazed along the eastern side
+  of Little River. Later about 15-20 more were seen about the
+  mouth of Little River and on a near-by island, and eight swam
+  across Windy Bay to the south side. Fred reported seeing about
+  300 during the day north and west of camp; they were moving in a
+  northerly direction.
+
+  It was cloudy nearly all day on September 7; wind moderate,
+  northerly; temperature, 33° to 40°. No black flies were in
+  evidence. A dozen or more Caribou took to the water from an
+  island in Windy Bay and made for the north shore. A band of
+  about 25 passed along Little River Ridge toward the river’s
+  mouth.
+
+  September 8 was mostly cloudy; wind moderate to strong,
+  southeasterly; temperature, 37° to 42°. Fred reported a band of
+  about 100 Caribou crossing the mouth of Little River toward the
+  west. A dozen or more swam southward over Windy Bay at the usual
+  crossing-place. Anoteelik brought in 13 tongues from that many
+  freshly killed Caribou; he had secured them with a .22 rifle.
+
+  A driving gale from the east, with rain and sleet, continued
+  through the day on September 9; temperature, 36° to 37°. A
+  solitary buck inspected our camp from the south side of Windy
+  River, then retreated.
+
+  An overcast sky, with some drizzle and sleet, prevailed on
+  September 10; wind light, east to northeast; temperature, 35.5°
+  to 42.5°. No flies present for some days past. Fred reported
+  about 20 Caribou moving westward in the vicinity of Little
+  River.
+
+  On September 11 clouds and mist squalls in the morning gave way
+  to sunshine in the afternoon; wind light, easterly; temperature,
+  37° to 45.5°. Caribou were noted as follows: five on the east
+  side of Little River; two does and a fawn on an island in Windy
+  Bay; a doe and a fawn swimming northward across this bay; half a
+  dozen on Josie’s Hill. During a flight from Churchill to Nueltin
+  Lake on this day, Charles Schweder detected no Caribou at all,
+  and concluded that the bulk of the migrating herds had by this
+  time passed to the southward of his course. During the latter
+  part of August, while descending the Thlewiaza River from
+  Nueltin Lake to Hudson Bay, he had seen thousands of the
+  animals--as many as 5,000 in a single day, although no more than
+  500 in a single herd.
+
+  Sun, clouds, and rain marked September 12; wind moderate to
+  light, south to west; temperature, 48° to 60°. Only two Caribou
+  were reported.
+
+  September 13 was cloudy, with intermittent mist squalls and a
+  little sun; wind light to brisk, northerly; temperature, 34° to
+  about 44°. Two bands of Caribou (of four and five animals)
+  appeared near the mouth of Windy River.
+
+  It was generally cloudy, with a snow squall, on September 14;
+  wind brisk to light, northerly; temperature, 33° to 41°. A doe
+  and a fawn, proceeding northward, and four or five other Caribou
+  appeared on the near-by ridges.
+
+  The weather was clear on the 15th, with a moderate to brisk
+  north wind and temperatures of 29° to 48°; ice at edge of the
+  river. Fred reported about 100 Caribou (none of them bucks)
+  north of camp, and Anoteelik secured 13 east of Little River.
+
+  On the morning of the 16th intermittent snow flurries left a
+  thin cover on the ground, but it was practically dissipated by
+  the afternoon sun; wind brisk, northerly; temperature, 30° to
+  39°. Fred reported three old does without fawns, and no bucks.
+
+  September 17 was mostly cloudy, with a little sun; wind light,
+  northwest and west; temperature, 30° to 43°. A single Caribou
+  was seen on the south side of Windy River.
+
+  Clear skies prevailed on September 18; wind brisk, westerly;
+  temperature, 35° to 53.5°; ice at edge of the river. A solitary
+  black fly appeared. No Caribou reported.
+
+  September 19 was another clear day; wind moderate to brisk,
+  west-southwest; temperature, 42° to 60°. Anoteelik, camping on
+  the Barrens about 2 miles to the north of camp for the past
+  couple of days, reports having killed 20 Caribou (only one of
+  them a buck).
+
+  Light rain, soon changing to sleet, and then frequent snow
+  squalls, provided the principal weather elements on September
+  20; wind light to strong, west to north; temperature, 27° to
+  43.5°. The ground became partly covered with snow. A big buck,
+  followed several hours later by a doe and a fawn, swam across to
+  the north side of Windy River at its mouth. Ten more Caribou
+  were taken by Anoteelik. Charles considered that the retrograde
+  movement to the north was definitely under way. There had been
+  indications of it on various days from September 6 on.
+
+  Except for a few snow flurries, it was largely sunny on the
+  21st; wind brisk to moderate, north to northwest; temperature,
+  26° to 34°. About a quarter of an inch of snow remained in
+  sheltered places. A doe and a fawn appeared near camp.
+
+  There was considerable snowfall on the 22nd; wind light to
+  moderate, westerly; temperature, 30° to 33°; ice in edge of the
+  river. A large buck left tracks in the snow along the Windy
+  River.
+
+  September 23 was partly cloudy; wind brisk, north-northwest;
+  temperature, 21° to 32°; about a quarter of an inch of snow on
+  the ground, and a tundra pond mostly frozen over. Several small
+  groups of Caribou (a doe and a fawn; three does and two fawns;
+  and three others) appeared on the near-by ridges.
+
+  September 24 was mostly cloudy; wind moderate to brisk,
+  northerly; temperature, 26° to 41°; nearly an inch of fresh snow
+  on the ground. About 15 does and fawns were resting or feeding
+  quietly on the east side of Little River, and tracks of about
+  half a dozen were noted on Camp Ridge. Charles Schweder reported
+  about 50 Caribou, in three slightly separated bands, appearing
+  during the evening on the south side of Windy River about 2
+  miles above its mouth, as if contemplating a crossing. He
+  thought they may have been alarmed by Wolves.
+
+  September 25 was a cloudy day; wind moderate to light, northerly
+  to westerly; temperature, 31° to 36°; open ground largely bare
+  by afternoon; ice forming on Windy Bay. Some Caribou tracks were
+  noted on the north side of Windy River.
+
+  There were clouds, a sprinkle or two of rain, and a little
+  sunshine on the 26th; wind brisk to moderate, southwest to west;
+  temperature, 36° to 47.5°; ground becoming practically bare.
+  Three Caribou were seen beyond Little River, and a doe and a
+  fawn on the south side of Windy River.
+
+  The 27th was mostly cloudy, with a thick snow flurry; wind
+  brisk, northwest; temperature, 33° to 40°. Two tundra ponds,
+  previously frozen, were mostly open. Three bucks, a doe, and a
+  fawn were noted on the south side of Windy River.
+
+  September 28 was mostly cloudy; wind brisk to light,
+  north-northwest; temperature, 28.5° to 40°; a little snow on the
+  ground disappearing. Seven large bucks (six in one band, moving
+  northward) passed over Camp Ridge, and a dozen other Caribou
+  (including does) were seen beyond Little River.
+
+  The 29th was chiefly sunny; wind very light to brisk, west to
+  southwest; temperature, 29° to 48°; ground bare. A band of about
+  15 Caribou appeared on the north side of Windy River at its
+  mouth. They included four large and two smaller bucks, the
+  remainder being does and fawns. They were apparently traveling
+  south.
+
+  The 30th was cloudy, with a sprinkle of rain; wind light,
+  westerly; temperature, 39° to 48°; ground bare. A few black
+  flies were brought out by the mild weather. During an
+  all-morning trip to Point Lake, Charles saw no Caribou, but in
+  the afternoon he reported about 200 on the eastern side of
+  Little River. There were also half a dozen bucks on the south
+  side of Windy River.
+
+  October 1 was a rare, fine, sunshiny day in the Barrens; wind
+  moderate to brisk, south to southwest; temperature, 37° to 61°;
+  ground bare; tundra ponds mostly ice-covered. A blowfly crawled
+  over a caribou carcass, and possibly a few black flies were
+  abroad. Two bucks passed from the shoal water of Duck Bay over
+  Little River Ridge. Charles reported about 40 Caribou moving
+  north a mile or two north of camp, and I saw a single buck
+  likewise engaged. During the preceding week or so Fred had seen
+  a good many of the animals between the upper Kazan River and
+  Nueltin Lake; they were moving south and west.
+
+  The 2nd was another clear day; wind moderate, southwest;
+  temperature, 41° to 65°; ground bare. About five does and fawns
+  were seen at dusk in the spruce tract near Four-hill Creek.
+
+  The next day was drizzly and foggy throughout; wind light,
+  southwest to southeast; temperature, 41° to 43.5°. No Caribou
+  sighted. Eskimos arriving in camp reported them scarce along the
+  way from the upper Kazan River.
+
+  October 4 was a dismal, dark day, with steady light rain
+  throughout; wind very light, easterly; temperature, 36° to
+  42.5°. Fred reported 20 Caribou north of camp.
+
+  Snow fell throughout the 5th; wind light, north-northwest;
+  temperature, 31° to 35°. No Caribou sighted.
+
+  With 6 inches of snow on the ground in the morning, there was
+  some additional precipitation during the overcast day of
+  October 6; wind moderate to brisk, northeast; temperature, 31°
+  to 33°; waters clear of ice. No Caribou sighted.
+
+  October 7 was a generally cloudy day; wind moderate to very
+  light, northerly; temperature, 24° to 29°; watercourses largely
+  open. In the morning Charles reported a couple of hundred
+  Caribou swimming southward across Windy Bay; he considered this
+  a part of the final southward movement into the timbered
+  country--apparently initiated by the recent snowstorm. Later he
+  saw an approximately equal number 2 miles north of camp, moving
+  toward the bay; and Fred encountered about 50 on the north side
+  of the bay.
+
+  Late on the 8th clouds gave way to sunshine; nearly calm to a
+  gentle breeze from west and southwest; temperature, 26.5° to
+  33.5°; 6 inches of snow on ground. I obtained a distant view of
+  about 100 Caribou resting near Glacier Pond. Perhaps less than a
+  quarter of them were old bucks; the remainder, younger bucks,
+  does, and fawns.
+
+  October 9 was largely sunny, with light rain in the evening;
+  wind light to moderate, southwest to south; temperature, 29° to
+  38°; ground with a 6-inch snow covering. No Caribou sighted.
+
+  Some snow fell on the 10th, though the day was partly sunny;
+  wind very light, south to west; temperature, 33° to 36°. No
+  Caribou sighted.
+
+  Clouds prevailed on the 11th; wind no more than very light,
+  westerly; temperature, 33° to 38°; about 4 inches of snow on
+  ground. Charles reported about a thousand Caribou scattered over
+  a long hill several miles to the northwest; they were not
+  traveling.
+
+  October 12 was marked by clouds, mist, and rain; wind light to
+  moderate, southwesterly; temperature, 32° to 40°. No Caribou
+  sighted.
+
+  There was a little sun on the 13th; wind light to moderate, west
+  to east; temperature, 37° to 45.5°; ground largely bare and
+  tundra ponds open. In the afternoon we set out for Simons’ Lake,
+  and camped about 4 miles up the Windy River. No Caribou sighted.
+
+  On the 14th we reached the upper end of Simons’ Lake, for a
+  several days’ stay at a deserted trading-post. There were snow
+  flurries and a little rain; wind brisk, westerly; temperature,
+  35° to 36°; ground mostly bare. A band of about 15 Caribou,
+  a solitary buck, and many tracks and droppings were seen along
+  the way.
+
+  October 15 was partly cloudy; wind very light to light, west to
+  northwest and east; temperature, 21° to 36°. Four Caribou
+  sighted.
+
+  October 16 was a stormy, cloudy day; wind brisk, easterly;
+  temperature, 30.5° to 34°. About a dozen Caribou were noted in
+  the vicinity of Simons’ Lake.
+
+  A strong easterly gale during the night, with heavy rain, was
+  followed during the day of the 17th by steady rain, with
+  moderate to light easterly or southeasterly wind; temperature,
+  35° to 38°. A single Caribou seen.
+
+  October 18 was partly cloudy; wind brisk to light, westerly;
+  temperature, 31° to 41°; waters open; some small patches of snow
+  in sight. Four Caribou (at least two of them bucks) passed by.
+
+  The 19th was partly cloudy; nearly calm to moderate wind, west
+  and northwest; temperature, 30° to 40°. About five or six bucks
+  (three of them together) appeared, perhaps moving south.
+
+  The weather on the 20th was raw, dismal, and gusty; wind brisk,
+  northwest; temperature, 27° to about 35°; some ice on Simons’
+  Lake; a little fresh snow on higher hills. No Caribou sighted.
+
+  October 21 was somewhat foggy; nearly calm; temperature, 25° to
+  32°; Simons’ Lake partly frozen; ground generally bare. A lone
+  fawn was seen as we started on the return trip to the Windy
+  River post.
+
+  The 22nd was largely sunny; wind very light to brisk,
+  southwesterly; temperature, about 30° to 46°. A medium-sized
+  buck was seen near the mouth of Windy River.
+
+  The 23rd was largely cloudy; wind brisk, southwest; temperature,
+  35° to 39°; ground practically all bare; bay and river open.
+  A buck started to cross to the north side of Windy River, but
+  went back.
+
+  For the better part of a week, till October 29, I found no
+  further fresh indications of Caribou in our vicinity. In the
+  meantime the weather was largely cloudy, with some rain and snow
+  (4-5 inches of the latter on the 27th); winds very light to
+  moderate, swinging from east to south and west; temperature, 27°
+  to 50°; waters generally open.
+
+  October 29 was largely cloudy; a gentle wind, south to east;
+  temperature, 29° to 35°; 4-5 inches of snow on ground; thin ice
+  on a tundra pond. The fresh track of a buck (fig. 20) was found
+  near camp.
+
+  On the 30th gentle rain changed to snow; calm to a moderate
+  wind, northeast to north; temperature, 30° to 33°. Tracks showed
+  the passing of about a dozen Caribou, including half a dozen
+  that swam westward across the mouth of Little River, breaking
+  through a rim of ice at the edge.
+
+  Clouds prevailed on the 31st; wind moderate to brisk, northerly;
+  temperature, 17° to 25.5°; 5-6 inches of snow on ground, with
+  drifts up to a foot deep; river and lake open. Fred reported
+  three Caribou.
+
+  November 1 marked the long-delayed “freeze-up.” Windy Bay and
+  the edges of Windy River were frozen, while pieces of ice
+  floated down the river. The day was cloudy, with continual snow
+  flurries after noon; wind light to brisk, southeast;
+  temperature, 21° to 31°; about 6 inches of snow on ground.
+
+  The 2nd was cloudy, with some rain and sleet; wind moderate to
+  brisk, southeast to west; temperature, 29° to 34°. No Caribou
+  sighted for two days.
+
+  On the 3rd it was cloudy all day; wind light, northwest;
+  temperature, 16° to 20°. A herd of about 50 Caribou (largely
+  does, with a few fawns and well-antlered bucks) hurried down the
+  side of Little River Ridge onto the ice of Duck Bay, with the
+  apparent intention of crossing to the south side of Windy Bay;
+  but they were intercepted by a hunter and retreated
+  northwestward along the ridge. Fred secured three
+  southward-traveling bucks at a distance from camp.
+
+  No Caribou were sighted on the three following days (November 4
+  to 6), which were more or less cloudy, with some snow; wind
+  light to brisk, southerly to northerly; temperature, 13° to
+  24.5°; ice 3 inches thick on Windy Bay; about 6 inches of snow
+  on ground.
+
+  There was snow during the night of November 6 and the morning of
+  the 7th, resulting in drifts up to a yard deep; wind brisk,
+  northerly; temperature, -3° to 13°. Fred reported “lots” of
+  Caribou some 10 miles to the north, moving south.
+
+  The next three days (November 8 to 10) varied from cloudy (with
+  a snow flurry) to sunny; wind moderate to strong, northwest and
+  north; temperature, -10.5° to 1°; 6-8 inches of snow (much
+  drifted); Windy River gradually becoming ice-covered. No Caribou
+  sighted.
+
+  November 11 was partly sunny; wind moderate to brisk, northerly;
+  temperature, 3° to 6.5°; about 8 inches of snow on the average.
+  Mike Schweder reported five does moving south across the mouth
+  of Windy River on the ice.
+
+  Thereafter, until my departure on December 4, no more Caribou
+  were actually seen in the vicinity of the headquarters on Windy
+  River. There were, however, tracks of single animals on November
+  15 and 16. Moreover, during the period from about November 7 to
+  15, while traveling northward to the upper Kazan River, Charles
+  Schweder saw thousands of Caribou, in herds up to 300, moving
+  southward. He surmised that their course took them somewhere
+  between Ennadai and Nueltin lakes. Fred also reported many to
+  the northward on the 7th, as already noted. This was perhaps the
+  last large migratory movement of the year in our general area.
+  Thereafter virtually all of the animals were presumably in the
+  timbered area to the southward. None was sighted from the plane
+  during the flight to Churchill on December 4.
+
+  On November 7 the temperature had taken a sharp downward turn,
+  dropping below zero for the first time that season; and it did
+  not again rise above 6.5° till November 12. This cold spell,
+  combined with a snow blizzard from the north on the 6th and 7th,
+  coincided at least in part with the large migratory movement
+  noted above, and it may have been the stimulus for it.
+
+  The general weather conditions that obtained from November 12 on
+  may be summarized as follows. It was at least predominantly
+  cloudy on all but four or five days. There was snowfall on six
+  days, and drifting snow in the air on several other days. The
+  winds were predominantly north, northwest, and west; less
+  commonly, east and southeast. They were a little more frequently
+  light than moderate or brisk. The extremes of temperature during
+  this period were 22.5° and -23°; the average daily mean,
+  approximately 1°. There was an average of probably at least 8
+  inches of snow on the ground, with deeper drifts. The river was
+  not wholly frozen over at least up to the end of November.
+
+
+_Retrograde autumnal movement_
+
+It would doubtless be difficult to find, among other animals, any exact
+parallel to this curious feature of caribou migration. According to
+Charles Schweder, it takes place in the Nueltin Lake region in
+September--sometimes as early as the first of the month. Herds up to 200
+strong may then be seen moving northward, but generally the numbers are
+smaller--say 10 to 30 in a band. Some of the more notable autumnal
+movements toward the north, as reported by Charles, were the following:
+at Simons’ Lake in 1936 and again in 1938, when herds of fat bucks were
+streaming past for a month and a half; likewise at Josie’s Bay in 1940;
+and through the Windy Hills and across Windy River in 1943. Fred
+Schweder, Jr., said that most of the animals, in returning northward at
+this season, cross Windy River 4 miles above its mouth or Windy Bay 4
+miles from its head; comparatively few pass the mouths of Windy and
+Little rivers. He remarked further that it is mostly bucks, with few
+does and fawns, that make the passage on Windy Bay.
+
+More or less evidence of such a movement toward the north in 1947 has
+been presented in preceding pages, in the notes for September 6, 7, 11,
+14, 20, 24, and 28, October 1, and even October 23. The numbers observed
+so involved on each of these days varied from a solitary buck or a doe
+with a fawn to about 300 of the animals. On some of these days, however,
+other Caribou were observed making their way toward the south. It is
+thus obvious that there was no universal impulse among the Caribou of a
+given area to move simultaneously in a certain direction.
+
+The general weather conditions on the nine above-mentioned days may be
+summarized as follows. Every day but one was largely or wholly cloudy;
+snow falling on three days, but ground bare on other days; wind
+predominantly from the north; extreme temperatures, 26° and 61°; mean
+daily average, 37.5°. Whether or not there is significance in the
+matter, it appears that on those days within the period extending from
+September 6 to October 1, when the Caribou were not definitely observed
+moving northward, the winds were less likely to be northerly.
+Furthermore, within this period there was never enough snow to interfere
+appreciably with the animals’ feeding on the ground lichens of the
+Barrens.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 1. Half a dozen caribou trails along the
+    Middle Ridge, looking SE. Ground plants: _Ledum decumbens_,
+    _Empetrum nigrum_, _Arctostaphylos alpina_, _Loiseleuria
+    procumbens_, and various lichens, including _Cladonia_. A
+    miniature “glacier” in the distance. June 24, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 2. Caribou trails on the 50-foot-high Little
+    River Ridge. _Picea mariana_, _Betula glandulosa_, and _Empetrum
+    nigrum_. June 19, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 3. A Caribou buck (specimen No. 1065) being
+    skinned by Fred, Mike, and Rita at the Bear Slough. August 17,
+    1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 4. Skull, antlers, skin, and hind quarter of
+    the same Caribou being transported to camp along the Camp Ridge.
+    August 17, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 5. Anoteelik and Mike preparing to bring in a
+    load of caribou meat with dogs and travois. Windy River post,
+    August 19, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 6. Anoteelik and Mike pegging out caribou
+    hides to dry on a gravelly ridge near the mouth of Windy River.
+    August 23, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 7. About 75 Caribou (bucks, does, and fawns)
+    at a rapid on Little River. August 25, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 8. About 22 Caribou crossing Little River at a
+    rapid. Chiefly does and fawns, with several bucks bringing up the
+    rear. August 26, 1947.]
+
+By October 6 there were 6 inches of snow on the ground, and on the
+following day 200 Caribou swimming southward across Windy Bay may have
+marked the beginning of the final movement into the timbered country. It
+appears possible that a considerable fall of snow may have a definite
+influence in inducing the Caribou to retreat from the Barrens.
+
+On a trip from Windy River north to the Kazan River region in September,
+1946, Charles Schweder found, during the first 45 miles, that the
+Caribou were moving north; at the Kazan they were moving south, although
+some were merely loitering. Northwest of the Kazan, the animals were
+taking a westward course. During the latter part of his return trip to
+Windy River, 11 or 12 days later, they had reversed the previous
+direction and were traveling south.
+
+For such a distinct and regular feature in the life cycle of the species
+as the retrograde autumnal movement there must be some biological
+explanation. Several possible factors appear reasonably clear. Perhaps
+we may consider the Barren Grounds the true and preferred home of
+_Rangifer arcticus_, from which a proportion of the population is driven
+during part of the year under stress of insect attacks or shortage of
+food. When the animals begin to enter the woods in August, there is no
+shortage of food; thus an insect-induced frenzy may possibly be regarded
+as a potent force driving them southward. In September a state of
+comparative peace descends upon the caribou world: the current crop of
+adult insects has subsided; the larvae of warble and nostril flies have
+not attained the formidable size of the following spring and perhaps are
+not yet causing any severe discomfort; little or no snow covers up the
+food supply; the lakes and rivers, still unfrozen, offer a ready way of
+escape from pursuing Wolves; moderate or even balmy weather gives nature
+a pleasant mood. In short, both man and beast may well look upon early
+autumn as the very finest time of year both on the Barrens and in the
+adjacent wooded country.
+
+Under these circumstances a definite retrograde movement out of the
+wooded country in September on the part of many Caribou must indicate
+their preference for the Barrens at this season. In any event, the
+movement begins just after the insect menace has subsided to a
+negligible stage. Possibly another inducement for retreating from the
+wooded country in the early fall is the dearth of open areas in which
+the animals may spend their resting periods, in comparative safety from
+Wolves. It is only after the freeze-up that the surfaces of the lakes
+and rivers supply this desideratum. This condition lasts from November
+to June--precisely that part of the year in which the Caribou are
+present in the wooded country in the greatest numbers.
+
+But by November what are the conditions on the Barrens? The weather has
+become severe; snow has covered up a large part of the ground lichens;
+tree lichens are not to be had. And so at this season, with the coming
+of the first heavy snows, there is a final movement out of the Barrens
+into the shelter of the woods, leaving only a minority of the animals to
+face a bleak and bitter winter in the open country. The biggest herds of
+the year may then be seen passing southward. A few bucks are said to
+remain during most winters in the Windy River area.
+
+Far to the westward, toward Great Slave and Great Bear lakes, the
+retrograde movements are somewhat different and more complicated
+(Clarke, 1940: 96).
+
+“Mr. Carl Buchholz, of Churchill, describes the caribou migration at the
+60th parallel, north of Churchill, as a southward migration in August,
+northward in September, and then south in the autumn” (Clarke, 1940:
+97). (See also the next paragraph.)
+
+
+_Fall migration in the Churchill region_
+
+The following notes for 1947 were kindly furnished me by Angus MacIver.
+He reported large numbers of Caribou moving southward across Caribou
+Creek (25 miles south of Churchill) about November 10, a day after the
+local freeze-up. He would then see thousands in a day. Prior to that
+time (perhaps in September?) there had been two “runs” to the northward
+and northwestward; these presumably represented the normal retrograde
+migration in the fall. The herds engaged in these two northerly
+movements must have previously passed southward farther inland. He
+reported also that the rutting season this year had commenced a little
+later than the usual October 15.
+
+  _References on migration._--Dobbs, 1774: 20, 22; Hearne, 1795:
+  39, 40, 56, 66, 74, 85-87, 286, 299; Franklin, 1823: 241-242;
+  Sabine, in Franklin, 1823: 667; Richardson, “1825”: 328-329, and
+  1829: 242-243; Godman, 1831, +2+: 283-284; John Ross, 1835a:
+  328, 330, 337, 376, 390, 529-530, 628; J. C. Ross, in John Ross,
+  1835b: xvii; Richardson, in Back, 1836: 498; Simpson, 1843:
+  76, 196, 233, 277, 301, 320-321, 328, 386; Rae, 1850: 93;
+  Richardson, 1852: 290, 296; Rae, 1852a: 79; J. Anderson, 1857:
+  326, 328; Murray, 1858: 203; Richardson, 1861: 274, 275; B. R.
+  Ross, 1861: 438-439; Osborn, 1865: 223-224, 226; Kumlien, 1879:
+  54; R. Bell, 1881: 15C; Caton, 1881: 108; Gilder, 1881: 196-197;
+  Nourse, 1884: 235, 356; Schwatka, 1885: 77-79, 83; Boas, 1888:
+  502; Collinson, 1889: 244, 290; Pike, 1917 (1892): 48-49, 50,
+  89-91, 101, 174, 204, 209, 220; J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128-130;
+  Dowling, 1893: 103, 107; J. B. Tyrrell, 1894: 442, 1896: 13, 63,
+  and 1897: 10, 19, 21, 49-50, 76, 124, 140, 142, 165; Russell,
+  1895: 48, and 1898: 88, 226; Whitney, 1896: 157, 238, 241;
+  Lydekker, 1898: 48; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 77-78, 80;
+  Jones, 1899: 368, 374; Hanbury, 1900: 66-67, 69, 71; A. J.
+  Stone, 1900: 50, 53; W. J. McLean, 1901: 5, 6; Elliot, 1902:
+  259, 260, 274-275; Preble, 1902: 42; J. W. Tyrrell, 1924 (1902):
+  26, 31; Hanbury, 1904: 10, 30, 32, 34, 58, 93, 108, 120, 121,
+  139; Hornaday, 1904: 137; Stone and Cram, 1904: 52; MacFarlane,
+  1905: 683-685; J. A. Allen, 1908a: 490; Amundsen, 1908, +1+:
+  97, 102-106, 200, 247, 326-329; Preble, 1908: 137-139; Cameron,
+  1912: 127; Wheeler, 1912: 199-200; R. M. Anderson, 1913a: 6,
+  and 1913b: 502; Stefánsson, 1913a: 94-96, 99, 100, 103, 106,
+  1913b: 203-204, 224-225, 263-265, 269, 294, 348-350, and 1914:
+  39, 41, 54; Chambers, 1914: 93; Hornaday, 1914, +2+: 101-104;
+  Wheeler, 1914: 58; Harper, 1915: 160; Camsell, 1916: 21;
+  Thompson, 1916: 99-101; Kindle, 1917: 107-108; Camsell and
+  Malcolm, 1919: 46; Whittaker, 1919: 166-167; Buchanan, 1920:
+  105-108, 128-129; Hewitt, 1921: 60-63; Stefánsson, 1921: 401;
+  Jenness, 1922: 15, 17, 25-26, 125; Blanchet, 1925: 32-34, and
+  1926b: 46-48; Mallet, 1926: 79; Preble, 1926: 137-138;
+  Rasmussen, 1927: 54, 214-217, 246; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 51,
+  56, 101, 106; Seton, 1929, +3+: 122, 125-128; Blanchet, 1930:
+  49-52; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 58, 192-196; Hoare, 1930: 13,
+  14, 16, 21, 22, 27, 31, 33, 36-38; Kitto, 1930: 87; Mallet,
+  1930: 20-23, 27; Jacobi, 1931: 80-84, 192-210; Harper, 1932: 30,
+  31; Munn, 1932: 58; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 79, 81; Weyer,
+  1932: 40; Birket-Smith, 1933: 91-94, 112, 118; Ingstad, 1933:
+  34, 134-135, 156-159, 161, 163, 225, 229-231, 280, 291, 293,
+  296, 324; Weeks, 1933: 65; R. M. Anderson, 1934a: 81, 1937:
+  103, and 1938: 400; Hornby, 1934: 105-107; Birket-Smith, 1936:
+  91; Hamilton, 1939: 244-247, 359; Murie, 1939: 244; Clarke,
+  1940: 8-9, 11, 85-100; G. M. Allen, 1942: 298-299; Soper, 1942:
+  143; Downes, 1943: 215, 221, 224, 249, 250, 253-256, 260;
+  Manning, 1943a: 52, and 1943b: 103; Porsild, 1943: 389; Soper,
+  1944: 248-249; Wright, 1944: 186, 190; Gavin, 1945: 227-228;
+  R. M. Anderson, 1947: 178, and 1948: 15; Manning, 1948: 26-28;
+  Rand, 1948a: 212, and 1948b: 149; Banfield, 1949: 478, 481;
+  Harper, 1949: 226-230, 239-240; Banfield, 1951a: 6, 9-12, 28,
+  and 1951b: 120; Anonymous, 1952: 267; Barnett, 1954: 96, 103.
+
+
+
+
+SUMMATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
+
+
+The localities from which hitherto unpublished notes on _Rangifer
+arcticus arcticus_ are presented in this paper include the following.
+Keewatin: Nueltin, Windy, “Highway” (at source of Putahow River), and
+Ennadai lakes; Little Dubawnt, Kazan, Red, Windy, Little, and Thlewiaza
+rivers; between Eskimo Point and Baker Lake. Manitoba: Nueltin (southern
+part), Nejanilini, Reindeer, and Split lakes; Seal River; Churchill;
+Cape Churchill; “Little Barrens” south of Churchill; between Churchill
+and Knife Lake; Caribou Creek, 25 miles south of Churchill.
+Saskatchewan: small lakes southwest of Reindeer Lake; lakes south of
+Lake Athabaska. Details as to occurrence and status in these localities
+are supplied on other pages.
+
+The Caribou have been so thoroughly distributed over the approximately
+300,000 square miles of the mainland Barren Grounds between Hudson Bay
+and the Mackenzie Valley that it is fairly safe to say that there is
+scarcely one square mile in this vast territory that has not been trod
+by the animals during the past century. See maps by Preble (1908: pl.
+19), Seton (1929, +3+: 60), Clarke (1940: figs. 3, 4), Banfield (1949:
+479), and Anonymous (1952: 267).
+
+  The appended annotated bibliography supplies, in abstract form,
+  most of the hitherto published information on the geographical
+  distribution of _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. In its preparation
+  I have included records of Caribou from the Arctic islands north
+  to Lancaster Sound, Barrow Strait, Viscount Melville Sound, and
+  McClure Strait--all approximately in latitude 74° N. This has
+  been done as a matter of having a convenient, well-defined
+  regional boundary, not with any conviction that _arcticus_ has
+  ranged so far to the north in the more westerly islands,
+  especially in recent years, when it is said to have become
+  restricted to the southern fringe of the islands (Clarke, 1940:
+  98; R. M. Anderson, 1947: 178; Banfield, 1949: fig. 1). The
+  islands north of latitude 74° are doubtless the exclusive domain
+  of _Rangifer pearyi_. It is possible that this species may also
+  occur to some extent on Banks, Victoria, Prince of Wales, and
+  Somerset islands. The typical _R. a. arcticus_, as currently
+  recognized, ranges eastward to Baffin, Salisbury, Coats, and
+  Southampton islands and to the western shore of Hudson Bay. (The
+  animals of the last three islands may be distinct insular
+  forms.) The southern limits of the winter range in northwestern
+  Ontario, central Manitoba, northern Saskatchewan, and
+  northeastern Alberta have been discussed in preceding pages. On
+  the west the range extends to the Mackenzie Delta (formerly),
+  Great Bear and Great Slave lakes, Wood Buffalo Park, and Lake
+  Claire. The timbered country (Hudsonian and Canadian Zones) is
+  practically entirely deserted by the Barren Ground Caribou in
+  mid-summer. At this season, in Keewatin at least, the animals
+  tend to draw away also from the southernmost portions of the
+  Barren Grounds.
+
+  _References._--Since practically every paper in the entire
+  bibliography presents some data on geographical distribution,
+  only a few, containing more than an average amount of new or
+  summarized information on the subject, have been selected for
+  inclusion in the following list of references: Hearne, 1795;
+  Franklin, 1823; Lyon, 1824; Franklin and Richardson, 1828;
+  Simpson, 1843; Pike, 1917 (1892); Russell, 1898; Preble, 1902;
+  Hanbury, 1904; Amundsen, 1908; Preble, 1908; R. M. Anderson, in
+  Stefánsson, 1913b; Stefánsson, 1913a, 1913b, and 1921; Hewitt,
+  1921; Jenness, 1922; Rasmussen, 1927; Seton, 1929, +3+;
+  Blanchet, 1930; Critchell-Bullock, 1930; Hoare, 1930; Jacobi,
+  1931; Clarke, 1940; Manning, 1943a; Wright, 1944; R. M.
+  Anderson, 1947; Manning, 1948; Banfield, 1949 and 1951a.
+
+  _Distributional maps._--Grant, 1903: map following p. 196;
+  Preble, 1908: pl. 19; Dugmore, 1913: 138; Hewitt, 1921: 57;
+  Seton, 1929, +3+: 60, map 2; Jacobi, 1931: 77, fig. 17; R. M.
+  Anderson, 1934b: 4062, fig. 6; Murie, 1939: 241; Clarke, 1940:
+  figs. 3, 4; Banfield, 1949: 479, fig. 1, and 1951a: figs.
+  4-10; Anonymous, 1952: 267.
+
+
+
+
+ECOLOGY
+
+
+_Habitats_
+
+Within their natural range the Caribou apparently resort to practically
+every type of terrestrial and aquatic habitat (other than cliffs and
+precipices). On the Barren Grounds proper they frequent the open summits
+and slopes of the ridges, the dwarf birch thickets, the sedge bogs, and
+the peat bogs. Their trails traverse all the upland spruce and tamarack
+tracts, the wooded muskegs, and the willow thickets along the rivers. In
+the summer and fall they swim the rivers and the narrower lakes, and
+during the winter and spring they cross these on the ice. They do not
+avoid rapids; in fact, they seek the shallower ones as fords, and they
+swim the deeper ones (_cf._ Clarke, 1940: 88). They also cross the
+tundra ponds on the ice, but probably walk around these smaller bodies
+of water, as a rule, when they are not frozen. While they may prefer to
+approach the river crossings over open slopes, they do not hesitate to
+maintain trails through the dense thickets of willow on the banks.
+
+The winter habitat of the major part of the Barren Ground Caribou
+population comprises the Hudsonian and upper Canadian Zones. This
+forested habitat is characterized by sparser and smaller timber in the
+Hudsonian Zone and by denser and taller timber in the Canadian Zone.
+Important among the features of this winter habitat are the frozen
+surfaces of the lakes and rivers, where the Caribou are wont to
+congregate for their daily periods of rest (_cf._ Mallet, 1926: 79;
+Ingstad, 1933: 86).
+
+
+_Trails_
+
+The favorite migratory highways are the long, sinuous ridges that
+stretch across the Barren Grounds in a sufficiently approximate
+north-south direction to serve the needs of the Caribou. Here their
+age-old trails are particularly in evidence and may even be detected
+from the air. A single small ridge may bear half a dozen or more such
+trails (fig. 1), roughly parallel but anastomosing at frequent
+intervals. They probably change but little from generation to
+generation. They provide the smoothest courses available, avoiding rocks
+and shrubs and traversing intervening bogs at the most suitable points.
+The summits of the ridges constitute vantage points from which the
+animals may keep a wide lookout for Wolves and human enemies, and on
+which they may obtain the maximum benefit from fly-deterring breezes.
+Man himself is glad to utilize these trails, whether on the Barrens or
+in the timber tracts, wherever they lead in a direction he desires. They
+are kept open by the hurrying feet of hundreds or thousands of Caribou
+every year.
+
+Along a well-used trail extending through low Barrens near Duck Bay,
+I found a certain grass (_Agrostis scabra_) growing. I did not recognize
+or collect it elsewhere during the season. Is this perhaps like certain
+other species, such as _Juncus tenuis_ (_fide_ Dr. Edgar T. Wherry) and
+_Eleocharis baldwinii_, in curiously thriving on beaten paths?
+
+When the Caribou arrive at some lake or river, they generally follow the
+shores for a greater or lesser distance, seeking either a way around or
+a suitable crossing-place. The trails thus formed are generally on the
+nearest ridges rather than on the immediate shores. Their direction, as
+they conform to the winding shores, may diverge very widely from the
+desired migratory course.
+
+In many parts of the Barren Grounds there must be as many as 10 linear
+miles of caribou trails to every square mile of territory. Even if there
+were only one mile of such trails to each square mile, the total, on the
+Barrens of Keewatin and Mackenzie alone, would equal or exceed all the
+railway mileage in the United States.
+
+In contrast to the narrow ridges, the broader hilltops in the Barrens
+offer such freedom of movement to the Caribou that trails are much less
+likely to be formed in such places, even when they are frequented by
+large numbers of the animals. Thus I found the broad summit of Josie’s
+Hill practically without well-defined trails, despite the regularity
+with which many migrant bands resort thither. In feeding or traveling
+over such an area, there is no occasion for restricting themselves to a
+narrow course. In crossing from one ridge to another through an
+intervening bog, the animals may leave numerous scattered and temporary
+trails in the dense sedge growth to mark their passage (fig. 13). On the
+uniform surface of such a bog, as on the broad hilltops, there is no
+need to confine their steps to any particular course.
+
+It might be supposed that the Barren Ground Caribou would have some
+reluctance in entering thickly wooded tracts, where Wolves naturally
+have a much better chance of a close approach than on the open Barrens.
+As already stated, however, their trails may be found more or less
+throughout the spruce and tamarack growth in the Windy River area. One
+of these tracts, covering probably several square miles on the west side
+of Four-hill Creek, is fairly crisscrossed with trails. At deep dusk on
+October 2, while several of us were skinning a Black Bear in this thick
+timber, about five does and fawns trotted up quite close to us. Perhaps
+they were on their way to the open Barrens to pass the night. While
+wintering in the forested Hudsonian Zone, the animals may spend their
+nights as well as their diurnal resting periods on the frozen lakes and
+rivers.
+
+Fred Schweder, Jr., says that Caribou are somewhat fearful of sand hills
+or eskers, and that he has never seen one lying down in such a place; he
+believes this is because the Wolves frequent the eskers in summertime.
+On the other hand, Mr. G. W. Malaher spoke of a long esker that extends
+down the west side of Nueltin Lake and far to the southward; this, he
+said, forms a migration highway for the Caribou.
+
+  _References on habitats and trails._--J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 129,
+  and 1895: 445; W. J. McLean, 1901: 6; Blanchet, 1925: 33, and
+  1926a: 73, 96-97; Mallet, 1926: 79, 80; Seton, 1929, +3+:
+  100-102, 122, 127-128; Jacobi, 1931: 186-187; Ingstad, 1933: 86;
+  Murie, 1939: 246; Manning, 1948: 26-28; Rand, 1948a: 212;
+  Harper, 1949: 226, 228; Banfield, 1951a: 3.
+
+
+_Influence of weather on distribution_
+
+In the section on _Migrations_ the meteorological conditions in 1947
+have been reported for any possible bearing they may have had on the
+daily movements of the Caribou, particularly during the fall migration.
+The temperature has an important effect on the activity of the insect
+pests (see _Influence of insects on distribution_) and thus, to a
+certain extent during summer and fall, on the behavior and probably the
+distribution of the Caribou.
+
+Low winter temperatures on the Barren Grounds do not appear to be a
+factor of prime importance in the seasonal distribution of _R. a.
+arcticus_. “Some individuals and small herds remain in the northern part
+of the range at all seasons” (R. M. Anderson, 1947: 178). Peary’s
+Caribou (_R. pearyi_) inhabits the more northerly Arctic islands
+throughout the year, without engaging in such extensive migrations as
+its relative to the south.
+
+The forceful winds that blow over the Barren Grounds so much of the time
+are of distinct benefit to the Caribou during the summer in abating the
+very serious scourge of flies. If other things were equal (as they are
+not), this factor alone would make the Barrens a more favorable summer
+habitat than the forested country. (See _Retrograde autumnal movement_.)
+Air movements of similar strength during the winter must, through the
+wind-chill factor (_cf._ Siple and Passel, 1945), make life so much the
+harder for any living being; on the other hand, they tend to sweep the
+ridges bare of snow, thereby making readily available the Caribou’s
+principal winter food of reindeer lichens (_Cladonia_ spp.)
+
+  _References._--Armstrong, 1857: 479; Critchell-Bullock, 1930:
+  192, 194-196; Hoare, 1930: 33; Jacobi, 1931: 193, 195; Clarke,
+  1940: 96, 99; Banfield, 1951a: 27-29.
+
+
+_Influence of food supply on distribution_
+
+The strong winter winds on the Barrens affect the Caribou in still
+another way. While they pack the snow so firmly that man may dispense
+with snowshoes, this condition naturally increases the difficulty that
+the Caribou experience in pawing through the snow to reach the lichens
+that are covered by it. The limited grazing capacity of such areas as
+are laid bare by the wind may force a reduction in the wintering
+population. Although the snow in the timbered regions to the south
+covers virtually the whole surface of the land, it is evidently less
+compact and so offers more favorable feeding conditions than the areas
+of hard-packed snow on the Barrens. (Charles Schweder states that Willow
+Ptarmigan will fly out of the Barrens to spend the night in tracts of
+timber, where the snow is softer and thus more suitable for the
+nocturnal burrows of these birds.)
+
+Another apparent inducement for resorting to the tracts of timber in
+winter is the abundance there of tree lichens, such as _Alectoria_ and
+_Usnea_ (_cf._ Richardson, 1829: 243; J. B. Tyrrell, 1894: 441; Dix,
+1951: 287), upon which the Caribou may feed without regard to snow
+conditions. (See also _Retrograde autumnal movement_.)
+
+Reindeer lichens (_Cladonia_ spp.) and doubtless other lichens are of
+such slow growth that forest fires may deprive the Caribou of this
+indispensable food for a period of years. According to Mr. G. W.
+Malaher, the recent burning of a large area north of The Pas may have
+deflected the animals toward the southeast, causing them to extend their
+migration to an abnormal distance in that direction. For a similar
+reason in years past, according to Pike (1917 [1892]: 50), they avoided
+“great stretches of the country” near the Mackenzie River, and also on
+the south side of Great Slave Lake. A quarter of a century after Pike’s
+time, Dogribs reported that Caribou had not come to the lower Taltson
+River for several years, “because the timber had been burned off”
+(Harper, 1932: 30). Some years ago, extensive fires in Manitoba were
+said to have been deliberately set by prospectors with the aim of
+exposing the underlying rock.
+
+Charles Schweder believes that the Caribou show a certain predilection
+for rocky places, owing to the more luxuriant growth of lichens there.
+
+  _References._--Richardson, “1825”: 328-329; Bompas, 1888: 24;
+  Pike, 1917 (1892): 50; Wheeler, 1914: 60; Blanchet, 1930: 52;
+  Jacobi, 1931: 192, 194, 195; Harper, 1932: 30; Ingstad, 1933:
+  34, 161, 163; Hornby, 1934: 105; R. M. Anderson, 1938: 400;
+  Clarke, 1940: 100, 106-107; G. M. Allen, 1942: 299; Downes,
+  1943: 261; Porsild, 1943: 389; Wright, 1944: 186; R. M.
+  Anderson, 1948: 15; Banfield, 1951a: 5, 11, 27-29.
+
+
+_Influence of insects on distribution_
+
+It is quite possible that the blood-sucking mosquitoes (_Aedes_) and
+black flies (_Simulium_) and the parasitic warble flies (_Oedemagena_)
+and nostril flies (_Cephenemyia_) have a definite and important
+influence on the extent and dates of caribou migration.
+
+As far as I am able to judge from my own experience, mosquitoes are more
+or less equally numerous and ferocious in the Canadian, the Hudsonian,
+and the Arctic Zones of the Northwest. Naturally the season begins
+earlier in the more southerly localities. In two seasons (1914, 1920) at
+the western end of Lake Athabaska they began to be troublesome about the
+middle of June, whereas at Nueltin Lake this stage was reached about the
+first of July. In the Athabaska and Great Slave lakes region (Canadian
+and Hudsonian Zones) I have never had occasion to regard black flies as
+serious in respect to either numbers or ferocity; but there is universal
+agreement that conditions are vastly different and worse on the Barren
+Grounds. At Nueltin Lake the _Simulium_ hordes become troublesome at
+approximately the same time as the mosquitoes. Toward the end of August
+there is a merciful diminution in the numbers of both mosquitoes and
+black flies on the Barrens, and after the first of September they may be
+practically disregarded, except on an occasional day of unseasonable
+warmth.
+
+It may be remarked in passing that one of the insect terrors of the
+Athabaska region, the so-called “bulldog” (a species of Tabanidae), did
+not come to my attention as a pest at Nueltin Lake though I collected
+two species of _Tabanus_. Malloch (1919), in reporting on the Diptera of
+the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 1913-18, does not include a single
+species of Tabanidae. On the other hand, Twinn (1950: 18) states that 17
+species have been found at Churchill; he refers to tabanids as “very
+abundant in forested regions of the North.” The “bulldog” may be
+presumed to contribute to the summer misery of the Woodland Caribou and
+the Moose as well as of man.
+
+The season during which the adult warble flies and nostril flies harass
+the Caribou probably lasts only a few weeks in July and August. While
+the adults evidently cause no pain, they no doubt arouse an instinctive
+dread in the prospective hosts of their larvae. While I have no
+information as to whether they follow the hosts into the wooded country,
+it would appear quite likely that they do so if we are to credit
+statements by Franklin (1823: 242), Richardson (1829: 251), and B. R.
+Ross (1861: 438) that these pests infest the Woodland Caribou as well as
+the Barren Ground species. Furthermore, _Cephenemyia_ has been reported
+in Pennsylvania as a parasite of the White-tailed Deer (_Odocoileus_)
+(Stewart, 1930?). The scarcity of available study material may be judged
+from the fact that the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 1913-18 secured
+only three adults of _Oedemagena_ and none of _Cephenemyia_ (Malloch,
+1919: 55-56).
+
+From the foregoing it may be seen that the wooded country represents a
+virtually fly-free haven for the Barren Ground Caribou during nearly ten
+months of the year. Is it any wonder, then, that they hasten throughout
+August toward or into the shelter of the woods, to gain freedom from the
+winged scourges of the Barrens? (See also _Retrograde autumnal
+movement_.)
+
+In the spring migration of 1947 the last of the Caribou passed the Windy
+River area on July 1, just before the mosquitoes and black flies had
+become seriously troublesome. It might be surmised that the animals keep
+marching northward in advance of the appearance of these flies, as long
+as that is feasible; and that when fairly overwhelmed by the winged
+hordes, they desist from further progress in that direction. The fawns
+are born at such a time (in late May or June) as to pass their first few
+tender weeks before becoming subject to serious insect attacks.
+
+(See also _Retrograde autumnal movement_; _Relations to flies_.)
+
+  _References._--Richardson, “1825”: 328-329; Hoare, 1930: 33,
+  37-38; Jacobi, 1931: 193-195; Soper, 1936: 429; Hamilton, 1939:
+  247, 301; Clarke, 1940: 95-96; Porsild, 1943: 389; Banfield,
+  1951a: 27-29.
+
+
+_Effect of combined environmental factors on distribution_
+
+The sum total of environmental factors apparently makes the Barren
+Grounds a distinctly more favorable summer habitat for the present
+species than the wooded country, since the latter region is virtually
+entirely deserted at that season. In general, the wooded country must be
+a more favorable winter habitat, since the bulk of the animals evidently
+resort to it at that time; yet its advantages are by no means clear-cut
+or overwhelming, since a very considerable proportion of the Caribou
+elect to spend the winter on the Barrens (Hanbury, 1904: 93, 120, 139;
+Hoare, 1930: 22; Clarke, 1940: 8-9, 11, fig. 4; Anonymous, 1952: 267).
+
+
+_Relations to man_
+
+The Caribou dominates the thoughts, the speech, and the general human
+activities of the Barren Grounds. As the chief food resource of that
+region and the adjacent timbered country, it plays a highly important
+role in the economy of both primitive and civilized man. As long as
+those regions were occupied only by native Eskimos and Indians,
+employing such primitive weapons as bows and spears, the species was in
+no danger. Its vast numbers were maintained steadily from generation to
+generation, and were perhaps limited only by the grazing or browsing
+capacity of their range.
+
+With the advent of civilized man and the placing of firearms in the
+hands of the natives, the situation has deteriorated at a rate that
+becomes accelerated with the passage of time. If it had not been for the
+encroachment of civilization and the introduction of its instruments of
+destruction, the natives would have been assured of a proper meat supply
+for an indefinite period. Here and there some of them would miss a
+caribou migration and starve to death; yet the animals have been so
+generally available that many of the natives even today lack the
+foresight to put up an adequate supply of fish as an alternative winter
+food.
+
+Almost everywhere the annual slaughter is both excessive and wasteful.
+Few inhabitants of the North, whether native or white, stay their hands
+while Caribou are present and ammunition is available. There is undue
+reliance on a continuation of past abundance, and an indifference to the
+welfare or rights of posterity. The whole culture of the inland Eskimos
+and the northern Indians (the Caribou-eater Chipewyans in particular) is
+so thoroughly based upon Caribou that the decimation of these animals
+would mean a fundamental modification or virtual extermination of their
+culture.
+
+The average trapper of the Barren Grounds apparently aims at killing
+annually at least 100 Caribou. Only a small portion is required to feed
+himself and his family. The rest is designed for use as fox bait and dog
+feed. In September he goes over his trap-line, perhaps 100 miles long,
+and endeavors to kill Caribou at convenient intervals throughout its
+length. (In October, 1944, a single trapper killed 90 during two days of
+a big movement.) The animals are left where they fall. Presently spells
+of warm weather may render the meat unsuitable for any one with more
+fastidious tastes than a hardy man of the Barrens. In any event, the
+beasts of the field evidently get the lion’s share, even when the
+trapper endeavors to cover the carcasses with rocks or spruces. Bears,
+Wolves, Foxes, Weasels, Wolverines, Lemmings, Rough-legged Hawks,
+Ravens, and Canada Jays help themselves to the free feast. Bears in
+particular are likely to consume the whole carcass; in the autumns of
+1944 and 1947 they thus disposed of about 70 and 40 caribou bodies,
+respectively, within a few miles of the Windy River post. If the season
+turns out to be a particularly poor one for Arctic Foxes, the trapper
+may abandon his trap-line for that winter, and dozens or scores of
+Caribou will have been sacrificed in vain.
+
+Fish, which are available in abundance nearly everywhere, would serve
+well enough for both fox bait and dog feed. But the average trapper
+prefers to secure Caribou--a less laborious matter than putting up a
+winter’s supply of fish; at the same time he may admit that fish are
+easier to handle in feeding and are preferable from that point of view.
+Charles Schweder has rarely found Caribou along his trap-line between
+the upper Kazan River and Dubawnt Lake. By using fish (out of the Little
+Dubawnt River) for fox bait, he avoids the necessity of making an early
+fall trip over that long distance to secure Caribou for his winter
+operations. A trapper from northern Manitoba informed me that the local
+Indians were complying with a recent government regulation that each
+owner must put up a certain number of fish for the consumption of his
+dogs--but, they were still feeding them with Caribou. The Split Lake
+band of Indians on the Nelson River, Manitoba, were reported to have
+killed 4,000 of the animals during the winter of 1946-47; the greater
+part of these were utilized ingloriously as dog feed.
+
+The hunting of such an extraordinarily unwary animal as the Barren
+Ground Caribou calls for extremely little skill. Scarcely anything more
+is required of the hunter (at least in southwestern Keewatin) than to
+place himself on their line of march and to await their arrival. No
+concealment is necessary, but quick movements are to be avoided, and the
+direction of the wind should be such that it will not carry the dread
+human scent to the animals. Even in perfectly open terrain one may
+generally walk slowly up to within shooting distance of resting Caribou.
+But if they are on the march and have already gone past, the hunter may
+not succeed in getting close to them. Pursuing them on the run is likely
+to send them off in a panic. (There is some evidence that on the Arctic
+Coast and in the Barren Grounds of Mackenzie, where hunters are probably
+more numerous than in southwestern Keewatin, the Caribou are usually
+much more wary--_cf._ Amundsen, 1908, +1+: 103; Stefánsson, 1913b:
+278; Blanchet, 1925: 34; Ingstad, 1933: 88.) In the section on
+_Disposition_ the destruction of about a quarter of a herd of 100 or
+more by a single hunter is described. On September 9 an Eskimo boy
+killed 13. On November 3 eight out of a herd of 50 were secured by
+another hunter in a few minutes’ time. During the autumn migration of
+1947 one of the Eskimos on the upper Kazan had killed 85 before the end
+of September. This band of Eskimos is said to have once slaughtered 500
+animals, half of them in the river, where they did not even bother to
+pull them out; they had killed for the sheer delight of killing rather
+than for utilization. It is customary for them to spear more animals
+than they shoot. A trader’s family in the Nueltin Lake region used to
+kill 500 Caribou per year for their own use and for their 23 dogs. In
+one instance a number of Caribou were shot from across a river; several
+hours elapsed before a canoe became available, and by that time the
+bodies were frozen so stiff that no attempt was made to use them. It was
+reported that tractor crews operating between Reindeer Lake and Flin
+Flon brought out many hind quarters to sell illegally at the latter
+point, leaving other parts of the bodies along the way. In the winter of
+1944-45 Nueltin Lake was said to have been covered with the bodies of
+Caribou that the Chipewyans had shot for “fun” and had neglected to
+utilize. It was also reported that in May, 1947, there were many
+neglected bodies in the vicinity of Duck Lake, the local Chipewyans
+having killed the animals during the previous fall; meanwhile the spring
+migration had commenced and was furnishing all the fresh meat required.
+
+In the Windy River area nearly all the Caribou were secured with rifles.
+A few, however, were speared by the Eskimo boy as they swam across Windy
+Bay. The spears used here are manufactured articles of iron, fitted to a
+wooden shaft.
+
+Katello, a Kazan River Eskimo, informed Charles Schweder that his people
+used to construct snow-covered pits for the Caribou to fall into. The
+present generation is considered too lazy to undertake such a task.
+Although information is lacking in the present case, urine may have been
+employed to entice the Caribou into these pits, as reported by Hanbury
+(1904: 114-115, 123, fig.).
+
+A general deterioration of antler size in the Barren Ground Caribou
+seems to constitute a case parallel with that of the European Red Deer
+(_Cervus elaphus elaphus_). The reason is evidently the same in each
+case--the long-continued selection by hunters of old males with the best
+“heads.” Only the motive differs decidedly in each case: the European
+hunter looks upon the antlers themselves as the main prize; the Eskimo
+and the Indian are indifferent to these ornaments, but realize that the
+bucks with great antlers provide the most meat and _fat_. The bucks are
+said to become much fatter than the does. The Eskimos are especially
+keen on getting the big bucks. According to Charles Schweder, the old
+antlers left at the river crossings from bygone days are superior in
+size to those of the present day. He himself has never secured a set of
+antlers equal to one (fig. 25) lying on the shore of Simons’ Lake; it
+may have been there for 20 or 30 years prior to 1947.
+
+From about mid-September to nearly mid-October the flesh is counted upon
+as being in especially fine condition. In August, 1947, the animals had
+scarcely any fat, but by the middle of September the roasts were
+delicious. On October 8 the fresh strips of back fat from several bucks
+weighed about 5 to 10 lbs. each. A good many of these strips were put in
+a storehouse at Windy River for winter use. Charles Schweder remarked on
+having seen such a piece of fat 3 inches thick. At the rutting season,
+which commences about mid-October, the bucks become very poor and thin.
+They neglect their feeding and do not have full stomachs, as earlier in
+the season. Their fat becomes tinted with red, and the flesh becomes so
+musky that even the dogs and the Wolves disdain it. (See also the
+section on _Fat_.)
+
+In some cases, when a local Caribou is being dressed, a part of the
+stomach is utilized as a receptacle into which the blood is dipped from
+the body cavity with the hands, in Eskimo style. The blood goes into the
+making of soup. The tripe also is relished. Once I found the children of
+our camp boiling up a section of the aorta as a delicacy. The ribs are
+commonly impaled on a stick thrust into the ground and roasted in front
+of an open fire. Leg bones may be cracked to render the raw marrow
+accessible; if they are cooked, the marrow may be blown out of the open
+ends with the mouth. The Padleimiut consume much of the meat in the raw
+state, and frequently wash it down with hot tea.
+
+Much needless wounding and suffering of the Caribou, as well as waste of
+valuable resources, result from extensive use of such a small-calibred
+rifle as the .22. It may seem remarkable that such a large animal should
+succumb at all to such a slight weapon; but it does happen, usually
+after a number of shots. For example, an Eskimo boy secured 13 Caribou
+in a single day with a .22. On the other hand, many of the animals must
+get away from the hunter, only to die, after much suffering, at a
+considerable distance, where they are not likely to be recovered and
+utilized. The absolute outlawing of the use of the .22 on such large
+game would seem to be in order.
+
+Once Charles Schweder shot a doe whose jaw had been broken by a bullet.
+A piece of the bone had “grown into the tongue” but the jaw was healed.
+
+At the Windy River post, in the latter part of summer, portions of the
+caribou bodies are placed in the river not merely for refrigeration, but
+for protection from blowflies. Such meat is used mainly for the dogs.
+The Eskimos are said not to engage in this practice. Consequently, some
+of the caribou bodies lying about their camps become masses of maggots.
+
+On the last day of September I observed how Charles Schweder prepared a
+fresh caribou body in the field and endeavored to protect it from beasts
+and birds. First he cut off the head with his hunting-knife; then the
+hind legs, which were severed very readily at the hip joint. Next he
+opened the body cavity and pulled out the viscera, setting aside a mass
+of fat (apparently the omentum). The hind legs were placed beneath the
+body, and the head was thrust into the opening of the abdominal cavity,
+as an obstacle to such scavengers as Herring Gulls, Rough-legged Hawks,
+Canada Jays, Ravens, and Foxes (_cf._ Downes, 1943: 227, 228). The skin
+was left on the body, and the whole was covered with small spruce tops.
+
+An interesting device in the hunting of Caribou consists of “stone men”
+(Harper, 1949: 231, fig.). They are made of rocks, piled one upon
+another in such a manner as to faintly suggest a human figure. “Moss”
+(either moss or lichens) is added to some of them to enhance the
+human appearance. A considerable number may be seen in the Windy River
+area, where they are generally placed along the summits of the ridges.
+Construction was probably begun many years ago by natives, and has been
+continued by the present residents. When Caribou, in fleeing from a
+hunter, catch sight of these “stone men,” they are likely to pause in
+suspicion of the figures, and to be deflected from their chosen course.
+This may give the hunter a chance to come within range of the animals.
+The Kazan River Eskimos are said to use converging lines of such rock
+piles to direct migrating Caribou to certain river-crossings, where the
+hunters lie in wait for them. Occasionally a single pile is erected
+merely to mark the spot where a caribou body is left until the hunter
+can return with a dogteam to fetch the meat.
+
+  [Transcriber’s Note: “... stone men”: Inuksuit (sing. inuksuk).]
+
+On first securing one of the animals, the hunter makes a practice of
+cutting out the tongue and carrying it to camp in a pocket or a
+game-bag. On a subsequent trip, if there is sufficient snow on the
+ground, the meat is generally transported by dog sleigh or toboggan
+(_cf._ Harper, 1949: 231, fig.). Occasionally a hunter will carry it on
+his shoulder (fig. 4) or in a pack.
+
+In all the Canadian North, as far as I am aware, the Windy River post is
+virtually the only place where summer transportation is accomplished by
+dog-drawn travois (fig. 5). This device, consisting of two trailing
+poles, with a small platform midway, is recognizable immediately by
+readers of Parkman’s _Oregon Trail_ (1849), where its use by Indians of
+our Western Plains is mentioned again and again. The travois was
+introduced into this region by the late Charles Planchek?, a Czech?
+trapper of somewhat sinister repute, whose headquarters were at Putahow
+Lake. He was the “Eskimo Charlie” of Downes (1943: 160-161, pl.). In
+years gone by he took a travois with him on a visit to the Windy River
+area, and it was thereupon copied and subsequently used regularly by the
+Schweder family. Their Eskimo friends of the upper Kazan will
+occasionally borrow one, but I am not aware that they have made any
+travois of their own. During the summer the two younger boys of the
+Windy River post made a practice of hauling in caribou meat from the
+surrounding Barrens by means of travois.
+
+In the latter part of summer some small pieces of caribou meat were
+occasionally laid on a stone for drying, in front of the door at the
+post. Other pieces were said to have been hung up in the air for the
+same purpose, without fire or smoke, out in the field where the animals
+were killed. Apparently blowflies did not pay much attention to this
+meat. No considerable quantity seemed to be preserved locally in this
+way. Three Caribou-eater Chipewyans from the south end of Nueltin Lake,
+who visited our camp in late October, were carrying dried meat with them
+as travel rations and eating it without cooking.
+
+The larvae of the warble fly (_Oedemagena tarandi_), found beneath the
+skin of the Caribou, are relished by the Eskimos, being eaten apparently
+while alive and raw. The Eskimo boy of our camp continued this practice
+after his little sister had given it up. Hearne (1795: 197) reported the
+Indians as eating the warbles in his day.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 9. A band of Caribou swimming across Little
+    River at its mouth and landing on the western shore. Toward the
+    left, a doe standing broadside and enveloped in a cloud of spray
+    being shaken off. August 28, 1947. (From a 16-mm. motion
+    picture.)]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 10. Two Caribou bucks standing in the edge of
+    Little River at its mouth after swimming across. August 28, 1947.
+    (From a 16-mm. motion picture.)]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 11. A one-horned doe, a hornless doe, a fawn,
+    and a two-horned doe among a band of Caribou approaching the
+    camera within a rod after swimming across Little River. August 28,
+    1947. (From a 16-mm. motion picture.)]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 12. A band of Caribou (chiefly big bucks)
+    swimming across Little River at its mouth. August 28, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 13. Camp Slough, with trails showing the
+    recent passage of Caribou through the sedge growth (predominantly
+    _Carex chordorrhiza_). Black spruce in the foreground and
+    distance. August 29, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 14. A Caribou _Elysium_: a hornless doe
+    approaching within 15 feet of the photographer at the mouth of
+    Little River. August 30, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 15. Anoteelik in caribou-skin clothing,
+    holding a caribou spear. A buck on the skyline. Mouth of Windy
+    River, September 7, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 16. Katello, a Padleimiut Eskimo from the
+    upper Kazan River, in a coat (_attigi_) and boots (_komik_) of
+    caribou skin. Windy River, Oct. 6, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 17. Charles Schweder with the fresh,
+    warble-infested hide of a Caribou buck (specimen No. 1033). Windy
+    River, June 3, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 18. Hide of a Caribou doe, about four years
+    old, with about 130 small warbles or warble scars (concentrated on
+    the rump). Windy River, September 15, 1947.]
+
+Only a small proportion of the hides of the locally killed Caribou are
+preserved. A hide that would fetch only a dollar at Reindeer Lake would
+not be worth transporting more than 250 miles from Nueltin Lake. Hearne
+long ago (1795: 84) remarked on the remoteness of the hunting grounds
+from the trading posts as a barrier to trade in the skins; and this
+condition prevails to a large extent to the present day. Thus only such
+hides as are required for domestic use are kept. Tanning, while done by
+the Eskimos of the upper Kazan, is not undertaken by the residents on
+Windy River. Here the task of drying the hides is left mainly to the
+children of the camp. Most of them are pegged out on the summit of a
+gravelly ridge, wooden pegs being driven with a rock through slits in
+the edges of the skin (fig. 6). Now and then one is nailed to the outer
+wall of a log cabin (fig. 18).
+
+One of the main uses of the hides is for winter clothing. The Windy
+River residents have their garments made by Eskimo women of the upper
+Kazan, whose tanning process leaves the fur intact. Early autumn hides,
+with new, comparatively short fur, are the ones in demand. The season
+for securing such hides is said to extend to mid-September. At that
+season the larvae of the warble fly have not developed far enough to
+have injured the hide appreciably. The long winter fur is much less
+suitable for clothing. In moderately cold weather a single coat
+(_attigi_), with the fur inside (fig. 16), is worn by the Eskimos. This
+coat, when made for a man, extends very little farther downward at the
+rear than at the front; but a woman’s coat is considerably longer at the
+rear. The bottom is generally provided with a fringe consisting of small
+strips of caribou skin, perhaps 4 inches long and 1/16 inch wide. In
+mid-winter another coat, with the fur outside (fig. 15), is slipped on
+over the other. Both are provided with hoods. Trousers, with the fur
+outside, are cut rather short at the bottom; some such material as rope
+is passed around the waist, without belt loops, to hold the trousers up.
+Boots (_komik_) of tanned caribou skin (fig. 16), reaching nearly to the
+knees, with the fur inside, make exceptionally warm footgear in winter.
+An extra piece is sewed on the sole, with the fur outside, but the hairs
+soon wear off. The seams are sewed with sinew. Another sort of boot, for
+summer use, is made of untanned skin, without the fur, and is more or
+less waterproof. Mittens (_pahloot_) have the fur outside; the thumb
+piece, of a length suitable for a short Eskimo thumb, does not properly
+fit a white man.
+
+In the autumn of 1947 the migrating Caribou did not reach the territory
+of the Chipewyans about the south end of Nueltin Lake till about
+November 1--by which time the fur had grown so long that it was not
+suitable for clothing. When I inquired of Charles Schweder how these
+natives managed under such circumstances, he replied that nowadays they
+use very little skin clothing--just manufactured clothing. Certainly the
+latter type was being worn by three men of this tribe that visited the
+Windy River post in late October. In this connection it is interesting
+to note that in November Charles brought to Windy River a bundle of fawn
+skins that he had secured from an Eskimo on the upper Kazan. Presently
+he traded them to a Cree halfbreed from the Putahow River, who was to
+have them made into a coat for himself. In years gone by the
+above-mentioned Chipewyans must have found some means of securing
+caribou skins for themselves in August or September; they could have
+accomplished this by moving to the northern part of Nueltin Lake,
+provided the animals had not reached the southern part at the proper
+season.
+
+From Charles Schweder I learned that the Hudson’s Bay Company acquires
+caribou skins (apparently tanned) from the Duck Lake Chipewyans at about
+a dollar apiece, puts them up in bales of perhaps 10 to 20 skins, and
+ships them by steamer from Churchill to Baffin Island or thereabouts,
+for use by the Eskimos. He had seen about 25 or 30 such bales being
+loaded on a steamer in September, 1947. This trade evidently results
+from the present scarcity of Caribou on Baffin Island (_cf._ Manning,
+1943a: 47-50; Soper, 1944: 247-250; Banfield, 1949: 481). Moccasins of
+caribou skin, made by the Duck Lake Chipewyans, were on sale at
+Churchill.
+
+The three Caribou-eater Chipewyans from the south end of Nueltin Lake
+brought mittens, gloves, and moccasins of caribou skin to trade at Windy
+River. Similar gloves were brought by a Cree halfbreed from the Putahow
+River.
+
+At the Windy River post furred caribou skins served in upholstering the
+seat, back, and arms of a couple of home-made chairs. They were used
+also as mattresses or blankets, in the making of sleeping bags, and even
+as insulating material on the outside of the cabin (Harper, 1949: 226,
+228, figs.). The Schweder boys also maintain tents of caribou skin at
+various points on their long trap-lines; they are much warmer than
+canvas tents, and require no outlay of cash. The skins are nailed on
+poles arranged in tepee form; the height of such a tent is about 10
+feet, and the diameter 9 or 10 feet. There is a home-made stove inside,
+with the smoke-pipe projecting outside about halfway to the top of the
+tent.
+
+The Eskimos of the Kazan River have large summer tents of caribou skin,
+and smaller ones of canvas. The former are the ones in which the drum
+dances are held. These Eskimos never make their winter houses wholly of
+snow, according to Charles Schweder, but use caribou skins for the roof.
+
+In illustration of the primary importance of the Caribou to both
+primitive and civilized man in the Arctic and the sub-Arctic, the
+numerous cases of partial or complete starvation in the absence of
+Caribou may be cited. The chronicles of northern explorers are replete
+with them. A notable case is that of John Hornby and his two companions
+on the Thelon River in the winter of 1926-27 (Hoare, 1930: 25;
+Christian, 1937). In the autumn of 1946 only a small fraction of the
+normal caribou migration passed by the Eskimo camps on the upper Kazan
+River. These happy-go-lucky, utterly improvident people did not take
+steps to secure an alternative winter’s supply of fish, and by the
+following spring eight out of the band of 27 persons had succumbed
+directly or indirectly to starvation. (It is suspected that several were
+accounted for by anthropophagy.) Women, children, and dogs were the
+victims; no adult male succumbed. The casualties would doubtless have
+been more numerous if Charles Schweder had not reported the plight of
+the band when he made a trip to Reindeer Lake in March. Thereupon the
+government shipped emergency rations by plane as far as Nueltin Lake,
+and Charles transported them from that point by sleigh to the Kazan.
+Meanwhile he rescued two of the orphan children, took them to the Windy
+River post, and in a few more months formally adopted them.
+
+
+_Ethnological material from caribou products_
+
+In addition to the utilization of caribou products for the primary
+purposes of food, clothing, and shelter, as discussed in preceding
+pages, certain other uses of an ethnological nature may be mentioned
+here.
+
+Charles Schweder spoke of the former Eskimo use of splint bones from the
+legs of Caribou as needles, after a hole had been drilled or burned
+through the larger end. They are about the same length as a large
+darning needle. These people commonly use the back sinew as thread or as
+wrapping on tools, drums, and the like. I saw a piece of back sinew
+being dried for future use at the Windy River post.
+
+Either lard or caribou fat serves as fuel for an “Eskimo candle”; the
+wick is a bit of rag or moss. The heat of the flame melts the fat where
+it is spread out in some small receptacle like a can cover. When our
+other means of illumination gave out at the Windy River post, I worked
+or wrote notes for many hours by the light of one of these candles. It
+gives approximately as much illumination as an ordinary tallow candle.
+One disadvantage of using caribou fat for this purpose is the
+considerable amount of smoke that it produces.
+
+The Eskimos make odd use of an antler as a brake for a sleigh, to
+prevent the harnessed dogs from running after any Caribou they may
+sight; on other occasions it retards the sleigh in descending a hill.
+Such an antler, that I found at the Windy River post, is notched near
+the base; a rope or thong, 2 or 3 feet in length, is fastened at one end
+to this notch, and at the other to the side of the sleigh. To apply the
+brake, the driver simply presses down the points of the antler into the
+snow or ice.
+
+The drums used in the ceremonial dances of the Kazan River Eskimos are
+made of a piece of caribou skin stretched tightly over a circular frame
+of spruce and fastened in place with caribou sinew. They are about 3
+feet in diameter.
+
+In an Eskimo fish spear from the upper Kazan River an iron barb on one
+of the prongs is supported by a small piece of caribou antler and
+fastened with back sinew. The two large lateral prongs, of metal, are
+tied to the wooden shaft of the spear with braided sinew.
+
+Two snow-knives have handles of antler, about 10 and 11 inches in
+length. One of the handles has been planed down, and is wrapped with
+sinew.
+
+The handle of another implement, used in cleaning out grains of wood
+from a hole being drilled in wood, is also a piece of antler.
+
+A woman’s knife, or _ooloo_, has a section of antler for a handle.
+
+Strands of beads, used either for an ear pendant or for ornaments at the
+peak of a hood, have a caribou incisor fastened at the tip. The opposite
+end of the pendant is provided with a thin strip of caribou hide for
+fastening to a perforated ear lobe.
+
+The willow stems of pipes are wrapped with back sinew.
+
+Antler and sinew went into the making (by Anoteelik) of a “ring and pin”
+game.
+
+  _References on relations to Eskimos and Indians._--Isham, 1949
+  (1743): 152-154; Dobbs, 1744: 19; Hearne, 1795: 35, 78, 80-84,
+  96, 119, 195-197, 297, 316-319, 321-325; Franklin, 1823:
+  243-244; Lyon, 1824: 119, 123, 130, 144, 198, 229, 238, 241,
+  282, 311-317, 324, 327, 336; Parry, 1824: 289, 380, 403,
+  494-497, 505, 508, 512, 537; Richardson, “1825”: 330, 331;
+  Franklin and Richardson, 1828: 200, 275; Richardson, 1829:
+  242-244, 245-249; John Ross, 1835a: 243-244, 252, 352, 512,
+  537; J. C. Ross, in John Ross, 1835b: xvii; Richardson, in
+  Back, 1836: 499; Simpson, 1843: 76, 208, 312, 347, 355; J.
+  McLean, 1932 (1849): 195, 359; Richardson, 1852: 290; J.
+  Anderson, 1856: 24, and 1857: 321; Armstrong, 1857: 149, 154,
+  155, 166, 194; M’Clintock, 1860?: 212; Richardson, 1861: 274;
+  B. R. Ross, 1861: 439-440; Kennicott, in Anonymous, 1869: 170;
+  Kumlien, 1879: 19, 23-25, 36-37, 54; Caton, 1881: 366-371;
+  Gilder, 1881: 11, 23, 25, 26, 28, 43, 50, 59, 61, 64, 67, 71,
+  137-146, 154, 245-255; Nourse, 1884: 220, 232; Schwatka, 1885:
+  59-86; Boas, 1888: 419, 429, 461-462, 501-503, 508-509, 522,
+  555-560; Bompas, 1888: 61, 100; Collinson, 1889: 277;
+  MacFarlane, 1890: 32-34, 38; Pike, 1917 (1892): 51-56, 59-60,
+  82, 209; J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128-130; Dowling, 1893: 107; J. B.
+  Tyrrell, 1894: 445, 1895: 440-444, and 1897: 122, 126-127,
+  131-132, 151, 166-167; Russell, 1895: 49-51, and 1898: 91, 134,
+  168-172, 176, 178, 187-189, 227-229; Whitney, 1896: 161, 175,
+  176, 213, 237, 240, 242, 262; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 80-81,
+  123-141, 241; Jones, 1899: 342, 429; Hanbury, 1900: 64, 65;
+  J. M. Bell, 1901a: 16, and 1901b: 252, 255, 258; Boas, 1901:
+  52, 54, 81, 102, 107, and 1907: 465, 493, 501; W. J. McLean,
+  1901: 5; Elliot, 1902: 276-279; J. W. Tyrrell, 1924 (1902): 28,
+  37; Hanbury, 1904: 41, 43, 67, 70, 72, 75, 82, 114-115, 120,
+  121, 123, 137, 143; MacFarlane, 1905: 680-683; Amundsen, 1908,
+  +1+: 120, 201, 237, 326-329, and +2+: 110; Preble, 1908: 137;
+  Seton, 1911: 259-262; Cameron, 1912: 127, 309; Wheeler, 1912:
+  199-200; R. M. Anderson, 1913a: 5, 6, 8, and 1913b: 502-505;
+  Stefánsson, 1913a: 105, and 1913b: 203, 215, 221, 281, 337-338,
+  and 1914: 48, 56-59, 97, 137, 139-141, 147-148, 150, 296, 353;
+  Hornaday, 1914, +2+: 97, 100; Wheeler, 1914: 52, 56, 58; Nelson,
+  1916: 460-461; Thompson, 1916: 19, 99; J. B. Tyrrell, in
+  Thompson, 1916: 16; Buchanan, 1920: 113-151; R. M. Anderson,
+  in Stefánsson, 1921: 743, 750; Hewitt, 1921: 58, 59, 64-66;
+  Stefánsson, 1921: 401-402; Jenness, 1922: 47, 48, 61, 78-81, 97,
+  100-103, 124, 127-142, 148-151, 182-189, 244, 248, 249;
+  Blanchet, 1925: 34, 1926a: 98, and 1926b: 47; Preble, 1926: 121;
+  Craig, 1927: 22; Henderson, 1927: 40; Rasmussen, 1927: 5, 23,
+  59-60, 65, 67, 68, 73-76, 103-106, 145, 166-167, 245, 246;
+  Anthony, 1928: 532; Kindle, 1928: 72-73; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1):
+  9, 47, 52-53, 56, 57, 86, 89, 90, 94, 96, 98, 101, 102, 104,
+  106-112, 133-144, 171, 186, 191, 196, 199-223, 232, 239-251,
+  262, 263, 268-271; Seton, 1929, +3+: 111-122, 133-134; Blanchet,
+  1930: 50-51, 53; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193, and 1931: 32-33;
+  Kitto, 1930: 87-88, 90; Mallet, 1930: 13, 32, 85, 87, 89, 90,
+  92, 95, 102, 116, 131-140; Jacobi, 1931: 156, 157, 159; Harper,
+  1932: 30, 31; Jenness, 1932: 47, 48, 51, 58, 59, 75, 406-408,
+  411, 412, 414, 415; Munn, 1932: 191-192, 210, 214, 255, 271,
+  278; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 80-83, 86-87; Weyer, 1932: 38,
+  39; Birket-Smith, 1933: 100; Ingstad, 1933: 118, 122, 135, 139,
+  162-163, 167, 186-187, 247, 253-254, 257-259; R. M. Anderson,
+  1934a: 81, and 1937: 103; Godsell, 1934: 273-276, and 1937: 288;
+  Hornby, 1934: 105; Birket-Smith, 1936: 90, 91, 110, 111,
+  115-116; Hamilton, 1939: 246, 352, 359; Clarke, 1940: 5-9, 84,
+  110, 112; G. M. Allen, 1942: 297; Manning, 1942: 29, 1943a: 47,
+  50, and 1943b: 103; Downes, 1943: 215, 227-228, 261-262; Soper,
+  1944: 248-250; Wright, 1944: 185, 187, 188, 193; Rand, 1948b:
+  149; Yule, 1948: 288; Banfield, 1949: 477, 478, 481, and 1951a:
+  1, 11, 14-15, 42-50; Harper, 1949: 226, 230, 231; Hoffman, 1949:
+  12; Polunin, 1949: 230; Scott, 1951: 127; Anonymous, 1952: 264.
+
+  _References on relations to civilized man._--Kennicott, in
+  Anonymous, 1869: 166; Schwatka, 1885: 59-86; A. J. Stone, 1900:
+  57; Grant, 1903: 186; Cameron, 1912: 309; R. M. Anderson,
+  1913a: 5, 6; 1913b: 504, and 1938: 400; Stefánsson, 1913b: 27;
+  Hornaday, 1914, +2+: 100; Wheeler, 1914: 56; Hewitt, 1921:
+  11-12, 59; Critchell-Bullock, 1931: 33; Godsell, 1937: 288;
+  G. M. Allen, 1942: 298-299; Manning, 1942: 28; [U.S.] War
+  Department, 1944: 77; Harper, 1949: 239; Banfield, 1951a: 1,
+  14-15.
+
+
+_Relations to Black Bears_
+
+It is hardly to be expected that Black Bears (_Ursus americanus_ subsp.)
+commit any depredations on adult, able-bodied Caribou unless under very
+exceptional circumstances. Since they do not normally venture to an
+appreciable distance into the Barren Grounds, their contacts with
+Caribou are mainly in the forested zone. For an untold period in the
+past there has been a very interesting tripartite relationship between
+Bears, Caribou, and Caribou-eater Chipewyans about the south end of
+Nueltin Lake. For information concerning it I am indebted to Charles
+Schweder. The Indians of that area have been in the habit of killing
+large numbers of Caribou, especially on the spring and fall migrations,
+and leaving many of the bodies, or parts of the bodies, out in the
+“bush.” The Bears have become accustomed to taking advantage of the
+situation, especially, perhaps, in the matter of fattening up for
+hibernation. This probably resulted in a certain concentration of the
+animals thereabouts. But of late years the local native population has
+seriously declined by reason of fatal illness and removal to other
+parts. Consequently, as Charles Schweder expressed it, there are no
+longer enough people there to feed the Bears! Three of the Chipewyans
+reported in late October, 1947, that they had lost a good many of their
+Caribou to the Bears during that season.
+
+This recent change in the food situation about the south end of Nueltin
+Lake has apparently resulted in, or at least coincided with, an influx
+of Bears in the Windy River area, where they were unknown until 1944.
+During the next four years seven Bears were killed locally. The animals
+are said to have consumed about 70 Caribou bodies in the fall of 1944,
+and about 40 in the fall of 1947 within a few miles of the Windy River
+post; thus they became a somewhat serious factor in the human economy of
+the area. The Caribou is evidently the chief loser in this curious
+relationship, but even the Bear, which may be regarded as the chief
+beneficiary, suffers from man’s retaliatory efforts.
+
+
+_Relations to foxes_
+
+The demand for Arctic Fox furs on the part of the fashionable women of
+the world sends the trapper on his winter rounds over the bleak and
+bitter Barren Grounds, where he depends upon his autumn kill of Caribou
+for sustenance for himself and his dogs as well as for fox bait. It is
+thus quite obvious where a large share of the responsibility for the
+dwindling numbers of the Caribou lies.
+
+Both Arctic and Red Foxes (_Alopex lagopus innuitus_ and _Vulpes fulva_
+subsp.) are among the scavengers that help to consume caribou bodies
+that are left unguarded in the wilds. According to Charles Schweder,
+foxes of both species seem to follow the Wolves, presumably in the hope
+of securing the leavings of their kills.
+
+Charles also gave me an account of a remarkable sort of play between a
+Red Fox and a small buck Caribou. He had witnessed it in September,
+1943, about 18 miles north of Windy River, from a distance of half a
+mile. The Fox would approach the Caribou closely; the latter would then
+walk up to the Fox, which would retreat, not allowing the Caribou to
+come close enough to touch it. Neither animal was afraid of the other.
+They kept up this performance for about 5 minutes. The Fox then went
+among some bushes, where the Caribou tried to follow it. The larger
+animal was still there, feeding, when Charles passed on out of sight. He
+regarded the whole performance as a matter of playfulness. His recital
+put me in mind at once of a slightly similar play between a Newfoundland
+Caribou and a Red Fox, as recorded by Millais (1907: 302-303).
+Stefánsson (1921: 623-624) describes a game of tag between an Arctic Fox
+and several yearlings of _Rangifer pearyi_ on Melville Island.
+
+  _References._--Blanchet, 1925: 34; Birket-Smith, 1929(1): 101;
+  Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 143; Munn, 1932: 278; Ingstad, 1933:
+  90, 157-159; Freuchen, 1935: 128; Banfield, 1951a: 36.
+
+
+_Relations to Wolves_
+
+Aside from man, the principal predatory enemy of the Barren Ground
+Caribou is undoubtedly the Wolf. A comparison of a distributional map of
+Caribou by Banfield (1949: 479, fig. 1) with a distributional map of
+Wolves by Goldman (1944: 414, fig. 14) indicates that the latter species
+is a considerably more plastic animal. No less than six subspecies of
+Wolves seem to occur in parts of the currently recognized range of a
+single subspecies of Caribou (_Rangifer arcticus arcticus_), as follows:
+_Canis lupus arctos_, Prince of Wales and Somerset islands; _Canis lupus
+manningi_, Baffin Island; _Canis lupus bernardi_, Victoria Island;
+_Canis lupus hudsonicus_, Keewatin, eastern Mackenzie, northern
+Manitoba, and northeastern Saskatchewan; _Canis lupus mackenzii_,
+northern Mackenzie; _Canis lupus occidentalis_, southern Mackenzie and
+northern Alberta and Saskatchewan.
+
+The Keewatin Tundra Wolf (_C. l. hudsonicus_) is presumably the only one
+that concerns us here. However, its extension into the forested zone of
+northern Manitoba and northeastern Saskatchewan, as indicated on
+Goldman’s map, is still problematical. Goldman’s text (1944: 428-429) is
+quite indefinite on this point. There are such distinct differences
+between the general fauna of the Arctic Zone and that of the Hudsonian
+Zone that the Wolf of the latter zone may well prove to be
+differentiable from _hudsonicus_, whose type locality is at Schultz Lake
+in west central Keewatin. It is an interesting question whether any
+Wolves of the Barren Grounds follow the Caribou southward into the
+timbered country in the fall; likewise, whether any individual Wolves of
+the latter region accompany the Caribou on their spring migration out
+into the Barrens. Little light on the subject seems available at
+present. There is no doubt, however, that a good many Wolves remain
+during the winter on parts of the Barren Grounds that have been deserted
+by the Caribou at that season. Furthermore, at the time of the spring
+migration, mature Wolves of the forest zone would be restricted to their
+home territory by the necessity of caring for their young ones.
+
+A Wolf is by no means able to capture a Caribou at will. During the
+season of open water the latter may effect a ready escape by plunging
+into the nearest river or lake and crossing to the other side. There is
+reason to believe that islands provide a good sanctuary during the
+summer (Seton, 1929, +3+: 108-109; Gavin, 1945: 228). In the winter the
+Caribou must depend primarily on its fleetness of foot. Even the fawns
+are reputed to be able to outdistance Wolves in a chase that is not too
+prolonged. An adult, if brought to bay after a long chase, is probably
+able to stand off a single Wolf indefinitely. Its powerful hoofs are its
+principal means of defense. Even if the antlers are brought into play,
+they are effective only during the limited period when they are
+fullgrown, hard, and free of velvet. When two or more Wolves manage to
+bring a Caribou to bay, the outcome is probably almost invariably in
+their favor. Charles Schweder has never known a Caribou to kill one of
+these predators in defending itself. In several cases reported by Fred
+Schweder, Jr., the last stand was made on the ice of lakes. The Caribou
+itself may choose such a place, as if aware that it may be more
+sure-footed on the ice than its enemy.
+
+After listening to wolf tales by residents of the frontier settlements
+rather than by real men of the “bush,” one might almost expect to see a
+couple of these bloodthirsty animals harrying the rear of every band of
+Caribou and keeping up a relentless pursuit. However, during a sojourn
+of six months on one of the best Caribou ranges in Keewatin, where
+trapping has very little effect on Wolves, I saw just one of these
+animals alive, heard the howling on several occasions, and noted a
+single Caribou that had probably been killed by them. It is far from a
+common experience for the resident trappers to witness actual pursuit by
+Wolves or even to find their kills. The following instances, related by
+Fred Schweder, Jr., comprised his only direct observations on Wolves in
+pursuit of Caribou up to and including 1947, when he was eighteen years
+old.
+
+During the northward migration in May, 1945, a silent black Wolf pursued
+a band of 100 Caribou over the ice of Windy Bay. At one time it came
+within 100 feet, but thereafter they forged ahead. After half a mile the
+band split up, and the Wolf desisted. In October, 1946, Fred noticed a
+Caribou fighting off two Wolves on the ice of Nueltin Lake near its
+outlet. It used both horns and hoofs against its attackers. While one
+Wolf was in front, the other would try to get in the rear of the Caribou
+and hamstring it. This went on for two hours until darkness hid the
+scene. The next morning the Caribou was dead and half eaten. On October
+16, 1947, a white Wolf was seen in pursuit of four fast-moving Caribou
+near Simons’ Lake. It was about half a mile in their rear, and presently
+halted, probably by reason of catching sight of Fred.
+
+November 7, 1947, was a blizzardy day; the air was full of drifting
+snow. Under these conditions a gray Wolf chased a buck and a doe right
+into the dooryard of one of Fred’s trapping camps 10 miles north of
+Windy River. It was only about 30 feet behind them. When the buck broke
+through the ice of a little creek, the Wolf went right past it in
+pursuit of the doe. The latter nearly ran into Fred’s toboggan, and he
+shot it at a distance of 20 feet. The Wolf came within 40 feet, but by
+the time it was recognized as not just another Caribou, it was 100 feet
+away. Fred then shot but merely wounded it, the sight being off his
+rifle. Meanwhile the buck escaped, but 3 miles away Fred met with it
+again and secured it. He recognized it as the same animal because at
+both encounters it was limping from a previous wound and was hornless as
+well.
+
+In late November Fred found two fullgrown bucks and a doe on the ice of
+Windy Lake, where they had been killed by Wolves. The bucks were
+antlered and had probably met their end several weeks previously. Yet
+their flesh was so musky and unpalatable, in consequence of the rutting
+season, that it had not been devoured. A long trail of blood and hair
+led to the spot where the doe had fallen, apparently a couple of weeks
+previously; it was still only half eaten.
+
+In Fred’s opinion, Caribou are apprehensive of sandy eskers as the haunt
+of Wolves, and do not linger there.
+
+On October 15 Charles Schweder pointed out the body of a Caribou in a
+little pond in the delta area at the head of Simons’ Lake. He considered
+it killed by Wolves some weeks previously; its antlers were in the
+velvet, and it had been eaten only about the head and hind quarters as
+it lay in the water.
+
+Joe Chambers, a trapper of Goose Creek (south of Churchill), stated that
+Wolves select the fattest Caribou, and that during the winter of 1946-47
+they had been devouring only such choice parts as the tongue and the
+unborn young.
+
+Caribou bodies are the primary bait for Wolves and Foxes on the Barren
+Grounds. Two traps are commonly placed at each carcass.
+
+Up to a couple of centuries ago, when the baneful effect of civilized
+man began to be felt, the Caribou throve and multiplied to a point where
+they probably strained the grazing capacity of the Barren Grounds.
+Neither primitive man nor the Wolf had any serious effect on the size or
+condition of the herds. The Caribou were numbered by millions, and they
+doubtless owed their vigor and their success as a species in no small
+measure to their friendly enemy, the Wolf. Through long ages the latter
+had tended to eliminate the weaklings, the sickly, and the less alert
+individuals, leaving the fitter animals to propagate their kind. Here
+was a fine example of natural selection operating to the advantage of
+the Caribou. Thus the Wolf may be safely considered a benefactor of the
+species as a whole--a regulator and protector of its vitality.
+
+There are only two regions of the world where Caribou (or Reindeer) have
+not long shared their territory with the Wolf--Spitsbergen and the Queen
+Charlotte Islands. And what sort of situation do we find there? Instead
+of thriving in the absence of such a natural predator, the animals of
+both regions are the runts of the whole Caribou-Reindeer tribe, and
+those of the Queen Charlottes have become virtually or wholly extinct
+(_cf._ Banfield, 1949: 481-482). Furthermore, the Newfoundland Caribou
+suffered a very serious decline after the Newfoundland Wolf became
+extinct at about the beginning of the present century. The lesson is
+obvious: it is folly for man to imagine that he can benefit the Caribou
+by eliminating the Wolves.
+
+It is virtually axiomatic that no predatory species (other than modern
+man) exterminates its own food supply. Long ago nature must have
+established a fairly definite ratio between the populations of the Wolf
+and the Caribou. Although a certain fluctuation of that ratio could be
+expected from time to time, each fluctuation would be followed by a
+return to more or less normal conditions. The trend of evolution has
+doubtless been toward perfecting the Wolf in its ability to capture the
+Caribou, but at the same time toward perfecting the Caribou in its
+ability to escape the Wolf. Unequal progress of this sort on the part of
+the two species would presumably have been rather disastrous to the one
+or the other. But it is nature’s way to have preserved a proper balance
+between the abilities of the two species, and thus between their
+populations. This balance (a rather delicate one) has probably been
+upset to some extent by the advent of civilized man with his devices to
+the Barren Grounds.
+
+The Caribou “exemplify the survival of the fittest; none but the perfect
+are allowed to live and breed, hence their perfection. We believe that
+the wolf is in no small degree responsible for this high standard,
+and that were he killed off the species as a whole would suffer.”
+(Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 161.)
+
+“It is doubtful if the efforts of white or native hunters are of any
+importance whatever in the control of wolves in the caribou country, or
+could, under present circumstances ever be of any importance.” (Clarke,
+1940: 109).
+
+  _References._--Franklin, 1823: 242, 327, 344, 486, 487; John
+  Ross, 1835a: 402, 530, 534, 564; Back, 1836: 128-129; Simpson,
+  1843: 232; Armstrong, 1857: 395, 480-481, 488, 525; Osborn,
+  1865: 227-228, 231, 232; Kumlien, 1879: 53, 54; Gilder, 1881:
+  61; Bompas, 1888: 60; Collinson, 1889: 244; Pike, 1917 (1892):
+  56-58; Whitney, 1896: 239; Jones, 1899: 374-375; Preble, 1902:
+  41, and 1908: 214; Hanbury, 1904: 89; MacFarlane, 1905: 692-693;
+  Amundsen, 1908, +1+: 102; Seton, 1911: 225-226; R. M. Anderson,
+  1913b: 516; Stefánsson, 1913a: 93, and 1921: 248-249, 475-476;
+  Blanchet, 1925: 34; Mallet, 1926: 79; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1):
+  51; Seton, 1929, +1+: 344-346, and +3+: 108-109; Blanchet, 1930:
+  54-55; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 159-162; Hoare, 1930: 22; Kitto,
+  1930: 89; Jacobi, 1931: 240-241; Harper, 1932: 31; Sutton and
+  Hamilton, 1932: 33, 35, 36, 81, 82, 84, 85; Ingstad, 1933:
+  157-159, 165-166, 207, 302-304, 306-307; Hornby, 1934: 106, 108;
+  Freuchen, 1935: 93, 120-122; Murie, 1939: 245; Clarke, 1940:
+  107-109; Manning, 1942: 29, and 1943a: 55; Downes, 1943: 262;
+  Young, 1944: 236-238, 243; Yule, 1948: 288; Harper, 1949:
+  230-231, 239; Banfield, 1951a: 37-41; Anonymous, 1952: 263-265.
+
+
+_Relations to birds of prey_
+
+These relations are not so much of the living Caribou as of their bodies
+after death. The principal avian scavengers in the Windy River area seem
+to be the Rough-legged Hawk (_Buteo lagopus sancti-johannis_), the
+Herring Gull (_Larus argentatus smithsonianus_), the Canada Jay
+(_Perisoreus canadensis canadensis_), and the Raven (_Corvus corax
+principalis_). These birds are evidently attracted to the vicinity of
+camps and trap-lines by reason of the numbers of caribou bodies lying
+about. On their first arrival in late May or early June, before the
+lakes have opened up and while food in general is scarce, Herring Gulls
+seem particularly prone to assemble where Caribou have been recently
+killed. For example, up to June 3 only a handful of these birds had been
+seen about Windy River. On that day several Caribou were killed, and on
+June 4 about 100 Herring Gulls had gathered at the scene. Their
+scavenger activities make it especially necessary to protect the caribou
+bodies in the way described in the section on _Relations to man_. In a
+few days one of the bodies (apparently not so protected) had been almost
+entirely consumed. The Herring Gulls operate locally only from May to
+September, being absent during the rest of the year. A few Ring-billed
+Gulls (_Larus delawarensis_) appeared meanwhile and attacked a caribou
+carcass.
+
+The Rough-legged Hawk is far less numerous than the Herring Gull and so
+is a much less serious scavenger. Now and then, however, it may be noted
+feeding on a caribou carcass. Even the Long-tailed Jaeger (_Stercorarius
+longicaudus_) is reported in such a role. The Canada Jay and the Raven
+are permanent residents and are undoubtedly helped through the
+inhospitable winter by man-killed Caribou. On the other hand, a good
+many Ravens fall victims to the fox traps placed about the bodies.
+Charles Schweder has frequently seen Ravens following Wolves, as if in
+expectation of a kill. Buchanan remarks (1920: 248) concerning the
+Reindeer Lake region, that the Ravens “appear to remain in the vicinity
+of the Caribou herds all th[r]ough winter.” In the Windy River area the
+Canada Jay became noticeably more numerous in August, after the Caribou
+had returned from the north. The Ravens and the Rough-legs exhibited a
+similar increase in September and October.
+
+The depredations of these carnivorous birds result to the detriment of
+the living Caribou in that they virtually force the hunters and trappers
+to kill a larger number of the animals than would otherwise be
+necessary.
+
+  _References._--Hanbury, 1904: 135; Stefánsson, 1913a: 93;
+  Seton, 1929, +3+: 108; Ingstad, 1933: 157-159; Downes, 1943:
+  228; Banfield, 1951a: 36, 42; Harper, 1953: 28, 60, 62-64, 72,
+  74, 76.
+
+
+_Relations to miscellaneous animals_
+
+The Schweder boys spoke of Arctic Hares (_Lepus arcticus andersoni_)
+being in the habit of eating the stomach contents of Caribou after the
+animals have been dressed in the field. This represents merely harmless
+utilization of a normally waste product, although it serves some of the
+natives as _nerrooks_ or “Eskimo salad” (_cf._ Richardson, 1829: 245).
+Wolverines, Mink, Weasels, and Lemmings help to consume unprotected
+caribou bodies. (In the Old World the Wolverine is regarded as a serious
+enemy of live Reindeer [Jacobi, 1931: 243; Harper, 1945: 473].)
+
+  _References._--Pike, 1917 (1892): 56-58; Seton, 1911: 252, 1929,
+  +2+: 413, 424, 443, and 1929, +3+: 108; Harper, 1932: 23;
+  Ingstad, 1933: 157-159; Freuchen, 1935: 93, 99; Hoffman, 1949:
+  12; Banfield, 1951a: 36, 41; Harper, 1953: 40, 41.
+
+
+_Relations to flies_
+
+Flies of various kinds perhaps cause more wide-spread, year-round misery
+to the Caribou than all other pests and enemies combined. It is safe to
+say that not a single individual in the whole population escapes their
+attacks, and some even succumb to mosquitoes (Gavin, 1945: 228). The
+various biting and parasitic flies have already been discussed to some
+extent in the section on _Influence of insects on distribution_.
+Harassment by these pests is believed to be the leading cause of the
+haste with which the Caribou are frequently seen passing over the
+Barrens in summer. Downes (1943: 204) has commented on the habit of
+Chipewyan hunters in the Nueltin Lake region of examining the legs of
+Caribou for swellings caused by mosquito bites. In a buck secured on
+August 17 the legs exhibited numerous little bumps of this sort;
+furthermore, black flies covered the buck’s body, while scarcely
+troubling those of us who were preparing the specimen. Fortunately the
+suffering from mosquitoes and black flies on the Barrens is largely
+limited to the months of July and August.
+
+Even at this season the Caribou are granted occasional relief from the
+blood-sucking flies. The characteristic strong winds of that region help
+greatly in keeping the insects in abeyance. Furthermore, both mosquitoes
+and black flies become more or less inactive whenever the temperature
+drops to the neighborhood of 45° (_cf._ Weber, 1950: 196), and this
+happens fairly frequently even in mid-summer. Finally, the black flies
+retire during the hours of darkness; and short as these hours are, the
+relief they bring is very noteworthy. These conditions offer something
+of a contrast to those surrounding the Woodland Caribou. It is difficult
+to see how that animal can secure a moment’s respite from mosquito
+attacks, by day or night, through most of the summer. In its forested
+habitat there is not sufficient lowering of the temperature nor
+sufficient penetration of strong winds. Hard as the life of the Barren
+Ground Caribou may be, it seems to have a few advantages not available
+to the Woodland Caribou; and possibly it is these that have enabled it
+to attain a vastly greater population than the other species.
+
+Of 52 mosquito specimens brought back from the Windy River area, 39 were
+_Aedes nearcticus_ Dyar, 2 were probably _Aedes fitchii_ (F. and Y.),
+and the remaining 11 were of the same genus but not in condition for
+specific determination (_cf._ Dyar, 1919; Weber, 1950: 196). _Ae.
+nearcticus_ is holarctic in distribution; in North America it occurs
+chiefly on the Barren Grounds, but is known from as far south as
+Montana. _Ae. fitchii_ ranges through the northern United States and
+Canada, north to the limit of trees. Of 26 black flies, all were
+_Simulium venustum_ Say, which occurs in northern Europe, Alaska, and
+Labrador, south to the Adirondacks, Illinois, Iowa, Georgia, and
+Alabama. (Names and ranges supplied by Dr. Alan Stone, of the United
+States Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.) These mosquitoes and
+black flies were presumably the species attacking the Caribou in the
+Nueltin Lake region.
+
+The effects of the two parasitic flies are felt nearly throughout the
+year. The adult warble fly (_Oedemagena tarandi_) is seen in the Windy
+River area in August, when the Caribou are on their southward march. On
+August 22 Fred Schweder, Jr., secured three of them on freshly killed
+Caribou and another that alighted on himself--all on an island in Windy
+Bay. His name for them is “deer fly.” He reported seeing about 50 of
+them on this day (more than ever before), although he sighted only 10
+Caribou. As he remarked, these fuzzy flies look much like bumblebees.
+Three days later, along Little River, something buzzed past me while a
+band of Caribou were near. It was probably this species, although it
+suggested a hummingbird almost as much as a bumblebee. On several
+subsequent August days, while numbers of Caribou were passing very close
+to me, I detected no more of the warble flies. In general, they might
+well have escaped my notice owing to my preoccupation with photography;
+but on August 30, when I looked for them on one of the nearest animals,
+I saw none. Evidently they are not sufficiently numerous (like
+horse-flies on cattle) to be constantly in attendance on each Caribou.
+In fact, a comparative scarcity (or at least difficulty of capture) may
+be surmised from the fact that the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913-18
+brought back only three adult females--one from Teller, Alaska, and two
+from Bernard Harbour, Dolphin and Union Strait (Malloch, 1919: 55).
+Weber (1950) collected no Oestridae in Arctic Alaska.
+
+Apparently there has been scarcely any published study of the egg-laying
+or other habits of the adult _Oedemagena_ in relation to _Rangifer
+arcticus arcticus_, other than a few recent notes by Banfield (1951a:
+31-32, fig. 17); but its behavior in relation to the Lapland Reindeer
+seems to be fairly well known, and it is summarized by Jacobi (1931:
+245-246). In the case of the Reindeer, the fly’s eggs are laid (during
+the summer) generally on the legs, belly, and tail region of the victim;
+the larvae, on hatching, bore through the skin, travel widely through
+the body, and finally (in the autumn) reach the place for further
+development--beneath the skin of the back on both sides of the vertebral
+column. Each one makes a breathing-hole through the skin, and uses this
+as an exit when leaving the host in the following June. Only the younger
+animals, from one to about four or five years old, are heavily infested;
+those still older are spared, possibly having learned to guard
+themselves better against the fly. Curiously enough, the fawns are said
+to escape this parasitism entirely.
+
+My own observations on the larvae were restricted to a few Caribou
+specimens in June and in the autumn. As with the Reindeer, the Caribou
+fawns in their first autumn showed no visible infestation, as I noted in
+looking over some fresh hides on September 10, and as was noted again in
+a fawn of September 26. Fred Schweder, Jr., made the remark that larvae
+would be evident in the fawns by the following spring; this may indicate
+that the larvae have not, in the autumn, completed their journey to
+their final position on the Caribou’s back. I learned of no immunity on
+the part of old adults.
+
+Fullgrown larvae still remained in bucks secured on June 3 (fig. 17) and
+18. According to Charles Schweder, they drop out in June. In the buck of
+June 3 there were perhaps several dozen warbles, each surrounded by a
+mass of repulsive tissue; in another buck of June 18, there were
+apparently more than 75. “It may be assumed,” says Johansen (1921: 24),
+“that the pupae lie on the ground for about a month before the flies
+appear.” He found (1921: 29) the adult flies abroad at Dolphin and Union
+Strait by July 14.
+
+In a buck of August 17 the new warbles (or perhaps merely warble scars
+from the previous June--_cf._ Banfield, 1951a: 32) on the inside of
+the skin were not very numerous. Some were medium-sized, but most were
+so small that it was not deemed necessary to scrape them off; they had
+comparatively little fatty tissue about them and were merely allowed to
+dry up. The number of warbles (or warble scars) found in autumn
+specimens varied considerably, up to a maximum of roughly 200. They were
+situated mostly along the mid-dorsum, and more on the lower back or rump
+than farther forward. The number appeared to be approximately 130 in the
+skin of an adult doe that was nailed to the log wall of a cabin for
+drying on September 15 (fig. 18). A doe of September 21 seemed to have
+less than the usual number of warbles.
+
+The nostril fly (_Cephenemyia_) is another serious dipterous parasite of
+the Caribou. The life history of the European _C. nasalis_ (L.) (or
+_C. trompe_ [L.]) and its effect on Reindeer are discussed by Bergman
+(1917), Natvig (1918), and Jacobi (1931: 245) as follows.
+
+This fly attacks the host from June to September, depositing its
+viviparous larvae in the nostrils. The Reindeer attempts to fend off the
+fly, striking at it with its hoofs and keeping its nostrils closed as
+far as possible. Once deposited, the lively larvae crawl into the inner
+nasal passages and as far as the larynx, where they fasten themselves
+and live on the mucus. A Reindeer may harbor as many as 130 of these
+parasites. They range from 6 to 26 mm. in length. Their particular
+growth begins at the end of March, and they are ready for pupation up to
+May. The host assists their exit by continual sneezing and snuffling. In
+the last stages they are a great affliction for the host, and they
+sometimes cause its death. Pupation takes place in or on the ground,
+under some sort of cover, and it lasts for 15-19 days. The flies have
+been found emerging from July 12 to 31.
+
+The corresponding parasite of the Barren Ground Caribou is a similar or
+perhaps identical species, with a parallel life history. Its chief
+activity as an adult doubtless occurs in July and August. A number of
+the mature larvae were found in the throat of the buck of June 3; two of
+them that were preserved measure approximately 7 mm. in diameter and 27
+and 30 mm. in length. A large mass of such sizable parasites in the
+throat might easily become a serious obstacle to comfortable living or
+even to survival on the part of the host. Presumably the larvae drop to
+the ground at about the same period as those of _Oedemagena_. Fred
+Schweder, Jr., remarked concerning the buck of August 17 that these
+larvae are never found at that season, and Charles Schweder made the
+same remark concerning a doe specimen of September 21. It would appear
+either that they remain so small as to escape detection at this time or
+that they do not reach the throat on their short journey from the
+nostrils until some later period of the year. Johansen (1921: 24)
+records larvae only 2-3 mm. long in the nasal passage at the end of May.
+
+Since the bulk of the Caribou population has passed well to the
+northward of the Nueltin Lake region by the time the larvae of
+_Oedemagena_ and _Cephenemyia_ drop out of the bodies of their hosts to
+pupate briefly on or in the ground (say in the latter part of June), one
+is tempted to speculate on the possibility that the adult flies found
+here in August may have followed their prospective victims for many
+miles in their southward migration. However, Porsild remarks (1943: 386)
+that they “apparently do not travel very far.”
+
+Certain kinds of behavior exhibited by the Caribou in attempting to fend
+off the parasitic flies are discussed in the section on _Shaking off
+moisture and insects_.
+
+The adults of _Oedemagena tarandi_ (L.) were determined by Mr. C. W.
+Sabrosky, of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine; and the
+larvae of _Oedemagena_ and _Cephenemyia_ by Dr. W. W. Wirth, of the same
+bureau. The larvae of the latter genus are regarded as probably _C.
+trompe_ (L.); they were new to the collection of the United States
+National Museum.
+
+  _References._--Hearne, 1795: 197; Franklin, 1823: 241;
+  Richardson, “1825”: 328-330, and 1829: 242; Godman, 1831, +2+:
+  284; Murray, 1858: 210; B. R. Ross, 1861: 438; Pike, 1917
+  (1892): 58-59; J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128, and 1894: 442; Whitney,
+  1896: 239; Russell, 1898: 228-229; Jones, 1899: 411; Hanbury,
+  1900: 67, and 1904: 32, 137, 194; Preble, 1902: 41; R. M.
+  Anderson, 1913b: 504; Stefánsson, 1913b: 204, 212-213, 333;
+  Douglas, 1914: 191-192; Malloch, 1919: 55-56; Hewitt, 1921: 67;
+  Johansen, 1921: 22-24, 29, 35, 37; Stefánsson, 1921: 247;
+  Blanchet, 1925: 32, and 1926b: 47; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 56,
+  133; Seton, 1929, +3+: 109-111; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193;
+  Hoare, 1930: 33, 37-38; Kitto, 1930: 89; Jacobi, 1931: 244-245;
+  Munn, 1932: 58; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 84-86; Birket-Smith,
+  1933: 90, 92; Ingstad, 1933: 48, 135; Hornby, 1934: 105; Soper,
+  1936: 429; Henriksen, 1937: 25, 26; Hamilton, 1939: 247, 301;
+  Murie, 1939: 245; Clarke, 1940: 70, 95; Downes, 1943: 226, 255;
+  Manning, 1943a: 53; Porsild, 1943: 386; Gavin, 1945: 228;
+  Harper, 1949: 228; Banfield, 1951a: 31-33; Barnett, 1954: 104.
+
+
+_Ectoparasites_
+
+It was in vain that I searched a number of fresh specimens for lice,
+mites, fleas, or ticks. The Schweder boys spoke of never having noticed
+any such parasites. Seton (1929) mentions none, and Jacobi (1931: 243)
+records only a louse (_Linognathus tarandi_) from the Reindeer. “Lice
+are not known from caribou according to Ferris (in conversation)”
+(Weber, 1950: 154).
+
+
+_Relations to Reindeer_
+
+Recent discussions of the possibility or advisability of introducing
+domesticated Reindeer to replace, or to augment the diminishing supply
+of, native American Caribou in various new localities prompt a brief
+review of the subject.
+
+It may be remarked at the outset that acclimatization attempts in the
+Old World have generally been abortive. Wild Reindeer introduced from
+Finmark into Iceland in the eighteenth century flourished for a time,
+but by 1917 they were almost exterminated. A number of different
+introductions into Great Britain, Denmark, Germany, Austria,
+Switzerland, and Italy came to naught. On the other hand, the
+introduction of Lapland Reindeer on the subantarctic island of South
+Georgia in 1908 seems to have turned out successfully. (Jacobi, 1931:
+158-165; Harper, 1945: 473-474.) A saving feature in each of the
+above-mentioned cases was the absence of any native Reindeer whose
+racial purity might have been destroyed by the newcomers.
+
+Decrease of local American stocks of Caribou, and consequent suffering
+of native populations who had in past generations depended upon these
+animals for a major portion of their food supply, have led to
+introduction of foreign Reindeer in several regions of North America,
+from Newfoundland and Labrador in the east to Alaska in the west. The
+persons responsible were doubtless inspired by high humanitarian
+motives; but it is doubtful if they could have thoroughly considered or
+foreseen the serious biological consequences of their efforts.
+
+In Alaska, importation of domesticated Siberian Reindeer began in 1892.
+By the 1930’s the herds had increased to an estimated total of 600,000.
+For various reasons, however, the industry has so far declined that by
+1949 the total number of Alaskan Reindeer had become reduced to about
+28,000 head. Disinclination of Eskimos for reindeer-herding and mixture
+of their stock with wild Caribou were important reasons for this
+decline. (Lantis, 1950.) From the biologist’s point of view, the most
+unfortunate result was the large-scale interbreeding with the native
+Grant’s Caribou (_Rangifer arcticus granti_) and the progressive
+extermination of that fine animal in a pure form by dilution with
+inferior alien blood. Among Alaskan Reindeer, “constant inbreeding has
+led to a noticeable reduction in the prolificness of the females, and
+degeneration is to be observed in many herds” (Hewitt, 1921: 323).
+
+In 1908 Dr. Wilfred T. Grenfell brought 300 Lapland Reindeer to
+Newfoundland. After some years they were transferred to the north shore
+of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and finally to the island of Anticosti.
+(Hewitt, 1921: 324-328; Seton, 1929, +3+: 92.) In 1911, 50 of these
+Reindeer were shipped from Newfoundland to the Slave River region. Most
+of them escaped (probably to contaminate the local stock of Caribou),
+and by 1916 the last survivor of this band in captivity had succumbed
+(Hewitt, 1921: 329-330).
+
+“A large part of the reindeer in Alaska are south of the Arctic Circle
+on the comparatively mild shores of Bering Sea, where there are several
+months of open tidewater navigation; vegetation is more luxuriant [than
+in Arctic Canada] and conditions easier in general. There the reindeer
+were introduced into a country where the wild caribou had been virtually
+exterminated, and a large native population were anxious to take up a
+new mode of support. The percentage of profits has appeared unduly large
+in Alaska because statisticians have been unable to take into account
+the value of the services of a large body of devoted missionaries,
+government teachers, and other unselfish persons who put their best
+efforts into years of unpaid extra work to make the reindeer successful
+and beneficial to their charges.
+
+“Canada has a large area of Arctic and sub-arctic lands beyond the reach
+of possible cultivation, still occupied by large numbers of wild caribou
+and remnants of musk-oxen, with native inhabitants who derive a living
+from them and add to the national wealth by fur production. These
+Indians and Eskimos are still far from being either able or willing to
+enter upon a pastoral stage of existence, and moreover, they are now
+enjoying an era of prosperity from the fur industry which may be
+temporary, but which they will not relinquish for the slower and less
+profitable prospects of the herder.” (R. M. Anderson, 1924: 330-331.)
+
+In 1921 some Norwegian Reindeer were landed at Amadjuak, Baffin Island
+(Seton, 1929, +3+: 92). The lack of further reference to the Baffin
+Island animals by such subsequent investigators as Manning and Soper
+would seem to indicate that the reindeer have not survived, unless
+through mixture with the native Caribou. An attempt in 1922 at
+acclimatization in Michigan “ended in total failure” (Seton, 1929, +3+:
+93).
+
+“The Barren Grounds . . . still feed enormous herds of caribou. . . .
+The greatest danger to this industry [reindeer-raising] is just these
+wild herds, which would be very apt to absorb the tame animals. This
+problem may perhaps become a fatal one to the Eskimos, for there might
+very easily come a most difficult transitional period, when the caribou
+would be too few in numbers to form a definite basis for the existence
+of the people, but on the other hand numerous enough to make reindeer
+breeding difficult.” (Birket-Smith, 1933: 121.)
+
+In northwestern Alaska “large numbers of reindeer are constantly
+escaping the herders and joining the wild caribou. It seems that it will
+be but a short time until there will be no pure bred caribou along that
+part of the coast. . . . As the reindeer are protected, and the caribou
+are killed at every opportunity, the former will doubtless prove the
+dominant animal and in time overcome the caribou, with hybridization the
+inevitable result.” (Bailey and Hendee, 1926: 22.)
+
+“The caribou’s greatest menace is not the wolf, nor the hunter, but
+man’s economic developments, principally the raising of reindeer.
+Wherever reindeer herds are introduced, caribou must of course
+disappear, for both cannot occupy the same range. The disappearance of
+the caribou along the Bering Sea and Arctic coasts, while regrettable,
+was unavoidable in view of the development of reindeer herding in this
+section, which is ideal for the purpose. . . .
+
+“The mingling of reindeer with the main caribou herds should be avoided.
+Reindeer herds maintained in close contact with migrating caribou suffer
+frequent losses through strays. Already the domestic reindeer are
+mingling with the caribou herd of Mount McKinley National Park. . . .
+[Hybridization] would be regrettable in interior Alaska, which has
+produced a splendid type of wild caribou, coming near at least to being
+the largest on the continent.” (Murie, 1935: 7.)
+
+Murie’s extensive experience with these animals in Alaska has led him to
+remark further (1939: 245):
+
+“The greatest hazard to the Caribou is the possible occupation of the
+range by man’s agricultural activities. . . . The most serious danger is
+introduction of domesticated Reindeer on wild Caribou range, for the
+wild herds must be removed in order to make possible the safe herding of
+the domestic animals. . . . There is not room for both of these animals
+on the same or closely adjacent ranges.”
+
+Porsild points out (1943: 386, 389) that sparsely covered grazing areas
+are suitable for Caribou but not for Reindeer; and that the former
+disappear before expanding Reindeer culture.
+
+“Perhaps the worst threat of all to the caribou has been the
+introduction of reindeer culture along the arctic coast. This has
+resulted in interbreeding between the wild caribou and their inferior
+domesticated relatives. When and if this mixture extends to all the
+herds of the Barren Grounds, the caribou may be written off the record
+as a pure species; the animal will have become extinct through dilution,
+as the biologists express it.” (Harper, 1949: 239.)
+
+The American Society of Mammalogists, at its annual meeting in 1950,
+passed the following resolution (_Jour. Mammalogy_ +31+ (4): 483, 1950):
+
+“That the American Society of Mammalogists urges that the Canadian
+Government not undertake the introduction of reindeer into Ungava.
+Before any introduction even is seriously considered, those persons
+involved in any planning are urged to make a thorough study beforehand
+of the problems of integrating lichen ecology, reindeer biology, and
+native culture--serious problems that have not been solved to date on
+any workable scale on the North American continent. It would be
+particularly deplorable if an introduction, to aid the natives, led to
+early successes and high hopes, then eventual failure.”
+
+Porsild, who knows the Reindeer thoroughly at first hand, has made
+(1951: 53) the following observation:
+
+“Thus far these experiments [at introduction into America] have met with
+only partial or indifferent success, because reindeer nomadism is
+incompatible with present trends of cultural development and because the
+North American Arctic is too thinly populated to provide a ready market
+for reindeer products.”
+
+Referring to the region of the Brooks Range in northern Alaska, Rausch
+says (1951: 190):
+
+“The mixture of inferior reindeer bloodlines with the native caribou is
+serious. This has already occurred to a considerable degree, and it is
+hoped that proper control will be exercised if the reindeer industry is
+revived in Alaska. Ear-notched animals have been killed in the Anaktuvuk
+Pass country, and white reindeer have been seen running with the
+caribou. The number of unrecognized reindeer passing through could be
+great.”
+
+At present the Barren Ground Caribou is apparently the third most
+abundant member of the deer family on our continent, being exceeded by
+the White-tailed Deer and the Mule Deer (_cf._ Jackson, 1944: 7-8). No
+other member of this family could be expected to be so eminently and
+thoroughly adapted to its Arctic environment or to thrive so well on the
+very ground where nature has been molding and perfecting its characters
+for thousands of years. No naturally occurring relative--Moose, Deer, or
+Woodland Caribou--undertakes to compete with it on its own particular
+range. It requires practically nothing for the maintenance--and
+increase--of its present numbers, other than an enlightened policy of
+conservation. (As indicated on a previous page, the feminine wearers of
+Arctic Fox furs must bear a heavy share of responsibility for the
+decline of the Barren Ground Caribou in recent decades.) Our highest
+authorities have pointed out the impracticability of Caribou and
+Reindeer occupying the same range.
+
+Would it not be the part of wisdom to exclude the inferior domesticated
+alien, with its difficult and generally unsuccessful culture in North
+America, and thereby to give the wonderful wild Caribou of the Barrens
+its best chance for survival?
+
+  _References._--Chambers, 1914: 350-351; Hornaday, 1914, +2+:
+  105-108; Hewitt, 1921: 323, 329-330; R. M. Anderson, 1924: 330;
+  Kindle, 1928: 74; Seton, 1929, +3+: 92-93; Blanchet, 1930:
+  53-54; Birket-Smith, 1933: 121; Godsell, 1934: 276; Murie,
+  1935: 7, 1939: 245-246, and 1941: 435; Porsild, 1943: 386, 389;
+  Rousseau, 1948: 96; Harper, 1949: 239; Polunin, 1949: 24;
+  Lantis, 1950; Hustich, 1951; Porsild, 1951: 53; Rausch, 1951:
+  190; Scheffer, 1951.
+
+
+
+
+NUMERICAL STATUS
+
+
+There seems to be a general impression, among those who have known the
+Barren Ground Caribou at first hand for a considerable period, that the
+population has been reduced by something like a half during the past
+generation. “Recent preliminary aerial survey has indicated that their
+numbers, although less than the previous estimates of 3,000,000 (R. M.
+Anderson, 1938; Clarke, 1940), which were based upon the carrying
+capacity of the Arctic tundra, are probably comparable to their
+primitive numbers in the central portions of the range” (Banfield, 1949:
+478). A definite reduction is indicated along the Arctic coast and on
+the Arctic islands (R. M. Anderson, 1937: 103, and 1938: 400; Banfield,
+1949: 478, 481, and 1951a: 13-14). While large numbers still remain in
+southwestern Keewatin, there are no reports of any such mass occurrence
+as was witnessed by the Tyrrell brothers on the upper Dubawnt River on
+July 29, 1893; that throng was estimated at 100,000 to 200,000 animals
+(J. B. Tyrrell, 1897: 165).
+
+During the big movement of the last week of August, 1947, I may have
+seen as many as 500 Caribou on one or two days, in herds numbering up to
+150 individuals. A striking proportion of those observed seemed to occur
+in bands of roughly 25 animals. On August 25 Fred Schweder, Jr.,
+reported about a thousand crossing Little River, in bands of as many as
+100 individuals. On October 11 Charles Schweder observed a thousand
+Caribou resting on a hill 3 miles long in the vicinity of Four-hill
+Creek. In November he found thousands, in herds up to 300 strong, moving
+south from the upper Kazan River. These figures may give a faintly
+approximate idea of the numbers occurring in the general region of
+Nueltin Lake in a year considered less good than an average one. On the
+other hand, toward the coast of Hudson Bay, there were reports of a
+greater number of autumn migrants than in ordinary years.
+
+In October, about 1944, tracks indicated that 2,000 or 3,000 animals had
+crossed Windy River in the vicinity of Four-hill Creek in the night
+(_fide_ Charles Schweder). About October 10, 1946 (a year of unusual
+abundance), Fred Schweder, Jr., witnessed the passage of thousands in
+one day in this vicinity; he got the impression of “the hills moving
+with Deer.” (Yet this was the season when the Caribou passed mainly to
+one side of the upper Kazan River, so that nearly one-third of the local
+band of Eskimos starved to death.) In the first part of May, about 1942
+or 1943, John Ingebrigtsen came to a nameless lake, about half a mile by
+a mile and a half in extent, somewhere east of Duck Lake, Manitoba. It
+appeared “absolutely full of Caribou,” and he estimated their number at
+not less than 20,000. This would mean a density of no more than about 50
+per acre.
+
+  _References._--Jones, 1899: 368, 374; J. B. Tyrrell, 1894: 442,
+  and 1897: 10, 49-50, 165; Whitney, 1896: 240; Seton, 1911: 220,
+  258-260; R. M. Anderson, 1913b: 502; Hornaday, 1914, +2+:
+  225-226; Nelson, 1916: 460; Thompson, 1916: 100-101; Kindle,
+  1917: 108-109; Buchanan, 1920: 130-131; Hewitt, 1921: 56, 64-66;
+  Stefánsson, 1921: 255; R. M. Anderson, 1924: 329; Blanchet,
+  1926b: 48, and 1930: 52; Kindle, 1928: 72-73; Seton, 1929,
+  +3+: 131-134; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 159-160; R. M. Anderson,
+  in Hoare, 1930: 52-53; Kitto, 1930: 87; Jacobi, 1931: 201-202;
+  Munn, 1932: 58; Birket-Smith, 1933: 89; Ingstad, 1933: 160;
+  R. M. Anderson, 1938: 400; Clarke, 1940: 65, 84-91, 101-104;
+  Downes, 1943: 258-260; Wright, 1944: 185-188, 191, 193; Yule,
+  1948: 287-288; Banfield, 1949: 478, 481, and 1951a: 9, 13-14;
+  Harper, 1949: 231, 239; Anonymous, 1952: 261; Barnett, 1954: 96.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL HABITS
+
+
+_Daily periods of activity and rest_
+
+According to Charles Schweder, the Caribou do not move about much at
+night; that seems to be their principal time for sleep. They exhibit a
+definite tendency to pause and rest also toward the middle of the day.
+Several instances have already been given of the animals resting at such
+a time on frozen lakes and rivers: lakes southwest of Reindeer Lake,
+March 18; lakes south of Lake Athabaska, April 16; Seal River, May 31;
+Windy Bay, June 6 (mid-morning). Open hilltops are evidently sought
+likewise for both nocturnal and mid-day rests: knoll by Windy River,
+June 3; Josie’s Hill, June 20; ridge by Little River, August 24 (about 9
+a.m.). (For details, see sections on _Winter range_, _Spring migration_,
+and _Fall migration_.)
+
+Although we noted a small band of Caribou passing through a thick and
+extensive stand of spruce at dusk on October 2, Fred Schweder, Jr.,
+remarked that they do not rest in such a place; they are safer from
+Wolves in open areas. Charles Schweder reported about 50 Caribou, in
+three slightly separated bands, appearing on the south side of Windy
+River near Four-hill Creek during the evening of September 24, but not
+making up their minds to cross; he thought they might have been scared
+by Wolves. Possibly there was a similar explanation for the crossing of
+the river at this point by large numbers of the animals during an
+October night several years previously.
+
+According to Fred Schweder, Jr., a day’s movement of Caribou past the
+mouths of Little and Windy rivers during the fall migration generally
+does not commence before 10 a.m. and ends about 3 p.m. The explanation
+of such a phenomenon is none too obvious; and in any event, there were
+exceptions enough, though the general statement may hold true for the
+bulk of the migrants. As remarked in the section on _Spring migration_,
+the daily periods when the Caribou crossed the ice of Windy Bay were
+mainly from 10 to 11 a.m., from 2:30 to 5 p.m., and in the evening.
+
+On August 27, about 5:50 p.m., a majority (say half a dozen) of a small
+band of Caribou were lying down on a slope near the mouth of Little
+River. They faced down wind to watch for enemies in that direction,
+while their noses would warn them of any approaching from the opposite
+direction. Their attitude was very much like that of Norway Reindeer
+figured by Seton (1929, +3+: pls. 11, 15, 18).
+
+Charles Schweder spoke of having seen whole herds lying down to rest,
+while none of the animals remained standing up on guard. He had noted
+one such herd of 600 or 700 along the Thlewiaza River in August. He
+further stated that when the Caribou lie down to rest and to chew the
+cud, they hold the head up. They may also sleep in this position. In the
+hard winter of 1944-45, when the snow was deep and the animals were
+tired and hungry, he came up to a resting herd. All but one of them got
+up and moved away. That one remained sleeping, head up and eyes closed;
+Charles walked up to within 10 feet and shot it. He has also seen
+resting Caribou lay their heads down on the side, but only for a few
+moments at a time.
+
+  _References._--J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 129; Jones, 1899: 359;
+  Harper, 1949: 227; Banfield, 1951a: 23.
+
+
+_Organization of herds_
+
+The Barren Ground Caribou is a distinctly gregarious species. It goes in
+herds for at least the greater part of the year; this is especially true
+of the spring and autumn migration periods and of the winter months. We
+know comparatively little of the behavior of the does at fawning time in
+June; but probably there is a tendency toward solitariness on their part
+at that season. It is true that solitary Caribou may be met with at
+almost any season of the year; but this doubtless represents merely
+temporary rather than permanent segregation of such individuals. At the
+very end of the spring migration and at the beginning of the autumn
+migration, there may be, among the sparse southernmost elements of the
+population, a larger proportion of solitary animals.
+
+While marching over the Barrens and feeding as they go, the smaller
+bands maintain a fairly loose organization, as apparently best suiting
+their needs. On the other hand, the huge herds of former times, such as
+the Tyrrells met on the upper Dubawnt in 1893 (J. B. Tyrrell, 1897:
+49-50, pl. 1; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908: pls. facing pp. 80, 81; Seton, 1929,
++3+: pl. 22), obviously maintained very compact ranks. In my limited
+experience, the animals bunched more closely in crossing the rivers than
+was normally the case on land among feeding herds. While swimming, they
+would follow each other in files at minimum intervals; but in stepping
+across rapids they might extend these intervals somewhat.
+
+When merely covering ground, without stopping to feed, or when following
+a trail through brush or along a narrow ridge, there is a strong
+tendency for the animals to go in a single file, or at least in a
+procession many times longer than wide. This was also apparent when they
+were crossing the ice of Windy Bay in June.
+
+When Caribou flee from some source of alarm, a distinct tendency toward
+compact bunching may be observed. This may have been developed as a
+measure of protection from pursuing Wolves; the latter could naturally
+overcome a straggling or isolated individual more readily than one in a
+compact herd. The Caribou running away from the train in the “Little
+Barrens” south of Churchill very clearly demonstrated the tendency
+toward a close formation. (See also, in the section on _Disposition_,
+the account of a herd attacked by a hunter near Lake Charles.)
+
+The larger herds of the autumn migration seemed to be generally composed
+of all sexes and ages; yet some sizable bands were made up chiefly of
+bucks on the one hand, or of does and fawns on the other hand. The rear
+guard of the spring migration and the vanguard of the autumn migration
+are generally composed of bucks, traveling either singly or in small
+bands; this state of affairs is looked upon as evidence that the
+majority of the bucks do not advance so far to the north in June and
+July as the does do.
+
+The following are a few examples of the composition and leadership (or
+rear-guarding) of groups of Caribou. (Other examples are mentioned in
+the sections on _Migration_.) A band of about 20, after feeding for a
+time on the south bank of Windy River on June 16, moved off upstream,
+mostly in single file, with a patriarchal buck in the lead. The
+remainder of the band included several lesser bucks and various does and
+yearlings. On the following day a band of equal size, composed chiefly
+of bucks but including three hornless individuals (does?), was led by
+two of the bigger bucks. When a band of some 40 does and fawns
+approached Little River to cross it on August 25, a doe came first to
+the water’s edge to make a careful inspection. On the same day I
+remarked having noted several times that a buck brought up the rear of a
+band. On August 26 I noted that a distinct majority in the herds of the
+previous two or three days were does and fawns, although there were
+generally a few bucks present also. At this period I got the impression
+that the number of individuals in a band was frequently not far from 25.
+On August 28, when a band of 40 crossed the mouth of Little River, three
+or four bucks plunged in first, but a doe was almost even with them. At
+the Bear Slough, on September 3, a group consisted of two bucks, two
+does, and a fawn. On September 15 Fred Schweder, Jr., reported seeing
+about 100 Caribou, with not a buck among them. On September 24 about 15
+does and fawns were resting or feeding quietly by Glacier Pond. On
+September 28 a band of six large bucks crossed the Camp Ridge. On
+October 1, an older and a younger buck appeared in the shoal waters of
+Duck Bay. On November 3, in the same locality, a band of about 50 was
+composed largely of does, but included a few fawns and a few
+well-antlered bucks. On November 11 five does were reported crossing the
+mouth of Windy River on the ice.
+
+Charles Schweder remarked that the leader of a band is generally a doe;
+but sometimes it is a buck, or even a fawn. There is virtually no way of
+telling whether the same doe habitually leads a band. In the big migrant
+herds, bucks bring up the rear. Once in September, in a herd of about
+100 animals, the front half was composed of does and fawns, the rear
+half of bucks. In the rutting season the does are naturally in the lead,
+the bucks following them.
+
+  _References._--Hearne, 1795: 198; Richardson, “1825”: 329;
+  Simpson, 1843: 277, 281, 381; J. Anderson, 1856: 24, and 1857:
+  324; Schwatka, 1885: 83; Pike, 1917 (1892): 49, 174, 204, 209;
+  Dowling, 1893: 107; Stone and Cram, 1904: 52; Blanchet, 1925:
+  32-33, and 1926b: 48; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 192-196; Hoare,
+  1930: 13, 33, 37; Kitto, 1930: 88; Mallet, 1930: 20-23; Jacobi,
+  1931: 190, 203-204; Hornby, 1934: 106; Birket-Smith, 1936: 112;
+  Hamilton, 1939: 247; Clarke, 1940: 95; Downes, 1943: 256;
+  Manning, 1943a: 52; Harper, 1949: 228, 229; Banfield, 1951a:
+  23-26.
+
+
+_Disposition_
+
+The Barren Ground Caribou comes close to holding the palm for unwariness
+among the larger land mammals of North America. It is fortunate that its
+range lies so far from the centers of civilization. It is scarcely
+conceivable that it could survive, as the White-tailed Deer does, in
+some of our most thickly settled areas. At the river crossings, where I
+watched the pageant of migration for day after day, some of the animals
+would come up to within a rod while I handled my cameras in the open,
+with no more cover than knee-high bushes and rocks (figs. 11, 14). Where
+else, among the larger creatures of the wilderness, could one find such
+a close approximation to a Garden-of-Eden existence? Until they detected
+the human scent, they would stare at me at such close quarters with
+little more concern than so many barnyard cattle. (For examples, see the
+section on _Fall migration_.) Moreover, there were occasions when they
+must have gotten my wind and still did not show panic. There is an
+obvious deficiency of eyesight or judgment, or both.
+
+To account for their behavior on such occasions, I speculated as
+follows. The species has scarcely any predatory enemies save man, the
+Wolf, and (perhaps to some extent) the Wolverine. In their normal
+experience, any such enemy, if within close range, would be making an
+attack. Thus a questionable figure, not becoming evident to them until
+they are within close range, and then making no motion to attack, may be
+dismissed by them as something different and therefore harmless.
+
+The attitude of unconcern has probably been developed in past
+generations through the habit of the Caribou of traveling in vast
+throngs. The threat of danger to a given individual in a herd of, say,
+100,000 is practically negligible. From time immemorial the river
+crossings have represented a particular point of attack on the part of
+the natives. Yet when a large band of Caribou come to such a crossing,
+they may plunge in with little pause or hesitation. On the other hand,
+when a lone doe with her fawn approaches the river bank, she may be very
+circumspect, taking time to look carefully upstream and down, and
+across, before venturing into the water. I also saw another doe with a
+fawn exercise similar precaution, when she was merely the first of a
+band of 40 to reach the river’s edge. It is probably concern for her
+fawn that renders a doe more circumspect than a buck.
+
+When Fred Schweder, Jr., was endeavoring to intercept a Wolf on
+September 6, a fullgrown buck came feeding around a tree within 10 feet
+of him. The animal winded Fred without apparently seeing him, and went
+back and forth uncertainly for about a minute; finally it moved off very
+slowly.
+
+Stefánsson’s account (1913b) of his various adventures with Caribou
+near the Arctic coast of Mackenzie indicates a far wilder animal in that
+region than the one in Keewatin. It appeared a great deal easier for me,
+with no particular effort at caution, to get within photographic range
+(say a dozen feet to 50 yards) than for him to approach within rifle
+range (several hundred yards).
+
+Even after being fired upon, a single animal or a band in the Nueltin
+Lake region will rarely put distance between themselves and a hunter
+with all possible dispatch, as an alert White-tailed Deer would, but
+will run hither and thither in confusion, with frequent pauses to
+display their befuddlement. On October 8 I was a distant and saddened
+spectator of a scene of slaughter. A hundred or more Caribou were
+resting or feeding quietly on a bare ridge south of Lake Charles. They
+were distributed in a narrow formation, 75-100 yards long and from one
+to several animals deep. A hunter, approaching close to the south end of
+the herd, began firing. With one accord they made toward the north, but
+very shortly executed a sharp turn and came back rapidly in the opposite
+direction, passing in a narrow, compact column within 30 feet of the
+hunter, who continued shooting. In 200 or 300 yards they paused and
+allowed the hunter to come up with them and resume shooting. The process
+was repeated over a distance of three miles; but the pursuer now and
+then circled ahead of the herd instead of following in its tracks. The
+final toll: 29 Caribou hit and 22 or 23 secured--virtually a quarter of
+the herd destroyed and most of it to be used for dog feed.
+
+It is said that the attachment between a doe and its fawn is such that
+when one of them is killed, the hunter can approach within 50 feet of
+the surviving doe or within 20 feet of the surviving fawn. A fawn is apt
+to linger for days in the vicinity where its dam has been killed.
+
+Charles Schweder has never seen fawns playing with each other or with
+their mothers; two or three times he has seen one frisking by
+itself--such as jumping about or running in a circle--but never for more
+than half a minute at a time. Seriousness of life for a Caribou seems
+confirmed from its infancy.
+
+In the hard winter of 1944-45, when the Caribou were tired and hungry,
+Charles had the rare experience of driving his dogteam right through
+herds on Nueltin Lake; the animals merely moved aside enough to let him
+pass. In like vein Joe Chambers spoke of encountering such numbers of
+migrating Caribou on or near the “Little Barrens” south of Churchill in
+the spring of 1947 that his dogs “went wild” and he had to halt for a
+time; the animals came within about 100 yards of his team.
+
+A Caribou bold enough to attack a man is very rarely heard of. Yet that
+was the experience of 15-year-old Anoteelik on September 8. Having run
+out of ammunition, he undertook to kill a 2-year-old buck with a rock in
+a patch of timber. (Possibly the animal had already been wounded with
+Anoteelik’s .22 rifle.) When the missile failed of its mark, the buck
+made for the boy, who escaped by climbing a tree. Perhaps this is the
+first case on record of a man or a boy (especially an Eskimo!) being
+treed by a Barren Ground Caribou. Jenness mentions (1922: 150) a case of
+an Eskimo being fatally gored by a Caribou on Victoria Island.
+Otherwise, under all general circumstances, and in contradistinction to
+the Bison, the Muskox, the Moose, and even the White-tailed Deer, the
+Caribou may be regarded as quite innocuous to man.
+
+The restlessness so frequently exhibited by Caribou during the summer,
+in trotting rapidly over the Barrens or in feeding hurriedly here and
+there while constantly forging ahead (in contrast to the placidity of
+grazing sheep and cattle), may be attributed in large part to the
+relentless scourge of fly pests.
+
+(See also _Relations to man_.)
+
+  _References._--Lyon, 1824: 336-337; J. McLean, 1932 (1849): 359;
+  Simpson, 1843: 207; Armstrong, 1857: 478-479, 481-482; Gilder,
+  1881: 78; Schwatka, 1885: 85; Pike, 1917 (1892): 51-52, 90;
+  Whitney, 1896: 242; Hanbury, 1904: 85; Amundsen, 1908, +1+: 103;
+  Stefánsson, 1913b: 278, and 1921: 251; Hornaday, 1914, +2+:
+  104; Jenness, 1922: 150; Blanchet, 1925: 34; Birket-Smith, 1929
+  (1): 106; Seton, 1929, +3+: 105-107; Jacobi, 1931: 219, 220;
+  Ingstad, 1933: 88, 293, 297; Downes, 1943: 236-237; Porsild,
+  1943: 389; Harper, 1949: 229-230; Banfield, 1951a: 22.
+
+
+_Senses_
+
+There is fairly general agreement on the Caribou’s keen sense of smell,
+good hearing, and less well-developed vision. But perhaps the
+last-mentioned attribute does not so much constitute poor eyesight as
+lack of _perception_ or _recognition_. In other words, is it not
+possible that the animal is merely deficient in interpreting what it may
+see clearly enough?
+
+  _References._--R. M. Anderson, 1913a: 8, and 1913b: 504;
+  Stefánsson, 1913b: 164, 1914: 58, and 1921: 307; Blanchet,
+  1925: 34, and 1926b: 48; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 106; Seton,
+  1929, +3+: 104; Murie, 1939: 245; Banfield, 1951a: 22.
+
+
+_Gaits_
+
+The three principal gaits of the Caribou are walking, trotting, and
+loping. The animal seems to be in such a constant hurry that trotting is
+fairly habitual. The speed of this gait varies with the urgency of the
+occasion; also, according to Stefánsson (1921: 248), with sex and age.
+When frightened by an enemy, a Caribou may start off with a loping gait,
+but it soon settles down to its space-consuming trot, which keeps it
+safely ahead of a Wolf in any brief chase. The initial leap takes all
+four feet off the ground at once (_cf._ Buchanan, 1920: 126). According
+to Charles Schweder, it is usually a single animal that reacts in this
+way; but he has seen as many as six together leaping into the air. Fred
+Schweder, Jr., has seen both bucks and does in this performance. My own
+observations covered two lone adults (at least one a buck) and a lone
+fawn. One of the former turned and took a step or so before making the
+leap. The fawn (at Simons’ Lake in October), after allowing a canoe to
+approach within 100 feet, started off twice in succession, and each time
+with an initial leap into the air before settling down to a trot.
+
+Even a summer fawn is reputed to be able to outdistance a Wolf. Lyon
+(1824: 67) found a Caribou too fleet for a greyhound.
+
+In trotting rapidly, a Caribou points its snout pretty straight to the
+front, thus tilting the antlers backward a little. This gait, with front
+legs stretching well out in front and hind legs thrust backward
+correspondingly, gives a very characteristic and distinctive stamp to
+the appearance of a fast-trotting Caribou. (Compare the sketches of
+trotting Norway Reindeer by Seton, 1929, +3+: pls. 15, 18.) It is
+apparently quite different from any normal gait of the White-tailed
+Deer. A buck’s well-grown antlers are of such weight as apparently to
+force it to hold its head rather rigidly while going at speed. If its
+head swayed appreciably, the top-heavy antlers might tend to throw the
+animal off balance. In a trotting gait, the hind foot may be planted
+just beyond the spot where the front foot had rested. In walking, the
+print of the hind foot may be superimposed on that of the other (fig.
+20). The white “spats” just above the hoofs show to fine advantage when
+the Caribou trots; they fairly twinkle. In a retreating animal the white
+rump-patch appears in marked contrast to the dark brown adjacent fur.
+
+In stepping across a shallow rapid in peaceful surroundings, the
+rhythmic splashings of the water to the front and the sides of the
+alternately descending hoofs make a scene of rare charm. In moving
+through deeper water, where the bottom is rough, rocky, and slippery,
+the animals may pick their way quite slowly. When alarmed near the
+water’s edge from some such cause as detecting a human scent, they may
+make great splashing leaps into a river or bay, fairly enveloping
+themselves in huge clouds of spray. There can be few more spirited
+scenes of animal life in the North.
+
+I have seen several of the animals running with open mouths, even when
+they had gone no more than a quarter of a mile from a point of alarm.
+Every now and then a Caribou will be seen limping--perhaps from wounds,
+perhaps because of a leg sprained in rough terrain.
+
+  _References._--Lyon, 1824: 67; Osborn, 1865: 227; Russell, 1895:
+  50, and 1898: 90; Hanbury, 1904: 131; Nelson, 1916: 460;
+  Buchanan, 1920: 126; Stefánsson, 1921: 248; Blanchet, 1925: 33,
+  and 1926b: 47; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193; Sutton and
+  Hamilton, 1932: 83; Ingstad, 1933: 87; Murie, 1939: 245; Downes,
+  1943: 236-237; Harper, 1949: 226, 229; Banfield, 1951a: 21.
+
+
+_Tracks_
+
+Caribou trails, resulting from the impact of countless hoofs on the same
+restricted courses for unnumbered years, have been discussed in the
+section on _Ecology_. The placing of the feet has been touched upon in
+the section on _Gaits_. The individual tracks remain to be considered.
+
+Each of two foot-prints photographed in mud was approximately 4 inches
+(102 mm.) long and 4½ inches (114 mm.) wide. Another such photograph
+(fig. 19) shows tracks about 114 by 95 and 102 by 102 mm. The foot
+sketched by Seton (1929, +3+: 129) is obviously a front foot, though not
+so labeled; the hoofs as drawn are approximately 89 and 93 mm. in
+length; the width of the foot is approximately 100 mm.
+
+A track (fig. 20) photographed in 2-inch snow represents a hind
+foot-print superimposed upon a front foot-print in a walking gait;
+including the marks of the dew claws, it was approximately 6 inches (153
+mm.) long and 5 inches (127 mm.) wide. The “square-toed” appearance is
+very characteristic.
+
+A front hoof is a little broader as well as longer than a hind hoof
+(fig. 24). The extreme and average lengths of the front hoofs in five of
+my adult male specimens are 80-92 (85.2); of the hind hoofs, 74-84.5
+(79.8). In an adult doe a front hoof measures 77; a hind hoof, 72.
+
+  _Reference._--Banfield, 1951a: 19.
+
+
+_Swimming_
+
+In their extensive and long-continued migrations over a territory
+composed in large part of lakes, ponds, and rivers, the Caribou have
+almost daily need, from June to October, of surmounting these barriers
+by swimming. The low temperature of the water seems to have no deterring
+effect on them. Yet it appears that some of the animals may fail in
+attempting the passages of wide waters. Charles Schweder spoke of
+finding a number of dead Caribou, including bucks as well as fawns, that
+had apparently succumbed in crossing a 4-mile-wide lake on the Thlewiaza
+River. (Or had they perhaps come to grief in some upstream rapid and
+finally been washed ashore on the lake?) Bones on the shore indicated
+that this sort of tragedy might be more or less of an annual occurrence.
+Perhaps some of the victims had been wounded or were otherwise in poor
+condition.
+
+The buoyant, hollow hairs of a Caribou’s coat enable the swimming animal
+to keep almost the whole median dorsal line of its body perhaps 2 or 3
+inches above the surface (figs. 9, 12). In a doe noticed on August 28
+the lowest point on the top of the neck, just in front of the shoulders,
+was practically level with the surface, but elsewhere the dorsal line,
+from snout to tail, was out of the water. In both doe and fawn the head
+is held so high that the lower side of the snout at the tip does not
+touch the water; in the older bucks of the autumn, however, the weight
+of their antlers presses the head down until the lower side of the snout
+is frequently in contact with the water. The swimming position tilts the
+antlers backward until the basal portion is practically horizontal
+(figs. 9, 12). All ages and sexes, while swimming, hold the tail nearly
+erect; but the very tip (perhaps only the tuft of hairs) inclines toward
+the rear.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 19. Caribou tracks in mud; one about 114 by 95
+    mm.; another, 102 by 102 mm. Between Bear Slough and Eider Pond,
+    September 3, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 20. Caribou track in 2-inch snow; hind foot
+    superimposed on track of front foot. Combined track about 153 by
+    127 mm. Camp Ridge, October 29, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 21. A Caribou doe (specimen No. 1101). Mouth
+    of Windy River, September 21, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 22. A Caribou buck (specimen No. 1111). Mouth
+    of Windy River, September 29, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 23. A male Caribou fawn (specimen No. 1095),
+    in its first, woolly pelage. Mouth of Windy River, September 7,
+    1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 24. Hoofs of a male Caribou fawn (specimen No.
+    1072); hind hoofs in the middle. Mouth of Windy River, August 21,
+    1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 25. Enormous set of old antlers of a Barren
+    Ground Caribou, with exceptional palmation. (A 10.5-inch length of
+    a steel rule visible.) Simons’ Lake, October 15, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 26. Rubbing trees: two small black spruces
+    (_Picea mariana_)--the larger 4 feet high--broken and barked by
+    Caribou in rubbing velvet off the antlers. Simons’ Lake, October
+    18, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 27. Pile o’ Rocks, an ancient enclosure
+    erected as a game lookout on the summit of a hill 1.5 miles NW. of
+    the mouth of Windy River. June 30, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 28. Adult male Western Woodland Caribou
+    (_Rangifer caribou sylvestris_) (No. 235361, U.S. Biol. Surveys
+    Coll.). Stony Mountain, about 27 miles S. of Fort McMurray,
+    Alberta, October 22, 1920. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.)]
+
+On October 30 tracks indicated that half a dozen Caribou had swum across
+Little River near its mouth, breaking through a 10-foot rim of ice on
+the near side. When a herd of 2,000 or 3,000 crossed Windy River during
+an October night about 1944, as reported by Charles Schweder, they broke
+three channels through the thin ice that covered the river.
+
+Once Charles saw a buck cross the 100-yard-wide Nahiline Rapids on
+Kasmere River, where it drops about 40 feet in a quarter of a mile; yet
+the animal did not seem to be carried far downstream. When about 10
+Caribou (mostly big bucks) crossed the Windy River at our camp on June
+24, the last two, I noted, were pointing almost upstream in the 6- to
+8-mile-per-hour current.
+
+The usual formation in which a small number of Caribou cross a bay or a
+quiet stretch of river is a single file, but a larger band is likely
+to make the passage in several simultaneous files. The fawns, in
+particular, follow as closely as possible behind their mothers.
+
+Although the Caribou are strong and speedy swimmers, the natives are
+able, in canoe or kayak, to overtake and spear them. In 1947 several
+fawns were speared in Windy Bay by Anoteelik.
+
+Other notes on swimming may be found in the sections dealing with
+_Migrations_.
+
+  _References._--Back, 1836: 367; Simpson, 1843: 76, 310; Rae,
+  1850: 27; Richardson, 1852: 290; Schwatka, 1885: 68, 71-72;
+  W. J. McLean, 1901: 6; R. M. Anderson, 1913b: 503; Blanchet,
+  1925: 34; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 109-110; Seton, 1929, +3+:
+  107; Hoare, 1930: 27, 31; Jacobi, 1931: 216; Clarke, 1940:
+  88-90; Downes, 1943: 256; Harper, 1949: 227, 229, 230; Banfield,
+  1951a: 21.
+
+
+_Shaking off moisture and insects_
+
+The long, dense fur of the Caribou holds so much moisture that when the
+animal emerges from swimming it endeavors to rid itself of the extra
+burden and cooling agency. This is effected to a large extent by a
+vigorous shaking of the body, head, and ears and a switching of the
+tail. The initial performance, lasting for perhaps a second or two, may
+be undertaken while the animal’s lower extremities are still in the
+water; and it is likely to be repeated from one to several times as it
+moves over the shore and ascends the adjacent ridge. The cloud of spray
+flying off is a sight to behold (fig. 9). The action is very much like
+that of a dog under similar circumstances. The fur may remain wet for a
+least 10 or 15 minutes after emergence from the water. In driving rain
+on September 5, I noticed an individual in a band of 20 Caribou shaking
+itself and sending the rain drops flying off in spray, just as when one
+emerges from the water.
+
+The Caribou also go through a very similar but perhaps still more
+strenuous performance for the obvious purpose of shaking off flies
+(perhaps primarily the warble flies, _Oedemagena_). On August 20 a buck
+passing along a ridge in the Barrens agitated the hide on its body
+several times with considerable vigor. A young animal (fawn or yearling)
+thus shook itself on August 28 as it approached the far side of Little
+River. I got the distinct impression that the hide was shaken
+horizontally in the case of moisture, but vertically in the case of
+insects; for the present, however, this is best considered as just an
+impression, and not a statement of fact. The muscles that agitate the
+skin of the sides should be particularly well developed through frequent
+practice with water and flies during the warmer part of the year.
+
+At the mouth of Little River, on August 30, I heard one of the Caribou
+in a large band “blow its nose,” so to speak, with vigor. The sound
+suggested that produced by a horse in vibrating its nostrils by
+forcefully expelling air through them. I suspect that the Caribou uses
+the same means, in an effort to fend off a nostril fly (_Cephenemyia_)
+bent on depositing its larvae.
+
+  _Reference._--Harper, 1949: 230.
+
+
+_Signaling_
+
+Apparently the commonest method employed by the Caribou for indicating
+or communicating suspicion or alarm is erecting the stub of a tail to a
+vertical position. This brings its white under side into full view, as
+the silent flashing of a danger signal to other Caribou. However,
+a solitary animal will exhibit signaling behavior as well as one in a
+band. The tail remains erect, whether the animal stands to stare
+uneasily at a suspicious object or flees from it in alarm. The action is
+common to old and young of both sexes. It is so characteristic of a
+fleeing animal as to give significance to the expression, “high-tailing
+it.” In normal, unalarmed progress the tail extends backward in a
+drooping curve (figs. 11, 12).
+
+I was not fortunate enough to detect any flashing of the white throat,
+as described by Preble (1902: 42).
+
+Another silent signal is a most peculiar sprawling posture of the hind
+legs, attained by thrusting one of them well out to one side and setting
+the foot down. The legs are not then symmetrically placed; the one not
+moved obviously bears most of the weight of the hind quarters. I managed
+to film this stance in a buck standing on a sky-line on August 24
+(cover). On September 9 another buck assumed the posture while looking
+over our camp from a ridge on the opposite side of Windy River.
+According to Charles Schweder, this is an expression of suspicion or
+alarm, designed to communicate the same feeling to other Caribou. When
+the others notice it, they stop and assume the same pose; it may be
+observed in does and even fawns. Charles added that the tail is erected
+at the same time--a very natural accompaniment, though I failed to
+notice it.
+
+In all the literature on the Barren Ground Caribou, I have found just
+one reference to this posture, and that a distinctly fragmentary one:
+
+“While [the Caribou are] thus circling around I have often been amused
+at the manner in which they carry one hind leg. A novice in the hunting
+field, after having fired a shot in their direction, would think that he
+had broken one hind leg of each member of the herd.” (A. J. Stone, 1900:
+53.)
+
+The author makes this observation just after mentioning a herd sighted
+near the shore of Franklin Bay. A virtually identical posture in the
+Norway Reindeer has been sketched by Seton (1929, +3+: 112, pl. 18), who
+labels it “surprize.” An analogy to the posture of the Caribou might be
+found in a hand thrust out, with fingers spread, by a military scout as
+a signal of warning or caution to his fellow scouts. A sprawling leg is
+perhaps the nearest approximation to the human signal that a Caribou can
+attain.
+
+As noted in the section on _Gaits_, an alarmed Caribou may set off by
+taking an initial leap into the air. According to Dugmore, such an act
+on the part of the Newfoundland Caribou plays an important role in its
+system of communications, not by means of sight or sound, but through
+the olfactory sense. He observes (1913: 89-90):
+
+“For hours afterwards _every_ Caribou, on arriving at the place where
+the frightened ones had jumped, has started violently, and has on nearly
+every occasion turned and run in a manner that showed every indication
+of fear, even though my presence was entirely unknown to them. My idea
+is that when the animal is suddenly frightened it expels a certain fluid
+from the glands in the foot, and that this fluid is a signal of alarm,
+a silent and invisible warning, but none the less so positive that none
+dare ignore it.”
+
+As for the foot click--a presumptive means of communication (_cf._
+Seton, 1929, +3+: 69; Jacobi, 1931: 212-216)--I must confess that I was
+always so engrossed with photography whenever the Caribou were close
+at hand (up to within a dozen feet) that I had no thought of this
+phenomenon and did not detect it.
+
+  _References._--Richardson, 1829: 242; A. J. Stone, 1900: 53;
+  Preble, 1902: 42; Seton, 1929, +3+: 105; Murie, 1939: 245;
+  Harper, 1949: 230; Banfield, 1951a: 19, 27.
+
+
+_Food_
+
+The ground lichens (including the various species of _Cladonia_) in the
+Windy River area in 1947 did not seem, for the most part, to have a
+height of more than 2 or 3 inches. The average length of several local
+specimens of _Cladonia_ is approximately 51 mm. This condition was in
+considerable contrast to the great spongy masses I had noted in the
+Tazin River basin, between Athabaska and Great Slave lakes, in 1914.
+I have no means of knowing whether the condition in Keewatin represented
+severe cropping by Caribou in past years and subsequent slow recovery,
+or whether it is a normal condition. According to Charles Schweder, the
+growth depends upon rain, and so varies from year to year. During the
+warmer months, from June to September, the local Caribou seemed to me to
+be feeding very largely on the higher vegetation, such as willow, dwarf
+birch, alder, and sedges. I had no definite evidence of their consuming
+lichens during that period. By early October the species of _Cladonia_
+seemed to have attained a somewhat fuller growth than they had exhibited
+several months previously. Perez-Llano discusses (1944: 29-30) the
+utilization by Reindeer of various lichens. Dix has reported (1951) on a
+collection of lichens from the Windy River area.
+
+Some miscellaneous observations along Windy and Little rivers follow:
+June 16, 20 Caribou feeding apparently on patches of crowberry
+(_Empetrum_) and dwarf birch (_Betula glandulosa_) on a ridge; June 29,
+a Caribou feeding apparently on dwarf birches; June 30, a buck grazing
+in a sedge bog; August 26, several bucks browsing on willow tops
+(probably _Salix planifolia_) in a riverside thicket, and some does on
+dwarf birch and perhaps tall grass or low willow; August 27, numbers
+feeding largely on willow and dwarf birch; August 28 and 30, low alders,
+willow, and dwarf birches nibbled off. By early October the leaves of
+the three last-mentioned shrubs were no longer available, having dropped
+off. During the summer they had seemed to be preferred above the
+lichens. Cabot has remarked (1912: 46) on the fondness of _Rangifer
+arcticus caboti_ for dwarf birch in Labrador.
+
+Charles Schweder reported as follows on the food of Caribou. In summer
+they live chiefly upon leaves, especially those of dwarf birch, and to
+some extent upon “grass” (probably largely sedges). Toward the last of
+June a Caribou was killed with fat an inch thick on its
+haunches--perhaps the effect of recent feeding on the fresh green
+vegetation. In August and September the animals also eat mushrooms and
+get very fat on them; they seem to be especially fond of a certain red
+kind, which Charles has found in their stomachs. The Eskimos’ name for
+mushrooms signifies “deer food.” The Caribou feed upon dead “grass”
+(perhaps mostly sedges) in the fall, but not in the winter. Charles has
+seen them digging through 4 feet of snow to get at the reindeer lichens;
+but for the most part their winter feeding in this region is on the tops
+of the hills, which remain bare. They also eat tree lichens, especially
+in the winter time.
+
+Charles has seen Caribou chew the cud while standing as well as while
+lying down. He once saw a buck thus occupied while standing on a hill
+for half a day in a breeze that kept the mosquitoes down.
+
+Among the hundreds of Caribou observed at the river crossings and
+elsewhere, I do not recall seeing a single one pause to drink.
+
+The _Influence of food supply on distribution_ of the Barren Ground
+Caribou has been discussed in a previous section.
+
+  _References._--Hearne, 1795: 317; Franklin, 1823: 242;
+  Richardson, “1825”: 329, and 1829: 243; Godman, 1831, +2+: 284;
+  Richardson, in Back, 1836: 498, and 1861: 275; Murray, 1858:
+  202; B. R. Ross, 1861: 439; Kumlien, 1879: 54; J. B. Tyrrell,
+  1894: 441; Russell, 1898: 226; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 80;
+  Lydekker, 1898: 49; Elliot, 1902: 276; Stone and Cram, 1904: 53;
+  Buchanan, 1920: 105-106, 131; Hewitt, 1921: 61; Blanchet, 1925:
+  33; Seton, 1929, +3+: 107-108; Kitto, 1930: 87; Jacobi, 1931:
+  223; Harper, 1932: 30; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 84; Weyer,
+  1932: 39; Hornby, 1934: 105; Murie, 1939: 245; Clarke, 1940:
+  106-107; G. M. Allen, 1942: 299; Soper, 1942: 143; Downes, 1943:
+  228; Porsild, 1943: 383; R. M. Anderson, 1948: 15; Manning,
+  1948: 26-28; Rand, 1948a: 212; Harper, 1949: 230; Banfield,
+  1951a: 11, 19-20, 28-29; Barnett, 1954: 106.
+
+
+_Scatology_
+
+The pellets of the Caribou are small, more or less blackish, very
+irregular in shape, somewhat compressed, and generally deposited in
+little piles, in which the individual components do not stand out very
+distinctly, being pressed against each other. They are quite unlike the
+oblong, curvilinear, comparatively symmetrical scats of the White-tailed
+Deer and the Moose. I did not observe, nor learn of, any particular
+seasonal variation in the shape or other characters.
+
+  _References._--Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 81; Manning, 1943a:
+  50.
+
+
+_Voice_
+
+My impression of the adult Caribou is that it is a comparatively silent
+animal during most of the year. At the rutting season, however, when the
+bucks do their fighting with a clash of antlers, their voice is heard,
+as Fred Schweder, Jr., informed me. It is about as loud as the fawn’s
+grunt, but a different sort of sound. Fred has also known a doe to call
+when its fawn was shot.
+
+The only vocal sound that I heard from the Caribou was the grunt or
+bawling of the fawns on the fall migration, and only during the last
+week of August, when the “big movement” was under way. It was uttered
+chiefly at the river crossings, apparently as a result of the fawns’
+anxiety lest they be separated from their mothers during the slight
+uncertainty or confusion of these passages, when a considerable number
+of animals were participating. It seemed to be a fair equivalent of a
+human child’s crying out: “Don’t leave me behind!” or “Where are you,
+mamma?” The grunt is very different from the bleating of a lamb or the
+bawling of a domestic calf. It is a surprisingly raucous or guttural,
+almost explosive, yet not very loud note, which I rendered at various
+times as _gwuf_, _goff_, _gowk_, or _gorr_. Perhaps the last rendering
+comes nearest to the actual sound. With one or two exceptions, I did not
+identify any individual uttering one of these grunts; but the Schweder
+boys, from their intimate knowledge of the species, assured me that this
+was the voice of the fawn. In one case the sound came rather definitely
+from a fawn that had become somewhat separated from its band in going up
+the adjacent ridge after crossing Little River. But for the most part
+the grunts seemed to come from swimming animals.
+
+On August 30 another sort of sound--probably not a vocal one--seemed to
+come from one of the older animals among a large band crossing Little
+River. It was probably produced by a vigorous vibration of the nostrils.
+It is further discussed in the section on _Shaking off moisture and
+insects_.
+
+It is rather astonishing that Seton, after seeing and studying many
+Caribou at close range in Mackenzie, should say no more about their
+voice than: “They snort a good deal and grunt a little” (1911: 210). In
+his later monographic account he practically ignores the topic, merely
+referring to the animals’ “sniffing, snorting” (1929, 3: 105).
+
+  _References._--Lyon, 1824: 336; Pike, 1917 (1892): 89; Stone and
+  Cram, 1904: 53; Seton, 1911: 210, and 1929, +3+: 105; Hornaday,
+  1914, +2+: 103; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193; Sutton and
+  Hamilton, 1932: 84; Murie, 1939: 245; Downes, 1943: 226,
+  256-257; Harper, 1949: 230; Banfield, 1951a: 22.
+
+
+_Reproduction_
+
+By the time the rutting season arrived in mid-October, there were
+comparatively few Caribou left in the Windy River area. Consequently my
+information on the subject was derived mainly from Charles Schweder and
+Fred Schweder, Jr. Weeks before the scheduled season, there were certain
+manifestations of the sexual urge. For example, on September 5 about 20
+Caribou were passing the Bear Slough. The band consisted mostly of does
+and fawns, but included several middle-aged bucks (with antlers much
+less than the maximum size) and possibly some younger bucks. Twice I saw
+one of the animals attempt to cover another, but driving rain and the
+compactness of the band prevented me from determining the sex or age of
+those involved. During a trip to the Kazan River, lasting from September
+17 to October 1, Fred observed a good deal of fighting among the
+Caribou--obviously a prelude to the mating season. In Charles’ opinion,
+these early contests are not very much in earnest; the real fighting
+begins about October 15. On October 8 Charles and Fred referred to
+fighting that was going on among a herd of about 100 between Glacier
+Pond and Lake Charles. Perhaps less than a quarter of this herd were
+older bucks; the rest, younger bucks, does, and fawns.
+
+In former years, while living at the “Old Post” on Red River, Charles
+used to go out and watch the fighting on a big open muskeg, about a mile
+square, where the Caribou would congregate practically every year at the
+rutting season, up to a thousand strong. They would stay for three or
+four days, then disappear. Nothing on the same scale had come to his
+notice in the vicinity of the Windy River post. At this season, when the
+animals are in large herds, the bucks utter their calls, as mentioned in
+the section on _Voice_. According to Fred, one sees in October a good
+many bucks with an antler broken off in the fighting. The break
+generally occurs at about the middle of the antler. On September 29
+Charles reported a buck with a broken antler, which he interpreted as
+evidence of the beginning of the fighting season. During the rutting
+season he once shot a buck with a broken jaw, and another with an eye
+gone. The possible inference was that these injuries had been sustained
+in fighting. A buck secured on October 16 had apparently been wounded in
+fighting; there was pus in its neck, and it was considered unfit for
+eating. I heard nothing as to the possible use of hoofs in contests
+between bucks, as reported by Jacobi (1931: 233) for the Reindeer.
+
+During the rutting season the herd is likely to be a large one, and to
+do little traveling. It is composed of fawns as well as adults. The
+bucks pursue the does, and sometimes chase each other. Charles thinks
+the young bucks keep away from the does at this time, being unable to
+fight the older bucks with larger antlers. Fred reports a proportion of
+about 10 bucks to 50 does in these herds--a probable indication of
+polygamy. He expressed the opinion that the bucks do not mate until 8-10
+years old, and the does not until about four years old. However, he was
+basing his estimate of the age on the total number of points on the
+antlers--one point for each year; and on this basis the age was probably
+much overestimated. Earlier sexual maturity on the part of the doe might
+be another indication of polygamy in the species.
+
+At the onset of this season, the bucks neglect their feeding to some
+extent; consequently those killed have stomachs only partly filled,
+instead of completely filled, as at other times. By mid-October their
+fat becomes tinted with reddish, and the whole flesh becomes so rank and
+musky that it is disdained not only by human beings but even by the
+Wolves. This condition seems to be considerably more pronounced in the
+Caribou than in the White-tailed Deer. The hunters forego eating the old
+bucks for a period of several weeks. Meanwhile the younger bucks, not
+engaged in mating, remain fit to eat. Hearne (1795: 69) reported the
+flesh of bucks as still unpalatable as late as December 30.
+
+The rutting season is said to continue through October into November.
+The end of the period is uncertain, but it may coincide with the
+shedding of the antlers of the old bucks.
+
+  _References._--Hearne, 1795: 72, 198-199; Richardson, “1825”:
+  327-328, 1829: 243, and 1861: 274; Pike, 1917 (1892): 48, 90;
+  J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 80; Hanbury, 1904: 73; Stone and
+  Cram, 1904: 52; Blanchet, 1925: 33; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 51,
+  56; Seton, 1929, +3+: 124-125; Jacobi, 1931: 232; Sutton and
+  Hamilton, 1932: 81, 84-86; Weyer, 1932: 40; Ingstad, 1933: 158;
+  Hornby, 1934: 105; Murie, 1939: 244; Manning, 1943a: 52;
+  Banfield, 1951a: 10, 26, 31.
+
+
+_Fawns_
+
+Since the fawning takes place far to the north of the Nueltin Lake
+region, practically no local information concerning it was obtained.
+Charles Schweder stated that in the spring migration the pregnant does
+pass to an undetermined distance north of the upper Kazan River (below
+Ennadai Lake). Although the migration at Nueltin Lake continues
+throughout June, the rearguard is composed largely of bucks, and the
+comparatively few does accompanying them toward the last may be barren.
+Fisher (1821: 199) and Parry (1821: 183) report a small fawn of _R.
+pearyi_ on Melville Island on June 2. Richardson states (“1825”: 329)
+that the young are born in May and June. There is evidently some
+geographical and individual variation in the time of birth (_cf._
+Jacobi, 1931: 232). Apparently the gestation period in the Caribou
+covers approximately eight months or a little less. In the domesticated
+Reindeer it is 231 to 242 days, according to Jacobi (1931: 234); in the
+White-tailed Deer, 205 to 212 days, according to Seton (1929, +3+: 258).
+
+Fred Schweder, Jr., stated that he had never found more than a single
+unborn fawn in any one of the animals he had secured; yet he has seen as
+many as four fawns following a doe. Of course there is no proof that
+this individual was the actual mother of so many fawns; a stray or
+bereaved youngster might well endeavor to attach itself to a foster
+mother. On August 28, at Little River, I saw a doe being followed by two
+fawns. On September 16 Fred reported seeing three old does without
+fawns. Presumably most of the does do not bear young until they are two
+years old (_cf._ Jacobi, 1931: 235); thus many yearling does without
+family cares should be observed during the summer.
+
+On September 12 Charles Schweder stated that the does would soon be
+losing their milk; yet on occasion he has found them with milk as late
+as November (_cf._ Jacobi, 1931: 235). On September 21, when he secured
+a doe (fig. 21) that was accompanied by a fawn, I asked if he thought
+the latter was still nursing. By way of answer, he squeezed a couple of
+the doe’s mammae, and some milk exuded. Thus the mammary glands were
+still functioning at that date; they appeared well developed. By August
+27, at an age of perhaps two and a half months, the fawns were browsing
+on their own account, and their teeth were well developed. Fred
+Schweder, Jr., then spoke of having seen fawns nursing four times during
+that month, the last occasion having been on the 25th. On the 27th I had
+the rare privilege of witnessing such a nursery rite across the mouth of
+Little River. The wilderness baby was so large that it was obliged to
+lower its forequarters very decidedly in order to reach the maternal
+font (from a lateral position). This attitude left its hind quarters
+thrust high and ludicrously into the air. I did not notice that it
+wriggled its tail as a bovine calf might have; but Charles Schweder
+spoke of having seen a fawn hold its tail erect while nursing. He also
+said that the bigger fawns kneel down with their front legs while so
+engaged. In his opinion, when a doe is killed in the autumn, its fawn
+does not go and join other Caribou, but lingers near the fatal spot
+until a Wolf or some other enemy overcomes it. For this reason it is his
+practice to secure the fawn also, if possible, when he takes the mother.
+On September 13 a fawn remained by its dead mother, permitting one of
+the hunters to approach within 30 feet and to throw rocks at it three
+times, finally taking it by that means. After a doe was killed on
+September 21, its fawn lingered in the vicinity for a day or two.
+
+  _References._--Franklin, 1823: 242; Richardson, “1825”: 329;
+  John Ross, 1835a: 432; Simpson, 1843: 277, 281, 381; J.
+  McLean, 1932 (1849): 359; Armstrong, 1857: 477-478; Murray,
+  1858: 202; Osborn, 1865: 227; Nourse, 1884: 264-265; Pike, 1917
+  (1892): 204, 209; Dowling, 1893: 107: Russell, 1895: 51; R. M.
+  Anderson, 1913b: 504-505; Hewitt, 1921: 62; Blanchet, 1926b: 47;
+  Seton, 1929, +3+: 124-125; Blanchet, 1930: 49, 53;
+  Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 192, 193; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932:
+  86; Ingstad, 1933: 161; Clarke, 1940: 88-90; Gavin, 1945: 228;
+  Banfield, 1951a: 26, 27; Scott, 1951: 179, 180; Barnett, 1954:
+  96.
+
+
+_Growth_
+
+During late August and early September the fawns probably averaged about
+50 lb. in weight. (For the measurements of two specimens, see the
+section on _Measurements_.) Yet they varied so much in size that some
+appeared nearly twice as big as others. On September 7 an exceptionally
+small fawn was secured (estimated weight, 35 lb.) (fig. 23). Its coat
+was soft and woolly, representing an earlier stage than that seen in any
+of the other fawns of that season. It was molting into the next pelage,
+and its hide was unprime. It must have been born at an unusually late
+date. Fred Schweder, Jr., remarked that he sometimes sees this stage in
+the growth of fawns when the Caribou come down early from the north
+(about the first of August), but it seems remarkable that it should have
+been found in a September fawn. The present specimen has actually
+smaller measurements than one secured on August 2 at Artillery Lake
+(Seton, 1929, +3+: 97). The collector reported that the parent doe
+appeared of ordinary size--not a particularly small or young one. The
+yearlings noted on the spring migration in May (south of Churchill) and
+in June (at Nueltin Lake) appeared roughly half the size of the adults.
+
+Evidently several years are required for the attainment of full growth.
+The younger adult bucks, with smaller antlers, are appreciably inferior
+in body size to the older bucks, with better developed antlers.
+
+  _References._--Seton, 1929, +3+: 97, 98; Banfield, 1951a: 30.
+
+
+_Antlers_
+
+In late August and early September antlers were already in evidence on
+the fawns, at an age of less than three months. They consisted of bony
+knobs, covered with skin, and were an inch or two long. I obtained no
+information as to when the fawns may shed the velvet or the antlers
+themselves. By analogy with the Reindeer (_cf._ Jacobi, 1931: 237), the
+fawns might be expected to drop their antlers in late winter.
+
+When the adult Caribou return from the north in August, the antlers of
+all are still in the velvet. However, completely hornless does are not
+particularly uncommon at this season; in Charles Schweder’s opinion,
+some remain permanently in that condition. Hornless does are reported in
+various forms of Caribou or Reindeer in both hemispheres (Jacobi, 1931:
+48). I saw also a few one-horned does on the autumn migration. In a
+single group of three adult does photographed at close range on August
+28, one was hornless and another one-horned (fig. 11). A considerable
+proportion of my other photographs of Caribou groups at this season show
+one or more animals with a single antler or none. The hornless condition
+appears to be astonishingly more common in Keewatin than in regions
+farther west. Stefánsson, whose field operations were chiefly in
+northern Mackenzie and southwestern Franklin, remarks (1913b: 151) on
+having found, at any season when Caribou are normally horned, just three
+hornless animals among a thousand at whose killing he had been present.
+Murie (1935: 20) speaks of having observed only one hornless doe in
+Alaska, in September.
+
+By late August the bucks’ antlers have attained nearly their full
+growth, though still in the velvet. The largest head of the season was
+obtained on August 22. Its measurements were: right antler, in straight
+line from base to tip of longest prong, 995; left antler, 980; distance
+between main tips of the two antlers, 620; brow tine, from base to upper
+tip, 335; to lower tip, 290. For the older bucks, the principal period
+for shedding the velvet is September 10 to 20, although Charles Schweder
+once observed a buck that had completed the process by September 1, and
+Fred secured one in that condition on September 6, 1947. In Alaska old
+bucks shed the velvet more or less regularly in September (Murie, 1935:
+26). Sick or wounded animals are said to retain the velvet for an
+indefinite period. For example, a buck secured on September 29 had some
+velvet hanging in shreds from the tips of its antlers, and it was found
+to have been shot in the mouth sometime previously. The younger bucks
+and the does lose their velvet somewhat later than the older bucks (say
+toward the end of September). In a doe of September 21 (fig. 21) the
+antlers were covered with velvet and still had soft tips. A young buck
+of October 2 was just shedding the velvet.
+
+Charles Schweder spoke of noting as many as 30-33 points on the antlers
+of old bucks. (He probably included the brow and the bez tines in this
+count.) He also referred to an exceptional set of antlers at Simons’
+Lake with about 40 points; he had first noted it about 10 years
+previously, and it had doubtless been there for years before that. He
+had never been able to secure its equal. When I saw and photographed it
+in October (fig. 25), some of the points were broken off, so that an
+accurate count was impossible; but there must have been close to 40
+originally, even without the brow tines, which were missing. The
+palmation was much broader than I have seen in any other Caribou.
+
+The prong projecting backward at the angle of the main beam is by no
+means so uncommon in the animals of this region as a Chipewyan hunter
+seemed to indicate to Downes (1943: 227-228).
+
+Charles Schweder found a pair of locked antlers about 1940 near Josie’s
+Bay. This was the only case of which he had any knowledge. An instance
+of locked antlers in _Rangifer pearyi_ is mentioned by Peary (1907: 84).
+
+There is marked variation in the dates of shedding the antlers,
+according to sex, age, and physiological condition of the individual.
+This has resulted in various conflicting statements in the literature.
+In the present region, the old bucks with 25 or more points are said to
+shed their antlers about the end of October or in November, at the close
+of the rutting season. (Fred Schweder, Jr., encountered a hornless buck
+as early as November 7, 1947.) The younger bucks, with 15 to 20 points,
+and the does retain their antlers till late May or June of the following
+year. A doe of June 3 and another of June 16 were still horned. In
+Alaska “the young bucks may carry their old antlers until late in April,
+while does carry theirs until the middle of May, some of them until
+June” (Murie, 1935: 26).
+
+John Ingebrigtsen reported having seen two or three shallow lakes,
+between Churchill and (South?) Knife Lake, whose bottoms were fairly
+covered with caribou antlers. They were visible through clear ice. It
+appears probable that these lakes, while ice-covered, were favored
+resorts of large numbers of Caribou for their midday or nocturnal rests
+at a period when they were shedding their antlers (November for the old
+bucks, May or June for the does and young bucks).
+
+It is natural that the season at which the new antlers of the Barren
+Ground Caribou begin to grow should vary greatly according to sex and
+age, just as the shedding of the antlers does; probably also, for the
+various forms of _Rangifer_, according to locality (_cf._ Jacobi, 1931:
+237). On Southampton Island “the new antlers begin to appear in the
+males in March and April” (Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 85). In Alaska
+Murie (1935: 24) “has found old bucks late in April with velvet knobs
+well begun.” Seton’s account (1929, +3+: 102-103) of the seasonal change
+of antlers is not only meager but largely at variance with the
+information I assembled in Keewatin. Recently gathered information is
+supplied by Banfield (1951a: 17-18).
+
+Measurements of the length of antlers in the velvet (right and left,
+respectively) were recorded as follows: adult male, June 18, 420, 440;
+adult male (figs. 3, 4), August 17, 1165, 1205; adult female (fig. 21),
+September 21, 220, 165.
+
+Scratching or anointing of antlers in the velvet with a hind hoof was
+observed in an adult buck on June 16, and in a fawn on August 27.
+
+While there is undoubtedly some correlation between the age of a Caribou
+and the number of points on its antlers, I am not aware that such a
+correlation has been worked out to a satisfactory degree. The Schweder
+brothers judged a Caribou’s years by the number of points on both
+antlers, yet freely admitted that they had limited confidence in such a
+criterion. Probably they would be nearer the actual facts if they
+counted the points on only one antler. The situation is complicated by
+the fact (if we are to credit Jacobi, 1931: 238) that bucks in other
+forms of _Rangifer_ exhibit the best development of antlers at six to
+eight years.
+
+  _References._--Hearne, 1795: 198-199; Franklin, 1823: 240-241;
+  Lyon, 1824: 270; Richardson, “1825”: 327-328, and 1829: 241;
+  Richardson, in Back, 1836: 499; Armstrong, 1857: 478; Murray,
+  1858: 199-206; B. R. Ross, 1861: 439; Osborn, 1865: 227; Pike,
+  1917 (1892): 49; J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128; Dowling, 1893: 107;
+  Russell, 1895: 51, and 1898: 225; Whitney, 1896: 238-239; J. W.
+  Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 79-80; A. J. Stone, 1900: 53; W. J.
+  McLean, 1901: 6; Elliot, 1902: 279-280; Hanbury, 1904: 95, 116,
+  133; Hornaday, 1904: 138; J. A. Allen, 1908a: 488; R. M.
+  Anderson, 1913b: 505; Stefánsson, 1913b: 151; Buchanan, 1920:
+  126; Blanchet, 1925: 33, 1926b: 47-48, and 1930: 49;
+  Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 50, 89, 239-251; Seton, 1929, +3+:
+  102-103; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 192; Jacobi, 1931: 237; Sutton
+  and Hamilton, 1932: 81-86; Ingstad, 1933: 159; Hornby, 1934:
+  105; Murie, 1935: 20, and 1939: 244; Clarke, 1940: 95; Downes,
+  1943: 228; Manning, 1943a: 52-53; Harper, 1949: 228; Banfield,
+  1951a: 17-18; Barnett, 1954: 104.
+
+
+_Rubbing trees_
+
+Charles Schweder gave the following account. The bucks hasten the
+shedding of the velvet in the autumn by rubbing their antlers on various
+trees--willow, spruce, or tamarack. The individual may complete the
+operation in possibly half a day. It is thought, however, that most of
+the velvet comes off at the first tree. The animals usually select a
+tree standing by itself rather than one in a thicket. It is usually a
+small tree--say 4 feet high and 1 inch in diameter. Perhaps a spruce is
+most often selected. Branches are broken and much of the bark is scraped
+off in the process. The velvet soon dries up, so that it is little
+noticed. Charles did not recall having seen any hanging in a tree.
+
+The numbers of rubbing trees that I noticed at Simons’ Lake in
+mid-October indicated that Caribou must have been much more numerous
+there during the previous month than in the vicinity of the Windy River
+post. These trees were particularly in evidence on the outskirts of a
+spruce and tamarack thicket at the head of the lake. They were mostly
+tamaracks, with some black spruces. Of the two spruces shown in figure
+26, the larger was about 4 feet high. Many of the young trees had been
+killed. The branches and the tops had been pretty generally broken off
+and were lying on the ground. Most of the damage was fresh, but some of
+it dated from previous years.
+
+  _Reference._--Hanbury, 1904: 232.
+
+
+
+
+MORPHOLOGY AND TAXONOMY
+
+
+_Pelage and molt_
+
+When the Caribou migrate northward through the Nueltin Lake region in
+May and June, they still retain their winter pelage. It is now worn and
+faded, and harsh as well, in contrast to the fresh, dark, soft autumn
+coat.
+
+This stage is represented by an adult buck (No. 1046) of June 18. The
+general color above is Cream-Buff (capitalized color terms are derived
+from Ridgway, 1912), changing gradually to Isabella Color on sides of
+head and body; no distinct dark longitudinal stripe on lower sides (such
+as appears in summer and autumn pelage); tail Cream-Buff above, the rest
+Cartridge Buff; rump-patch varying from Cartridge Buff to Cream-Buff;
+tip of snout and chin dirty whitish; small area below nostrils near
+Mummy Brown; triangular area behind nostrils Cream-Buff; crown Cartridge
+Buff; ears Olive-Buff on outer surface, Cartridge Buff on inner surface;
+posterior venter Cartridge Buff; legs Isabella Color in front, remainder
+Cream-Buff; hoofs black, bordered above with Cartridge Buff hairs,
+forming a band ½-2 inches in width; antler velvet in this and other
+specimens Olive-Brown. The marked difference between the dark brownish
+and white pelage of the autumn and the Cream-Buff coat of early June
+presumably results from wear and fading, without molt. The does and the
+yearlings in June appear grayer than the adult bucks.
+
+In another adult male (No. 1033), collected June 3, the darker part of
+the pelage is Buffy Brown rather than Cream-Buff.
+
+The molt of the bucks begins in June but takes place chiefly in July,
+while the animals are somewhere to the north of the Nueltin Lake region.
+On their return in August they have largely completed their summer
+transformation in appearance. A buck of August 17 had just a little of
+the winter fur still clinging to its lower back; and another on August
+20 was in similar condition. At this season the white mane is developed
+only on its lower portion (figs. 9, 10, 12), but by the end of September
+the white has spread upward over practically the whole neck (fig. 22),
+and in some cases over the shoulders.
+
+In an adult male (No. 1144) of October 16, representing the pelage of
+the rutting season, the posterior crown is near Tilleul Buff, the
+anterior crown somewhat browner; sides of head and upper throat between
+Verona Brown and Buffy Brown; area about and between eyes somewhat
+darker; triangular area behind nostrils (apex extending halfway to eyes)
+and lower chin between Mummy Brown and Warm Blackish Brown; tip of snout
+and chin Cartridge Buff; ears pale creamy white on both surfaces; whole
+neck and shoulder mantle whitish, washed with Cartridge Buff, and
+changing gradually to the brownish of the sides of the head; long hairs
+along median ventral line of the neck tipped with Natal Brown; dorsal
+area, from shoulders to rump, Prout’s Brown; stripe on lower sides Mummy
+Brown, separated from dorsal area by an ill-defined lighter stripe,
+mixed with whitish hairs; top of tail slightly paler than back, the rest
+white; small rump-patch mostly white; chest Mummy Brown; mid-venter
+varying from Deep Olive-Buff anteriorly to Cream-Buff posteriorly;
+posterior venter white; forelegs near Bone Brown; hind legs between
+Mummy Brown and Olive-Brown, with a pale spot on the inner side of the
+heel (this spot noticeable also in doe and fawn); hoofs black, bordered
+above with whitish hairs. The hides of this specimen and of two other
+adult bucks (No. 1111, September 29, and No. 1132, October 16) were
+prime. The dark lateral stripe, which shows quite distinctly in summer
+and fall specimens of both sexes (figs. 7, 8, 10, 21, 22), from fawns
+(except very young ones) to adults, and which is also a prominent
+feature in Old World Reindeer (_cf._ Flerov, 1933), has been largely or
+wholly overlooked in some descriptions of _Rangifer a. arcticus_.
+
+The summer molt occurs later in the does than in the bucks. Some of the
+former return toward the end of August while still retaining most of the
+winter pelage. Others exhibit remnants of it in patches, especially on
+the lower back; this was true even of an adult doe (No. 1101) secured as
+late as September 21 (fig. 21). Its hide, however, was prime. In this
+specimen the crown is near Verona Brown, with varying admixture of
+whitish hairs; sides of head Verona Brown; upper throat a little paler;
+a poorly defined area behind nostrils, and lower chin, Mummy Brown; tip
+of snout and chin Cartridge Buff; ears Drab, varying to Pale Olive-Buff,
+especially on inner surface; neck Drab dorsally, mixed with whitish
+hairs, the remainder Pale Olive-Buff; dorsal area, from shoulder to
+rump, Mars Brown; lateral stripe on lower sides Mars Brown, separated
+from dorsal area by a poorly defined but conspicuous area of Light
+Cinnamon-Drab; top of tail like back, the rest whitish, washed laterally
+with Pale Pinkish Buff; small rump-patch mostly white; chest Mummy
+Brown; venter Light Drab, becoming whitish in inguinal region; forelegs
+Natal Brown, slightly darker in front; hind legs Natal Brown, with a
+pale spot on the inner edge of the heel; hoofs black, bordered above
+with whitish “spats” varying from ½ to 1½ inches in width.
+
+Another doe, secured on November 3 but not preserved, was apparently in
+long, full winter pelage, with whitish mane and shoulders. The dorsum
+generally was grayish; the top of the rump, buffy gray. The white
+rump-patch appeared to be more extensive, and to contain longer hairs,
+than in the doe of September 21; likewise the white “spats” appeared
+much more extensive.
+
+As winter comes on, the fur of the Caribou grows longer and paler gray.
+One incipient stage of such a change from the summer coat began to be
+noticeable as early as September 13. A buck that came trotting down out
+of the Windy Hills on September 27 revealed the splendor of its new
+winter coat, with an amazing amount of creamy white, chiefly on the mane
+and shoulders. The long mane wears off during the winter, according to
+Charles Schweder. It looks best, he added, when the bucks start to fight
+in the fall. A yearling or large fawn on October 21 was distinctly
+creamy about the neck and shoulders. After describing a winter female
+from Wager River, Seton remarks (1929, +3+: 98): “The general impression
+is of a creamy white animal, with a gray blanket on its back.”
+
+For the first couple of months of its life the fawn wears a soft and
+woolly coat. An example was furnished by a male fawn (No. 1095; fig. 23)
+of September 7, which must have been born several weeks later than the
+average date. It was actually smaller and less developed than another
+male fawn collected on August 20. It was molting into the next pelage
+(described in the following paragraph), and its hide was unprime. The
+general color is Deep Brownish Drab; this is overlaid with longer hairs
+of Pale Olive-Buff on the median dorsal line of the neck, on the venter,
+and on part of the legs; a median stripe on the back near Hay’s Brown;
+no distinct lateral stripe; ears and posterior crown Cartridge Buff;
+forepart of crown Deep Brownish Drab; area above eye Cream-Buff; snout
+varying from Deep Brownish Drab above to Pale Gull Gray on sides;
+transverse band behind nostrils Dusky Brown; tip of snout whitish; tail
+Deep Brownish Drab above, pale creamy on sides, and white beneath;
+rump-patch whitish; chin anteriorly whitish, posteriorly Dusky Drab;
+throat whitish to Pale Gull Gray; lower part of legs, in front, Buffy
+Brown; hoofs black, bordered above with a very narrow (¼-inch) strip of
+whitish hairs. A very similar young fawn, taken on August 2, 1907, has
+been described by Seton (1929, +3+: 98).
+
+In a male fawn (No. 1072) collected on August 20 the general color is
+between Olive-Brown and Natal Brown; a paler longitudinal area
+separating the lateral stripe from the dorsal area; ears Clove Brown
+externally, pale creamy internally; transverse band behind nostrils
+Blackish Brown; tip of snout whitish; sides of head varying from
+Cream-Buff above eyes to Cartridge Buff below; tail Bone Brown above,
+white below; rump-patch whitish; legs Buffy Brown, darker in front; chin
+anteriorly whitish, posteriorly Hair Brown; throat Cartridge Buff;
+venter Light Drab; hoofs black, bordered above with a narrow (¼- to
+½-inch) strip of whitish hairs.
+
+  _References._--Franklin, 1823: 240-241; Richardson, 1829: 242;
+  B. R. Ross, 1861: 439; Schwatka, 1885: 60-61; J. B. Tyrrell,
+  1892: 128; Russell, 1898: 91, 226; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898):
+  79; A. J. Stone, 1900: 52; Hanbury, 1904: 194; MacFarlane, 1905:
+  682-683; Blanchet, 1925: 33, and 1926b: 47; Seton, 1929, +3+:
+  98-99, 104; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193; Jacobi, 1931: 236;
+  Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 81, 84-86; Murie, 1939: 244; Clarke,
+  1940: 89, 90; Downes, 1943: 226; Manning, 1943a: 53; Harper,
+  1949: 228, 229, 230; Banfield, 1951a: 15-17.
+
+
+_Albinism_
+
+In _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ this appears to be an exceptionally rare
+phenomenon. There are references to albinos by the following authors:
+Russell (1895: 51; 1898: 91, 226), Whitney (1896: 237), Boas (1901: 150,
+501), MacFarlane (1905: 682-683), Ingstad (1933: 312), and Degerbøl
+(1935: 49, 51).
+
+
+_Foot-glands_
+
+I dissected out the glands from the hind feet of an adult male Caribou
+(No. 1046). Seton (1929, +3+: 68) has discussed these structures in the
+Woodland Caribou and the Norwegian Reindeer; and Pocock (1911: 960-962,
+fig. 138B) and Jacobi (1931: 22, fig. 4), in the Reindeer. Many hairs
+had their base in the glands, and there was a fatty secretion on the
+hairs adjacent to the glands. I judged that the opening to the exterior
+extended in a more or less dorso-anterior direction. One of the
+suggested functions of these glands is anointing the velvet covering of
+the antlers. I was highly interested, therefore, in seeing an old buck
+on June 16 rub the tips of its growing antlers with each hind foot in
+turn. Meanwhile it inclined its antlers alternately to one side and
+backwards to place one of them at a time within convenient reach of the
+hind foot on that side. It seemed to rub its snout as well as the antler
+tips. In Charles Schweder’s experience this action was always carried
+out with the hind foot, not the forefoot. The latter contains a similar
+but smaller gland, according to Jacobi (1931: 22), while Pocock (1911:
+960-961) gives contrary testimony. On August 27 I also saw a fawn
+rubbing a knob of its skin-covered antlers with a hind foot.
+
+Another function of the foot-glands is suggested by an observation of
+Dugmore’s (1913: 89-90), which has been mentioned in the section on
+_Signaling_. I could not definitely connect any of the various occasions
+of panic that I observed, with scent from the foot-glands of preceding
+Caribou that had been frightened.
+
+  _References._--Caton, 1881: 265; Pocock, 1911: 960-962; Seton,
+  1929, +3+: 68, 105; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 84; Harper, 1949:
+  230.
+
+
+_Mastology_
+
+Very little seems to have been published on this subject. Jacobi (1931:
+24) merely remarks that in the Reindeer the mammae number four, or
+occasionally six, but that the supernumerary ones are not functional.
+The four rudimentary mammae in a male fawn of _arcticus_ (No. 1072) of
+August 20 seemed remarkable for their arrangement in a nearly straight
+transverse row--quite different from the more rectangular pattern in a
+domestic Cow or in a male Moose, as figured by Seton (1929, +3+: 221).
+In an adult doe (No. 1101) of September 21 the anterior pair are about
+twice as far apart as the posterior pair; each of the mammae appears no
+more than a couple of inches from the one nearest to it. The arrangement
+in a two-year-old buck, as shown by Seton (1929, +3+: 106), is
+approximately intermediate between linear and rectangular.
+
+
+_Fat_
+
+A Caribou (probably a buck) secured about the end of June was reported
+to have back fat half an inch thick--possibly resulting from the fresh
+green spring feed. In August, however, scarcely any fat was to be found
+on the animals; perhaps the annual renewal of pelage and the summer
+harassment by flies had been deterrents to the storage of fat. In
+September and early October the Caribou were in prime condition. On
+September 19 there was a fresh piece of back fat half an inch thick; two
+days later there was another piece three times as thick. In 1943 (a year
+of great mushroom growth) the animals were said to have become
+particularly fat. According to Charles Schweder, the doe never becomes
+so fat as the buck; one of September 21, still nursing, was just
+slightly fat. An adult buck of September 29 was recorded as “somewhat
+fat”; two of October 16 were “rather fat” and “quite fat.” Charles has
+seen as much as 3 inches of fat on a buck. The strips of back fat
+brought into camp on October 8 from several bucks weighed about 5 to 10
+lb. apiece. Such fatness evidently prepares the bucks for the strain of
+the rutting season, when they neglect their feeding and become very poor
+and thin. This loss of fat occurs in about two weeks. The does also lose
+some fat at this season, but slowly. In some winters the Caribou remain
+fat, but in other winters they do not. In the latter case there may be
+deep snow that hinders their feeding. In the spring the Caribou become
+fat again, and they are in that condition when they arrive from the
+south in May.
+
+The eagerness of the Eskimos and the Indians for fat results in their
+selection of the biggest bucks, which generally carry the most fat.
+Charles Schweder spoke of the tail of such an animal almost
+disappearing, apparently engulfed in fat! Besides its use in the native
+diet, the fat goes into the making of “Eskimo candles” (see section on
+_Relations to man_).
+
+  _References._--Franklin, 1823: 240; Armstrong, 1857: 477-478;
+  Whitney, 1896: 161; Elliot, 1902: 276; R. M. Anderson, in
+  Stefánsson, 1913b: 505-506; Stefánsson, 1921: 231-234,
+  246-247, 252; Jenness, 1922: 48, 101, 248; Birket-Smith, 1929
+  (1): 48, 90; Seton, 1929, +3+: 113-114; Critchell-Bullock, 1930:
+  193; Weyer, 1932: 40; Hornby, 1934: 105; Hamilton, 1939: 109;
+  Downes, 1943: 228; Manning, 1943a: 53.
+
+
+BODY-MEASUREMENTS AND WEIGHTS
+
+  Columns:
+
+  A: No.
+  B: Sex and age
+  C: Date
+  D: Length
+  E: Tail
+  F: Foot
+  G: Ear from crown
+  H: Height at shoulder
+  I: Shoulder joint to hip joint
+  J: Circumference of neck at base
+  K: Circumference of body behind shoulders
+  L: Length of front hoof
+  M: Length of hind hoof
+  N: Estimated weight (lbs.)
+
+  ======================================================================
+  A    B      C      D    E   F   G   H    I    J     K   L    M    N
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  1033 ♂ ad  Jun 3  1820 160 516 130      1000     1000  81.5 78   140
+  1046 ♂ ad  Jun 18 1880 190 546 137 1029                92   84.5
+  1065 ♂ ad  Aug 17 1750 146 555 120 1080 1010     1185* 80   74   200
+  1111 ♂ ad  Sep 29 1710 155 532 129 1020      740       82.5 78   200
+  1132 ♂ ad  Oct 16 1710 120 530 120 1002  975                     200
+  1144 ♂ ad  Oct 16      117 545 120 1110                90   84.5 200
+  Average of ♂ ♂ ad 1774 148 537 126 1080  995 740 1093  85.2 79.8 188
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  1101 ♀ ad  Sep 21 1590 113 490 134  870  860 490       77   72   160
+  1095 ♂ juv Sep 7   960  90 360  85  620  525 290  610  49   45    35
+  1072 ♂ juv Aug 20 1150 125 423  89  750  645           60.5 55.5  50
+
+    [Footnote *: _After skinning._]
+  ======================================================================
+
+
+MEASUREMENTS OF SKULLS
+
+  Columns:
+
+  A: No.
+  B: Sex and age
+  C: Date
+  D: Condylobasal length*
+  E: Zygomatic width
+  F: Interorbital width
+  G: Length of nasal
+  H: Maxillary tooth-row
+  I: Mandibular tooth-row
+
+  ======================================================================
+  A      B        C        D       E       F       G      H       I
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  1065   ♂ ad    Aug 17   373     130     140     125     94     101
+  1144   ♂ ad    Oct 16   356     135     140     122     82
+  1111   ♂ ad    Sep 29   359     134     138     112     82
+  1046   ♂ ad    Jun 18   374     131     135     121     97     104
+  1132   ♂ ad    Oct 16   350     136     138     117     83      91
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Average of ♂ ♂ ad       362.4   133.2   138.2   119.4   87.6    98.7
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  1101   ♀ ad    Sep 21   324     117     121     101     85
+  1036   ♀ ad    Sep --           118     120      83.5   79      83.5
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  1072   ♂ juv   Aug 20   215      92      85      54
+  1095   ♂ juv   Sep 7    189      85      77      42
+
+    [Footnote *: _Tip of premaxillary to posterior plane of condyles._]
+  ======================================================================
+
+
+MEASUREMENTS OF ANTLERS
+
+  Columns:
+
+  A: No.
+  B: Sex and age
+  C: Date
+  D: Total length, right antler
+  E: Total length, left antler
+  F: Brow antler, length
+  G: Brow antler, width
+  H: Greatest spread of beams (outside measurement)
+  I: Total number of points
+
+  ==============================================================
+  A      B       C        D      E      F     G     H     I
+  --------------------------------------------------------------
+  1065   ♂ ad   Aug 17   1165*  1205*               875*
+  1144   ♂ ad   Oct 16   1200   1180    290   232   668   32
+  1111   ♂ ad   Sep 29   1080   1080    279   235   655   32
+  1132   ♂ ad   Oct 16    960    903    225   197   677   30
+  --------------------------------------------------------------
+  Average of last 3      1080   1054.3  264.7 221.3 666.7 31.3
+
+    [Footnote *: _Antlers in velvet. Unless otherwise specified,
+    lengths of antlers were measured along the curve._]
+  ==============================================================
+
+
+MEASUREMENTS OF TESTES
+
+Seasonal change in the size of testes in adult males is indicated by the
+following data: June 3, 30×18 mm.; June 18, 51×28.5; August 17, 50×35;
+September 29, 61×38; October 16, 60×40. Two male fawns: August 20, 18×7;
+September 7, 15×8.5.
+
+  _References on measurements._--J. C. Ross, in John Ross,
+  1835b: xviii; J. A. Allen, 1910: 8; Seton, 1929, +3+: 97;
+  Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 87; Flerov, 1934: 240; Murie, 1935:
+  75; Soper, 1944: 248; Banfield, 1951a: 30.
+
+  _References on weight._--Parry, 1824: 305; Richardson, 1829:
+  241, and 1852: 290; Armstrong, 1857: 475, 498; Baird, 1857: 635;
+  M’Clintock, 1860?: 184; Osborn, 1865: 227; Schwatka, 1885:
+  84-85; Collinson, 1889: 153; J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128; Whitney,
+  1896: 237; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 79; Jones, 1899: 329;
+  Hornaday, 1904: 138, and 1914, +2+: 104; J. A. Allen, 1910: 8;
+  Seton, 1929, +3+: 97-98; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 55; Hornby,
+  1934: 105; Banfield, 1951a: 15, 30.
+
+
+_Geographical variation_
+
+The comparatively few specimens available indicate that different
+populations on the mainland, between Hudson Bay and the Mackenzie River,
+vary in size. Final judgment on the significance of this variation must
+await the accumulation of more and better material. The lack of
+topotypical material from the Fort Enterprise area, Mackenzie, is a
+particular handicap.
+
+  The extreme and average body measurements of five adult males
+  from the Windy River area (see accompanying table) may be
+  compared with those of three adult males, taken by R. M.
+  Anderson, 1910 and 1912, at Langton and Darnley Bays (Nos.
+  34431, 34432, and 34435, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.): length, 1980-2095
+  (2052); tail (two specimens), 152-165 (158.5); height at
+  shoulder, 1066-1167 (1117); shoulder to hip (one specimen), 964.
+  The average length of these specimens exceeds that of the Windy
+  River specimens by 278 mm.; the average height at the shoulder,
+  by 37 mm. The length of an adult male from Artillery Lake (J. A.
+  Allen, 1910: 8) exceeds the Windy River average by 156 mm., and
+  its shoulder height (Seton, 1929, +3+: 97), by 10 mm., but the
+  length of its hind foot, as recorded, is 17 mm. less than the
+  Windy River average.
+
+  The measurements of four adult females, taken by Anderson, 1910
+  and 1911, at Langton Bay, Horton River, and Great Bear Lake
+  (Nos. 34429, 34434, 34441, 34442, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.) are:
+  length, 1625-1815 (1736); height at shoulder, 825-1066 (968);
+  shoulder to hip (one specimen), 863. The average length of these
+  specimens exceeds that of a Windy River adult female by 146 mm.;
+  the average height at the shoulder, by 98 mm. The length of an
+  adult female from Aylmer Lake (J. A. Allen, 1910: 8) exceeds
+  that of the Windy River specimen by 112 mm.; the length of its
+  hind foot, by 18 mm.; and the height at the shoulder (Seton,
+  1929, +3+: 97), by 43 mm.
+
+Thus there appears to be a fairly uniform tendency toward greater body
+measurements from southwestern Keewatin to northwestern Mackenzie. The
+weight of Seton’s male from Artillery Lake (270¾ lb.) considerably
+exceeds the maximum (200 lb.) that I estimated for any of the Windy
+River males. Maximum measurements are furnished by winter specimens from
+the region of Langton and Darnley Bays.
+
+  The skulls of two adult males from Horton River and Artillery
+  Lake (Nos. 34502 and 29031, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.) measure,
+  respectively: condylobasal length (tip of premaxillary to
+  posterior plane of condyles), 381, 371; zygomatic width, 138,
+  approximately 142; interorbital width, 143, 144; nasal, 126,
+  112; maxillary tooth-row, 87, 84; mandibular tooth-row (of No.
+  29031), 93. The rostral profile of the former is slightly
+  convex; of the latter nearly flat. Comparison with Windy River
+  adult males (see accompanying table) indicates a longer and a
+  broader skull in the more northwesterly specimens. The
+  measurements of the skulls of Southampton Island specimens as
+  presented by Sutton and Hamilton (1932: 87), suggest a somewhat
+  larger animal than the mainland form.
+
+  The left antler of an adult male from Horton River (No. 34502,
+  Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.) measures: length, 1248; length of brow
+  tine, 345; width of brow tine, 360; total points (both antlers),
+  16 + 14 = 30. The corresponding measurements of two sets of
+  antlers from Fort Reliance in the American Museum of Natural
+  History are: No. 121471 (left), 1242-285-108; (right),
+  1244-412-294; total points, 16 + 23 = 39; No. 121473 (left),
+  1312-360-290 (broken); (right), 1230 (approx.), brow tine a
+  spike, not palmated; total points, approximately 19 + 13 = 32.
+  The Fort Reliance specimens were selected by George G. Goodwin
+  from a large number of old antlers lying about, and they are
+  naturally above the average in size. The antlers of adult males
+  from the Windy River area (see accompanying table) measure
+  distinctly less than those just mentioned.
+
+Anderson (1913b: 505) and Stefánsson (1913a: 106, and 1913b: 241,
+276-277) have called attention to certain rather well-defined
+differences between the Caribou on both sides of Coronation Gulf and
+those elsewhere in northern Mackenzie. It may be assumed that the summer
+home of the former type is on Victoria Island. Many of these animals in
+former years crossed over to the mainland in the autumn after the
+freezing of Dolphin and Union Strait, Coronation Gulf, and Dease Strait
+made such a migration possible; and they recrossed to the island in the
+spring. During recent years this migration has greatly dwindled
+(Blanchet, 1930: 50; Birket-Smith, 1933: 93; Clarke, 1940: 98; Gavin,
+1945: 227; Godsell, 1937: 288; Banfield, 1949: 481); consequently the
+Victoria Island population now seems to be largely confined to that
+island throughout the year. In the American Museum of Natural History I
+have examined several of Anderson’s specimens of 1911-1912 that are
+obviously of this form, and I should scarcely hesitate to give them
+nomenclatural recognition except for the fact that there has obviously
+been some confusion in the labeling of the specimens (after they reached
+the museum). Needless to say, a specimen selected as a type should bear
+unquestionable data.
+
+During the winter there is some interchange of populations between Banks
+and Victoria islands across the frozen Prince of Wales Strait
+(Armstrong, 1857: 297, 336). The description that Armstrong gives (1857:
+478), based ostensibly on Banks Island specimens, indicates that the
+animals of that island are very close to, if not identical with,
+_Rangifer pearyi_ of the more northerly Arctic islands. Yet there is no
+known interchange of populations across the frozen McClure Strait or
+other wide sea channels in approximately latitude 74° N.
+
+The Caribou of Boothia Peninsula and Somerset and Prince of Wales
+islands are said to be a small form (Wright, 1944: 195).
+
+The Caribou of the Dubawnt River region, as far as may be judged from
+J. B. Tyrrell’s photographs (1897: pl. 1; Seton, 1929, +3+: pl. 22), are
+indistinguishable from those of the Nueltin Lake region.
+
+The Southampton Island antlers figured by Sutton and Hamilton (1932:
+pl. 8) are so strikingly different from all but one (No. 1132) of those
+that I noticed in southwestern Keewatin that I should be much inclined
+to regard them as representing a separate subspecies, provided they are
+typical of that island. In most of the bucks of the Windy River area the
+beams are deeply and fairly uniformly bowed, although there is a strong
+tendency for approximately the basal third to be nearly straight, with a
+pronounced forward bend just above it (_cf._ figs. 3, 4, 9, 10, 12, 22,
+25). The bend at this point in the Southampton antlers is extremely
+slight by comparison. In mainland specimens the beam in cross-section
+is generally more or less round, with rarely any tendency toward
+flattening, such as may be seen in the Southampton set and in my No.
+1132. Furthermore, I cannot recall in the mainland animals a single such
+pronounced zigzag effect as may be seen in the Southampton antlers. In
+extremely few of them does the bez tine originate at such a distance
+(apparently 8 inches or so) above the base, as in Sutton and Hamilton’s
+figure. The lack of palmation in the bez tines of their specimen is
+noteworthy.
+
+There is a distinct likelihood that the isolated herd of Coats Island
+(Wright, 1944: 188; Banfield, 1949: 481), and also that of Salisbury
+Island in Hudson Strait (Grant, 1903: 189; Tweedsmuir, 1951: 37), may be
+distinct from the populations on the nearest large land bodies.
+
+I have briefly examined a dozen or more heads (skulls with antlers) of
+the Labrador Barren Ground Caribou (_R. a. caboti_ G. M. Allen) in the
+United States National Museum; they were collected by L. M. Turner in
+the 1880’s. Some of these antlers appear longer than any I saw in
+Keewatin. Furthermore, the tips of the bez tines in these specimens
+seem, on the average, more strongly incurved than in _R. a. arcticus_.
+
+For the purpose of comparing the Barren Ground Caribou with the Western
+Woodland Caribou, _Rangifer caribou sylvestris_ (Richardson), the
+following notes are offered on an adult male of the latter form in the
+United States Biological Surveys Collection (No. 235361; fig. 28). It
+was secured by a Cree Indian on Stony Mountain, about 27 miles south of
+Fort McMurray, Alberta, on October 21, 1920, and it was measured and
+prepared by myself. The general dorsal color is near Prout’s Brown,
+overlaid more or less with longer whitish hairs; outer surface of ears
+near Prout’s Brown, with an admixture of grayish white hairs; tip of
+snout, between nostrils and upper lip, Cartridge Buff; this area of more
+restricted extent than the similar patch in _arcticus_; neck creamy;
+longest hairs of throat fringe about 20 mm. (longer than in _arcticus_);
+no appreciable dark longitudinal stripe on lower sides, but an
+ill-defined lighter patch on the side behind the shoulder; rump-patch
+apparently less extensive than in _R. a. arcticus_; venter near Buffy
+Brown, posteriorly creamy; creamy white “spats” above hoofs ¼ to 1½
+inches wide, not extending up hind leg as indicated by Seton (1929, +3+:
+pl. 10). Length, 2025; tail, 225; foot, 625; front hoof, 109; hind hoof,
+101; estimated weight, 300 lb. The Western Woodland Caribou is thus a
+distinctly larger animal than _R. a. arcticus_, with a noteworthy
+difference in the virtual absence of a light lateral stripe, setting off
+a darker stripe below it. The specific distinctness between the two
+animals seems abundantly clear.
+
+  _References to general descriptions (including geographical
+  variation)._--Richardson, 1829: 239, 241-242; Armstrong, 1857:
+  478; Baird, 1857: 635; Caton, 1881: 105; Lydekker, 1898: 47-48,
+  1901: 38-40, and 1915: 254; Elliot, 1901: 37, and 1902: 281-282,
+  286-287; Preble, 1902: 42-43; Stone and Cram, 1904: 52; J. A.
+  Allen, 1908a: 488; Millais, 1915: 261; Buchanan, 1920:
+  125-126; Anthony, 1928: 530-531; Seton, 1929, +3+: 98-99;
+  Jacobi, 1931: 78-80; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 88; Degerbøl,
+  1935: 48-51; R. M. Anderson, 1937: 103; Hamilton, 1939: 109;
+  Murie, 1939: 239; G. M. Allen, 1942: 297-298; Wright, 1944: 195;
+  Rand, 1948a: 211-212; Banfield, 1951a: 15-17; Mochi and Carter,
+  1953: text to pl. 9.
+
+  _References to illustrations._--Parry, 1824: pl. facing p. 508;
+  Richardson, 1829: 240; Caton, 1881: 207; Pike, 1917 (1892): pl.
+  facing p. 89; J. B. Tyrrell, 1897: pl. 1; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908
+  (1898): pls. facing pp. 80, 81; Grant, 1903: 6th and 7th pls.
+  following p. 196; J. A. Allen, 1908a: 500-503; Seton, 1911:
+  254, 256, 262, and pls. facing pp. 222, 224, 226, 228, 234;
+  Buchanan, 1920: pl. facing p. 132; Hewitt, 1921: pls. 3, 5;
+  Blanchet, 1926b: 47; Seton, 1929, +3+: pls. 17, 21, 22, 23;
+  Blanchet, 1930: 50; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: pl. 8, fig. 4;
+  Ingstad, 1933: pl. facing p. 178; Clarke, 1940: frontisp., 85,
+  87, 89; Harper, 1949: 224, 229; Banfield, 1951a: figs. 1, 2,
+  12-16, 20, 21, 23; Anonymous, 1952: 261, 263, 266, 267; Mochi
+  and Carter, 1953: pl. 9; Barnett, 1954: 90-91, 103-105.
+
+
+
+
+LITERATURE CITED
+
+
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+
+1916. David Thompson’s narrative of his explorations in western America
+1784-1812. Edited by J. B. Tyrrell. _Publ. Champlain Soc._ 12: xcviii +
+582, 21 pl., 2 maps.
+
+TWEEDSMUIR, [LORD].
+
+1951. Hudson’s Bay trader. New York: 1-195, 8 pl., 1 map.
+
+TWINN, C. R.
+
+1950. Studies of the biology and control of biting flies in northern
+Canada. _Arctic_ +3+ (1): 14-26, 11 fig.
+
+TYRRELL, JAMES W.
+
+1908. Across the sub-Arctics of Canada. Ed. 3. Toronto: i-viii, 9-280,
+18 pl., 66 fig., 3 maps. (Orig. ed. in 1898.)
+
+1924. Report on an exploratory survey between Great Slave Lake and
+Hudson Bay, districts of Mackenzie and Keewatin. Dept. Interior, Ottawa:
+1-38, maps. (Reprinted from _Ann. Rept. Dept. Interior_ 1901 [1902].)
+
+TYRRELL, J. BURR.
+
+1892. The winter home of the Barren Ground Caribou. _Ottawa Naturalist_
++6+ (8): 128-130.
+
+1894. An expedition through the Barren Lands of northern Canada. _Geog.
+Jour._ +4+ (5): 437-450, 1 map.
+
+1895. A second expedition through the Barren Lands of northern Canada.
+_Geog. Jour._ +6+ (5): 438-448, 1 map.
+
+1896. Report on the country between Athabasca Lake and Churchill River
+with notes on two routes travelled between the Churchill and
+Saskatchewan Rivers. Ann. _Rept. Geog. Survey Canada_ +8+ (n.s.), 1895,
+rept. D: 1-120, 3 pl., 1 map.
+
+1897. Report on the Doobaunt, Kazan and Ferguson Rivers and the
+north-west coast of Hudson Bay, and on two overland routes from Hudson
+Bay to Lake Winnipeg. _Ann. Rept. Geol. Survey Canada_ +9+ (n.s.), 1896,
+rept. F: 1-218, 11 pl., 3 maps.
+
+[UNITED STATES] WAR DEPARTMENT.
+
+1944. Arctic manual. _Technical Manual_ 1-240. Washington: 1-131, 21
+fig., 1 map.
+
+WEBER, NEAL A.
+
+1950. A survey of the insects and related arthropods of Arctic Alaska.
+Part 1. _Trans. Am. Entom. Soc._ +76+ (3): 147-206, 7 pl.
+
+WEEKS, L. J.
+
+1933. Maguse River and part of Ferguson River basin, Northwest
+Territories. _Canada Dept. Mines, Geol. Survey, Summary Rept. 1932_,
+pt. 64-72, 1 map.
+
+WEYER, EDWARD MOFFATT, JR.
+
+1932. The Eskimos: their environment and folkways. New Haven: xvii +
+491, 6 fig., 23 maps.
+
+WHEELER, DAVID E.
+
+1912. Notes on the spring migration at timber line, north of Great Slave
+Lake. _Auk_ +29+ (2): 198-204, 1 map.
+
+1914. The Dog-rib Indian and his home. Bull. _Geog. Soc. Philadelphia_
++12+ (2): 47-69, 3 pl., 1 map.
+
+WHITNEY, CASPAR.
+
+1896. On snow-shoes to the Barren Grounds. . . . New York: x + 324, 35
+pl., 77 fig., 2 maps.
+
+WHITTAKER, E. J.
+
+1919. Notes on midwinter life in the Far North. _Ottawa Naturalist_ +32+
+(9): 166-167.
+
+WRAY, O. R.
+
+1934. In the footsteps of Samuel Hearne. _Canadian Geog. Jour._ +9+ (3):
+138-146, 15 fig., 2 maps.
+
+WRIGHT, J. G.
+
+1944. Economic wildlife of Canada’s eastern Arctic--caribou. _Canadian
+Geog. Jour._ +29+ (4): 184-195, 12 fig., 1 map.
+
+YOUNG, STANLEY P.
+
+1944. The wolves of North America. Part 1. Their history, life habits,
+economic status, and control. Washington: 1-385, 74 pl., 4 fig., 8 maps.
+
+YULE, ROBERT F.
+
+1948. The disappearing caribou. _Canadian Medic. Assoc. Jour._ +58+:
+287-288, 1 fig.
+
+
+
+
+ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES
+
+TO
+
+_Rangifer arcticus arcticus_
+
+
+These references are arranged chronologically, year by year; but within
+a given year, the arrangement for the most part is alphabetical by
+authors. The full citations of the publications (here designated merely
+by author and year) may be found in the preceding “Literature Cited.”
+
+The name or names at the beginning of each entry are those by which the
+animal is referred to in that particular publication. If the author
+supplies a technical name (such as _Rangifer arcticus_), that name alone
+is furnished here. The authority for the technical name is included or
+omitted according to the usage of each author. If he omits a technical
+name, the common name or names he employs (such as “Caribou” or
+“Reindeer”) are supplied.
+
+In some of the earlier accounts, particularly, more than one form of
+_Rangifer_ (_e.g._, Peary’s Caribou, the Labrador Caribou, or even the
+Woodland Caribou, in addition to the typical Barren Ground Caribou) may
+have been treated under a single designation, such as “Reindeer” or
+“_Cervus tarandus_.” In such case the word “part” is added in
+parentheses after the name at the beginning of the entry. As far as
+is possible or feasible, the references are here limited to _R. a.
+arcticus_. They constitute a partial summary of the nomenclatural
+history of the typical subspecies.
+
+The annotations aim to provide a sort of abstract of, or unalphabetized
+index to, the treatment of this animal in each publication. Each topic
+or rubric of the annotations (such as migration, distribution, food,
+voice, antlers, or relation to Wolves) is accompanied by page
+references.
+
+In the earlier part of the present publication, at the end of the
+discussion of each topic, references are given (merely by author, year,
+and page) to previous literature on the same topic. The Annotated
+Bibliographical References now supplied represent an amplification of
+those earlier and briefer references--an intermediate stage between
+them and the original literature. It is hoped that they will prove
+particularly helpful to those who may not have ready access to all the
+items of the original literature. My own coverage of the literature has
+not been by any means exhaustive; limitations of time and insufficient
+accessibility of some of the rarer publications have been the principal
+factors involved in this deficiency.
+
+The chronological arrangement of the entries throws an interesting light
+on the gradual acquisition, during more than two centuries, of our
+present stock of information on the distribution, taxonomic characters,
+life habits, and general status of _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. It may
+be remarked, however, that one of the very earliest accounts (Hearne,
+1795) was one of the fullest. It contributes toward bringing into focus
+the remarkable attainments of that pioneer explorer-naturalist of the
+Barren Grounds.
+
+  “Deer” (one of three kinds): Isham, 1949 (1743): 151
+  (description); 152 (inhabit Barren Grounds); 152-153 (snares);
+  154 (Eskimos hunting with spears and arrows).
+
+  “Rain-deer” or “Cariboux”: Dobbs, 1774: 9, 78, 94 (Marble
+  Island); 19 (Indians living on Caribou W. of Hudson Bay); 20
+  (herds of up to 10,000 between Churchill and Nelson rivers); 22
+  (migration [of Barren Ground or Woodland species?] near York
+  Factory--S. in March-April, N. in July-August); 47, 59 (N. of
+  Churchill); 73-74 (Wager Inlet); 80 (Cape Fullerton).
+
+  “Deer”: Hearne, 1795: 4, 7, 8, 14, 24 (vicinity of Seal River or
+  Shethanei Lake); 28 (near Baralzon Lake); 35 (spearing by
+  Chipewyans on upper Kazan River); 39, 40 (W. of upper Kazan
+  River, July 22-30); 40-42, 50-52 (vicinity of upper Dubawnt
+  River); 50 (skins suitable for clothing in late August); 56, 66
+  (vicinity of Egg River, Manitoba, November and December); 67-68
+  (E. of Nueltin Lake); 69, 72, (Nueltin Lake); 69 (flesh of bucks
+  still unpalatable on December 30); 73, 74 (W. of Nueltin Lake,
+  January); 76 (plentiful W. of Kasba Lake); 77 (Snowbird Lake);
+  78 (Indians living all winter on deer at Wholdaia Lake); 78-80
+  (description of a pound); 80-84 (deer in Indian economy); 84
+  (remoteness a barrier to trade in skins); 85-87 (W. of Wholdaia
+  Lake, plentiful, March); 87 (“Thelewey-aza-yeth” Lake [on Thelon
+  River], numerous, April); 96 (Indians living all winter on deer
+  near Clowey Lake); 112, 114 (“Peshew” [Artillery?] Lake and
+  vicinity); 117 (plentiful, vicinity of Thoy-noy-kyed and
+  Thoy-coy-lyned lakes); 119, 123 (N. of Cogead Lake, where
+  Indians kill deer at a river crossing); 139 (N. of Buffalo
+  Lake); 141 (E. of Coppermine River); 142, 143, 147, 171
+  (Coppermine River and vicinity); 184 (Stony Mountains); 195
+  (Thaye-chuck-gyed Lake [Lac de Gras?]; great numbers killed);
+  196-197 (use for clothing, boots, tents, etc.); 197 (warbles
+  eaten by Indians); 198 (rutting season in October; subsequent
+  segregation of sexes); 198-199 (old bucks’ antlers shed in
+  November; young bucks still retain theirs at Christmas, and does
+  till summer); 201, 204 (Point Lake); 222 (between Great Slave
+  and MacKay lakes); 275 (large numbers reported on upper Taltson?
+  River); 281 (W. of Hill Island Lake); 285, 286 (plentiful in
+  April on Thee-lee-aza [Thelon?] River, NE. of Hill Island Lake);
+  293 (near Wholdaia Lake); 295, 296 (W. and E. of Kazan River);
+  297 (method of drying meat); 299 (plentiful in June, Nueltin
+  Lake region); 300 (vicinity of Egg River, Manitoba); 316-319
+  (stomach contents, unborn young and uterus eaten by Indians);
+  321-322 (Indians driving deer between converging rows of
+  sticks); 322-323 (tents of deerskin); 323-325 (skins used in
+  manufacture of sledges, snowshoes, and clothing).
+
+  “Rein-deer”: Parry, 1821: 273 (E. coast of Baffin Island).
+
+  “Reindeer” or “deer”: Franklin, 1823: 215-227, 285 (Yellowknife
+  River region); 230-232, 239-240, 245, 248, 268-271, 285, 297,
+  299, 309, 315-320, 438-440, 459-462, 480-488 (Winter Lake
+  region); 233, 324-325, 418-426, 446-447 (Point Lake region); 240
+  (back fat; rutting season); 240-241 (antler and pelage change);
+  241 (larvae of warble and nostril flies); 241-242 (migration);
+  242 (fawning; food; weight; predation by wolves); 243-244
+  (Indian hunting methods); 327, 328, 333, 337, 344 (Coppermine
+  River region); 327 (pursuit by a wolf); 344 (driven by wolves
+  over a precipice); 363-374 (coast of Coronation Gulf); 379-395
+  (Bathurst Inlet region); 397-400 (Hood River region); 404-413
+  (Contwoyto Lake region); 478 (Marten Lake); 486, 487 (pursuit
+  and killing by wolves, Winter Lake region).
+
+  _Cervus Tarandas_. . .: Sabine, in Franklin, 1823: 665, 667
+  (Barren Grounds, migrating in summer to Arctic islands).
+
+  “Deer” or “reindeer”: Lyon, 1824: 48, 58-60 (Frozen Strait); 54
+  (Repulse Bay); 64-67 (Gore Bay; too fleet for a greyhound); 70,
+  74, 76, 77, 80, 82 (Lyon Inlet and vicinity); 119, 123, 130,
+  144, 203, 212 (Winter Island; food of Eskimos; bows made of
+  antlers; use of sinews; deerskin clothing); 192-198, 217, 221,
+  223, 229, 238, 241, 282-283, 311-317 (Melville Peninsula, E.
+  coast; deerskin clothing of Eskimos); 257, 269-270 (near Fury
+  and Hecla Strait; buck shedding velvet, September 4); 324, 327
+  (Eskimo use of antlers in sledges and bows); 336 (Melville
+  Peninsula, in summer; voice; inquisitiveness); 336-337 (Eskimo
+  hunting with bow and spearing in water); 415, 419-423, 430, 436
+  (near Igloolik, Melville Peninsula, in June).
+
+  “Deer” or “reindeer”: Parry, 1824: 42 (Southampton Island); 52,
+  61, 69, 71, 72, 83, 84, 92, 101, 106-108, 214, 230, 235, 236,
+  245, 254, 265 (s. Melville Peninsula and vicinity); 289, 305,
+  308, 324, 329, 332, 339, 343, 434, 438, 439, 441, 446, 447,
+  453-460 (Fury and Hecla Strait); 289 (stomach contents eaten by
+  Eskimos); 305 (estimated weight 220 lb.); 380 (venison supplied
+  by Eskimos); 403 (15 deer killed by an Eskimo during a summer);
+  494-497 (deerskin clothing of Eskimos, Melville Peninsula); 505
+  (their dependence on reindeer for food); 508 (Eskimo spear for
+  killing deer in water); 512 (Eskimo methods of hunting deer);
+  513 (numerous, Cockburn Land); 537 (Eskimo use of skins and
+  sinew).
+
+  _Cervus tarandus_ L.: Richardson, “1825” (= 1827?): 326 (native
+  names); 327-328 (antler growth and change); 328 (rutting season
+  and strong-tasting meat, about beginning of October; warble
+  flies); 328-329 (migrations, in relation to attacks of parasitic
+  flies and to food; does precede on northward migration); 329
+  (fawns born in May and June; stragglers in every part of the
+  country at all seasons); 330 (utilization of Caribou--including
+  fly larvae--as food by natives; nostril flies); 331 (marrow used
+  as hair-dressing by native women).
+
+  _Cervus tarandus_. . .: J. C. Ross, 1826: 94 (North Somerset
+  Island).
+
+  “Rein-deer”: Franklin, in Franklin and Richardson, 1828: 54, 57,
+  60, 64, 71, 72, 288 (Great Bear Lake).
+
+  “Rein-deer”: Richardson, in Franklin and Richardson, 1828: 200
+  (sinews used in Eskimo bows); 209, 218 (between Mackenzie River
+  and Cape Dalhousie); 224 (Liverpool Bay); 231 (E. of Cape
+  Bathurst); 241, 246 (near Cape Lyon); 249 (Cape Young); 255
+  (Dolphin and Union Strait); 269-273 (lower Coppermine River);
+  275 (stalking device of Hare Indians); 277 (Dease River); 282
+  (Great Bear Lake).
+
+  _Cervus tarandus_, var. [Greek: alpha] _arctica_ Richardson:
+  Richardson, 1829: 241-242 (original description); 239 (type
+  locality, neighborhood of Fort Enterprise, Mackenzie); 241
+  (rutting season); 241-242 (antler change); 242 (pelage change;
+  infestation with warble fly; foot click); 242-245 (economic uses
+  of hide, flesh, bones, and antlers; migration; not wintering S.
+  of Churchill); 242-244 (reproduction); 243, 245 (food); 245
+  (organization of herds; easy of approach); 245-249 (native
+  methods of hunting).
+
+  _Cervus tarandus_ L.: Godman, 1831, +2+: 283-284 (migration);
+  284 (food; gadfly attacking both Woodland and Barren Ground
+  Caribou); 285-293 (quotations from Franklin, 1823).
+
+  “Deer” or “reindeer”: John Ross, 1835a: 130-376, _passim_
+  (Boothia Peninsula); 243-244 (Eskimo clothing of deerskin); 252
+  (Eskimo method of hunting); 328, 330 (only small numbers up to
+  late April); 337 (many, early May); 352 (stomach contents as
+  food for Eskimos); 376 (migrating N., May 26); 389 (large herd);
+  390 (hundreds, June 4); 402 (pursued and eaten by wolves); 432
+  (with fawns, June 10); 438 (many in June); 512 (many killed by
+  Eskimos); 529 (many tracks, May 15); 530 (many passing, followed
+  by a wolf); 534 (many, May 21, with two wolves); 537 (Eskimos
+  killing deer in winter); 564 (a number pursued by a wolf); 612
+  (two, October 30); 628 (first tracks, March); 704 (tracks,
+  Somerset Island, late June).
+
+  _Cervus tarandus_. . .: J. C. Ross, in John Ross, 1835b: xvii
+  (great numbers, Boothia; weight 250 lb.; does arriving in April,
+  bucks in May; fawns hunted by Eskimos with dogs; utilization by
+  Eskimos; food; great numbers speared in water in autumn
+  migration; stragglers found in winter); xviii (measurements).
+
+  “Rein-deer” or “deer”: Back, 1836: 86 (Thelon River); 105 (Great
+  Slave Lake); 116 (Hoar-frost River); 128-129 (near Artillery
+  Lake, reindeer chased by wolves); 138-143 (Clinton-Colden and
+  Aylmer lakes); 156-157 (head of Great Fish River); 178, 205
+  (near Fort Reliance); 216, 225, 234 (remaining on Barren Grounds
+  near Great Slave Lake during winter); 261, 267, 268, 273, 280,
+  281, 285, 286 (Artillery Lake); 290, 292 (Lake Aylmer); 299,
+  307, 311, 320, 323, 325, 328, 337 (upper Back’s River); 367
+  (lower Back’s River, deer drowned in rapids); 420 (Chantrey
+  Inlet); 435, 439 (lower Back’s River).
+
+  _Cervus tarandus_ Linn.: Richardson, in Back, 1836: 498 (Barren
+  Grounds; migration; food); 499 (utilization by Indians and
+  Eskimos; antlers).
+
+  “Reindeer” or “deer”: Simpson, 1843: 76 (destruction in 1831 of
+  a countless herd [of Woodland or Barren Ground species?]
+  crossing Hayes River in summer); 196, 198 (Great Bear Lake,
+  September); 206, 226, 232, 242, 247, 249, 250 (between Great
+  Bear Lake and Coppermine River); 207 (solicitude of a buck for a
+  wounded doe); 208 (antlers worn by Indian hunter as a decoy);
+  232 (deer driven over a cliff by wolves); 233 (numerous near
+  Dease River, early April); 255, 256, 261, 264 (lower Coppermine
+  River, June); 266, 271, 273 (Coppermine River to Cape Barrow,
+  July); 277 (does apparently crossing the ice to islands for
+  fawning); 278, 279 (Cape Barrow to Bathurst Inlet); 281 (first
+  does with fawns seen, August 3); 284 (Bathurst Inlet); 295, 297,
+  301 (E. of Cape Franklin, migrating S., late August); 309, 310
+  (lower Coppermine River, September; drowned in rapids); 312
+  (deer snares, Dease River); 320-321 (retiring in winter to
+  Coppermine River and country south of Great Bear Lake); 328
+  (numerous between Great Bear Lake and Mackenzie River in
+  winter); 342 (between Great Bear Lake and Coppermine River,
+  June); 347 (Eskimos hunting on Richardson River, summer); 352
+  (lower Coppermine River); 355 (Eskimos at Cape Barrow gone
+  inland to hunt deer, July); 361 (Ellice River, July 31); 365,
+  367 (Adelaide Peninsula); 370, 374 (Elliot Bay); 379 (King
+  William Island); 381 (does and fawns near Ogden Bay, early
+  September); 382 (Melbourne Island); 386 (Victoria Island, early
+  September); 391 (great numbers, lower Coppermine River,
+  September 20).
+
+  “Rein-deer”: J. McLean, 1932 (1849): 195 (immense herds
+  [Woodland or Barren Ground sp.?] in York Factory region prior to
+  1837; their disappearance reducing Indians to want); 359
+  (Yellowknife Indians reported to have the art of taming fawns,
+  which follow them like dogs till killed and utilized).
+
+  “Deer” or “rein-deer”: Rae, 1850: 26, 27 (Rankin’s Inlet); 27
+  (Eskimos spearing deer while crossing Chesterfield Inlet); 28
+  (Cape Fullerton); 31, 32 (near Whale Point); 35, 39 (Eskimo
+  clothing of caribou skin, Repulse Bay); 40, 64, 65, 73, 74, 76,
+  80, 84, 91, 92, 133, 134, 166, 169, 177 (Repulse Bay); 44 (stone
+  monuments erected by Eskimos to deflect deer); 44, 68, 99 (Rae
+  Isthmus); 52, 54, 55, 130, 132, 145, 160, 161 (Committee Bay);
+  79 (use by Eskimos for clothing and food); 93 (migrating N.,
+  Repulse Bay, early March); 116 (Pelly Bay); 149, 151 (Melville
+  Peninsula); 150 (use of stomach contents as food); 170 (Eskimo
+  drum of caribou skin); 184, 186 (near Chesterfield Inlet).
+
+  “Deer”: Osborn, 1852: 74 (near Pond Inlet).
+
+  “Deer”: Rae, 1852a: 75 (Victoria Island, near Richardson
+  Islands); 79 (many crossing Dolphin and Union Straits to
+  Victoria Island).
+
+  “Deer”: Rae, 1852b: 83 (lower Coppermine River); 91, 95
+  (Victoria Island, vicinity of Albert Edward Bay).
+
+  “Barren Ground reindeer”: Richardson, 1852: 156 (Point
+  Atkinson); 158 (Cape Brown); 166 (Franklin Bay); 173 (Buchanan
+  River); 188 (Rae’s River); 198 (Kendall River region); 290
+  (Great Bear Lake; weight; great numbers [of Woodland or Barren
+  Ground species?] crossing Hayes River, 1833, and slaughtered
+  there by Indians); 296 (Great Bear Lake, migrating N. in May).
+
+  “Reindeer” or “deer”: Hooper, 1853: 296 (dried meat as winter
+  fare at Fort Norman); 302 (few along Bear River, November); 342
+  (Kendall Island); 343 (Richard Island); 378, 381 (meat as winter
+  fare at Fort Simpson); 391-393 (method of preparing pemmican).
+
+  “Rein-deer”: Kennedy, 1853: 128 (numerous tracks, North
+  Somerset, early April); 133 (Bellot Strait); 144, 150 (numerous,
+  Prince of Wales Island, late April).
+
+  _Rangifer caribou_ . . . (_C. tarandus, var. A. Arctica_
+  Richardson): Audubon and Bachman, 1854, +3+: 114 (quotations
+  from Richardson, 1829, and Hearne, 1795; “in every part of
+  Arctic America, including the region from Hudson’s Bay to far
+  within the Arctic circle”).
+
+  “Deer”: J. Anderson, 1856: 24 (about 100, mostly bucks, Adelaide
+  Peninsula, early August; Eskimos at Lake Franklin preparing to
+  hunt deer); 25 (a few does at Lake Macdougall, mid-August;
+  numerous at Aylmer and Clinton-Colden Lakes, early September).
+
+  “Deer”: J. Anderson, 1857: 321 (Eskimos hunting deer, Lake
+  Franklin, July 30); 322 (mouth of Back’s River, July 30); 323
+  (fat bucks killed, Montreal Island, August 2-3); 324, 325, 327
+  (100, mostly bucks, Adelaide Peninsula, August 6, 7, 11); 326
+  (all tracks going S., August 9); 328 (25 going S., Lake Pelly;
+  good deer passes between Lakes Pelly and Garry and at Hawk
+  Rapids).
+
+  “Reindeer” or “Deer”: Armstrong, 1857: 149, 154, 155 (Eskimos
+  with Reindeer meat and skins, Point Warren, E. of Mackenzie
+  River); 166 (skins and meat at Eskimo camp near Cape Dalhousie);
+  194 (deerskin clothing of Eskimos on coast of Mackenzie); 210,
+  316, 322, 384, 391, 395, 417 (Banks Island); 254, 335, 364, 365
+  (Victoria Island, in October, May, July, and August); 297, 336
+  (Prince of Wales Strait, January and May); 395 (predation by
+  wolves, Banks Island); 475-488, 497-499, 505-510, 514, 515,
+  521-530, 545-556, 568 (Banks Island; maximum weight 240 lb.;
+  distribution; remain during winter; fawning; 112 killed at Bay
+  of Mercy; quality of meat varying with season; wariness; antler
+  change; description; graze with heads to wind; pursuit by
+  wolves).
+
+  _Rangifer groenlandicus_ (Kerr) (part): Baird, 1857: 635
+  (description; weight); 635-636 (distribution).
+
+  _Cervus Tarandus_, var. [Greek: a] _arctica_ Richardson: Murray,
+  1858: 191 (Chesterfield Inlet region); 193-198 (comparison with
+  Lapland reindeer); 199-206 (antlers and shedding); 201-204
+  (quotations from previous literature on antlers, food, fawning
+  season, and winter range); 206 (teeth); 206-210 (fur); 210
+  (damage by warble flies).
+
+  “Reindeer” or “deer”: M’Clintock, 1860?: 147 (s. shore of Pond
+  Inlet); 167, 176, 177, 184-188, 191, 194, 201, 203, 217, 289,
+  290, 295, 299 (Bellot Strait); 184 (buck at Bellot Strait, minus
+  paunch, weighing 354 lb.); 212 (Eskimo clothing of reindeer
+  skins, Boothia Peninsula); 219 (Somerset Island); 239 (Adelaide
+  Peninsula); 244 (Montreal Island); 245 (Chantrey Inlet); 252,
+  279, 280 (King William Island).
+
+  “Rein-deer” (part): Richardson, 1861: 274 (migration; rutting
+  season; utilization by Indians and Eskimos); 275 (moving N. at
+  Repulse Bay, March 1; food).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ . . .: B. R. Ross, 1861: 438 (between Hudson
+  Bay and Arctic Ocean; infested by larvae of warble and nostril
+  flies); 438-439 (migrations); 439 (antler and pelage change;
+  food); 439-440 (value to Indians for food, clothing, etc.).
+
+  _Rangifer Groënlandicus_ . . .: B. R. Ross, 1862: 141
+  (distribution).
+
+  “Reindeer” or “deer”: Osborn, 1865: 70 (Cape Bathurst); 80, 110,
+  162, 170, 173, 182, 186, 188, 189, 192, 199, 206-208, 219 (Banks
+  Island); 98, 139, 146 (Victoria Island); 112 (Prince of Wales
+  Strait, January); 223-224 (resident in Arctic archipelago,
+  including Banks Island); 226 (no migration across Barrow Strait
+  or Melville Sound); 227 (weight; gait; antler change; fawning);
+  227-228, 231, 232 (wolf predation).
+
+  “Reindeer”: Kennicott, in Anonymous, 1869: 166 (dried reindeer
+  meat one of chief foods at Fort Simpson); 170 (caribou clothing
+  used by Yellow Knives).
+
+  _Rangifer tarandus_ (Linné) Bd.: Kumlien, 1879: 19 (Eskimo
+  hunting at Cumberland Sound); 23-25 (Eskimo clothing of
+  deerskin); 36-37 (Eskimo arrows and bows of antlers); 53, 54
+  (pursuit by wolves); 54 (abundant in Cumberland Sound region;
+  migration; food; hunting and utilization by Eskimos).
+
+  “Barren ground caribou”: R. Bell, 1881: 15C (migrating in great
+  numbers, Reindeer Lake).
+
+  _Rangifer Groenlandicus_ “Baird” (part): Caton, 1881: 105
+  (description); 106 (Mackenzie River to Hudson Bay); 107 (food);
+  108 (habits; migration); 366-371 (hunting by Indians and
+  Eskimos).
+
+  “Reindeer” or “deer”: Gilder, 1881: 11 (Eskimos near Lower
+  Savage Islands, Hudson Strait, with skins and meat); 23, 25, 26,
+  28 (hunting by Eskimos near Connery River, Keewatin); 42, 46
+  (near Chesterfield Inlet); 43 (Eskimo drum of deerskin); 50 (dog
+  harness of deerskin); 59, 61, 64, 67, 71 (522 reindeer killed by
+  Schwatka’s party between Hudson Bay and King William Island); 61
+  (pursued by wolves); 78 (wariness in winter); 83, 192 (Adelaide
+  Peninsula); 122, 132, 153, 157, 161, 162 (King William Island);
+  137-146 (Eskimo use of skins and meat); 154 (Eskimos use of fat
+  and meat); 196-197 (reindeer collecting in immense herds to
+  cross Simpson Strait on ice in early October); 217, 218 (lower
+  Back’s River, December); 223, 224, 225, 226 (numerous between
+  Back’s River and Chesterfield Inlet, January); 254-255
+  (deerskins as Eskimo bedding).
+
+  “Reindeer” or “deer”: Nourse, 1884: 220 (Eskimos dressing skins
+  near Wager Bay); 232 (37 killed by Hall’s party in July, Wager
+  Bay); 235 (a thousand passing in a day; many cached near North
+  Pole River, late September; seen from September to January, and
+  reappearing in March); 256 (deer-hunting, Melville Peninsula);
+  264-265 (18 deer and a fawn near Cape Weynton); 351 (found
+  abundant by Schwatka between Wager Bay and Back’s River); 354
+  (King William Island); 356 (plentiful, Terror Bay; immense
+  herds, Simpson Strait, September to October 14).
+
+  “Reindeer” or “Arctic deer”: Schwatka, 1885: 59-60, 65, 67-71,
+  73-75, 81-82, 86 (hunting by Eskimos and whites in n. Keewatin);
+  60-64 (skins for clothing, bedding, and drums); 60-61 (molt);
+  65, 67 (use of meat); 68, 71-72 (swimming); 72 (many on King
+  William Island); 77-79 (migrating across Simpson’s Strait, June
+  and October); 79 (Boothia and North Somerset); 81 (near mouth of
+  Back’s River); 83 (rarely seen in herds of more than 100;
+  migrations); 84-85 (weight); 85 (unwariness).
+
+  “Deer”: Boas, 1888: 419 (deer in Eskimo economy); 429, 461-462,
+  501 (Baffin Island; hunting by Eskimos in summer by spear or
+  line of cairns); 438 (varying numbers on Cumberland Peninsula);
+  502 (migration, Baffin and King William Islands); 502-503 (bows
+  made of antlers); 508-509 (stalking and trapping by Eskimos);
+  522 (dressing of skins by Eskimos); 555-560 (clothing of
+  deerskin).
+
+  “Reindeer”: Bompas, 1888: 24 (deflected in their migrations in
+  Mackenzie district by burning of the country); 60 (attacked by
+  wolves); 61 (Indian methods of hunting); 62 (palatability of the
+  flesh); 100 (utilization of hides and meat).
+
+  “Deer”: Collinson, 1889: 153 (Banks Island; weight); 166, 171,
+  173-175, 181, 186, 197, 209, 220, 237, 264, 272-274 (Victoria
+  Island); 200, 203, 229 (Prince of Wales Strait); 235 (Dolphin
+  and Union Strait); 243, 247, 281, 283 (Cambridge Bay); 244
+  (large herds waiting to cross Dease Strait, October; trailed by
+  wolves); 277 (stone monuments of Eskimos for deflecting deer,
+  Dease Strait); 290 (large numbers migrating in autumn from
+  Victoria Island to mainland).
+
+  “Reindeer”: MacFarlane, 1890: 32-34 (Anderson River; Eskimos
+  hunting reindeer there; their clothing in part of deerskin); 38
+  (Eskimo fish nets of deer sinew); 38, 43, 47 (numerous on
+  Anderson River).
+
+  “Barren Ground caribou”: Pike, 1917 (1892): 43, 64 (near Lake
+  Mackay); 44-46 (Lake Camsell); 48 (Arctic islands to s. part of
+  Hudson Bay and vicinity of Fort Smith, W. to Mackenzie River;
+  rutting season in October); 48-49 (migration); 49 (segregation
+  of sexes; antler change); 50 (migration deflected by burning of
+  country; thousands [Barren Ground or Woodland species?] at York
+  Factory, about 1888-1890; depletion by hunting); 51-55 (Indian
+  methods of hunting; economic uses); 51-52, 90 (unwariness);
+  56-58 (relations to Eskimos, wolves, and wolverines); 58-59
+  (parasitic flies); 59-60 (Indian superstition); 67, 72
+  (Coppermine River above Lac de Gras); 76 (near Lake Mackay; Lake
+  Camsell); 81-82 (S. of Lake Mackay; curing of meat and hides);
+  89-91 (la foule); 90 (rutting season over and bucks too strong
+  to eat, late October); 101 (mostly passed into the woods by
+  November 11); 108 (Lake Mackay); 134 (near Lac de Mort); 148
+  (near Gros Cap, Great Slave Lake, January); 171, 174, 177 (N. of
+  Great Slave Lake); 174 (bucks leaving woods in early June); 182
+  (Lake Aylmer); 186, 199 (Back’s River, July); 201, 204 (near
+  Lake Beechey; females with young, late July); 209 (females and
+  young in great numbers, upper Back’s River); 217 (Clinton-Colden
+  Lake, early August); 220 (thousands at Ptarmigan Lake, August);
+  221 (Artillery Lake); 224, 227 (Pike’s Portage).
+
+  _Rangifer Groenlandicus_ Linn.: J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128 (use in
+  economy of northern Indians; weight; antler shedding; pelage
+  change; infestation with warbles); 129 (wintering between
+  Churchill River and Lake Athabaska; collecting on frozen lakes);
+  130 (Indian hunters killing 100-400 apiece; Fond du Lac, Lake
+  Athabaska, on a main migratory path).
+
+  _Rangifer Groenlandica_ Linn.: Dowling, 1893: 89 (Bear Head Lake
+  [N. of Great Slave Lake]); 92 (near Lake Mackay, June 22); 103
+  (a favorite crossing on Great Fish River near Musk-ox Lake); 107
+  (Pike’s expedition living mainly on caribou; migrations; does
+  fawning near the sea-coast, bucks following behind; horns in
+  velvet prized as food by Indians).
+
+  “Barren Ground caribou”: J. B. Tyrrell, 1894: 441 (_Alectoria
+  jubata_, a lichen, at Daly Lake, as food of caribou); 442
+  (immense herd--“tens of thousands”--at Carey Lake, July 29;
+  tormented by black flies; animals lean and poor); 445 (Eskimo
+  wearing deerskin coat; Lady Marjorie Lake, lower Dubawnt River);
+  446 (caribou plentiful in country traversed as far as Baker
+  Lake; last one shot there September 3).
+
+  “Barren Ground Caribou”: Russell, 1895: 48 (a mass of caribou
+  passing Fort Rae for 14 days in 1877); 49 (a section of antler
+  used by Indian as a powder horn); 49-50 (caribou N. of North Arm
+  of Great Slave Lake, November); 50 (leaping high in air at
+  start; Indian hunting methods); 51 (Indian use of meat; albino
+  specimen; antler growth and shedding; thousands near Bathurst
+  Inlet, April; does fawning along sea coast in June).
+
+  “Deer”: J. B. Tyrrell, 1895: 440 (deer meat bartered by
+  Chipewyans at Brochet); 442-443 (Indians hunting deer at Ennadai
+  Lake; large numbers encountered there; Eskimos skinning deer on
+  upper Kazan River); 444 (deerskin clothing purchased from
+  Eskimos on Kazan River); 445 (no deer seen in rocky country
+  along Ferguson River).
+
+  _Rangifer Graenlandicus_ . . .: J. B. Tyrrell, 1896: 13 (S. in
+  winter to Reindeer Lake and Mudjatick and Foster Rivers); 63
+  (migrating past Fond du Lac, Lake Athabaska).
+
+  “Caribou”: Whitney, 1896: 157, 238, 241 (migrations); 161 (fat,
+  pemmican, and dried meat); 175 (use of dried meat by Dogribs);
+  176 (tepees of caribou skin); 202-206 (vicinity of Fort
+  Enterprise); 210 (near Point Lake); 210, 213 (Dogrib hunting
+  methods); 237 (importance to Indians; weight; an albino);
+  238-239 (antler shedding); 239 (warble and nostril flies;
+  persecution by wolves); 240 (seasonal condition of flesh;
+  distribution; recent decrease); 242 (wasteful killing by
+  Indians; variation in wariness); 252, 268-269 (S. of Coronation
+  Gulf); 262 (shoulder-blade as Indian talisman).
+
+  _Rangifer Groenlandicus_. . .: J. B. Tyrrell, 1897: 10, 49-50,
+  165 (herd of 100,000 to 200,000 at Carey Lake, Dubawnt River,
+  late July); 12 (plentiful near Thelon-Dubawnt junction; scarce
+  at Baker Lake, early September); 14 (S. of Dawson Inlet); 19,
+  124 (large numbers, Ennadai Lake, mid-August); 21, 140, 142
+  (plentiful along Ferguson River, September); 76 (plentiful along
+  Dubawnt River); 122, 131-132 (hunted by Chipewyans, Ennadai Lake
+  and Kazan River); 126-127, 131-132 (hunted by Eskimos, upper
+  Kazan River); 134 (many near Yathkyed Lake); 150-151 (near
+  source of Owl River, Manitoba; hunted by Indians, Wapinihikiskow
+  Lake); 166-167 (hunting by Chipewyans and Eskimos; use for food,
+  clothing, and kayaks).
+
+  _Rangifer tarandus arcticus_. . .: Lydekker, 1898: 47-48
+  (description); 48 (distribution); 48-49 (migration; food).
+
+  _Rangifer tarandus_ (Linn.): Russell, 1898: 88 (great numbers
+  passing Fort Rae for 14 days in 1877); 89 (N. of Fort Rae); 90
+  (leaping into air at start); 91 (use of flesh by Dog Ribs;
+  albino specimen); 111, 113, 119 (upper Coppermine River region,
+  abundant in March); 134 (caribou-skin clothing worn formerly by
+  Loucheux at Fort McPherson); 139 (on Mackenzie Delta in 1850);
+  168 (caribou-skin lodge at Fort Rae); 169-172 (caribou-skin
+  clothing among Dog Ribs); 176 (caribou-skin drum at Fort Rae;
+  use of sinew); 178 (caribou-skin gun cases among Indians);
+  187-189 (caribou-skin clothing among Eskimos); 225 (antler
+  change); 226 (albino; food; distribution and migrations); 227
+  (abundant along coast between Mackenzie River and Cape Bathurst,
+  1894; deer snares; spearing; hunting); 228-229 (utilization by
+  Eskimos and Indians; parasitic flies).
+
+  “Barren Ground Caribou,” “deer,” or “reindeer”: J. W. Tyrrell,
+  1908 (1898): 77-78 (Barlow Lake; Carey Lake, thousands, late
+  July); 79 (weight 100-400 lb.; molt); 79-80 (antler change); 80
+  (relation of prongs to age; migration; food; reproduction);
+  80-81 (utilization of meat, skins, and sinew); 87-88 (Dubawnt
+  Lake); 97 (lower Dubawnt River); 98 (Wharton Lake); 123-138
+  (utilization by Eskimos); 139-141 (hunting by Eskimos); 174-177
+  (near Dawson Inlet); 206-207 (E. of Churchill River); 215 (mouth
+  of Nelson River [Woodland or Barren Ground species?]); 241
+  (importance to natives).
+
+  “Caribou” or “reindeer”: Jones, 1899: 328-332, 342-343, 353-355
+  (Fort Reliance and vicinity); 329 (weight); 338, 340, 365, 394
+  (Artillery Lake and vicinity); 342 (Indian corral or trap); 359
+  (noonday rest of caribou); 368 (immense band, Clinton-Colden
+  Lake, early March); 374 (tens of thousands of does daily,
+  Clinton-Colden Lake, moving N., March); 374-375 (relations to
+  wolves); 381 (abundant, near mouth of Dubawnt River, March); 390
+  (near lower Dubawnt River); 411 (suffering from insects); 429
+  (spearing by Indians).
+
+  “Deer”: Lofthouse, 1899: 275 (mouth of Tha-anne River, early
+  July).
+
+  “Caribou or deer”: Hanbury, 1900: 64 (Eskimos bringing venison
+  to Churchill and reporting deer numerous along the coast); 65
+  (importance of deer in northern travel; scarce along west coast
+  of Hudson Bay in May and early June); 66-67 (very scarce at
+  Baker Lake in June, plentiful in July); 67 (flesh unpalatable in
+  fly-time; large bands at Aberdeen Lake, August); 69 (absent in
+  winter on lower Thelon River; very scarce on Hanbury River,
+  August); 71 (plentiful, Artillery Lake to Great Slave Lake,
+  September).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson) (part): A. J. Stone, 1900: 50
+  (distribution; migration); 51 (Richards Island); 53 (antlers;
+  does and fawns moving N. in May, Franklin Bay; sprawling posture
+  of hind leg); 57 (disastrous results of whalers’ demands for
+  meat; Darnley Bay; Bathurst Isthmus).
+
+  “Caribou”: J. M. Bell, 1901a: 16 (vast herds near Dismal Lake;
+  use by Eskimos).
+
+  “Caribou”: J. M. Bell, 1901b: 252 (furnishing food and
+  clothing for Hare Indians, Great Bear Lake); 255 (use by Eskimos
+  near Coppermine River; vast herds); 258 (plentiful, but
+  decreasing, S. of Great Bear Lake; wanton killing by Indian and
+  Eskimos).
+
+  “Caribou”: Boas, 1901: 52, 54 (Eskimo garments of caribou skin,
+  Cumberland Sound); 81 (Eskimos hunting caribou with harpoons);
+  102, 107 (Eskimo clothing of caribou skin, w. coast of Hudson
+  Bay); 150 (albino caribou).--1907: 465 (Eskimos W. of Hudson Bay
+  dependent on caribou); 474 (caribou plentiful on Southampton
+  Island and larger than on mainland); 493 (caribou-hunting at
+  Pond’s Inlet); 501 (taboo against killing albino caribou, W. of
+  Hudson Bay).
+
+  [_Rangifer_] _arcticus_ (Rich.): Elliot, 1901: 37 (“Barren
+  grounds of Arctic America, north of the tree limit, to the
+  shores and islands of the Arctic Ocean”; diagnosis).
+
+  _Rangifer tarandus arcticus_ . . . (part): Lydekker, 1901: 38-40
+  (description).
+
+  “Reindeer and caribou (Rangifer caribou)”: W. J. McLean, 1901: 5
+  (Great Slave Lake, annual arrival on August 12; hunting and
+  utilization by Indians); 6 (antler growth and change; migration;
+  trails; swimming).
+
+  _Rangifer tarandus_ . . . (part): Beddard, 1902: 298
+  (“circumpolar”).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ . . .: Elliot, 1902: 259 (“in 1856 they
+  migrated to latitude 47° in great numbers to Lake Huron” [???]);
+  260, 274-275 (migrations); 273 (Arctic regions, W. to Coppermine
+  and Mackenzie Rivers); 276 (food; fat); 276-277 (utilization by
+  Indians and Eskimos); 277-279 (native hunting methods); 279-280
+  (antlers shed by old bucks in December and January, carried by
+  young bucks till spring, and by does till birth of fawns);
+  281-282, 286-287 (description).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Preble, 1902: 41 (50 and 25
+  miles S. of Eskimo Point; pursued by wolves; attacks of
+  insects); 42 (flashing a white throat-patch; summation of
+  previous records; ranging S. to Churchill River and Reindeer
+  Lake); 42-43 (pelage described).
+
+  “Caribou”: J. W. Tyrrell, 1924 (1902): 15 (Fort Reliance, Great
+  Slave Lake); 17 (Pike’s Portage); 18-20 (Artillery Lake); 26
+  (nearly all gone farther N., only stragglers remaining along
+  Hanbury River, early July); 27-28 (numerous tracks but few
+  animals, middle Thelon River, early July; hundreds killed by
+  spring ice or Eskimos); 31 (large band moving S., Thelon River,
+  July 23); 33-35 (between Thelon River and Artillery Lake); 37
+  (great bands of caribou the chief food supply in Thelon River
+  region).
+
+  _Rangifer articus_ . . . (part): Grant, 1903: 186 (Barren
+  Grounds W. of Hudson Bay, W. to Mackenzie River, S. in winter to
+  Churchill River and Reindeer Lake; threatened with extinction by
+  whalers); 189 (Salisbury Island).
+
+  “Deer”: Hanbury, 1903: 185 (between Lake Pelly and Arctic coast,
+  May).
+
+  “Caribou” or “deer”: Hanbury, 1904: 8 (Marble Island and
+  Chesterfield Inlet, June); 9 (Baker Lake, July); 10 (large bands
+  migrating S., Aberdeen Lake, early August); 14 (scarce, Hanbury
+  River); 16 (plentiful, Lockhart River); 30 (Pike’s Portage, late
+  July); 31 (Artillery Lake); 32 (Abbott Lake; scourged by warble
+  flies); 34 (large bands migrating S., Hanbury River, late July);
+  41 (hunted by Eskimos near Thelon-Dubawnt junction); 43-44, 47
+  (Schultz Lake); 43 (voice; spearing by Eskimos); 48 (scarce,
+  Baker Lake, early September); 49 (Chesterfield Inlet); 51
+  (plentiful near Marble Island, mid-September); 58 (leaving the
+  coast, late September); 67 (dressing of skins by Eskimos); 70,
+  72 (killed by Eskimos, Baker Lake); 73 (thousands at Baker Lake;
+  fierce combats between old bucks in October rutting season); 75
+  (deerskin roof of igloo); 82 (deerskin clothing of Eskimos); 84,
+  88-90 (NW. of Baker Lake, November); 85 (unwariness); 89
+  (pursuit by wolves); 93 (bucks remaining all winter on Back’s
+  River); 95 (numerous, Chesterfield Inlet; in December the old
+  bucks had dropped their antlers); 100 (near Depot Island);
+  104-107 (Chesterfield Inlet region); 108 (does migrating N. in
+  April); 111 (plentiful, Baker Lake, March); 113 (many, Schultz
+  Lake, March); 114-115, 123 (snow pitfalls made by Eskimos); 115,
+  116 (numerous, Aberdeen Lake, March); 116 (antlers of bucks
+  commencing to grow); 118 (NW. of Aberdeen Lake; buck weighing
+  280 lb.); 119 (Buchanan River); 120 (migration; many remaining
+  on Barrens all winter; deer meat essential to Eskimos on Back’s
+  River); 121 (frequent famine among Indians and Eskimos; caribou
+  formerly migrating S. and W. to Forts Simpson and Providence);
+  127-131 (Pelly Lake and vicinity); 131 (antics; jumping and
+  trotting); 133-137 (near Ogden Bay); 133 (majority of does
+  shedding antlers by late April); 135 (ravens feeding on
+  carcasses); 137 (warbles eaten by Eskimos); 139 (caribou
+  wintering on Kent Peninsula, at Cape Barrow, and on Victoria
+  Island); 143 (Arctic coast Eskimos going inland, summer and
+  fall, to live on deer); 149 (White Bear Point); 153-167
+  (mainland near Kent Peninsula); 164-174 (Bathurst Inlet); 177,
+  185-197 (scarce, Cape Barrow to Coppermine River); 194 (molting,
+  July; suffering from mosquitoes); 200-208 (lower Coppermine
+  River); 209, 210 (Kendall River); 215-221 (Dismal Lake); 223,
+  229-233 (Dease River); 232 (rubbing trees).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ . . . (part): Hornaday, 1904: 136 (Great
+  Bear and Great Slave Lakes to Cape Bathurst); 137 (Carey Lake;
+  migration); 138 (weight; antlers).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Stone and Cram, 1904: 52
+  (description; Arctic islands to Hudson Bay and Mackenzie River;
+  migration; rutting in October; sexual segregation); 53 (food;
+  Mackay Lake; grunting). (Chiefly quoted from Pike, 1892.)
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson) (part): Elliot, 1905: 401
+  (“Barren grounds of Arctic America north of the tree limit, to
+  the shores and islands of the Arctic Ocean”).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): MacFarlane, 1905: 680
+  (Mackenzie Basin; depletion through wanton slaughter by
+  Indians); 681-682 (Anderson River, in winter; hunting and
+  utilization by Eskimos and Indians); 682-683 (albino); 683
+  (trade in skins; wintering at Prince of Wales Strait and Mercy
+  Bay, Banks Island; migration between Arctic islands and
+  mainland); 684-685 (table of migration at Reindeer Lake);
+  692-693 (predation by wolves).
+
+  _R[angifer] arcticus_. . .: J. A. Allen, 1908a: 488 (specimens
+  from near Wager River described); 490 (migration).
+
+  _Rangifer arctica_ (Richardson): J. A. Allen, 1908b: 584 (type
+  locality, Fort Enterprise).
+
+  “Reindeer”: Amundsen, 1908, +1+: 76 (Boothia); 83-84 (King
+  William Island, September); 97 (reported formerly at Simpson
+  Strait in large herds in autumn); 99 (20 killed, King William
+  Island, late September); 102-106 (common in October, passing S.
+  over Simpson Strait; very shy; no wolves on King William
+  Island); 120 (Eskimos trading skins); 200 (King William Island,
+  first reindeer of season seen, June); 201 (supplied by Eskimos);
+  224 (Simpson Strait); 235, 241-243 (King William Island,
+  September); 237 (Eskimos hunting in September); 247 (large herds
+  passing over ice of Simpson Strait); 248 (King William Island,
+  October 15); 326-329 (hunting and utilization by Eskimos in
+  Boothia; few reindeer coming N. as early as May).--1908, +2+:
+  110 (many killed by Eskimos, King William Island); 311-316
+  (several, April); 322-325 (Royal Geographical Society Islands).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson) (part): Preble, 1908: 137
+  (Barren Grounds and islands northward; Great Bear Lake to Hudson
+  Bay; economy; probably two or more races; E. of Fort Smith in
+  winter; long ago S. to Fort McMurray); 138 (in 1902-03 to Cree
+  Lake; large numbers, Great Slave to Great Bear lakes; lower
+  Coppermine River); 139 (migration); 139-143 (summation of
+  previous records); 214 (wolves living largely on caribou).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): J. A. Allen, 1910: 8 (7 August
+  specimens from Artillery and Aylmer lakes; measurements and
+  weight).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Seton, 1911: 206-262, 341
+  (Artillery, Ptarmigan, Clinton-Colden, and Aylmer lakes;
+  habits); 210 (voice); 220, 258-260 (numbers); 225-226 (relation
+  to wolves); 259-262 (slaughter by natives and whalers).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Cameron, 1912: 127 (place in economy
+  of Caribou-eater Chipewyans; migration; on Lake Athabaska in
+  winter); 309 (Fort Rae as a “meat-post” for the Mackenzie
+  District).
+
+  “Caribou”: Wheeler, 1912: 199 (Fort Enterprise and Coppermine
+  River; 1910 a very poor caribou year; females and yearlings
+  taken in April; females [only?] wintering between Rae and
+  Enterprise, and largely exterminated; usual numbers in 1911;
+  large migration of males commenced May 18); 200 (between
+  Coppermine River and Bathurst Inlet; by June 10 all caribou
+  beyond [N. of] Coppermine River).
+
+  “Barren ground caribou”: R. M. Anderson, 1913a: 5 (recent
+  great decrease); 6 (stragglers left in Mackenzie Delta region;
+  great diminution along Arctic coast E. to Cape Parry, since
+  recent advent of whaling ships; great numbers on Victoria Island
+  in summer, crossing to mainland for winter; Great Bear Lake and
+  Coppermine River; drives and spearing by Eskimos); 6, 8
+  (importance to Eskimos for clothing and meat); 8 (poor sight of
+  caribou; hunting methods).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): R. M. Anderson, in Stefánsson,
+  1913b: 502 (importance in native economy; recent enormous
+  decrease; few left in Eskimo Lakes region, on Cape Bathurst, and
+  at Langton and Darnley Bays; great number in summer on Victoria
+  Island, migrating to the mainland); 503 (Great Bear Lake;
+  Coppermine River; occurrence on Arctic coast at any season;
+  Eskimos driving them between lines of stone monuments into water
+  and there spearing them); 504 (hunting methods; senses;
+  infestation by bot-fly); 504-505 (fawning); 505 (geographical
+  variation; antler growth and change); 505-506 (fat); 516
+  (relations to wolves).
+
+  _“Caribou”_: Stefánsson, 1913a: 93 (ravens in Arctic feeding
+  on caribou left by wolves); 94 (caribou moving N., Prince Albert
+  Sound, Victoria Island, May 12); 95-96 (migrating across Dolphin
+  and Union Strait, March and May); 99 (plentiful on Dease River,
+  winter of 1910-11; abundant on lower Coppermine River, March; no
+  great numbers cross central Coronation Gulf; wintering on coast
+  E. of Coppermine; many moving N. across w. Coronation Gulf and
+  Dolphin and Union Strait, April and May, and w. Victoria Island,
+  May); 100 (migration across Kent Peninsula and in se. Victoria
+  Island); 102 (E. of Cape Bexley); 103, 106 (numbers wintering on
+  Banks Island, but few or none on Victoria Island); 105 (Eskimos
+  hunting caribou in summer on s. Victoria Island); 106 (caribou
+  wintering from Cape Bathurst to Kent Peninsula; migration N.
+  across Coronation Gulf and Dolphin and Union Strait, April 1-May
+  20, and S. in the fall as soon as the ice is strong enough; tens
+  of thousands on Dease River in late October; differences between
+  Victoria Island and mainland specimens).
+
+  “Caribou”: Stefánsson, 1913b: 27 (Fort Smith a “meat post”);
+  29 (abundant at Fort Norman 50 years previously); 127, 128, 156,
+  158 (Langton Bay); 130, 135, 137, 141, 142 (Horton River); 146
+  (Cape Parry); 151 (extreme scarcity of hornless caribou); 163
+  (Cape Lyon); 164 (Port Pierce; human eye keener than caribou’s);
+  203 (summer hunting by Eskimos S. of Dolphin and Union Strait);
+  203-204 (migration N. to Victoria Island); 204 (bot-fly larvae);
+  205 (near Dolphin and Union Strait); 210, 212, 213 (lower
+  Coppermine River); 212-213 (seeking protection from mosquitoes
+  on snow banks); 214 (Dismal Lake); 215 (summer hunting by
+  Eskimos on Dease River); 219 (Great Bear Lake); 221 (August
+  skins for Eskimo clothing); 224-225 (hundreds of thousands,
+  Dease River, October); 228, 235 (N. of Great Bear Lake); 231,
+  232 (Horton River); 238, 239 (Kendall River); 241 (lower
+  Coppermine River); 241-244 (geographical variation in caribou);
+  263-265, 269 (migrating N. across Coronation Gulf and Dolphin
+  and Union Strait, early May); 274, 278, 287, 289, 297, 298, 301
+  (Victoria Island); 276-277 (variation from mainland animals);
+  278 (habitual wariness); 281 (caribou-skin tents and Eskimo
+  hunting, Victoria Island); 289 (Banks Island); 294 (few on
+  Victoria Island in winter); 324 (Cape Parry); 333 (Langton Bay;
+  skins spoiled by warble fly larvae, June and early July; skins
+  thick in summer and fall); 335 (“Endicott” [= Melville]
+  Mountains); 337-338 (Eskimo methods of hunting and curing meat);
+  348-350 (migrating NW., Horton River, October); 364 (Langton
+  Bay, February-March).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Chambers, 1914: 93 (immense
+  herd, between Churchill and Owl River, December); 291-294 (Great
+  Bear and Great Slave Lakes); 294 (Mackenzie Delta region);
+  342-350 (summation of records on the Barren Grounds).
+
+  “Caribou”: Douglas, 1914: 103, 167, 168, 179, 180 (Dease River);
+  121, 190, 192, 196, 214 (lower Coppermine River); 137 (Great
+  Bear Lake); 157, 158 (very scarce, Great Bear Lake, winter); 185
+  (Dismal Lakes); 191-192 (larvae of warble and nostril flies).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ . . . (part): Hornaday, 1914, +2+: 97
+  (importance to Indians); 100 (the great mass between Cape
+  Bathurst and Great Slave Lake; tens of thousands killed by
+  natives for whalers); 101-104 (migrations); 103 (voice); 104
+  (tameness of large numbers; weight); 225-226 (numbers).
+
+  “Caribou” or “deer”: Stefánsson, 1914: 13 (former abundance from
+  Mackenzie River eastward); 26 (scarce near +Rae River+); 39
+  (common the year round on Banks Island; abundant in summer, but
+  scarce in winter, Victoria Island); 41 (migrating S. across
+  Coronation Gulf in November); 48 (stomach contents and droppings
+  eaten by Eskimos, Coronation Gulf); 54 (crossing ice in
+  migrating N., April and May); 56 (chief source of Eskimo food in
+  summer, Coronation Gulf); 57 (hunting with spear and bow); 58
+  (poor eyesight); 58-59 (use as food by Eskimos); 97 (kayak used
+  in spearing caribou); 137, 139 (former hunting in Mackenzie
+  Delta region); 140-141 (skin clothing in Mackenzie Delta
+  region); 147-148 (methods of removing and drying skins,
+  Mackenzie Delta region); 150 (use of skins and sinew); 275
+  (status about Great Bear Lake); 296 (droppings and warbles eaten
+  by Eskimos, Victoria Island); 353 (caribou taboos); 355-356
+  (many on Mackenzie coast).
+
+  “Caribou”: Wheeler, 1914: 52 (Dog-rib clothing of caribou
+  skins); 54 (between Forts Rae and Enterprise); 56 (Fort Rae’s
+  early trade in caribou meat and skins); 58 (countless thousands,
+  moving E., Great Slave Lake; Indian use of meat); 60 (caribou
+  scarce N. of Great Slave Lake after burning of country); 65
+  (plentiful, Little Marten Lake); 67 (near Lake Providence).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Harper, 1915: 160 (Tazin-Taltson
+  Basin).
+
+  _Rangifer tarandus arcticus_ (Richardson): Lydekker, 1915: 254
+  (bibliographical references; type locality; description; Baffin
+  Island).
+
+  _Tarandus rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Millais, 1915:
+  255-256 (considered conspecific with Woodland Caribou); 258, 263
+  (supposed interbreeding with Woodland Caribou); 261
+  (description; in winter ranging “west to the Rockies above Fort
+  Vermilion”[!]).
+
+  “Barren Ground Caribou”: Camsell, 1916: 21 (Tazin-Taltson Basin,
+  autumn and winter).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ . . . (part): Nelson, 1916: 460 (Arctic
+  barrens; numbers; Artillery Lake; gait); 460-461 (use as food).
+
+  “Rein Deer”: Thompson, 1916: 19 (Eskimo lances pointed with
+  leg-bone); 99 ([Barren Ground or Woodland species?] numerous in
+  spring on Hayes River, where snared by Indians); 100-101
+  (immense herd estimated at 3,564,000 individuals, crossing Hayes
+  River 20 miles above York Factory in late May, 1792).
+
+  “Caribou”: J. B. Tyrrell, in Thompson, 1916: 16 (Eskimos on
+  Kazan River subsisting chiefly on caribou, killing them with
+  spears and using their skins for clothing and kayaks).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ . . .: Kindle, 1917: 107-108 (tens of
+  thousands E. of Slave River, early winter); 108-109 (previous
+  accounts of great numbers).
+
+  “Barren Ground Caribou”: Camsell and Malcolm, 1919: 46 (e.
+  border of Mackenzie Basin; migration).
+
+  “Barren Ground caribou”: Malloch, 1919: 55-56 (larvae of
+  _Oedemagena tarandi_ from skin of caribou, Dolphin and Union
+  Strait, Bernard Harbour, and Coronation Gulf); 56 (larvae of
+  _Cephenemyia_ sp. from nasal passages of caribou, May 25,
+  Bernard Harbour).
+
+  “Caribou”: Stefánsson, 1919: 310 (hunting in the Arctic).
+
+  “Caribou”: Whittaker, 1919: 166 (in greater numbers than usual,
+  E. of Slave River, winter); 167 (1,000 does crossing Great Slave
+  Lake in March toward Barren Grounds).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Buchanan, 1920: 105 (S. in winter to
+  Reindeer Lake and Churchill River, rarely to Cumberland House);
+  105-108, 128-129 (migration); 105-106, 131 (food); 113-125,
+  134-137, 142-151 (hunting by Indians and others); 122, 124
+  (traveling upwind); 125-126 (description); 126 (antler change;
+  gait); 130-131 (numbers); 135-136 (snares); 136-140 (economic
+  uses by Indians).
+
+  “Caribou”: R. M. Anderson, in Stefánsson, 1921: 743, 750
+  (Eskimos killing caribou, Victoria Island); 749 (Hood River);
+  750 (Bathurst Inlet).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ . . . (part): Hewitt, 1921: 11-12 (as a
+  source of meat and clothing); 56 (most abundant of the larger
+  land mammals of the world); 58, 64-66 (place in native economy;
+  range and numbers becoming restricted by excessive slaughter);
+  59-60 (distribution); 59 (destruction by Eskimos and whalers);
+  60-63 (migration); 61 (food); 62 (fawning); 67 (warble flies,
+  black flies, and mosquitoes).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Johansen, 1921: 22-24 (larvae and
+  adults of _Oedemagena tarandi_ and larvae of _Cephenemyia_ sp.,
+  both parasites of caribou, at Bernard Harbour); 29 (adult _Oe.
+  tarandi_, Dolphin and Union Strait); 35, 37 (larvae of _Oe.
+  tarandi_, lower Coppermine River and Victoria Island).
+
+  “Caribou”: Stefánsson, 1921: 18 (abundant, Banks Island,
+  winter); 227-230 (Norway Island [W. of Banks Island]); 231-234
+  (qualities of meat and fat); 242-249, 255, 258, 262, 281-283,
+  358, 364, 397, 369, 372, 473, 475, 476 (hunting on Banks
+  Island); 246-247 (fat); 247 (attacks by insects); 248 (speed
+  according to sex and age); 248-249 (pursuit by wolves); 251
+  (wariness on Banks Island); 252 (back fat); 255 (perhaps
+  2,000-3,000 caribou on Banks Island in summer); 307 (sight); 401
+  (hunting on Victoria Island, September; some migrating S. to
+  mainland); 401-402 (stone monuments used by Eskimos for driving
+  caribou to ambush); 475-476 (relations of caribou and wolves).
+
+  “Caribou” or “deer”: Jenness, 1922: 15, 17 (migration between
+  mainland and Arctic islands; one route across Cape Krusenstern);
+  20-21 (Coppermine River to Great Bear Lake); 22 (Cape Barrow to
+  Bathurst Inlet); 25-26 (Victoria Island in summer); 47 (spearing
+  from kayaks in Coppermine region); 48, 101, 248 (use of fat for
+  fuel); 61 (skins as bedding); 78-81 (skins as tent material); 97
+  (stomach contents eaten by Eskimos); 100-103 (Caribou as food of
+  Eskimos; hunting on ice of Coronation Gulf and on Victoria
+  Island; Coppermine River to Bathurst Inlet); 124 (summer hunting
+  by Eskimos about Dolphin and Union Strait); 125 (October passage
+  from Victoria Island to mainland); 127-142 (hunting on Victoria
+  Island, April to October); 148-151 (Eskimo hunting methods about
+  Coronation Gulf and on Victoria Island; attacks on Eskimos by
+  Caribou); 182-189 (Eskimo superstitions concerning Caribou);
+  244, 249 (scarcity and destruction at Coronation Gulf).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: R. M. Anderson, 1924: 329 (varying
+  estimates of numbers; Barren Grounds of central mainland); 330
+  (relations to reindeer).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Miller, 1924: 491
+  (nomenclature; type locality).
+
+  “Caribou”: Blanchet, 1925: 15 (upper Coppermine); 32-34
+  (migration); 32-33 (sexual segregation); 33 (fawning; food;
+  torment of flies; gait; molt; antler growth and change); 34
+  (senses; utilization by Indians; wariness; swimming; relations
+  to wolves and foxes; Great Slave Lake to Great Bear Lake and
+  Back’s River).
+
+  “Caribou”: Blanchet, 1926a: 73 (trails, Nonacho Lake); 96-97
+  (trail and signs, Lake Eileen); 98 (caribou in economy of the
+  Caribou-eater Chipewyans).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Blanchet, 1926b: 46-48 (migrations);
+  47 (fawning in early June; attacks of flies; gait; molt;
+  utilization of hides); 47-48 (antler change); 48 (senses;
+  segregation by sex and age; numbers in millions; Lake MacKay,
+  Great Bear Lake, Lac de Gras, Clinton-Colden and Aylmer lakes;
+  wintering S. to Cree, Foster, and Reindeer lakes).
+
+  _Rangifer_ spp.: Ekblaw, 1926: 101 (s. Arctic Archipelago).
+
+  “Caribou”: Mallet, 1926: 79 (migration; wintering about
+  Reindeer, Cree, Wollaston, and Nueltin lakes and Pakatawagan;
+  predilection for frozen lakes; predation by wolves); 80
+  (dependence of travelers on Caribou for food; hunting on the ice
+  of lakes).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Preble, 1926: 119 (Barren Grounds);
+  121 (depletion along Arctic coast E. to Coppermine River); 125
+  (Yellowknife Preserve); 137 (Back’s River Preserve; great
+  numbers; migration); 138 (Arctic islands; partial migration);
+  139 (Banks and Victoria islands).
+
+  “Caribou”: Blanchet, 1927: 145 (Abitau River); 149 (sw.
+  tributary of Dubawnt River, July 5).
+
+  “Caribou”: Craig, 1927: 22 (Admiralty Inlet; former abundance;
+  depletion by hunting).
+
+  “Caribou”: Henderson, 1927: 40 (Clyde River, Baffin Island;
+  annual caribou hunt by Eskimos).
+
+  “Caribou”: Rasmussen, 1927: 5 (Eskimos clad in caribou skin,
+  Melville Peninsula); 20-21 (hunting on Melville Peninsula); 23
+  (Eskimo stores of caribou meat); 54 (caribou moving N., Baker
+  Lake, May); 59-60, 103, 105 (hunting by Eskimos, lower Kazan
+  River); 63, 68 (Yathkyed Lake); 65 (warble fly larvae as Eskimo
+  delicacy); 67 (decrease in Eskimos and caribou at Yathkyed
+  Lake); 68 (stone cairns for deflecting caribou); 73-77 (Eskimo
+  hunting methods); 104-106 (Eskimos starving for lack of caribou,
+  lower Kazan River); 145 (Eskimos hunting near Admiralty Inlet);
+  166-167 (caribou obtained by Eskimos, Pelly Bay); 205 (King
+  William Island); 214-217 (migration, September 15-21, King
+  William Island); 245 (Eskimos of Victoria Island living on
+  caribou in summer and autumn); 246 (enormous herds crossing
+  delta of Ellice River; Kent Peninsula becoming depopulated of
+  Eskimos through failure of caribou).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Anthony, 1928:
+  530-531 (description); 532 (Barren Grounds; former abundance;
+  destruction).
+
+  “Caribou”: Kindle, 1928: 72-73 (numbers estimated at more than
+  30,000,000; utilization by natives for clothing and meat); 74
+  (economic value of reindeer).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 9, 47, 57
+  (importance to Caribou Eskimos); 48 (back fat); 50 (wintering on
+  Barren Grounds; moving against wind; antler shedding; poor
+  quality of winter meat); 51 (wolves hunting caribou; does first
+  on spring migration; fawning in June); 52-53 (Eskimos feasting
+  on caribou in spring); 56 (fawning in late June and early July;
+  great migration at Baker Lake, late July; plagued by _Oedemagena
+  tarandi_; most important Eskimo hunting in late summer and early
+  autumn); 86 (tents of caribou skin among Caribou Eskimos); 89
+  (Eskimo spade made of antler); 90 (bags of caribou skin; fat for
+  illumination); 94 (skins for household use); 96 (the principal
+  diet among Caribou Eskimos); 98 (hunting by means of fences);
+  100 (Yathkyed Lake); 101 (heedless slaughter by Eskimos;
+  migration always incalculable; fox-trapping replacing
+  caribou-hunting); 102 (former use of bow in hunting); 104
+  (arrowheads of caribou bones); 106 (hunting by Eskimos;
+  wariness; keen hearing and smell; buck attacking a man at
+  Vansittart Island; deer-crossings in region of Baker Lake and
+  Kazan River); 107 (Eskimo hunting methods); 108 (snow pitfalls);
+  109-110 (spearing in water; swimming ability); 110-111 (driving
+  between lines of cairns); 112 (snares); 133 (gadfly larvae as
+  Eskimo delicacy); 134-135 (seasonal hunting); 135 (frequent
+  starvation of Eskimos in lack of caribou); 137 (staple food of
+  Caribou Eskimos); 138-139 (taboos in use of meat); 140-147
+  (Eskimo dressing of carcasses); 141-144 (raw, cooked, and dried
+  meat in Eskimo diet); 171 (meat as dog food); 186 (deerskin for
+  kayaks); 191, 196, 199-223 (Eskimo clothing of deerskin); 232,
+  239-251 (various Eskimo uses of skin, bones, and antlers); 262,
+  263 (Eskimo laws for hunting caribou); 268-271 (drums of
+  deerskin).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Seton, 1929, +3+:
+  95-135 (monographic); 97-99 (measurements, weight, color); 102
+  (distribution); 102-103 (antlers); 104 (molt; senses); 105
+  (communication; voice); 105-107 (disposition); 107 (aquatic
+  ability); 107-108 (food); 108-109 (Wolves and other predators);
+  109-110 (effect of mosquitoes); 110-111 (warble and nostril
+  flies); 111-116 (utilization of flesh and hide by natives and
+  civilized man); 113-114 (fat); 117-122 (hunting by Eskimos and
+  Indians); 122 (Artillery Lake to Back’s River; Arctic islands;
+  migration); 124-125 (reproduction); 125-127 (migration); 127-128
+  (wintering between Great Bear, Great Slave, and Athabaska lakes
+  and Hudson Bay); 131 (Mackenzie River to Cape Bathurst; Langton
+  and Darnley Bays); 131-134 (numbers perhaps 30,000,000); 133-134
+  (destruction by Indians, whalers, and Eskimos).
+
+  “Caribou”: Blanchet, 1930: 49 (E. of Great Bear, Great Slave,
+  and Athabaska Lakes; fawns born in late May or June; antler
+  growth and shedding); 49-52 (migration; Lac de Gras, Lake
+  MacKay, Beverly, Aberdeen, and Baker lakes; Coppermine,
+  Lockhart, Taltson, Dubawnt, Kazan, and Ferguson rivers; S. to
+  Cree and Reindeer lakes and Churchill; only a small migration
+  now from Victoria Island to mainland; Wager and Repulse bays);
+  50-51 (importance to Indians and Eskimos; Dawson Inlet to North
+  Seal River; inland from Eskimo Point and Nunalla; Padlei); 52
+  (food destroyed by fire; several millions); 53 (fawning area);
+  53-54 (possibilities for reindeer); 54-55 (relation of wolves to
+  caribou).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 55
+  (Artillery Lake; weight; therapeutic value of meat); 58 (Thelon
+  River, thousands, late July); 143 (use as fox bait); 159-160
+  (numbers); 159-162 (useful role of Wolf as Caribou predator);
+  192 (wind direction scarcely affecting migration; Artillery
+  Lake, mostly bucks, September to November; bucks getting lean,
+  October 17; antlers dropping and flesh improving, November 7;
+  practically all (buck) antlers dropped, November 19; Artillery
+  Lake, several hundred does, November 4, then continuing to pass
+  N. during winter; bands of bucks passing S., November 26 to
+  December 9; young bucks with does during winter; does dropping
+  antlers, March 24 to mid-April; all does gone N. by April 27;
+  bucks moved N. of Hanbury River by June 20; main s. migration,
+  Thelon River, July 23; all sexes and ages, in bands up to
+  2,000--total number 10,000+); 193 (scourged and driven by
+  insects; voice; stage of pelage differing in sexes; delta of
+  Dubawnt River; possibly yearling doe with fawn; flies gone
+  August 24, animals putting on fat; does massing in September,
+  hundreds slaughtered by Eskimos at Thelon-Dubawnt mouth; last
+  seen, Baker Lake, September 5); 194-196 (table of Caribou
+  movements--localities, dates, numbers, sex, wind.)--1931: 32
+  (conservation); 33 (trade in hides; Back’s River Eskimos living
+  “solely” on Caribou).
+
+  “Caribou”: Hoare, 1930: 13 (bucks migrating NE., June, Artillery
+  Lake to Ford Lake); 14 (10,000+ near Campbell Lake, going SW.,
+  late July); 16 (bands near Smart Lake, August); 21 (Ford Lake,
+  early December); 22 (Artillery Lake and Pike’s Portage,
+  numerous, December; wolf predation); 27 (small bands swimming
+  lower Thelon River, late June); 31 (swimming Hanbury River,
+  July); 33 (great numbers of bucks going S. Thelon River, July
+  22; relation of migrations to insects and storms); 36 (circular
+  migration about e. end of Great Slave Lake; ne. migration in
+  spring down Thelon River); 37-38 (relation of migration to
+  mosquitoes); 52-53 (summation by R. M. Anderson: carrying
+  capacity of range--60 acres per Caribou; probably total not over
+  3,000,000).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Kitto, 1930: 87 (food; economy;
+  numbers and depletion; migrations); 88 (effect of firearms;
+  segregation of sexes and ages); 89 (wolves; insect pests); 89-90
+  (conservation measures); 110 (Keewatin, mainland and Southampton
+  and Coats islands; Churchill, Eskimo Point, and Baker Lake).
+
+  “Caribou”: Mallet, 1930: 13 (Eskimo clothing of skins, Kazan
+  River); 20-23 (great migrant herd, led by a doe, crossing Kazan
+  River near Yathkyed Lake); 27 (small herds migrating S., Ennadai
+  Lake, August); 32 (Chipewyan drum of caribou skin); 85 (Eskimos
+  between Nueltin and Baker lakes living on caribou); 87 (Eskimo
+  clothing of caribou fur); 89 (Eskimos starving for lack of
+  caribou); 90 (500 consumed per winter by 20-odd Eskimos); 92
+  (caribou-skin gloves; tongues as provisions for journey); 95
+  (Eskimos eating raw frozen caribou in winter and “lukewarm meat”
+  in summer); 102 (Eskimo tent of skins on Kazan River); 116
+  (Indians eating caribou on Kasmere River); 131-140 (Eskimo band
+  succumbing to starvation for lack of caribou).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ Richardson: Jacobi, 1931: 78-80
+  (description); 80-84 (N. to Baffin Island and other Arctic
+  islands; E. to Hudson Bay, Southampton Island, and Melville
+  Peninsula; S. to Churchill River, Reindeer Lake, and Fort
+  McMurray; W. to Athabaska and Mackenzie Rivers); 140
+  (phylogeny); 156, 157, 159 (depletion by natives, whalers, and
+  traders); 186-187 (habitat); 190 (occurrence in herds); 192-210
+  (migrations: causes, extent, routes, numbers, behavior,
+  segregation by sex and age, dates, winter quarters); 216
+  (swimming); 219, 220 (unwariness; curiosity); 223 (food); 232
+  (reproduction); 236 (molt); 237 (change of antlers); 240-241
+  (predation by wolves); 244-245 (parasitic flies).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Harper, 1932: 30
+  (Lake Athabaska; excessive slaughter by Indians; Tazin
+  Highlands; food; Thainka Lake; junction of Tazin and Taltson
+  Rivers; avoiding lower Taltson River after fire); 31 (Great
+  Slave Lake; “near Artillery Lake” [= Stark Lake?]; Indians
+  spearing hundreds in water; migration; havoc by wolves;
+  Caribou-eater Chipewyans).
+
+  “Caribou”: Jenness, 1932: 47, 48, 58, 59 (caribou in Indian
+  economy); 51, 58, 75, 406-408, 411, 412, 414, 415 (caribou in
+  Eskimo economy).
+
+  “Cariboo” or “deer”: Munn, 1932: 57 (Artillery Lake); 58 (great
+  migration of perhaps 2,000,000 between Artillery and Great Slave
+  lakes; relation to mosquitoes); 168 (Baffin Island); 191-192
+  (Eskimo sleeping-bags and clothing of caribou skin, Baffin
+  Island); 210, 214 (Eskimos hunting deer, Southampton Island);
+  255 (trade in skins from Melville Peninsula); 271 (depletion of
+  Baffin Island herds); 278 (decimation of caribou in w. Arctic
+  due to Eskimos trapping white fox instead of sealing in winter).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Sutton and Hamilton,
+  1932: 33, 35, 36, 81, 82, 84, 85 (predation by wolves,
+  Southampton Island); 79 (formerly abundant, but no longer); 79,
+  81 (migration); 80-83, 86-87 (hunting and utilization by
+  Eskimos); 81 (scatology); 81, 84-86 (reproduction); 81-86
+  (antler growth and shedding); 83 (standing on hind legs); 84
+  (food; foot-glands; voice); 84-86 (parasitic and other flies);
+  87-88 (description); 88 (previous records on Southampton
+  Island).
+
+  _Rangifer tarandus arcticus_. . .: Weyer, 1932: 38 (most
+  important land animal to Eskimos); 39 (utilization by Eskimos;
+  food); 40 (fawning period; seasonal fat; migration).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Birket-Smith, 1933: 89 (immense
+  numbers on Barren Grounds, but recently declining); 90 (gadflies
+  plaguing caribou); 91-92 (migration); 92 (thousands at Baker
+  Lake, late July; scourged by mosquitoes); 93 (no longer
+  migrating from Victoria Island to mainland); 94 (occurrence in
+  autumn and winter at Repulse Bay); 100 (good hunting near Whale
+  Point, Roe’s Welcome; use of cairns in hunting by Eskimos); 106
+  (not many near Eskimo Point); 112 (great migration at Baker Lake
+  beginning in June); 118 (deer crossings on lower Kazan River);
+  121 (difficulty of reconciling reindeer culture with presence of
+  caribou).
+
+  “Caribou”: Ingstad, 1933: 34 (caribou deflected on s. side of
+  Great Slave Lake by forest fires); 48 (buck on Barren Grounds
+  harassed by black flies); 85, 110 (E. of Great Slave Lake); 86
+  (asleep on ice of lakes); 87 (leaping into air before running
+  off); 88 (varying wariness); 90 (carcass as fox bait near
+  Artillery Lake); 118, 122 (use of meat and hides by Indians,
+  Great Slave Lake); 134-135, 324 (spring migration across Great
+  Slave Lake); 135 (antler velvet eaten by Indians; larvae of
+  nostril and warble flies); 139 (Indian drum of caribou skin);
+  156-159 (migration; followed by wolves, ravens, foxes, and
+  wolverines); 158 (rutting season and behavior); 159 (antler
+  shedding); 160 (numbers); 161 (migration influenced by grazing
+  available; fawning on Arctic islands); 162 (separation into
+  different herd groupings); 162-163 (destruction by Eskimos with
+  firearms along Arctic coast); 163 (migration deflected by
+  burning of country); 165-166 (conservation; wolf predation); 167
+  (dependence of Caribou-eater Indians on this animal); 176, 181
+  (Stark Lake and vicinity); 186-187 (use of meat by
+  Caribou-eaters); 204, 216, 218, 220, 222 (upper Thelon River
+  region); 207 (predation by wolves); 225, 229-231 (Nonacho Lake
+  area); 247, 253 (dependence of Barren Ground Indians on
+  caribou); 253-254 (former hunting with spears, bows, dogteams,
+  barriers, snares); 257-259 (Indian use of meat and hides); 280
+  (migrating near e. end of Great Slave Lake); 291, 293, 296
+  (thousands in winter on Barrens E. of Great Slave Lake); 293,
+  297 (unwariness); 302-304, 306-307 (predation by wolves on
+  Barren Grounds); 312 (albino caribou).
+
+  “Barren land caribou”: Stockwell, 1933: 45 (large herds in
+  August, Point, Thonokied, and MacKay lakes and Coppermine
+  River).
+
+  “Caribou”: Weeks, 1933: 65 (very plentiful on Maguse River after
+  August 4).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): R. M. Anderson,
+  1934a: 81 (utilization of skin and meat; migrations; Melville
+  Peninsula, Boothia Peninsula, and Baffin Island).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: R. M. Anderson, 1934b: 4062, fig. 9
+  (map shows range of subsp. arcticus extending N. only to Arctic
+  coast and over Baffin Island).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Flerov, 1934: 240 (cranial
+  measurements).
+
+  “Caribou”: Godsell, 1934: 273-276 (trade with Eskimos on Arctic
+  coast resulting in great slaughter of caribou); 276 (importation
+  of reindeer to Mackenzie Delta region to replace caribou).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Hornby, 1934: 105 (food;
+  weight; fat; migrations influenced by natives, unfrozen large
+  lakes, and fires; effects of flies; rutting season and behavior;
+  antler shedding); 106 (irregular migrations; sexual segregation;
+  wolf predation); 106-107 (movements, numbers, and dates in
+  region between Great Slave and Baker lakes); 108 (beneficial
+  effect of wolves on caribou).
+
+  “Caribou”: Wray, 1934: 141 (abundant, Lac de Gras, 1932); 144
+  (few S. of Mackay Lake).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Degerbøl, 1935: 48-51
+  (specimens from Baffin Island and Melville Peninsula, including
+  an albino from Rae Isthmus; descriptions).
+
+  “Caribou”: Freuchen, 1935: 93 (abundance of rabbits supposed to
+  lessen wolf predation on caribou); 99 (wolverine reputed to
+  attack sleeping caribou); 120 (pursuit by wolves near Wager
+  Inlet); 121 (followed by wolves, Melville Peninsula; predation
+  by wolves, Southampton Island); 122 (wolves said not to follow
+  caribou across streams; wolf methods of hunting caribou); 128
+  (caribou carcasses consumed by Arctic foxes).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Murie, 1935: 74, 75
+  (type locality; skull measurements).
+
+  “Barren ground caribou”: Alcock, 1936: 9 (Lake Athabaska).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Birket-Smith, 1936: 90 (importance to
+  Eskimos); 91 (migration; snow pitfalls, baited with urine;
+  hunting with spears, rows of stone cairns, snares, and bows);
+  110 (dependence of Caribou Eskimos on Caribou); 111 (frequent
+  famine and cannibalism among them for lack of Caribou; lookout
+  knolls for Caribou); 112 (sexual segregation in herds); 115-116
+  (clothing of caribou skin).
+
+  “Caribou”: Soper, 1936: 429 (resorting to Grinnell Glacier,
+  Baffin Island, to escape mosquitoes).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): R. M. Anderson, 1937:
+  103 (lower Mackenzie River to Hudson Bay; use of skin and meat;
+  scarce on coast W. of Bathurst Inlet; concentration between
+  Bathurst Inlet, Great Slave Lake, and Baker Lake; S. into Wood
+  Buffalo Park; use of rifles by Central Eskimos resulting in
+  decrease; apparent intergradation with _R. a. pearyi_ in
+  northern islands).
+
+  “Caribou”: Godsell, 1937: 288 (caribou migrating between
+  mainland and Arctic islands exterminated by Eskimos with
+  ammunition supplied by traders); 289 (reindeer imported to mouth
+  of Mackenzie to replace vanished caribou).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Henriksen, 1937: 25 (larvae of
+  _Cephenomyia trompe_ L. from nasal passage, Baker Lake, May 2);
+  26 (larvae of _Oedemagena tarandi_ collected from caribou in
+  May, Gore Bay, Lyon Inlet, and Melville Peninsula).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. . .: R. M. Anderson, 1938: 400
+  (perhaps no great reduction in numbers, but some shifting of
+  range from human encroachments and fire; wintering S. to n.
+  Manitoba and Saskatchewan and ne. Alberta; estimate of
+  3,000,000).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Hamilton, 1939: 109 (hoofs; function
+  of fat); 244-247 (migrations); 246, 352, 359 (importance to
+  Indians and Eskimos); 247 (influence of mosquitoes on movements;
+  sexual segregation); 301 (distribution determined by insect
+  pests); 359 (immense herd in ne. Saskatchewan).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ Richardson: Murie, 1939: 239
+  (Mackenzie River to Hudson Bay and Baffin Island, including some
+  of the Arctic islands; diagnosis); 244 (antlers; pelage;
+  migration; rut in September and October); 245 (food; ankle
+  click; voice; gait; senses; insect pests; Wolves and other
+  predators); 245-246 (danger from introduction of Reindeer); 246
+  (adaptation to environment).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Clarke, 1940: 5, 7 (dependence
+  of Indians and Eskimos on caribou); 8-9 (Rum Lake country a
+  wintering ground; Eskimos from Back’s River to Wager Inlet and
+  Baker Lake dependent on winter caribou; likewise those at
+  Beverly, Aberdeen, and Schultz lakes); 11 (great winter herd S.
+  and W. of Bathurst Inlet); 65 (fluctuations; current abundance
+  in Hanbury-Thelon region and scarcity at Baker Lake); 70
+  (parasites; diseases); 84 (economic importance); 85-86
+  (migrating southward in late July in Thelon Game Sanctuary and
+  at Tourgis Lake, in early August at Hanbury, Artillery,
+  Clinton-Colden, and Aylmer lakes, and from early August to late
+  September at Taltson River and Thekulthili and Nonacho lakes; in
+  autumn near Lac de Gras and on upper Back’s River; in autumn and
+  winter at Reliance and Snowdrift); 87-90 (at least 100,000
+  migrating N. in early July at Hanbury and Thelon rivers,
+  including does with month-old fawns); 89, 90 (molt); 91
+  (previous records in Thelon Sanctuary region); 92-93 (near Lake
+  Athabaska and Slave River and at Hill Island Lake in early
+  August; Wood Buffalo Park in winter; the various groups and
+  their movements defined); 93-95 (early ideas of migrations); 95
+  (fallacies; sexual segregation; antlers; influence of flies);
+  96-97 (details of migratory movements; retrograde autumnal
+  movement); 98 (extermination of bands formerly migrating from
+  mainland to Victoria and King William islands); 98-100
+  (irregular migrations; influences--such as wide open waters,
+  overgrazing, and fires--affecting migrations); 101-104 (carrying
+  capacity of range; numbers estimated at 3,000,000; increase and
+  decrease); 104-106 (accidents); 106-107 (effects of fire and
+  overgrazing; food); 107-110 (wolves and other predators); 110
+  (hunting and its effects); 112 (importance to natives).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): G. M. Allen, 1942:
+  297 (mainstay of Eskimos and Indians); 297-298 (description);
+  298-299 (Hudson Bay to Mackenzie River, N. to Banks and Victoria
+  Islands, Boothia, Southampton and Baffin Islands, S. to
+  Churchill River, Reindeer Lake, and ne. Alberta; migratory
+  habit; shift of range due to human crowding and destruction of
+  winter forage by fire); 299 (increased slaughter in winter
+  range; reduction on Southampton Island).
+
+  “Caribou”: Manning, 1942: 28 (rapidly reduced on Southampton
+  Island after establishment of a post in 1924); 29 (insufficient
+  skins for Eskimo clothing); 29 (wolves, for lack of caribou,
+  became extinct on Southampton by 1937).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Soper, 1942: 143 (in
+  1932-33, E. of Fort Smith, S. to 30th base line; along N. shore
+  of Lake Athabaska to Fond du Lac; W. of Slave River, between
+  Lobstick Creek and Grand Detour and into Wood Buffalo Park;
+  Tethul River to Tsu Lake and Taltson River; in 1933-34, crossing
+  Slave River from E. in vicinity of Caribou and Stony Islands and
+  Buffalo Landing, and feeding on goose grass [= _Equisetum, fide_
+  Raup, 1933: 39]).
+
+  “Caribou”: Downes, 1943: 203 (Windy Lake, late July); 215
+  (1925-26 and 1938-39 bad years for caribou on upper Kazan River;
+  consequent mortality among Eskimos); 221 (Red River, July 28);
+  224, 249, 250 (Simons’ Lake); 226 (grunting; shaking heads on
+  account of flies; buck with winter pelage); 227 (butchering
+  operation); 228 (use of antlers and hoofs; feeding on dwarf
+  birch; protecting carcasses from gulls); 236-237 (antics of a
+  buck); 253 (Red River); 255 (warble and nostril flies); 256
+  (does beginning to appear; swimming ability); 256-257 (snuffing,
+  snorting, and coughing); 258-260 (estimates of numbers); 260
+  (change of migration routes through human activities and forest
+  fires); 261-262 (effect of natives and wolves); pl. following p.
+  296 (Kasmere River).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Manning, 1943a: 47 (recent
+  depletion by Eskimos); 49-52 (w. Baffin Island; Koukdjuak and
+  Hantzsch rivers; Bowman, Taverner, Wordie, and Harbour bays;
+  Tweedsmuir Islands; Baird Peninsula; Lake Nettilling; Cumberland
+  Sound; Fury and Hecla Strait); 50 (summer and winter droppings;
+  exterminated from most of Foxe Peninsula); 51 (estimated
+  population in central western Baffin Island 10,000); 51-52
+  (migratory movements); 52 (sexual segregation and herding;
+  females bearing young at end of second year); 52-53 (antler
+  growth and shedding); 53 (molt; development of warble flies, and
+  their scarcity in fawns; accumulation of fat); 55 (annual kill
+  by wolves on w. Baffin Island estimated at 2,000 animals over
+  one year of age).
+
+  “Caribou”: Manning, 1943b: 103 (former migration--now
+  ceased--from the S. to Melville Peninsula, where the animals are
+  now scarce; still numerous on Baffin Island N. of Fury and Hecla
+  Strait; fairly numerous, Repulse Bay to Chesterfield Inlet;
+  dearth of skins for Eskimo clothing; numerous herds about
+  Piling, Baffin Island).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. . .: Porsild, 1943: 383 (food);
+  386 (warble and nostril flies “apparently do not travel very
+  far”; sparsely covered grazing areas suitable for caribou but
+  not for reindeer); 389 (migration affected by rotational grazing
+  and seasonal and local abundance of mosquitoes or flies;
+  wariness varying with size of herd; caribou disappear before
+  expanding reindeer culture).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Soper, 1944: 274-250
+  (great reduction in southern coastal region of Baffin Island;
+  few left on Foxe Peninsula; Hantzsch and Soper rivers; Bowman,
+  Amadjuak, and Frobisher bays; Lake Harbour; Nettilling Lake; Big
+  Island; Grinnell Glacier; Cockburn Land); 248 (measurements);
+  248-249 (migrations); 248-250 (utilization by Eskimos).
+
+  “Caribou”: [U.S.] War Department, 1944: 40 (Canadian mainland
+  and Arctic islands); 77 (importance as food).
+
+  “Barren ground caribou”: Wright, 1944: 185 (late summer skins
+  for clothing; high value of the meat; reduction in numbers); 186
+  (migration routes changed by overgrazing, fires, and excessive
+  hunting; numbers); 187 (annual consumption in Keewatin not less
+  than 22,000; decrease on Boothia and Melville peninsulas;
+  locally plentiful in w. Baffin Island; scarce on King William
+  Island; none on Adelaide Peninsula; great decrease on
+  Southampton Island); 188 (small herds on Coats Island; varying
+  numbers on Baffin Island, where skins are imported for clothing;
+  a herd on Bylot Island); 189 (scarce at Arctic Bay and on
+  Brodeur Peninsula); 190 (migration on Baffin Island); 191
+  (Baffin population estimated at 25,000); 193 (tables of numbers
+  taken annually on Baffin Island and in Keewatin); 195 (smaller
+  caribou on Boothia Peninsula and on Somerset and Prince of Wales
+  islands).
+
+  “Caribou”: Young, 1944: 236-238, 243 (predation by wolves in the
+  Barren Grounds, including Southampton Island and Artillery
+  Lake).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Gavin, 1945: 227-228
+  (recent increase at Perry River and Bathurst Inlet; partly
+  resident on mainland but also migratory, a few crossing to
+  Victoria Island); 228 (many fawning on small coastal islands and
+  Kent Peninsula; many succumbing to mosquitoes; damage by larvae
+  of warble fly).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): R. M. Anderson, 1947:
+  178 (type locality; Mackenzie and Keewatin, from Hudson Bay and
+  Melville Peninsula W. to lower Mackenzie Valley, and N. to s.
+  fringe of islands N. of the mainland Arctic coast; migrating S.
+  to Churchill River or beyond, Reindeer Lake, Lake Athabaska, and
+  occasionally the Wood Buffalo Park in ne. Alberta).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: R. M. Anderson, 1948: 15 (decrease;
+  shift of range attributed to fire or overgrazing; need of
+  protection; killing from planes; Northwest Territories; northern
+  Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Manning, 1948: 26-28 (Eyrie,
+  Big Sand, Neck, Sandhill, Malaher, Boundary, Boulder, South
+  Henik, Camp, Carr, Alder, Victory, Ninety-seven, Twin, and Baker
+  lakes; Tha-anne and Kazan rivers; W. of Padlei; Christopher
+  Island; Chesterfield Inlet; Tavani; most numerous in the more
+  southerly and westerly of these localities in Manitoba and
+  Keewatin; heavy grazing on lichens where the caribou had been
+  numerous; migration; trails).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ Richardson: Rand, 1948a: 211-212
+  (diagnosis); 212 (Northwest Territories, wandering southward in
+  winter as far as Fort McMurray (formerly) and Wood Buffalo Park;
+  food; habitat).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ Richardson: Rand, 1948b: 149 (numerous at
+  Burnt Wood River, W. of Nelson House, winter of 1944-45, and in
+  Herb Lake area, Manitoba, winters of 1944-45 and 1945-46;
+  hundreds killed by Indians).
+
+  “Caribou”: Yule, 1948: 287 (a losing battle for survival; not
+  half as many as a few years previously); 288 (considerable herds
+  between Churchill and Gillam, but fewer to the westward;
+  excessive kill; consumption by dogs and wolves; disaster
+  confronting Indians and Eskimos through diminishing supply of
+  caribou).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. . .: Banfield, 1949: 477
+  (economy); 478 (Mackenzie and Keewatin; numbers less than
+  previous estimate of 3,000,000; S. in winter to nw. Ontario,
+  central Manitoba, n. Saskatchewan, ne. Alberta, Wood Buffalo
+  Park, and Norman Wells; small bands remaining on Boothia and
+  Adelaide peninsulas, S. of Pelly Bay, on Somerset, Prince of
+  Wales, and Russell islands, and at Daly Bay; believed extirpated
+  on King William Island; Melville Peninsula); 481 (near Wager
+  Bay; fairly plentiful along Arctic coast from Back’s River to
+  Horton River, in Perry River district, and on Kent Peninsula,
+  where a few cross to Victoria Island; population on Southampton
+  Island estimated at 300, on Coats Island at 1,000 and on Baffin
+  Island at 25,000; apparently extirpated on Bylot Island in 1941;
+  Eskimo pressure on Baffin Island herds). (Fig. 1 suggests n.
+  limit at s. Victoria Island and Prince of Wales and Somerset
+  islands.)
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. . .: Harper, 1949: 226 (Kazan
+  River; Eskimos starving for lack of caribou); 226-230, 239-240
+  (migration and its pattern); 226 (wintering S. to Churchill and
+  Nelson rivers; Nueltin Lake); 226, 228 (habitat; trails);
+  226-227, 229-230 (locomotion); 227 (daily periods of rest); 228,
+  229, 230 (pelage and molt); 228 (insect pests); 228, 229
+  (organization of herds); 229 (antlers); 229-230 (disposition);
+  230 (grunting; shaking water off; foot-glands; food); 230-231
+  (utilization of hides and meat); 230-231, 239 (the wolf a
+  beneficial predator); 231, 239 (numbers); 239 (civilized man the
+  chief enemy; menace of reindeer culture).
+
+  “Caribou”: Hoffman, 1949: 12 (herds of 50,000 in Mackenzie
+  region spotted by aircraft; Indians and Eskimos thus directed to
+  them; caribou hides shipped to Eskimos along Arctic coast, who
+  are thus giving up seal-hunting).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ agg.: Polunin, 1949: 24 (contemplated
+  introduction of Reindeer to replace Caribou); 72 (Frobisher
+  Bay); 227, 230 (reported increase in NE. of Southampton Island);
+  230 (Eskimos on Southampton Island learning conservation
+  methods); 233, 238, 262, 264 (Christopher Island, Baker Lake).
+
+  “Caribou”: Porsild, 1950: 54 (relatively plentiful, 1949, Banks
+  and Victoria islands).
+
+  “Barren-ground caribou”: Banfield, 1951a: 1 (importance in
+  northern economy); 3 (physical environment); 4 (former and
+  present distribution); 4-5 (winter ranges); 5 (influences of
+  fire on distribution); 6 (summer ranges; retrograde autumnal
+  movement); 9 (estimated mainland population 670,000); 9-12
+  (migration); 10 (retrograde autumnal movement; rutting in
+  October or November); 11 (influences of excessive hunting and
+  fires on migration); 12-15 (changes in range and status); 13
+  (estimated population of 1,750,000 in 1900); 14-15 (destruction
+  by whalers and natives); 15-17 (description; pelage and molt);
+  15 (weight); 17-18 (antler growth and change); 18 (tooth wear
+  with age); 19 (body form; foot-prints; foot-click); 19-20
+  (food); 21 (locomotion; swimming); 22 (voice; senses;
+  disposition); 23-24 (group behavior); 24-26 (sexual
+  segregation); 26 (rutting behavior); 27 (fawning behavior;
+  warning behavior); 27-29 (influence of food, weather, and flies
+  on migration); 30 (vital statistics; growth); 31 (sexual
+  maturity); 31-33 (warble flies); 33 (nostril flies, mosquitoes,
+  and black flies); 33-35 (internal parasites); 35 (bacterial
+  diseases); 35-36 (accidents); 36-37 (relations to other
+  animals); 37-41 (relations to wolves; annual loss from wolf
+  predation estimated at no more than 5 percent); 41 (wolverine
+  only a scavenger); 42 (few kills by barren-ground grizzlies or
+  golden eagles); 42-43 (effect of firearms and wastage by
+  natives); 43-44 (caches); 44-45 (meat used as human food, dog
+  feed, and fox bait); 46-47 (hides used for clothing, upholstery,
+  tents, moccasins, etc.); 47 (use of sinew, antlers, and fat);
+  47-50 (human population in caribou range; annual kill estimated
+  at 93,000 as a minimum).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Banfield, 1951b:
+  120 (Mackenzie; wintering in forest, summering on tundra;
+  specimens).
+
+  “Caribou”: Scott, 1951: 17 (Musk Ox Lake, Mackenzie); 19 (near
+  Beechey Lake); 37, 41, 83, 87, 88, 175, 214, 216 (Perry River,
+  Keewatin); 127 (use by Eskimos); 179, 180 (doe with fawn, July
+  21); 199 (several thousand, July 27); 234 (Baker Lake).
+
+  “Caribou”: Tweedsmuir, 1951: 18 (reduction on Baffin Island); 37
+  (Salisbury Island); 111 (gone from Foxe Land).
+
+  “Caribou”: Anonymous, 1952: 261 (decline in numbers from
+  1,750,000 in 1900 to 670,000 in 1952); 263, 265, 267 (wolves
+  harrying herds); 264 (annual kill estimated at 100,000; natural
+  enemies account for 68,000 more); 267 (summer and winter ranges
+  mapped).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. . .: Mochi and Carter, 1953:
+  pl. 9, fig. 3, and accompanying text (description;
+  distribution).
+
+  “Caribou”: Harper, 1953: 28 (caribou bodies in Nueltin Lake
+  region fed upon by Rough-legged Hawks, Ravens, and Herring
+  Gulls); 40 (lack of Caribou leading to large consumption of
+  Ptarmigan as dog feed); 41 (Caribou preferred to Ptarmigan as
+  Eskimo food); 60 (Long-tailed Jaegers feeding on caribou
+  bodies); 62, 63 (depredations by Herring Gulls on caribou
+  bodies); 64 (Ring-billed Gulls feeding on caribou bodies); 72
+  (Canada Jays as substitute for dog feed when caribou are
+  lacking; these birds as scavengers on caribou bodies); 74
+  (Ravens and Canada Jays as scavengers); 76 (Ravens feeding upon
+  caribou bodies and following Wolves in expectation of a caribou
+  kill).
+
+  “Caribou”: Barnett, 1954: 96 (migration; fawning; numbers); 103
+  (migration); 104 (warble fly; antlers); 106 (lichens as food).
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+The principal items selected for inclusion in this index are: names of
+animals other than Richardson’s Barren Ground Caribou (_Rangifer
+arcticus arcticus_); names of plants; names of institutions; and names
+of authors and other persons.
+
+The index does not cover the bibliographical references in smaller type
+inserted at the end of each section, from pages 38 to 119; nor does it
+cover the two large sections devoted wholly to bibliography (pp.
+120-160).
+
+  _Aedes_, 45
+    _fitchii_, 70
+    _nearcticus_, 70
+  _Agrostis scabra_, 42
+  Alder, 98
+  _Alectoria_, 44
+  Allen, J. A., 116
+  _Alopex lagopus innuitus_, 63
+  American Committee for International Wild Life Protection,
+      reverse of title-page
+  American Museum of Natural History, 6, 117
+  American Society of Mammalogists, 77
+  Amundsen, Roald, 49
+  Anderson, R. M., 40, 43, 75, 78, 116, 117
+  Anonymous, 40, 47
+  Anoteelik, 6, 26, 27, 35 (fig.), 56 (fig.), 60, 85, 95
+  Arctic Institute of North America, 5, inside of back cover
+  _Arctostaphylos alpina_, 33 (fig.)
+  Armstrong, Alex, 117
+
+  Bailey, Alfred M., and Russell W. Hendee, 72
+  Banfield, A. W. F., 5, 10, 40, 58, 63, 66, 71, 76, 78, 107, 117, 118
+  Bear(s), Black, 42, 48, 62
+  Bergman, Arvid M., 72
+  _Betula glandulosa_, 33 (fig.), 98
+  Birch, dwarf, 16, 17, 22, 24, 41, 98, 99
+  Birket-Smith, Kaj, 76, 117
+  Bison, 85
+  Blanchet, G. H., 49, 117
+  Blowfly(ies), 29, 51, 52
+  Boas, Franz, 112
+  Bourassa, John M., 12
+  Buchanan, Angus, 7, 68, 86
+  Buchholz, Carl, 38
+  “Bulldog” (Tabanidae), 45
+  _Buteo lagopus sancti-johannis_, 68
+
+  Cabot, William B., 99
+  Calf, bovine, 104
+  _Canis_,
+    _lupus arctos_, 63
+    _lupus bernardi_, 63
+    _lupus hudsonicus_, 63, 64
+    _lupus mackenzii_, 63
+    _lupus manningi_, 63
+    _lupus occidentalis_, 63
+  _Carex chordorrhiza_, 55 (fig.)
+  Caribou,
+    Grant’s, 74
+    Labrador Barren Ground, 118
+    Newfoundland, 63, 66, 97
+    Peary’s, 43
+    (Western) Woodland, 7-9, 12, 45, 46, 70, 78, 112, 94 (fig.), 119
+  _Cephenemyia_, 45, 46, 72, 73, 96
+    _nasalis_, 72
+    _trompe_, 72, 73
+  _Cervus elaphus elaphus_, 50
+  Chambers, Joe, 11, 66, 85
+  Chipewyans, Caribou-eater, 47, 49, 52, 58, 62, 69
+  Christian, Edgar, 59
+  _Cladonia_, 33 (fig.), 44, 98
+  Clarke, C. H. D., 38, 40, 41, 47, 67, 78, 117
+  _Corvus corax principalis_, 68
+  Cow, domestic, 113
+  Critchell-Bullock, James C., 67
+  Crowberry, 16, 98
+
+  Deer,
+    European Red, 50
+    “Indian,” 8
+    Mule, 77
+    White-tailed, 46, 77, 78, 83-85, 87, 100, 102, 103
+  Degerbøl, Magnus, 112
+  Dix, W. L., 44, 98
+  Dobbs, Arthur, 8
+  Dogs, (Husky), 15, 17, 19, 21, 47-52, 59, 60, 62, 85
+  Downes, P. G., 18, 51, 52, 69, 106
+  Dugmore, A. Radclyffe, 97, 112
+  Dyar, Harrison G., 70
+
+  _Eleocharis baldwinii_, 42
+  Ellis, Hazel R., 12
+  _Empetrum nigrum_, 33 (figs.), 98
+  Eskimo(s), 5, 6, 19, 29, 34 (figs.), 35 (figs.), 47, 49-52,
+      56 (figs.), 57-60, 74-76, 79, 99, 114
+  “Eskimo candle(s),” 60, 114
+  “Eskimo Charlie,” 52
+
+  Fish, 47, 48, 59, 60
+  Fisher, Alexander, 103
+  Fleas, 73
+  Flerov, Constantine C., 110
+  Fly(ies), 14, 23, 27, 41, 43, 69, 85
+    black, 20, 23-28, 45, 46, 69, 70
+    “deer,” 70
+    nostril, 37, 45, 46, 72, 73, 96
+    warble, 37, 45, 46, 52, 56 (figs.), 57, 70-72, 96
+  Fox(es), 47, 48, 51, 62, 66, 68
+    Arctic, 48, 62, 63, 78
+    Red, 63
+  Franklin, Sir John, 46
+
+  Gallagher, Don, 12
+  Gavin, Angus, 64, 69, 117
+  Gibson, R. A., 6
+  Godsell, Philip H., 117
+  Goldman, Edward A., 63, 64
+  Goodwin, George G., 117
+  Grant, Madison, 118
+  Grass(es), 98, 99
+  Gull(s),
+    Herring, 51, 68
+    Ring-billed, 68
+
+  Hanbury, David T., 47, 49
+  Hares, Arctic, 69
+  Harper, Francis, 44, 51, 52, 58, 69, 74, 77
+  Hawk(s), Rough-legged, 48, 51, 68
+  Hearne, Samuel, 5, 7-9, 57, 102
+  Hewitt, C. Gordon, 75
+  Hoare, W. H. B., 47, 59
+  Hornby, John, 59
+  Horse, 96
+  Hudson’s Bay Company, 58
+
+  Indian(s), 5, 47, 48, 50, 52, 57, 75, 114
+    Chipewyan. _See_ Chipewyans, Caribou-eater
+    Cree, 58, 94 (fig.)
+  Ingebrigtsen, John, 11, 79, 107
+  Ingstad, Helge, 41, 49, 112
+  Insects, 20, 37, 43, 45, 46
+
+  Jackson, Hartley H. T., 77
+  Jacobi, Arnold, 7, 69, 71, 72, 74, 98, 102, 103, 105, 107, 112, 113
+  Jaeger, Long-tailed, 68
+  Jay(s), Canada, 48, 51, 68
+  Jenness, Diamond, 85
+  Johansen, Frits, 71, 73
+  _Juncus tenuis_, 42
+
+  Katello, 19, 49, 56 (fig.)
+
+  Lamont, Arthur H., 10
+  Lantis, Margaret, 74
+  _Larus_
+    _argentatus smithsonianus_, 68
+    _delawarensis_, 68
+  _Ledum decumbens_, 33 (fig.)
+  Lemmings (_Dicrostonyx_), 48, 69
+  _Lepus arcticus andersoni_, 69
+  Lice (or louse), 73, 74
+  Lichens, 37, 38, 44, 45, 51, 98, 99
+    reindeer, 24, 44, 99
+  _Linognathus tarandi_, 74
+  _Loiseleuria procumbens_, 33 (fig.)
+  Lyon, George F., 86
+
+  MacFarlane, Roderick, 112
+  MacIver, Angus, 38
+  McLean, John, 9
+  McLeod, Duncan A., 10
+  Malaher, G. W., 6, 10, 12, 43, 44
+  Mallet, Thierry, 41
+  Malloch, J. R., 45, 46
+  Manning, T. H., 58, 75
+  Millais, J. G., 15, 63
+  Mink, 69
+  Mites, 73
+  Moose, 45, 78, 85, 100, 113
+  Morrow, William C., 6
+  Mosquito(es), 23, 25, 45, 46, 69, 70, 99
+  Moss(es), 24, 51, 60
+  Murie, Olaus J., 105-107
+  Mushrooms, 99, 113
+  Muskox, 85
+
+  National Science Foundation, reverse of title-page, 6
+  Natvig, L. Reinhardt, 72
+
+  _Oedemagena_, 45, 46, 96
+    _tarandi_, 52, 70, 71, 73
+  Office of Naval Research, 6
+
+  Padleimiut, 50
+  Palmer, Ralph S., 6
+  Parkman, Francis, 52
+  Parry, William Edward, 103
+  Peary, R. E., 106
+  Perez-Llano, George A., 98
+  _Perisoreus canadensis canadensis_, 68
+  _Picea mariana_, 33 (fig.), 92 (fig.)
+  Pike, Warburton, 9, 44
+  Planchek?, Charles, 52
+  Pocock, R. I., 112
+  Poole, Earl L., cover
+  Porsild, A. E., 73, 76, 77
+  Preble, Edward A., 7, 9, 12, 40, 96
+  Ptarmigan, Willow, 44
+
+  _Rangifer_
+    _arcticus caboti_, 99, 118
+    _arcticus granti_, 74
+    _caribou sylvestris_, 12, 94 (fig.), 119
+    _pearyi_, 40, 43, 63, 103, 106, 118
+    _tarandus_, 5
+  Rausch, Robert, 77
+  Raven(s), 48, 51, 68
+  Reindeer, 7, 66, 69, 74, 76-78, 110
+    Lapland, Norway, or Norwegian, 5, 71, 72, 74, 75, 80, 87, 97,
+      103, 105, 112
+    Siberian, 74, 75, 77
+  Richardson, Sir John, 5, 7-9, 44, 46, 69, 103
+  Rita, 6, 34 (fig.), 35 (fig.), 56 (fig.)
+  Ross, Bernard R., 46
+  Russell, Frank, 112
+
+  Sabrosky, C. W., 73
+  _Salix planifolia_, 98
+  Schweder,
+    Charles, 6, 12, 13, 17-19, 27-29, 31, 32, 37, 44, 45, 48-51,
+      56 (fig.), 58, 59, 62-64, 66, 68, 69, 71, 73, 79-81, 83, 85,
+      86, 88, 95, 97-108, 111-114
+    Fred, Jr., 6, 12, 18-20, 24-27, 29-32, 34 (figs.), 43, 58,
+      64-66, 69-71, 73, 79, 80, 82, 84, 86, 100-104, 106, 107
+    Mike, 6, 26, 31, 34-35 (figs.)
+  Sedge(s), 17, 42, 55 (fig.), 98, 99
+  Seton, Ernest Thompson, 5, 40, 64, 73, 75, 80, 81, 87, 88, 97, 98,
+      100, 101, 103, 104, 107, 111-113, 116, 118, 119
+  Simpson, Thomas, 8
+  _Simulium_, 45
+    _venustum_, 70
+  Soper, J. Dewey, 58, 75
+  Spruce, 24, 41, 42, 51, 60, 108
+    black, 55 (fig.), 92 (fig.), 108
+  Stefánsson, Vilhjálmur, 49, 63, 84, 86, 105, 117
+  _Stercorarius longicaudus_, 68
+  Stewart, Norman H., 46
+  Stone, A. J., 97
+  Stone, Dr. Alan, 70
+  Sutton, George M., and William J. Hamilton, Jr., 107, 117, 118
+
+  _Tabanus_, 45
+  Tamarack, 24, 41, 42, 108
+  Thompson, David, 8
+  Ticks, 73
+  Turner, L. M., 118
+  Tweedsmuir, Lord, 118
+  Twinn, C. R., 45
+  Tyrrell,
+    James W., 12, 78, 81
+    J. Burr, 44, 78, 81, 118
+
+  United States Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, 70, 73
+  United States Fish and Wildlife Service, 6
+  United States National Museum, 6, 118
+  _Usnea_, 44
+  _Ursus americanus_, 62
+
+  _Vulpes fulva_, 63
+
+  Washburn, Dr. A. L., 6
+  Weasels, 48, 69
+  Weber, Neal A., 69, 71, 74
+  Wherry, Dr. Edgar T., 42
+  Whitney, Caspar, 112
+  Wildlife Management Institute, reverse of title-page
+  Willow, 41, 60, 98, 108
+  Wirth, Dr. W. W., 73
+  Wolf(ves),
+    Keewatin Tundra, 11, 16, 20, 28, 37, 38, 41, 42, 48, 50, 63-68,
+      80, 81, 83, 84, 86, 102, 104
+    Alaska, 76
+    Newfoundland, 66
+  Wolverine(s), 48, 69, 83
+  Wright, J. G., 118
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Errors and Inconsistencies
+
+Inconsistent capitalization is unchanged, as is the variable spelling of
+“Dog Rib” : “Dog-rib” : “Dogrib”.
+
+In references and bibliographies, irregular spellings such as “rain
+deer” or “cariboo”, and variant forms of scientific names, are assumed
+to be reproduced from their original sources.
+
+
+_Spelling_
+
+  August 29 was ... in mid-afternoon  [afternon]
+  References on relations to ... Stefánsson  [Stefansson], 1913a
+  The numbers of rubbing trees ... on the outskirts  [outskirits]
+  _Rangifer Graenlandicus_, _R. Groënlandicus_, _R. articus_
+    [_all spellings unchanged_]
+
+
+_Punctuation and Typography_
+
+  September 13 was ... brisk, northerly;  [brisk, northerly:]
+  Amundsen, 1908; Preble, 1908;  [1908:]
+  J. B. Tyrrell, 1894: 441; Dix, 1951: 287  [1894;]
+  Hoare, 1930: 22; Clarke, 1940  [22,]
+  J. W. Tyrrell, 1924 (1902): 28, 37; Hanbury, 1904  [1924 (1902);]
+  “stone men” (Harper, 1949: 231, fig.).
+    [_sentence-final period missing_]
+  Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 9, 47, 52-53 ...  [1929 (1);]
+  Harper, 1932: 30, 31; Jenness, 1932  [30, 31,]
+  Clarke, 1940: 5-9, 84, 110, 112; G. M. Allen, 1942  [112,]
+  Kennicott, in Anonymous, 1869: 166  [1869;]
+  R. M. Anderson, 1913a: 5, 6; 1913b: 504  [5, 6,]
+  R. M. Anderson, 1913b: 516; Stefánsson, 1913a  [516:]
+  recent notes by Banfield (1951a: 31-32, fig. 17)
+    [_open parenthesis missing_]
+  Seton, 1929, +3+: 109-111; Critchell-Bullock, 1930  [1929:]
+  Murie, 1939: 245; Clarke, 1940  [1939;]
+  R. M. Anderson, 1913b: 502; Hornaday, 1914  [502:]
+  J. W. Tyrrell, 1908: pls. facing pp. 80, 81  [pls facing]
+  J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128  [1892:128]
+  J. A. Allen, 1910: 8  [_period after A invisible_]
+  1908a. The Peary caribou (_Rangifer pearyi_ Allen).
+    [_final i in “pearyi” not italicized_]
+  1928. Field book of North American mammals. New York--London
+    [New York-London]
+  J. A. Allen, 1910: 8; Seton, 1929  [1910: 8,]
+  London: xv + 783  [London xv]
+  _Canadian Geog. Jour._ +24+ (1)  [_number 24 both bold and italic_]
+  “Reindeer and caribou (Rangifer caribou)”: W. J. McLean, 1901: 5
+    [_anomalous roman (non-italic) type in original_]
+  _“Caribou”_: Stefánsson, 1913a  [_anomalous italics unchanged_]
+  162-163 (destruction by Eskimos  [162-163 destruction]
+ Barrens E. of Great Slave Lake);  [Lake;]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Barren Ground Caribou of Keewatin, by 
+Francis Harper
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+Project Gutenberg's The Barren Ground Caribou of Keewatin, by Francis Harper
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Barren Ground Caribou of Keewatin
+
+Author: Francis Harper
+
+Release Date: September 14, 2010 [EBook #33721]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BARREN GROUND CARIBOU OF KEEWATIN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, some
+images courtesy of The Internet Archive and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's Note:
+
+This e-text comes in two forms: Unicode (UTF-8) and Latin-1. Use the
+one that works best on your text reader.
+
+  --If the tables use the male and female symbols ("Mars" and "Venus"),
+  and apostrophes and quotation marks are "curly" or angled, you have
+  the UTF-8 version (best). If any part of this paragraph displays as
+  garbage, try changing your text reader's "character set" or "file
+  encoding". If that doesn't work, proceed to:
+  --In the Latin-1 version, symbols have been changed to the simple
+  letters M and F. Apostrophes and quotation marks will be straight
+  ("typewriter" form).
+
+Except for illustrations and footnotes, all brackets are in the 1955
+original. The same applies to question marks and similar editorial
+punctuation.
+
+Typographical errors are listed at the end of the e-text. To reduce
+visual clutter, italic markings have been omitted from all references
+in the form "1951a" (printed "1951_a_").
+
+_Geographical Note:_ Lake Nueltin straddles the border between Nunavut
+and Manitoba. The area covered by the map is in southern Nunavut, in the
+region now written Kivalliq. "Eskimo Point" is modern Arviat.
+
+The opinions expressed in this book are not necessarily those of the
+transcriber.]
+
+
+
+
+    [Illustration: MAP 1. The Windy River area at the northwestern
+    extremity of Nueltin Lake, Keewatin. (Most of the smaller features
+    bear merely local or unofficial names.)]
+
+    [Illustration: COVER A Caribou buck signaling with a sprawling
+    posture of the left hind leg. Drawing by Earl L. Poole; based upon
+    a motion-picture film taken August 24, 1947, near the Windy River
+    post.]
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+  BARREN GROUND
+  CARIBOU
+  OF KEEWATIN
+
+  By
+  Francis Harper
+
+
+  University of Kansas
+  Lawrence � Kansas
+
+
+
+
+  University of Kansas
+  Museum of Natural History
+
+
+  Editor: E. Raymond Hall
+
+  _Miscellaneous Publication No. 6, pp. 1-164, 28 figs., 1 map_
+  _Published October 21, 1955_
+
+
+  Means for publication were supplied by:
+  National Science Foundation
+  Wildlife Management Institute
+  American Committee for International Wildlife Protection
+
+
+  Printed in U.S.A.
+
+  THE ALLEN PRESS
+  Lawrence, Kansas
+  1955
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  INTRODUCTION                                                     5
+
+  MIGRATIONS                                                       7
+    Southern limits of winter range                                7
+    Spring migration in the Churchill region                      11
+    Spring migration in the Nueltin Lake region                   12
+    Summer interlude                                              18
+    Fall migration in the Nueltin Lake region                     18
+    Retrograde autumnal movement                                  32
+    Fall migration in the Churchill region                        38
+
+  SUMMATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION                          39
+
+  ECOLOGY                                                         41
+    Habitats                                                      41
+    Trails                                                        41
+    Influence of weather on distribution                          43
+    Influence of food supply on distribution                      44
+    Influence of insects on distribution                          45
+    Effect of combined environmental factors on distribution      46
+    Relations to man                                              47
+    Ethnological material from caribou products                   59
+    Relations to Black Bears                                      62
+    Relations to foxes                                            62
+    Relations to Wolves                                           63
+    Relations to birds of prey                                    67
+    Relations to miscellaneous animals                            69
+    Relations to flies                                            69
+    Ectoparasites                                                 73
+    Relations to Reindeer                                         74
+
+  NUMERICAL STATUS                                                78
+
+  GENERAL HABITS                                                  79
+    Daily periods of activity and rest                            79
+    Organization of herds                                         81
+    Disposition                                                   83
+    Senses                                                        86
+    Gaits                                                         86
+    Tracks                                                        87
+    Swimming                                                      88
+    Shaking off moisture and insects                              95
+    Signaling                                                     96
+    Food                                                          98
+    Scatology                                                     99
+    Voice                                                        100
+    Reproduction                                                 101
+    Fawns                                                        103
+    Growth                                                       104
+    Antlers                                                      105
+    Rubbing trees                                                108
+
+  MORPHOLOGY AND TAXONOMY                                        108
+    Pelage and molt                                              108
+    Albinism                                                     112
+    Foot-glands                                                  112
+    Mastology                                                    113
+    Fat                                                          113
+    Body measurements and weights                                114
+    Measurements of skulls                                       115
+    Measurements of antlers                                      115
+    Measurements of testes                                       115
+    Geographical variation                                       116
+
+  LITERATURE CITED                                               120
+
+  ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES TO
+          _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_                           134
+
+  INDEX                                                          161
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+No other large North American land mammal is of such primary importance
+as the Barren Ground Caribou (_Rangifer arcticus arcticus_) as a source
+of food and clothing for so many primitive Eskimo and Indian tribes; no
+other performs such extensive and spectacular migrations; no other may
+be seen in such vast herds; no other exhibits so close an approach to a
+Garden-of-Eden trustfulness in the presence of man. And perhaps no other
+is more worthy of being cherished and safeguarded in its natural haunts
+for the benefit and enjoyment of future generations.
+
+The original valid designation, in technical nomenclature, of the Barren
+Ground Caribou of the Mackenzie-Keewatin region dates back to 1829, when
+Sir John Richardson described it in the _Fauna Boreali-Americana_ as
+_Cervus tarandus_ var. _arctica_. The type locality is Fort Enterprise
+(about lat. 64� 30� N., long. 113� W.), on Winter Lake, an expansion of
+Snare River, Mackenzie. Since the typical subspecies appears to lack a
+distinguishing common name, it would seem fitting to associate with it
+the name of its worthy describer; thus, Richardson's Barren Ground
+Caribou. The author's intimate acquaintance with the animal should have
+enabled him to draw up a somewhat fuller and more adequate description
+than he did. Previous travelers in the Barren Grounds, among whom Samuel
+Hearne (1795) was particularly notable, had contributed accounts of the
+species, without differentiating it from the Lapland Reindeer (_Rangifer
+tarandus_) or without giving it a distinctive technical name.
+
+Since Richardson's time the mainland form of western Canada has been
+discussed by many zoologists and explorers. The most comprehensive
+account of its life history hitherto published is that by Seton (1929,
++3+: 95-135),[1] whose personal experience was gained in the region of
+Artillery, Clinton-Colden, and Aylmer lakes. Dearth of adequate material
+(particularly from the type locality or adjacent areas) makes it all but
+impossible to determine whether there is any significant geographical
+variation between the herds of central Mackenzie and those of Keewatin.
+
+    [Footnote 1: This statement, written long before the appearance
+    of Banfield's work of 1954, no longer applies.]
+
+The foremost objective of an expedition I made in 1947 to Nueltin Lake,
+in southwestern Keewatin, was a study of the Barren Ground Caribou. The
+expedition was supported by the Arctic Institute of North America, with
+funds supplied by the Office of Naval Research. My headquarters were at
+the little Windy River trading post, at the northwestern extremity of
+Nueltin Lake (map�1). There, for a period of six months, I�enjoyed the
+fine hospitality of Charles Schweder and Fred Schweder, Jr. They had
+lived on intimate terms with the Caribou during most of their youthful
+lives, and they freely shared with me the knowledge they had thus gained
+concerning the ways of life of these wonderful creatures. They secured
+nearly all the specimens that went into my collection. The three other
+residents of the post also deserve my gratitude for their general
+helpfulness and friendliness; they were 10-year-old Mike Schweder
+(brother of Charles and Fred), 15-year-old Anoteelik (an Eskimo boy),
+and the latter's sister, 5-year-old Rita.
+
+In a previous paper (1953) I have endeavored to express to various
+officials and friends my sincere appreciation of their courtesy and
+generosity in furthering the work of the expedition; and I can scarcely
+forbear to repeat here the names of at least a few of them: Dr. A.�L.
+Washburn, at that time executive director of the Arctic Institute of
+North America; Mr. R.�A. Gibson, deputy commissioner of the
+Administration of the Northwest Territories; and Mr. G.�W. Malaher,
+director of the Game and Fisheries Branch, Manitoba. For the loan of a
+motion-picture camera, which secured for me some extremely gratifying
+scenes of the migrant hosts on the Barrens, I�am greatly indebted to Mr.
+William C. Morrow. Dr. Ralph S. Palmer has kindly read, and made helpful
+comments upon, a�preliminary draft of the present report.
+
+Through the courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History, the
+United States National Museum, and the United States Fish and Wildlife
+Service, I�have been able to examine important comparative material in
+their collections.
+
+A grant from the National Science Foundation has enabled me to carry the
+investigation through to completion.
+
+
+
+
+MIGRATIONS
+
+
+The Barren Ground Caribou is the outstanding migratory land mammal of
+North America at the present day. (Some of the bats, though extensively
+migratory, obviously belong in a category too distinct for comparison.)
+We know as yet extremely little concerning the movements of individual
+Caribou;[2] but it is fairly safe to assume that among those reaching
+the southern limits of the winter range in central Manitoba or
+northwestern Ontario, there must be many whose summer range is at least
+500 or 600 miles to the northward. The latitudinal extent of such
+wanderings is comparable with, or equivalent to, an annual round trip
+between Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and Charleston, South Carolina.
+There is perhaps less information available concerning the migrations of
+the wild Reindeer of the Old World than concerning the movements of the
+Barren Ground Caribou of North America (_cf._ Jacobi, 1931: 191-200).
+
+    [Footnote 2: One means of gathering information on this subject
+    would be to capture fawns as they swim across lakes or wide rivers
+    on the autumn migration, then to affix numbered metal tags to
+    their ears and to release them in time to rejoin their mothers.
+    This would simply be a modification of the leg-banding method
+    that has proved so highly successful in the study of bird
+    migration. It would also be particularly useful in studies on
+    age and growth.]
+
+
+_Southern limits of winter range_
+
+In years long past the winter range extended at least occasionally as
+far south as Fort McMurray in Alberta and Cree Lake and the upper
+Mudjatick and Foster rivers in Saskatchewan, and rather regularly to
+Reindeer Lake (Preble, 1908: 137); and "on rare occasions as far south
+as Cumberland House on the Saskatchewan River" (Buchanan, 1920: 105). At
+an early date Richardson believed (1829: 243) that "none" of these
+Caribou "go to the southward of Churchill."
+
+There are, however, records of long ago that deal with mass occurrences
+of Caribou on the lower courses of the Nelson, Hayes, and Severn rivers,
+emptying on the west coast of Hudson Bay. The records are very puzzling
+in several respects. Most of them do not definitely differentiate the
+species involved from the Barren Ground Caribou, but some of them (by
+Hearne, Richardson, and Preble) indicate that it is the Woodland
+Caribou. The direction of the migrations, as reported in some instances,
+is just the reverse of that taken at the present time by the Barren
+Ground species during its normal movements at corresponding seasons.
+Finally, it is all but impossible to reconcile the numbers reported with
+such knowledge as we have of the status of the Woodland Caribou at any
+other period or in any other region.
+
+Perhaps the earliest account is by Dobbs (1744: 22):
+
+"They [residents at Fort Bourbon-York Factory] also take great numbers
+of Cariboux or Rain-Deer [sp.?]. In _March_ and _April_ they come from
+the North to the South, and extend then along the River 60 Leagues; they
+go again Northward in _July_ and _August_; the Roads they make in the
+Snow are as well padded, and cross each other as often as the Streets in
+Paris."
+
+In discussing the "Indian deer" or Woodland Caribou in the vicinity of
+Great Slave Lake, Hearne remarks (1795: 225): "This is that species of
+deer which are found so plentiful near York Fort and Severn River."
+
+According to Thompson (1916: 100-101), an immense herd of "Rein Deer"
+[sp.?], estimated at the rather preposterous figure of 3,564,000
+individuals, crossed the Hayes River 20 miles above York Factory in late
+May, 1792. The direction of this migration is not indicated.
+
+Richardson writes ("1825": 330) of the Woodland Caribou: "In the
+beginning of September, vast numbers of this kind of deer pass near York
+Factory .�.�. on their journey towards the north-west."
+
+And again (1829: 250):
+
+"They cross the Nelson and Severn Rivers in immense herds in the month
+of May, pass the summer on the low, marshy shores of James' Bay, and
+return to the northward, and at the same time retire more inland in the
+month of September.�.�.�. I have been informed by several of the
+residents at York Factory that the herds are sometimes so large as to
+require several hours to cross the river in a crowded phalanx."
+
+The implication is that the herds passed _southward_ in May. It should
+be borne in mind that these were apparently not personal observations of
+Richardson's; and in his belief that the Barren Ground species did not
+go south of Churchill, he may have merely assumed that the animals in
+the York Factory region were the Woodland species.
+
+"Near York Factory, in 1831, this propensity [Indian destructiveness]
+.�.�. led to the indiscriminate destruction of a countless herd of
+reindeer [sp.?], while crossing the broad stream of Haye's River, in the
+height of summer.�.�.�. The deer have never since visited that part of
+the country in similar numbers." (Simpson, 1843: 76).
+
+Referring to the York Factory region in 1837, John McLean writes
+(1932 [1849]: 195). "Not many years ago this part of the country was
+periodically visited by immense herds of rein-deer; at present there is
+scarcely one to be found."
+
+A later account of Richardson's (1852: 290) is somewhat ambiguous as to
+the species to which it refers:
+
+"The reindeer that visit Hudson's Bay travel southward toward James's
+Bay in spring. In the year 1833, vast numbers of them were killed by the
+Cree Indians at a noted pass three or four days march above York
+Factory. They were on their return northward, and were crossing Hayes
+River in incredible multitudes."
+
+Pike writes (1917 [1892]: 50) that "within the last three years [_i.e._,
+about 1888] the [Barren Ground?] caribou have appeared in their
+thousands at York Factory .�.�. where they have not been seen for over
+thirty years."
+
+Preble (1902: 41) quotes Dr. Alexander Milne as thinking, after 14
+years' residence at York Factory, that the small bands of "Woodland
+Caribou," found between Churchill and Cape Churchill, form the "northern
+fringe of the bands which migrate to the coast in spring, the great
+majority of which in their journey cross to the south of Nelson River."
+At that time, however, Preble (1902: 42), like Richardson before him,
+seems to have regarded the Churchill River as the southern limit of the
+Barren Ground species, and thus he may not have considered the
+possibility of the animals of Cape Churchill and the Nelson and Hayes
+rivers belonging to the same species.
+
+It is difficult to draw any sure conclusions from the confusing records
+just quoted. Possibly chief reliance should be placed upon the testimony
+of such high authorities as Hearne, Richardson, and Preble when they
+refer to the animals as Woodland Caribou. Furthermore, none of the early
+writers identify them unequivocally as the Barren Ground species. It
+remains fairly evident that long ago some species of Caribou in great
+numbers did actually cross these rivers in a southerly direction in the
+spring, pass the summer on the coastal tundra east of York Factory, and
+return northward or northwestward in late summer or autumn. Whichever
+species it was, it represented a segment of the population that must
+have become reduced to utterly insignificant numbers, if not entirely
+extirpated, some decades ago. In any event, it does not seem very likely
+that we shall ever be able to reconstruct the actual movements of the
+"incredible multitudes" in the York Factory region of more than a
+century ago.
+
+Since the beginning of the present century, until very recent years,
+there seem to have been few or no Manitoba records of _R.�a. arcticus_
+from any locality so far to the southeast as York Factory. In 1947,
+however, Mr. G.�W. Malaher, director of the Game and Fisheries Branch in
+Manitoba, informed me that during the previous couple of winters the
+animals had ranged southward on a broad front to the latitude of Oxford
+House, where they had not been known for 40 or 45 years. It was surmised
+that the recent burning of large areas north of The Pas, resulting in
+the destruction of the Caribou's normal winter food of lichens, had
+deflected the animals toward the southeast and had caused them to extend
+their migration beyond its normal limit. The Split Lake band of Indians
+(on the Nelson River) were said to have killed 4,000 Caribou during the
+winter of 1946-47, and to have used half of them for dog feed.
+
+Arthur H. Lamont, in charge of the meteorological office at Fort
+Churchill, gave me information concerning Caribou that he had seen
+during a plane flight from that point to Edmonton on March 18, 1947. At
+midday he had sighted hundreds, in bands averaging 20 to 30 individuals,
+on some little lakes, averaging a quarter of a mile in diameter, near
+the southwestern end of Reindeer Lake. The animals were right in the
+middle of the frozen lakes (evidently for a noonday rest), and some of
+them were lying down. They paid no attention to the plane at a height of
+6,000 feet, but were frightened when it came down to 200 feet. This was
+the only area where Caribou were sighted during the entire flight.
+
+Duncan A. McLeod, of Winnipeg, informed me that he had seen thousands
+and thousands of Caribou on April 16, 1941, while he was flying from
+Isle � la Crosse to Beaverlodge on Lake Athabaska. They were nearer to
+Lake Athabaska than to the starting-point. They were congregated on
+frozen lakes about the middle of the day.
+
+"Their nomadic migrations during the past 10 years have brought caribou
+herds during winter months to northwestern Ontario (Little Sachigo
+Lake); central Manitoba (Cormorant, Cross, and Island Lakes); northern
+Saskatchewan (Churchill River); northeastern Alberta (Clearwater and
+Athabaska Rivers and Lake Claire)" (Banfield, 1949: 478, fig. 1).
+
+
+_Spring migration in the Churchill region_
+
+The Hudson Bay Railway is perhaps the only one in North America from
+which Barren Ground Caribou of the present subspecies have been seen. On
+May 21, 1947, a�passenger reported three or four of the animals near
+Mile 326, between Gillam and Amery. Farther north, between Herchmer and
+Chesnaye, the railway passes for perhaps 30-40 miles through the western
+edge of a tundra area, interspersed with small spruce timber; this is
+known as the "Little Barrens." It was a thrilling experience to see my
+first Caribou here, during a period of three-quarters of an hour on the
+afternoon of May 21, from Mile 453 to about Mile 475. There were eight
+bands, varying in number from 2 to 60 or 70 and averaging about 20
+individuals. The first and largest band was loping away from the train,
+at a distance of perhaps 350 yards. A�band of 9 or 10, at about 250
+yards, exhibited both a trotting and a loping gait. Others, as far off
+as half a mile or a mile and therefore less alarmed, seemed to content
+themselves with trotting. They maintained a noticeably close formation
+while fleeing from the train. Yearlings, appearing only about half the
+size of the adults, were readily distinguishable. The animals were in
+the midst of their spring migration and were evidently moving in a
+general northerly direction over the snow-covered Barrens. The ice of
+the small lakes was still solid enough for the Caribou to trot over it.
+
+Two weeks previously a large movement had passed through this area, as I
+learned from several sources. A�member of the Royal Canadian Mounted
+Police detachment at Churchill, for example, had traveled through the
+Caribou for a distance of 15 miles without coming to the end of them; he
+estimated their numbers at more than 5,000. Joe Chambers, a�trapper of
+Goose Creek, said the animals had been very plentiful in April, moving
+generally northward. He spoke of finding a good many Caribou that Wolves
+had killed, contenting themselves with eating only the tongue and the
+unborn fawn.
+
+According to a railway conductor, only 12 Caribou were seen from the
+train as it passed through the Little Barrens on May 25, and none on May
+28.
+
+John Ingebrigtsen, of Churchill, reported passing a frozen lake
+somewhere east of the Duck Lake Post, that was "absolutely full" of
+Caribou. It was about a mile and a half long by half a mile wide, and he
+estimated the number of animals at not less than 20,000. This was in the
+early part of May, 1942 or 1943, when the spring migration was no doubt
+under way.
+
+During a plane flight from Eskimo Point to Baker Lake on May 22, 1947,
+John M. Bourassa and Don Gallagher sighted numbers of Caribou, including
+one herd of about 500. On May 28 the former saw a Caribou between
+Churchill and Fort Churchill. From other sources I learned that small
+numbers occasionally pass along the outskirts of Churchill during the
+migrations.
+
+Professor Hazel R. Ellis (_in litt._, April 13, 1953) reports seeing
+several bands of Caribou from the train as it approached Churchill on
+June 8, 1947; also a band between Churchill and Fort Churchill on June
+13 and 21, 1949, and a single animal on June 28, 1949, on the west side
+of the river near Churchill. On July 5, 1949, she filmed a herd of over
+40 Caribou at Bird Cove on Cape Churchill.
+
+Preble writes (1902: 41): "Between York Factory and Fort Churchill a few
+small bands [of Woodland Caribou] are found throughout the year on the
+'Barrens'." He includes reports to this effect from several sources,
+including J.�W. Tyrrell (1898). The latter, however, does not specify
+which species of Caribou his party encountered. It might be expected
+that _R.�a. arcticus_, rather than _R. caribou sylvestris_, would be the
+proper inhabitant of this tundra area. It is beyond question that the
+animals seen in recent years on the "Little Barrens" between the
+Churchill and the Nelson Rivers are the Barren Ground species.
+Furthermore, Mr. G.�W. Malaher, of the Manitoba Game and Fisheries
+Branch, informed me that a considerable number of this species spend the
+summer and have their fawns on the Barrens in this area.
+
+
+_Spring migration in the Nueltin Lake region_
+
+The general pattern of this migration, as manifested particularly about
+the northwestern portion of the lake, was explained by Charles Schweder.
+As a rule, practically all the local Caribou spend the winter in the
+wooded country to the southward. When the northward movement starts in
+the spring, the does precede the bucks; they migrate through this area
+mostly in May (and apparently more commonly in the latter half of the
+month), but to some extent in April or even earlier. During June the
+majority of the animals passing by are bucks. According to Fred
+Schweder, Jr., the spring migration here is more regular, less erratic,
+than the fall migration.
+
+When I arrived at Nueltin Lake on May 31, the spring migration was in
+full swing; it continued through June in gradually lessening force, and
+the last northbound band was seen on July 1. In the meantime many
+interesting details of caribou behavior came to light.
+
+While flying from Churchill to Duck Lake Post on May 31, at a height of
+about 500 feet, we detected three bands on the frozen surface of Seal
+River, where they were evidently taking a noonday rest. They numbered
+approximately 40, 20, and 6 individuals. Within 20 minutes after
+resuming our journey, from Duck Lake Post to Nueltin Lake, we saw four
+more bands, numbering from two to a dozen individuals. Finally, just
+before landing on Windy Bay, we noticed a band of perhaps 20 crossing
+the bay a mile from its head.
+
+Observations during the following 10 days showed that this was a very
+definite crossing-place for the Caribou, as if some invisible barrier on
+each side kept them to a certain line of march. Moreover, Charles
+Schweder informed me that they followed this identical route year after
+year. An examination of the local topography (map 1) soon revealed the
+reason. The rugged south side of Windy Bay rises steeply for some 500
+feet to the summit of the Windy Hills, and over a considerable distance
+there are precipices and talus slopes barring the passage of such
+animals as Caribou. But the mile-long South Bay, meeting Windy Bay at
+right angles, affords a convenient break in the hills; and the slopes
+thereabouts are gradual enough to be negotiated readily by the Caribou.
+So here they converge from the neighboring heights, making long,
+slanting trails through the snow that are visible for miles; they pass
+out of the narrow mouth of South Bay as through a funnel, then follow
+the beaten path of their predecessors across the ice of Windy Bay toward
+the farther shore, until they are lost to view among a cluster of
+islands. It may be further remarked that their course northeastward from
+the mouth of South Bay is less obstructed by islands than almost any
+near-by portion of Windy Bay.
+
+From our camp, a mile or so distant, Caribou in bands of approximately
+the following numbers were observed using this crossing-place during the
+early part of June: June 1--7, 10, 18, 20, and several other bands of
+unrecorded size; June 2--10, 3, 7; June 3--4, 4, 10, 30, 70, and others;
+June 4--3, 40?; June 5--40, 50, 75; June 6--25; June 10--8. Of course
+many others must have passed while our attention was elsewhere engaged.
+In most cases my records indicate the time of day when the bands were
+crossing Windy Bay. The periods were mainly from 10 to 11 a.m., from
+2:30 to 5 p.m., and in the evening. Perhaps the infrequency of midday
+passages was due to the habit of the Caribou of resting at this period.
+One of the last bands to pass during the evening of June 1 consisted of
+about 20 individuals. Two big bucks were in the lead, and apparently a
+few others were scattered along the line. At the very rear was a big,
+extra-dark buck, immediately preceded by a yearling barely half its
+size.
+
+In crossing the bay ice, the animals traveled habitually in long files,
+one after the other, and yet not altogether in single file. In watching
+the endlessly interesting spectacle from camp, we could not always count
+the individuals exactly, for here and there a few would get abreast of
+others and be partly concealed. The general formation of each band was
+that of a much strung-out procession. For the most part the animals
+progressed at a moderate walking gait; there were no flies to spur them
+on at this season. On one occasion the forward element of a large band
+was actually running, but those in the rear were going calmly, and there
+was no visible cause of alarm. At mid-morning of June 6 most of a band
+of 25 were lying down to rest on the bay ice, while a few remained
+standing.
+
+Meanwhile Caribou in some numbers were advancing northward by crossing
+Windy River, the ice on which did not break up generally till June 14.
+On June 3, for example, as I peeped out of my tent at 4 a.m., there was
+a band of about 15 making a crossing a quarter of a mile above camp.
+Late in the afternoon several dozen did likewise close to the same
+place. At this period I did not get farther upstream to note how many
+might be passing there. On June 14, while the river ice was breaking up
+but while the bay ice was holding firm, two bucks moved about on the
+latter, just off the river's mouth. They appeared to be seeking a safe
+crossing. The smaller of the two almost invariably preceded, just as if
+it were aware that it would be less likely to break through than its
+companion. For the most part they walked rather sedately, but now and
+then took up a very leisurely trot. On the following day a dozen crossed
+Windy Bay at about the same place. These were the last ones seen on the
+ice in June. Though the ice remained on the bay for some days longer, it
+had evidently become unsafe.
+
+Thereafter the Caribou obviously preferred the short passage of Windy
+River (no more than 50 or 60 yards wide in places) to a swim of half a
+mile or so across Windy Bay. So they appeared in considerable numbers on
+the south bank of the river, reconnoitering for a suitable place to
+cross. Many were deterred by movements or sounds in our camp on the
+north bank, including the yelping invariably set up by the tethered
+Husky dogs whenever they would catch sight of Caribou; the latter would
+then be likely either to retreat behind the ridges or to pass upstream
+along the south bank. Along the half-mile extent of this bank visible
+from our camp, I�noted the following making the passage of the river by
+swimming: June 18, a�band of half a dozen; June 20, a�band of three
+landing practically in our dooryard and about 14 crossing at the mouth;
+June 21, six crossing at the mouth; June 24, about 10 (mostly big bucks)
+landing just above the camp. On the morning of July 1 a buck swam across
+the bay just off the river's mouth, and a little later a band of about
+11--the last seen on the spring migration--were trotting upstream along
+the south bank.
+
+Various groups observed during June, principally on the south side of
+the bay and the river, furnished memorable spectacles. Besides resorting
+to open areas on the frozen lakes and rivers for their resting periods,
+the Caribou will also select some commanding hilltop for the same
+purpose. On June 3 a band of 75 appeared in midday on the summit of a
+rocky hill ("Caribou Knoll," map 1) rising to a height of some 150 feet
+on the far side of Windy River. While some kept on feeding, many of them
+lay down on snowbanks, apparently preferring these to the plentiful
+patches of bare ground, and doubtless passing the time by chewing their
+cuds. The velvet of the bucks' new antlers was plainly visible through
+field-glasses. In the variety of their attitudes on this rocky height
+the animals were disposed perhaps more like alpine Chamois than like the
+generally conceived masses of Caribou on the low Barrens. What a subject
+for a Millais!
+
+It appears likely that the higher elevations may serve for the nocturnal
+rest as well as for a noonday siesta. During the evening of June 1, for
+instance, some 75 Caribou in a loose aggregation were feeding over the
+summit of Josie's Hill, beyond the junction of Windy and South bays. On
+June 20 I was enjoying a wonderfully clear and golden light that was
+cast on the imposing mass of this hill as the sun was setting at my back
+about 9 o'clock. The glory of that scene was enhanced by picking out
+with the naked eye, at a distance of a couple of miles, two separate
+bands of 12 to 15 Caribou making their way upward toward the broad,
+plateaulike summit. Meanwhile a lone Caribou was outlined against the
+sky on one of the rocky ridges to the south. Might not these various
+movements have indicated a common urge to spend the semi-darkness of the
+Arctic summer night on some high, open area where a good lookout for
+Wolves could be kept?
+
+About 2 p.m. on June 15, a herd, perhaps half a hundred strong, appeared
+on a ridge directly across the river from camp. The animals made a
+lovely spectacle as they stood for a time, despite certain human
+movements in camp. Then they moved off upstream. A�couple of hours later
+about 15 Caribou were feeding quietly on the south bank. On the
+following morning a band of 20 were doing likewise in nearly the same
+place. Among them were a patriarchal buck (apparently the leader),
+several other bucks, various does (one with hard horns), and a large
+proportion of yearlings. The bucks in general were lighter in
+color--more buffy; the does and yearlings, a�sort of smoke gray. They
+seemed to be feeding to some extent on the patches of crowberry and
+dwarf birch. Presently they trotted off upstream, almost but not quite
+in single file, for a couple marched out of line with the others.
+
+On June 17 a band of about 20 appeared at a distance of 125 yards on the
+brow of a low hill near Stump Lake. Nearly all were big bucks, with
+velvety antlers up to about 20 inches in length. Perhaps three in the
+band were hornless--if not does, then young bucks that had very recently
+shed their antlers. Two of the bigger bucks were in the lead. At first
+the band came toward me, then went off at a tangent at a good pace,
+splashed across a little stream in a spirited action, and disappeared
+over the next ridge.
+
+Out of several bands appearing on June 20 on the opposite side of the
+river, one of about 14 individuals came down the slope near the mouth,
+took to the water at once, and made for the north shore. A�strong buck
+landed first, and farthest upstream; others did nearly as well, but some
+of the smaller animals were swept by the strong current down into the
+bay and probably landed beyond the point. On reaching the shore, and
+even some minutes afterward, several of the Caribou could be seen
+shaking the water from their fur in doglike fashion.
+
+On the morning of June 21 a dozen came to the ridge across the river,
+briefly inspected the camp, and retreated. In a short time they
+returned, four antlered bucks in the lead, and some hornless individuals
+in the rear (almost in a separate band). Three of the bucks stood side
+by side, looking long and earnestly at the camp, while the others
+grazed. Finally dissatisfied with the prospect, they made off upstream.
+
+A little before 7 p.m. on the same day six Caribou appeared on the same
+ridge. For once the dogs were inattentive and silent. After promenading
+back and forth along the brow, the Caribou disappeared on the far side
+of the ridge; but in a few moments they were in the water at the river's
+mouth, in very close formation, three of them swimming abreast. There
+were three good bucks and three smaller, hornless animals. After they
+got ashore at the opposite point, there was wagging of tails and shaking
+of ears, heads, and bodies, while the water flew off in a spray. Then
+they leisurely proceeded along the shore and around the point.
+
+About 7 p.m. on June 24 some 10 Caribou (mostly big bucks) swam the
+river and landed immediately above our camp. The last two, I�noted, were
+heading almost upstream in the current that was running 6-8 miles per
+hour. They swam high, with the whole line of the back 2 or 3 inches out
+of the water and with the antlers tilted back to keep the snout above
+the surface. On landing, the animals hastened to the top of the Camp
+Ridge and ran off along it, while the chained and frustrated dogs
+expressed their feelings in the usual manner.
+
+As I was retiring to my tent on the Camp Ridge in the twilight about
+11:30 p.m. on June 29, I�noticed a Caribou in the opposite edge of the
+river, about 125 yards away. For the most part it stood in about a foot
+of water and kept watching upstream. After some minutes I moved closer,
+right along the skyline; I�waved a white pillow at it and shouted
+several times, but still it would not leave. Eventually it did move a
+few feet back from the water's edge and there appeared to browse on some
+dwarf birches.
+
+The next day, watching from Pile o' Rocks northwest of camp, I�noticed
+three Caribou passing on a northeasterly course. They walked for the
+most part, but now and again trotted. They were two well-antlered bucks
+and a smaller individual with shorter horns. One of the former paused to
+graze in a green-sprouting sedge bog. It was perhaps such fresh summer
+vegetation that had helped to produce fat an inch thick on the haunches
+of an animal secured about this date.
+
+The area near the western border of Keewatin, lying at some distance
+south of Dubawnt Lake and west of the upper Kazan River, does not appear
+to attract large numbers of Caribou. Just once, in May, Charles Schweder
+has found them crossing a lake which he considered Dubawnt, but may have
+been Kamiluk. In his trapping excursions in that area he has found
+trails and other signs all along the way, indicating that the animals at
+least pass through on their migrations.
+
+
+_Summer interlude_
+
+After July 1 no more Caribou were seen about the Windy River for five
+weeks. From information supplied by Charles Schweder, it appears that
+virtually all of the animals desert the southern portion of the Barren
+Grounds at this season. Before dropping their fawns, the does pass on
+for an undetermined distance to the northward of that portion of the
+upper Kazan River lying immediately below Ennadai Lake. The rear guard
+of the northward migration seems to be composed mainly of bucks and a
+few barren does.
+
+A general veil of mystery seems so far to have enshrouded most of the
+natal places (except the islands along the Arctic mainland coast) and
+the first few weeks in the life of the Caribou fawns.
+
+
+_Fall migration in the Nueltin Lake region_
+
+In former times the southward migration reached the Nueltin Lake region
+in July (_cf._ Downes, 1943: 203-237), sometimes as early as the middle
+of the month. Suddenly the time of arrival shifted to (early) August,
+and has so remained. In Charles Schweder's experience, the bucks nearly
+every year precede the does on the southward migration; this suggests
+that at least the majority of the bucks may not go so far north as the
+does. In a certain year the does actually appeared first in coming
+south. In normal years, according to Fred Schweder, Jr., the migration
+continues till October or November, by which time the animals have
+passed into the wooded country for the winter.
+
+Charles Schweder described the general pattern of fall migration as
+follows. At first two or three animals will appear, then a few more, and
+after several days a big movement, lasting three or four days, will pass
+through. Thereafter the numbers dwindle, though the migration continues.
+Curiously enough, there is a definite retrograde movement northward into
+the Barrens in September--sometimes as early as the first part of the
+month. Then there is a final movement toward the south in November, at
+the time of the first good snows; the largest herds of the year may then
+be seen. Just how far the migration in 1947 conformed to this pattern
+(outlined in early August) will be seen in the following pages.
+
+The big August movement occurs occasionally as early as the first days
+of the month, whereas it was delayed till the last week in 1947. About
+the first of August, 1943, according to Fred Schweder, Jr., a�thousand
+Caribou swam across the mouth of Windy River in the course of an hour,
+and there were other thousands during a two weeks' period. But such a
+large migration strikes this point only once in several years. In other
+years it may pass southward farther to the west, as in the vicinity of
+Simons' Lake.
+
+In the fall of 1946--the very season when the Caribou bypassed the
+Eskimo camps on the upper Kazan River--there were said to have been far
+more than the normal numbers in the Windy River area. Thousands passed
+in one day, about October 10. The hills about Four-hill Creek then gave
+Fred Schweder, Jr., the impression of "moving with Deer." By comparison,
+the numbers along the Windy River in 1947 were considered by the local
+residents to have been below normal, however impressive they may have
+been to a zoological visitor. On the other hand, it seemed to Charles
+Schweder, during his trip down the Thlewiaza River in late August of
+1947, that Caribou were still very numerous; and he reported that people
+along the west coast of Hudson Bay were then getting more of the animals
+than in previous years.
+
+Only rarely do limited numbers of Caribou remain all winter in the Windy
+River area. During Charles Schweder's years of residence there (about
+1936-47) the animals had done so just once--on the Windy Hills. In
+1946-47 Fred Schweder, Jr., found about 300 of them remaining all winter
+about the north end of Ennadai Lake. He said that the locally wintering
+animals are all bucks. Katello, an elderly Eskimo of the upper Kazan
+River, informed Charles Schweder that the Caribou used to remain there
+all winter, but now very rarely do so.
+
+By the end of July, after both men and dogs had subsisted for several
+weeks on a diet devoid of caribou meat, an air of expectancy began to
+pervade the Windy River camp. The hunters roamed the Barrens or watched
+from some lookout post such as the Pile o' Rocks (fig. 27). No Caribou
+were detected during plane trips to the upper Kazan River and return on
+July 31 and August 3, though their ancient, well-marked trails were
+visible along the ridges. It was not until August 6 that the first buck
+of the return movement was encountered. On the following day another
+animal was secured. On August 10 and 11 only a few Caribou--not over 25
+in a band--were seen by Charles Schweder and Fred Schweder, Jr., from
+the air between the Windy and the Kazan rivers. It began to be feared
+that the bulk of the migration might pass somewhere to the westward. On
+August 13, however, at a distance of some miles from camp, Fred sighted
+20 Caribou; all of them were does and fawns except for one buck. On
+August 17 he secured a good-sized buck (specimen No. 1065; figs. 3, 4)
+at Bear Slough and saw five other bucks elsewhere. Two days later
+Anoteelik reported a band of 13.
+
+On August 20 Fred reported about 300 Caribou moving in our direction
+across the Barrens east of Lake Charles; they proved to be the advance
+guard of a big movement. On the same afternoon I had filmed several
+bucks going their separate ways on the slopes about Pile o' Rocks and
+Stony Man. They were moving along somewhat hurriedly, in a manner very
+different from the placid grazing of sheep or cattle. One or two does
+with fawns also appeared in the vicinity. (The passage of a Keewatin
+Tundra Wolf over the same ground a short time previously had no effect,
+as far as I observed, on the behavior of the animals at this time.)
+A�grander, though more distant, spectacle gradually unfolded off to the
+eastward, beyond Little River, where several groups, numbering from 3 to
+20 or 25 individuals, were feeding quietly over the open Barrens. Their
+fresh dark autumn coats showed up much more conspicuously than had the
+cream-buff of their winter coats in June. Presently the scene became
+livelier, as the largest band, composed of does and fawns as well as
+lordly bucks, started to romp northward over the Barrens. One or more of
+the various kinds of insects that bring life-long misery to the Caribou
+may have stampeded them. This band swept past a group of half its size
+without at once involving it. A�doe and a fawn remained lying down as
+the others passed.
+
+As the eye swept farther over that lonely land, still other Caribou were
+disclosed singly or in groups scattered over a couple of square miles.
+There was no strong herd instinct as they grazed at will. Even when on
+the march, they straggled along, some as much as 20 to 30 yards apart.
+As the sun sank lower, and the black flies became less active with the
+dropping temperature (about 53�), a lull ensued in the movements of the
+Caribou.
+
+The big movement of the fall migration finally began to materialize on
+Sunday, August 24. This and the next few days were filled with memorable
+experiences. The throngs of Caribou passing at such times around the
+head of Windy Bay and across the lowermost portions of Little and Windy
+rivers may be accounted for, in part, by the local topography (map 1).
+The upper part of Windy Bay, occupied by numerous islands of various
+sizes and extending about 5 miles in an east-west direction, opposes
+something of a barrier to the Caribou in their southward trek. The
+easiest way to overcome this barrier is to by-pass it. So the migrant
+herds approaching the north shore of the bay turn westward toward Little
+River. At a point half a mile short of this stream a rather minor
+proportion of the Caribou actually do essay a passage of Windy Bay. They
+cross an island lying very close to the north shore, then steer for a
+small rocky islet a quarter of a mile northwest of the mouth of South
+Bay. Here they get a brief respite from swimming by walking through the
+shallow bordering waters, then continue straight on to the rugged south
+shore of Windy Bay. This course is roughly parallel to, and a quarter of
+a mile west of, the one pursued northward or northeastward across the
+ice in the spring migration. The Caribou were seen to follow this water
+route on various days from August 24 to September 8, and again on
+October 7. Like the one across the ice, it is probably a regular,
+well-established, annual route.
+
+The greater number of the migrants proceed along the north shore of the
+bay to Little River and are there confronted with a choice of various
+further routes. Some continue for an indefinite distance up the
+northeastern bank, passing Lake Charles on their right, though other
+animals, coming from the north, may be following this bank in the
+opposite direction. Probably most of the Caribou arriving from the
+eastward either plunge into Little River at its mouth and swim across
+(figs. 9, 10, 12) or pass upstream for a bare quarter of a mile and then
+wade across at a rapid (figs. 7, 8).
+
+Without human interference, a large proportion of those that cross the
+lower part of Little River would doubtless proceed more or less directly
+to Windy River and cross near its mouth. But the human and canine
+inhabitants of the Windy River post seem to exert a strong influence in
+deflecting the Caribou northwestward along several more or less parallel
+ridges that rise to a maximum height of 40 or 50 feet. These are Little
+River, Middle, and Camp ridges (map 1). Many animals follow the first of
+these to its northwestern end, then cross a bog and ascend the Middle
+Ridge. Some cross the southeastern end of Little River Ridge, scramble
+down its steep sides by strongly marked trails (fig. 2), and then move
+across the Eastern Bog to the Middle Ridge. But when they reach the
+summit, they can see the post directly ahead, and generally hurry off
+northwestward along the ridge. Presently some may cross the Camp Slough
+(fig. 13) to the Camp Ridge and then proceed either westward or
+northwestward. The Caribou have a strong predilection for following the
+treeless summits of the ridges wherever they are available and extend in
+a more or less desirable direction. On reaching the vicinity of the Bear
+Slough, where the three ridges are interrupted or peter out, the animals
+doubtless turn more or less southwestward to make a passage of Windy
+River at various points above its mouth. Under the conditions outlined
+above, it is obvious that some of the finest opportunities for
+close-range observation and photography lie at the two well-established
+crossings near the mouth of Little River.
+
+On the dark and drizzly morning of August 24 (temp. 47�-48�) I noticed a
+number of Caribou, in groups of 2 to 20, traveling northwestward along
+Middle and Little River ridges. This indication of general activity
+enticed me to the top of the latter, whence I had a view of perhaps 8 or
+10 animals scattered over the Barrens beyond Little River. Several were
+lying down just beyond the summit of a ridge between the river and
+Glacier Pond, so that little more than their antlers was visible. With
+the idea of finding out how closely I could approach these resting
+animals, I�waded knee-deep across a rapid about 100 feet in width, and
+worked my way up the opposite slope until I once more caught sight of
+the tips of several antlers. Under cover of a rock and some dwarf
+birches, I�crept ahead on hands and knees, with a miniature camera at
+the ready. I�had arrived within 50 yards when the nearest buck got to
+its feet and stood looking at me. In hopes of photographing the rest
+while they were still lying down, I�rose to my knees and hastily exposed
+the last bit of film in the camera. Still there was no immediate
+reaction on the part of the Caribou. Fortunately there was a cross wind.
+The first buck was so little alarmed that it leisurely sprinkled the
+ground. But presently it turned and walked off, presumably giving some
+signal of voice or posture (such as an erect tail) to the rest; for they
+got to their feet, not the half a dozen I expected, but half a hundred
+of them! Though they trotted off toward Windy Bay, they paused within a
+hundred yards and turned to stare at me. Several more relieved
+themselves as the first buck had done. By this time I saw that some of
+the Caribou, including a little fawn, were carrying their tails quite
+erect, as an expression of suspicion or a signal of alarm. Evidently a
+majority of the band were bucks, but there were some does, with
+foot-long horns, and their fawns. On my way back to camp I noticed
+several groups of Caribou swimming across Windy Bay; perhaps they
+included the very animals I had so recently disturbed.
+
+In the early afternoon it became evident that a further northwesterly
+movement was under way along the ridges between camp and Little River.
+The animals had doubtless made the passage of the river near its mouth.
+I�followed some of them to a bog at the upper end of Little River Ridge,
+where I began to film several bucks and a lone, inquisitive, one-horned
+doe. While the latter was approaching me within a hundred feet, I�caught
+a movement out of the corner of my eye, and all at once the bog seemed
+full of Caribou. There were 75-100 of them, chiefly bucks, and not more
+than 50 yards or so distant across the open bog. They presently moved
+on, without haste, and ascended the Middle Ridge.
+
+Several hours later about 50 more Caribou passed through this bog. Then
+a band of 17 came along, composed chiefly of does and their fawns, with
+a couple of young bucks; they did not even turn their heads in my
+direction as I stood in the open 50 yards away. Eventually a herd of
+about 150 (the largest I saw during the whole season) passed along the
+well-worn trails on the summit of the Middle Ridge. It seemed to include
+all sexes and ages, with possibly a majority of does and fawns; bringing
+up the rear was a limping patriarch with huge antlers, a�heavy mane, and
+a lingering winter coat.
+
+During the remainder of the afternoon several other groups appeared in
+that general area. About 15 individuals descended Little River Ridge
+(fig. 2) to the Eastern Bog, but retraced their course after coming
+close to several of us; they were mostly does, with four fawns and a few
+bucks. Another band, of all ages and sexes and numbering perhaps a
+hundred individuals, crossed at the rapid on Little River. The
+temperatures that had prevailed during this day's marked migratory
+movements varied from about 45� to 50�. They were low enough to keep the
+black flies completely in abeyance, and the mosquito season was
+virtually over. Although I noticed none of the parasitic flies, possibly
+enough of them were present to keep the Caribou moving actively against
+a moderate to brisk northerly wind. Now and again a big buck could be
+seen fairly jumping out of its skin with the vigor of vibrating its
+sides to shake off the tormentors.
+
+On August 25 (the second day of the big movement) I watched and filmed
+the pageant of Caribou migration from the southwestern bank of Little
+River. The turfy slopes of the Barrens, carpeted with low ericaceous
+shrubs, mosses, and reindeer lichens, and dotted here and there with
+little thickets of dwarf birch, spruce, and tamarack, stretched
+invitingly before me. Temperatures ranging from 40� to 51�, with a brisk
+northwest breeze sweeping down the river, happily suppressed most of the
+black flies.
+
+The Caribou came along at intervals from the eastward, in bands up to 75
+strong, either to make the passage of the river or to continue upstream
+along the opposite ridge. A�small number might make the crossing in one
+or two files, but one of the larger bands might spread out widely in the
+shallow rapid. One of the photographs (fig. 7) shows approximately 75
+Caribou going divergent ways at this rapid: about 20 passing upstream
+along the ridge on the far side, including some pausing to feed on the
+low vegetation; 8�or 9 moving down the slope of the ridge to the water's
+edge; about 10 bucks, 16 does, and 6 fawns making the passage of the
+river; and about 13 arriving on the near shore and pausing to feed. The
+adults were able to step across in the swift water, while the fawns swam
+part of the way. The bucks were apparently in the minority again on this
+day.
+
+One group of some 40 does and fawns, after swimming the river near its
+mouth, came hurrying along the ridge in close array directly toward my
+station, and did not take alarm until they had arrived within 100 feet.
+Then they turned tail and, each with its flag erect, beat a hasty
+retreat. The maneuver made a scene of considerable charm and interest.
+While I was filming a dozen Caribou in the Eastern Bog from the Middle
+Ridge, a�stray fawn came up and halted for some seconds within a rod of
+me. The bewildered look in its big eyes was comical though pathetic. In
+presently dashing on, it passed within a dozen feet.
+
+Late in the afternoon Fred Schweder, Jr., reported about a thousand
+Caribou, in various bands up to 100 strong, crossing Little River here
+and there a mile or so above its mouth. They were traveling southwest.
+
+  August 26 was marked by mist squalls, a�maximum temperature of
+  45�, and a slackening in the numbers of passing Caribou. Late in
+  the morning a band of more than 30 bucks, does, and fawns
+  crossed the rapid on Little River. In the early afternoon
+  scattering individuals and a band of 15 or 20 did likewise.
+  Presently another band of about 22 animals came (fig. 8); it
+  consisted chiefly of does and fawns, but there were several
+  medium-sized bucks bringing up the rear. They crossed the rapid
+  in a somewhat V-shaped formation, open at the front. The
+  vanguard reached a rocky strip 25 yards in front of my camera
+  and began to feed contentedly on the low vegetation. However,
+  a�couple of does still in the water eyed me intently and
+  presumably communicated their misgivings to the others, for all
+  turned and went back through the river without panic or haste,
+  although they trotted on reaching the farther shore. Later there
+  were about 25 Caribou crossing the bay, and nearly as many on
+  Little River Ridge.
+
+  The weather on August 27, while mostly sunny, included
+  occasional snow or sleet flurries; the northerly wind was brisk
+  to strong; and the temperature, ranging from 37� to 50�,
+  prevented the appearance of black flies. By 10:20 a.m. a�band of
+  about 10 does and fawns crossed the rapid on Little River. Two
+  hours later 12-15 animals followed the same course, and
+  presently 75-100 passed upstream on the far side, with a good
+  deal of grunting. About 2:35 p.m. nearly a hundred Caribou,
+  perhaps alarmed by a passing plane, dashed north out of the
+  Eastern Bog. By 4:45 p.m. 20 or more bucks, does, and fawns swam
+  across Little River at its mouth; several of the biggest bucks,
+  with enormous antlers, led the advance into the water. An hour
+  later, on the eastern side of the river, half a dozen of the
+  animals were lying down, but with heads erect, and facing down
+  wind. At this period of the day several more bands of moderate
+  size swam over to the west side of the river. A�goodly number of
+  the animals fed within 25 yards of me for a considerable time.
+
+  The following day was nearly cloudless; wind moderate, westerly;
+  temperature, 37.5� to 66�--high enough to bring out the black
+  flies (but extremely few mosquitoes) after several days of
+  virtual freedom from these scourges. Between 11:30 a.m. and 3
+  p.m. at least 500 Caribou, coming from the east, must have
+  passed the mouth of Little River, some swimming across at that
+  point (figs. 9, 12), and others proceeding various distances
+  upstream before undertaking the passage. A�few of the larger
+  bands numbered approximately 30, 40, and 75 individuals. Some
+  consisted largely of does and fawns, some of big bucks. One of
+  the larger bands approached the river on the run, plunged in
+  recklessly, and landed on the western shore some 30 feet
+  directly in front of my battery of cameras. Most of the animals
+  on this and similar occasions were remarkably indifferent to me
+  as I operated the cameras in full view of them. Some among them
+  would approach within a rod or less and stare me in the face
+  without alarm (figs. 11, 14).
+
+  August 29 was a cloudy, nearly calm day, with temperatures
+  ranging from 49.5� to 73�--conditions more propitious for black
+  flies than for their victims. There was comparatively little
+  local movement among the Caribou--in the morning two or three
+  swimming across the bay and a band of 20 (6�old bucks, the rest
+  does and fawns) swimming south across the mouth of Windy River;
+  in mid-afternoon a�band of 10 running along the ridge on the
+  eastern side of Little River; and about 100 reported during the
+  day in the vicinity of Windy Bay by Fred Schweder, Jr. The "big
+  movement" had passed its peak.
+
+  The next day was largely sunny, with a light easterly or
+  southeasterly wind and temperatures of 50� to 68�. There were
+  comparatively few black flies and fewer mosquitoes. During a
+  five-hour vigil near the mouth of Little River I noticed only
+  about 50 Caribou, most of them passing westward by ones, twos,
+  and intermediate numbers up to 17 (does and fawns) in a band.
+  Mike Schweder reported a total of about 200 animals seen within
+  a few miles of camp.
+
+  The morning of August 31 was dismal and overcast, with a heavy
+  shower; in the afternoon the sky cleared; wind brisk, south to
+  west; temperature, 47� to 74.5�. Several Caribou passed along
+  the eastern side of Little River, and Fred Schweder, Jr.,
+  reported about 300 some miles north of camp, moving in a
+  southwesterly direction.
+
+  Clouds and rain ushered in the morning of September 1; the
+  afternoon was sunny; wind light to strong, west to northwest;
+  temperature, 48� to 60�. The next day was partly cloudy, with a
+  mist squall or two; wind light to brisk, northwesterly;
+  temperature, 38� to 51.5�. No Caribou were reported on either
+  day.
+
+  September 3 was largely cloudy, with some mist squalls; wind
+  light to moderate, northerly to easterly; temperature, 40� to
+  51�. There were enough black flies to be slightly troublesome.
+  Two bucks, two does, and a fawn were noted at Bear Slough.
+
+  September 4 was partly cloudy, with drizzling rain; wind light,
+  east to south and southwest; temperature, 43� to 58�. I saw
+  about 22 Caribou (largely does and fawns), in several different
+  groups, at Bear Slough and vicinity, and Fred Schweder, Jr.,
+  reported about 200 in the same area. Two were noted swimming to
+  the south side of Windy Bay.
+
+  September 5 was marked by a driving, day-long rainstorm; wind
+  brisk, easterly; temperature, 43� to 50�. A band of about 20
+  Caribou (mostly does and fawns, with several middle-aged bucks),
+  besides one or two single animals, were encountered at Bear
+  Slough.
+
+  September 6 was a cloudy, raw day, with several snow flurries;
+  wind brisk, northerly; temperature, 33� to 35�. Not a fly was
+  abroad. Two Caribou moved northwest along Little River Ridge;
+  a�band of about 75 (mainly does and fawns, but with a fair
+  number of big bucks) passed in the same direction along the
+  Middle Ridge; and about 25 others grazed along the eastern side
+  of Little River. Later about 15-20 more were seen about the
+  mouth of Little River and on a near-by island, and eight swam
+  across Windy Bay to the south side. Fred reported seeing about
+  300 during the day north and west of camp; they were moving in a
+  northerly direction.
+
+  It was cloudy nearly all day on September 7; wind moderate,
+  northerly; temperature, 33� to 40�. No black flies were in
+  evidence. A�dozen or more Caribou took to the water from an
+  island in Windy Bay and made for the north shore. A�band of
+  about 25 passed along Little River Ridge toward the river's
+  mouth.
+
+  September 8 was mostly cloudy; wind moderate to strong,
+  southeasterly; temperature, 37� to 42�. Fred reported a band of
+  about 100 Caribou crossing the mouth of Little River toward the
+  west. A�dozen or more swam southward over Windy Bay at the usual
+  crossing-place. Anoteelik brought in 13 tongues from that many
+  freshly killed Caribou; he had secured them with a .22 rifle.
+
+  A driving gale from the east, with rain and sleet, continued
+  through the day on September 9; temperature, 36� to 37�. A
+  solitary buck inspected our camp from the south side of Windy
+  River, then retreated.
+
+  An overcast sky, with some drizzle and sleet, prevailed on
+  September 10; wind light, east to northeast; temperature, 35.5�
+  to 42.5�. No flies present for some days past. Fred reported
+  about 20 Caribou moving westward in the vicinity of Little
+  River.
+
+  On September 11 clouds and mist squalls in the morning gave way
+  to sunshine in the afternoon; wind light, easterly; temperature,
+  37� to 45.5�. Caribou were noted as follows: five on the east
+  side of Little River; two does and a fawn on an island in Windy
+  Bay; a�doe and a fawn swimming northward across this bay; half a
+  dozen on Josie's Hill. During a flight from Churchill to Nueltin
+  Lake on this day, Charles Schweder detected no Caribou at all,
+  and concluded that the bulk of the migrating herds had by this
+  time passed to the southward of his course. During the latter
+  part of August, while descending the Thlewiaza River from
+  Nueltin Lake to Hudson Bay, he had seen thousands of the
+  animals--as many as 5,000 in a single day, although no more than
+  500 in a single herd.
+
+  Sun, clouds, and rain marked September 12; wind moderate to
+  light, south to west; temperature, 48� to 60�. Only two Caribou
+  were reported.
+
+  September 13 was cloudy, with intermittent mist squalls and a
+  little sun; wind light to brisk, northerly; temperature, 34� to
+  about 44�. Two bands of Caribou (of four and five animals)
+  appeared near the mouth of Windy River.
+
+  It was generally cloudy, with a snow squall, on September 14;
+  wind brisk to light, northerly; temperature, 33� to 41�. A doe
+  and a fawn, proceeding northward, and four or five other Caribou
+  appeared on the near-by ridges.
+
+  The weather was clear on the 15th, with a moderate to brisk
+  north wind and temperatures of 29� to 48�; ice at edge of the
+  river. Fred reported about 100 Caribou (none of them bucks)
+  north of camp, and Anoteelik secured 13 east of Little River.
+
+  On the morning of the 16th intermittent snow flurries left a
+  thin cover on the ground, but it was practically dissipated by
+  the afternoon sun; wind brisk, northerly; temperature, 30� to
+  39�. Fred reported three old does without fawns, and no bucks.
+
+  September 17 was mostly cloudy, with a little sun; wind light,
+  northwest and west; temperature, 30� to 43�. A single Caribou
+  was seen on the south side of Windy River.
+
+  Clear skies prevailed on September 18; wind brisk, westerly;
+  temperature, 35� to 53.5�; ice at edge of the river. A�solitary
+  black fly appeared. No Caribou reported.
+
+  September 19 was another clear day; wind moderate to brisk,
+  west-southwest; temperature, 42� to 60�. Anoteelik, camping on
+  the Barrens about 2 miles to the north of camp for the past
+  couple of days, reports having killed 20 Caribou (only one of
+  them a buck).
+
+  Light rain, soon changing to sleet, and then frequent snow
+  squalls, provided the principal weather elements on September
+  20; wind light to strong, west to north; temperature, 27� to
+  43.5�. The ground became partly covered with snow. A�big buck,
+  followed several hours later by a doe and a fawn, swam across to
+  the north side of Windy River at its mouth. Ten more Caribou
+  were taken by Anoteelik. Charles considered that the retrograde
+  movement to the north was definitely under way. There had been
+  indications of it on various days from September 6 on.
+
+  Except for a few snow flurries, it was largely sunny on the
+  21st; wind brisk to moderate, north to northwest; temperature,
+  26� to 34�. About a quarter of an inch of snow remained in
+  sheltered places. A�doe and a fawn appeared near camp.
+
+  There was considerable snowfall on the 22nd; wind light to
+  moderate, westerly; temperature, 30� to 33�; ice in edge of the
+  river. A�large buck left tracks in the snow along the Windy
+  River.
+
+  September 23 was partly cloudy; wind brisk, north-northwest;
+  temperature, 21� to 32�; about a quarter of an inch of snow on
+  the ground, and a tundra pond mostly frozen over. Several small
+  groups of Caribou (a�doe and a fawn; three does and two fawns;
+  and three others) appeared on the near-by ridges.
+
+  September 24 was mostly cloudy; wind moderate to brisk,
+  northerly; temperature, 26� to 41�; nearly an inch of fresh snow
+  on the ground. About 15 does and fawns were resting or feeding
+  quietly on the east side of Little River, and tracks of about
+  half a dozen were noted on Camp Ridge. Charles Schweder reported
+  about 50 Caribou, in three slightly separated bands, appearing
+  during the evening on the south side of Windy River about 2
+  miles above its mouth, as if contemplating a crossing. He
+  thought they may have been alarmed by Wolves.
+
+  September 25 was a cloudy day; wind moderate to light, northerly
+  to westerly; temperature, 31� to 36�; open ground largely bare
+  by afternoon; ice forming on Windy Bay. Some Caribou tracks were
+  noted on the north side of Windy River.
+
+  There were clouds, a sprinkle or two of rain, and a little
+  sunshine on the 26th; wind brisk to moderate, southwest to west;
+  temperature, 36� to 47.5�; ground becoming practically bare.
+  Three Caribou were seen beyond Little River, and a doe and a
+  fawn on the south side of Windy River.
+
+  The 27th was mostly cloudy, with a thick snow flurry; wind
+  brisk, northwest; temperature, 33� to 40�. Two tundra ponds,
+  previously frozen, were mostly open. Three bucks, a�doe, and a
+  fawn were noted on the south side of Windy River.
+
+  September 28 was mostly cloudy; wind brisk to light,
+  north-northwest; temperature, 28.5� to 40�; a little snow on the
+  ground disappearing. Seven large bucks (six in one band, moving
+  northward) passed over Camp Ridge, and a dozen other Caribou
+  (including does) were seen beyond Little River.
+
+  The 29th was chiefly sunny; wind very light to brisk, west to
+  southwest; temperature, 29� to 48�; ground bare. A�band of about
+  15 Caribou appeared on the north side of Windy River at its
+  mouth. They included four large and two smaller bucks, the
+  remainder being does and fawns. They were apparently traveling
+  south.
+
+  The 30th was cloudy, with a sprinkle of rain; wind light,
+  westerly; temperature, 39� to 48�; ground bare. A�few black
+  flies were brought out by the mild weather. During an
+  all-morning trip to Point Lake, Charles saw no Caribou, but in
+  the afternoon he reported about 200 on the eastern side of
+  Little River. There were also half a dozen bucks on the south
+  side of Windy River.
+
+  October 1 was a rare, fine, sunshiny day in the Barrens; wind
+  moderate to brisk, south to southwest; temperature, 37� to 61�;
+  ground bare; tundra ponds mostly ice-covered. A�blowfly crawled
+  over a caribou carcass, and possibly a few black flies were
+  abroad. Two bucks passed from the shoal water of Duck Bay over
+  Little River Ridge. Charles reported about 40 Caribou moving
+  north a mile or two north of camp, and I saw a single buck
+  likewise engaged. During the preceding week or so Fred had seen
+  a good many of the animals between the upper Kazan River and
+  Nueltin Lake; they were moving south and west.
+
+  The 2nd was another clear day; wind moderate, southwest;
+  temperature, 41� to 65�; ground bare. About five does and fawns
+  were seen at dusk in the spruce tract near Four-hill Creek.
+
+  The next day was drizzly and foggy throughout; wind light,
+  southwest to southeast; temperature, 41� to 43.5�. No Caribou
+  sighted. Eskimos arriving in camp reported them scarce along the
+  way from the upper Kazan River.
+
+  October 4 was a dismal, dark day, with steady light rain
+  throughout; wind very light, easterly; temperature, 36� to
+  42.5�. Fred reported 20 Caribou north of camp.
+
+  Snow fell throughout the 5th; wind light, north-northwest;
+  temperature, 31� to 35�. No Caribou sighted.
+
+  With 6 inches of snow on the ground in the morning, there was
+  some additional precipitation during the overcast day of
+  October 6; wind moderate to brisk, northeast; temperature, 31�
+  to 33�; waters clear of ice. No Caribou sighted.
+
+  October 7 was a generally cloudy day; wind moderate to very
+  light, northerly; temperature, 24� to 29�; watercourses largely
+  open. In the morning Charles reported a couple of hundred
+  Caribou swimming southward across Windy Bay; he considered this
+  a part of the final southward movement into the timbered
+  country--apparently initiated by the recent snowstorm. Later he
+  saw an approximately equal number 2 miles north of camp, moving
+  toward the bay; and Fred encountered about 50 on the north side
+  of the bay.
+
+  Late on the 8th clouds gave way to sunshine; nearly calm to a
+  gentle breeze from west and southwest; temperature, 26.5� to
+  33.5�; 6 inches of snow on ground. I�obtained a distant view of
+  about 100 Caribou resting near Glacier Pond. Perhaps less than a
+  quarter of them were old bucks; the remainder, younger bucks,
+  does, and fawns.
+
+  October 9 was largely sunny, with light rain in the evening;
+  wind light to moderate, southwest to south; temperature, 29� to
+  38�; ground with a 6-inch snow covering. No Caribou sighted.
+
+  Some snow fell on the 10th, though the day was partly sunny;
+  wind very light, south to west; temperature, 33� to 36�. No
+  Caribou sighted.
+
+  Clouds prevailed on the 11th; wind no more than very light,
+  westerly; temperature, 33� to 38�; about 4 inches of snow on
+  ground. Charles reported about a thousand Caribou scattered over
+  a long hill several miles to the northwest; they were not
+  traveling.
+
+  October 12 was marked by clouds, mist, and rain; wind light to
+  moderate, southwesterly; temperature, 32� to 40�. No Caribou
+  sighted.
+
+  There was a little sun on the 13th; wind light to moderate, west
+  to east; temperature, 37� to 45.5�; ground largely bare and
+  tundra ponds open. In the afternoon we set out for Simons' Lake,
+  and camped about 4 miles up the Windy River. No Caribou sighted.
+
+  On the 14th we reached the upper end of Simons' Lake, for a
+  several days' stay at a deserted trading-post. There were snow
+  flurries and a little rain; wind brisk, westerly; temperature,
+  35� to 36�; ground mostly bare. A�band of about 15 Caribou,
+  a�solitary buck, and many tracks and droppings were seen along
+  the way.
+
+  October 15 was partly cloudy; wind very light to light, west to
+  northwest and east; temperature, 21� to 36�. Four Caribou
+  sighted.
+
+  October 16 was a stormy, cloudy day; wind brisk, easterly;
+  temperature, 30.5� to 34�. About a dozen Caribou were noted in
+  the vicinity of Simons' Lake.
+
+  A strong easterly gale during the night, with heavy rain, was
+  followed during the day of the 17th by steady rain, with
+  moderate to light easterly or southeasterly wind; temperature,
+  35� to 38�. A single Caribou seen.
+
+  October 18 was partly cloudy; wind brisk to light, westerly;
+  temperature, 31� to 41�; waters open; some small patches of snow
+  in sight. Four Caribou (at least two of them bucks) passed by.
+
+  The 19th was partly cloudy; nearly calm to moderate wind, west
+  and northwest; temperature, 30� to 40�. About five or six bucks
+  (three of them together) appeared, perhaps moving south.
+
+  The weather on the 20th was raw, dismal, and gusty; wind brisk,
+  northwest; temperature, 27� to about 35�; some ice on Simons'
+  Lake; a�little fresh snow on higher hills. No Caribou sighted.
+
+  October 21 was somewhat foggy; nearly calm; temperature, 25� to
+  32�; Simons' Lake partly frozen; ground generally bare. A�lone
+  fawn was seen as we started on the return trip to the Windy
+  River post.
+
+  The 22nd was largely sunny; wind very light to brisk,
+  southwesterly; temperature, about 30� to 46�. A medium-sized
+  buck was seen near the mouth of Windy River.
+
+  The 23rd was largely cloudy; wind brisk, southwest; temperature,
+  35� to 39�; ground practically all bare; bay and river open.
+  A�buck started to cross to the north side of Windy River, but
+  went back.
+
+  For the better part of a week, till October 29, I found no
+  further fresh indications of Caribou in our vicinity. In the
+  meantime the weather was largely cloudy, with some rain and snow
+  (4-5 inches of the latter on the 27th); winds very light to
+  moderate, swinging from east to south and west; temperature, 27�
+  to 50�; waters generally open.
+
+  October 29 was largely cloudy; a gentle wind, south to east;
+  temperature, 29� to 35�; 4-5 inches of snow on ground; thin ice
+  on a tundra pond. The fresh track of a buck (fig. 20) was found
+  near camp.
+
+  On the 30th gentle rain changed to snow; calm to a moderate
+  wind, northeast to north; temperature, 30� to 33�. Tracks showed
+  the passing of about a dozen Caribou, including half a dozen
+  that swam westward across the mouth of Little River, breaking
+  through a rim of ice at the edge.
+
+  Clouds prevailed on the 31st; wind moderate to brisk, northerly;
+  temperature, 17� to 25.5�; 5-6 inches of snow on ground, with
+  drifts up to a foot deep; river and lake open. Fred reported
+  three Caribou.
+
+  November 1 marked the long-delayed "freeze-up." Windy Bay and
+  the edges of Windy River were frozen, while pieces of ice
+  floated down the river. The day was cloudy, with continual snow
+  flurries after noon; wind light to brisk, southeast;
+  temperature, 21� to 31�; about 6 inches of snow on ground.
+
+  The 2nd was cloudy, with some rain and sleet; wind moderate to
+  brisk, southeast to west; temperature, 29� to 34�. No Caribou
+  sighted for two days.
+
+  On the 3rd it was cloudy all day; wind light, northwest;
+  temperature, 16� to 20�. A herd of about 50 Caribou (largely
+  does, with a few fawns and well-antlered bucks) hurried down the
+  side of Little River Ridge onto the ice of Duck Bay, with the
+  apparent intention of crossing to the south side of Windy Bay;
+  but they were intercepted by a hunter and retreated
+  northwestward along the ridge. Fred secured three
+  southward-traveling bucks at a distance from camp.
+
+  No Caribou were sighted on the three following days (November 4
+  to 6), which were more or less cloudy, with some snow; wind
+  light to brisk, southerly to northerly; temperature, 13� to
+  24.5�; ice 3 inches thick on Windy Bay; about 6 inches of snow
+  on ground.
+
+  There was snow during the night of November 6 and the morning of
+  the 7th, resulting in drifts up to a yard deep; wind brisk,
+  northerly; temperature, -3� to 13�. Fred reported "lots" of
+  Caribou some 10 miles to the north, moving south.
+
+  The next three days (November 8 to 10) varied from cloudy (with
+  a snow flurry) to sunny; wind moderate to strong, northwest and
+  north; temperature, -10.5� to 1�; 6-8 inches of snow (much
+  drifted); Windy River gradually becoming ice-covered. No Caribou
+  sighted.
+
+  November 11 was partly sunny; wind moderate to brisk, northerly;
+  temperature, 3� to 6.5�; about 8 inches of snow on the average.
+  Mike Schweder reported five does moving south across the mouth
+  of Windy River on the ice.
+
+  Thereafter, until my departure on December 4, no more Caribou
+  were actually seen in the vicinity of the headquarters on Windy
+  River. There were, however, tracks of single animals on November
+  15 and 16. Moreover, during the period from about November 7 to
+  15, while traveling northward to the upper Kazan River, Charles
+  Schweder saw thousands of Caribou, in herds up to 300, moving
+  southward. He surmised that their course took them somewhere
+  between Ennadai and Nueltin lakes. Fred also reported many to
+  the northward on the 7th, as already noted. This was perhaps the
+  last large migratory movement of the year in our general area.
+  Thereafter virtually all of the animals were presumably in the
+  timbered area to the southward. None was sighted from the plane
+  during the flight to Churchill on December 4.
+
+  On November 7 the temperature had taken a sharp downward turn,
+  dropping below zero for the first time that season; and it did
+  not again rise above 6.5� till November 12. This cold spell,
+  combined with a snow blizzard from the north on the 6th and 7th,
+  coincided at least in part with the large migratory movement
+  noted above, and it may have been the stimulus for it.
+
+  The general weather conditions that obtained from November 12 on
+  may be summarized as follows. It was at least predominantly
+  cloudy on all but four or five days. There was snowfall on six
+  days, and drifting snow in the air on several other days. The
+  winds were predominantly north, northwest, and west; less
+  commonly, east and southeast. They were a little more frequently
+  light than moderate or brisk. The extremes of temperature during
+  this period were 22.5� and -23�; the average daily mean,
+  approximately 1�. There was an average of probably at least 8
+  inches of snow on the ground, with deeper drifts. The river was
+  not wholly frozen over at least up to the end of November.
+
+
+_Retrograde autumnal movement_
+
+It would doubtless be difficult to find, among other animals, any exact
+parallel to this curious feature of caribou migration. According to
+Charles Schweder, it takes place in the Nueltin Lake region in
+September--sometimes as early as the first of the month. Herds up to 200
+strong may then be seen moving northward, but generally the numbers are
+smaller--say 10 to 30 in a band. Some of the more notable autumnal
+movements toward the north, as reported by Charles, were the following:
+at Simons' Lake in 1936 and again in 1938, when herds of fat bucks were
+streaming past for a month and a half; likewise at Josie's Bay in 1940;
+and through the Windy Hills and across Windy River in 1943. Fred
+Schweder, Jr., said that most of the animals, in returning northward at
+this season, cross Windy River 4 miles above its mouth or Windy Bay 4
+miles from its head; comparatively few pass the mouths of Windy and
+Little rivers. He remarked further that it is mostly bucks, with few
+does and fawns, that make the passage on Windy Bay.
+
+More or less evidence of such a movement toward the north in 1947 has
+been presented in preceding pages, in the notes for September 6, 7, 11,
+14, 20, 24, and 28, October 1, and even October 23. The numbers observed
+so involved on each of these days varied from a solitary buck or a doe
+with a fawn to about 300 of the animals. On some of these days, however,
+other Caribou were observed making their way toward the south. It is
+thus obvious that there was no universal impulse among the Caribou of a
+given area to move simultaneously in a certain direction.
+
+The general weather conditions on the nine above-mentioned days may be
+summarized as follows. Every day but one was largely or wholly cloudy;
+snow falling on three days, but ground bare on other days; wind
+predominantly from the north; extreme temperatures, 26� and 61�; mean
+daily average, 37.5�. Whether or not there is significance in the
+matter, it appears that on those days within the period extending from
+September 6 to October 1, when the Caribou were not definitely observed
+moving northward, the winds were less likely to be northerly.
+Furthermore, within this period there was never enough snow to interfere
+appreciably with the animals' feeding on the ground lichens of the
+Barrens.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 1. Half a dozen caribou trails along the
+    Middle Ridge, looking SE. Ground plants: _Ledum decumbens_,
+    _Empetrum nigrum_, _Arctostaphylos alpina_, _Loiseleuria
+    procumbens_, and various lichens, including _Cladonia_. A
+    miniature "glacier" in the distance. June 24, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 2. Caribou trails on the 50-foot-high Little
+    River Ridge. _Picea mariana_, _Betula glandulosa_, and _Empetrum
+    nigrum_. June 19, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 3. A Caribou buck (specimen No. 1065) being
+    skinned by Fred, Mike, and Rita at the Bear Slough. August 17,
+    1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 4. Skull, antlers, skin, and hind quarter of
+    the same Caribou being transported to camp along the Camp Ridge.
+    August 17, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 5. Anoteelik and Mike preparing to bring in a
+    load of caribou meat with dogs and travois. Windy River post,
+    August 19, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 6. Anoteelik and Mike pegging out caribou
+    hides to dry on a gravelly ridge near the mouth of Windy River.
+    August 23, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 7. About 75 Caribou (bucks, does, and fawns)
+    at a rapid on Little River. August 25, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 8. About 22 Caribou crossing Little River at a
+    rapid. Chiefly does and fawns, with several bucks bringing up the
+    rear. August 26, 1947.]
+
+By October 6 there were 6 inches of snow on the ground, and on the
+following day 200 Caribou swimming southward across Windy Bay may have
+marked the beginning of the final movement into the timbered country. It
+appears possible that a considerable fall of snow may have a definite
+influence in inducing the Caribou to retreat from the Barrens.
+
+On a trip from Windy River north to the Kazan River region in September,
+1946, Charles Schweder found, during the first 45 miles, that the
+Caribou were moving north; at the Kazan they were moving south, although
+some were merely loitering. Northwest of the Kazan, the animals were
+taking a westward course. During the latter part of his return trip to
+Windy River, 11 or 12 days later, they had reversed the previous
+direction and were traveling south.
+
+For such a distinct and regular feature in the life cycle of the species
+as the retrograde autumnal movement there must be some biological
+explanation. Several possible factors appear reasonably clear. Perhaps
+we may consider the Barren Grounds the true and preferred home of
+_Rangifer arcticus_, from which a proportion of the population is driven
+during part of the year under stress of insect attacks or shortage of
+food. When the animals begin to enter the woods in August, there is no
+shortage of food; thus an insect-induced frenzy may possibly be regarded
+as a potent force driving them southward. In September a state of
+comparative peace descends upon the caribou world: the current crop of
+adult insects has subsided; the larvae of warble and nostril flies have
+not attained the formidable size of the following spring and perhaps are
+not yet causing any severe discomfort; little or no snow covers up the
+food supply; the lakes and rivers, still unfrozen, offer a ready way of
+escape from pursuing Wolves; moderate or even balmy weather gives nature
+a pleasant mood. In short, both man and beast may well look upon early
+autumn as the very finest time of year both on the Barrens and in the
+adjacent wooded country.
+
+Under these circumstances a definite retrograde movement out of the
+wooded country in September on the part of many Caribou must indicate
+their preference for the Barrens at this season. In any event, the
+movement begins just after the insect menace has subsided to a
+negligible stage. Possibly another inducement for retreating from the
+wooded country in the early fall is the dearth of open areas in which
+the animals may spend their resting periods, in comparative safety from
+Wolves. It is only after the freeze-up that the surfaces of the lakes
+and rivers supply this desideratum. This condition lasts from November
+to June--precisely that part of the year in which the Caribou are
+present in the wooded country in the greatest numbers.
+
+But by November what are the conditions on the Barrens? The weather has
+become severe; snow has covered up a large part of the ground lichens;
+tree lichens are not to be had. And so at this season, with the coming
+of the first heavy snows, there is a final movement out of the Barrens
+into the shelter of the woods, leaving only a minority of the animals to
+face a bleak and bitter winter in the open country. The biggest herds of
+the year may then be seen passing southward. A�few bucks are said to
+remain during most winters in the Windy River area.
+
+Far to the westward, toward Great Slave and Great Bear lakes, the
+retrograde movements are somewhat different and more complicated
+(Clarke, 1940: 96).
+
+"Mr. Carl Buchholz, of Churchill, describes the caribou migration at the
+60th parallel, north of Churchill, as a southward migration in August,
+northward in September, and then south in the autumn" (Clarke, 1940:
+97). (See also the next paragraph.)
+
+
+_Fall migration in the Churchill region_
+
+The following notes for 1947 were kindly furnished me by Angus MacIver.
+He reported large numbers of Caribou moving southward across Caribou
+Creek (25 miles south of Churchill) about November 10, a�day after the
+local freeze-up. He would then see thousands in a day. Prior to that
+time (perhaps in September?) there had been two "runs" to the northward
+and northwestward; these presumably represented the normal retrograde
+migration in the fall. The herds engaged in these two northerly
+movements must have previously passed southward farther inland. He
+reported also that the rutting season this year had commenced a little
+later than the usual October 15.
+
+  _References on migration._--Dobbs, 1774: 20, 22; Hearne, 1795:
+  39, 40, 56, 66, 74, 85-87, 286, 299; Franklin, 1823: 241-242;
+  Sabine, in Franklin, 1823: 667; Richardson, "1825": 328-329, and
+  1829: 242-243; Godman, 1831, +2+: 283-284; John Ross, 1835a:
+  328, 330, 337, 376, 390, 529-530, 628; J.�C. Ross, in John Ross,
+  1835b: xvii; Richardson, in Back, 1836: 498; Simpson, 1843:
+  76, 196, 233, 277, 301, 320-321, 328, 386; Rae, 1850: 93;
+  Richardson, 1852: 290, 296; Rae, 1852a: 79; J. Anderson, 1857:
+  326, 328; Murray, 1858: 203; Richardson, 1861: 274, 275; B.�R.
+  Ross, 1861: 438-439; Osborn, 1865: 223-224, 226; Kumlien, 1879:
+  54; R. Bell, 1881: 15C; Caton, 1881: 108; Gilder, 1881: 196-197;
+  Nourse, 1884: 235, 356; Schwatka, 1885: 77-79, 83; Boas, 1888:
+  502; Collinson, 1889: 244, 290; Pike, 1917 (1892): 48-49, 50,
+  89-91, 101, 174, 204, 209, 220; J.�B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128-130;
+  Dowling, 1893: 103, 107; J.�B. Tyrrell, 1894: 442, 1896: 13, 63,
+  and 1897: 10, 19, 21, 49-50, 76, 124, 140, 142, 165; Russell,
+  1895: 48, and 1898: 88, 226; Whitney, 1896: 157, 238, 241;
+  Lydekker, 1898: 48; J.�W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 77-78, 80;
+  Jones, 1899: 368, 374; Hanbury, 1900: 66-67, 69, 71; A.�J.
+  Stone, 1900: 50, 53; W.�J. McLean, 1901: 5, 6; Elliot, 1902:
+  259, 260, 274-275; Preble, 1902: 42; J.�W. Tyrrell, 1924 (1902):
+  26, 31; Hanbury, 1904: 10, 30, 32, 34, 58, 93, 108, 120, 121,
+  139; Hornaday, 1904: 137; Stone and Cram, 1904: 52; MacFarlane,
+  1905: 683-685; J.�A. Allen, 1908a: 490; Amundsen, 1908, +1+:
+  97, 102-106, 200, 247, 326-329; Preble, 1908: 137-139; Cameron,
+  1912: 127; Wheeler, 1912: 199-200; R.�M. Anderson, 1913a: 6,
+  and 1913b: 502; Stef�nsson, 1913a: 94-96, 99, 100, 103, 106,
+  1913b: 203-204, 224-225, 263-265, 269, 294, 348-350, and 1914:
+  39, 41, 54; Chambers, 1914: 93; Hornaday, 1914, +2+: 101-104;
+  Wheeler, 1914: 58; Harper, 1915: 160; Camsell, 1916: 21;
+  Thompson, 1916: 99-101; Kindle, 1917: 107-108; Camsell and
+  Malcolm, 1919: 46; Whittaker, 1919: 166-167; Buchanan, 1920:
+  105-108, 128-129; Hewitt, 1921: 60-63; Stef�nsson, 1921: 401;
+  Jenness, 1922: 15, 17, 25-26, 125; Blanchet, 1925: 32-34, and
+  1926b: 46-48; Mallet, 1926: 79; Preble, 1926: 137-138;
+  Rasmussen, 1927: 54, 214-217, 246; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 51,
+  56, 101, 106; Seton, 1929, +3+: 122, 125-128; Blanchet, 1930:
+  49-52; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 58, 192-196; Hoare, 1930: 13,
+  14, 16, 21, 22, 27, 31, 33, 36-38; Kitto, 1930: 87; Mallet,
+  1930: 20-23, 27; Jacobi, 1931: 80-84, 192-210; Harper, 1932: 30,
+  31; Munn, 1932: 58; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 79, 81; Weyer,
+  1932: 40; Birket-Smith, 1933: 91-94, 112, 118; Ingstad, 1933:
+  34, 134-135, 156-159, 161, 163, 225, 229-231, 280, 291, 293,
+  296, 324; Weeks, 1933: 65; R.�M. Anderson, 1934a: 81, 1937:
+  103, and 1938: 400; Hornby, 1934: 105-107; Birket-Smith, 1936:
+  91; Hamilton, 1939: 244-247, 359; Murie, 1939: 244; Clarke,
+  1940: 8-9, 11, 85-100; G.�M. Allen, 1942: 298-299; Soper, 1942:
+  143; Downes, 1943: 215, 221, 224, 249, 250, 253-256, 260;
+  Manning, 1943a: 52, and 1943b: 103; Porsild, 1943: 389; Soper,
+  1944: 248-249; Wright, 1944: 186, 190; Gavin, 1945: 227-228;
+  R.�M. Anderson, 1947: 178, and 1948: 15; Manning, 1948: 26-28;
+  Rand, 1948a: 212, and 1948b: 149; Banfield, 1949: 478, 481;
+  Harper, 1949: 226-230, 239-240; Banfield, 1951a: 6, 9-12, 28,
+  and 1951b: 120; Anonymous, 1952: 267; Barnett, 1954: 96, 103.
+
+
+
+
+SUMMATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
+
+
+The localities from which hitherto unpublished notes on _Rangifer
+arcticus arcticus_ are presented in this paper include the following.
+Keewatin: Nueltin, Windy, "Highway" (at source of Putahow River), and
+Ennadai lakes; Little Dubawnt, Kazan, Red, Windy, Little, and Thlewiaza
+rivers; between Eskimo Point and Baker Lake. Manitoba: Nueltin (southern
+part), Nejanilini, Reindeer, and Split lakes; Seal River; Churchill;
+Cape Churchill; "Little Barrens" south of Churchill; between Churchill
+and Knife Lake; Caribou Creek, 25 miles south of Churchill.
+Saskatchewan: small lakes southwest of Reindeer Lake; lakes south of
+Lake Athabaska. Details as to occurrence and status in these localities
+are supplied on other pages.
+
+The Caribou have been so thoroughly distributed over the approximately
+300,000 square miles of the mainland Barren Grounds between Hudson Bay
+and the Mackenzie Valley that it is fairly safe to say that there is
+scarcely one square mile in this vast territory that has not been trod
+by the animals during the past century. See maps by Preble (1908: pl.
+19), Seton (1929, +3+: 60), Clarke (1940: figs. 3, 4), Banfield (1949:
+479), and Anonymous (1952: 267).
+
+  The appended annotated bibliography supplies, in abstract form,
+  most of the hitherto published information on the geographical
+  distribution of _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. In its preparation
+  I have included records of Caribou from the Arctic islands north
+  to Lancaster Sound, Barrow Strait, Viscount Melville Sound, and
+  McClure Strait--all approximately in latitude 74� N. This has
+  been done as a matter of having a convenient, well-defined
+  regional boundary, not with any conviction that _arcticus_ has
+  ranged so far to the north in the more westerly islands,
+  especially in recent years, when it is said to have become
+  restricted to the southern fringe of the islands (Clarke, 1940:
+  98; R.�M. Anderson, 1947: 178; Banfield, 1949: fig. 1). The
+  islands north of latitude 74� are doubtless the exclusive domain
+  of _Rangifer pearyi_. It is possible that this species may also
+  occur to some extent on Banks, Victoria, Prince of Wales, and
+  Somerset islands. The typical _R.�a. arcticus_, as currently
+  recognized, ranges eastward to Baffin, Salisbury, Coats, and
+  Southampton islands and to the western shore of Hudson Bay. (The
+  animals of the last three islands may be distinct insular
+  forms.) The southern limits of the winter range in northwestern
+  Ontario, central Manitoba, northern Saskatchewan, and
+  northeastern Alberta have been discussed in preceding pages. On
+  the west the range extends to the Mackenzie Delta (formerly),
+  Great Bear and Great Slave lakes, Wood Buffalo Park, and Lake
+  Claire. The timbered country (Hudsonian and Canadian Zones) is
+  practically entirely deserted by the Barren Ground Caribou in
+  mid-summer. At this season, in Keewatin at least, the animals
+  tend to draw away also from the southernmost portions of the
+  Barren Grounds.
+
+  _References._--Since practically every paper in the entire
+  bibliography presents some data on geographical distribution,
+  only a few, containing more than an average amount of new or
+  summarized information on the subject, have been selected for
+  inclusion in the following list of references: Hearne, 1795;
+  Franklin, 1823; Lyon, 1824; Franklin and Richardson, 1828;
+  Simpson, 1843; Pike, 1917 (1892); Russell, 1898; Preble, 1902;
+  Hanbury, 1904; Amundsen, 1908; Preble, 1908; R.�M. Anderson, in
+  Stef�nsson, 1913b; Stef�nsson, 1913a, 1913b, and 1921; Hewitt,
+  1921; Jenness, 1922; Rasmussen, 1927; Seton, 1929, +3+;
+  Blanchet, 1930; Critchell-Bullock, 1930; Hoare, 1930; Jacobi,
+  1931; Clarke, 1940; Manning, 1943a; Wright, 1944; R.�M.
+  Anderson, 1947; Manning, 1948; Banfield, 1949 and 1951a.
+
+  _Distributional maps._--Grant, 1903: map following p. 196;
+  Preble, 1908: pl. 19; Dugmore, 1913: 138; Hewitt, 1921: 57;
+  Seton, 1929, +3+: 60, map 2; Jacobi, 1931: 77, fig. 17; R.�M.
+  Anderson, 1934b: 4062, fig. 6; Murie, 1939: 241; Clarke, 1940:
+  figs. 3, 4; Banfield, 1949: 479, fig. 1, and 1951a: figs.
+  4-10; Anonymous, 1952: 267.
+
+
+
+
+ECOLOGY
+
+
+_Habitats_
+
+Within their natural range the Caribou apparently resort to practically
+every type of terrestrial and aquatic habitat (other than cliffs and
+precipices). On the Barren Grounds proper they frequent the open summits
+and slopes of the ridges, the dwarf birch thickets, the sedge bogs, and
+the peat bogs. Their trails traverse all the upland spruce and tamarack
+tracts, the wooded muskegs, and the willow thickets along the rivers. In
+the summer and fall they swim the rivers and the narrower lakes, and
+during the winter and spring they cross these on the ice. They do not
+avoid rapids; in fact, they seek the shallower ones as fords, and they
+swim the deeper ones (_cf._ Clarke, 1940: 88). They also cross the
+tundra ponds on the ice, but probably walk around these smaller bodies
+of water, as a rule, when they are not frozen. While they may prefer to
+approach the river crossings over open slopes, they do not hesitate to
+maintain trails through the dense thickets of willow on the banks.
+
+The winter habitat of the major part of the Barren Ground Caribou
+population comprises the Hudsonian and upper Canadian Zones. This
+forested habitat is characterized by sparser and smaller timber in the
+Hudsonian Zone and by denser and taller timber in the Canadian Zone.
+Important among the features of this winter habitat are the frozen
+surfaces of the lakes and rivers, where the Caribou are wont to
+congregate for their daily periods of rest (_cf._ Mallet, 1926: 79;
+Ingstad, 1933: 86).
+
+
+_Trails_
+
+The favorite migratory highways are the long, sinuous ridges that
+stretch across the Barren Grounds in a sufficiently approximate
+north-south direction to serve the needs of the Caribou. Here their
+age-old trails are particularly in evidence and may even be detected
+from the air. A�single small ridge may bear half a dozen or more such
+trails (fig. 1), roughly parallel but anastomosing at frequent
+intervals. They probably change but little from generation to
+generation. They provide the smoothest courses available, avoiding rocks
+and shrubs and traversing intervening bogs at the most suitable points.
+The summits of the ridges constitute vantage points from which the
+animals may keep a wide lookout for Wolves and human enemies, and on
+which they may obtain the maximum benefit from fly-deterring breezes.
+Man himself is glad to utilize these trails, whether on the Barrens or
+in the timber tracts, wherever they lead in a direction he desires. They
+are kept open by the hurrying feet of hundreds or thousands of Caribou
+every year.
+
+Along a well-used trail extending through low Barrens near Duck Bay,
+I�found a certain grass (_Agrostis scabra_) growing. I�did not recognize
+or collect it elsewhere during the season. Is this perhaps like certain
+other species, such as _Juncus tenuis_ (_fide_ Dr. Edgar T. Wherry) and
+_Eleocharis baldwinii_, in curiously thriving on beaten paths?
+
+When the Caribou arrive at some lake or river, they generally follow the
+shores for a greater or lesser distance, seeking either a way around or
+a suitable crossing-place. The trails thus formed are generally on the
+nearest ridges rather than on the immediate shores. Their direction, as
+they conform to the winding shores, may diverge very widely from the
+desired migratory course.
+
+In many parts of the Barren Grounds there must be as many as 10 linear
+miles of caribou trails to every square mile of territory. Even if there
+were only one mile of such trails to each square mile, the total, on the
+Barrens of Keewatin and Mackenzie alone, would equal or exceed all the
+railway mileage in the United States.
+
+In contrast to the narrow ridges, the broader hilltops in the Barrens
+offer such freedom of movement to the Caribou that trails are much less
+likely to be formed in such places, even when they are frequented by
+large numbers of the animals. Thus I found the broad summit of Josie's
+Hill practically without well-defined trails, despite the regularity
+with which many migrant bands resort thither. In feeding or traveling
+over such an area, there is no occasion for restricting themselves to a
+narrow course. In crossing from one ridge to another through an
+intervening bog, the animals may leave numerous scattered and temporary
+trails in the dense sedge growth to mark their passage (fig. 13). On the
+uniform surface of such a bog, as on the broad hilltops, there is no
+need to confine their steps to any particular course.
+
+It might be supposed that the Barren Ground Caribou would have some
+reluctance in entering thickly wooded tracts, where Wolves naturally
+have a much better chance of a close approach than on the open Barrens.
+As already stated, however, their trails may be found more or less
+throughout the spruce and tamarack growth in the Windy River area. One
+of these tracts, covering probably several square miles on the west side
+of Four-hill Creek, is fairly crisscrossed with trails. At deep dusk on
+October 2, while several of us were skinning a Black Bear in this thick
+timber, about five does and fawns trotted up quite close to us. Perhaps
+they were on their way to the open Barrens to pass the night. While
+wintering in the forested Hudsonian Zone, the animals may spend their
+nights as well as their diurnal resting periods on the frozen lakes and
+rivers.
+
+Fred Schweder, Jr., says that Caribou are somewhat fearful of sand hills
+or eskers, and that he has never seen one lying down in such a place; he
+believes this is because the Wolves frequent the eskers in summertime.
+On the other hand, Mr. G.�W. Malaher spoke of a long esker that extends
+down the west side of Nueltin Lake and far to the southward; this, he
+said, forms a migration highway for the Caribou.
+
+  _References on habitats and trails._--J.�B. Tyrrell, 1892: 129,
+  and 1895: 445; W.�J. McLean, 1901: 6; Blanchet, 1925: 33, and
+  1926a: 73, 96-97; Mallet, 1926: 79, 80; Seton, 1929, +3+:
+  100-102, 122, 127-128; Jacobi, 1931: 186-187; Ingstad, 1933: 86;
+  Murie, 1939: 246; Manning, 1948: 26-28; Rand, 1948a: 212;
+  Harper, 1949: 226, 228; Banfield, 1951a: 3.
+
+
+_Influence of weather on distribution_
+
+In the section on _Migrations_ the meteorological conditions in 1947
+have been reported for any possible bearing they may have had on the
+daily movements of the Caribou, particularly during the fall migration.
+The temperature has an important effect on the activity of the insect
+pests (see _Influence of insects on distribution_) and thus, to a
+certain extent during summer and fall, on the behavior and probably the
+distribution of the Caribou.
+
+Low winter temperatures on the Barren Grounds do not appear to be a
+factor of prime importance in the seasonal distribution of _R.�a.
+arcticus_. "Some individuals and small herds remain in the northern part
+of the range at all seasons" (R.�M. Anderson, 1947: 178). Peary's
+Caribou (_R. pearyi_) inhabits the more northerly Arctic islands
+throughout the year, without engaging in such extensive migrations as
+its relative to the south.
+
+The forceful winds that blow over the Barren Grounds so much of the time
+are of distinct benefit to the Caribou during the summer in abating the
+very serious scourge of flies. If other things were equal (as they are
+not), this factor alone would make the Barrens a more favorable summer
+habitat than the forested country. (See _Retrograde autumnal movement_.)
+Air movements of similar strength during the winter must, through the
+wind-chill factor (_cf._ Siple and Passel, 1945), make life so much the
+harder for any living being; on the other hand, they tend to sweep the
+ridges bare of snow, thereby making readily available the Caribou's
+principal winter food of reindeer lichens (_Cladonia_ spp.)
+
+  _References._--Armstrong, 1857: 479; Critchell-Bullock, 1930:
+  192, 194-196; Hoare, 1930: 33; Jacobi, 1931: 193, 195; Clarke,
+  1940: 96, 99; Banfield, 1951a: 27-29.
+
+
+_Influence of food supply on distribution_
+
+The strong winter winds on the Barrens affect the Caribou in still
+another way. While they pack the snow so firmly that man may dispense
+with snowshoes, this condition naturally increases the difficulty that
+the Caribou experience in pawing through the snow to reach the lichens
+that are covered by it. The limited grazing capacity of such areas as
+are laid bare by the wind may force a reduction in the wintering
+population. Although the snow in the timbered regions to the south
+covers virtually the whole surface of the land, it is evidently less
+compact and so offers more favorable feeding conditions than the areas
+of hard-packed snow on the Barrens. (Charles Schweder states that Willow
+Ptarmigan will fly out of the Barrens to spend the night in tracts of
+timber, where the snow is softer and thus more suitable for the
+nocturnal burrows of these birds.)
+
+Another apparent inducement for resorting to the tracts of timber in
+winter is the abundance there of tree lichens, such as _Alectoria_ and
+_Usnea_ (_cf._ Richardson, 1829: 243; J.�B. Tyrrell, 1894: 441; Dix,
+1951: 287), upon which the Caribou may feed without regard to snow
+conditions. (See also _Retrograde autumnal movement_.)
+
+Reindeer lichens (_Cladonia_ spp.) and doubtless other lichens are of
+such slow growth that forest fires may deprive the Caribou of this
+indispensable food for a period of years. According to Mr. G.�W.
+Malaher, the recent burning of a large area north of The Pas may have
+deflected the animals toward the southeast, causing them to extend their
+migration to an abnormal distance in that direction. For a similar
+reason in years past, according to Pike (1917 [1892]: 50), they avoided
+"great stretches of the country" near the Mackenzie River, and also on
+the south side of Great Slave Lake. A�quarter of a century after Pike's
+time, Dogribs reported that Caribou had not come to the lower Taltson
+River for several years, "because the timber had been burned off"
+(Harper, 1932: 30). Some years ago, extensive fires in Manitoba were
+said to have been deliberately set by prospectors with the aim of
+exposing the underlying rock.
+
+Charles Schweder believes that the Caribou show a certain predilection
+for rocky places, owing to the more luxuriant growth of lichens there.
+
+  _References._--Richardson, "1825": 328-329; Bompas, 1888: 24;
+  Pike, 1917 (1892): 50; Wheeler, 1914: 60; Blanchet, 1930: 52;
+  Jacobi, 1931: 192, 194, 195; Harper, 1932: 30; Ingstad, 1933:
+  34, 161, 163; Hornby, 1934: 105; R.�M. Anderson, 1938: 400;
+  Clarke, 1940: 100, 106-107; G.�M. Allen, 1942: 299; Downes,
+  1943: 261; Porsild, 1943: 389; Wright, 1944: 186; R.�M.
+  Anderson, 1948: 15; Banfield, 1951a: 5, 11, 27-29.
+
+
+_Influence of insects on distribution_
+
+It is quite possible that the blood-sucking mosquitoes (_Aedes_) and
+black flies (_Simulium_) and the parasitic warble flies (_Oedemagena_)
+and nostril flies (_Cephenemyia_) have a definite and important
+influence on the extent and dates of caribou migration.
+
+As far as I am able to judge from my own experience, mosquitoes are more
+or less equally numerous and ferocious in the Canadian, the Hudsonian,
+and the Arctic Zones of the Northwest. Naturally the season begins
+earlier in the more southerly localities. In two seasons (1914, 1920) at
+the western end of Lake Athabaska they began to be troublesome about the
+middle of June, whereas at Nueltin Lake this stage was reached about the
+first of July. In the Athabaska and Great Slave lakes region (Canadian
+and Hudsonian Zones) I�have never had occasion to regard black flies as
+serious in respect to either numbers or ferocity; but there is universal
+agreement that conditions are vastly different and worse on the Barren
+Grounds. At Nueltin Lake the _Simulium_ hordes become troublesome at
+approximately the same time as the mosquitoes. Toward the end of August
+there is a merciful diminution in the numbers of both mosquitoes and
+black flies on the Barrens, and after the first of September they may be
+practically disregarded, except on an occasional day of unseasonable
+warmth.
+
+It may be remarked in passing that one of the insect terrors of the
+Athabaska region, the so-called "bulldog" (a�species of Tabanidae), did
+not come to my attention as a pest at Nueltin Lake though I collected
+two species of _Tabanus_. Malloch (1919), in reporting on the Diptera of
+the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 1913-18, does not include a single
+species of Tabanidae. On the other hand, Twinn (1950: 18) states that 17
+species have been found at Churchill; he refers to tabanids as "very
+abundant in forested regions of the North." The "bulldog" may be
+presumed to contribute to the summer misery of the Woodland Caribou and
+the Moose as well as of man.
+
+The season during which the adult warble flies and nostril flies harass
+the Caribou probably lasts only a few weeks in July and August. While
+the adults evidently cause no pain, they no doubt arouse an instinctive
+dread in the prospective hosts of their larvae. While I have no
+information as to whether they follow the hosts into the wooded country,
+it would appear quite likely that they do so if we are to credit
+statements by Franklin (1823: 242), Richardson (1829: 251), and B.�R.
+Ross (1861: 438) that these pests infest the Woodland Caribou as well as
+the Barren Ground species. Furthermore, _Cephenemyia_ has been reported
+in Pennsylvania as a parasite of the White-tailed Deer (_Odocoileus_)
+(Stewart, 1930?). The scarcity of available study material may be judged
+from the fact that the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 1913-18 secured
+only three adults of _Oedemagena_ and none of _Cephenemyia_ (Malloch,
+1919: 55-56).
+
+From the foregoing it may be seen that the wooded country represents a
+virtually fly-free haven for the Barren Ground Caribou during nearly ten
+months of the year. Is it any wonder, then, that they hasten throughout
+August toward or into the shelter of the woods, to gain freedom from the
+winged scourges of the Barrens? (See also _Retrograde autumnal
+movement_.)
+
+In the spring migration of 1947 the last of the Caribou passed the Windy
+River area on July 1, just before the mosquitoes and black flies had
+become seriously troublesome. It might be surmised that the animals keep
+marching northward in advance of the appearance of these flies, as long
+as that is feasible; and that when fairly overwhelmed by the winged
+hordes, they desist from further progress in that direction. The fawns
+are born at such a time (in late May or June) as to pass their first few
+tender weeks before becoming subject to serious insect attacks.
+
+(See also _Retrograde autumnal movement_; _Relations to flies_.)
+
+  _References._--Richardson, "1825": 328-329; Hoare, 1930: 33,
+  37-38; Jacobi, 1931: 193-195; Soper, 1936: 429; Hamilton, 1939:
+  247, 301; Clarke, 1940: 95-96; Porsild, 1943: 389; Banfield,
+  1951a: 27-29.
+
+
+_Effect of combined environmental factors on distribution_
+
+The sum total of environmental factors apparently makes the Barren
+Grounds a distinctly more favorable summer habitat for the present
+species than the wooded country, since the latter region is virtually
+entirely deserted at that season. In general, the wooded country must be
+a more favorable winter habitat, since the bulk of the animals evidently
+resort to it at that time; yet its advantages are by no means clear-cut
+or overwhelming, since a very considerable proportion of the Caribou
+elect to spend the winter on the Barrens (Hanbury, 1904: 93, 120, 139;
+Hoare, 1930: 22; Clarke, 1940: 8-9, 11, fig. 4; Anonymous, 1952: 267).
+
+
+_Relations to man_
+
+The Caribou dominates the thoughts, the speech, and the general human
+activities of the Barren Grounds. As the chief food resource of that
+region and the adjacent timbered country, it plays a highly important
+role in the economy of both primitive and civilized man. As long as
+those regions were occupied only by native Eskimos and Indians,
+employing such primitive weapons as bows and spears, the species was in
+no danger. Its vast numbers were maintained steadily from generation to
+generation, and were perhaps limited only by the grazing or browsing
+capacity of their range.
+
+With the advent of civilized man and the placing of firearms in the
+hands of the natives, the situation has deteriorated at a rate that
+becomes accelerated with the passage of time. If it had not been for the
+encroachment of civilization and the introduction of its instruments of
+destruction, the natives would have been assured of a proper meat supply
+for an indefinite period. Here and there some of them would miss a
+caribou migration and starve to death; yet the animals have been so
+generally available that many of the natives even today lack the
+foresight to put up an adequate supply of fish as an alternative winter
+food.
+
+Almost everywhere the annual slaughter is both excessive and wasteful.
+Few inhabitants of the North, whether native or white, stay their hands
+while Caribou are present and ammunition is available. There is undue
+reliance on a continuation of past abundance, and an indifference to the
+welfare or rights of posterity. The whole culture of the inland Eskimos
+and the northern Indians (the Caribou-eater Chipewyans in particular) is
+so thoroughly based upon Caribou that the decimation of these animals
+would mean a fundamental modification or virtual extermination of their
+culture.
+
+The average trapper of the Barren Grounds apparently aims at killing
+annually at least 100 Caribou. Only a small portion is required to feed
+himself and his family. The rest is designed for use as fox bait and dog
+feed. In September he goes over his trap-line, perhaps 100 miles long,
+and endeavors to kill Caribou at convenient intervals throughout its
+length. (In October, 1944, a�single trapper killed 90 during two days of
+a big movement.) The animals are left where they fall. Presently spells
+of warm weather may render the meat unsuitable for any one with more
+fastidious tastes than a hardy man of the Barrens. In any event, the
+beasts of the field evidently get the lion's share, even when the
+trapper endeavors to cover the carcasses with rocks or spruces. Bears,
+Wolves, Foxes, Weasels, Wolverines, Lemmings, Rough-legged Hawks,
+Ravens, and Canada Jays help themselves to the free feast. Bears in
+particular are likely to consume the whole carcass; in the autumns of
+1944 and 1947 they thus disposed of about 70 and 40 caribou bodies,
+respectively, within a few miles of the Windy River post. If the season
+turns out to be a particularly poor one for Arctic Foxes, the trapper
+may abandon his trap-line for that winter, and dozens or scores of
+Caribou will have been sacrificed in vain.
+
+Fish, which are available in abundance nearly everywhere, would serve
+well enough for both fox bait and dog feed. But the average trapper
+prefers to secure Caribou--a less laborious matter than putting up a
+winter's supply of fish; at the same time he may admit that fish are
+easier to handle in feeding and are preferable from that point of view.
+Charles Schweder has rarely found Caribou along his trap-line between
+the upper Kazan River and Dubawnt Lake. By using fish (out of the Little
+Dubawnt River) for fox bait, he avoids the necessity of making an early
+fall trip over that long distance to secure Caribou for his winter
+operations. A�trapper from northern Manitoba informed me that the local
+Indians were complying with a recent government regulation that each
+owner must put up a certain number of fish for the consumption of his
+dogs--but, they were still feeding them with Caribou. The Split Lake
+band of Indians on the Nelson River, Manitoba, were reported to have
+killed 4,000 of the animals during the winter of 1946-47; the greater
+part of these were utilized ingloriously as dog feed.
+
+The hunting of such an extraordinarily unwary animal as the Barren
+Ground Caribou calls for extremely little skill. Scarcely anything more
+is required of the hunter (at least in southwestern Keewatin) than to
+place himself on their line of march and to await their arrival. No
+concealment is necessary, but quick movements are to be avoided, and the
+direction of the wind should be such that it will not carry the dread
+human scent to the animals. Even in perfectly open terrain one may
+generally walk slowly up to within shooting distance of resting Caribou.
+But if they are on the march and have already gone past, the hunter may
+not succeed in getting close to them. Pursuing them on the run is likely
+to send them off in a panic. (There is some evidence that on the Arctic
+Coast and in the Barren Grounds of Mackenzie, where hunters are probably
+more numerous than in southwestern Keewatin, the Caribou are usually
+much more wary--_cf._ Amundsen, 1908, +1+: 103; Stef�nsson, 1913b:
+278; Blanchet, 1925: 34; Ingstad, 1933: 88.) In the section on
+_Disposition_ the destruction of about a quarter of a herd of 100 or
+more by a single hunter is described. On September 9 an Eskimo boy
+killed 13. On November 3 eight out of a herd of 50 were secured by
+another hunter in a few minutes' time. During the autumn migration of
+1947 one of the Eskimos on the upper Kazan had killed 85 before the end
+of September. This band of Eskimos is said to have once slaughtered 500
+animals, half of them in the river, where they did not even bother to
+pull them out; they had killed for the sheer delight of killing rather
+than for utilization. It is customary for them to spear more animals
+than they shoot. A�trader's family in the Nueltin Lake region used to
+kill 500 Caribou per year for their own use and for their 23 dogs. In
+one instance a number of Caribou were shot from across a river; several
+hours elapsed before a canoe became available, and by that time the
+bodies were frozen so stiff that no attempt was made to use them. It was
+reported that tractor crews operating between Reindeer Lake and Flin
+Flon brought out many hind quarters to sell illegally at the latter
+point, leaving other parts of the bodies along the way. In the winter of
+1944-45 Nueltin Lake was said to have been covered with the bodies of
+Caribou that the Chipewyans had shot for "fun" and had neglected to
+utilize. It was also reported that in May, 1947, there were many
+neglected bodies in the vicinity of Duck Lake, the local Chipewyans
+having killed the animals during the previous fall; meanwhile the spring
+migration had commenced and was furnishing all the fresh meat required.
+
+In the Windy River area nearly all the Caribou were secured with rifles.
+A�few, however, were speared by the Eskimo boy as they swam across Windy
+Bay. The spears used here are manufactured articles of iron, fitted to a
+wooden shaft.
+
+Katello, a Kazan River Eskimo, informed Charles Schweder that his people
+used to construct snow-covered pits for the Caribou to fall into. The
+present generation is considered too lazy to undertake such a task.
+Although information is lacking in the present case, urine may have been
+employed to entice the Caribou into these pits, as reported by Hanbury
+(1904: 114-115, 123, fig.).
+
+A general deterioration of antler size in the Barren Ground Caribou
+seems to constitute a case parallel with that of the European Red Deer
+(_Cervus elaphus elaphus_). The reason is evidently the same in each
+case--the long-continued selection by hunters of old males with the best
+"heads." Only the motive differs decidedly in each case: the European
+hunter looks upon the antlers themselves as the main prize; the Eskimo
+and the Indian are indifferent to these ornaments, but realize that the
+bucks with great antlers provide the most meat and _fat_. The bucks are
+said to become much fatter than the does. The Eskimos are especially
+keen on getting the big bucks. According to Charles Schweder, the old
+antlers left at the river crossings from bygone days are superior in
+size to those of the present day. He himself has never secured a set of
+antlers equal to one (fig. 25) lying on the shore of Simons' Lake; it
+may have been there for 20 or 30 years prior to 1947.
+
+From about mid-September to nearly mid-October the flesh is counted upon
+as being in especially fine condition. In August, 1947, the animals had
+scarcely any fat, but by the middle of September the roasts were
+delicious. On October 8 the fresh strips of back fat from several bucks
+weighed about 5 to 10 lbs. each. A�good many of these strips were put in
+a storehouse at Windy River for winter use. Charles Schweder remarked on
+having seen such a piece of fat 3 inches thick. At the rutting season,
+which commences about mid-October, the bucks become very poor and thin.
+They neglect their feeding and do not have full stomachs, as earlier in
+the season. Their fat becomes tinted with red, and the flesh becomes so
+musky that even the dogs and the Wolves disdain it. (See also the
+section on _Fat_.)
+
+In some cases, when a local Caribou is being dressed, a part of the
+stomach is utilized as a receptacle into which the blood is dipped from
+the body cavity with the hands, in Eskimo style. The blood goes into the
+making of soup. The tripe also is relished. Once I found the children of
+our camp boiling up a section of the aorta as a delicacy. The ribs are
+commonly impaled on a stick thrust into the ground and roasted in front
+of an open fire. Leg bones may be cracked to render the raw marrow
+accessible; if they are cooked, the marrow may be blown out of the open
+ends with the mouth. The Padleimiut consume much of the meat in the raw
+state, and frequently wash it down with hot tea.
+
+Much needless wounding and suffering of the Caribou, as well as waste of
+valuable resources, result from extensive use of such a small-calibred
+rifle as the .22. It may seem remarkable that such a large animal should
+succumb at all to such a slight weapon; but it does happen, usually
+after a number of shots. For example, an Eskimo boy secured 13 Caribou
+in a single day with a .22. On the other hand, many of the animals must
+get away from the hunter, only to die, after much suffering, at a
+considerable distance, where they are not likely to be recovered and
+utilized. The absolute outlawing of the use of the .22 on such large
+game would seem to be in order.
+
+Once Charles Schweder shot a doe whose jaw had been broken by a bullet.
+A�piece of the bone had "grown into the tongue" but the jaw was healed.
+
+At the Windy River post, in the latter part of summer, portions of the
+caribou bodies are placed in the river not merely for refrigeration, but
+for protection from blowflies. Such meat is used mainly for the dogs.
+The Eskimos are said not to engage in this practice. Consequently, some
+of the caribou bodies lying about their camps become masses of maggots.
+
+On the last day of September I observed how Charles Schweder prepared a
+fresh caribou body in the field and endeavored to protect it from beasts
+and birds. First he cut off the head with his hunting-knife; then the
+hind legs, which were severed very readily at the hip joint. Next he
+opened the body cavity and pulled out the viscera, setting aside a mass
+of fat (apparently the omentum). The hind legs were placed beneath the
+body, and the head was thrust into the opening of the abdominal cavity,
+as an obstacle to such scavengers as Herring Gulls, Rough-legged Hawks,
+Canada Jays, Ravens, and Foxes (_cf._ Downes, 1943: 227, 228). The skin
+was left on the body, and the whole was covered with small spruce tops.
+
+An interesting device in the hunting of Caribou consists of "stone men"
+(Harper, 1949: 231, fig.). They are made of rocks, piled one upon
+another in such a manner as to faintly suggest a human figure. "Moss"
+(either moss or lichens) is added to some of them to enhance the
+human appearance. A�considerable number may be seen in the Windy River
+area, where they are generally placed along the summits of the ridges.
+Construction was probably begun many years ago by natives, and has been
+continued by the present residents. When Caribou, in fleeing from a
+hunter, catch sight of these "stone men," they are likely to pause in
+suspicion of the figures, and to be deflected from their chosen course.
+This may give the hunter a chance to come within range of the animals.
+The Kazan River Eskimos are said to use converging lines of such rock
+piles to direct migrating Caribou to certain river-crossings, where the
+hunters lie in wait for them. Occasionally a single pile is erected
+merely to mark the spot where a caribou body is left until the hunter
+can return with a dogteam to fetch the meat.
+
+  [Transcriber's Note: "... stone men": Inuksuit (sing. inuksuk).]
+
+On first securing one of the animals, the hunter makes a practice of
+cutting out the tongue and carrying it to camp in a pocket or a
+game-bag. On a subsequent trip, if there is sufficient snow on the
+ground, the meat is generally transported by dog sleigh or toboggan
+(_cf._ Harper, 1949: 231, fig.). Occasionally a hunter will carry it on
+his shoulder (fig. 4) or in a pack.
+
+In all the Canadian North, as far as I am aware, the Windy River post is
+virtually the only place where summer transportation is accomplished by
+dog-drawn travois (fig. 5). This device, consisting of two trailing
+poles, with a small platform midway, is recognizable immediately by
+readers of Parkman's _Oregon Trail_ (1849), where its use by Indians of
+our Western Plains is mentioned again and again. The travois was
+introduced into this region by the late Charles Planchek?, a�Czech?
+trapper of somewhat sinister repute, whose headquarters were at Putahow
+Lake. He was the "Eskimo Charlie" of Downes (1943: 160-161, pl.). In
+years gone by he took a travois with him on a visit to the Windy River
+area, and it was thereupon copied and subsequently used regularly by the
+Schweder family. Their Eskimo friends of the upper Kazan will
+occasionally borrow one, but I am not aware that they have made any
+travois of their own. During the summer the two younger boys of the
+Windy River post made a practice of hauling in caribou meat from the
+surrounding Barrens by means of travois.
+
+In the latter part of summer some small pieces of caribou meat were
+occasionally laid on a stone for drying, in front of the door at the
+post. Other pieces were said to have been hung up in the air for the
+same purpose, without fire or smoke, out in the field where the animals
+were killed. Apparently blowflies did not pay much attention to this
+meat. No considerable quantity seemed to be preserved locally in this
+way. Three Caribou-eater Chipewyans from the south end of Nueltin Lake,
+who visited our camp in late October, were carrying dried meat with them
+as travel rations and eating it without cooking.
+
+The larvae of the warble fly (_Oedemagena tarandi_), found beneath the
+skin of the Caribou, are relished by the Eskimos, being eaten apparently
+while alive and raw. The Eskimo boy of our camp continued this practice
+after his little sister had given it up. Hearne (1795: 197) reported the
+Indians as eating the warbles in his day.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 9. A band of Caribou swimming across Little
+    River at its mouth and landing on the western shore. Toward the
+    left, a�doe standing broadside and enveloped in a cloud of spray
+    being shaken off. August 28, 1947. (From a 16-mm. motion
+    picture.)]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 10. Two Caribou bucks standing in the edge of
+    Little River at its mouth after swimming across. August 28, 1947.
+    (From a 16-mm. motion picture.)]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 11. A one-horned doe, a hornless doe, a�fawn,
+    and a two-horned doe among a band of Caribou approaching the
+    camera within a rod after swimming across Little River. August 28,
+    1947. (From a 16-mm. motion picture.)]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 12. A band of Caribou (chiefly big bucks)
+    swimming across Little River at its mouth. August 28, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 13. Camp Slough, with trails showing the
+    recent passage of Caribou through the sedge growth (predominantly
+    _Carex chordorrhiza_). Black spruce in the foreground and
+    distance. August 29, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 14. A Caribou _Elysium_: a hornless doe
+    approaching within 15 feet of the photographer at the mouth of
+    Little River. August 30, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 15. Anoteelik in caribou-skin clothing,
+    holding a caribou spear. A�buck on the skyline. Mouth of Windy
+    River, September 7, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 16. Katello, a Padleimiut Eskimo from the
+    upper Kazan River, in a coat (_attigi_) and boots (_komik_) of
+    caribou skin. Windy River, Oct. 6, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 17. Charles Schweder with the fresh,
+    warble-infested hide of a Caribou buck (specimen No. 1033). Windy
+    River, June 3, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 18. Hide of a Caribou doe, about four years
+    old, with about 130 small warbles or warble scars (concentrated on
+    the rump). Windy River, September 15, 1947.]
+
+Only a small proportion of the hides of the locally killed Caribou are
+preserved. A�hide that would fetch only a dollar at Reindeer Lake would
+not be worth transporting more than 250 miles from Nueltin Lake. Hearne
+long ago (1795: 84) remarked on the remoteness of the hunting grounds
+from the trading posts as a barrier to trade in the skins; and this
+condition prevails to a large extent to the present day. Thus only such
+hides as are required for domestic use are kept. Tanning, while done by
+the Eskimos of the upper Kazan, is not undertaken by the residents on
+Windy River. Here the task of drying the hides is left mainly to the
+children of the camp. Most of them are pegged out on the summit of a
+gravelly ridge, wooden pegs being driven with a rock through slits in
+the edges of the skin (fig. 6). Now and then one is nailed to the outer
+wall of a log cabin (fig. 18).
+
+One of the main uses of the hides is for winter clothing. The Windy
+River residents have their garments made by Eskimo women of the upper
+Kazan, whose tanning process leaves the fur intact. Early autumn hides,
+with new, comparatively short fur, are the ones in demand. The season
+for securing such hides is said to extend to mid-September. At that
+season the larvae of the warble fly have not developed far enough to
+have injured the hide appreciably. The long winter fur is much less
+suitable for clothing. In moderately cold weather a single coat
+(_attigi_), with the fur inside (fig. 16), is worn by the Eskimos. This
+coat, when made for a man, extends very little farther downward at the
+rear than at the front; but a woman's coat is considerably longer at the
+rear. The bottom is generally provided with a fringe consisting of small
+strips of caribou skin, perhaps 4 inches long and 1/16 inch wide. In
+mid-winter another coat, with the fur outside (fig. 15), is slipped on
+over the other. Both are provided with hoods. Trousers, with the fur
+outside, are cut rather short at the bottom; some such material as rope
+is passed around the waist, without belt loops, to hold the trousers up.
+Boots (_komik_) of tanned caribou skin (fig. 16), reaching nearly to the
+knees, with the fur inside, make exceptionally warm footgear in winter.
+An extra piece is sewed on the sole, with the fur outside, but the hairs
+soon wear off. The seams are sewed with sinew. Another sort of boot, for
+summer use, is made of untanned skin, without the fur, and is more or
+less waterproof. Mittens (_pahloot_) have the fur outside; the thumb
+piece, of a length suitable for a short Eskimo thumb, does not properly
+fit a white man.
+
+In the autumn of 1947 the migrating Caribou did not reach the territory
+of the Chipewyans about the south end of Nueltin Lake till about
+November 1--by which time the fur had grown so long that it was not
+suitable for clothing. When I inquired of Charles Schweder how these
+natives managed under such circumstances, he replied that nowadays they
+use very little skin clothing--just manufactured clothing. Certainly the
+latter type was being worn by three men of this tribe that visited the
+Windy River post in late October. In this connection it is interesting
+to note that in November Charles brought to Windy River a bundle of fawn
+skins that he had secured from an Eskimo on the upper Kazan. Presently
+he traded them to a Cree halfbreed from the Putahow River, who was to
+have them made into a coat for himself. In years gone by the
+above-mentioned Chipewyans must have found some means of securing
+caribou skins for themselves in August or September; they could have
+accomplished this by moving to the northern part of Nueltin Lake,
+provided the animals had not reached the southern part at the proper
+season.
+
+From Charles Schweder I learned that the Hudson's Bay Company acquires
+caribou skins (apparently tanned) from the Duck Lake Chipewyans at about
+a dollar apiece, puts them up in bales of perhaps 10 to 20 skins, and
+ships them by steamer from Churchill to Baffin Island or thereabouts,
+for use by the Eskimos. He had seen about 25 or 30 such bales being
+loaded on a steamer in September, 1947. This trade evidently results
+from the present scarcity of Caribou on Baffin Island (_cf._ Manning,
+1943a: 47-50; Soper, 1944: 247-250; Banfield, 1949: 481). Moccasins of
+caribou skin, made by the Duck Lake Chipewyans, were on sale at
+Churchill.
+
+The three Caribou-eater Chipewyans from the south end of Nueltin Lake
+brought mittens, gloves, and moccasins of caribou skin to trade at Windy
+River. Similar gloves were brought by a Cree halfbreed from the Putahow
+River.
+
+At the Windy River post furred caribou skins served in upholstering the
+seat, back, and arms of a couple of home-made chairs. They were used
+also as mattresses or blankets, in the making of sleeping bags, and even
+as insulating material on the outside of the cabin (Harper, 1949: 226,
+228, figs.). The Schweder boys also maintain tents of caribou skin at
+various points on their long trap-lines; they are much warmer than
+canvas tents, and require no outlay of cash. The skins are nailed on
+poles arranged in tepee form; the height of such a tent is about 10
+feet, and the diameter 9 or 10 feet. There is a home-made stove inside,
+with the smoke-pipe projecting outside about halfway to the top of the
+tent.
+
+The Eskimos of the Kazan River have large summer tents of caribou skin,
+and smaller ones of canvas. The former are the ones in which the drum
+dances are held. These Eskimos never make their winter houses wholly of
+snow, according to Charles Schweder, but use caribou skins for the roof.
+
+In illustration of the primary importance of the Caribou to both
+primitive and civilized man in the Arctic and the sub-Arctic, the
+numerous cases of partial or complete starvation in the absence of
+Caribou may be cited. The chronicles of northern explorers are replete
+with them. A�notable case is that of John Hornby and his two companions
+on the Thelon River in the winter of 1926-27 (Hoare, 1930: 25;
+Christian, 1937). In the autumn of 1946 only a small fraction of the
+normal caribou migration passed by the Eskimo camps on the upper Kazan
+River. These happy-go-lucky, utterly improvident people did not take
+steps to secure an alternative winter's supply of fish, and by the
+following spring eight out of the band of 27 persons had succumbed
+directly or indirectly to starvation. (It is suspected that several were
+accounted for by anthropophagy.) Women, children, and dogs were the
+victims; no adult male succumbed. The casualties would doubtless have
+been more numerous if Charles Schweder had not reported the plight of
+the band when he made a trip to Reindeer Lake in March. Thereupon the
+government shipped emergency rations by plane as far as Nueltin Lake,
+and Charles transported them from that point by sleigh to the Kazan.
+Meanwhile he rescued two of the orphan children, took them to the Windy
+River post, and in a few more months formally adopted them.
+
+
+_Ethnological material from caribou products_
+
+In addition to the utilization of caribou products for the primary
+purposes of food, clothing, and shelter, as discussed in preceding
+pages, certain other uses of an ethnological nature may be mentioned
+here.
+
+Charles Schweder spoke of the former Eskimo use of splint bones from the
+legs of Caribou as needles, after a hole had been drilled or burned
+through the larger end. They are about the same length as a large
+darning needle. These people commonly use the back sinew as thread or as
+wrapping on tools, drums, and the like. I�saw a piece of back sinew
+being dried for future use at the Windy River post.
+
+Either lard or caribou fat serves as fuel for an "Eskimo candle"; the
+wick is a bit of rag or moss. The heat of the flame melts the fat where
+it is spread out in some small receptacle like a can cover. When our
+other means of illumination gave out at the Windy River post, I�worked
+or wrote notes for many hours by the light of one of these candles. It
+gives approximately as much illumination as an ordinary tallow candle.
+One disadvantage of using caribou fat for this purpose is the
+considerable amount of smoke that it produces.
+
+The Eskimos make odd use of an antler as a brake for a sleigh, to
+prevent the harnessed dogs from running after any Caribou they may
+sight; on other occasions it retards the sleigh in descending a hill.
+Such an antler, that I found at the Windy River post, is notched near
+the base; a�rope or thong, 2�or 3 feet in length, is fastened at one end
+to this notch, and at the other to the side of the sleigh. To apply the
+brake, the driver simply presses down the points of the antler into the
+snow or ice.
+
+The drums used in the ceremonial dances of the Kazan River Eskimos are
+made of a piece of caribou skin stretched tightly over a circular frame
+of spruce and fastened in place with caribou sinew. They are about 3
+feet in diameter.
+
+In an Eskimo fish spear from the upper Kazan River an iron barb on one
+of the prongs is supported by a small piece of caribou antler and
+fastened with back sinew. The two large lateral prongs, of metal, are
+tied to the wooden shaft of the spear with braided sinew.
+
+Two snow-knives have handles of antler, about 10 and 11 inches in
+length. One of the handles has been planed down, and is wrapped with
+sinew.
+
+The handle of another implement, used in cleaning out grains of wood
+from a hole being drilled in wood, is also a piece of antler.
+
+A woman's knife, or _ooloo_, has a section of antler for a handle.
+
+Strands of beads, used either for an ear pendant or for ornaments at the
+peak of a hood, have a caribou incisor fastened at the tip. The opposite
+end of the pendant is provided with a thin strip of caribou hide for
+fastening to a perforated ear lobe.
+
+The willow stems of pipes are wrapped with back sinew.
+
+Antler and sinew went into the making (by Anoteelik) of a "ring and pin"
+game.
+
+  _References on relations to Eskimos and Indians._--Isham, 1949
+  (1743): 152-154; Dobbs, 1744: 19; Hearne, 1795: 35, 78, 80-84,
+  96, 119, 195-197, 297, 316-319, 321-325; Franklin, 1823:
+  243-244; Lyon, 1824: 119, 123, 130, 144, 198, 229, 238, 241,
+  282, 311-317, 324, 327, 336; Parry, 1824: 289, 380, 403,
+  494-497, 505, 508, 512, 537; Richardson, "1825": 330, 331;
+  Franklin and Richardson, 1828: 200, 275; Richardson, 1829:
+  242-244, 245-249; John Ross, 1835a: 243-244, 252, 352, 512,
+  537; J.�C. Ross, in John Ross, 1835b: xvii; Richardson, in
+  Back, 1836: 499; Simpson, 1843: 76, 208, 312, 347, 355; J.
+  McLean, 1932 (1849): 195, 359; Richardson, 1852: 290; J.
+  Anderson, 1856: 24, and 1857: 321; Armstrong, 1857: 149, 154,
+  155, 166, 194; M'Clintock, 1860?: 212; Richardson, 1861: 274;
+  B.�R. Ross, 1861: 439-440; Kennicott, in Anonymous, 1869: 170;
+  Kumlien, 1879: 19, 23-25, 36-37, 54; Caton, 1881: 366-371;
+  Gilder, 1881: 11, 23, 25, 26, 28, 43, 50, 59, 61, 64, 67, 71,
+  137-146, 154, 245-255; Nourse, 1884: 220, 232; Schwatka, 1885:
+  59-86; Boas, 1888: 419, 429, 461-462, 501-503, 508-509, 522,
+  555-560; Bompas, 1888: 61, 100; Collinson, 1889: 277;
+  MacFarlane, 1890: 32-34, 38; Pike, 1917 (1892): 51-56, 59-60,
+  82, 209; J.�B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128-130; Dowling, 1893: 107; J.�B.
+  Tyrrell, 1894: 445, 1895: 440-444, and 1897: 122, 126-127,
+  131-132, 151, 166-167; Russell, 1895: 49-51, and 1898: 91, 134,
+  168-172, 176, 178, 187-189, 227-229; Whitney, 1896: 161, 175,
+  176, 213, 237, 240, 242, 262; J.�W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 80-81,
+  123-141, 241; Jones, 1899: 342, 429; Hanbury, 1900: 64, 65;
+  J.�M. Bell, 1901a: 16, and 1901b: 252, 255, 258; Boas, 1901:
+  52, 54, 81, 102, 107, and 1907: 465, 493, 501; W.�J. McLean,
+  1901: 5; Elliot, 1902: 276-279; J.�W. Tyrrell, 1924 (1902): 28,
+  37; Hanbury, 1904: 41, 43, 67, 70, 72, 75, 82, 114-115, 120,
+  121, 123, 137, 143; MacFarlane, 1905: 680-683; Amundsen, 1908,
+  +1+: 120, 201, 237, 326-329, and +2+: 110; Preble, 1908: 137;
+  Seton, 1911: 259-262; Cameron, 1912: 127, 309; Wheeler, 1912:
+  199-200; R.�M. Anderson, 1913a: 5, 6, 8, and 1913b: 502-505;
+  Stef�nsson, 1913a: 105, and 1913b: 203, 215, 221, 281, 337-338,
+  and 1914: 48, 56-59, 97, 137, 139-141, 147-148, 150, 296, 353;
+  Hornaday, 1914, +2+: 97, 100; Wheeler, 1914: 52, 56, 58; Nelson,
+  1916: 460-461; Thompson, 1916: 19, 99; J.�B. Tyrrell, in
+  Thompson, 1916: 16; Buchanan, 1920: 113-151; R.�M. Anderson,
+  in Stef�nsson, 1921: 743, 750; Hewitt, 1921: 58, 59, 64-66;
+  Stef�nsson, 1921: 401-402; Jenness, 1922: 47, 48, 61, 78-81, 97,
+  100-103, 124, 127-142, 148-151, 182-189, 244, 248, 249;
+  Blanchet, 1925: 34, 1926a: 98, and 1926b: 47; Preble, 1926: 121;
+  Craig, 1927: 22; Henderson, 1927: 40; Rasmussen, 1927: 5, 23,
+  59-60, 65, 67, 68, 73-76, 103-106, 145, 166-167, 245, 246;
+  Anthony, 1928: 532; Kindle, 1928: 72-73; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1):
+  9, 47, 52-53, 56, 57, 86, 89, 90, 94, 96, 98, 101, 102, 104,
+  106-112, 133-144, 171, 186, 191, 196, 199-223, 232, 239-251,
+  262, 263, 268-271; Seton, 1929, +3+: 111-122, 133-134; Blanchet,
+  1930: 50-51, 53; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193, and 1931: 32-33;
+  Kitto, 1930: 87-88, 90; Mallet, 1930: 13, 32, 85, 87, 89, 90,
+  92, 95, 102, 116, 131-140; Jacobi, 1931: 156, 157, 159; Harper,
+  1932: 30, 31; Jenness, 1932: 47, 48, 51, 58, 59, 75, 406-408,
+  411, 412, 414, 415; Munn, 1932: 191-192, 210, 214, 255, 271,
+  278; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 80-83, 86-87; Weyer, 1932: 38,
+  39; Birket-Smith, 1933: 100; Ingstad, 1933: 118, 122, 135, 139,
+  162-163, 167, 186-187, 247, 253-254, 257-259; R.�M. Anderson,
+  1934a: 81, and 1937: 103; Godsell, 1934: 273-276, and 1937: 288;
+  Hornby, 1934: 105; Birket-Smith, 1936: 90, 91, 110, 111,
+  115-116; Hamilton, 1939: 246, 352, 359; Clarke, 1940: 5-9, 84,
+  110, 112; G.�M. Allen, 1942: 297; Manning, 1942: 29, 1943a: 47,
+  50, and 1943b: 103; Downes, 1943: 215, 227-228, 261-262; Soper,
+  1944: 248-250; Wright, 1944: 185, 187, 188, 193; Rand, 1948b:
+  149; Yule, 1948: 288; Banfield, 1949: 477, 478, 481, and 1951a:
+  1, 11, 14-15, 42-50; Harper, 1949: 226, 230, 231; Hoffman, 1949:
+  12; Polunin, 1949: 230; Scott, 1951: 127; Anonymous, 1952: 264.
+
+  _References on relations to civilized man._--Kennicott, in
+  Anonymous, 1869: 166; Schwatka, 1885: 59-86; A.�J. Stone, 1900:
+  57; Grant, 1903: 186; Cameron, 1912: 309; R.�M. Anderson,
+  1913a: 5, 6; 1913b: 504, and 1938: 400; Stef�nsson, 1913b: 27;
+  Hornaday, 1914, +2+: 100; Wheeler, 1914: 56; Hewitt, 1921:
+  11-12, 59; Critchell-Bullock, 1931: 33; Godsell, 1937: 288;
+  G.�M. Allen, 1942: 298-299; Manning, 1942: 28; [U.S.] War
+  Department, 1944: 77; Harper, 1949: 239; Banfield, 1951a: 1,
+  14-15.
+
+
+_Relations to Black Bears_
+
+It is hardly to be expected that Black Bears (_Ursus americanus_ subsp.)
+commit any depredations on adult, able-bodied Caribou unless under very
+exceptional circumstances. Since they do not normally venture to an
+appreciable distance into the Barren Grounds, their contacts with
+Caribou are mainly in the forested zone. For an untold period in the
+past there has been a very interesting tripartite relationship between
+Bears, Caribou, and Caribou-eater Chipewyans about the south end of
+Nueltin Lake. For information concerning it I am indebted to Charles
+Schweder. The Indians of that area have been in the habit of killing
+large numbers of Caribou, especially on the spring and fall migrations,
+and leaving many of the bodies, or parts of the bodies, out in the
+"bush." The Bears have become accustomed to taking advantage of the
+situation, especially, perhaps, in the matter of fattening up for
+hibernation. This probably resulted in a certain concentration of the
+animals thereabouts. But of late years the local native population has
+seriously declined by reason of fatal illness and removal to other
+parts. Consequently, as Charles Schweder expressed it, there are no
+longer enough people there to feed the Bears! Three of the Chipewyans
+reported in late October, 1947, that they had lost a good many of their
+Caribou to the Bears during that season.
+
+This recent change in the food situation about the south end of Nueltin
+Lake has apparently resulted in, or at least coincided with, an influx
+of Bears in the Windy River area, where they were unknown until 1944.
+During the next four years seven Bears were killed locally. The animals
+are said to have consumed about 70 Caribou bodies in the fall of 1944,
+and about 40 in the fall of 1947 within a few miles of the Windy River
+post; thus they became a somewhat serious factor in the human economy of
+the area. The Caribou is evidently the chief loser in this curious
+relationship, but even the Bear, which may be regarded as the chief
+beneficiary, suffers from man's retaliatory efforts.
+
+
+_Relations to foxes_
+
+The demand for Arctic Fox furs on the part of the fashionable women of
+the world sends the trapper on his winter rounds over the bleak and
+bitter Barren Grounds, where he depends upon his autumn kill of Caribou
+for sustenance for himself and his dogs as well as for fox bait. It is
+thus quite obvious where a large share of the responsibility for the
+dwindling numbers of the Caribou lies.
+
+Both Arctic and Red Foxes (_Alopex lagopus innuitus_ and _Vulpes fulva_
+subsp.) are among the scavengers that help to consume caribou bodies
+that are left unguarded in the wilds. According to Charles Schweder,
+foxes of both species seem to follow the Wolves, presumably in the hope
+of securing the leavings of their kills.
+
+Charles also gave me an account of a remarkable sort of play between a
+Red Fox and a small buck Caribou. He had witnessed it in September,
+1943, about 18 miles north of Windy River, from a distance of half a
+mile. The Fox would approach the Caribou closely; the latter would then
+walk up to the Fox, which would retreat, not allowing the Caribou to
+come close enough to touch it. Neither animal was afraid of the other.
+They kept up this performance for about 5 minutes. The Fox then went
+among some bushes, where the Caribou tried to follow it. The larger
+animal was still there, feeding, when Charles passed on out of sight. He
+regarded the whole performance as a matter of playfulness. His recital
+put me in mind at once of a slightly similar play between a Newfoundland
+Caribou and a Red Fox, as recorded by Millais (1907: 302-303).
+Stef�nsson (1921: 623-624) describes a game of tag between an Arctic Fox
+and several yearlings of _Rangifer pearyi_ on Melville Island.
+
+  _References._--Blanchet, 1925: 34; Birket-Smith, 1929(1): 101;
+  Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 143; Munn, 1932: 278; Ingstad, 1933:
+  90, 157-159; Freuchen, 1935: 128; Banfield, 1951a: 36.
+
+
+_Relations to Wolves_
+
+Aside from man, the principal predatory enemy of the Barren Ground
+Caribou is undoubtedly the Wolf. A�comparison of a distributional map of
+Caribou by Banfield (1949: 479, fig. 1) with a distributional map of
+Wolves by Goldman (1944: 414, fig. 14) indicates that the latter species
+is a considerably more plastic animal. No less than six subspecies of
+Wolves seem to occur in parts of the currently recognized range of a
+single subspecies of Caribou (_Rangifer arcticus arcticus_), as follows:
+_Canis lupus arctos_, Prince of Wales and Somerset islands; _Canis lupus
+manningi_, Baffin Island; _Canis lupus bernardi_, Victoria Island;
+_Canis lupus hudsonicus_, Keewatin, eastern Mackenzie, northern
+Manitoba, and northeastern Saskatchewan; _Canis lupus mackenzii_,
+northern Mackenzie; _Canis lupus occidentalis_, southern Mackenzie and
+northern Alberta and Saskatchewan.
+
+The Keewatin Tundra Wolf (_C. l. hudsonicus_) is presumably the only one
+that concerns us here. However, its extension into the forested zone of
+northern Manitoba and northeastern Saskatchewan, as indicated on
+Goldman's map, is still problematical. Goldman's text (1944: 428-429) is
+quite indefinite on this point. There are such distinct differences
+between the general fauna of the Arctic Zone and that of the Hudsonian
+Zone that the Wolf of the latter zone may well prove to be
+differentiable from _hudsonicus_, whose type locality is at Schultz Lake
+in west central Keewatin. It is an interesting question whether any
+Wolves of the Barren Grounds follow the Caribou southward into the
+timbered country in the fall; likewise, whether any individual Wolves of
+the latter region accompany the Caribou on their spring migration out
+into the Barrens. Little light on the subject seems available at
+present. There is no doubt, however, that a good many Wolves remain
+during the winter on parts of the Barren Grounds that have been deserted
+by the Caribou at that season. Furthermore, at the time of the spring
+migration, mature Wolves of the forest zone would be restricted to their
+home territory by the necessity of caring for their young ones.
+
+A Wolf is by no means able to capture a Caribou at will. During the
+season of open water the latter may effect a ready escape by plunging
+into the nearest river or lake and crossing to the other side. There is
+reason to believe that islands provide a good sanctuary during the
+summer (Seton, 1929, +3+: 108-109; Gavin, 1945: 228). In the winter the
+Caribou must depend primarily on its fleetness of foot. Even the fawns
+are reputed to be able to outdistance Wolves in a chase that is not too
+prolonged. An adult, if brought to bay after a long chase, is probably
+able to stand off a single Wolf indefinitely. Its powerful hoofs are its
+principal means of defense. Even if the antlers are brought into play,
+they are effective only during the limited period when they are
+fullgrown, hard, and free of velvet. When two or more Wolves manage to
+bring a Caribou to bay, the outcome is probably almost invariably in
+their favor. Charles Schweder has never known a Caribou to kill one of
+these predators in defending itself. In several cases reported by Fred
+Schweder, Jr., the last stand was made on the ice of lakes. The Caribou
+itself may choose such a place, as if aware that it may be more
+sure-footed on the ice than its enemy.
+
+After listening to wolf tales by residents of the frontier settlements
+rather than by real men of the "bush," one might almost expect to see a
+couple of these bloodthirsty animals harrying the rear of every band of
+Caribou and keeping up a relentless pursuit. However, during a sojourn
+of six months on one of the best Caribou ranges in Keewatin, where
+trapping has very little effect on Wolves, I�saw just one of these
+animals alive, heard the howling on several occasions, and noted a
+single Caribou that had probably been killed by them. It is far from a
+common experience for the resident trappers to witness actual pursuit by
+Wolves or even to find their kills. The following instances, related by
+Fred Schweder, Jr., comprised his only direct observations on Wolves in
+pursuit of Caribou up to and including 1947, when he was eighteen years
+old.
+
+During the northward migration in May, 1945, a silent black Wolf pursued
+a band of 100 Caribou over the ice of Windy Bay. At one time it came
+within 100 feet, but thereafter they forged ahead. After half a mile the
+band split up, and the Wolf desisted. In October, 1946, Fred noticed a
+Caribou fighting off two Wolves on the ice of Nueltin Lake near its
+outlet. It used both horns and hoofs against its attackers. While one
+Wolf was in front, the other would try to get in the rear of the Caribou
+and hamstring it. This went on for two hours until darkness hid the
+scene. The next morning the Caribou was dead and half eaten. On October
+16, 1947, a�white Wolf was seen in pursuit of four fast-moving Caribou
+near Simons' Lake. It was about half a mile in their rear, and presently
+halted, probably by reason of catching sight of Fred.
+
+November 7, 1947, was a blizzardy day; the air was full of drifting
+snow. Under these conditions a gray Wolf chased a buck and a doe right
+into the dooryard of one of Fred's trapping camps 10 miles north of
+Windy River. It was only about 30 feet behind them. When the buck broke
+through the ice of a little creek, the Wolf went right past it in
+pursuit of the doe. The latter nearly ran into Fred's toboggan, and he
+shot it at a distance of 20 feet. The Wolf came within 40 feet, but by
+the time it was recognized as not just another Caribou, it was 100 feet
+away. Fred then shot but merely wounded it, the sight being off his
+rifle. Meanwhile the buck escaped, but 3 miles away Fred met with it
+again and secured it. He recognized it as the same animal because at
+both encounters it was limping from a previous wound and was hornless as
+well.
+
+In late November Fred found two fullgrown bucks and a doe on the ice of
+Windy Lake, where they had been killed by Wolves. The bucks were
+antlered and had probably met their end several weeks previously. Yet
+their flesh was so musky and unpalatable, in consequence of the rutting
+season, that it had not been devoured. A long trail of blood and hair
+led to the spot where the doe had fallen, apparently a couple of weeks
+previously; it was still only half eaten.
+
+In Fred's opinion, Caribou are apprehensive of sandy eskers as the haunt
+of Wolves, and do not linger there.
+
+On October 15 Charles Schweder pointed out the body of a Caribou in a
+little pond in the delta area at the head of Simons' Lake. He considered
+it killed by Wolves some weeks previously; its antlers were in the
+velvet, and it had been eaten only about the head and hind quarters as
+it lay in the water.
+
+Joe Chambers, a trapper of Goose Creek (south of Churchill), stated that
+Wolves select the fattest Caribou, and that during the winter of 1946-47
+they had been devouring only such choice parts as the tongue and the
+unborn young.
+
+Caribou bodies are the primary bait for Wolves and Foxes on the Barren
+Grounds. Two traps are commonly placed at each carcass.
+
+Up to a couple of centuries ago, when the baneful effect of civilized
+man began to be felt, the Caribou throve and multiplied to a point where
+they probably strained the grazing capacity of the Barren Grounds.
+Neither primitive man nor the Wolf had any serious effect on the size or
+condition of the herds. The Caribou were numbered by millions, and they
+doubtless owed their vigor and their success as a species in no small
+measure to their friendly enemy, the Wolf. Through long ages the latter
+had tended to eliminate the weaklings, the sickly, and the less alert
+individuals, leaving the fitter animals to propagate their kind. Here
+was a fine example of natural selection operating to the advantage of
+the Caribou. Thus the Wolf may be safely considered a benefactor of the
+species as a whole--a regulator and protector of its vitality.
+
+There are only two regions of the world where Caribou (or Reindeer) have
+not long shared their territory with the Wolf--Spitsbergen and the Queen
+Charlotte Islands. And what sort of situation do we find there? Instead
+of thriving in the absence of such a natural predator, the animals of
+both regions are the runts of the whole Caribou-Reindeer tribe, and
+those of the Queen Charlottes have become virtually or wholly extinct
+(_cf._ Banfield, 1949: 481-482). Furthermore, the Newfoundland Caribou
+suffered a very serious decline after the Newfoundland Wolf became
+extinct at about the beginning of the present century. The lesson is
+obvious: it is folly for man to imagine that he can benefit the Caribou
+by eliminating the Wolves.
+
+It is virtually axiomatic that no predatory species (other than modern
+man) exterminates its own food supply. Long ago nature must have
+established a fairly definite ratio between the populations of the Wolf
+and the Caribou. Although a certain fluctuation of that ratio could be
+expected from time to time, each fluctuation would be followed by a
+return to more or less normal conditions. The trend of evolution has
+doubtless been toward perfecting the Wolf in its ability to capture the
+Caribou, but at the same time toward perfecting the Caribou in its
+ability to escape the Wolf. Unequal progress of this sort on the part of
+the two species would presumably have been rather disastrous to the one
+or the other. But it is nature's way to have preserved a proper balance
+between the abilities of the two species, and thus between their
+populations. This balance (a�rather delicate one) has probably been
+upset to some extent by the advent of civilized man with his devices to
+the Barren Grounds.
+
+The Caribou "exemplify the survival of the fittest; none but the perfect
+are allowed to live and breed, hence their perfection. We believe that
+the wolf is in no small degree responsible for this high standard,
+and that were he killed off the species as a whole would suffer."
+(Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 161.)
+
+"It is doubtful if the efforts of white or native hunters are of any
+importance whatever in the control of wolves in the caribou country, or
+could, under present circumstances ever be of any importance." (Clarke,
+1940: 109).
+
+  _References._--Franklin, 1823: 242, 327, 344, 486, 487; John
+  Ross, 1835a: 402, 530, 534, 564; Back, 1836: 128-129; Simpson,
+  1843: 232; Armstrong, 1857: 395, 480-481, 488, 525; Osborn,
+  1865: 227-228, 231, 232; Kumlien, 1879: 53, 54; Gilder, 1881:
+  61; Bompas, 1888: 60; Collinson, 1889: 244; Pike, 1917 (1892):
+  56-58; Whitney, 1896: 239; Jones, 1899: 374-375; Preble, 1902:
+  41, and 1908: 214; Hanbury, 1904: 89; MacFarlane, 1905: 692-693;
+  Amundsen, 1908, +1+: 102; Seton, 1911: 225-226; R.�M. Anderson,
+  1913b: 516; Stef�nsson, 1913a: 93, and 1921: 248-249, 475-476;
+  Blanchet, 1925: 34; Mallet, 1926: 79; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1):
+  51; Seton, 1929, +1+: 344-346, and +3+: 108-109; Blanchet, 1930:
+  54-55; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 159-162; Hoare, 1930: 22; Kitto,
+  1930: 89; Jacobi, 1931: 240-241; Harper, 1932: 31; Sutton and
+  Hamilton, 1932: 33, 35, 36, 81, 82, 84, 85; Ingstad, 1933:
+  157-159, 165-166, 207, 302-304, 306-307; Hornby, 1934: 106, 108;
+  Freuchen, 1935: 93, 120-122; Murie, 1939: 245; Clarke, 1940:
+  107-109; Manning, 1942: 29, and 1943a: 55; Downes, 1943: 262;
+  Young, 1944: 236-238, 243; Yule, 1948: 288; Harper, 1949:
+  230-231, 239; Banfield, 1951a: 37-41; Anonymous, 1952: 263-265.
+
+
+_Relations to birds of prey_
+
+These relations are not so much of the living Caribou as of their bodies
+after death. The principal avian scavengers in the Windy River area seem
+to be the Rough-legged Hawk (_Buteo lagopus sancti-johannis_), the
+Herring Gull (_Larus argentatus smithsonianus_), the Canada Jay
+(_Perisoreus canadensis canadensis_), and the Raven (_Corvus corax
+principalis_). These birds are evidently attracted to the vicinity of
+camps and trap-lines by reason of the numbers of caribou bodies lying
+about. On their first arrival in late May or early June, before the
+lakes have opened up and while food in general is scarce, Herring Gulls
+seem particularly prone to assemble where Caribou have been recently
+killed. For example, up to June 3 only a handful of these birds had been
+seen about Windy River. On that day several Caribou were killed, and on
+June 4 about 100 Herring Gulls had gathered at the scene. Their
+scavenger activities make it especially necessary to protect the caribou
+bodies in the way described in the section on _Relations to man_. In a
+few days one of the bodies (apparently not so protected) had been almost
+entirely consumed. The Herring Gulls operate locally only from May to
+September, being absent during the rest of the year. A�few Ring-billed
+Gulls (_Larus delawarensis_) appeared meanwhile and attacked a caribou
+carcass.
+
+The Rough-legged Hawk is far less numerous than the Herring Gull and so
+is a much less serious scavenger. Now and then, however, it may be noted
+feeding on a caribou carcass. Even the Long-tailed Jaeger (_Stercorarius
+longicaudus_) is reported in such a role. The Canada Jay and the Raven
+are permanent residents and are undoubtedly helped through the
+inhospitable winter by man-killed Caribou. On the other hand, a�good
+many Ravens fall victims to the fox traps placed about the bodies.
+Charles Schweder has frequently seen Ravens following Wolves, as if in
+expectation of a kill. Buchanan remarks (1920: 248) concerning the
+Reindeer Lake region, that the Ravens "appear to remain in the vicinity
+of the Caribou herds all th[r]ough winter." In the Windy River area the
+Canada Jay became noticeably more numerous in August, after the Caribou
+had returned from the north. The Ravens and the Rough-legs exhibited a
+similar increase in September and October.
+
+The depredations of these carnivorous birds result to the detriment of
+the living Caribou in that they virtually force the hunters and trappers
+to kill a larger number of the animals than would otherwise be
+necessary.
+
+  _References._--Hanbury, 1904: 135; Stef�nsson, 1913a: 93;
+  Seton, 1929, +3+: 108; Ingstad, 1933: 157-159; Downes, 1943:
+  228; Banfield, 1951a: 36, 42; Harper, 1953: 28, 60, 62-64, 72,
+  74, 76.
+
+
+_Relations to miscellaneous animals_
+
+The Schweder boys spoke of Arctic Hares (_Lepus arcticus andersoni_)
+being in the habit of eating the stomach contents of Caribou after the
+animals have been dressed in the field. This represents merely harmless
+utilization of a normally waste product, although it serves some of the
+natives as _nerrooks_ or "Eskimo salad" (_cf._ Richardson, 1829: 245).
+Wolverines, Mink, Weasels, and Lemmings help to consume unprotected
+caribou bodies. (In the Old World the Wolverine is regarded as a serious
+enemy of live Reindeer [Jacobi, 1931: 243; Harper, 1945: 473].)
+
+  _References._--Pike, 1917 (1892): 56-58; Seton, 1911: 252, 1929,
+  +2+: 413, 424, 443, and 1929, +3+: 108; Harper, 1932: 23;
+  Ingstad, 1933: 157-159; Freuchen, 1935: 93, 99; Hoffman, 1949:
+  12; Banfield, 1951a: 36, 41; Harper, 1953: 40, 41.
+
+
+_Relations to flies_
+
+Flies of various kinds perhaps cause more wide-spread, year-round misery
+to the Caribou than all other pests and enemies combined. It is safe to
+say that not a single individual in the whole population escapes their
+attacks, and some even succumb to mosquitoes (Gavin, 1945: 228). The
+various biting and parasitic flies have already been discussed to some
+extent in the section on _Influence of insects on distribution_.
+Harassment by these pests is believed to be the leading cause of the
+haste with which the Caribou are frequently seen passing over the
+Barrens in summer. Downes (1943: 204) has commented on the habit of
+Chipewyan hunters in the Nueltin Lake region of examining the legs of
+Caribou for swellings caused by mosquito bites. In a buck secured on
+August 17 the legs exhibited numerous little bumps of this sort;
+furthermore, black flies covered the buck's body, while scarcely
+troubling those of us who were preparing the specimen. Fortunately the
+suffering from mosquitoes and black flies on the Barrens is largely
+limited to the months of July and August.
+
+Even at this season the Caribou are granted occasional relief from the
+blood-sucking flies. The characteristic strong winds of that region help
+greatly in keeping the insects in abeyance. Furthermore, both mosquitoes
+and black flies become more or less inactive whenever the temperature
+drops to the neighborhood of 45� (_cf._ Weber, 1950: 196), and this
+happens fairly frequently even in mid-summer. Finally, the black flies
+retire during the hours of darkness; and short as these hours are, the
+relief they bring is very noteworthy. These conditions offer something
+of a contrast to those surrounding the Woodland Caribou. It is difficult
+to see how that animal can secure a moment's respite from mosquito
+attacks, by day or night, through most of the summer. In its forested
+habitat there is not sufficient lowering of the temperature nor
+sufficient penetration of strong winds. Hard as the life of the Barren
+Ground Caribou may be, it seems to have a few advantages not available
+to the Woodland Caribou; and possibly it is these that have enabled it
+to attain a vastly greater population than the other species.
+
+Of 52 mosquito specimens brought back from the Windy River area, 39 were
+_Aedes nearcticus_ Dyar, 2�were probably _Aedes fitchii_ (F. and Y.),
+and the remaining 11 were of the same genus but not in condition for
+specific determination (_cf._ Dyar, 1919; Weber, 1950: 196). _Ae.
+nearcticus_ is holarctic in distribution; in North America it occurs
+chiefly on the Barren Grounds, but is known from as far south as
+Montana. _Ae. fitchii_ ranges through the northern United States and
+Canada, north to the limit of trees. Of 26 black flies, all were
+_Simulium venustum_ Say, which occurs in northern Europe, Alaska, and
+Labrador, south to the Adirondacks, Illinois, Iowa, Georgia, and
+Alabama. (Names and ranges supplied by Dr. Alan Stone, of the United
+States Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.) These mosquitoes and
+black flies were presumably the species attacking the Caribou in the
+Nueltin Lake region.
+
+The effects of the two parasitic flies are felt nearly throughout the
+year. The adult warble fly (_Oedemagena tarandi_) is seen in the Windy
+River area in August, when the Caribou are on their southward march. On
+August 22 Fred Schweder, Jr., secured three of them on freshly killed
+Caribou and another that alighted on himself--all on an island in Windy
+Bay. His name for them is "deer fly." He reported seeing about 50 of
+them on this day (more than ever before), although he sighted only 10
+Caribou. As he remarked, these fuzzy flies look much like bumblebees.
+Three days later, along Little River, something buzzed past me while a
+band of Caribou were near. It was probably this species, although it
+suggested a hummingbird almost as much as a bumblebee. On several
+subsequent August days, while numbers of Caribou were passing very close
+to me, I�detected no more of the warble flies. In general, they might
+well have escaped my notice owing to my preoccupation with photography;
+but on August 30, when I looked for them on one of the nearest animals,
+I�saw none. Evidently they are not sufficiently numerous (like
+horse-flies on cattle) to be constantly in attendance on each Caribou.
+In fact, a�comparative scarcity (or at least difficulty of capture) may
+be surmised from the fact that the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913-18
+brought back only three adult females--one from Teller, Alaska, and two
+from Bernard Harbour, Dolphin and Union Strait (Malloch, 1919: 55).
+Weber (1950) collected no Oestridae in Arctic Alaska.
+
+Apparently there has been scarcely any published study of the egg-laying
+or other habits of the adult _Oedemagena_ in relation to _Rangifer
+arcticus arcticus_, other than a few recent notes by Banfield (1951a:
+31-32, fig. 17); but its behavior in relation to the Lapland Reindeer
+seems to be fairly well known, and it is summarized by Jacobi (1931:
+245-246). In the case of the Reindeer, the fly's eggs are laid (during
+the summer) generally on the legs, belly, and tail region of the victim;
+the larvae, on hatching, bore through the skin, travel widely through
+the body, and finally (in the autumn) reach the place for further
+development--beneath the skin of the back on both sides of the vertebral
+column. Each one makes a breathing-hole through the skin, and uses this
+as an exit when leaving the host in the following June. Only the younger
+animals, from one to about four or five years old, are heavily infested;
+those still older are spared, possibly having learned to guard
+themselves better against the fly. Curiously enough, the fawns are said
+to escape this parasitism entirely.
+
+My own observations on the larvae were restricted to a few Caribou
+specimens in June and in the autumn. As with the Reindeer, the Caribou
+fawns in their first autumn showed no visible infestation, as I noted in
+looking over some fresh hides on September 10, and as was noted again in
+a fawn of September 26. Fred Schweder, Jr., made the remark that larvae
+would be evident in the fawns by the following spring; this may indicate
+that the larvae have not, in the autumn, completed their journey to
+their final position on the Caribou's back. I�learned of no immunity on
+the part of old adults.
+
+Fullgrown larvae still remained in bucks secured on June 3 (fig. 17) and
+18. According to Charles Schweder, they drop out in June. In the buck of
+June 3 there were perhaps several dozen warbles, each surrounded by a
+mass of repulsive tissue; in another buck of June 18, there were
+apparently more than 75. "It may be assumed," says Johansen (1921: 24),
+"that the pupae lie on the ground for about a month before the flies
+appear." He found (1921: 29) the adult flies abroad at Dolphin and Union
+Strait by July 14.
+
+In a buck of August 17 the new warbles (or perhaps merely warble scars
+from the previous June--_cf._ Banfield, 1951a: 32) on the inside of
+the skin were not very numerous. Some were medium-sized, but most were
+so small that it was not deemed necessary to scrape them off; they had
+comparatively little fatty tissue about them and were merely allowed to
+dry up. The number of warbles (or warble scars) found in autumn
+specimens varied considerably, up to a maximum of roughly 200. They were
+situated mostly along the mid-dorsum, and more on the lower back or rump
+than farther forward. The number appeared to be approximately 130 in the
+skin of an adult doe that was nailed to the log wall of a cabin for
+drying on September 15 (fig. 18). A�doe of September 21 seemed to have
+less than the usual number of warbles.
+
+The nostril fly (_Cephenemyia_) is another serious dipterous parasite of
+the Caribou. The life history of the European _C. nasalis_ (L.) (or
+_C.�trompe_ [L.]) and its effect on Reindeer are discussed by Bergman
+(1917), Natvig (1918), and Jacobi (1931: 245) as follows.
+
+This fly attacks the host from June to September, depositing its
+viviparous larvae in the nostrils. The Reindeer attempts to fend off the
+fly, striking at it with its hoofs and keeping its nostrils closed as
+far as possible. Once deposited, the lively larvae crawl into the inner
+nasal passages and as far as the larynx, where they fasten themselves
+and live on the mucus. A�Reindeer may harbor as many as 130 of these
+parasites. They range from 6 to 26 mm. in length. Their particular
+growth begins at the end of March, and they are ready for pupation up to
+May. The host assists their exit by continual sneezing and snuffling. In
+the last stages they are a great affliction for the host, and they
+sometimes cause its death. Pupation takes place in or on the ground,
+under some sort of cover, and it lasts for 15-19 days. The flies have
+been found emerging from July 12 to 31.
+
+The corresponding parasite of the Barren Ground Caribou is a similar or
+perhaps identical species, with a parallel life history. Its chief
+activity as an adult doubtless occurs in July and August. A�number of
+the mature larvae were found in the throat of the buck of June 3; two of
+them that were preserved measure approximately 7 mm. in diameter and 27
+and 30 mm. in length. A�large mass of such sizable parasites in the
+throat might easily become a serious obstacle to comfortable living or
+even to survival on the part of the host. Presumably the larvae drop to
+the ground at about the same period as those of _Oedemagena_. Fred
+Schweder, Jr., remarked concerning the buck of August 17 that these
+larvae are never found at that season, and Charles Schweder made the
+same remark concerning a doe specimen of September 21. It would appear
+either that they remain so small as to escape detection at this time or
+that they do not reach the throat on their short journey from the
+nostrils until some later period of the year. Johansen (1921: 24)
+records larvae only 2-3 mm. long in the nasal passage at the end of May.
+
+Since the bulk of the Caribou population has passed well to the
+northward of the Nueltin Lake region by the time the larvae of
+_Oedemagena_ and _Cephenemyia_ drop out of the bodies of their hosts to
+pupate briefly on or in the ground (say in the latter part of June), one
+is tempted to speculate on the possibility that the adult flies found
+here in August may have followed their prospective victims for many
+miles in their southward migration. However, Porsild remarks (1943: 386)
+that they "apparently do not travel very far."
+
+Certain kinds of behavior exhibited by the Caribou in attempting to fend
+off the parasitic flies are discussed in the section on _Shaking off
+moisture and insects_.
+
+The adults of _Oedemagena tarandi_ (L.) were determined by Mr. C.�W.
+Sabrosky, of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine; and the
+larvae of _Oedemagena_ and _Cephenemyia_ by Dr. W.�W. Wirth, of the same
+bureau. The larvae of the latter genus are regarded as probably _C.
+trompe_ (L.); they were new to the collection of the United States
+National Museum.
+
+  _References._--Hearne, 1795: 197; Franklin, 1823: 241;
+  Richardson, "1825": 328-330, and 1829: 242; Godman, 1831, +2+:
+  284; Murray, 1858: 210; B.�R. Ross, 1861: 438; Pike, 1917
+  (1892): 58-59; J.�B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128, and 1894: 442; Whitney,
+  1896: 239; Russell, 1898: 228-229; Jones, 1899: 411; Hanbury,
+  1900: 67, and 1904: 32, 137, 194; Preble, 1902: 41; R.�M.
+  Anderson, 1913b: 504; Stef�nsson, 1913b: 204, 212-213, 333;
+  Douglas, 1914: 191-192; Malloch, 1919: 55-56; Hewitt, 1921: 67;
+  Johansen, 1921: 22-24, 29, 35, 37; Stef�nsson, 1921: 247;
+  Blanchet, 1925: 32, and 1926b: 47; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 56,
+  133; Seton, 1929, +3+: 109-111; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193;
+  Hoare, 1930: 33, 37-38; Kitto, 1930: 89; Jacobi, 1931: 244-245;
+  Munn, 1932: 58; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 84-86; Birket-Smith,
+  1933: 90, 92; Ingstad, 1933: 48, 135; Hornby, 1934: 105; Soper,
+  1936: 429; Henriksen, 1937: 25, 26; Hamilton, 1939: 247, 301;
+  Murie, 1939: 245; Clarke, 1940: 70, 95; Downes, 1943: 226, 255;
+  Manning, 1943a: 53; Porsild, 1943: 386; Gavin, 1945: 228;
+  Harper, 1949: 228; Banfield, 1951a: 31-33; Barnett, 1954: 104.
+
+
+_Ectoparasites_
+
+It was in vain that I searched a number of fresh specimens for lice,
+mites, fleas, or ticks. The Schweder boys spoke of never having noticed
+any such parasites. Seton (1929) mentions none, and Jacobi (1931: 243)
+records only a louse (_Linognathus tarandi_) from the Reindeer. "Lice
+are not known from caribou according to Ferris (in conversation)"
+(Weber, 1950: 154).
+
+
+_Relations to Reindeer_
+
+Recent discussions of the possibility or advisability of introducing
+domesticated Reindeer to replace, or to augment the diminishing supply
+of, native American Caribou in various new localities prompt a brief
+review of the subject.
+
+It may be remarked at the outset that acclimatization attempts in the
+Old World have generally been abortive. Wild Reindeer introduced from
+Finmark into Iceland in the eighteenth century flourished for a time,
+but by 1917 they were almost exterminated. A�number of different
+introductions into Great Britain, Denmark, Germany, Austria,
+Switzerland, and Italy came to naught. On the other hand, the
+introduction of Lapland Reindeer on the subantarctic island of South
+Georgia in 1908 seems to have turned out successfully. (Jacobi, 1931:
+158-165; Harper, 1945: 473-474.) A�saving feature in each of the
+above-mentioned cases was the absence of any native Reindeer whose
+racial purity might have been destroyed by the newcomers.
+
+Decrease of local American stocks of Caribou, and consequent suffering
+of native populations who had in past generations depended upon these
+animals for a major portion of their food supply, have led to
+introduction of foreign Reindeer in several regions of North America,
+from Newfoundland and Labrador in the east to Alaska in the west. The
+persons responsible were doubtless inspired by high humanitarian
+motives; but it is doubtful if they could have thoroughly considered or
+foreseen the serious biological consequences of their efforts.
+
+In Alaska, importation of domesticated Siberian Reindeer began in 1892.
+By the 1930's the herds had increased to an estimated total of 600,000.
+For various reasons, however, the industry has so far declined that by
+1949 the total number of Alaskan Reindeer had become reduced to about
+28,000 head. Disinclination of Eskimos for reindeer-herding and mixture
+of their stock with wild Caribou were important reasons for this
+decline. (Lantis, 1950.) From the biologist's point of view, the most
+unfortunate result was the large-scale interbreeding with the native
+Grant's Caribou (_Rangifer arcticus granti_) and the progressive
+extermination of that fine animal in a pure form by dilution with
+inferior alien blood. Among Alaskan Reindeer, "constant inbreeding has
+led to a noticeable reduction in the prolificness of the females, and
+degeneration is to be observed in many herds" (Hewitt, 1921: 323).
+
+In 1908 Dr. Wilfred T. Grenfell brought 300 Lapland Reindeer to
+Newfoundland. After some years they were transferred to the north shore
+of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and finally to the island of Anticosti.
+(Hewitt, 1921: 324-328; Seton, 1929, +3+: 92.) In 1911, 50 of these
+Reindeer were shipped from Newfoundland to the Slave River region. Most
+of them escaped (probably to contaminate the local stock of Caribou),
+and by 1916 the last survivor of this band in captivity had succumbed
+(Hewitt, 1921: 329-330).
+
+"A large part of the reindeer in Alaska are south of the Arctic Circle
+on the comparatively mild shores of Bering Sea, where there are several
+months of open tidewater navigation; vegetation is more luxuriant [than
+in Arctic Canada] and conditions easier in general. There the reindeer
+were introduced into a country where the wild caribou had been virtually
+exterminated, and a large native population were anxious to take up a
+new mode of support. The percentage of profits has appeared unduly large
+in Alaska because statisticians have been unable to take into account
+the value of the services of a large body of devoted missionaries,
+government teachers, and other unselfish persons who put their best
+efforts into years of unpaid extra work to make the reindeer successful
+and beneficial to their charges.
+
+"Canada has a large area of Arctic and sub-arctic lands beyond the reach
+of possible cultivation, still occupied by large numbers of wild caribou
+and remnants of musk-oxen, with native inhabitants who derive a living
+from them and add to the national wealth by fur production. These
+Indians and Eskimos are still far from being either able or willing to
+enter upon a pastoral stage of existence, and moreover, they are now
+enjoying an era of prosperity from the fur industry which may be
+temporary, but which they will not relinquish for the slower and less
+profitable prospects of the herder." (R.�M. Anderson, 1924: 330-331.)
+
+In 1921 some Norwegian Reindeer were landed at Amadjuak, Baffin Island
+(Seton, 1929, +3+: 92). The lack of further reference to the Baffin
+Island animals by such subsequent investigators as Manning and Soper
+would seem to indicate that the reindeer have not survived, unless
+through mixture with the native Caribou. An attempt in 1922 at
+acclimatization in Michigan "ended in total failure" (Seton, 1929, +3+:
+93).
+
+"The Barren Grounds . . . still feed enormous herds of caribou.�.�.�.
+The greatest danger to this industry [reindeer-raising] is just these
+wild herds, which would be very apt to absorb the tame animals. This
+problem may perhaps become a fatal one to the Eskimos, for there might
+very easily come a most difficult transitional period, when the caribou
+would be too few in numbers to form a definite basis for the existence
+of the people, but on the other hand numerous enough to make reindeer
+breeding difficult." (Birket-Smith, 1933: 121.)
+
+In northwestern Alaska "large numbers of reindeer are constantly
+escaping the herders and joining the wild caribou. It seems that it will
+be but a short time until there will be no pure bred caribou along that
+part of the coast.�.�.�. As the reindeer are protected, and the caribou
+are killed at every opportunity, the former will doubtless prove the
+dominant animal and in time overcome the caribou, with hybridization the
+inevitable result." (Bailey and Hendee, 1926: 22.)
+
+"The caribou's greatest menace is not the wolf, nor the hunter, but
+man's economic developments, principally the raising of reindeer.
+Wherever reindeer herds are introduced, caribou must of course
+disappear, for both cannot occupy the same range. The disappearance of
+the caribou along the Bering Sea and Arctic coasts, while regrettable,
+was unavoidable in view of the development of reindeer herding in this
+section, which is ideal for the purpose.�.�.�.
+
+"The mingling of reindeer with the main caribou herds should be avoided.
+Reindeer herds maintained in close contact with migrating caribou suffer
+frequent losses through strays. Already the domestic reindeer are
+mingling with the caribou herd of Mount McKinley National Park.�.�.�.
+[Hybridization] would be regrettable in interior Alaska, which has
+produced a splendid type of wild caribou, coming near at least to being
+the largest on the continent." (Murie, 1935: 7.)
+
+Murie's extensive experience with these animals in Alaska has led him to
+remark further (1939: 245):
+
+"The greatest hazard to the Caribou is the possible occupation of the
+range by man's agricultural activities.�.�.�. The most serious danger is
+introduction of domesticated Reindeer on wild Caribou range, for the
+wild herds must be removed in order to make possible the safe herding of
+the domestic animals.�.�.�. There is not room for both of these animals
+on the same or closely adjacent ranges."
+
+Porsild points out (1943: 386, 389) that sparsely covered grazing areas
+are suitable for Caribou but not for Reindeer; and that the former
+disappear before expanding Reindeer culture.
+
+"Perhaps the worst threat of all to the caribou has been the
+introduction of reindeer culture along the arctic coast. This has
+resulted in interbreeding between the wild caribou and their inferior
+domesticated relatives. When and if this mixture extends to all the
+herds of the Barren Grounds, the caribou may be written off the record
+as a pure species; the animal will have become extinct through dilution,
+as the biologists express it." (Harper, 1949: 239.)
+
+The American Society of Mammalogists, at its annual meeting in 1950,
+passed the following resolution (_Jour. Mammalogy_ +31+ (4): 483, 1950):
+
+"That the American Society of Mammalogists urges that the Canadian
+Government not undertake the introduction of reindeer into Ungava.
+Before any introduction even is seriously considered, those persons
+involved in any planning are urged to make a thorough study beforehand
+of the problems of integrating lichen ecology, reindeer biology, and
+native culture--serious problems that have not been solved to date on
+any workable scale on the North American continent. It would be
+particularly deplorable if an introduction, to aid the natives, led to
+early successes and high hopes, then eventual failure."
+
+Porsild, who knows the Reindeer thoroughly at first hand, has made
+(1951: 53) the following observation:
+
+"Thus far these experiments [at introduction into America] have met with
+only partial or indifferent success, because reindeer nomadism is
+incompatible with present trends of cultural development and because the
+North American Arctic is too thinly populated to provide a ready market
+for reindeer products."
+
+Referring to the region of the Brooks Range in northern Alaska, Rausch
+says (1951: 190):
+
+"The mixture of inferior reindeer bloodlines with the native caribou is
+serious. This has already occurred to a considerable degree, and it is
+hoped that proper control will be exercised if the reindeer industry is
+revived in Alaska. Ear-notched animals have been killed in the Anaktuvuk
+Pass country, and white reindeer have been seen running with the
+caribou. The number of unrecognized reindeer passing through could be
+great."
+
+At present the Barren Ground Caribou is apparently the third most
+abundant member of the deer family on our continent, being exceeded by
+the White-tailed Deer and the Mule Deer (_cf._ Jackson, 1944: 7-8). No
+other member of this family could be expected to be so eminently and
+thoroughly adapted to its Arctic environment or to thrive so well on the
+very ground where nature has been molding and perfecting its characters
+for thousands of years. No naturally occurring relative--Moose, Deer, or
+Woodland Caribou--undertakes to compete with it on its own particular
+range. It requires practically nothing for the maintenance--and
+increase--of its present numbers, other than an enlightened policy of
+conservation. (As indicated on a previous page, the feminine wearers of
+Arctic Fox furs must bear a heavy share of responsibility for the
+decline of the Barren Ground Caribou in recent decades.) Our highest
+authorities have pointed out the impracticability of Caribou and
+Reindeer occupying the same range.
+
+Would it not be the part of wisdom to exclude the inferior domesticated
+alien, with its difficult and generally unsuccessful culture in North
+America, and thereby to give the wonderful wild Caribou of the Barrens
+its best chance for survival?
+
+  _References._--Chambers, 1914: 350-351; Hornaday, 1914, +2+:
+  105-108; Hewitt, 1921: 323, 329-330; R.�M. Anderson, 1924: 330;
+  Kindle, 1928: 74; Seton, 1929, +3+: 92-93; Blanchet, 1930:
+  53-54; Birket-Smith, 1933: 121; Godsell, 1934: 276; Murie,
+  1935: 7, 1939: 245-246, and 1941: 435; Porsild, 1943: 386, 389;
+  Rousseau, 1948: 96; Harper, 1949: 239; Polunin, 1949: 24;
+  Lantis, 1950; Hustich, 1951; Porsild, 1951: 53; Rausch, 1951:
+  190; Scheffer, 1951.
+
+
+
+
+NUMERICAL STATUS
+
+
+There seems to be a general impression, among those who have known the
+Barren Ground Caribou at first hand for a considerable period, that the
+population has been reduced by something like a half during the past
+generation. "Recent preliminary aerial survey has indicated that their
+numbers, although less than the previous estimates of 3,000,000 (R.�M.
+Anderson, 1938; Clarke, 1940), which were based upon the carrying
+capacity of the Arctic tundra, are probably comparable to their
+primitive numbers in the central portions of the range" (Banfield, 1949:
+478). A�definite reduction is indicated along the Arctic coast and on
+the Arctic islands (R.�M. Anderson, 1937: 103, and 1938: 400; Banfield,
+1949: 478, 481, and 1951a: 13-14). While large numbers still remain in
+southwestern Keewatin, there are no reports of any such mass occurrence
+as was witnessed by the Tyrrell brothers on the upper Dubawnt River on
+July 29, 1893; that throng was estimated at 100,000 to 200,000 animals
+(J.�B. Tyrrell, 1897: 165).
+
+During the big movement of the last week of August, 1947, I may have
+seen as many as 500 Caribou on one or two days, in herds numbering up to
+150 individuals. A�striking proportion of those observed seemed to occur
+in bands of roughly 25 animals. On August 25 Fred Schweder, Jr.,
+reported about a thousand crossing Little River, in bands of as many as
+100 individuals. On October 11 Charles Schweder observed a thousand
+Caribou resting on a hill 3 miles long in the vicinity of Four-hill
+Creek. In November he found thousands, in herds up to 300 strong, moving
+south from the upper Kazan River. These figures may give a faintly
+approximate idea of the numbers occurring in the general region of
+Nueltin Lake in a year considered less good than an average one. On the
+other hand, toward the coast of Hudson Bay, there were reports of a
+greater number of autumn migrants than in ordinary years.
+
+In October, about 1944, tracks indicated that 2,000 or 3,000 animals had
+crossed Windy River in the vicinity of Four-hill Creek in the night
+(_fide_ Charles Schweder). About October 10, 1946 (a�year of unusual
+abundance), Fred Schweder, Jr., witnessed the passage of thousands in
+one day in this vicinity; he got the impression of "the hills moving
+with Deer." (Yet this was the season when the Caribou passed mainly to
+one side of the upper Kazan River, so that nearly one-third of the local
+band of Eskimos starved to death.) In the first part of May, about 1942
+or 1943, John Ingebrigtsen came to a nameless lake, about half a mile by
+a mile and a half in extent, somewhere east of Duck Lake, Manitoba. It
+appeared "absolutely full of Caribou," and he estimated their number at
+not less than 20,000. This would mean a density of no more than about 50
+per acre.
+
+  _References._--Jones, 1899: 368, 374; J.�B. Tyrrell, 1894: 442,
+  and 1897: 10, 49-50, 165; Whitney, 1896: 240; Seton, 1911: 220,
+  258-260; R.�M. Anderson, 1913b: 502; Hornaday, 1914, +2+:
+  225-226; Nelson, 1916: 460; Thompson, 1916: 100-101; Kindle,
+  1917: 108-109; Buchanan, 1920: 130-131; Hewitt, 1921: 56, 64-66;
+  Stef�nsson, 1921: 255; R.�M. Anderson, 1924: 329; Blanchet,
+  1926b: 48, and 1930: 52; Kindle, 1928: 72-73; Seton, 1929,
+  +3+: 131-134; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 159-160; R.�M. Anderson,
+  in Hoare, 1930: 52-53; Kitto, 1930: 87; Jacobi, 1931: 201-202;
+  Munn, 1932: 58; Birket-Smith, 1933: 89; Ingstad, 1933: 160;
+  R.�M. Anderson, 1938: 400; Clarke, 1940: 65, 84-91, 101-104;
+  Downes, 1943: 258-260; Wright, 1944: 185-188, 191, 193; Yule,
+  1948: 287-288; Banfield, 1949: 478, 481, and 1951a: 9, 13-14;
+  Harper, 1949: 231, 239; Anonymous, 1952: 261; Barnett, 1954: 96.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL HABITS
+
+
+_Daily periods of activity and rest_
+
+According to Charles Schweder, the Caribou do not move about much at
+night; that seems to be their principal time for sleep. They exhibit a
+definite tendency to pause and rest also toward the middle of the day.
+Several instances have already been given of the animals resting at such
+a time on frozen lakes and rivers: lakes southwest of Reindeer Lake,
+March 18; lakes south of Lake Athabaska, April 16; Seal River, May 31;
+Windy Bay, June 6 (mid-morning). Open hilltops are evidently sought
+likewise for both nocturnal and mid-day rests: knoll by Windy River,
+June 3; Josie's Hill, June 20; ridge by Little River, August 24 (about 9
+a.m.). (For details, see sections on _Winter range_, _Spring migration_,
+and _Fall migration_.)
+
+Although we noted a small band of Caribou passing through a thick and
+extensive stand of spruce at dusk on October 2, Fred Schweder, Jr.,
+remarked that they do not rest in such a place; they are safer from
+Wolves in open areas. Charles Schweder reported about 50 Caribou, in
+three slightly separated bands, appearing on the south side of Windy
+River near Four-hill Creek during the evening of September 24, but not
+making up their minds to cross; he thought they might have been scared
+by Wolves. Possibly there was a similar explanation for the crossing of
+the river at this point by large numbers of the animals during an
+October night several years previously.
+
+According to Fred Schweder, Jr., a day's movement of Caribou past the
+mouths of Little and Windy rivers during the fall migration generally
+does not commence before 10 a.m. and ends about 3 p.m. The explanation
+of such a phenomenon is none too obvious; and in any event, there were
+exceptions enough, though the general statement may hold true for the
+bulk of the migrants. As remarked in the section on _Spring migration_,
+the daily periods when the Caribou crossed the ice of Windy Bay were
+mainly from 10 to 11 a.m., from 2:30 to 5 p.m., and in the evening.
+
+On August 27, about 5:50 p.m., a majority (say half a dozen) of a small
+band of Caribou were lying down on a slope near the mouth of Little
+River. They faced down wind to watch for enemies in that direction,
+while their noses would warn them of any approaching from the opposite
+direction. Their attitude was very much like that of Norway Reindeer
+figured by Seton (1929, +3+: pls. 11, 15, 18).
+
+Charles Schweder spoke of having seen whole herds lying down to rest,
+while none of the animals remained standing up on guard. He had noted
+one such herd of 600 or 700 along the Thlewiaza River in August. He
+further stated that when the Caribou lie down to rest and to chew the
+cud, they hold the head up. They may also sleep in this position. In the
+hard winter of 1944-45, when the snow was deep and the animals were
+tired and hungry, he came up to a resting herd. All but one of them got
+up and moved away. That one remained sleeping, head up and eyes closed;
+Charles walked up to within 10 feet and shot it. He has also seen
+resting Caribou lay their heads down on the side, but only for a few
+moments at a time.
+
+  _References._--J.�B. Tyrrell, 1892: 129; Jones, 1899: 359;
+  Harper, 1949: 227; Banfield, 1951a: 23.
+
+
+_Organization of herds_
+
+The Barren Ground Caribou is a distinctly gregarious species. It goes in
+herds for at least the greater part of the year; this is especially true
+of the spring and autumn migration periods and of the winter months. We
+know comparatively little of the behavior of the does at fawning time in
+June; but probably there is a tendency toward solitariness on their part
+at that season. It is true that solitary Caribou may be met with at
+almost any season of the year; but this doubtless represents merely
+temporary rather than permanent segregation of such individuals. At the
+very end of the spring migration and at the beginning of the autumn
+migration, there may be, among the sparse southernmost elements of the
+population, a�larger proportion of solitary animals.
+
+While marching over the Barrens and feeding as they go, the smaller
+bands maintain a fairly loose organization, as apparently best suiting
+their needs. On the other hand, the huge herds of former times, such as
+the Tyrrells met on the upper Dubawnt in 1893 (J.�B. Tyrrell, 1897:
+49-50, pl. 1; J.�W. Tyrrell, 1908: pls. facing pp. 80, 81; Seton, 1929,
++3+: pl. 22), obviously maintained very compact ranks. In my limited
+experience, the animals bunched more closely in crossing the rivers than
+was normally the case on land among feeding herds. While swimming, they
+would follow each other in files at minimum intervals; but in stepping
+across rapids they might extend these intervals somewhat.
+
+When merely covering ground, without stopping to feed, or when following
+a trail through brush or along a narrow ridge, there is a strong
+tendency for the animals to go in a single file, or at least in a
+procession many times longer than wide. This was also apparent when they
+were crossing the ice of Windy Bay in June.
+
+When Caribou flee from some source of alarm, a distinct tendency toward
+compact bunching may be observed. This may have been developed as a
+measure of protection from pursuing Wolves; the latter could naturally
+overcome a straggling or isolated individual more readily than one in a
+compact herd. The Caribou running away from the train in the "Little
+Barrens" south of Churchill very clearly demonstrated the tendency
+toward a close formation. (See also, in the section on _Disposition_,
+the account of a herd attacked by a hunter near Lake Charles.)
+
+The larger herds of the autumn migration seemed to be generally composed
+of all sexes and ages; yet some sizable bands were made up chiefly of
+bucks on the one hand, or of does and fawns on the other hand. The rear
+guard of the spring migration and the vanguard of the autumn migration
+are generally composed of bucks, traveling either singly or in small
+bands; this state of affairs is looked upon as evidence that the
+majority of the bucks do not advance so far to the north in June and
+July as the does do.
+
+The following are a few examples of the composition and leadership (or
+rear-guarding) of groups of Caribou. (Other examples are mentioned in
+the sections on _Migration_.) A band of about 20, after feeding for a
+time on the south bank of Windy River on June 16, moved off upstream,
+mostly in single file, with a patriarchal buck in the lead. The
+remainder of the band included several lesser bucks and various does and
+yearlings. On the following day a band of equal size, composed chiefly
+of bucks but including three hornless individuals (does?), was led by
+two of the bigger bucks. When a band of some 40 does and fawns
+approached Little River to cross it on August 25, a�doe came first to
+the water's edge to make a careful inspection. On the same day I
+remarked having noted several times that a buck brought up the rear of a
+band. On August 26 I noted that a distinct majority in the herds of the
+previous two or three days were does and fawns, although there were
+generally a few bucks present also. At this period I got the impression
+that the number of individuals in a band was frequently not far from 25.
+On August 28, when a band of 40 crossed the mouth of Little River, three
+or four bucks plunged in first, but a doe was almost even with them. At
+the Bear Slough, on September 3, a�group consisted of two bucks, two
+does, and a fawn. On September 15 Fred Schweder, Jr., reported seeing
+about 100 Caribou, with not a buck among them. On September 24 about 15
+does and fawns were resting or feeding quietly by Glacier Pond. On
+September 28 a band of six large bucks crossed the Camp Ridge. On
+October 1, an older and a younger buck appeared in the shoal waters of
+Duck Bay. On November 3, in the same locality, a�band of about 50 was
+composed largely of does, but included a few fawns and a few
+well-antlered bucks. On November 11 five does were reported crossing the
+mouth of Windy River on the ice.
+
+Charles Schweder remarked that the leader of a band is generally a doe;
+but sometimes it is a buck, or even a fawn. There is virtually no way of
+telling whether the same doe habitually leads a band. In the big migrant
+herds, bucks bring up the rear. Once in September, in a herd of about
+100 animals, the front half was composed of does and fawns, the rear
+half of bucks. In the rutting season the does are naturally in the lead,
+the bucks following them.
+
+  _References._--Hearne, 1795: 198; Richardson, "1825": 329;
+  Simpson, 1843: 277, 281, 381; J. Anderson, 1856: 24, and 1857:
+  324; Schwatka, 1885: 83; Pike, 1917 (1892): 49, 174, 204, 209;
+  Dowling, 1893: 107; Stone and Cram, 1904: 52; Blanchet, 1925:
+  32-33, and 1926b: 48; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 192-196; Hoare,
+  1930: 13, 33, 37; Kitto, 1930: 88; Mallet, 1930: 20-23; Jacobi,
+  1931: 190, 203-204; Hornby, 1934: 106; Birket-Smith, 1936: 112;
+  Hamilton, 1939: 247; Clarke, 1940: 95; Downes, 1943: 256;
+  Manning, 1943a: 52; Harper, 1949: 228, 229; Banfield, 1951a:
+  23-26.
+
+
+_Disposition_
+
+The Barren Ground Caribou comes close to holding the palm for unwariness
+among the larger land mammals of North America. It is fortunate that its
+range lies so far from the centers of civilization. It is scarcely
+conceivable that it could survive, as the White-tailed Deer does, in
+some of our most thickly settled areas. At the river crossings, where I
+watched the pageant of migration for day after day, some of the animals
+would come up to within a rod while I handled my cameras in the open,
+with no more cover than knee-high bushes and rocks (figs. 11, 14). Where
+else, among the larger creatures of the wilderness, could one find such
+a close approximation to a Garden-of-Eden existence? Until they detected
+the human scent, they would stare at me at such close quarters with
+little more concern than so many barnyard cattle. (For examples, see the
+section on _Fall migration_.) Moreover, there were occasions when they
+must have gotten my wind and still did not show panic. There is an
+obvious deficiency of eyesight or judgment, or both.
+
+To account for their behavior on such occasions, I speculated as
+follows. The species has scarcely any predatory enemies save man, the
+Wolf, and (perhaps to some extent) the Wolverine. In their normal
+experience, any such enemy, if within close range, would be making an
+attack. Thus a questionable figure, not becoming evident to them until
+they are within close range, and then making no motion to attack, may be
+dismissed by them as something different and therefore harmless.
+
+The attitude of unconcern has probably been developed in past
+generations through the habit of the Caribou of traveling in vast
+throngs. The threat of danger to a given individual in a herd of, say,
+100,000 is practically negligible. From time immemorial the river
+crossings have represented a particular point of attack on the part of
+the natives. Yet when a large band of Caribou come to such a crossing,
+they may plunge in with little pause or hesitation. On the other hand,
+when a lone doe with her fawn approaches the river bank, she may be very
+circumspect, taking time to look carefully upstream and down, and
+across, before venturing into the water. I�also saw another doe with a
+fawn exercise similar precaution, when she was merely the first of a
+band of 40 to reach the river's edge. It is probably concern for her
+fawn that renders a doe more circumspect than a buck.
+
+When Fred Schweder, Jr., was endeavoring to intercept a Wolf on
+September 6, a�fullgrown buck came feeding around a tree within 10 feet
+of him. The animal winded Fred without apparently seeing him, and went
+back and forth uncertainly for about a minute; finally it moved off very
+slowly.
+
+Stef�nsson's account (1913b) of his various adventures with Caribou
+near the Arctic coast of Mackenzie indicates a far wilder animal in that
+region than the one in Keewatin. It appeared a great deal easier for me,
+with no particular effort at caution, to get within photographic range
+(say a dozen feet to 50 yards) than for him to approach within rifle
+range (several hundred yards).
+
+Even after being fired upon, a single animal or a band in the Nueltin
+Lake region will rarely put distance between themselves and a hunter
+with all possible dispatch, as an alert White-tailed Deer would, but
+will run hither and thither in confusion, with frequent pauses to
+display their befuddlement. On October 8 I was a distant and saddened
+spectator of a scene of slaughter. A�hundred or more Caribou were
+resting or feeding quietly on a bare ridge south of Lake Charles. They
+were distributed in a narrow formation, 75-100 yards long and from one
+to several animals deep. A�hunter, approaching close to the south end of
+the herd, began firing. With one accord they made toward the north, but
+very shortly executed a sharp turn and came back rapidly in the opposite
+direction, passing in a narrow, compact column within 30 feet of the
+hunter, who continued shooting. In 200 or 300 yards they paused and
+allowed the hunter to come up with them and resume shooting. The process
+was repeated over a distance of three miles; but the pursuer now and
+then circled ahead of the herd instead of following in its tracks. The
+final toll: 29 Caribou hit and 22 or 23 secured--virtually a quarter of
+the herd destroyed and most of it to be used for dog feed.
+
+It is said that the attachment between a doe and its fawn is such that
+when one of them is killed, the hunter can approach within 50 feet of
+the surviving doe or within 20 feet of the surviving fawn. A�fawn is apt
+to linger for days in the vicinity where its dam has been killed.
+
+Charles Schweder has never seen fawns playing with each other or with
+their mothers; two or three times he has seen one frisking by
+itself--such as jumping about or running in a circle--but never for more
+than half a minute at a time. Seriousness of life for a Caribou seems
+confirmed from its infancy.
+
+In the hard winter of 1944-45, when the Caribou were tired and hungry,
+Charles had the rare experience of driving his dogteam right through
+herds on Nueltin Lake; the animals merely moved aside enough to let him
+pass. In like vein Joe Chambers spoke of encountering such numbers of
+migrating Caribou on or near the "Little Barrens" south of Churchill in
+the spring of 1947 that his dogs "went wild" and he had to halt for a
+time; the animals came within about 100 yards of his team.
+
+A Caribou bold enough to attack a man is very rarely heard of. Yet that
+was the experience of 15-year-old Anoteelik on September 8. Having run
+out of ammunition, he undertook to kill a 2-year-old buck with a rock in
+a patch of timber. (Possibly the animal had already been wounded with
+Anoteelik's .22 rifle.) When the missile failed of its mark, the buck
+made for the boy, who escaped by climbing a tree. Perhaps this is the
+first case on record of a man or a boy (especially an Eskimo!) being
+treed by a Barren Ground Caribou. Jenness mentions (1922: 150) a�case of
+an Eskimo being fatally gored by a Caribou on Victoria Island.
+Otherwise, under all general circumstances, and in contradistinction to
+the Bison, the Muskox, the Moose, and even the White-tailed Deer, the
+Caribou may be regarded as quite innocuous to man.
+
+The restlessness so frequently exhibited by Caribou during the summer,
+in trotting rapidly over the Barrens or in feeding hurriedly here and
+there while constantly forging ahead (in contrast to the placidity of
+grazing sheep and cattle), may be attributed in large part to the
+relentless scourge of fly pests.
+
+(See also _Relations to man_.)
+
+  _References._--Lyon, 1824: 336-337; J. McLean, 1932 (1849): 359;
+  Simpson, 1843: 207; Armstrong, 1857: 478-479, 481-482; Gilder,
+  1881: 78; Schwatka, 1885: 85; Pike, 1917 (1892): 51-52, 90;
+  Whitney, 1896: 242; Hanbury, 1904: 85; Amundsen, 1908, +1+: 103;
+  Stef�nsson, 1913b: 278, and 1921: 251; Hornaday, 1914, +2+:
+  104; Jenness, 1922: 150; Blanchet, 1925: 34; Birket-Smith, 1929
+  (1): 106; Seton, 1929, +3+: 105-107; Jacobi, 1931: 219, 220;
+  Ingstad, 1933: 88, 293, 297; Downes, 1943: 236-237; Porsild,
+  1943: 389; Harper, 1949: 229-230; Banfield, 1951a: 22.
+
+
+_Senses_
+
+There is fairly general agreement on the Caribou's keen sense of smell,
+good hearing, and less well-developed vision. But perhaps the
+last-mentioned attribute does not so much constitute poor eyesight as
+lack of _perception_ or _recognition_. In other words, is it not
+possible that the animal is merely deficient in interpreting what it may
+see clearly enough?
+
+  _References._--R.�M. Anderson, 1913a: 8, and 1913b: 504;
+  Stef�nsson, 1913b: 164, 1914: 58, and 1921: 307; Blanchet,
+  1925: 34, and 1926b: 48; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 106; Seton,
+  1929, +3+: 104; Murie, 1939: 245; Banfield, 1951a: 22.
+
+
+_Gaits_
+
+The three principal gaits of the Caribou are walking, trotting, and
+loping. The animal seems to be in such a constant hurry that trotting is
+fairly habitual. The speed of this gait varies with the urgency of the
+occasion; also, according to Stef�nsson (1921: 248), with sex and age.
+When frightened by an enemy, a�Caribou may start off with a loping gait,
+but it soon settles down to its space-consuming trot, which keeps it
+safely ahead of a Wolf in any brief chase. The initial leap takes all
+four feet off the ground at once (_cf._ Buchanan, 1920: 126). According
+to Charles Schweder, it is usually a single animal that reacts in this
+way; but he has seen as many as six together leaping into the air. Fred
+Schweder, Jr., has seen both bucks and does in this performance. My own
+observations covered two lone adults (at least one a buck) and a lone
+fawn. One of the former turned and took a step or so before making the
+leap. The fawn (at Simons' Lake in October), after allowing a canoe to
+approach within 100 feet, started off twice in succession, and each time
+with an initial leap into the air before settling down to a trot.
+
+Even a summer fawn is reputed to be able to outdistance a Wolf. Lyon
+(1824: 67) found a Caribou too fleet for a greyhound.
+
+In trotting rapidly, a Caribou points its snout pretty straight to the
+front, thus tilting the antlers backward a little. This gait, with front
+legs stretching well out in front and hind legs thrust backward
+correspondingly, gives a very characteristic and distinctive stamp to
+the appearance of a fast-trotting Caribou. (Compare the sketches of
+trotting Norway Reindeer by Seton, 1929, +3+: pls. 15, 18.) It is
+apparently quite different from any normal gait of the White-tailed
+Deer. A�buck's well-grown antlers are of such weight as apparently to
+force it to hold its head rather rigidly while going at speed. If its
+head swayed appreciably, the top-heavy antlers might tend to throw the
+animal off balance. In a trotting gait, the hind foot may be planted
+just beyond the spot where the front foot had rested. In walking, the
+print of the hind foot may be superimposed on that of the other (fig.
+20). The white "spats" just above the hoofs show to fine advantage when
+the Caribou trots; they fairly twinkle. In a retreating animal the white
+rump-patch appears in marked contrast to the dark brown adjacent fur.
+
+In stepping across a shallow rapid in peaceful surroundings, the
+rhythmic splashings of the water to the front and the sides of the
+alternately descending hoofs make a scene of rare charm. In moving
+through deeper water, where the bottom is rough, rocky, and slippery,
+the animals may pick their way quite slowly. When alarmed near the
+water's edge from some such cause as detecting a human scent, they may
+make great splashing leaps into a river or bay, fairly enveloping
+themselves in huge clouds of spray. There can be few more spirited
+scenes of animal life in the North.
+
+I have seen several of the animals running with open mouths, even when
+they had gone no more than a quarter of a mile from a point of alarm.
+Every now and then a Caribou will be seen limping--perhaps from wounds,
+perhaps because of a leg sprained in rough terrain.
+
+  _References._--Lyon, 1824: 67; Osborn, 1865: 227; Russell, 1895:
+  50, and 1898: 90; Hanbury, 1904: 131; Nelson, 1916: 460;
+  Buchanan, 1920: 126; Stef�nsson, 1921: 248; Blanchet, 1925: 33,
+  and 1926b: 47; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193; Sutton and
+  Hamilton, 1932: 83; Ingstad, 1933: 87; Murie, 1939: 245; Downes,
+  1943: 236-237; Harper, 1949: 226, 229; Banfield, 1951a: 21.
+
+
+_Tracks_
+
+Caribou trails, resulting from the impact of countless hoofs on the same
+restricted courses for unnumbered years, have been discussed in the
+section on _Ecology_. The placing of the feet has been touched upon in
+the section on _Gaits_. The individual tracks remain to be considered.
+
+Each of two foot-prints photographed in mud was approximately 4 inches
+(102 mm.) long and 4� inches (114 mm.) wide. Another such photograph
+(fig. 19) shows tracks about 114 by 95 and 102 by 102 mm. The foot
+sketched by Seton (1929, +3+: 129) is obviously a front foot, though not
+so labeled; the hoofs as drawn are approximately 89 and 93 mm. in
+length; the width of the foot is approximately 100 mm.
+
+A track (fig. 20) photographed in 2-inch snow represents a hind
+foot-print superimposed upon a front foot-print in a walking gait;
+including the marks of the dew claws, it was approximately 6 inches (153
+mm.) long and 5 inches (127 mm.) wide. The "square-toed" appearance is
+very characteristic.
+
+A front hoof is a little broader as well as longer than a hind hoof
+(fig. 24). The extreme and average lengths of the front hoofs in five of
+my adult male specimens are 80-92 (85.2); of the hind hoofs, 74-84.5
+(79.8). In an adult doe a front hoof measures 77; a�hind hoof, 72.
+
+  _Reference._--Banfield, 1951a: 19.
+
+
+_Swimming_
+
+In their extensive and long-continued migrations over a territory
+composed in large part of lakes, ponds, and rivers, the Caribou have
+almost daily need, from June to October, of surmounting these barriers
+by swimming. The low temperature of the water seems to have no deterring
+effect on them. Yet it appears that some of the animals may fail in
+attempting the passages of wide waters. Charles Schweder spoke of
+finding a number of dead Caribou, including bucks as well as fawns, that
+had apparently succumbed in crossing a 4-mile-wide lake on the Thlewiaza
+River. (Or had they perhaps come to grief in some upstream rapid and
+finally been washed ashore on the lake?) Bones on the shore indicated
+that this sort of tragedy might be more or less of an annual occurrence.
+Perhaps some of the victims had been wounded or were otherwise in poor
+condition.
+
+The buoyant, hollow hairs of a Caribou's coat enable the swimming animal
+to keep almost the whole median dorsal line of its body perhaps 2 or 3
+inches above the surface (figs. 9, 12). In a doe noticed on August 28
+the lowest point on the top of the neck, just in front of the shoulders,
+was practically level with the surface, but elsewhere the dorsal line,
+from snout to tail, was out of the water. In both doe and fawn the head
+is held so high that the lower side of the snout at the tip does not
+touch the water; in the older bucks of the autumn, however, the weight
+of their antlers presses the head down until the lower side of the snout
+is frequently in contact with the water. The swimming position tilts the
+antlers backward until the basal portion is practically horizontal
+(figs. 9, 12). All ages and sexes, while swimming, hold the tail nearly
+erect; but the very tip (perhaps only the tuft of hairs) inclines toward
+the rear.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 19. Caribou tracks in mud; one about 114 by 95
+    mm.; another, 102 by 102 mm. Between Bear Slough and Eider Pond,
+    September 3, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 20. Caribou track in 2-inch snow; hind foot
+    superimposed on track of front foot. Combined track about 153 by
+    127 mm. Camp Ridge, October 29, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 21. A Caribou doe (specimen No. 1101). Mouth
+    of Windy River, September 21, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 22. A Caribou buck (specimen No. 1111). Mouth
+    of Windy River, September 29, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 23. A male Caribou fawn (specimen No. 1095),
+    in its first, woolly pelage. Mouth of Windy River, September 7,
+    1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 24. Hoofs of a male Caribou fawn (specimen No.
+    1072); hind hoofs in the middle. Mouth of Windy River, August 21,
+    1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 25. Enormous set of old antlers of a Barren
+    Ground Caribou, with exceptional palmation. (A�10.5-inch length of
+    a steel rule visible.) Simons' Lake, October 15, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 26. Rubbing trees: two small black spruces
+    (_Picea mariana_)--the larger 4 feet high--broken and barked by
+    Caribou in rubbing velvet off the antlers. Simons' Lake, October
+    18, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 27. Pile o' Rocks, an ancient enclosure
+    erected as a game lookout on the summit of a hill 1.5 miles NW. of
+    the mouth of Windy River. June 30, 1947.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 28. Adult male Western Woodland Caribou
+    (_Rangifer caribou sylvestris_) (No. 235361, U.S. Biol. Surveys
+    Coll.). Stony Mountain, about 27 miles S. of Fort McMurray,
+    Alberta, October 22, 1920. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.)]
+
+On October 30 tracks indicated that half a dozen Caribou had swum across
+Little River near its mouth, breaking through a 10-foot rim of ice on
+the near side. When a herd of 2,000 or 3,000 crossed Windy River during
+an October night about 1944, as reported by Charles Schweder, they broke
+three channels through the thin ice that covered the river.
+
+Once Charles saw a buck cross the 100-yard-wide Nahiline Rapids on
+Kasmere River, where it drops about 40 feet in a quarter of a mile; yet
+the animal did not seem to be carried far downstream. When about 10
+Caribou (mostly big bucks) crossed the Windy River at our camp on June
+24, the last two, I�noted, were pointing almost upstream in the 6- to
+8-mile-per-hour current.
+
+The usual formation in which a small number of Caribou cross a bay or a
+quiet stretch of river is a single file, but a larger band is likely
+to make the passage in several simultaneous files. The fawns, in
+particular, follow as closely as possible behind their mothers.
+
+Although the Caribou are strong and speedy swimmers, the natives are
+able, in canoe or kayak, to overtake and spear them. In 1947 several
+fawns were speared in Windy Bay by Anoteelik.
+
+Other notes on swimming may be found in the sections dealing with
+_Migrations_.
+
+  _References._--Back, 1836: 367; Simpson, 1843: 76, 310; Rae,
+  1850: 27; Richardson, 1852: 290; Schwatka, 1885: 68, 71-72;
+  W.�J. McLean, 1901: 6; R.�M. Anderson, 1913b: 503; Blanchet,
+  1925: 34; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 109-110; Seton, 1929, +3+:
+  107; Hoare, 1930: 27, 31; Jacobi, 1931: 216; Clarke, 1940:
+  88-90; Downes, 1943: 256; Harper, 1949: 227, 229, 230; Banfield,
+  1951a: 21.
+
+
+_Shaking off moisture and insects_
+
+The long, dense fur of the Caribou holds so much moisture that when the
+animal emerges from swimming it endeavors to rid itself of the extra
+burden and cooling agency. This is effected to a large extent by a
+vigorous shaking of the body, head, and ears and a switching of the
+tail. The initial performance, lasting for perhaps a second or two, may
+be undertaken while the animal's lower extremities are still in the
+water; and it is likely to be repeated from one to several times as it
+moves over the shore and ascends the adjacent ridge. The cloud of spray
+flying off is a sight to behold (fig. 9). The action is very much like
+that of a dog under similar circumstances. The fur may remain wet for a
+least 10 or 15 minutes after emergence from the water. In driving rain
+on September 5, I�noticed an individual in a band of 20 Caribou shaking
+itself and sending the rain drops flying off in spray, just as when one
+emerges from the water.
+
+The Caribou also go through a very similar but perhaps still more
+strenuous performance for the obvious purpose of shaking off flies
+(perhaps primarily the warble flies, _Oedemagena_). On August 20 a buck
+passing along a ridge in the Barrens agitated the hide on its body
+several times with considerable vigor. A�young animal (fawn or yearling)
+thus shook itself on August 28 as it approached the far side of Little
+River. I�got the distinct impression that the hide was shaken
+horizontally in the case of moisture, but vertically in the case of
+insects; for the present, however, this is best considered as just an
+impression, and not a statement of fact. The muscles that agitate the
+skin of the sides should be particularly well developed through frequent
+practice with water and flies during the warmer part of the year.
+
+At the mouth of Little River, on August 30, I heard one of the Caribou
+in a large band "blow its nose," so to speak, with vigor. The sound
+suggested that produced by a horse in vibrating its nostrils by
+forcefully expelling air through them. I�suspect that the Caribou uses
+the same means, in an effort to fend off a nostril fly (_Cephenemyia_)
+bent on depositing its larvae.
+
+  _Reference._--Harper, 1949: 230.
+
+
+_Signaling_
+
+Apparently the commonest method employed by the Caribou for indicating
+or communicating suspicion or alarm is erecting the stub of a tail to a
+vertical position. This brings its white under side into full view, as
+the silent flashing of a danger signal to other Caribou. However,
+a�solitary animal will exhibit signaling behavior as well as one in a
+band. The tail remains erect, whether the animal stands to stare
+uneasily at a suspicious object or flees from it in alarm. The action is
+common to old and young of both sexes. It is so characteristic of a
+fleeing animal as to give significance to the expression, "high-tailing
+it." In normal, unalarmed progress the tail extends backward in a
+drooping curve (figs. 11, 12).
+
+I was not fortunate enough to detect any flashing of the white throat,
+as described by Preble (1902: 42).
+
+Another silent signal is a most peculiar sprawling posture of the hind
+legs, attained by thrusting one of them well out to one side and setting
+the foot down. The legs are not then symmetrically placed; the one not
+moved obviously bears most of the weight of the hind quarters. I�managed
+to film this stance in a buck standing on a sky-line on August 24
+(cover). On September 9 another buck assumed the posture while looking
+over our camp from a ridge on the opposite side of Windy River.
+According to Charles Schweder, this is an expression of suspicion or
+alarm, designed to communicate the same feeling to other Caribou. When
+the others notice it, they stop and assume the same pose; it may be
+observed in does and even fawns. Charles added that the tail is erected
+at the same time--a very natural accompaniment, though I failed to
+notice it.
+
+In all the literature on the Barren Ground Caribou, I have found just
+one reference to this posture, and that a distinctly fragmentary one:
+
+"While [the Caribou are] thus circling around I have often been amused
+at the manner in which they carry one hind leg. A�novice in the hunting
+field, after having fired a shot in their direction, would think that he
+had broken one hind leg of each member of the herd." (A.�J. Stone, 1900:
+53.)
+
+The author makes this observation just after mentioning a herd sighted
+near the shore of Franklin Bay. A�virtually identical posture in the
+Norway Reindeer has been sketched by Seton (1929, +3+: 112, pl. 18), who
+labels it "surprize." An analogy to the posture of the Caribou might be
+found in a hand thrust out, with fingers spread, by a military scout as
+a signal of warning or caution to his fellow scouts. A�sprawling leg is
+perhaps the nearest approximation to the human signal that a Caribou can
+attain.
+
+As noted in the section on _Gaits_, an alarmed Caribou may set off by
+taking an initial leap into the air. According to Dugmore, such an act
+on the part of the Newfoundland Caribou plays an important role in its
+system of communications, not by means of sight or sound, but through
+the olfactory sense. He observes (1913: 89-90):
+
+"For hours afterwards _every_ Caribou, on arriving at the place where
+the frightened ones had jumped, has started violently, and has on nearly
+every occasion turned and run in a manner that showed every indication
+of fear, even though my presence was entirely unknown to them. My idea
+is that when the animal is suddenly frightened it expels a certain fluid
+from the glands in the foot, and that this fluid is a signal of alarm,
+a�silent and invisible warning, but none the less so positive that none
+dare ignore it."
+
+As for the foot click--a presumptive means of communication (_cf._
+Seton, 1929, +3+: 69; Jacobi, 1931: 212-216)--I must confess that I was
+always so engrossed with photography whenever the Caribou were close
+at hand (up to within a dozen feet) that I had no thought of this
+phenomenon and did not detect it.
+
+  _References._--Richardson, 1829: 242; A.�J. Stone, 1900: 53;
+  Preble, 1902: 42; Seton, 1929, +3+: 105; Murie, 1939: 245;
+  Harper, 1949: 230; Banfield, 1951a: 19, 27.
+
+
+_Food_
+
+The ground lichens (including the various species of _Cladonia_) in the
+Windy River area in 1947 did not seem, for the most part, to have a
+height of more than 2 or 3 inches. The average length of several local
+specimens of _Cladonia_ is approximately 51 mm. This condition was in
+considerable contrast to the great spongy masses I had noted in the
+Tazin River basin, between Athabaska and Great Slave lakes, in 1914.
+I�have no means of knowing whether the condition in Keewatin represented
+severe cropping by Caribou in past years and subsequent slow recovery,
+or whether it is a normal condition. According to Charles Schweder, the
+growth depends upon rain, and so varies from year to year. During the
+warmer months, from June to September, the local Caribou seemed to me to
+be feeding very largely on the higher vegetation, such as willow, dwarf
+birch, alder, and sedges. I�had no definite evidence of their consuming
+lichens during that period. By early October the species of _Cladonia_
+seemed to have attained a somewhat fuller growth than they had exhibited
+several months previously. Perez-Llano discusses (1944: 29-30) the
+utilization by Reindeer of various lichens. Dix has reported (1951) on a
+collection of lichens from the Windy River area.
+
+Some miscellaneous observations along Windy and Little rivers follow:
+June 16, 20 Caribou feeding apparently on patches of crowberry
+(_Empetrum_) and dwarf birch (_Betula glandulosa_) on a ridge; June 29,
+a�Caribou feeding apparently on dwarf birches; June 30, a�buck grazing
+in a sedge bog; August 26, several bucks browsing on willow tops
+(probably _Salix planifolia_) in a riverside thicket, and some does on
+dwarf birch and perhaps tall grass or low willow; August 27, numbers
+feeding largely on willow and dwarf birch; August 28 and 30, low alders,
+willow, and dwarf birches nibbled off. By early October the leaves of
+the three last-mentioned shrubs were no longer available, having dropped
+off. During the summer they had seemed to be preferred above the
+lichens. Cabot has remarked (1912: 46) on the fondness of _Rangifer
+arcticus caboti_ for dwarf birch in Labrador.
+
+Charles Schweder reported as follows on the food of Caribou. In summer
+they live chiefly upon leaves, especially those of dwarf birch, and to
+some extent upon "grass" (probably largely sedges). Toward the last of
+June a Caribou was killed with fat an inch thick on its
+haunches--perhaps the effect of recent feeding on the fresh green
+vegetation. In August and September the animals also eat mushrooms and
+get very fat on them; they seem to be especially fond of a certain red
+kind, which Charles has found in their stomachs. The Eskimos' name for
+mushrooms signifies "deer food." The Caribou feed upon dead "grass"
+(perhaps mostly sedges) in the fall, but not in the winter. Charles has
+seen them digging through 4 feet of snow to get at the reindeer lichens;
+but for the most part their winter feeding in this region is on the tops
+of the hills, which remain bare. They also eat tree lichens, especially
+in the winter time.
+
+Charles has seen Caribou chew the cud while standing as well as while
+lying down. He once saw a buck thus occupied while standing on a hill
+for half a day in a breeze that kept the mosquitoes down.
+
+Among the hundreds of Caribou observed at the river crossings and
+elsewhere, I�do not recall seeing a single one pause to drink.
+
+The _Influence of food supply on distribution_ of the Barren Ground
+Caribou has been discussed in a previous section.
+
+  _References._--Hearne, 1795: 317; Franklin, 1823: 242;
+  Richardson, "1825": 329, and 1829: 243; Godman, 1831, +2+: 284;
+  Richardson, in Back, 1836: 498, and 1861: 275; Murray, 1858:
+  202; B.�R. Ross, 1861: 439; Kumlien, 1879: 54; J.�B. Tyrrell,
+  1894: 441; Russell, 1898: 226; J.�W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 80;
+  Lydekker, 1898: 49; Elliot, 1902: 276; Stone and Cram, 1904: 53;
+  Buchanan, 1920: 105-106, 131; Hewitt, 1921: 61; Blanchet, 1925:
+  33; Seton, 1929, +3+: 107-108; Kitto, 1930: 87; Jacobi, 1931:
+  223; Harper, 1932: 30; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 84; Weyer,
+  1932: 39; Hornby, 1934: 105; Murie, 1939: 245; Clarke, 1940:
+  106-107; G.�M. Allen, 1942: 299; Soper, 1942: 143; Downes, 1943:
+  228; Porsild, 1943: 383; R.�M. Anderson, 1948: 15; Manning,
+  1948: 26-28; Rand, 1948a: 212; Harper, 1949: 230; Banfield,
+  1951a: 11, 19-20, 28-29; Barnett, 1954: 106.
+
+
+_Scatology_
+
+The pellets of the Caribou are small, more or less blackish, very
+irregular in shape, somewhat compressed, and generally deposited in
+little piles, in which the individual components do not stand out very
+distinctly, being pressed against each other. They are quite unlike the
+oblong, curvilinear, comparatively symmetrical scats of the White-tailed
+Deer and the Moose. I�did not observe, nor learn of, any particular
+seasonal variation in the shape or other characters.
+
+  _References._--Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 81; Manning, 1943a:
+  50.
+
+
+_Voice_
+
+My impression of the adult Caribou is that it is a comparatively silent
+animal during most of the year. At the rutting season, however, when the
+bucks do their fighting with a clash of antlers, their voice is heard,
+as Fred Schweder, Jr., informed me. It is about as loud as the fawn's
+grunt, but a different sort of sound. Fred has also known a doe to call
+when its fawn was shot.
+
+The only vocal sound that I heard from the Caribou was the grunt or
+bawling of the fawns on the fall migration, and only during the last
+week of August, when the "big movement" was under way. It was uttered
+chiefly at the river crossings, apparently as a result of the fawns'
+anxiety lest they be separated from their mothers during the slight
+uncertainty or confusion of these passages, when a considerable number
+of animals were participating. It seemed to be a fair equivalent of a
+human child's crying out: "Don't leave me behind!" or "Where are you,
+mamma?" The grunt is very different from the bleating of a lamb or the
+bawling of a domestic calf. It is a surprisingly raucous or guttural,
+almost explosive, yet not very loud note, which I rendered at various
+times as _gwuf_, _goff_, _gowk_, or _gorr_. Perhaps the last rendering
+comes nearest to the actual sound. With one or two exceptions, I�did not
+identify any individual uttering one of these grunts; but the Schweder
+boys, from their intimate knowledge of the species, assured me that this
+was the voice of the fawn. In one case the sound came rather definitely
+from a fawn that had become somewhat separated from its band in going up
+the adjacent ridge after crossing Little River. But for the most part
+the grunts seemed to come from swimming animals.
+
+On August 30 another sort of sound--probably not a vocal one--seemed to
+come from one of the older animals among a large band crossing Little
+River. It was probably produced by a vigorous vibration of the nostrils.
+It is further discussed in the section on _Shaking off moisture and
+insects_.
+
+It is rather astonishing that Seton, after seeing and studying many
+Caribou at close range in Mackenzie, should say no more about their
+voice than: "They snort a good deal and grunt a little" (1911: 210). In
+his later monographic account he practically ignores the topic, merely
+referring to the animals' "sniffing, snorting" (1929, 3: 105).
+
+  _References._--Lyon, 1824: 336; Pike, 1917 (1892): 89; Stone and
+  Cram, 1904: 53; Seton, 1911: 210, and 1929, +3+: 105; Hornaday,
+  1914, +2+: 103; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193; Sutton and
+  Hamilton, 1932: 84; Murie, 1939: 245; Downes, 1943: 226,
+  256-257; Harper, 1949: 230; Banfield, 1951a: 22.
+
+
+_Reproduction_
+
+By the time the rutting season arrived in mid-October, there were
+comparatively few Caribou left in the Windy River area. Consequently my
+information on the subject was derived mainly from Charles Schweder and
+Fred Schweder, Jr. Weeks before the scheduled season, there were certain
+manifestations of the sexual urge. For example, on September 5 about 20
+Caribou were passing the Bear Slough. The band consisted mostly of does
+and fawns, but included several middle-aged bucks (with antlers much
+less than the maximum size) and possibly some younger bucks. Twice I saw
+one of the animals attempt to cover another, but driving rain and the
+compactness of the band prevented me from determining the sex or age of
+those involved. During a trip to the Kazan River, lasting from September
+17 to October 1, Fred observed a good deal of fighting among the
+Caribou--obviously a prelude to the mating season. In Charles' opinion,
+these early contests are not very much in earnest; the real fighting
+begins about October 15. On October 8 Charles and Fred referred to
+fighting that was going on among a herd of about 100 between Glacier
+Pond and Lake Charles. Perhaps less than a quarter of this herd were
+older bucks; the rest, younger bucks, does, and fawns.
+
+In former years, while living at the "Old Post" on Red River, Charles
+used to go out and watch the fighting on a big open muskeg, about a mile
+square, where the Caribou would congregate practically every year at the
+rutting season, up to a thousand strong. They would stay for three or
+four days, then disappear. Nothing on the same scale had come to his
+notice in the vicinity of the Windy River post. At this season, when the
+animals are in large herds, the bucks utter their calls, as mentioned in
+the section on _Voice_. According to Fred, one sees in October a good
+many bucks with an antler broken off in the fighting. The break
+generally occurs at about the middle of the antler. On September 29
+Charles reported a buck with a broken antler, which he interpreted as
+evidence of the beginning of the fighting season. During the rutting
+season he once shot a buck with a broken jaw, and another with an eye
+gone. The possible inference was that these injuries had been sustained
+in fighting. A�buck secured on October 16 had apparently been wounded in
+fighting; there was pus in its neck, and it was considered unfit for
+eating. I�heard nothing as to the possible use of hoofs in contests
+between bucks, as reported by Jacobi (1931: 233) for the Reindeer.
+
+During the rutting season the herd is likely to be a large one, and to
+do little traveling. It is composed of fawns as well as adults. The
+bucks pursue the does, and sometimes chase each other. Charles thinks
+the young bucks keep away from the does at this time, being unable to
+fight the older bucks with larger antlers. Fred reports a proportion of
+about 10 bucks to 50 does in these herds--a probable indication of
+polygamy. He expressed the opinion that the bucks do not mate until 8-10
+years old, and the does not until about four years old. However, he was
+basing his estimate of the age on the total number of points on the
+antlers--one point for each year; and on this basis the age was probably
+much overestimated. Earlier sexual maturity on the part of the doe might
+be another indication of polygamy in the species.
+
+At the onset of this season, the bucks neglect their feeding to some
+extent; consequently those killed have stomachs only partly filled,
+instead of completely filled, as at other times. By mid-October their
+fat becomes tinted with reddish, and the whole flesh becomes so rank and
+musky that it is disdained not only by human beings but even by the
+Wolves. This condition seems to be considerably more pronounced in the
+Caribou than in the White-tailed Deer. The hunters forego eating the old
+bucks for a period of several weeks. Meanwhile the younger bucks, not
+engaged in mating, remain fit to eat. Hearne (1795: 69) reported the
+flesh of bucks as still unpalatable as late as December 30.
+
+The rutting season is said to continue through October into November.
+The end of the period is uncertain, but it may coincide with the
+shedding of the antlers of the old bucks.
+
+  _References._--Hearne, 1795: 72, 198-199; Richardson, "1825":
+  327-328, 1829: 243, and 1861: 274; Pike, 1917 (1892): 48, 90;
+  J.�W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 80; Hanbury, 1904: 73; Stone and
+  Cram, 1904: 52; Blanchet, 1925: 33; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 51,
+  56; Seton, 1929, +3+: 124-125; Jacobi, 1931: 232; Sutton and
+  Hamilton, 1932: 81, 84-86; Weyer, 1932: 40; Ingstad, 1933: 158;
+  Hornby, 1934: 105; Murie, 1939: 244; Manning, 1943a: 52;
+  Banfield, 1951a: 10, 26, 31.
+
+
+_Fawns_
+
+Since the fawning takes place far to the north of the Nueltin Lake
+region, practically no local information concerning it was obtained.
+Charles Schweder stated that in the spring migration the pregnant does
+pass to an undetermined distance north of the upper Kazan River (below
+Ennadai Lake). Although the migration at Nueltin Lake continues
+throughout June, the rearguard is composed largely of bucks, and the
+comparatively few does accompanying them toward the last may be barren.
+Fisher (1821: 199) and Parry (1821: 183) report a small fawn of _R.
+pearyi_ on Melville Island on June 2. Richardson states ("1825": 329)
+that the young are born in May and June. There is evidently some
+geographical and individual variation in the time of birth (_cf._
+Jacobi, 1931: 232). Apparently the gestation period in the Caribou
+covers approximately eight months or a little less. In the domesticated
+Reindeer it is 231 to 242 days, according to Jacobi (1931: 234); in the
+White-tailed Deer, 205 to 212 days, according to Seton (1929, +3+: 258).
+
+Fred Schweder, Jr., stated that he had never found more than a single
+unborn fawn in any one of the animals he had secured; yet he has seen as
+many as four fawns following a doe. Of course there is no proof that
+this individual was the actual mother of so many fawns; a�stray or
+bereaved youngster might well endeavor to attach itself to a foster
+mother. On August 28, at Little River, I�saw a doe being followed by two
+fawns. On September 16 Fred reported seeing three old does without
+fawns. Presumably most of the does do not bear young until they are two
+years old (_cf._ Jacobi, 1931: 235); thus many yearling does without
+family cares should be observed during the summer.
+
+On September 12 Charles Schweder stated that the does would soon be
+losing their milk; yet on occasion he has found them with milk as late
+as November (_cf._ Jacobi, 1931: 235). On September 21, when he secured
+a doe (fig. 21) that was accompanied by a fawn, I�asked if he thought
+the latter was still nursing. By way of answer, he squeezed a couple of
+the doe's mammae, and some milk exuded. Thus the mammary glands were
+still functioning at that date; they appeared well developed. By August
+27, at an age of perhaps two and a half months, the fawns were browsing
+on their own account, and their teeth were well developed. Fred
+Schweder, Jr., then spoke of having seen fawns nursing four times during
+that month, the last occasion having been on the 25th. On the 27th I had
+the rare privilege of witnessing such a nursery rite across the mouth of
+Little River. The wilderness baby was so large that it was obliged to
+lower its forequarters very decidedly in order to reach the maternal
+font (from a lateral position). This attitude left its hind quarters
+thrust high and ludicrously into the air. I�did not notice that it
+wriggled its tail as a bovine calf might have; but Charles Schweder
+spoke of having seen a fawn hold its tail erect while nursing. He also
+said that the bigger fawns kneel down with their front legs while so
+engaged. In his opinion, when a doe is killed in the autumn, its fawn
+does not go and join other Caribou, but lingers near the fatal spot
+until a Wolf or some other enemy overcomes it. For this reason it is his
+practice to secure the fawn also, if possible, when he takes the mother.
+On September 13 a fawn remained by its dead mother, permitting one of
+the hunters to approach within 30 feet and to throw rocks at it three
+times, finally taking it by that means. After a doe was killed on
+September 21, its fawn lingered in the vicinity for a day or two.
+
+  _References._--Franklin, 1823: 242; Richardson, "1825": 329;
+  John Ross, 1835a: 432; Simpson, 1843: 277, 281, 381; J.
+  McLean, 1932 (1849): 359; Armstrong, 1857: 477-478; Murray,
+  1858: 202; Osborn, 1865: 227; Nourse, 1884: 264-265; Pike, 1917
+  (1892): 204, 209; Dowling, 1893: 107: Russell, 1895: 51; R.�M.
+  Anderson, 1913b: 504-505; Hewitt, 1921: 62; Blanchet, 1926b: 47;
+  Seton, 1929, +3+: 124-125; Blanchet, 1930: 49, 53;
+  Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 192, 193; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932:
+  86; Ingstad, 1933: 161; Clarke, 1940: 88-90; Gavin, 1945: 228;
+  Banfield, 1951a: 26, 27; Scott, 1951: 179, 180; Barnett, 1954:
+  96.
+
+
+_Growth_
+
+During late August and early September the fawns probably averaged about
+50 lb. in weight. (For the measurements of two specimens, see the
+section on _Measurements_.) Yet they varied so much in size that some
+appeared nearly twice as big as others. On September 7 an exceptionally
+small fawn was secured (estimated weight, 35 lb.) (fig. 23). Its coat
+was soft and woolly, representing an earlier stage than that seen in any
+of the other fawns of that season. It was molting into the next pelage,
+and its hide was unprime. It must have been born at an unusually late
+date. Fred Schweder, Jr., remarked that he sometimes sees this stage in
+the growth of fawns when the Caribou come down early from the north
+(about the first of August), but it seems remarkable that it should have
+been found in a September fawn. The present specimen has actually
+smaller measurements than one secured on August 2 at Artillery Lake
+(Seton, 1929, +3+: 97). The collector reported that the parent doe
+appeared of ordinary size--not a particularly small or young one. The
+yearlings noted on the spring migration in May (south of Churchill) and
+in June (at Nueltin Lake) appeared roughly half the size of the adults.
+
+Evidently several years are required for the attainment of full growth.
+The younger adult bucks, with smaller antlers, are appreciably inferior
+in body size to the older bucks, with better developed antlers.
+
+  _References._--Seton, 1929, +3+: 97, 98; Banfield, 1951a: 30.
+
+
+_Antlers_
+
+In late August and early September antlers were already in evidence on
+the fawns, at an age of less than three months. They consisted of bony
+knobs, covered with skin, and were an inch or two long. I�obtained no
+information as to when the fawns may shed the velvet or the antlers
+themselves. By analogy with the Reindeer (_cf._ Jacobi, 1931: 237), the
+fawns might be expected to drop their antlers in late winter.
+
+When the adult Caribou return from the north in August, the antlers of
+all are still in the velvet. However, completely hornless does are not
+particularly uncommon at this season; in Charles Schweder's opinion,
+some remain permanently in that condition. Hornless does are reported in
+various forms of Caribou or Reindeer in both hemispheres (Jacobi, 1931:
+48). I�saw also a few one-horned does on the autumn migration. In a
+single group of three adult does photographed at close range on August
+28, one was hornless and another one-horned (fig. 11). A�considerable
+proportion of my other photographs of Caribou groups at this season show
+one or more animals with a single antler or none. The hornless condition
+appears to be astonishingly more common in Keewatin than in regions
+farther west. Stef�nsson, whose field operations were chiefly in
+northern Mackenzie and southwestern Franklin, remarks (1913b: 151) on
+having found, at any season when Caribou are normally horned, just three
+hornless animals among a thousand at whose killing he had been present.
+Murie (1935: 20) speaks of having observed only one hornless doe in
+Alaska, in September.
+
+By late August the bucks' antlers have attained nearly their full
+growth, though still in the velvet. The largest head of the season was
+obtained on August 22. Its measurements were: right antler, in straight
+line from base to tip of longest prong, 995; left antler, 980; distance
+between main tips of the two antlers, 620; brow tine, from base to upper
+tip, 335; to lower tip, 290. For the older bucks, the principal period
+for shedding the velvet is September 10 to 20, although Charles Schweder
+once observed a buck that had completed the process by September 1, and
+Fred secured one in that condition on September 6, 1947. In Alaska old
+bucks shed the velvet more or less regularly in September (Murie, 1935:
+26). Sick or wounded animals are said to retain the velvet for an
+indefinite period. For example, a�buck secured on September 29 had some
+velvet hanging in shreds from the tips of its antlers, and it was found
+to have been shot in the mouth sometime previously. The younger bucks
+and the does lose their velvet somewhat later than the older bucks (say
+toward the end of September). In a doe of September 21 (fig. 21) the
+antlers were covered with velvet and still had soft tips. A�young buck
+of October 2 was just shedding the velvet.
+
+Charles Schweder spoke of noting as many as 30-33 points on the antlers
+of old bucks. (He probably included the brow and the bez tines in this
+count.) He also referred to an exceptional set of antlers at Simons'
+Lake with about 40 points; he had first noted it about 10 years
+previously, and it had doubtless been there for years before that. He
+had never been able to secure its equal. When I saw and photographed it
+in October (fig. 25), some of the points were broken off, so that an
+accurate count was impossible; but there must have been close to 40
+originally, even without the brow tines, which were missing. The
+palmation was much broader than I have seen in any other Caribou.
+
+The prong projecting backward at the angle of the main beam is by no
+means so uncommon in the animals of this region as a Chipewyan hunter
+seemed to indicate to Downes (1943: 227-228).
+
+Charles Schweder found a pair of locked antlers about 1940 near Josie's
+Bay. This was the only case of which he had any knowledge. An instance
+of locked antlers in _Rangifer pearyi_ is mentioned by Peary (1907: 84).
+
+There is marked variation in the dates of shedding the antlers,
+according to sex, age, and physiological condition of the individual.
+This has resulted in various conflicting statements in the literature.
+In the present region, the old bucks with 25 or more points are said to
+shed their antlers about the end of October or in November, at the close
+of the rutting season. (Fred Schweder, Jr., encountered a hornless buck
+as early as November 7, 1947.) The younger bucks, with 15 to 20 points,
+and the does retain their antlers till late May or June of the following
+year. A�doe of June 3 and another of June 16 were still horned. In
+Alaska "the young bucks may carry their old antlers until late in April,
+while does carry theirs until the middle of May, some of them until
+June" (Murie, 1935: 26).
+
+John Ingebrigtsen reported having seen two or three shallow lakes,
+between Churchill and (South?) Knife Lake, whose bottoms were fairly
+covered with caribou antlers. They were visible through clear ice. It
+appears probable that these lakes, while ice-covered, were favored
+resorts of large numbers of Caribou for their midday or nocturnal rests
+at a period when they were shedding their antlers (November for the old
+bucks, May or June for the does and young bucks).
+
+It is natural that the season at which the new antlers of the Barren
+Ground Caribou begin to grow should vary greatly according to sex and
+age, just as the shedding of the antlers does; probably also, for the
+various forms of _Rangifer_, according to locality (_cf._ Jacobi, 1931:
+237). On Southampton Island "the new antlers begin to appear in the
+males in March and April" (Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 85). In Alaska
+Murie (1935: 24) "has found old bucks late in April with velvet knobs
+well begun." Seton's account (1929, +3+: 102-103) of the seasonal change
+of antlers is not only meager but largely at variance with the
+information I assembled in Keewatin. Recently gathered information is
+supplied by Banfield (1951a: 17-18).
+
+Measurements of the length of antlers in the velvet (right and left,
+respectively) were recorded as follows: adult male, June 18, 420, 440;
+adult male (figs. 3, 4), August 17, 1165, 1205; adult female (fig. 21),
+September 21, 220, 165.
+
+Scratching or anointing of antlers in the velvet with a hind hoof was
+observed in an adult buck on June 16, and in a fawn on August 27.
+
+While there is undoubtedly some correlation between the age of a Caribou
+and the number of points on its antlers, I�am not aware that such a
+correlation has been worked out to a satisfactory degree. The Schweder
+brothers judged a Caribou's years by the number of points on both
+antlers, yet freely admitted that they had limited confidence in such a
+criterion. Probably they would be nearer the actual facts if they
+counted the points on only one antler. The situation is complicated by
+the fact (if we are to credit Jacobi, 1931: 238) that bucks in other
+forms of _Rangifer_ exhibit the best development of antlers at six to
+eight years.
+
+  _References._--Hearne, 1795: 198-199; Franklin, 1823: 240-241;
+  Lyon, 1824: 270; Richardson, "1825": 327-328, and 1829: 241;
+  Richardson, in Back, 1836: 499; Armstrong, 1857: 478; Murray,
+  1858: 199-206; B.�R. Ross, 1861: 439; Osborn, 1865: 227; Pike,
+  1917 (1892): 49; J.�B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128; Dowling, 1893: 107;
+  Russell, 1895: 51, and 1898: 225; Whitney, 1896: 238-239; J.�W.
+  Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 79-80; A.�J. Stone, 1900: 53; W.�J.
+  McLean, 1901: 6; Elliot, 1902: 279-280; Hanbury, 1904: 95, 116,
+  133; Hornaday, 1904: 138; J.�A. Allen, 1908a: 488; R.�M.
+  Anderson, 1913b: 505; Stef�nsson, 1913b: 151; Buchanan, 1920:
+  126; Blanchet, 1925: 33, 1926b: 47-48, and 1930: 49;
+  Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 50, 89, 239-251; Seton, 1929, +3+:
+  102-103; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 192; Jacobi, 1931: 237; Sutton
+  and Hamilton, 1932: 81-86; Ingstad, 1933: 159; Hornby, 1934:
+  105; Murie, 1935: 20, and 1939: 244; Clarke, 1940: 95; Downes,
+  1943: 228; Manning, 1943a: 52-53; Harper, 1949: 228; Banfield,
+  1951a: 17-18; Barnett, 1954: 104.
+
+
+_Rubbing trees_
+
+Charles Schweder gave the following account. The bucks hasten the
+shedding of the velvet in the autumn by rubbing their antlers on various
+trees--willow, spruce, or tamarack. The individual may complete the
+operation in possibly half a day. It is thought, however, that most of
+the velvet comes off at the first tree. The animals usually select a
+tree standing by itself rather than one in a thicket. It is usually a
+small tree--say 4 feet high and 1 inch in diameter. Perhaps a spruce is
+most often selected. Branches are broken and much of the bark is scraped
+off in the process. The velvet soon dries up, so that it is little
+noticed. Charles did not recall having seen any hanging in a tree.
+
+The numbers of rubbing trees that I noticed at Simons' Lake in
+mid-October indicated that Caribou must have been much more numerous
+there during the previous month than in the vicinity of the Windy River
+post. These trees were particularly in evidence on the outskirts of a
+spruce and tamarack thicket at the head of the lake. They were mostly
+tamaracks, with some black spruces. Of the two spruces shown in figure
+26, the larger was about 4 feet high. Many of the young trees had been
+killed. The branches and the tops had been pretty generally broken off
+and were lying on the ground. Most of the damage was fresh, but some of
+it dated from previous years.
+
+  _Reference._--Hanbury, 1904: 232.
+
+
+
+
+MORPHOLOGY AND TAXONOMY
+
+
+_Pelage and molt_
+
+When the Caribou migrate northward through the Nueltin Lake region in
+May and June, they still retain their winter pelage. It is now worn and
+faded, and harsh as well, in contrast to the fresh, dark, soft autumn
+coat.
+
+This stage is represented by an adult buck (No. 1046) of June 18. The
+general color above is Cream-Buff (capitalized color terms are derived
+from Ridgway, 1912), changing gradually to Isabella Color on sides of
+head and body; no distinct dark longitudinal stripe on lower sides (such
+as appears in summer and autumn pelage); tail Cream-Buff above, the rest
+Cartridge Buff; rump-patch varying from Cartridge Buff to Cream-Buff;
+tip of snout and chin dirty whitish; small area below nostrils near
+Mummy Brown; triangular area behind nostrils Cream-Buff; crown Cartridge
+Buff; ears Olive-Buff on outer surface, Cartridge Buff on inner surface;
+posterior venter Cartridge Buff; legs Isabella Color in front, remainder
+Cream-Buff; hoofs black, bordered above with Cartridge Buff hairs,
+forming a band �-2 inches in width; antler velvet in this and other
+specimens Olive-Brown. The marked difference between the dark brownish
+and white pelage of the autumn and the Cream-Buff coat of early June
+presumably results from wear and fading, without molt. The does and the
+yearlings in June appear grayer than the adult bucks.
+
+In another adult male (No. 1033), collected June 3, the darker part of
+the pelage is Buffy Brown rather than Cream-Buff.
+
+The molt of the bucks begins in June but takes place chiefly in July,
+while the animals are somewhere to the north of the Nueltin Lake region.
+On their return in August they have largely completed their summer
+transformation in appearance. A�buck of August 17 had just a little of
+the winter fur still clinging to its lower back; and another on August
+20 was in similar condition. At this season the white mane is developed
+only on its lower portion (figs. 9, 10, 12), but by the end of September
+the white has spread upward over practically the whole neck (fig. 22),
+and in some cases over the shoulders.
+
+In an adult male (No. 1144) of October 16, representing the pelage of
+the rutting season, the posterior crown is near Tilleul Buff, the
+anterior crown somewhat browner; sides of head and upper throat between
+Verona Brown and Buffy Brown; area about and between eyes somewhat
+darker; triangular area behind nostrils (apex extending halfway to eyes)
+and lower chin between Mummy Brown and Warm Blackish Brown; tip of snout
+and chin Cartridge Buff; ears pale creamy white on both surfaces; whole
+neck and shoulder mantle whitish, washed with Cartridge Buff, and
+changing gradually to the brownish of the sides of the head; long hairs
+along median ventral line of the neck tipped with Natal Brown; dorsal
+area, from shoulders to rump, Prout's Brown; stripe on lower sides Mummy
+Brown, separated from dorsal area by an ill-defined lighter stripe,
+mixed with whitish hairs; top of tail slightly paler than back, the rest
+white; small rump-patch mostly white; chest Mummy Brown; mid-venter
+varying from Deep Olive-Buff anteriorly to Cream-Buff posteriorly;
+posterior venter white; forelegs near Bone Brown; hind legs between
+Mummy Brown and Olive-Brown, with a pale spot on the inner side of the
+heel (this spot noticeable also in doe and fawn); hoofs black, bordered
+above with whitish hairs. The hides of this specimen and of two other
+adult bucks (No. 1111, September 29, and No. 1132, October 16) were
+prime. The dark lateral stripe, which shows quite distinctly in summer
+and fall specimens of both sexes (figs. 7, 8, 10, 21, 22), from fawns
+(except very young ones) to adults, and which is also a prominent
+feature in Old World Reindeer (_cf._ Flerov, 1933), has been largely or
+wholly overlooked in some descriptions of _Rangifer a. arcticus_.
+
+The summer molt occurs later in the does than in the bucks. Some of the
+former return toward the end of August while still retaining most of the
+winter pelage. Others exhibit remnants of it in patches, especially on
+the lower back; this was true even of an adult doe (No. 1101) secured as
+late as September 21 (fig. 21). Its hide, however, was prime. In this
+specimen the crown is near Verona Brown, with varying admixture of
+whitish hairs; sides of head Verona Brown; upper throat a little paler;
+a�poorly defined area behind nostrils, and lower chin, Mummy Brown; tip
+of snout and chin Cartridge Buff; ears Drab, varying to Pale Olive-Buff,
+especially on inner surface; neck Drab dorsally, mixed with whitish
+hairs, the remainder Pale Olive-Buff; dorsal area, from shoulder to
+rump, Mars Brown; lateral stripe on lower sides Mars Brown, separated
+from dorsal area by a poorly defined but conspicuous area of Light
+Cinnamon-Drab; top of tail like back, the rest whitish, washed laterally
+with Pale Pinkish Buff; small rump-patch mostly white; chest Mummy
+Brown; venter Light Drab, becoming whitish in inguinal region; forelegs
+Natal Brown, slightly darker in front; hind legs Natal Brown, with a
+pale spot on the inner edge of the heel; hoofs black, bordered above
+with whitish "spats" varying from � to 1� inches in width.
+
+Another doe, secured on November 3 but not preserved, was apparently in
+long, full winter pelage, with whitish mane and shoulders. The dorsum
+generally was grayish; the top of the rump, buffy gray. The white
+rump-patch appeared to be more extensive, and to contain longer hairs,
+than in the doe of September 21; likewise the white "spats" appeared
+much more extensive.
+
+As winter comes on, the fur of the Caribou grows longer and paler gray.
+One incipient stage of such a change from the summer coat began to be
+noticeable as early as September 13. A�buck that came trotting down out
+of the Windy Hills on September 27 revealed the splendor of its new
+winter coat, with an amazing amount of creamy white, chiefly on the mane
+and shoulders. The long mane wears off during the winter, according to
+Charles Schweder. It looks best, he added, when the bucks start to fight
+in the fall. A�yearling or large fawn on October 21 was distinctly
+creamy about the neck and shoulders. After describing a winter female
+from Wager River, Seton remarks (1929, +3+: 98): "The general impression
+is of a creamy white animal, with a gray blanket on its back."
+
+For the first couple of months of its life the fawn wears a soft and
+woolly coat. An example was furnished by a male fawn (No. 1095; fig. 23)
+of September 7, which must have been born several weeks later than the
+average date. It was actually smaller and less developed than another
+male fawn collected on August 20. It was molting into the next pelage
+(described in the following paragraph), and its hide was unprime. The
+general color is Deep Brownish Drab; this is overlaid with longer hairs
+of Pale Olive-Buff on the median dorsal line of the neck, on the venter,
+and on part of the legs; a�median stripe on the back near Hay's Brown;
+no distinct lateral stripe; ears and posterior crown Cartridge Buff;
+forepart of crown Deep Brownish Drab; area above eye Cream-Buff; snout
+varying from Deep Brownish Drab above to Pale Gull Gray on sides;
+transverse band behind nostrils Dusky Brown; tip of snout whitish; tail
+Deep Brownish Drab above, pale creamy on sides, and white beneath;
+rump-patch whitish; chin anteriorly whitish, posteriorly Dusky Drab;
+throat whitish to Pale Gull Gray; lower part of legs, in front, Buffy
+Brown; hoofs black, bordered above with a very narrow (�-inch) strip of
+whitish hairs. A�very similar young fawn, taken on August 2, 1907, has
+been described by Seton (1929, +3+: 98).
+
+In a male fawn (No. 1072) collected on August 20 the general color is
+between Olive-Brown and Natal Brown; a�paler longitudinal area
+separating the lateral stripe from the dorsal area; ears Clove Brown
+externally, pale creamy internally; transverse band behind nostrils
+Blackish Brown; tip of snout whitish; sides of head varying from
+Cream-Buff above eyes to Cartridge Buff below; tail Bone Brown above,
+white below; rump-patch whitish; legs Buffy Brown, darker in front; chin
+anteriorly whitish, posteriorly Hair Brown; throat Cartridge Buff;
+venter Light Drab; hoofs black, bordered above with a narrow (�- to
+�-inch) strip of whitish hairs.
+
+  _References._--Franklin, 1823: 240-241; Richardson, 1829: 242;
+  B.�R. Ross, 1861: 439; Schwatka, 1885: 60-61; J.�B. Tyrrell,
+  1892: 128; Russell, 1898: 91, 226; J.�W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898):
+  79; A.�J. Stone, 1900: 52; Hanbury, 1904: 194; MacFarlane, 1905:
+  682-683; Blanchet, 1925: 33, and 1926b: 47; Seton, 1929, +3+:
+  98-99, 104; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193; Jacobi, 1931: 236;
+  Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 81, 84-86; Murie, 1939: 244; Clarke,
+  1940: 89, 90; Downes, 1943: 226; Manning, 1943a: 53; Harper,
+  1949: 228, 229, 230; Banfield, 1951a: 15-17.
+
+
+_Albinism_
+
+In _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ this appears to be an exceptionally rare
+phenomenon. There are references to albinos by the following authors:
+Russell (1895: 51; 1898: 91, 226), Whitney (1896: 237), Boas (1901: 150,
+501), MacFarlane (1905: 682-683), Ingstad (1933: 312), and Degerb�l
+(1935: 49, 51).
+
+
+_Foot-glands_
+
+I dissected out the glands from the hind feet of an adult male Caribou
+(No. 1046). Seton (1929, +3+: 68) has discussed these structures in the
+Woodland Caribou and the Norwegian Reindeer; and Pocock (1911: 960-962,
+fig. 138B) and Jacobi (1931: 22, fig. 4), in the Reindeer. Many hairs
+had their base in the glands, and there was a fatty secretion on the
+hairs adjacent to the glands. I�judged that the opening to the exterior
+extended in a more or less dorso-anterior direction. One of the
+suggested functions of these glands is anointing the velvet covering of
+the antlers. I�was highly interested, therefore, in seeing an old buck
+on June 16 rub the tips of its growing antlers with each hind foot in
+turn. Meanwhile it inclined its antlers alternately to one side and
+backwards to place one of them at a time within convenient reach of the
+hind foot on that side. It seemed to rub its snout as well as the antler
+tips. In Charles Schweder's experience this action was always carried
+out with the hind foot, not the forefoot. The latter contains a similar
+but smaller gland, according to Jacobi (1931: 22), while Pocock (1911:
+960-961) gives contrary testimony. On August 27 I also saw a fawn
+rubbing a knob of its skin-covered antlers with a hind foot.
+
+Another function of the foot-glands is suggested by an observation of
+Dugmore's (1913: 89-90), which has been mentioned in the section on
+_Signaling_. I could not definitely connect any of the various occasions
+of panic that I observed, with scent from the foot-glands of preceding
+Caribou that had been frightened.
+
+  _References._--Caton, 1881: 265; Pocock, 1911: 960-962; Seton,
+  1929, +3+: 68, 105; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 84; Harper, 1949:
+  230.
+
+
+_Mastology_
+
+Very little seems to have been published on this subject. Jacobi (1931:
+24) merely remarks that in the Reindeer the mammae number four, or
+occasionally six, but that the supernumerary ones are not functional.
+The four rudimentary mammae in a male fawn of _arcticus_ (No. 1072) of
+August 20 seemed remarkable for their arrangement in a nearly straight
+transverse row--quite different from the more rectangular pattern in a
+domestic Cow or in a male Moose, as figured by Seton (1929, +3+: 221).
+In an adult doe (No. 1101) of September 21 the anterior pair are about
+twice as far apart as the posterior pair; each of the mammae appears no
+more than a couple of inches from the one nearest to it. The arrangement
+in a two-year-old buck, as shown by Seton (1929, +3+: 106), is
+approximately intermediate between linear and rectangular.
+
+
+_Fat_
+
+A Caribou (probably a buck) secured about the end of June was reported
+to have back fat half an inch thick--possibly resulting from the fresh
+green spring feed. In August, however, scarcely any fat was to be found
+on the animals; perhaps the annual renewal of pelage and the summer
+harassment by flies had been deterrents to the storage of fat. In
+September and early October the Caribou were in prime condition. On
+September 19 there was a fresh piece of back fat half an inch thick; two
+days later there was another piece three times as thick. In 1943 (a�year
+of great mushroom growth) the animals were said to have become
+particularly fat. According to Charles Schweder, the doe never becomes
+so fat as the buck; one of September 21, still nursing, was just
+slightly fat. An adult buck of September 29 was recorded as "somewhat
+fat"; two of October 16 were "rather fat" and "quite fat." Charles has
+seen as much as 3 inches of fat on a buck. The strips of back fat
+brought into camp on October 8 from several bucks weighed about 5 to 10
+lb. apiece. Such fatness evidently prepares the bucks for the strain of
+the rutting season, when they neglect their feeding and become very poor
+and thin. This loss of fat occurs in about two weeks. The does also lose
+some fat at this season, but slowly. In some winters the Caribou remain
+fat, but in other winters they do not. In the latter case there may be
+deep snow that hinders their feeding. In the spring the Caribou become
+fat again, and they are in that condition when they arrive from the
+south in May.
+
+The eagerness of the Eskimos and the Indians for fat results in their
+selection of the biggest bucks, which generally carry the most fat.
+Charles Schweder spoke of the tail of such an animal almost
+disappearing, apparently engulfed in fat! Besides its use in the native
+diet, the fat goes into the making of "Eskimo candles" (see section on
+_Relations to man_).
+
+  _References._--Franklin, 1823: 240; Armstrong, 1857: 477-478;
+  Whitney, 1896: 161; Elliot, 1902: 276; R.�M. Anderson, in
+  Stef�nsson, 1913b: 505-506; Stef�nsson, 1921: 231-234,
+  246-247, 252; Jenness, 1922: 48, 101, 248; Birket-Smith, 1929
+  (1): 48, 90; Seton, 1929, +3+: 113-114; Critchell-Bullock, 1930:
+  193; Weyer, 1932: 40; Hornby, 1934: 105; Hamilton, 1939: 109;
+  Downes, 1943: 228; Manning, 1943a: 53.
+
+
+BODY-MEASUREMENTS AND WEIGHTS
+
+  Columns:
+
+  A: No.
+  B: Sex and age
+  C: Date
+  D: Length
+  E: Tail
+  F: Foot
+  G: Ear from crown
+  H: Height at shoulder
+  I: Shoulder joint to hip joint
+  J: Circumference of neck at base
+  K: Circumference of body behind shoulders
+  L: Length of front hoof
+  M: Length of hind hoof
+  N: Estimated weight (lbs.)
+
+  ======================================================================
+  A    B      C      D    E   F   G   H    I    J     K   L    M    N
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  1033 M ad  Jun 3  1820 160 516 130      1000     1000  81.5 78   140
+  1046 M ad  Jun 18 1880 190 546 137 1029                92   84.5
+  1065 M ad  Aug 17 1750 146 555 120 1080 1010     1185* 80   74   200
+  1111 M ad  Sep 29 1710 155 532 129 1020      740       82.5 78   200
+  1132 M ad  Oct 16 1710 120 530 120 1002  975                     200
+  1144 M ad  Oct 16      117 545 120 1110                90   84.5 200
+  Average of M M ad 1774 148 537 126 1080  995 740 1093  85.2 79.8 188
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  1101 F ad  Sep 21 1590 113 490 134  870  860 490       77   72   160
+  1095 M juv Sep 7   960  90 360  85  620  525 290  610  49   45    35
+  1072 M juv Aug 20 1150 125 423  89  750  645           60.5 55.5  50
+
+    [Footnote *: _After skinning._]
+  ======================================================================
+
+
+MEASUREMENTS OF SKULLS
+
+  Columns:
+
+  A: No.
+  B: Sex and age
+  C: Date
+  D: Condylobasal length*
+  E: Zygomatic width
+  F: Interorbital width
+  G: Length of nasal
+  H: Maxillary tooth-row
+  I: Mandibular tooth-row
+
+  ======================================================================
+  A      B        C        D       E       F       G      H       I
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  1065   M ad    Aug 17   373     130     140     125     94     101
+  1144   M ad    Oct 16   356     135     140     122     82
+  1111   M ad    Sep 29   359     134     138     112     82
+  1046   M ad    Jun 18   374     131     135     121     97     104
+  1132   M ad    Oct 16   350     136     138     117     83      91
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Average of M M ad       362.4   133.2   138.2   119.4   87.6    98.7
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  1101   F ad    Sep 21   324     117     121     101     85
+  1036   F ad    Sep --           118     120      83.5   79      83.5
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  1072   M juv   Aug 20   215      92      85      54
+  1095   M juv   Sep 7    189      85      77      42
+
+    [Footnote *: _Tip of premaxillary to posterior plane of condyles._]
+  ======================================================================
+
+
+MEASUREMENTS OF ANTLERS
+
+  Columns:
+
+  A: No.
+  B: Sex and age
+  C: Date
+  D: Total length, right antler
+  E: Total length, left antler
+  F: Brow antler, length
+  G: Brow antler, width
+  H: Greatest spread of beams (outside measurement)
+  I: Total number of points
+
+  ==============================================================
+  A      B       C        D      E      F     G     H     I
+  --------------------------------------------------------------
+  1065   M ad   Aug 17   1165*  1205*               875*
+  1144   M ad   Oct 16   1200   1180    290   232   668   32
+  1111   M ad   Sep 29   1080   1080    279   235   655   32
+  1132   M ad   Oct 16    960    903    225   197   677   30
+  --------------------------------------------------------------
+  Average of last 3      1080   1054.3  264.7 221.3 666.7 31.3
+
+    [Footnote *: _Antlers in velvet. Unless otherwise specified,
+    lengths of antlers were measured along the curve._]
+  ==============================================================
+
+
+MEASUREMENTS OF TESTES
+
+Seasonal change in the size of testes in adult males is indicated by the
+following data: June 3, 30�18 mm.; June 18, 51�28.5; August 17, 50�35;
+September 29, 61�38; October 16, 60�40. Two male fawns: August 20, 18�7;
+September 7, 15�8.5.
+
+  _References on measurements._--J.�C. Ross, in John Ross,
+  1835b: xviii; J.�A. Allen, 1910: 8; Seton, 1929, +3+: 97;
+  Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 87; Flerov, 1934: 240; Murie, 1935:
+  75; Soper, 1944: 248; Banfield, 1951a: 30.
+
+  _References on weight._--Parry, 1824: 305; Richardson, 1829:
+  241, and 1852: 290; Armstrong, 1857: 475, 498; Baird, 1857: 635;
+  M'Clintock, 1860?: 184; Osborn, 1865: 227; Schwatka, 1885:
+  84-85; Collinson, 1889: 153; J.�B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128; Whitney,
+  1896: 237; J.�W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 79; Jones, 1899: 329;
+  Hornaday, 1904: 138, and 1914, +2+: 104; J.�A. Allen, 1910: 8;
+  Seton, 1929, +3+: 97-98; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 55; Hornby,
+  1934: 105; Banfield, 1951a: 15, 30.
+
+
+_Geographical variation_
+
+The comparatively few specimens available indicate that different
+populations on the mainland, between Hudson Bay and the Mackenzie River,
+vary in size. Final judgment on the significance of this variation must
+await the accumulation of more and better material. The lack of
+topotypical material from the Fort Enterprise area, Mackenzie, is a
+particular handicap.
+
+  The extreme and average body measurements of five adult males
+  from the Windy River area (see accompanying table) may be
+  compared with those of three adult males, taken by R.�M.
+  Anderson, 1910 and 1912, at Langton and Darnley Bays (Nos.
+  34431, 34432, and 34435, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.): length, 1980-2095
+  (2052); tail (two specimens), 152-165 (158.5); height at
+  shoulder, 1066-1167 (1117); shoulder to hip (one specimen), 964.
+  The average length of these specimens exceeds that of the Windy
+  River specimens by 278 mm.; the average height at the shoulder,
+  by 37 mm. The length of an adult male from Artillery Lake (J.�A.
+  Allen, 1910: 8) exceeds the Windy River average by 156 mm., and
+  its shoulder height (Seton, 1929, +3+: 97), by 10 mm., but the
+  length of its hind foot, as recorded, is 17 mm. less than the
+  Windy River average.
+
+  The measurements of four adult females, taken by Anderson, 1910
+  and 1911, at Langton Bay, Horton River, and Great Bear Lake
+  (Nos. 34429, 34434, 34441, 34442, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.) are:
+  length, 1625-1815 (1736); height at shoulder, 825-1066 (968);
+  shoulder to hip (one specimen), 863. The average length of these
+  specimens exceeds that of a Windy River adult female by 146 mm.;
+  the average height at the shoulder, by 98 mm. The length of an
+  adult female from Aylmer Lake (J.�A. Allen, 1910: 8) exceeds
+  that of the Windy River specimen by 112 mm.; the length of its
+  hind foot, by 18 mm.; and the height at the shoulder (Seton,
+  1929, +3+: 97), by 43 mm.
+
+Thus there appears to be a fairly uniform tendency toward greater body
+measurements from southwestern Keewatin to northwestern Mackenzie. The
+weight of Seton's male from Artillery Lake (270� lb.) considerably
+exceeds the maximum (200 lb.) that I estimated for any of the Windy
+River males. Maximum measurements are furnished by winter specimens from
+the region of Langton and Darnley Bays.
+
+  The skulls of two adult males from Horton River and Artillery
+  Lake (Nos. 34502 and 29031, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.) measure,
+  respectively: condylobasal length (tip of premaxillary to
+  posterior plane of condyles), 381, 371; zygomatic width, 138,
+  approximately 142; interorbital width, 143, 144; nasal, 126,
+  112; maxillary tooth-row, 87, 84; mandibular tooth-row (of No.
+  29031), 93. The rostral profile of the former is slightly
+  convex; of the latter nearly flat. Comparison with Windy River
+  adult males (see accompanying table) indicates a longer and a
+  broader skull in the more northwesterly specimens. The
+  measurements of the skulls of Southampton Island specimens as
+  presented by Sutton and Hamilton (1932: 87), suggest a somewhat
+  larger animal than the mainland form.
+
+  The left antler of an adult male from Horton River (No. 34502,
+  Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.) measures: length, 1248; length of brow
+  tine, 345; width of brow tine, 360; total points (both antlers),
+  16�+�14 =�30. The corresponding measurements of two sets of
+  antlers from Fort Reliance in the American Museum of Natural
+  History are: No. 121471 (left), 1242-285-108; (right),
+  1244-412-294; total points, 16�+�23 =�39; No. 121473 (left),
+  1312-360-290 (broken); (right), 1230 (approx.), brow tine a
+  spike, not palmated; total points, approximately 19�+�13 =�32.
+  The Fort Reliance specimens were selected by George G. Goodwin
+  from a large number of old antlers lying about, and they are
+  naturally above the average in size. The antlers of adult males
+  from the Windy River area (see accompanying table) measure
+  distinctly less than those just mentioned.
+
+Anderson (1913b: 505) and Stef�nsson (1913a: 106, and 1913b: 241,
+276-277) have called attention to certain rather well-defined
+differences between the Caribou on both sides of Coronation Gulf and
+those elsewhere in northern Mackenzie. It may be assumed that the summer
+home of the former type is on Victoria Island. Many of these animals in
+former years crossed over to the mainland in the autumn after the
+freezing of Dolphin and Union Strait, Coronation Gulf, and Dease Strait
+made such a migration possible; and they recrossed to the island in the
+spring. During recent years this migration has greatly dwindled
+(Blanchet, 1930: 50; Birket-Smith, 1933: 93; Clarke, 1940: 98; Gavin,
+1945: 227; Godsell, 1937: 288; Banfield, 1949: 481); consequently the
+Victoria Island population now seems to be largely confined to that
+island throughout the year. In the American Museum of Natural History I
+have examined several of Anderson's specimens of 1911-1912 that are
+obviously of this form, and I should scarcely hesitate to give them
+nomenclatural recognition except for the fact that there has obviously
+been some confusion in the labeling of the specimens (after they reached
+the museum). Needless to say, a�specimen selected as a type should bear
+unquestionable data.
+
+During the winter there is some interchange of populations between Banks
+and Victoria islands across the frozen Prince of Wales Strait
+(Armstrong, 1857: 297, 336). The description that Armstrong gives (1857:
+478), based ostensibly on Banks Island specimens, indicates that the
+animals of that island are very close to, if not identical with,
+_Rangifer pearyi_ of the more northerly Arctic islands. Yet there is no
+known interchange of populations across the frozen McClure Strait or
+other wide sea channels in approximately latitude 74� N.
+
+The Caribou of Boothia Peninsula and Somerset and Prince of Wales
+islands are said to be a small form (Wright, 1944: 195).
+
+The Caribou of the Dubawnt River region, as far as may be judged from
+J.�B. Tyrrell's photographs (1897: pl. 1; Seton, 1929, +3+: pl. 22), are
+indistinguishable from those of the Nueltin Lake region.
+
+The Southampton Island antlers figured by Sutton and Hamilton (1932:
+pl.�8) are so strikingly different from all but one (No. 1132) of those
+that I noticed in southwestern Keewatin that I should be much inclined
+to regard them as representing a separate subspecies, provided they are
+typical of that island. In most of the bucks of the Windy River area the
+beams are deeply and fairly uniformly bowed, although there is a strong
+tendency for approximately the basal third to be nearly straight, with a
+pronounced forward bend just above it (_cf._ figs. 3, 4, 9, 10, 12, 22,
+25). The bend at this point in the Southampton antlers is extremely
+slight by comparison. In mainland specimens the beam in cross-section
+is generally more or less round, with rarely any tendency toward
+flattening, such as may be seen in the Southampton set and in my No.
+1132. Furthermore, I�cannot recall in the mainland animals a single such
+pronounced zigzag effect as may be seen in the Southampton antlers. In
+extremely few of them does the bez tine originate at such a distance
+(apparently 8 inches or so) above the base, as in Sutton and Hamilton's
+figure. The lack of palmation in the bez tines of their specimen is
+noteworthy.
+
+There is a distinct likelihood that the isolated herd of Coats Island
+(Wright, 1944: 188; Banfield, 1949: 481), and also that of Salisbury
+Island in Hudson Strait (Grant, 1903: 189; Tweedsmuir, 1951: 37), may be
+distinct from the populations on the nearest large land bodies.
+
+I have briefly examined a dozen or more heads (skulls with antlers) of
+the Labrador Barren Ground Caribou (_R.�a. caboti_ G.�M. Allen) in the
+United States National Museum; they were collected by L.�M. Turner in
+the 1880's. Some of these antlers appear longer than any I saw in
+Keewatin. Furthermore, the tips of the bez tines in these specimens
+seem, on the average, more strongly incurved than in _R.�a. arcticus_.
+
+For the purpose of comparing the Barren Ground Caribou with the Western
+Woodland Caribou, _Rangifer caribou sylvestris_ (Richardson), the
+following notes are offered on an adult male of the latter form in the
+United States Biological Surveys Collection (No. 235361; fig. 28). It
+was secured by a Cree Indian on Stony Mountain, about 27 miles south of
+Fort McMurray, Alberta, on October 21, 1920, and it was measured and
+prepared by myself. The general dorsal color is near Prout's Brown,
+overlaid more or less with longer whitish hairs; outer surface of ears
+near Prout's Brown, with an admixture of grayish white hairs; tip of
+snout, between nostrils and upper lip, Cartridge Buff; this area of more
+restricted extent than the similar patch in _arcticus_; neck creamy;
+longest hairs of throat fringe about 20 mm. (longer than in _arcticus_);
+no appreciable dark longitudinal stripe on lower sides, but an
+ill-defined lighter patch on the side behind the shoulder; rump-patch
+apparently less extensive than in _R.�a. arcticus_; venter near Buffy
+Brown, posteriorly creamy; creamy white "spats" above hoofs � to 1�
+inches wide, not extending up hind leg as indicated by Seton (1929, +3+:
+pl. 10). Length, 2025; tail, 225; foot, 625; front hoof, 109; hind hoof,
+101; estimated weight, 300 lb. The Western Woodland Caribou is thus a
+distinctly larger animal than _R.�a. arcticus_, with a noteworthy
+difference in the virtual absence of a light lateral stripe, setting off
+a darker stripe below it. The specific distinctness between the two
+animals seems abundantly clear.
+
+  _References to general descriptions (including geographical
+  variation)._--Richardson, 1829: 239, 241-242; Armstrong, 1857:
+  478; Baird, 1857: 635; Caton, 1881: 105; Lydekker, 1898: 47-48,
+  1901: 38-40, and 1915: 254; Elliot, 1901: 37, and 1902: 281-282,
+  286-287; Preble, 1902: 42-43; Stone and Cram, 1904: 52; J.�A.
+  Allen, 1908a: 488; Millais, 1915: 261; Buchanan, 1920:
+  125-126; Anthony, 1928: 530-531; Seton, 1929, +3+: 98-99;
+  Jacobi, 1931: 78-80; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 88; Degerb�l,
+  1935: 48-51; R.�M. Anderson, 1937: 103; Hamilton, 1939: 109;
+  Murie, 1939: 239; G.�M. Allen, 1942: 297-298; Wright, 1944: 195;
+  Rand, 1948a: 211-212; Banfield, 1951a: 15-17; Mochi and Carter,
+  1953: text to pl. 9.
+
+  _References to illustrations._--Parry, 1824: pl. facing p. 508;
+  Richardson, 1829: 240; Caton, 1881: 207; Pike, 1917 (1892): pl.
+  facing p. 89; J.�B. Tyrrell, 1897: pl. 1; J.�W. Tyrrell, 1908
+  (1898): pls. facing pp. 80, 81; Grant, 1903: 6th and 7th pls.
+  following p. 196; J.�A. Allen, 1908a: 500-503; Seton, 1911:
+  254, 256, 262, and pls. facing pp. 222, 224, 226, 228, 234;
+  Buchanan, 1920: pl. facing p. 132; Hewitt, 1921: pls. 3, 5;
+  Blanchet, 1926b: 47; Seton, 1929, +3+: pls. 17, 21, 22, 23;
+  Blanchet, 1930: 50; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: pl. 8, fig. 4;
+  Ingstad, 1933: pl. facing p. 178; Clarke, 1940: frontisp., 85,
+  87, 89; Harper, 1949: 224, 229; Banfield, 1951a: figs. 1, 2,
+  12-16, 20, 21, 23; Anonymous, 1952: 261, 263, 266, 267; Mochi
+  and Carter, 1953: pl. 9; Barnett, 1954: 90-91, 103-105.
+
+
+
+
+LITERATURE CITED
+
+
+ALCOCK, F. J.
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+STEF�NSSON, VILHJ�LMUR.
+
+1913a. Victoria Island and the surrounding seas. _Bull. Am. Geog.
+Soc._ +45+ (2): 93-106, 1�map.
+
+1913b. My life with the Eskimo. New York: ix + 538, 60 pl., 2�maps.
+
+1914. The Stef�nsson-Anderson Arctic Expedition of the American Museum:
+preliminary ethnological report. _Anthrop. Papers Am. Mus. Nat. Hist._
++14+, pt. 1: [1] + 395, 95 fig., 2�maps.
+
+1919. "Living off the country" as a method of Arctic exploration. _Geog.
+Rev._ +7+ (5): 291-310, 15 fig.
+
+1921. The friendly Arctic. . . . (With appendix, including (pp.
+737-757): The work of the southern section of the expedition, by Rudolph
+M. Anderson.) New York: xxxi + 784, 70 pl., 9�maps.
+
+STEWART, NORMAN H.
+
+1930? Preliminary report on the occurrence of the nose fly (Cephenomyia)
+in the deer of Pennsylvania. _Board Game Commissioners Pennsylvania
+Bull._ (12) rev.: 61-65, 2�fig.
+
+STOCKWELL, C. H.
+
+1933. Great Slave Lake--Coppermine River area, Northwest Territories.
+_Canada Dept. Mines, Geol. Survey, Summary Rept. 1932_, pt. C: 64-72,
+1�map.
+
+STONE, A. J.
+
+1900. Some results of a natural history journey to northern British
+Columbia, Alaska, and the Northwest Territory, in the interest of the
+American Museum of Natural History. _Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist._ +13+
+(5): 31-62, 2�fig., 3�maps.
+
+STONE, WITMER, and WILLIAM EVERETT CRAM.
+
+1904. American animals, a popular guide to the mammals of North America
+north of Mexico.�.�.�. New York: xxiii + 318, 86 pl., 17 fig.
+
+SUTTON, GEORGE MIKSCH, and WILLIAM J. HAMILTON, JR.
+
+1932. The mammals of Southampton Island. _Mem. Carnegie Mus._ +12+,
+pt. 2, sect. 1: 1-111, 5�pl., 4�fig.
+
+THOMPSON, DAVID.
+
+1916. David Thompson's narrative of his explorations in western America
+1784-1812. Edited by J.�B. Tyrrell. _Publ. Champlain Soc._ 12: xcviii +
+582, 21 pl., 2�maps.
+
+TWEEDSMUIR, [LORD].
+
+1951. Hudson's Bay trader. New York: 1-195, 8 pl., 1 map.
+
+TWINN, C. R.
+
+1950. Studies of the biology and control of biting flies in northern
+Canada. _Arctic_ +3+ (1): 14-26, 11 fig.
+
+TYRRELL, JAMES W.
+
+1908. Across the sub-Arctics of Canada. Ed. 3. Toronto: i-viii, 9-280,
+18 pl., 66 fig., 3�maps. (Orig. ed. in 1898.)
+
+1924. Report on an exploratory survey between Great Slave Lake and
+Hudson Bay, districts of Mackenzie and Keewatin. Dept. Interior, Ottawa:
+1-38, maps. (Reprinted from _Ann. Rept. Dept. Interior_ 1901 [1902].)
+
+TYRRELL, J. BURR.
+
+1892. The winter home of the Barren Ground Caribou. _Ottawa Naturalist_
++6+ (8): 128-130.
+
+1894. An expedition through the Barren Lands of northern Canada. _Geog.
+Jour._ +4+ (5): 437-450, 1�map.
+
+1895. A second expedition through the Barren Lands of northern Canada.
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+
+1896. Report on the country between Athabasca Lake and Churchill River
+with notes on two routes travelled between the Churchill and
+Saskatchewan Rivers. Ann. _Rept. Geog. Survey Canada_ +8+ (n.s.), 1895,
+rept. D: 1-120, 3�pl., 1�map.
+
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+north-west coast of Hudson Bay, and on two overland routes from Hudson
+Bay to Lake Winnipeg. _Ann. Rept. Geol. Survey Canada_ +9+ (n.s.), 1896,
+rept. F: 1-218, 11 pl., 3�maps.
+
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+
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+
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+
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+
+WEEKS, L. J.
+
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+pt. 64-72, 1�map.
+
+WEYER, EDWARD MOFFATT, JR.
+
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+491, 6�fig., 23 maps.
+
+WHEELER, DAVID E.
+
+1912. Notes on the spring migration at timber line, north of Great Slave
+Lake. _Auk_ +29+ (2): 198-204, 1�map.
+
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++12+ (2): 47-69, 3�pl., 1�map.
+
+WHITNEY, CASPAR.
+
+1896. On snow-shoes to the Barren Grounds. . . . New York: x + 324, 35
+pl., 77 fig., 2�maps.
+
+WHITTAKER, E. J.
+
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+(9): 166-167.
+
+WRAY, O. R.
+
+1934. In the footsteps of Samuel Hearne. _Canadian Geog. Jour._ +9+ (3):
+138-146, 15 fig., 2�maps.
+
+WRIGHT, J. G.
+
+1944. Economic wildlife of Canada's eastern Arctic--caribou. _Canadian
+Geog. Jour._ +29+ (4): 184-195, 12 fig., 1�map.
+
+YOUNG, STANLEY P.
+
+1944. The wolves of North America. Part 1. Their history, life habits,
+economic status, and control. Washington: 1-385, 74 pl., 4�fig., 8�maps.
+
+YULE, ROBERT F.
+
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+287-288, 1�fig.
+
+
+
+
+ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES
+
+TO
+
+_Rangifer arcticus arcticus_
+
+
+These references are arranged chronologically, year by year; but within
+a given year, the arrangement for the most part is alphabetical by
+authors. The full citations of the publications (here designated merely
+by author and year) may be found in the preceding "Literature Cited."
+
+The name or names at the beginning of each entry are those by which the
+animal is referred to in that particular publication. If the author
+supplies a technical name (such as _Rangifer arcticus_), that name alone
+is furnished here. The authority for the technical name is included or
+omitted according to the usage of each author. If he omits a technical
+name, the common name or names he employs (such as "Caribou" or
+"Reindeer") are supplied.
+
+In some of the earlier accounts, particularly, more than one form of
+_Rangifer_ (_e.g._, Peary's Caribou, the Labrador Caribou, or even the
+Woodland Caribou, in addition to the typical Barren Ground Caribou) may
+have been treated under a single designation, such as "Reindeer" or
+"_Cervus tarandus_." In such case the word "part" is added in
+parentheses after the name at the beginning of the entry. As far as
+is possible or feasible, the references are here limited to _R.�a.
+arcticus_. They constitute a partial summary of the nomenclatural
+history of the typical subspecies.
+
+The annotations aim to provide a sort of abstract of, or unalphabetized
+index to, the treatment of this animal in each publication. Each topic
+or rubric of the annotations (such as migration, distribution, food,
+voice, antlers, or relation to Wolves) is accompanied by page
+references.
+
+In the earlier part of the present publication, at the end of the
+discussion of each topic, references are given (merely by author, year,
+and page) to previous literature on the same topic. The Annotated
+Bibliographical References now supplied represent an amplification of
+those earlier and briefer references--an intermediate stage between
+them and the original literature. It is hoped that they will prove
+particularly helpful to those who may not have ready access to all the
+items of the original literature. My own coverage of the literature has
+not been by any means exhaustive; limitations of time and insufficient
+accessibility of some of the rarer publications have been the principal
+factors involved in this deficiency.
+
+The chronological arrangement of the entries throws an interesting light
+on the gradual acquisition, during more than two centuries, of our
+present stock of information on the distribution, taxonomic characters,
+life habits, and general status of _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. It may
+be remarked, however, that one of the very earliest accounts (Hearne,
+1795) was one of the fullest. It contributes toward bringing into focus
+the remarkable attainments of that pioneer explorer-naturalist of the
+Barren Grounds.
+
+  "Deer" (one of three kinds): Isham, 1949 (1743): 151
+  (description); 152 (inhabit Barren Grounds); 152-153 (snares);
+  154 (Eskimos hunting with spears and arrows).
+
+  "Rain-deer" or "Cariboux": Dobbs, 1774: 9, 78, 94 (Marble
+  Island); 19 (Indians living on Caribou W. of Hudson Bay); 20
+  (herds of up to 10,000 between Churchill and Nelson rivers); 22
+  (migration [of Barren Ground or Woodland species?] near York
+  Factory--S. in March-April, N. in July-August); 47, 59 (N. of
+  Churchill); 73-74 (Wager Inlet); 80 (Cape Fullerton).
+
+  "Deer": Hearne, 1795: 4, 7, 8, 14, 24 (vicinity of Seal River or
+  Shethanei Lake); 28 (near Baralzon Lake); 35 (spearing by
+  Chipewyans on upper Kazan River); 39, 40 (W. of upper Kazan
+  River, July 22-30); 40-42, 50-52 (vicinity of upper Dubawnt
+  River); 50 (skins suitable for clothing in late August); 56, 66
+  (vicinity of Egg River, Manitoba, November and December); 67-68
+  (E. of Nueltin Lake); 69, 72, (Nueltin Lake); 69 (flesh of bucks
+  still unpalatable on December 30); 73, 74 (W. of Nueltin Lake,
+  January); 76 (plentiful W. of Kasba Lake); 77 (Snowbird Lake);
+  78 (Indians living all winter on deer at Wholdaia Lake); 78-80
+  (description of a pound); 80-84 (deer in Indian economy); 84
+  (remoteness a barrier to trade in skins); 85-87 (W. of Wholdaia
+  Lake, plentiful, March); 87 ("Thelewey-aza-yeth" Lake [on Thelon
+  River], numerous, April); 96 (Indians living all winter on deer
+  near Clowey Lake); 112, 114 ("Peshew" [Artillery?] Lake and
+  vicinity); 117 (plentiful, vicinity of Thoy-noy-kyed and
+  Thoy-coy-lyned lakes); 119, 123 (N. of Cogead Lake, where
+  Indians kill deer at a river crossing); 139 (N. of Buffalo
+  Lake); 141 (E. of Coppermine River); 142, 143, 147, 171
+  (Coppermine River and vicinity); 184 (Stony Mountains); 195
+  (Thaye-chuck-gyed Lake [Lac de Gras?]; great numbers killed);
+  196-197 (use for clothing, boots, tents, etc.); 197 (warbles
+  eaten by Indians); 198 (rutting season in October; subsequent
+  segregation of sexes); 198-199 (old bucks' antlers shed in
+  November; young bucks still retain theirs at Christmas, and does
+  till summer); 201, 204 (Point Lake); 222 (between Great Slave
+  and MacKay lakes); 275 (large numbers reported on upper Taltson?
+  River); 281 (W. of Hill Island Lake); 285, 286 (plentiful in
+  April on Thee-lee-aza [Thelon?] River, NE. of Hill Island Lake);
+  293 (near Wholdaia Lake); 295, 296 (W. and E. of Kazan River);
+  297 (method of drying meat); 299 (plentiful in June, Nueltin
+  Lake region); 300 (vicinity of Egg River, Manitoba); 316-319
+  (stomach contents, unborn young and uterus eaten by Indians);
+  321-322 (Indians driving deer between converging rows of
+  sticks); 322-323 (tents of deerskin); 323-325 (skins used in
+  manufacture of sledges, snowshoes, and clothing).
+
+  "Rein-deer": Parry, 1821: 273 (E. coast of Baffin Island).
+
+  "Reindeer" or "deer": Franklin, 1823: 215-227, 285 (Yellowknife
+  River region); 230-232, 239-240, 245, 248, 268-271, 285, 297,
+  299, 309, 315-320, 438-440, 459-462, 480-488 (Winter Lake
+  region); 233, 324-325, 418-426, 446-447 (Point Lake region); 240
+  (back fat; rutting season); 240-241 (antler and pelage change);
+  241 (larvae of warble and nostril flies); 241-242 (migration);
+  242 (fawning; food; weight; predation by wolves); 243-244
+  (Indian hunting methods); 327, 328, 333, 337, 344 (Coppermine
+  River region); 327 (pursuit by a wolf); 344 (driven by wolves
+  over a precipice); 363-374 (coast of Coronation Gulf); 379-395
+  (Bathurst Inlet region); 397-400 (Hood River region); 404-413
+  (Contwoyto Lake region); 478 (Marten Lake); 486, 487 (pursuit
+  and killing by wolves, Winter Lake region).
+
+  _Cervus Tarandas_. . .: Sabine, in Franklin, 1823: 665, 667
+  (Barren Grounds, migrating in summer to Arctic islands).
+
+  "Deer" or "reindeer": Lyon, 1824: 48, 58-60 (Frozen Strait); 54
+  (Repulse Bay); 64-67 (Gore Bay; too fleet for a greyhound); 70,
+  74, 76, 77, 80, 82 (Lyon Inlet and vicinity); 119, 123, 130,
+  144, 203, 212 (Winter Island; food of Eskimos; bows made of
+  antlers; use of sinews; deerskin clothing); 192-198, 217, 221,
+  223, 229, 238, 241, 282-283, 311-317 (Melville Peninsula, E.
+  coast; deerskin clothing of Eskimos); 257, 269-270 (near Fury
+  and Hecla Strait; buck shedding velvet, September 4); 324, 327
+  (Eskimo use of antlers in sledges and bows); 336 (Melville
+  Peninsula, in summer; voice; inquisitiveness); 336-337 (Eskimo
+  hunting with bow and spearing in water); 415, 419-423, 430, 436
+  (near Igloolik, Melville Peninsula, in June).
+
+  "Deer" or "reindeer": Parry, 1824: 42 (Southampton Island); 52,
+  61, 69, 71, 72, 83, 84, 92, 101, 106-108, 214, 230, 235, 236,
+  245, 254, 265 (s. Melville Peninsula and vicinity); 289, 305,
+  308, 324, 329, 332, 339, 343, 434, 438, 439, 441, 446, 447,
+  453-460 (Fury and Hecla Strait); 289 (stomach contents eaten by
+  Eskimos); 305 (estimated weight 220 lb.); 380 (venison supplied
+  by Eskimos); 403 (15 deer killed by an Eskimo during a summer);
+  494-497 (deerskin clothing of Eskimos, Melville Peninsula); 505
+  (their dependence on reindeer for food); 508 (Eskimo spear for
+  killing deer in water); 512 (Eskimo methods of hunting deer);
+  513 (numerous, Cockburn Land); 537 (Eskimo use of skins and
+  sinew).
+
+  _Cervus tarandus_ L.: Richardson, "1825" (= 1827?): 326 (native
+  names); 327-328 (antler growth and change); 328 (rutting season
+  and strong-tasting meat, about beginning of October; warble
+  flies); 328-329 (migrations, in relation to attacks of parasitic
+  flies and to food; does precede on northward migration); 329
+  (fawns born in May and June; stragglers in every part of the
+  country at all seasons); 330 (utilization of Caribou--including
+  fly larvae--as food by natives; nostril flies); 331 (marrow used
+  as hair-dressing by native women).
+
+  _Cervus tarandus_. . .: J. C. Ross, 1826: 94 (North Somerset
+  Island).
+
+  "Rein-deer": Franklin, in Franklin and Richardson, 1828: 54, 57,
+  60, 64, 71, 72, 288 (Great Bear Lake).
+
+  "Rein-deer": Richardson, in Franklin and Richardson, 1828: 200
+  (sinews used in Eskimo bows); 209, 218 (between Mackenzie River
+  and Cape Dalhousie); 224 (Liverpool Bay); 231 (E. of Cape
+  Bathurst); 241, 246 (near Cape Lyon); 249 (Cape Young); 255
+  (Dolphin and Union Strait); 269-273 (lower Coppermine River);
+  275 (stalking device of Hare Indians); 277 (Dease River); 282
+  (Great Bear Lake).
+
+  _Cervus tarandus_, var. [Greek: alpha] _arctica_ Richardson:
+  Richardson, 1829: 241-242 (original description); 239 (type
+  locality, neighborhood of Fort Enterprise, Mackenzie); 241
+  (rutting season); 241-242 (antler change); 242 (pelage change;
+  infestation with warble fly; foot click); 242-245 (economic uses
+  of hide, flesh, bones, and antlers; migration; not wintering S.
+  of Churchill); 242-244 (reproduction); 243, 245 (food); 245
+  (organization of herds; easy of approach); 245-249 (native
+  methods of hunting).
+
+  _Cervus tarandus_ L.: Godman, 1831, +2+: 283-284 (migration);
+  284 (food; gadfly attacking both Woodland and Barren Ground
+  Caribou); 285-293 (quotations from Franklin, 1823).
+
+  "Deer" or "reindeer": John Ross, 1835a: 130-376, _passim_
+  (Boothia Peninsula); 243-244 (Eskimo clothing of deerskin); 252
+  (Eskimo method of hunting); 328, 330 (only small numbers up to
+  late April); 337 (many, early May); 352 (stomach contents as
+  food for Eskimos); 376 (migrating N., May 26); 389 (large herd);
+  390 (hundreds, June 4); 402 (pursued and eaten by wolves); 432
+  (with fawns, June 10); 438 (many in June); 512 (many killed by
+  Eskimos); 529 (many tracks, May 15); 530 (many passing, followed
+  by a wolf); 534 (many, May 21, with two wolves); 537 (Eskimos
+  killing deer in winter); 564 (a�number pursued by a wolf); 612
+  (two, October 30); 628 (first tracks, March); 704 (tracks,
+  Somerset Island, late June).
+
+  _Cervus tarandus_. . .: J. C. Ross, in John Ross, 1835b: xvii
+  (great numbers, Boothia; weight 250 lb.; does arriving in April,
+  bucks in May; fawns hunted by Eskimos with dogs; utilization by
+  Eskimos; food; great numbers speared in water in autumn
+  migration; stragglers found in winter); xviii (measurements).
+
+  "Rein-deer" or "deer": Back, 1836: 86 (Thelon River); 105 (Great
+  Slave Lake); 116 (Hoar-frost River); 128-129 (near Artillery
+  Lake, reindeer chased by wolves); 138-143 (Clinton-Colden and
+  Aylmer lakes); 156-157 (head of Great Fish River); 178, 205
+  (near Fort Reliance); 216, 225, 234 (remaining on Barren Grounds
+  near Great Slave Lake during winter); 261, 267, 268, 273, 280,
+  281, 285, 286 (Artillery Lake); 290, 292 (Lake Aylmer); 299,
+  307, 311, 320, 323, 325, 328, 337 (upper Back's River); 367
+  (lower Back's River, deer drowned in rapids); 420 (Chantrey
+  Inlet); 435, 439 (lower Back's River).
+
+  _Cervus tarandus_ Linn.: Richardson, in Back, 1836: 498 (Barren
+  Grounds; migration; food); 499 (utilization by Indians and
+  Eskimos; antlers).
+
+  "Reindeer" or "deer": Simpson, 1843: 76 (destruction in 1831 of
+  a countless herd [of Woodland or Barren Ground species?]
+  crossing Hayes River in summer); 196, 198 (Great Bear Lake,
+  September); 206, 226, 232, 242, 247, 249, 250 (between Great
+  Bear Lake and Coppermine River); 207 (solicitude of a buck for a
+  wounded doe); 208 (antlers worn by Indian hunter as a decoy);
+  232 (deer driven over a cliff by wolves); 233 (numerous near
+  Dease River, early April); 255, 256, 261, 264 (lower Coppermine
+  River, June); 266, 271, 273 (Coppermine River to Cape Barrow,
+  July); 277 (does apparently crossing the ice to islands for
+  fawning); 278, 279 (Cape Barrow to Bathurst Inlet); 281 (first
+  does with fawns seen, August 3); 284 (Bathurst Inlet); 295, 297,
+  301 (E. of Cape Franklin, migrating S., late August); 309, 310
+  (lower Coppermine River, September; drowned in rapids); 312
+  (deer snares, Dease River); 320-321 (retiring in winter to
+  Coppermine River and country south of Great Bear Lake); 328
+  (numerous between Great Bear Lake and Mackenzie River in
+  winter); 342 (between Great Bear Lake and Coppermine River,
+  June); 347 (Eskimos hunting on Richardson River, summer); 352
+  (lower Coppermine River); 355 (Eskimos at Cape Barrow gone
+  inland to hunt deer, July); 361 (Ellice River, July 31); 365,
+  367 (Adelaide Peninsula); 370, 374 (Elliot Bay); 379 (King
+  William Island); 381 (does and fawns near Ogden Bay, early
+  September); 382 (Melbourne Island); 386 (Victoria Island, early
+  September); 391 (great numbers, lower Coppermine River,
+  September 20).
+
+  "Rein-deer": J. McLean, 1932 (1849): 195 (immense herds
+  [Woodland or Barren Ground sp.?] in York Factory region prior to
+  1837; their disappearance reducing Indians to want); 359
+  (Yellowknife Indians reported to have the art of taming fawns,
+  which follow them like dogs till killed and utilized).
+
+  "Deer" or "rein-deer": Rae, 1850: 26, 27 (Rankin's Inlet); 27
+  (Eskimos spearing deer while crossing Chesterfield Inlet); 28
+  (Cape Fullerton); 31, 32 (near Whale Point); 35, 39 (Eskimo
+  clothing of caribou skin, Repulse Bay); 40, 64, 65, 73, 74, 76,
+  80, 84, 91, 92, 133, 134, 166, 169, 177 (Repulse Bay); 44 (stone
+  monuments erected by Eskimos to deflect deer); 44, 68, 99 (Rae
+  Isthmus); 52, 54, 55, 130, 132, 145, 160, 161 (Committee Bay);
+  79 (use by Eskimos for clothing and food); 93 (migrating N.,
+  Repulse Bay, early March); 116 (Pelly Bay); 149, 151 (Melville
+  Peninsula); 150 (use of stomach contents as food); 170 (Eskimo
+  drum of caribou skin); 184, 186 (near Chesterfield Inlet).
+
+  "Deer": Osborn, 1852: 74 (near Pond Inlet).
+
+  "Deer": Rae, 1852a: 75 (Victoria Island, near Richardson
+  Islands); 79 (many crossing Dolphin and Union Straits to
+  Victoria Island).
+
+  "Deer": Rae, 1852b: 83 (lower Coppermine River); 91, 95
+  (Victoria Island, vicinity of Albert Edward Bay).
+
+  "Barren Ground reindeer": Richardson, 1852: 156 (Point
+  Atkinson); 158 (Cape Brown); 166 (Franklin Bay); 173 (Buchanan
+  River); 188 (Rae's River); 198 (Kendall River region); 290
+  (Great Bear Lake; weight; great numbers [of Woodland or Barren
+  Ground species?] crossing Hayes River, 1833, and slaughtered
+  there by Indians); 296 (Great Bear Lake, migrating N. in May).
+
+  "Reindeer" or "deer": Hooper, 1853: 296 (dried meat as winter
+  fare at Fort Norman); 302 (few along Bear River, November); 342
+  (Kendall Island); 343 (Richard Island); 378, 381 (meat as winter
+  fare at Fort Simpson); 391-393 (method of preparing pemmican).
+
+  "Rein-deer": Kennedy, 1853: 128 (numerous tracks, North
+  Somerset, early April); 133 (Bellot Strait); 144, 150 (numerous,
+  Prince of Wales Island, late April).
+
+  _Rangifer caribou_ . . . (_C. tarandus, var. A. Arctica_
+  Richardson): Audubon and Bachman, 1854, +3+: 114 (quotations
+  from Richardson, 1829, and Hearne, 1795; "in every part of
+  Arctic America, including the region from Hudson's Bay to far
+  within the Arctic circle").
+
+  "Deer": J. Anderson, 1856: 24 (about 100, mostly bucks, Adelaide
+  Peninsula, early August; Eskimos at Lake Franklin preparing to
+  hunt deer); 25 (a�few does at Lake Macdougall, mid-August;
+  numerous at Aylmer and Clinton-Colden Lakes, early September).
+
+  "Deer": J. Anderson, 1857: 321 (Eskimos hunting deer, Lake
+  Franklin, July 30); 322 (mouth of Back's River, July 30); 323
+  (fat bucks killed, Montreal Island, August 2-3); 324, 325, 327
+  (100, mostly bucks, Adelaide Peninsula, August 6, 7, 11); 326
+  (all tracks going S., August 9); 328 (25 going S., Lake Pelly;
+  good deer passes between Lakes Pelly and Garry and at Hawk
+  Rapids).
+
+  "Reindeer" or "Deer": Armstrong, 1857: 149, 154, 155 (Eskimos
+  with Reindeer meat and skins, Point Warren, E. of Mackenzie
+  River); 166 (skins and meat at Eskimo camp near Cape Dalhousie);
+  194 (deerskin clothing of Eskimos on coast of Mackenzie); 210,
+  316, 322, 384, 391, 395, 417 (Banks Island); 254, 335, 364, 365
+  (Victoria Island, in October, May, July, and August); 297, 336
+  (Prince of Wales Strait, January and May); 395 (predation by
+  wolves, Banks Island); 475-488, 497-499, 505-510, 514, 515,
+  521-530, 545-556, 568 (Banks Island; maximum weight 240 lb.;
+  distribution; remain during winter; fawning; 112 killed at Bay
+  of Mercy; quality of meat varying with season; wariness; antler
+  change; description; graze with heads to wind; pursuit by
+  wolves).
+
+  _Rangifer groenlandicus_ (Kerr) (part): Baird, 1857: 635
+  (description; weight); 635-636 (distribution).
+
+  _Cervus Tarandus_, var. [Greek: a] _arctica_ Richardson: Murray,
+  1858: 191 (Chesterfield Inlet region); 193-198 (comparison with
+  Lapland reindeer); 199-206 (antlers and shedding); 201-204
+  (quotations from previous literature on antlers, food, fawning
+  season, and winter range); 206 (teeth); 206-210 (fur); 210
+  (damage by warble flies).
+
+  "Reindeer" or "deer": M'Clintock, 1860?: 147 (s. shore of Pond
+  Inlet); 167, 176, 177, 184-188, 191, 194, 201, 203, 217, 289,
+  290, 295, 299 (Bellot Strait); 184 (buck at Bellot Strait, minus
+  paunch, weighing 354 lb.); 212 (Eskimo clothing of reindeer
+  skins, Boothia Peninsula); 219 (Somerset Island); 239 (Adelaide
+  Peninsula); 244 (Montreal Island); 245 (Chantrey Inlet); 252,
+  279, 280 (King William Island).
+
+  "Rein-deer" (part): Richardson, 1861: 274 (migration; rutting
+  season; utilization by Indians and Eskimos); 275 (moving N. at
+  Repulse Bay, March 1; food).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ . . .: B. R. Ross, 1861: 438 (between Hudson
+  Bay and Arctic Ocean; infested by larvae of warble and nostril
+  flies); 438-439 (migrations); 439 (antler and pelage change;
+  food); 439-440 (value to Indians for food, clothing, etc.).
+
+  _Rangifer Gro�nlandicus_ . . .: B. R. Ross, 1862: 141
+  (distribution).
+
+  "Reindeer" or "deer": Osborn, 1865: 70 (Cape Bathurst); 80, 110,
+  162, 170, 173, 182, 186, 188, 189, 192, 199, 206-208, 219 (Banks
+  Island); 98, 139, 146 (Victoria Island); 112 (Prince of Wales
+  Strait, January); 223-224 (resident in Arctic archipelago,
+  including Banks Island); 226 (no migration across Barrow Strait
+  or Melville Sound); 227 (weight; gait; antler change; fawning);
+  227-228, 231, 232 (wolf predation).
+
+  "Reindeer": Kennicott, in Anonymous, 1869: 166 (dried reindeer
+  meat one of chief foods at Fort Simpson); 170 (caribou clothing
+  used by Yellow Knives).
+
+  _Rangifer tarandus_ (Linn�) Bd.: Kumlien, 1879: 19 (Eskimo
+  hunting at Cumberland Sound); 23-25 (Eskimo clothing of
+  deerskin); 36-37 (Eskimo arrows and bows of antlers); 53, 54
+  (pursuit by wolves); 54 (abundant in Cumberland Sound region;
+  migration; food; hunting and utilization by Eskimos).
+
+  "Barren ground caribou": R. Bell, 1881: 15C (migrating in great
+  numbers, Reindeer Lake).
+
+  _Rangifer Groenlandicus_ "Baird" (part): Caton, 1881: 105
+  (description); 106 (Mackenzie River to Hudson Bay); 107 (food);
+  108 (habits; migration); 366-371 (hunting by Indians and
+  Eskimos).
+
+  "Reindeer" or "deer": Gilder, 1881: 11 (Eskimos near Lower
+  Savage Islands, Hudson Strait, with skins and meat); 23, 25, 26,
+  28 (hunting by Eskimos near Connery River, Keewatin); 42, 46
+  (near Chesterfield Inlet); 43 (Eskimo drum of deerskin); 50 (dog
+  harness of deerskin); 59, 61, 64, 67, 71 (522 reindeer killed by
+  Schwatka's party between Hudson Bay and King William Island); 61
+  (pursued by wolves); 78 (wariness in winter); 83, 192 (Adelaide
+  Peninsula); 122, 132, 153, 157, 161, 162 (King William Island);
+  137-146 (Eskimo use of skins and meat); 154 (Eskimos use of fat
+  and meat); 196-197 (reindeer collecting in immense herds to
+  cross Simpson Strait on ice in early October); 217, 218 (lower
+  Back's River, December); 223, 224, 225, 226 (numerous between
+  Back's River and Chesterfield Inlet, January); 254-255
+  (deerskins as Eskimo bedding).
+
+  "Reindeer" or "deer": Nourse, 1884: 220 (Eskimos dressing skins
+  near Wager Bay); 232 (37 killed by Hall's party in July, Wager
+  Bay); 235 (a�thousand passing in a day; many cached near North
+  Pole River, late September; seen from September to January, and
+  reappearing in March); 256 (deer-hunting, Melville Peninsula);
+  264-265 (18 deer and a fawn near Cape Weynton); 351 (found
+  abundant by Schwatka between Wager Bay and Back's River); 354
+  (King William Island); 356 (plentiful, Terror Bay; immense
+  herds, Simpson Strait, September to October 14).
+
+  "Reindeer" or "Arctic deer": Schwatka, 1885: 59-60, 65, 67-71,
+  73-75, 81-82, 86 (hunting by Eskimos and whites in n. Keewatin);
+  60-64 (skins for clothing, bedding, and drums); 60-61 (molt);
+  65, 67 (use of meat); 68, 71-72 (swimming); 72 (many on King
+  William Island); 77-79 (migrating across Simpson's Strait, June
+  and October); 79 (Boothia and North Somerset); 81 (near mouth of
+  Back's River); 83 (rarely seen in herds of more than 100;
+  migrations); 84-85 (weight); 85 (unwariness).
+
+  "Deer": Boas, 1888: 419 (deer in Eskimo economy); 429, 461-462,
+  501 (Baffin Island; hunting by Eskimos in summer by spear or
+  line of cairns); 438 (varying numbers on Cumberland Peninsula);
+  502 (migration, Baffin and King William Islands); 502-503 (bows
+  made of antlers); 508-509 (stalking and trapping by Eskimos);
+  522 (dressing of skins by Eskimos); 555-560 (clothing of
+  deerskin).
+
+  "Reindeer": Bompas, 1888: 24 (deflected in their migrations in
+  Mackenzie district by burning of the country); 60 (attacked by
+  wolves); 61 (Indian methods of hunting); 62 (palatability of the
+  flesh); 100 (utilization of hides and meat).
+
+  "Deer": Collinson, 1889: 153 (Banks Island; weight); 166, 171,
+  173-175, 181, 186, 197, 209, 220, 237, 264, 272-274 (Victoria
+  Island); 200, 203, 229 (Prince of Wales Strait); 235 (Dolphin
+  and Union Strait); 243, 247, 281, 283 (Cambridge Bay); 244
+  (large herds waiting to cross Dease Strait, October; trailed by
+  wolves); 277 (stone monuments of Eskimos for deflecting deer,
+  Dease Strait); 290 (large numbers migrating in autumn from
+  Victoria Island to mainland).
+
+  "Reindeer": MacFarlane, 1890: 32-34 (Anderson River; Eskimos
+  hunting reindeer there; their clothing in part of deerskin); 38
+  (Eskimo fish nets of deer sinew); 38, 43, 47 (numerous on
+  Anderson River).
+
+  "Barren Ground caribou": Pike, 1917 (1892): 43, 64 (near Lake
+  Mackay); 44-46 (Lake Camsell); 48 (Arctic islands to s. part of
+  Hudson Bay and vicinity of Fort Smith, W. to Mackenzie River;
+  rutting season in October); 48-49 (migration); 49 (segregation
+  of sexes; antler change); 50 (migration deflected by burning of
+  country; thousands [Barren Ground or Woodland species?] at York
+  Factory, about 1888-1890; depletion by hunting); 51-55 (Indian
+  methods of hunting; economic uses); 51-52, 90 (unwariness);
+  56-58 (relations to Eskimos, wolves, and wolverines); 58-59
+  (parasitic flies); 59-60 (Indian superstition); 67, 72
+  (Coppermine River above Lac de Gras); 76 (near Lake Mackay; Lake
+  Camsell); 81-82 (S. of Lake Mackay; curing of meat and hides);
+  89-91 (la foule); 90 (rutting season over and bucks too strong
+  to eat, late October); 101 (mostly passed into the woods by
+  November 11); 108 (Lake Mackay); 134 (near Lac de Mort); 148
+  (near Gros Cap, Great Slave Lake, January); 171, 174, 177 (N. of
+  Great Slave Lake); 174 (bucks leaving woods in early June); 182
+  (Lake Aylmer); 186, 199 (Back's River, July); 201, 204 (near
+  Lake Beechey; females with young, late July); 209 (females and
+  young in great numbers, upper Back's River); 217 (Clinton-Colden
+  Lake, early August); 220 (thousands at Ptarmigan Lake, August);
+  221 (Artillery Lake); 224, 227 (Pike's Portage).
+
+  _Rangifer Groenlandicus_ Linn.: J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128 (use in
+  economy of northern Indians; weight; antler shedding; pelage
+  change; infestation with warbles); 129 (wintering between
+  Churchill River and Lake Athabaska; collecting on frozen lakes);
+  130 (Indian hunters killing 100-400 apiece; Fond du Lac, Lake
+  Athabaska, on a main migratory path).
+
+  _Rangifer Groenlandica_ Linn.: Dowling, 1893: 89 (Bear Head Lake
+  [N. of Great Slave Lake]); 92 (near Lake Mackay, June 22); 103
+  (a�favorite crossing on Great Fish River near Musk-ox Lake); 107
+  (Pike's expedition living mainly on caribou; migrations; does
+  fawning near the sea-coast, bucks following behind; horns in
+  velvet prized as food by Indians).
+
+  "Barren Ground caribou": J. B. Tyrrell, 1894: 441 (_Alectoria
+  jubata_, a lichen, at Daly Lake, as food of caribou); 442
+  (immense herd--"tens of thousands"--at Carey Lake, July 29;
+  tormented by black flies; animals lean and poor); 445 (Eskimo
+  wearing deerskin coat; Lady Marjorie Lake, lower Dubawnt River);
+  446 (caribou plentiful in country traversed as far as Baker
+  Lake; last one shot there September 3).
+
+  "Barren Ground Caribou": Russell, 1895: 48 (a mass of caribou
+  passing Fort Rae for 14 days in 1877); 49 (a�section of antler
+  used by Indian as a powder horn); 49-50 (caribou N. of North Arm
+  of Great Slave Lake, November); 50 (leaping high in air at
+  start; Indian hunting methods); 51 (Indian use of meat; albino
+  specimen; antler growth and shedding; thousands near Bathurst
+  Inlet, April; does fawning along sea coast in June).
+
+  "Deer": J. B. Tyrrell, 1895: 440 (deer meat bartered by
+  Chipewyans at Brochet); 442-443 (Indians hunting deer at Ennadai
+  Lake; large numbers encountered there; Eskimos skinning deer on
+  upper Kazan River); 444 (deerskin clothing purchased from
+  Eskimos on Kazan River); 445 (no deer seen in rocky country
+  along Ferguson River).
+
+  _Rangifer Graenlandicus_ . . .: J.�B. Tyrrell, 1896: 13 (S. in
+  winter to Reindeer Lake and Mudjatick and Foster Rivers); 63
+  (migrating past Fond du Lac, Lake Athabaska).
+
+  "Caribou": Whitney, 1896: 157, 238, 241 (migrations); 161 (fat,
+  pemmican, and dried meat); 175 (use of dried meat by Dogribs);
+  176 (tepees of caribou skin); 202-206 (vicinity of Fort
+  Enterprise); 210 (near Point Lake); 210, 213 (Dogrib hunting
+  methods); 237 (importance to Indians; weight; an albino);
+  238-239 (antler shedding); 239 (warble and nostril flies;
+  persecution by wolves); 240 (seasonal condition of flesh;
+  distribution; recent decrease); 242 (wasteful killing by
+  Indians; variation in wariness); 252, 268-269 (S. of Coronation
+  Gulf); 262 (shoulder-blade as Indian talisman).
+
+  _Rangifer Groenlandicus_. . .: J. B. Tyrrell, 1897: 10, 49-50,
+  165 (herd of 100,000 to 200,000 at Carey Lake, Dubawnt River,
+  late July); 12 (plentiful near Thelon-Dubawnt junction; scarce
+  at Baker Lake, early September); 14 (S. of Dawson Inlet); 19,
+  124 (large numbers, Ennadai Lake, mid-August); 21, 140, 142
+  (plentiful along Ferguson River, September); 76 (plentiful along
+  Dubawnt River); 122, 131-132 (hunted by Chipewyans, Ennadai Lake
+  and Kazan River); 126-127, 131-132 (hunted by Eskimos, upper
+  Kazan River); 134 (many near Yathkyed Lake); 150-151 (near
+  source of Owl River, Manitoba; hunted by Indians, Wapinihikiskow
+  Lake); 166-167 (hunting by Chipewyans and Eskimos; use for food,
+  clothing, and kayaks).
+
+  _Rangifer tarandus arcticus_. . .: Lydekker, 1898: 47-48
+  (description); 48 (distribution); 48-49 (migration; food).
+
+  _Rangifer tarandus_ (Linn.): Russell, 1898: 88 (great numbers
+  passing Fort Rae for 14 days in 1877); 89 (N. of Fort Rae); 90
+  (leaping into air at start); 91 (use of flesh by Dog Ribs;
+  albino specimen); 111, 113, 119 (upper Coppermine River region,
+  abundant in March); 134 (caribou-skin clothing worn formerly by
+  Loucheux at Fort McPherson); 139 (on Mackenzie Delta in 1850);
+  168 (caribou-skin lodge at Fort Rae); 169-172 (caribou-skin
+  clothing among Dog Ribs); 176 (caribou-skin drum at Fort Rae;
+  use of sinew); 178 (caribou-skin gun cases among Indians);
+  187-189 (caribou-skin clothing among Eskimos); 225 (antler
+  change); 226 (albino; food; distribution and migrations); 227
+  (abundant along coast between Mackenzie River and Cape Bathurst,
+  1894; deer snares; spearing; hunting); 228-229 (utilization by
+  Eskimos and Indians; parasitic flies).
+
+  "Barren Ground Caribou," "deer," or "reindeer": J. W. Tyrrell,
+  1908 (1898): 77-78 (Barlow Lake; Carey Lake, thousands, late
+  July); 79 (weight 100-400 lb.; molt); 79-80 (antler change); 80
+  (relation of prongs to age; migration; food; reproduction);
+  80-81 (utilization of meat, skins, and sinew); 87-88 (Dubawnt
+  Lake); 97 (lower Dubawnt River); 98 (Wharton Lake); 123-138
+  (utilization by Eskimos); 139-141 (hunting by Eskimos); 174-177
+  (near Dawson Inlet); 206-207 (E. of Churchill River); 215 (mouth
+  of Nelson River [Woodland or Barren Ground species?]); 241
+  (importance to natives).
+
+  "Caribou" or "reindeer": Jones, 1899: 328-332, 342-343, 353-355
+  (Fort Reliance and vicinity); 329 (weight); 338, 340, 365, 394
+  (Artillery Lake and vicinity); 342 (Indian corral or trap); 359
+  (noonday rest of caribou); 368 (immense band, Clinton-Colden
+  Lake, early March); 374 (tens of thousands of does daily,
+  Clinton-Colden Lake, moving N., March); 374-375 (relations to
+  wolves); 381 (abundant, near mouth of Dubawnt River, March); 390
+  (near lower Dubawnt River); 411 (suffering from insects); 429
+  (spearing by Indians).
+
+  "Deer": Lofthouse, 1899: 275 (mouth of Tha-anne River, early
+  July).
+
+  "Caribou or deer": Hanbury, 1900: 64 (Eskimos bringing venison
+  to Churchill and reporting deer numerous along the coast); 65
+  (importance of deer in northern travel; scarce along west coast
+  of Hudson Bay in May and early June); 66-67 (very scarce at
+  Baker Lake in June, plentiful in July); 67 (flesh unpalatable in
+  fly-time; large bands at Aberdeen Lake, August); 69 (absent in
+  winter on lower Thelon River; very scarce on Hanbury River,
+  August); 71 (plentiful, Artillery Lake to Great Slave Lake,
+  September).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson) (part): A. J. Stone, 1900: 50
+  (distribution; migration); 51 (Richards Island); 53 (antlers;
+  does and fawns moving N. in May, Franklin Bay; sprawling posture
+  of hind leg); 57 (disastrous results of whalers' demands for
+  meat; Darnley Bay; Bathurst Isthmus).
+
+  "Caribou": J. M. Bell, 1901a: 16 (vast herds near Dismal Lake;
+  use by Eskimos).
+
+  "Caribou": J. M. Bell, 1901b: 252 (furnishing food and
+  clothing for Hare Indians, Great Bear Lake); 255 (use by Eskimos
+  near Coppermine River; vast herds); 258 (plentiful, but
+  decreasing, S. of Great Bear Lake; wanton killing by Indian and
+  Eskimos).
+
+  "Caribou": Boas, 1901: 52, 54 (Eskimo garments of caribou skin,
+  Cumberland Sound); 81 (Eskimos hunting caribou with harpoons);
+  102, 107 (Eskimo clothing of caribou skin, w. coast of Hudson
+  Bay); 150 (albino caribou).--1907: 465 (Eskimos W. of Hudson Bay
+  dependent on caribou); 474 (caribou plentiful on Southampton
+  Island and larger than on mainland); 493 (caribou-hunting at
+  Pond's Inlet); 501 (taboo against killing albino caribou, W. of
+  Hudson Bay).
+
+  [_Rangifer_] _arcticus_ (Rich.): Elliot, 1901: 37 ("Barren
+  grounds of Arctic America, north of the tree limit, to the
+  shores and islands of the Arctic Ocean"; diagnosis).
+
+  _Rangifer tarandus arcticus_ . . . (part): Lydekker, 1901: 38-40
+  (description).
+
+  "Reindeer and caribou (Rangifer caribou)": W. J. McLean, 1901: 5
+  (Great Slave Lake, annual arrival on August 12; hunting and
+  utilization by Indians); 6 (antler growth and change; migration;
+  trails; swimming).
+
+  _Rangifer tarandus_ . . . (part): Beddard, 1902: 298
+  ("circumpolar").
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ . . .: Elliot, 1902: 259 ("in 1856 they
+  migrated to latitude 47� in great numbers to Lake Huron" [???]);
+  260, 274-275 (migrations); 273 (Arctic regions, W. to Coppermine
+  and Mackenzie Rivers); 276 (food; fat); 276-277 (utilization by
+  Indians and Eskimos); 277-279 (native hunting methods); 279-280
+  (antlers shed by old bucks in December and January, carried by
+  young bucks till spring, and by does till birth of fawns);
+  281-282, 286-287 (description).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Preble, 1902: 41 (50 and 25
+  miles S. of Eskimo Point; pursued by wolves; attacks of
+  insects); 42 (flashing a white throat-patch; summation of
+  previous records; ranging S. to Churchill River and Reindeer
+  Lake); 42-43 (pelage described).
+
+  "Caribou": J. W. Tyrrell, 1924 (1902): 15 (Fort Reliance, Great
+  Slave Lake); 17 (Pike's Portage); 18-20 (Artillery Lake); 26
+  (nearly all gone farther N., only stragglers remaining along
+  Hanbury River, early July); 27-28 (numerous tracks but few
+  animals, middle Thelon River, early July; hundreds killed by
+  spring ice or Eskimos); 31 (large band moving S., Thelon River,
+  July 23); 33-35 (between Thelon River and Artillery Lake); 37
+  (great bands of caribou the chief food supply in Thelon River
+  region).
+
+  _Rangifer articus_ . . . (part): Grant, 1903: 186 (Barren
+  Grounds W. of Hudson Bay, W. to Mackenzie River, S. in winter to
+  Churchill River and Reindeer Lake; threatened with extinction by
+  whalers); 189 (Salisbury Island).
+
+  "Deer": Hanbury, 1903: 185 (between Lake Pelly and Arctic coast,
+  May).
+
+  "Caribou" or "deer": Hanbury, 1904: 8 (Marble Island and
+  Chesterfield Inlet, June); 9 (Baker Lake, July); 10 (large bands
+  migrating S., Aberdeen Lake, early August); 14 (scarce, Hanbury
+  River); 16 (plentiful, Lockhart River); 30 (Pike's Portage, late
+  July); 31 (Artillery Lake); 32 (Abbott Lake; scourged by warble
+  flies); 34 (large bands migrating S., Hanbury River, late July);
+  41 (hunted by Eskimos near Thelon-Dubawnt junction); 43-44, 47
+  (Schultz Lake); 43 (voice; spearing by Eskimos); 48 (scarce,
+  Baker Lake, early September); 49 (Chesterfield Inlet); 51
+  (plentiful near Marble Island, mid-September); 58 (leaving the
+  coast, late September); 67 (dressing of skins by Eskimos); 70,
+  72 (killed by Eskimos, Baker Lake); 73 (thousands at Baker Lake;
+  fierce combats between old bucks in October rutting season); 75
+  (deerskin roof of igloo); 82 (deerskin clothing of Eskimos); 84,
+  88-90 (NW. of Baker Lake, November); 85 (unwariness); 89
+  (pursuit by wolves); 93 (bucks remaining all winter on Back's
+  River); 95 (numerous, Chesterfield Inlet; in December the old
+  bucks had dropped their antlers); 100 (near Depot Island);
+  104-107 (Chesterfield Inlet region); 108 (does migrating N. in
+  April); 111 (plentiful, Baker Lake, March); 113 (many, Schultz
+  Lake, March); 114-115, 123 (snow pitfalls made by Eskimos); 115,
+  116 (numerous, Aberdeen Lake, March); 116 (antlers of bucks
+  commencing to grow); 118 (NW. of Aberdeen Lake; buck weighing
+  280 lb.); 119 (Buchanan River); 120 (migration; many remaining
+  on Barrens all winter; deer meat essential to Eskimos on Back's
+  River); 121 (frequent famine among Indians and Eskimos; caribou
+  formerly migrating S. and W. to Forts Simpson and Providence);
+  127-131 (Pelly Lake and vicinity); 131 (antics; jumping and
+  trotting); 133-137 (near Ogden Bay); 133 (majority of does
+  shedding antlers by late April); 135 (ravens feeding on
+  carcasses); 137 (warbles eaten by Eskimos); 139 (caribou
+  wintering on Kent Peninsula, at Cape Barrow, and on Victoria
+  Island); 143 (Arctic coast Eskimos going inland, summer and
+  fall, to live on deer); 149 (White Bear Point); 153-167
+  (mainland near Kent Peninsula); 164-174 (Bathurst Inlet); 177,
+  185-197 (scarce, Cape Barrow to Coppermine River); 194 (molting,
+  July; suffering from mosquitoes); 200-208 (lower Coppermine
+  River); 209, 210 (Kendall River); 215-221 (Dismal Lake); 223,
+  229-233 (Dease River); 232 (rubbing trees).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ . . . (part): Hornaday, 1904: 136 (Great
+  Bear and Great Slave Lakes to Cape Bathurst); 137 (Carey Lake;
+  migration); 138 (weight; antlers).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Stone and Cram, 1904: 52
+  (description; Arctic islands to Hudson Bay and Mackenzie River;
+  migration; rutting in October; sexual segregation); 53 (food;
+  Mackay Lake; grunting). (Chiefly quoted from Pike, 1892.)
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson) (part): Elliot, 1905: 401
+  ("Barren grounds of Arctic America north of the tree limit, to
+  the shores and islands of the Arctic Ocean").
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): MacFarlane, 1905: 680
+  (Mackenzie Basin; depletion through wanton slaughter by
+  Indians); 681-682 (Anderson River, in winter; hunting and
+  utilization by Eskimos and Indians); 682-683 (albino); 683
+  (trade in skins; wintering at Prince of Wales Strait and Mercy
+  Bay, Banks Island; migration between Arctic islands and
+  mainland); 684-685 (table of migration at Reindeer Lake);
+  692-693 (predation by wolves).
+
+  _R[angifer] arcticus_. . .: J. A. Allen, 1908a: 488 (specimens
+  from near Wager River described); 490 (migration).
+
+  _Rangifer arctica_ (Richardson): J. A. Allen, 1908b: 584 (type
+  locality, Fort Enterprise).
+
+  "Reindeer": Amundsen, 1908, +1+: 76 (Boothia); 83-84 (King
+  William Island, September); 97 (reported formerly at Simpson
+  Strait in large herds in autumn); 99 (20 killed, King William
+  Island, late September); 102-106 (common in October, passing S.
+  over Simpson Strait; very shy; no wolves on King William
+  Island); 120 (Eskimos trading skins); 200 (King William Island,
+  first reindeer of season seen, June); 201 (supplied by Eskimos);
+  224 (Simpson Strait); 235, 241-243 (King William Island,
+  September); 237 (Eskimos hunting in September); 247 (large herds
+  passing over ice of Simpson Strait); 248 (King William Island,
+  October 15); 326-329 (hunting and utilization by Eskimos in
+  Boothia; few reindeer coming N. as early as May).--1908, +2+:
+  110 (many killed by Eskimos, King William Island); 311-316
+  (several, April); 322-325 (Royal Geographical Society Islands).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson) (part): Preble, 1908: 137
+  (Barren Grounds and islands northward; Great Bear Lake to Hudson
+  Bay; economy; probably two or more races; E. of Fort Smith in
+  winter; long ago S. to Fort McMurray); 138 (in 1902-03 to Cree
+  Lake; large numbers, Great Slave to Great Bear lakes; lower
+  Coppermine River); 139 (migration); 139-143 (summation of
+  previous records); 214 (wolves living largely on caribou).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): J. A. Allen, 1910: 8 (7 August
+  specimens from Artillery and Aylmer lakes; measurements and
+  weight).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Seton, 1911: 206-262, 341
+  (Artillery, Ptarmigan, Clinton-Colden, and Aylmer lakes;
+  habits); 210 (voice); 220, 258-260 (numbers); 225-226 (relation
+  to wolves); 259-262 (slaughter by natives and whalers).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Cameron, 1912: 127 (place in economy
+  of Caribou-eater Chipewyans; migration; on Lake Athabaska in
+  winter); 309 (Fort Rae as a "meat-post" for the Mackenzie
+  District).
+
+  "Caribou": Wheeler, 1912: 199 (Fort Enterprise and Coppermine
+  River; 1910 a very poor caribou year; females and yearlings
+  taken in April; females [only?] wintering between Rae and
+  Enterprise, and largely exterminated; usual numbers in 1911;
+  large migration of males commenced May 18); 200 (between
+  Coppermine River and Bathurst Inlet; by June 10 all caribou
+  beyond [N. of] Coppermine River).
+
+  "Barren ground caribou": R. M. Anderson, 1913a: 5 (recent
+  great decrease); 6 (stragglers left in Mackenzie Delta region;
+  great diminution along Arctic coast E. to Cape Parry, since
+  recent advent of whaling ships; great numbers on Victoria Island
+  in summer, crossing to mainland for winter; Great Bear Lake and
+  Coppermine River; drives and spearing by Eskimos); 6, 8
+  (importance to Eskimos for clothing and meat); 8 (poor sight of
+  caribou; hunting methods).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): R. M. Anderson, in Stef�nsson,
+  1913b: 502 (importance in native economy; recent enormous
+  decrease; few left in Eskimo Lakes region, on Cape Bathurst, and
+  at Langton and Darnley Bays; great number in summer on Victoria
+  Island, migrating to the mainland); 503 (Great Bear Lake;
+  Coppermine River; occurrence on Arctic coast at any season;
+  Eskimos driving them between lines of stone monuments into water
+  and there spearing them); 504 (hunting methods; senses;
+  infestation by bot-fly); 504-505 (fawning); 505 (geographical
+  variation; antler growth and change); 505-506 (fat); 516
+  (relations to wolves).
+
+  _"Caribou"_: Stef�nsson, 1913a: 93 (ravens in Arctic feeding
+  on caribou left by wolves); 94 (caribou moving N., Prince Albert
+  Sound, Victoria Island, May 12); 95-96 (migrating across Dolphin
+  and Union Strait, March and May); 99 (plentiful on Dease River,
+  winter of 1910-11; abundant on lower Coppermine River, March; no
+  great numbers cross central Coronation Gulf; wintering on coast
+  E. of Coppermine; many moving N. across w. Coronation Gulf and
+  Dolphin and Union Strait, April and May, and w. Victoria Island,
+  May); 100 (migration across Kent Peninsula and in se. Victoria
+  Island); 102 (E. of Cape Bexley); 103, 106 (numbers wintering on
+  Banks Island, but few or none on Victoria Island); 105 (Eskimos
+  hunting caribou in summer on s. Victoria Island); 106 (caribou
+  wintering from Cape Bathurst to Kent Peninsula; migration N.
+  across Coronation Gulf and Dolphin and Union Strait, April 1-May
+  20, and S. in the fall as soon as the ice is strong enough; tens
+  of thousands on Dease River in late October; differences between
+  Victoria Island and mainland specimens).
+
+  "Caribou": Stef�nsson, 1913b: 27 (Fort Smith a "meat post");
+  29 (abundant at Fort Norman 50 years previously); 127, 128, 156,
+  158 (Langton Bay); 130, 135, 137, 141, 142 (Horton River); 146
+  (Cape Parry); 151 (extreme scarcity of hornless caribou); 163
+  (Cape Lyon); 164 (Port Pierce; human eye keener than caribou's);
+  203 (summer hunting by Eskimos S. of Dolphin and Union Strait);
+  203-204 (migration N. to Victoria Island); 204 (bot-fly larvae);
+  205 (near Dolphin and Union Strait); 210, 212, 213 (lower
+  Coppermine River); 212-213 (seeking protection from mosquitoes
+  on snow banks); 214 (Dismal Lake); 215 (summer hunting by
+  Eskimos on Dease River); 219 (Great Bear Lake); 221 (August
+  skins for Eskimo clothing); 224-225 (hundreds of thousands,
+  Dease River, October); 228, 235 (N. of Great Bear Lake); 231,
+  232 (Horton River); 238, 239 (Kendall River); 241 (lower
+  Coppermine River); 241-244 (geographical variation in caribou);
+  263-265, 269 (migrating N. across Coronation Gulf and Dolphin
+  and Union Strait, early May); 274, 278, 287, 289, 297, 298, 301
+  (Victoria Island); 276-277 (variation from mainland animals);
+  278 (habitual wariness); 281 (caribou-skin tents and Eskimo
+  hunting, Victoria Island); 289 (Banks Island); 294 (few on
+  Victoria Island in winter); 324 (Cape Parry); 333 (Langton Bay;
+  skins spoiled by warble fly larvae, June and early July; skins
+  thick in summer and fall); 335 ("Endicott" [= Melville]
+  Mountains); 337-338 (Eskimo methods of hunting and curing meat);
+  348-350 (migrating NW., Horton River, October); 364 (Langton
+  Bay, February-March).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Chambers, 1914: 93 (immense
+  herd, between Churchill and Owl River, December); 291-294 (Great
+  Bear and Great Slave Lakes); 294 (Mackenzie Delta region);
+  342-350 (summation of records on the Barren Grounds).
+
+  "Caribou": Douglas, 1914: 103, 167, 168, 179, 180 (Dease River);
+  121, 190, 192, 196, 214 (lower Coppermine River); 137 (Great
+  Bear Lake); 157, 158 (very scarce, Great Bear Lake, winter); 185
+  (Dismal Lakes); 191-192 (larvae of warble and nostril flies).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ . . . (part): Hornaday, 1914, +2+: 97
+  (importance to Indians); 100 (the great mass between Cape
+  Bathurst and Great Slave Lake; tens of thousands killed by
+  natives for whalers); 101-104 (migrations); 103 (voice); 104
+  (tameness of large numbers; weight); 225-226 (numbers).
+
+  "Caribou" or "deer": Stef�nsson, 1914: 13 (former abundance from
+  Mackenzie River eastward); 26 (scarce near +Rae River+); 39
+  (common the year round on Banks Island; abundant in summer, but
+  scarce in winter, Victoria Island); 41 (migrating S. across
+  Coronation Gulf in November); 48 (stomach contents and droppings
+  eaten by Eskimos, Coronation Gulf); 54 (crossing ice in
+  migrating N., April and May); 56 (chief source of Eskimo food in
+  summer, Coronation Gulf); 57 (hunting with spear and bow); 58
+  (poor eyesight); 58-59 (use as food by Eskimos); 97 (kayak used
+  in spearing caribou); 137, 139 (former hunting in Mackenzie
+  Delta region); 140-141 (skin clothing in Mackenzie Delta
+  region); 147-148 (methods of removing and drying skins,
+  Mackenzie Delta region); 150 (use of skins and sinew); 275
+  (status about Great Bear Lake); 296 (droppings and warbles eaten
+  by Eskimos, Victoria Island); 353 (caribou taboos); 355-356
+  (many on Mackenzie coast).
+
+  "Caribou": Wheeler, 1914: 52 (Dog-rib clothing of caribou
+  skins); 54 (between Forts Rae and Enterprise); 56 (Fort Rae's
+  early trade in caribou meat and skins); 58 (countless thousands,
+  moving E., Great Slave Lake; Indian use of meat); 60 (caribou
+  scarce N. of Great Slave Lake after burning of country); 65
+  (plentiful, Little Marten Lake); 67 (near Lake Providence).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Harper, 1915: 160 (Tazin-Taltson
+  Basin).
+
+  _Rangifer tarandus arcticus_ (Richardson): Lydekker, 1915: 254
+  (bibliographical references; type locality; description; Baffin
+  Island).
+
+  _Tarandus rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Millais, 1915:
+  255-256 (considered conspecific with Woodland Caribou); 258, 263
+  (supposed interbreeding with Woodland Caribou); 261
+  (description; in winter ranging "west to the Rockies above Fort
+  Vermilion"[!]).
+
+  "Barren Ground Caribou": Camsell, 1916: 21 (Tazin-Taltson Basin,
+  autumn and winter).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ . . . (part): Nelson, 1916: 460 (Arctic
+  barrens; numbers; Artillery Lake; gait); 460-461 (use as food).
+
+  "Rein Deer": Thompson, 1916: 19 (Eskimo lances pointed with
+  leg-bone); 99 ([Barren Ground or Woodland species?] numerous in
+  spring on Hayes River, where snared by Indians); 100-101
+  (immense herd estimated at 3,564,000 individuals, crossing Hayes
+  River 20 miles above York Factory in late May, 1792).
+
+  "Caribou": J. B. Tyrrell, in Thompson, 1916: 16 (Eskimos on
+  Kazan River subsisting chiefly on caribou, killing them with
+  spears and using their skins for clothing and kayaks).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ . . .: Kindle, 1917: 107-108 (tens of
+  thousands E. of Slave River, early winter); 108-109 (previous
+  accounts of great numbers).
+
+  "Barren Ground Caribou": Camsell and Malcolm, 1919: 46 (e.
+  border of Mackenzie Basin; migration).
+
+  "Barren Ground caribou": Malloch, 1919: 55-56 (larvae of
+  _Oedemagena tarandi_ from skin of caribou, Dolphin and Union
+  Strait, Bernard Harbour, and Coronation Gulf); 56 (larvae of
+  _Cephenemyia_ sp. from nasal passages of caribou, May 25,
+  Bernard Harbour).
+
+  "Caribou": Stef�nsson, 1919: 310 (hunting in the Arctic).
+
+  "Caribou": Whittaker, 1919: 166 (in greater numbers than usual,
+  E. of Slave River, winter); 167 (1,000 does crossing Great Slave
+  Lake in March toward Barren Grounds).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Buchanan, 1920: 105 (S. in winter to
+  Reindeer Lake and Churchill River, rarely to Cumberland House);
+  105-108, 128-129 (migration); 105-106, 131 (food); 113-125,
+  134-137, 142-151 (hunting by Indians and others); 122, 124
+  (traveling upwind); 125-126 (description); 126 (antler change;
+  gait); 130-131 (numbers); 135-136 (snares); 136-140 (economic
+  uses by Indians).
+
+  "Caribou": R. M. Anderson, in Stef�nsson, 1921: 743, 750
+  (Eskimos killing caribou, Victoria Island); 749 (Hood River);
+  750 (Bathurst Inlet).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ . . . (part): Hewitt, 1921: 11-12 (as a
+  source of meat and clothing); 56 (most abundant of the larger
+  land mammals of the world); 58, 64-66 (place in native economy;
+  range and numbers becoming restricted by excessive slaughter);
+  59-60 (distribution); 59 (destruction by Eskimos and whalers);
+  60-63 (migration); 61 (food); 62 (fawning); 67 (warble flies,
+  black flies, and mosquitoes).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Johansen, 1921: 22-24 (larvae and
+  adults of _Oedemagena tarandi_ and larvae of _Cephenemyia_ sp.,
+  both parasites of caribou, at Bernard Harbour); 29 (adult _Oe.
+  tarandi_, Dolphin and Union Strait); 35, 37 (larvae of _Oe.
+  tarandi_, lower Coppermine River and Victoria Island).
+
+  "Caribou": Stef�nsson, 1921: 18 (abundant, Banks Island,
+  winter); 227-230 (Norway Island [W. of Banks Island]); 231-234
+  (qualities of meat and fat); 242-249, 255, 258, 262, 281-283,
+  358, 364, 397, 369, 372, 473, 475, 476 (hunting on Banks
+  Island); 246-247 (fat); 247 (attacks by insects); 248 (speed
+  according to sex and age); 248-249 (pursuit by wolves); 251
+  (wariness on Banks Island); 252 (back fat); 255 (perhaps
+  2,000-3,000 caribou on Banks Island in summer); 307 (sight); 401
+  (hunting on Victoria Island, September; some migrating S. to
+  mainland); 401-402 (stone monuments used by Eskimos for driving
+  caribou to ambush); 475-476 (relations of caribou and wolves).
+
+  "Caribou" or "deer": Jenness, 1922: 15, 17 (migration between
+  mainland and Arctic islands; one route across Cape Krusenstern);
+  20-21 (Coppermine River to Great Bear Lake); 22 (Cape Barrow to
+  Bathurst Inlet); 25-26 (Victoria Island in summer); 47 (spearing
+  from kayaks in Coppermine region); 48, 101, 248 (use of fat for
+  fuel); 61 (skins as bedding); 78-81 (skins as tent material); 97
+  (stomach contents eaten by Eskimos); 100-103 (Caribou as food of
+  Eskimos; hunting on ice of Coronation Gulf and on Victoria
+  Island; Coppermine River to Bathurst Inlet); 124 (summer hunting
+  by Eskimos about Dolphin and Union Strait); 125 (October passage
+  from Victoria Island to mainland); 127-142 (hunting on Victoria
+  Island, April to October); 148-151 (Eskimo hunting methods about
+  Coronation Gulf and on Victoria Island; attacks on Eskimos by
+  Caribou); 182-189 (Eskimo superstitions concerning Caribou);
+  244, 249 (scarcity and destruction at Coronation Gulf).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: R. M. Anderson, 1924: 329 (varying
+  estimates of numbers; Barren Grounds of central mainland); 330
+  (relations to reindeer).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Miller, 1924: 491
+  (nomenclature; type locality).
+
+  "Caribou": Blanchet, 1925: 15 (upper Coppermine); 32-34
+  (migration); 32-33 (sexual segregation); 33 (fawning; food;
+  torment of flies; gait; molt; antler growth and change); 34
+  (senses; utilization by Indians; wariness; swimming; relations
+  to wolves and foxes; Great Slave Lake to Great Bear Lake and
+  Back's River).
+
+  "Caribou": Blanchet, 1926a: 73 (trails, Nonacho Lake); 96-97
+  (trail and signs, Lake Eileen); 98 (caribou in economy of the
+  Caribou-eater Chipewyans).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Blanchet, 1926b: 46-48 (migrations);
+  47 (fawning in early June; attacks of flies; gait; molt;
+  utilization of hides); 47-48 (antler change); 48 (senses;
+  segregation by sex and age; numbers in millions; Lake MacKay,
+  Great Bear Lake, Lac de Gras, Clinton-Colden and Aylmer lakes;
+  wintering S. to Cree, Foster, and Reindeer lakes).
+
+  _Rangifer_ spp.: Ekblaw, 1926: 101 (s. Arctic Archipelago).
+
+  "Caribou": Mallet, 1926: 79 (migration; wintering about
+  Reindeer, Cree, Wollaston, and Nueltin lakes and Pakatawagan;
+  predilection for frozen lakes; predation by wolves); 80
+  (dependence of travelers on Caribou for food; hunting on the ice
+  of lakes).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Preble, 1926: 119 (Barren Grounds);
+  121 (depletion along Arctic coast E. to Coppermine River); 125
+  (Yellowknife Preserve); 137 (Back's River Preserve; great
+  numbers; migration); 138 (Arctic islands; partial migration);
+  139 (Banks and Victoria islands).
+
+  "Caribou": Blanchet, 1927: 145 (Abitau River); 149 (sw.
+  tributary of Dubawnt River, July 5).
+
+  "Caribou": Craig, 1927: 22 (Admiralty Inlet; former abundance;
+  depletion by hunting).
+
+  "Caribou": Henderson, 1927: 40 (Clyde River, Baffin Island;
+  annual caribou hunt by Eskimos).
+
+  "Caribou": Rasmussen, 1927: 5 (Eskimos clad in caribou skin,
+  Melville Peninsula); 20-21 (hunting on Melville Peninsula); 23
+  (Eskimo stores of caribou meat); 54 (caribou moving N., Baker
+  Lake, May); 59-60, 103, 105 (hunting by Eskimos, lower Kazan
+  River); 63, 68 (Yathkyed Lake); 65 (warble fly larvae as Eskimo
+  delicacy); 67 (decrease in Eskimos and caribou at Yathkyed
+  Lake); 68 (stone cairns for deflecting caribou); 73-77 (Eskimo
+  hunting methods); 104-106 (Eskimos starving for lack of caribou,
+  lower Kazan River); 145 (Eskimos hunting near Admiralty Inlet);
+  166-167 (caribou obtained by Eskimos, Pelly Bay); 205 (King
+  William Island); 214-217 (migration, September 15-21, King
+  William Island); 245 (Eskimos of Victoria Island living on
+  caribou in summer and autumn); 246 (enormous herds crossing
+  delta of Ellice River; Kent Peninsula becoming depopulated of
+  Eskimos through failure of caribou).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Anthony, 1928:
+  530-531 (description); 532 (Barren Grounds; former abundance;
+  destruction).
+
+  "Caribou": Kindle, 1928: 72-73 (numbers estimated at more than
+  30,000,000; utilization by natives for clothing and meat); 74
+  (economic value of reindeer).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 9, 47, 57
+  (importance to Caribou Eskimos); 48 (back fat); 50 (wintering on
+  Barren Grounds; moving against wind; antler shedding; poor
+  quality of winter meat); 51 (wolves hunting caribou; does first
+  on spring migration; fawning in June); 52-53 (Eskimos feasting
+  on caribou in spring); 56 (fawning in late June and early July;
+  great migration at Baker Lake, late July; plagued by _Oedemagena
+  tarandi_; most important Eskimo hunting in late summer and early
+  autumn); 86 (tents of caribou skin among Caribou Eskimos); 89
+  (Eskimo spade made of antler); 90 (bags of caribou skin; fat for
+  illumination); 94 (skins for household use); 96 (the principal
+  diet among Caribou Eskimos); 98 (hunting by means of fences);
+  100 (Yathkyed Lake); 101 (heedless slaughter by Eskimos;
+  migration always incalculable; fox-trapping replacing
+  caribou-hunting); 102 (former use of bow in hunting); 104
+  (arrowheads of caribou bones); 106 (hunting by Eskimos;
+  wariness; keen hearing and smell; buck attacking a man at
+  Vansittart Island; deer-crossings in region of Baker Lake and
+  Kazan River); 107 (Eskimo hunting methods); 108 (snow pitfalls);
+  109-110 (spearing in water; swimming ability); 110-111 (driving
+  between lines of cairns); 112 (snares); 133 (gadfly larvae as
+  Eskimo delicacy); 134-135 (seasonal hunting); 135 (frequent
+  starvation of Eskimos in lack of caribou); 137 (staple food of
+  Caribou Eskimos); 138-139 (taboos in use of meat); 140-147
+  (Eskimo dressing of carcasses); 141-144 (raw, cooked, and dried
+  meat in Eskimo diet); 171 (meat as dog food); 186 (deerskin for
+  kayaks); 191, 196, 199-223 (Eskimo clothing of deerskin); 232,
+  239-251 (various Eskimo uses of skin, bones, and antlers); 262,
+  263 (Eskimo laws for hunting caribou); 268-271 (drums of
+  deerskin).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Seton, 1929, +3+:
+  95-135 (monographic); 97-99 (measurements, weight, color); 102
+  (distribution); 102-103 (antlers); 104 (molt; senses); 105
+  (communication; voice); 105-107 (disposition); 107 (aquatic
+  ability); 107-108 (food); 108-109 (Wolves and other predators);
+  109-110 (effect of mosquitoes); 110-111 (warble and nostril
+  flies); 111-116 (utilization of flesh and hide by natives and
+  civilized man); 113-114 (fat); 117-122 (hunting by Eskimos and
+  Indians); 122 (Artillery Lake to Back's River; Arctic islands;
+  migration); 124-125 (reproduction); 125-127 (migration); 127-128
+  (wintering between Great Bear, Great Slave, and Athabaska lakes
+  and Hudson Bay); 131 (Mackenzie River to Cape Bathurst; Langton
+  and Darnley Bays); 131-134 (numbers perhaps 30,000,000); 133-134
+  (destruction by Indians, whalers, and Eskimos).
+
+  "Caribou": Blanchet, 1930: 49 (E. of Great Bear, Great Slave,
+  and Athabaska Lakes; fawns born in late May or June; antler
+  growth and shedding); 49-52 (migration; Lac de Gras, Lake
+  MacKay, Beverly, Aberdeen, and Baker lakes; Coppermine,
+  Lockhart, Taltson, Dubawnt, Kazan, and Ferguson rivers; S. to
+  Cree and Reindeer lakes and Churchill; only a small migration
+  now from Victoria Island to mainland; Wager and Repulse bays);
+  50-51 (importance to Indians and Eskimos; Dawson Inlet to North
+  Seal River; inland from Eskimo Point and Nunalla; Padlei); 52
+  (food destroyed by fire; several millions); 53 (fawning area);
+  53-54 (possibilities for reindeer); 54-55 (relation of wolves to
+  caribou).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 55
+  (Artillery Lake; weight; therapeutic value of meat); 58 (Thelon
+  River, thousands, late July); 143 (use as fox bait); 159-160
+  (numbers); 159-162 (useful role of Wolf as Caribou predator);
+  192 (wind direction scarcely affecting migration; Artillery
+  Lake, mostly bucks, September to November; bucks getting lean,
+  October 17; antlers dropping and flesh improving, November 7;
+  practically all (buck) antlers dropped, November 19; Artillery
+  Lake, several hundred does, November 4, then continuing to pass
+  N. during winter; bands of bucks passing S., November 26 to
+  December 9; young bucks with does during winter; does dropping
+  antlers, March 24 to mid-April; all does gone N. by April 27;
+  bucks moved N. of Hanbury River by June 20; main s. migration,
+  Thelon River, July 23; all sexes and ages, in bands up to
+  2,000--total number 10,000+); 193 (scourged and driven by
+  insects; voice; stage of pelage differing in sexes; delta of
+  Dubawnt River; possibly yearling doe with fawn; flies gone
+  August 24, animals putting on fat; does massing in September,
+  hundreds slaughtered by Eskimos at Thelon-Dubawnt mouth; last
+  seen, Baker Lake, September 5); 194-196 (table of Caribou
+  movements--localities, dates, numbers, sex, wind.)--1931: 32
+  (conservation); 33 (trade in hides; Back's River Eskimos living
+  "solely" on Caribou).
+
+  "Caribou": Hoare, 1930: 13 (bucks migrating NE., June, Artillery
+  Lake to Ford Lake); 14 (10,000+ near Campbell Lake, going SW.,
+  late July); 16 (bands near Smart Lake, August); 21 (Ford Lake,
+  early December); 22 (Artillery Lake and Pike's Portage,
+  numerous, December; wolf predation); 27 (small bands swimming
+  lower Thelon River, late June); 31 (swimming Hanbury River,
+  July); 33 (great numbers of bucks going S. Thelon River, July
+  22; relation of migrations to insects and storms); 36 (circular
+  migration about e. end of Great Slave Lake; ne. migration in
+  spring down Thelon River); 37-38 (relation of migration to
+  mosquitoes); 52-53 (summation by R.�M. Anderson: carrying
+  capacity of range--60 acres per Caribou; probably total not over
+  3,000,000).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Kitto, 1930: 87 (food; economy;
+  numbers and depletion; migrations); 88 (effect of firearms;
+  segregation of sexes and ages); 89 (wolves; insect pests); 89-90
+  (conservation measures); 110 (Keewatin, mainland and Southampton
+  and Coats islands; Churchill, Eskimo Point, and Baker Lake).
+
+  "Caribou": Mallet, 1930: 13 (Eskimo clothing of skins, Kazan
+  River); 20-23 (great migrant herd, led by a doe, crossing Kazan
+  River near Yathkyed Lake); 27 (small herds migrating S., Ennadai
+  Lake, August); 32 (Chipewyan drum of caribou skin); 85 (Eskimos
+  between Nueltin and Baker lakes living on caribou); 87 (Eskimo
+  clothing of caribou fur); 89 (Eskimos starving for lack of
+  caribou); 90 (500 consumed per winter by 20-odd Eskimos); 92
+  (caribou-skin gloves; tongues as provisions for journey); 95
+  (Eskimos eating raw frozen caribou in winter and "lukewarm meat"
+  in summer); 102 (Eskimo tent of skins on Kazan River); 116
+  (Indians eating caribou on Kasmere River); 131-140 (Eskimo band
+  succumbing to starvation for lack of caribou).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ Richardson: Jacobi, 1931: 78-80
+  (description); 80-84 (N. to Baffin Island and other Arctic
+  islands; E. to Hudson Bay, Southampton Island, and Melville
+  Peninsula; S. to Churchill River, Reindeer Lake, and Fort
+  McMurray; W. to Athabaska and Mackenzie Rivers); 140
+  (phylogeny); 156, 157, 159 (depletion by natives, whalers, and
+  traders); 186-187 (habitat); 190 (occurrence in herds); 192-210
+  (migrations: causes, extent, routes, numbers, behavior,
+  segregation by sex and age, dates, winter quarters); 216
+  (swimming); 219, 220 (unwariness; curiosity); 223 (food); 232
+  (reproduction); 236 (molt); 237 (change of antlers); 240-241
+  (predation by wolves); 244-245 (parasitic flies).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Harper, 1932: 30
+  (Lake Athabaska; excessive slaughter by Indians; Tazin
+  Highlands; food; Thainka Lake; junction of Tazin and Taltson
+  Rivers; avoiding lower Taltson River after fire); 31 (Great
+  Slave Lake; "near Artillery Lake" [= Stark Lake?]; Indians
+  spearing hundreds in water; migration; havoc by wolves;
+  Caribou-eater Chipewyans).
+
+  "Caribou": Jenness, 1932: 47, 48, 58, 59 (caribou in Indian
+  economy); 51, 58, 75, 406-408, 411, 412, 414, 415 (caribou in
+  Eskimo economy).
+
+  "Cariboo" or "deer": Munn, 1932: 57 (Artillery Lake); 58 (great
+  migration of perhaps 2,000,000 between Artillery and Great Slave
+  lakes; relation to mosquitoes); 168 (Baffin Island); 191-192
+  (Eskimo sleeping-bags and clothing of caribou skin, Baffin
+  Island); 210, 214 (Eskimos hunting deer, Southampton Island);
+  255 (trade in skins from Melville Peninsula); 271 (depletion of
+  Baffin Island herds); 278 (decimation of caribou in w. Arctic
+  due to Eskimos trapping white fox instead of sealing in winter).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Sutton and Hamilton,
+  1932: 33, 35, 36, 81, 82, 84, 85 (predation by wolves,
+  Southampton Island); 79 (formerly abundant, but no longer); 79,
+  81 (migration); 80-83, 86-87 (hunting and utilization by
+  Eskimos); 81 (scatology); 81, 84-86 (reproduction); 81-86
+  (antler growth and shedding); 83 (standing on hind legs); 84
+  (food; foot-glands; voice); 84-86 (parasitic and other flies);
+  87-88 (description); 88 (previous records on Southampton
+  Island).
+
+  _Rangifer tarandus arcticus_. . .: Weyer, 1932: 38 (most
+  important land animal to Eskimos); 39 (utilization by Eskimos;
+  food); 40 (fawning period; seasonal fat; migration).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Birket-Smith, 1933: 89 (immense
+  numbers on Barren Grounds, but recently declining); 90 (gadflies
+  plaguing caribou); 91-92 (migration); 92 (thousands at Baker
+  Lake, late July; scourged by mosquitoes); 93 (no longer
+  migrating from Victoria Island to mainland); 94 (occurrence in
+  autumn and winter at Repulse Bay); 100 (good hunting near Whale
+  Point, Roe's Welcome; use of cairns in hunting by Eskimos); 106
+  (not many near Eskimo Point); 112 (great migration at Baker Lake
+  beginning in June); 118 (deer crossings on lower Kazan River);
+  121 (difficulty of reconciling reindeer culture with presence of
+  caribou).
+
+  "Caribou": Ingstad, 1933: 34 (caribou deflected on s. side of
+  Great Slave Lake by forest fires); 48 (buck on Barren Grounds
+  harassed by black flies); 85, 110 (E. of Great Slave Lake); 86
+  (asleep on ice of lakes); 87 (leaping into air before running
+  off); 88 (varying wariness); 90 (carcass as fox bait near
+  Artillery Lake); 118, 122 (use of meat and hides by Indians,
+  Great Slave Lake); 134-135, 324 (spring migration across Great
+  Slave Lake); 135 (antler velvet eaten by Indians; larvae of
+  nostril and warble flies); 139 (Indian drum of caribou skin);
+  156-159 (migration; followed by wolves, ravens, foxes, and
+  wolverines); 158 (rutting season and behavior); 159 (antler
+  shedding); 160 (numbers); 161 (migration influenced by grazing
+  available; fawning on Arctic islands); 162 (separation into
+  different herd groupings); 162-163 (destruction by Eskimos with
+  firearms along Arctic coast); 163 (migration deflected by
+  burning of country); 165-166 (conservation; wolf predation); 167
+  (dependence of Caribou-eater Indians on this animal); 176, 181
+  (Stark Lake and vicinity); 186-187 (use of meat by
+  Caribou-eaters); 204, 216, 218, 220, 222 (upper Thelon River
+  region); 207 (predation by wolves); 225, 229-231 (Nonacho Lake
+  area); 247, 253 (dependence of Barren Ground Indians on
+  caribou); 253-254 (former hunting with spears, bows, dogteams,
+  barriers, snares); 257-259 (Indian use of meat and hides); 280
+  (migrating near e. end of Great Slave Lake); 291, 293, 296
+  (thousands in winter on Barrens E. of Great Slave Lake); 293,
+  297 (unwariness); 302-304, 306-307 (predation by wolves on
+  Barren Grounds); 312 (albino caribou).
+
+  "Barren land caribou": Stockwell, 1933: 45 (large herds in
+  August, Point, Thonokied, and MacKay lakes and Coppermine
+  River).
+
+  "Caribou": Weeks, 1933: 65 (very plentiful on Maguse River after
+  August 4).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): R. M. Anderson,
+  1934a: 81 (utilization of skin and meat; migrations; Melville
+  Peninsula, Boothia Peninsula, and Baffin Island).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: R. M. Anderson, 1934b: 4062, fig. 9
+  (map shows range of subsp. arcticus extending N. only to Arctic
+  coast and over Baffin Island).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Flerov, 1934: 240 (cranial
+  measurements).
+
+  "Caribou": Godsell, 1934: 273-276 (trade with Eskimos on Arctic
+  coast resulting in great slaughter of caribou); 276 (importation
+  of reindeer to Mackenzie Delta region to replace caribou).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Hornby, 1934: 105 (food;
+  weight; fat; migrations influenced by natives, unfrozen large
+  lakes, and fires; effects of flies; rutting season and behavior;
+  antler shedding); 106 (irregular migrations; sexual segregation;
+  wolf predation); 106-107 (movements, numbers, and dates in
+  region between Great Slave and Baker lakes); 108 (beneficial
+  effect of wolves on caribou).
+
+  "Caribou": Wray, 1934: 141 (abundant, Lac de Gras, 1932); 144
+  (few S. of Mackay Lake).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Degerb�l, 1935: 48-51
+  (specimens from Baffin Island and Melville Peninsula, including
+  an albino from Rae Isthmus; descriptions).
+
+  "Caribou": Freuchen, 1935: 93 (abundance of rabbits supposed to
+  lessen wolf predation on caribou); 99 (wolverine reputed to
+  attack sleeping caribou); 120 (pursuit by wolves near Wager
+  Inlet); 121 (followed by wolves, Melville Peninsula; predation
+  by wolves, Southampton Island); 122 (wolves said not to follow
+  caribou across streams; wolf methods of hunting caribou); 128
+  (caribou carcasses consumed by Arctic foxes).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Murie, 1935: 74, 75
+  (type locality; skull measurements).
+
+  "Barren ground caribou": Alcock, 1936: 9 (Lake Athabaska).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Birket-Smith, 1936: 90 (importance to
+  Eskimos); 91 (migration; snow pitfalls, baited with urine;
+  hunting with spears, rows of stone cairns, snares, and bows);
+  110 (dependence of Caribou Eskimos on Caribou); 111 (frequent
+  famine and cannibalism among them for lack of Caribou; lookout
+  knolls for Caribou); 112 (sexual segregation in herds); 115-116
+  (clothing of caribou skin).
+
+  "Caribou": Soper, 1936: 429 (resorting to Grinnell Glacier,
+  Baffin Island, to escape mosquitoes).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): R. M. Anderson, 1937:
+  103 (lower Mackenzie River to Hudson Bay; use of skin and meat;
+  scarce on coast W. of Bathurst Inlet; concentration between
+  Bathurst Inlet, Great Slave Lake, and Baker Lake; S. into Wood
+  Buffalo Park; use of rifles by Central Eskimos resulting in
+  decrease; apparent intergradation with _R.�a. pearyi_ in
+  northern islands).
+
+  "Caribou": Godsell, 1937: 288 (caribou migrating between
+  mainland and Arctic islands exterminated by Eskimos with
+  ammunition supplied by traders); 289 (reindeer imported to mouth
+  of Mackenzie to replace vanished caribou).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Henriksen, 1937: 25 (larvae of
+  _Cephenomyia trompe_ L. from nasal passage, Baker Lake, May 2);
+  26 (larvae of _Oedemagena tarandi_ collected from caribou in
+  May, Gore Bay, Lyon Inlet, and Melville Peninsula).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. . .: R. M. Anderson, 1938: 400
+  (perhaps no great reduction in numbers, but some shifting of
+  range from human encroachments and fire; wintering S. to n.
+  Manitoba and Saskatchewan and ne. Alberta; estimate of
+  3,000,000).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: Hamilton, 1939: 109 (hoofs; function
+  of fat); 244-247 (migrations); 246, 352, 359 (importance to
+  Indians and Eskimos); 247 (influence of mosquitoes on movements;
+  sexual segregation); 301 (distribution determined by insect
+  pests); 359 (immense herd in ne. Saskatchewan).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ Richardson: Murie, 1939: 239
+  (Mackenzie River to Hudson Bay and Baffin Island, including some
+  of the Arctic islands; diagnosis); 244 (antlers; pelage;
+  migration; rut in September and October); 245 (food; ankle
+  click; voice; gait; senses; insect pests; Wolves and other
+  predators); 245-246 (danger from introduction of Reindeer); 246
+  (adaptation to environment).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Clarke, 1940: 5, 7 (dependence
+  of Indians and Eskimos on caribou); 8-9 (Rum Lake country a
+  wintering ground; Eskimos from Back's River to Wager Inlet and
+  Baker Lake dependent on winter caribou; likewise those at
+  Beverly, Aberdeen, and Schultz lakes); 11 (great winter herd S.
+  and W. of Bathurst Inlet); 65 (fluctuations; current abundance
+  in Hanbury-Thelon region and scarcity at Baker Lake); 70
+  (parasites; diseases); 84 (economic importance); 85-86
+  (migrating southward in late July in Thelon Game Sanctuary and
+  at Tourgis Lake, in early August at Hanbury, Artillery,
+  Clinton-Colden, and Aylmer lakes, and from early August to late
+  September at Taltson River and Thekulthili and Nonacho lakes; in
+  autumn near Lac de Gras and on upper Back's River; in autumn and
+  winter at Reliance and Snowdrift); 87-90 (at least 100,000
+  migrating N. in early July at Hanbury and Thelon rivers,
+  including does with month-old fawns); 89, 90 (molt); 91
+  (previous records in Thelon Sanctuary region); 92-93 (near Lake
+  Athabaska and Slave River and at Hill Island Lake in early
+  August; Wood Buffalo Park in winter; the various groups and
+  their movements defined); 93-95 (early ideas of migrations); 95
+  (fallacies; sexual segregation; antlers; influence of flies);
+  96-97 (details of migratory movements; retrograde autumnal
+  movement); 98 (extermination of bands formerly migrating from
+  mainland to Victoria and King William islands); 98-100
+  (irregular migrations; influences--such as wide open waters,
+  overgrazing, and fires--affecting migrations); 101-104 (carrying
+  capacity of range; numbers estimated at 3,000,000; increase and
+  decrease); 104-106 (accidents); 106-107 (effects of fire and
+  overgrazing; food); 107-110 (wolves and other predators); 110
+  (hunting and its effects); 112 (importance to natives).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): G. M. Allen, 1942:
+  297 (mainstay of Eskimos and Indians); 297-298 (description);
+  298-299 (Hudson Bay to Mackenzie River, N. to Banks and Victoria
+  Islands, Boothia, Southampton and Baffin Islands, S. to
+  Churchill River, Reindeer Lake, and ne. Alberta; migratory
+  habit; shift of range due to human crowding and destruction of
+  winter forage by fire); 299 (increased slaughter in winter
+  range; reduction on Southampton Island).
+
+  "Caribou": Manning, 1942: 28 (rapidly reduced on Southampton
+  Island after establishment of a post in 1924); 29 (insufficient
+  skins for Eskimo clothing); 29 (wolves, for lack of caribou,
+  became extinct on Southampton by 1937).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Soper, 1942: 143 (in
+  1932-33, E. of Fort Smith, S. to 30th base line; along N. shore
+  of Lake Athabaska to Fond du Lac; W. of Slave River, between
+  Lobstick Creek and Grand Detour and into Wood Buffalo Park;
+  Tethul River to Tsu Lake and Taltson River; in 1933-34, crossing
+  Slave River from E. in vicinity of Caribou and Stony Islands and
+  Buffalo Landing, and feeding on goose grass [=�_Equisetum, fide_
+  Raup, 1933: 39]).
+
+  "Caribou": Downes, 1943: 203 (Windy Lake, late July); 215
+  (1925-26 and 1938-39 bad years for caribou on upper Kazan River;
+  consequent mortality among Eskimos); 221 (Red River, July 28);
+  224, 249, 250 (Simons' Lake); 226 (grunting; shaking heads on
+  account of flies; buck with winter pelage); 227 (butchering
+  operation); 228 (use of antlers and hoofs; feeding on dwarf
+  birch; protecting carcasses from gulls); 236-237 (antics of a
+  buck); 253 (Red River); 255 (warble and nostril flies); 256
+  (does beginning to appear; swimming ability); 256-257 (snuffing,
+  snorting, and coughing); 258-260 (estimates of numbers); 260
+  (change of migration routes through human activities and forest
+  fires); 261-262 (effect of natives and wolves); pl. following p.
+  296 (Kasmere River).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Manning, 1943a: 47 (recent
+  depletion by Eskimos); 49-52 (w. Baffin Island; Koukdjuak and
+  Hantzsch rivers; Bowman, Taverner, Wordie, and Harbour bays;
+  Tweedsmuir Islands; Baird Peninsula; Lake Nettilling; Cumberland
+  Sound; Fury and Hecla Strait); 50 (summer and winter droppings;
+  exterminated from most of Foxe Peninsula); 51 (estimated
+  population in central western Baffin Island 10,000); 51-52
+  (migratory movements); 52 (sexual segregation and herding;
+  females bearing young at end of second year); 52-53 (antler
+  growth and shedding); 53 (molt; development of warble flies, and
+  their scarcity in fawns; accumulation of fat); 55 (annual kill
+  by wolves on w. Baffin Island estimated at 2,000 animals over
+  one year of age).
+
+  "Caribou": Manning, 1943b: 103 (former migration--now
+  ceased--from the S. to Melville Peninsula, where the animals are
+  now scarce; still numerous on Baffin Island N. of Fury and Hecla
+  Strait; fairly numerous, Repulse Bay to Chesterfield Inlet;
+  dearth of skins for Eskimo clothing; numerous herds about
+  Piling, Baffin Island).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. . .: Porsild, 1943: 383 (food);
+  386 (warble and nostril flies "apparently do not travel very
+  far"; sparsely covered grazing areas suitable for caribou but
+  not for reindeer); 389 (migration affected by rotational grazing
+  and seasonal and local abundance of mosquitoes or flies;
+  wariness varying with size of herd; caribou disappear before
+  expanding reindeer culture).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Soper, 1944: 274-250
+  (great reduction in southern coastal region of Baffin Island;
+  few left on Foxe Peninsula; Hantzsch and Soper rivers; Bowman,
+  Amadjuak, and Frobisher bays; Lake Harbour; Nettilling Lake; Big
+  Island; Grinnell Glacier; Cockburn Land); 248 (measurements);
+  248-249 (migrations); 248-250 (utilization by Eskimos).
+
+  "Caribou": [U.S.] War Department, 1944: 40 (Canadian mainland
+  and Arctic islands); 77 (importance as food).
+
+  "Barren ground caribou": Wright, 1944: 185 (late summer skins
+  for clothing; high value of the meat; reduction in numbers); 186
+  (migration routes changed by overgrazing, fires, and excessive
+  hunting; numbers); 187 (annual consumption in Keewatin not less
+  than 22,000; decrease on Boothia and Melville peninsulas;
+  locally plentiful in w. Baffin Island; scarce on King William
+  Island; none on Adelaide Peninsula; great decrease on
+  Southampton Island); 188 (small herds on Coats Island; varying
+  numbers on Baffin Island, where skins are imported for clothing;
+  a�herd on Bylot Island); 189 (scarce at Arctic Bay and on
+  Brodeur Peninsula); 190 (migration on Baffin Island); 191
+  (Baffin population estimated at 25,000); 193 (tables of numbers
+  taken annually on Baffin Island and in Keewatin); 195 (smaller
+  caribou on Boothia Peninsula and on Somerset and Prince of Wales
+  islands).
+
+  "Caribou": Young, 1944: 236-238, 243 (predation by wolves in the
+  Barren Grounds, including Southampton Island and Artillery
+  Lake).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Gavin, 1945: 227-228
+  (recent increase at Perry River and Bathurst Inlet; partly
+  resident on mainland but also migratory, a�few crossing to
+  Victoria Island); 228 (many fawning on small coastal islands and
+  Kent Peninsula; many succumbing to mosquitoes; damage by larvae
+  of warble fly).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): R. M. Anderson, 1947:
+  178 (type locality; Mackenzie and Keewatin, from Hudson Bay and
+  Melville Peninsula W. to lower Mackenzie Valley, and N. to s.
+  fringe of islands N. of the mainland Arctic coast; migrating S.
+  to Churchill River or beyond, Reindeer Lake, Lake Athabaska, and
+  occasionally the Wood Buffalo Park in ne. Alberta).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_. . .: R. M. Anderson, 1948: 15 (decrease;
+  shift of range attributed to fire or overgrazing; need of
+  protection; killing from planes; Northwest Territories; northern
+  Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ (Richardson): Manning, 1948: 26-28 (Eyrie,
+  Big Sand, Neck, Sandhill, Malaher, Boundary, Boulder, South
+  Henik, Camp, Carr, Alder, Victory, Ninety-seven, Twin, and Baker
+  lakes; Tha-anne and Kazan rivers; W. of Padlei; Christopher
+  Island; Chesterfield Inlet; Tavani; most numerous in the more
+  southerly and westerly of these localities in Manitoba and
+  Keewatin; heavy grazing on lichens where the caribou had been
+  numerous; migration; trails).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ Richardson: Rand, 1948a: 211-212
+  (diagnosis); 212 (Northwest Territories, wandering southward in
+  winter as far as Fort McMurray (formerly) and Wood Buffalo Park;
+  food; habitat).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ Richardson: Rand, 1948b: 149 (numerous at
+  Burnt Wood River, W. of Nelson House, winter of 1944-45, and in
+  Herb Lake area, Manitoba, winters of 1944-45 and 1945-46;
+  hundreds killed by Indians).
+
+  "Caribou": Yule, 1948: 287 (a losing battle for survival; not
+  half as many as a few years previously); 288 (considerable herds
+  between Churchill and Gillam, but fewer to the westward;
+  excessive kill; consumption by dogs and wolves; disaster
+  confronting Indians and Eskimos through diminishing supply of
+  caribou).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. . .: Banfield, 1949: 477
+  (economy); 478 (Mackenzie and Keewatin; numbers less than
+  previous estimate of 3,000,000; S. in winter to nw. Ontario,
+  central Manitoba, n. Saskatchewan, ne. Alberta, Wood Buffalo
+  Park, and Norman Wells; small bands remaining on Boothia and
+  Adelaide peninsulas, S. of Pelly Bay, on Somerset, Prince of
+  Wales, and Russell islands, and at Daly Bay; believed extirpated
+  on King William Island; Melville Peninsula); 481 (near Wager
+  Bay; fairly plentiful along Arctic coast from Back's River to
+  Horton River, in Perry River district, and on Kent Peninsula,
+  where a few cross to Victoria Island; population on Southampton
+  Island estimated at 300, on Coats Island at 1,000 and on Baffin
+  Island at 25,000; apparently extirpated on Bylot Island in 1941;
+  Eskimo pressure on Baffin Island herds). (Fig. 1�suggests n.
+  limit at s. Victoria Island and Prince of Wales and Somerset
+  islands.)
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. . .: Harper, 1949: 226 (Kazan
+  River; Eskimos starving for lack of caribou); 226-230, 239-240
+  (migration and its pattern); 226 (wintering S. to Churchill and
+  Nelson rivers; Nueltin Lake); 226, 228 (habitat; trails);
+  226-227, 229-230 (locomotion); 227 (daily periods of rest); 228,
+  229, 230 (pelage and molt); 228 (insect pests); 228, 229
+  (organization of herds); 229 (antlers); 229-230 (disposition);
+  230 (grunting; shaking water off; foot-glands; food); 230-231
+  (utilization of hides and meat); 230-231, 239 (the wolf a
+  beneficial predator); 231, 239 (numbers); 239 (civilized man the
+  chief enemy; menace of reindeer culture).
+
+  "Caribou": Hoffman, 1949: 12 (herds of 50,000 in Mackenzie
+  region spotted by aircraft; Indians and Eskimos thus directed to
+  them; caribou hides shipped to Eskimos along Arctic coast, who
+  are thus giving up seal-hunting).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus_ agg.: Polunin, 1949: 24 (contemplated
+  introduction of Reindeer to replace Caribou); 72 (Frobisher
+  Bay); 227, 230 (reported increase in NE. of Southampton Island);
+  230 (Eskimos on Southampton Island learning conservation
+  methods); 233, 238, 262, 264 (Christopher Island, Baker Lake).
+
+  "Caribou": Porsild, 1950: 54 (relatively plentiful, 1949, Banks
+  and Victoria islands).
+
+  "Barren-ground caribou": Banfield, 1951a: 1 (importance in
+  northern economy); 3 (physical environment); 4 (former and
+  present distribution); 4-5 (winter ranges); 5 (influences of
+  fire on distribution); 6 (summer ranges; retrograde autumnal
+  movement); 9 (estimated mainland population 670,000); 9-12
+  (migration); 10 (retrograde autumnal movement; rutting in
+  October or November); 11 (influences of excessive hunting and
+  fires on migration); 12-15 (changes in range and status); 13
+  (estimated population of 1,750,000 in 1900); 14-15 (destruction
+  by whalers and natives); 15-17 (description; pelage and molt);
+  15 (weight); 17-18 (antler growth and change); 18 (tooth wear
+  with age); 19 (body form; foot-prints; foot-click); 19-20
+  (food); 21 (locomotion; swimming); 22 (voice; senses;
+  disposition); 23-24 (group behavior); 24-26 (sexual
+  segregation); 26 (rutting behavior); 27 (fawning behavior;
+  warning behavior); 27-29 (influence of food, weather, and flies
+  on migration); 30 (vital statistics; growth); 31 (sexual
+  maturity); 31-33 (warble flies); 33 (nostril flies, mosquitoes,
+  and black flies); 33-35 (internal parasites); 35 (bacterial
+  diseases); 35-36 (accidents); 36-37 (relations to other
+  animals); 37-41 (relations to wolves; annual loss from wolf
+  predation estimated at no more than 5 percent); 41 (wolverine
+  only a scavenger); 42 (few kills by barren-ground grizzlies or
+  golden eagles); 42-43 (effect of firearms and wastage by
+  natives); 43-44 (caches); 44-45 (meat used as human food, dog
+  feed, and fox bait); 46-47 (hides used for clothing, upholstery,
+  tents, moccasins, etc.); 47 (use of sinew, antlers, and fat);
+  47-50 (human population in caribou range; annual kill estimated
+  at 93,000 as a minimum).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_ (Richardson): Banfield, 1951b:
+  120 (Mackenzie; wintering in forest, summering on tundra;
+  specimens).
+
+  "Caribou": Scott, 1951: 17 (Musk Ox Lake, Mackenzie); 19 (near
+  Beechey Lake); 37, 41, 83, 87, 88, 175, 214, 216 (Perry River,
+  Keewatin); 127 (use by Eskimos); 179, 180 (doe with fawn, July
+  21); 199 (several thousand, July 27); 234 (Baker Lake).
+
+  "Caribou": Tweedsmuir, 1951: 18 (reduction on Baffin Island); 37
+  (Salisbury Island); 111 (gone from Foxe Land).
+
+  "Caribou": Anonymous, 1952: 261 (decline in numbers from
+  1,750,000 in 1900 to 670,000 in 1952); 263, 265, 267 (wolves
+  harrying herds); 264 (annual kill estimated at 100,000; natural
+  enemies account for 68,000 more); 267 (summer and winter ranges
+  mapped).
+
+  _Rangifer arcticus arcticus_. . .: Mochi and Carter, 1953:
+  pl. 9, fig. 3, and accompanying text (description;
+  distribution).
+
+  "Caribou": Harper, 1953: 28 (caribou bodies in Nueltin Lake
+  region fed upon by Rough-legged Hawks, Ravens, and Herring
+  Gulls); 40 (lack of Caribou leading to large consumption of
+  Ptarmigan as dog feed); 41 (Caribou preferred to Ptarmigan as
+  Eskimo food); 60 (Long-tailed Jaegers feeding on caribou
+  bodies); 62, 63 (depredations by Herring Gulls on caribou
+  bodies); 64 (Ring-billed Gulls feeding on caribou bodies); 72
+  (Canada Jays as substitute for dog feed when caribou are
+  lacking; these birds as scavengers on caribou bodies); 74
+  (Ravens and Canada Jays as scavengers); 76 (Ravens feeding upon
+  caribou bodies and following Wolves in expectation of a caribou
+  kill).
+
+  "Caribou": Barnett, 1954: 96 (migration; fawning; numbers); 103
+  (migration); 104 (warble fly; antlers); 106 (lichens as food).
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+The principal items selected for inclusion in this index are: names of
+animals other than Richardson's Barren Ground Caribou (_Rangifer
+arcticus arcticus_); names of plants; names of institutions; and names
+of authors and other persons.
+
+The index does not cover the bibliographical references in smaller type
+inserted at the end of each section, from pages 38 to 119; nor does it
+cover the two large sections devoted wholly to bibliography (pp.
+120-160).
+
+  _Aedes_, 45
+    _fitchii_, 70
+    _nearcticus_, 70
+  _Agrostis scabra_, 42
+  Alder, 98
+  _Alectoria_, 44
+  Allen, J. A., 116
+  _Alopex lagopus innuitus_, 63
+  American Committee for International Wild Life Protection,
+      reverse of title-page
+  American Museum of Natural History, 6, 117
+  American Society of Mammalogists, 77
+  Amundsen, Roald, 49
+  Anderson, R. M., 40, 43, 75, 78, 116, 117
+  Anonymous, 40, 47
+  Anoteelik, 6, 26, 27, 35 (fig.), 56 (fig.), 60, 85, 95
+  Arctic Institute of North America, 5, inside of back cover
+  _Arctostaphylos alpina_, 33 (fig.)
+  Armstrong, Alex, 117
+
+  Bailey, Alfred M., and Russell W. Hendee, 72
+  Banfield, A. W. F., 5, 10, 40, 58, 63, 66, 71, 76, 78, 107, 117, 118
+  Bear(s), Black, 42, 48, 62
+  Bergman, Arvid M., 72
+  _Betula glandulosa_, 33 (fig.), 98
+  Birch, dwarf, 16, 17, 22, 24, 41, 98, 99
+  Birket-Smith, Kaj, 76, 117
+  Bison, 85
+  Blanchet, G. H., 49, 117
+  Blowfly(ies), 29, 51, 52
+  Boas, Franz, 112
+  Bourassa, John M., 12
+  Buchanan, Angus, 7, 68, 86
+  Buchholz, Carl, 38
+  "Bulldog" (Tabanidae), 45
+  _Buteo lagopus sancti-johannis_, 68
+
+  Cabot, William B., 99
+  Calf, bovine, 104
+  _Canis_,
+    _lupus arctos_, 63
+    _lupus bernardi_, 63
+    _lupus hudsonicus_, 63, 64
+    _lupus mackenzii_, 63
+    _lupus manningi_, 63
+    _lupus occidentalis_, 63
+  _Carex chordorrhiza_, 55 (fig.)
+  Caribou,
+    Grant's, 74
+    Labrador Barren Ground, 118
+    Newfoundland, 63, 66, 97
+    Peary's, 43
+    (Western) Woodland, 7-9, 12, 45, 46, 70, 78, 112, 94 (fig.), 119
+  _Cephenemyia_, 45, 46, 72, 73, 96
+    _nasalis_, 72
+    _trompe_, 72, 73
+  _Cervus elaphus elaphus_, 50
+  Chambers, Joe, 11, 66, 85
+  Chipewyans, Caribou-eater, 47, 49, 52, 58, 62, 69
+  Christian, Edgar, 59
+  _Cladonia_, 33 (fig.), 44, 98
+  Clarke, C. H. D., 38, 40, 41, 47, 67, 78, 117
+  _Corvus corax principalis_, 68
+  Cow, domestic, 113
+  Critchell-Bullock, James C., 67
+  Crowberry, 16, 98
+
+  Deer,
+    European Red, 50
+    "Indian," 8
+    Mule, 77
+    White-tailed, 46, 77, 78, 83-85, 87, 100, 102, 103
+  Degerb�l, Magnus, 112
+  Dix, W. L., 44, 98
+  Dobbs, Arthur, 8
+  Dogs, (Husky), 15, 17, 19, 21, 47-52, 59, 60, 62, 85
+  Downes, P. G., 18, 51, 52, 69, 106
+  Dugmore, A. Radclyffe, 97, 112
+  Dyar, Harrison G., 70
+
+  _Eleocharis baldwinii_, 42
+  Ellis, Hazel R., 12
+  _Empetrum nigrum_, 33 (figs.), 98
+  Eskimo(s), 5, 6, 19, 29, 34 (figs.), 35 (figs.), 47, 49-52,
+      56 (figs.), 57-60, 74-76, 79, 99, 114
+  "Eskimo candle(s)," 60, 114
+  "Eskimo Charlie," 52
+
+  Fish, 47, 48, 59, 60
+  Fisher, Alexander, 103
+  Fleas, 73
+  Flerov, Constantine C., 110
+  Fly(ies), 14, 23, 27, 41, 43, 69, 85
+    black, 20, 23-28, 45, 46, 69, 70
+    "deer," 70
+    nostril, 37, 45, 46, 72, 73, 96
+    warble, 37, 45, 46, 52, 56 (figs.), 57, 70-72, 96
+  Fox(es), 47, 48, 51, 62, 66, 68
+    Arctic, 48, 62, 63, 78
+    Red, 63
+  Franklin, Sir John, 46
+
+  Gallagher, Don, 12
+  Gavin, Angus, 64, 69, 117
+  Gibson, R. A., 6
+  Godsell, Philip H., 117
+  Goldman, Edward A., 63, 64
+  Goodwin, George G., 117
+  Grant, Madison, 118
+  Grass(es), 98, 99
+  Gull(s),
+    Herring, 51, 68
+    Ring-billed, 68
+
+  Hanbury, David T., 47, 49
+  Hares, Arctic, 69
+  Harper, Francis, 44, 51, 52, 58, 69, 74, 77
+  Hawk(s), Rough-legged, 48, 51, 68
+  Hearne, Samuel, 5, 7-9, 57, 102
+  Hewitt, C. Gordon, 75
+  Hoare, W. H. B., 47, 59
+  Hornby, John, 59
+  Horse, 96
+  Hudson's Bay Company, 58
+
+  Indian(s), 5, 47, 48, 50, 52, 57, 75, 114
+    Chipewyan. _See_ Chipewyans, Caribou-eater
+    Cree, 58, 94 (fig.)
+  Ingebrigtsen, John, 11, 79, 107
+  Ingstad, Helge, 41, 49, 112
+  Insects, 20, 37, 43, 45, 46
+
+  Jackson, Hartley H. T., 77
+  Jacobi, Arnold, 7, 69, 71, 72, 74, 98, 102, 103, 105, 107, 112, 113
+  Jaeger, Long-tailed, 68
+  Jay(s), Canada, 48, 51, 68
+  Jenness, Diamond, 85
+  Johansen, Frits, 71, 73
+  _Juncus tenuis_, 42
+
+  Katello, 19, 49, 56 (fig.)
+
+  Lamont, Arthur H., 10
+  Lantis, Margaret, 74
+  _Larus_
+    _argentatus smithsonianus_, 68
+    _delawarensis_, 68
+  _Ledum decumbens_, 33 (fig.)
+  Lemmings (_Dicrostonyx_), 48, 69
+  _Lepus arcticus andersoni_, 69
+  Lice (or louse), 73, 74
+  Lichens, 37, 38, 44, 45, 51, 98, 99
+    reindeer, 24, 44, 99
+  _Linognathus tarandi_, 74
+  _Loiseleuria procumbens_, 33 (fig.)
+  Lyon, George F., 86
+
+  MacFarlane, Roderick, 112
+  MacIver, Angus, 38
+  McLean, John, 9
+  McLeod, Duncan A., 10
+  Malaher, G. W., 6, 10, 12, 43, 44
+  Mallet, Thierry, 41
+  Malloch, J. R., 45, 46
+  Manning, T. H., 58, 75
+  Millais, J. G., 15, 63
+  Mink, 69
+  Mites, 73
+  Moose, 45, 78, 85, 100, 113
+  Morrow, William C., 6
+  Mosquito(es), 23, 25, 45, 46, 69, 70, 99
+  Moss(es), 24, 51, 60
+  Murie, Olaus J., 105-107
+  Mushrooms, 99, 113
+  Muskox, 85
+
+  National Science Foundation, reverse of title-page, 6
+  Natvig, L. Reinhardt, 72
+
+  _Oedemagena_, 45, 46, 96
+    _tarandi_, 52, 70, 71, 73
+  Office of Naval Research, 6
+
+  Padleimiut, 50
+  Palmer, Ralph S., 6
+  Parkman, Francis, 52
+  Parry, William Edward, 103
+  Peary, R. E., 106
+  Perez-Llano, George A., 98
+  _Perisoreus canadensis canadensis_, 68
+  _Picea mariana_, 33 (fig.), 92 (fig.)
+  Pike, Warburton, 9, 44
+  Planchek?, Charles, 52
+  Pocock, R. I., 112
+  Poole, Earl L., cover
+  Porsild, A. E., 73, 76, 77
+  Preble, Edward A., 7, 9, 12, 40, 96
+  Ptarmigan, Willow, 44
+
+  _Rangifer_
+    _arcticus caboti_, 99, 118
+    _arcticus granti_, 74
+    _caribou sylvestris_, 12, 94 (fig.), 119
+    _pearyi_, 40, 43, 63, 103, 106, 118
+    _tarandus_, 5
+  Rausch, Robert, 77
+  Raven(s), 48, 51, 68
+  Reindeer, 7, 66, 69, 74, 76-78, 110
+    Lapland, Norway, or Norwegian, 5, 71, 72, 74, 75, 80, 87, 97,
+      103, 105, 112
+    Siberian, 74, 75, 77
+  Richardson, Sir John, 5, 7-9, 44, 46, 69, 103
+  Rita, 6, 34 (fig.), 35 (fig.), 56 (fig.)
+  Ross, Bernard R., 46
+  Russell, Frank, 112
+
+  Sabrosky, C. W., 73
+  _Salix planifolia_, 98
+  Schweder,
+    Charles, 6, 12, 13, 17-19, 27-29, 31, 32, 37, 44, 45, 48-51,
+      56 (fig.), 58, 59, 62-64, 66, 68, 69, 71, 73, 79-81, 83, 85,
+      86, 88, 95, 97-108, 111-114
+    Fred, Jr., 6, 12, 18-20, 24-27, 29-32, 34 (figs.), 43, 58,
+      64-66, 69-71, 73, 79, 80, 82, 84, 86, 100-104, 106, 107
+    Mike, 6, 26, 31, 34-35 (figs.)
+  Sedge(s), 17, 42, 55 (fig.), 98, 99
+  Seton, Ernest Thompson, 5, 40, 64, 73, 75, 80, 81, 87, 88, 97, 98,
+      100, 101, 103, 104, 107, 111-113, 116, 118, 119
+  Simpson, Thomas, 8
+  _Simulium_, 45
+    _venustum_, 70
+  Soper, J. Dewey, 58, 75
+  Spruce, 24, 41, 42, 51, 60, 108
+    black, 55 (fig.), 92 (fig.), 108
+  Stef�nsson, Vilhj�lmur, 49, 63, 84, 86, 105, 117
+  _Stercorarius longicaudus_, 68
+  Stewart, Norman H., 46
+  Stone, A. J., 97
+  Stone, Dr. Alan, 70
+  Sutton, George M., and William J. Hamilton, Jr., 107, 117, 118
+
+  _Tabanus_, 45
+  Tamarack, 24, 41, 42, 108
+  Thompson, David, 8
+  Ticks, 73
+  Turner, L. M., 118
+  Tweedsmuir, Lord, 118
+  Twinn, C. R., 45
+  Tyrrell,
+    James W., 12, 78, 81
+    J. Burr, 44, 78, 81, 118
+
+  United States Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, 70, 73
+  United States Fish and Wildlife Service, 6
+  United States National Museum, 6, 118
+  _Usnea_, 44
+  _Ursus americanus_, 62
+
+  _Vulpes fulva_, 63
+
+  Washburn, Dr. A. L., 6
+  Weasels, 48, 69
+  Weber, Neal A., 69, 71, 74
+  Wherry, Dr. Edgar T., 42
+  Whitney, Caspar, 112
+  Wildlife Management Institute, reverse of title-page
+  Willow, 41, 60, 98, 108
+  Wirth, Dr. W. W., 73
+  Wolf(ves),
+    Keewatin Tundra, 11, 16, 20, 28, 37, 38, 41, 42, 48, 50, 63-68,
+      80, 81, 83, 84, 86, 102, 104
+    Alaska, 76
+    Newfoundland, 66
+  Wolverine(s), 48, 69, 83
+  Wright, J. G., 118
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Errors and Inconsistencies
+
+Inconsistent capitalization is unchanged, as is the variable spelling of
+"Dog Rib" : "Dog-rib" : "Dogrib".
+
+In references and bibliographies, irregular spellings such as "rain
+deer" or "cariboo", and variant forms of scientific names, are assumed
+to be reproduced from their original sources.
+
+
+_Spelling_
+
+  August 29 was ... in mid-afternoon  [afternon]
+  References on relations to ... Stef�nsson  [Stefansson], 1913a
+  The numbers of rubbing trees ... on the outskirts  [outskirits]
+  _Rangifer Graenlandicus_, _R. Gro�nlandicus_, _R. articus_
+    [_all spellings unchanged_]
+
+
+_Punctuation and Typography_
+
+  September 13 was ... brisk, northerly;  [brisk, northerly:]
+  Amundsen, 1908; Preble, 1908;  [1908:]
+  J.�B. Tyrrell, 1894: 441; Dix, 1951: 287  [1894;]
+  Hoare, 1930: 22; Clarke, 1940  [22,]
+  J.�W. Tyrrell, 1924 (1902): 28, 37; Hanbury, 1904  [1924 (1902);]
+  "stone men" (Harper, 1949: 231, fig.).
+    [_sentence-final period missing_]
+  Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 9, 47, 52-53 ...  [1929 (1);]
+  Harper, 1932: 30, 31; Jenness, 1932  [30, 31,]
+  Clarke, 1940: 5-9, 84, 110, 112; G.�M. Allen, 1942  [112,]
+  Kennicott, in Anonymous, 1869: 166  [1869;]
+  R.�M. Anderson, 1913a: 5, 6; 1913b: 504  [5, 6,]
+  R.�M. Anderson, 1913b: 516; Stef�nsson, 1913a  [516:]
+  recent notes by Banfield (1951a: 31-32, fig. 17)
+    [_open parenthesis missing_]
+  Seton, 1929, +3+: 109-111; Critchell-Bullock, 1930  [1929:]
+  Murie, 1939: 245; Clarke, 1940  [1939;]
+  R.�M. Anderson, 1913b: 502; Hornaday, 1914  [502:]
+  J.�W. Tyrrell, 1908: pls. facing pp. 80, 81  [pls facing]
+  J.�B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128  [1892:128]
+  J. A. Allen, 1910: 8  [_period after A invisible_]
+  1908a. The Peary caribou (_Rangifer pearyi_ Allen).
+    [_final i in "pearyi" not italicized_]
+  1928. Field book of North American mammals. New York--London
+    [New York-London]
+  J.�A. Allen, 1910: 8; Seton, 1929  [1910: 8,]
+  London: xv + 783  [London xv]
+  _Canadian Geog. Jour._ +24+ (1)  [_number 24 both bold and italic_]
+  "Reindeer and caribou (Rangifer caribou)": W. J. McLean, 1901: 5
+    [_anomalous roman (non-italic) type in original_]
+  _"Caribou"_: Stef�nsson, 1913a  [_anomalous italics unchanged_]
+  162-163 (destruction by Eskimos  [162-163 destruction]
+ Barrens E. of Great Slave Lake);  [Lake;]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Barren Ground Caribou of Keewatin, by 
+Francis Harper
+
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+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's The Barren Ground Caribou of Keewatin, by Francis Harper
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Barren Ground Caribou of Keewatin
+
+Author: Francis Harper
+
+Release Date: September 14, 2010 [EBook #33721]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BARREN GROUND CARIBOU OF KEEWATIN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, some
+images courtesy of The Internet Archive and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p><a name = "start" id = "start">This text</a> includes two characters
+that require UTF-8 (Unicode) file encoding:</p>
+
+<p class = "inset">
+♂♀ (“male” and “female” symbols, used in the Tables)</p>
+
+<p>If these characters do not display properly, or if the apostrophes
+and quotation marks in this paragraph appear as garbage, you may have an
+incompatible browser or unavailable fonts. First, make sure that the
+browser’s “character set” or “file encoding” is set to Unicode (UTF-8).
+You may also need to change your browser’s default font.</p>
+
+<p>Typographical errors are shown in the text with <ins class =
+"correction" title = "like this">mouse-hover popups</ins>. Inconsistent
+capitalization is unchanged, as is the variable spelling of “Dog Rib” :
+“Dog-rib” : “Dogrib”.</p>
+
+<p>In references and bibliographies, irregular spellings such as “rain
+deer” or “cariboo”, and variant forms of scientific names, are assumed
+to be reproduced from their original sources. All brackets are in the
+1955 original. The same applies to question marks and similar editorial
+punctuation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geographical Note:</i> Lake Nueltin straddles the border between
+Nunavut and Manitoba. The area covered by the map is in southern
+Nunavut, in the region now written Kivalliq. “Eskimo Point” is modern
+Arviat.</p>
+
+<p>The opinions expressed in this book are not necessarily those of the
+transcriber.</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "#contents">Contents</a><br>
+<a href = "#illus">Illustrations</a><br>
+<a href = "#intro">Main Text</a><br>
+<a href = "#biblio">Annotated Bibliography</a></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class = "page">
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/cover.png" width = "414" height = "689"
+alt = "see caption" title = "THE BARREN GROUND CARIBOU OF KEEWATIN"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Cover</span> A Caribou buck signaling with a
+sprawling posture of the left hind leg. Drawing by Earl L. Poole; based
+upon a motion-picture film taken August 24, 1947, near the Windy River
+post.</p>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<h1>THE<br>
+BARREN GROUND CARIBOU<br>
+OF KEEWATIN</h1>
+
+
+<div class = "page">
+
+<div class = "picture w500">
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "map1" id = "map1">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/map_thumb.png" width = "463" height = "199"
+alt = "see caption" usemap = "#map_one"></p>
+
+<map name = "map_one">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "224,102,323,199"
+href = "images/map_detail.png" target = "_blank" alt = "square inset">
+<area shape = "poly" coords =
+"0,0,462,0,463,199,323,199,323,102,224,102,224,199,0,199,0,0"
+href = "images/map_large.png" target = "_blank" alt = "rest of map">
+</map>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Map 1.</span> The Windy River area at the
+northwestern extremity of Nueltin Lake, Keewatin. (Most of the smaller
+features bear merely local or unofficial names.)</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<span class = "mynote">Click map for close-up view. &nbsp;<br>
+&nbsp; The square detail can also be viewed separately.</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page1" id = "page1">1</a></span>
+<h2>THE<br>
+BARREN GROUND<br>
+CARIBOU<br>
+OF KEEWATIN</h2>
+
+<h2 class = "four">BY<br>
+FRANCIS HARPER</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<br>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h6 class = "extended">UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS<br>
+LAWRENCE · KANSAS</h6>
+
+
+<div class = "page">
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page2" id = "page2">2</a></span>
+
+<div class = "lines">
+<h5 class = "smallcaps">University of Kansas<br>
+Museum of Natural History</h5>
+</div>
+
+<h6>EDITOR: E. RAYMOND HALL</h6>
+
+<h5><i>Miscellaneous Publication No. 6, pp. 1-164, 28 figs., 1 map<br>
+Published October 21, 1955</i></h5>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<br>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h6>Means for publication were supplied by:<br>
+National Science Foundation<br>
+Wildlife Management Institute<br>
+American Committee for International Wildlife Protection</h6>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<br>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/printed.png" width = "50" height = "30"
+alt = "PRINTED IN U.S.A." title = "PRINTED IN U.S.A."></p>
+
+<h6>THE ALLEN PRESS<br>
+Lawrence, Kansas<br>
+1955</h6>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<div class = "maintext">
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page3" id = "page3">3</a></span>
+<h2><a name = "contents" id = "contents">CONTENTS</a></h2>
+
+<table class = "toc" summary = "contents">
+<tr>
+<td><i><a href = "#illus">List of Illustrations</a></i></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "smallcaps">Introduction</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page5">5</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "smallcaps">Migrations</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page7">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Southern limits of winter range</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page7">7</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Spring migration in the Churchill region</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page11">11</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Spring migration in the Nueltin Lake region</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page12">12</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Summer interlude</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Fall migration in the Nueltin Lake region</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Retrograde autumnal movement</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page32">32</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Fall migration in the Churchill region</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page38">38</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "smallcaps">Summation of Geographical Distribution</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page39">39</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "smallcaps">Ecology</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page41">41</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Habitats</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page41">41</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Trails</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page41">41</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Influence of weather on distribution</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page43">43</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Influence of food supply on distribution</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page44">44</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Influence of insects on distribution</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page45">45</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset"><p>Effect of combined environmental factors on
+distribution</p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page46">46</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Relations to man</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page47">47</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Ethnological material from caribou products</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page59">59</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Relations to Black Bears</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page62">62</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Relations to foxes</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page62">62</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Relations to Wolves</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page63">63</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Relations to birds of prey</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page67">67</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Relations to miscellaneous animals</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page69">69</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Relations to flies</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page69">69</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Ectoparasites</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page73">73</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Relations to Reindeer</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page74">74</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "smallcaps">Numerical Status</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page78">78</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "smallcaps">General Habits</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page79">79</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Daily periods of activity and rest</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page79">79</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Organization of herds</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page81">81</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Disposition</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page83">83</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Senses</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page86">86</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Gaits</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page86">86</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Tracks</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page87">87</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Swimming</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page88">88</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Shaking off moisture and insects</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page95">95</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page4" id = "page4">4</a></span>
+Signaling</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page96">96</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Food</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page98">98</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Scatology</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page99">99</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Voice</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page100">100</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Reproduction</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page101">101</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Fawns</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page103">103</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Growth</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page104">104</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Antlers</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page105">105</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Rubbing trees</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page108">108</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "smallcaps">Morphology and Taxonomy</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page108">108</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Pelage and molt</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page108">108</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Albinism</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page112">112</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Foot-glands</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page112">112</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Mastology</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page113">113</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Fat</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page113">113</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Body measurements and weights</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page114">114</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Measurements of skulls</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page115">115</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Measurements of antlers</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page115">115</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Measurements of testes</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page115">115</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Geographical variation</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page116">116</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "smallcaps">Literature Cited</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page120">120</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "smallcaps"><p>Annotated Bibliographical References to
+<i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i></p></td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page134">134</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "smallcaps">Index</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page161">161</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<h3><a name = "illus" id = "illus">
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</a><br>
+<span class = "smallest">(<i>added by transcriber</i>)</span></h3>
+
+<p class = "mynote">
+In the printed text, illustrations were grouped into three blocks,
+probably for mechanical reasons. For this e-text, each illustration has
+been placed as close as practical to its discussion in the text, while
+keeping them in numerical order. The List of Illustration and marginal
+page numbers both show the original location.</p>
+
+<table class = "toc" summary = "list of illustrations">
+<tr>
+<td class = "item smallcaps"><a href = "#fig1">Fig.&nbsp;1.</a></td>
+<td>Half a dozen caribou trails along the Middle Ridge, looking SE.
+Ground plants: <i>Ledum decumbens</i>, <i>Empetrum nigrum</i>,
+<i>Arcto&shy;staphylos alpina</i>, <i>Loiseleuria procumbens</i>, and
+various lichens, including <i>Cladonia</i>. A&nbsp;miniature “glacier”
+in the distance. June 24, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page33">33</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig2">2.</a></td>
+<td> Caribou trails on the 50-foot-high Little River Ridge. <i>Picea
+mariana</i>, <i>Betula glandulosa</i>, and <i>Empetrum nigrum</i>. June
+19, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page33b">33</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig3">3.</a></td>
+<td> A Caribou buck (specimen No. 1065) being skinned by Fred, Mike, and
+Rita at the Bear Slough. August 17, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page34">34</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig4">4.</a></td>
+<td> Skull, antlers, skin, and hind quarter of the same Caribou being
+transported to camp along the Camp Ridge. August 17, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page34b">34</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig5">5.</a></td>
+<td> Anoteelik and Mike preparing to bring in a load of caribou meat
+with dogs and travois. Windy River post, August 19, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page35">35</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig6">6.</a></td>
+<td> Anoteelik and Mike pegging out caribou hides to dry on a gravelly
+ridge near the mouth of Windy River. August 23, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page35b">35</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig7">7.</a></td>
+<td> About 75 Caribou (bucks, does, and fawns) at a rapid on Little
+River. August 25, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page36">36</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig8">8.</a></td>
+<td> About 22 Caribou crossing Little River at a rapid. Chiefly does and
+fawns, with several bucks bringing up the rear. August 26, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page36b">36</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig9">9.</a></td>
+<td> A band of Caribou swimming across Little River at its mouth and
+landing on the western shore. Toward the left, a&nbsp;doe standing
+broadside and enveloped in a cloud of spray being shaken off. August 28,
+1947. (From a 16-mm. motion picture.)</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page53">53</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig10">10.</a></td>
+<td> Two Caribou bucks standing in the edge of Little River at its mouth
+after swimming across. August 28, 1947. (From a 16-mm. motion
+picture.)</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page53b">53</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig11">11.</a></td>
+<td> A one-horned doe, a hornless doe, a&nbsp;fawn, and a two-horned doe
+among a band of Caribou approaching the camera within a rod after
+swimming across Little River. August 28, 1947. (From a 16-mm. motion
+picture.)</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page54">54</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig12">12.</a></td>
+<td> A band of Caribou (chiefly big bucks) swimming across Little River
+at its mouth. August 28, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page54b">54</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig13">13.</a></td>
+<td> Camp Slough, with trails showing the recent passage of Caribou
+through the sedge growth (predominantly <i>Carex chordorrhiza</i>).
+Black spruce in the foreground and distance. August 29, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page55">55</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig14">14.</a></td>
+<td> A Caribou <i>Elysium</i>: a hornless doe approaching within 15 feet
+of the photographer at the mouth of Little River. August 30, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page55b">55</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig15">15.</a></td>
+<td> Anoteelik in caribou-skin clothing, holding a caribou spear.
+A&nbsp;buck on the skyline. Mouth of Windy River, September&nbsp;7,
+1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page56">56</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig16">16.</a></td>
+<td> Katello, a Padleimiut Eskimo from the upper Kazan River, in a coat
+(<i>attigi</i>) and boots (<i>komik</i>) of caribou skin. Windy River,
+Oct.&nbsp;6, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page56">56</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig17">17.</a></td>
+<td> Charles Schweder with the fresh, warble-infested hide of a Caribou
+buck (specimen No. 1033). Windy River, June&nbsp;3, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page56b">56</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig18">18.</a></td>
+<td> Hide of a Caribou doe, about four years old, with about 130 small
+warbles or warble scars (concentrated on the rump). Windy River,
+September 15, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page56b">56</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig19">19.</a></td>
+<td> Caribou tracks in mud; one about 114 by 95 mm.; another, 102 by 102
+mm. Between Bear Slough and Eider Pond, September&nbsp;3, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page89">89</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig20">20.</a></td>
+<td> Caribou track in 2-inch snow; hind foot superimposed on track of
+front foot. Combined track about 153 by 127 mm. Camp Ridge, October 29,
+1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page89b">89</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig21">21.</a></td>
+<td> A Caribou doe (specimen No. 1101). Mouth of Windy River, September
+21, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page90">90</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig22">22.</a></td>
+<td> A Caribou buck (specimen No. 1111). Mouth of Windy River, September
+29, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page90b">90</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig23">23.</a></td>
+<td> A male Caribou fawn (specimen No. 1095), in its first, woolly
+pelage. Mouth of Windy River, September&nbsp;7, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page91">91</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig24">24.</a></td>
+<td> Hoofs of a male Caribou fawn (specimen No. 1072); hind hoofs in the
+middle. Mouth of Windy River, August 21, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page91b">91</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig25">25.</a></td>
+<td> Enormous set of old antlers of a Barren Ground Caribou, with
+exceptional palmation. (A&nbsp;10.5-inch length of a steel rule
+visible.) Simons’ Lake, October 15, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page92">92</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig26">26.</a></td>
+<td> Rubbing trees: two small black spruces (<i>Picea
+mariana</i>)&mdash;the larger 4 feet high&mdash;broken and barked by
+Caribou in rubbing velvet off the antlers. Simons’ Lake, October 18,
+1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page92b">92</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig27">27.</a></td>
+<td> Pile o’ Rocks, an ancient enclosure erected as a game lookout on
+the summit of a hill 1.5 miles NW. of the mouth of Windy River. June 30,
+1947.</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page93">93</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig28">28.</a></td>
+<td> Adult male Western Woodland Caribou (<i>Rangifer caribou
+sylvestris</i>) (No. 235361, U.S. Biol. Surveys Coll.). Stony Mountain,
+about 27 miles S. of Fort McMurray, Alberta, October 22, 1920. (U.S.
+Fish and Wildlife Service.)</td>
+<td class = "number"><a href = "#page94">94</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page5" id = "page5">5</a></span>
+<h3><a name = "intro" id = "intro">Introduction</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>No other large North American land mammal is of such primary
+importance as the Barren Ground Caribou (<i>Rangifer arcticus
+arcticus</i>) as a source of food and clothing for so many primitive
+Eskimo and Indian tribes; no other performs such extensive and
+spectacular migrations; no other may be seen in such vast herds; no
+other exhibits so close an approach to a Garden-of-Eden trustfulness in
+the presence of man. And perhaps no other is more worthy of being
+cherished and safeguarded in its natural haunts for the benefit and
+enjoyment of future generations.</p>
+
+<p>The original valid designation, in technical nomenclature, of the
+Barren Ground Caribou of the Mackenzie-Keewatin region dates back to
+1829, when Sir John Richardson described it in the <i>Fauna
+Boreali-Americana</i> as <i>Cervus tarandus</i> var. <i>arctica</i>. The
+type locality is Fort Enterprise (about lat. 64° 30´ N., long. 113° W.),
+on Winter Lake, an expansion of Snare River, Mackenzie. Since the
+typical subspecies appears to lack a distin&shy;guishing common name, it
+would seem fitting to associate with it the name of its worthy
+describer; thus, Richardson’s Barren Ground Caribou. The author’s
+intimate acquaintance with the animal should have enabled him to draw up
+a somewhat fuller and more adequate description than he did. Previous
+travelers in the Barren Grounds, among whom Samuel Hearne (1795) was
+particularly notable, had contributed accounts of the species, without
+differen&shy;tiating it from the Lapland Reindeer (<i>Rangifer
+tarandus</i>) or without giving it a distinctive technical name.</p>
+
+<p>Since Richardson’s time the mainland form of western Canada has been
+discussed by many zoologists and explorers. The most comprehensive
+account of its life history hitherto published is that by Seton (1929,
+<b>3</b>: 95-135),<a class = "tag" name = "tag1" id = "tag1" href =
+"#note1">1</a> whose personal experience was gained in the region of
+Artillery, Clinton-Colden, and Aylmer lakes. Dearth of adequate material
+(particularly from the type locality or adjacent areas) makes it all but
+impossible to determine whether there is any significant geographical
+variation between the herds of central Mackenzie and those of
+Keewatin.</p>
+
+<p>The foremost objective of an expedition I made in 1947 to Nueltin
+Lake, in southwestern Keewatin, was a study of the Barren Ground
+Caribou. The expedition was supported by the Arctic Institute
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page6" id = "page6">6</a></span>
+of North America, with funds supplied by the Office of Naval Research.
+My headquarters were at the little Windy River trading post, at the
+northwestern extremity of Nueltin Lake (<a href =
+"#map1">map&nbsp;1</a>). There, for a period of six months,
+I&nbsp;enjoyed the fine hospitality of Charles Schweder and Fred
+Schweder, Jr. They had lived on intimate terms with the Caribou during
+most of their youthful lives, and they freely shared with me the
+knowledge they had thus gained concerning the ways of life of these
+wonderful creatures. They secured nearly all the specimens that went
+into my collection. The three other residents of the post also deserve
+my gratitude for their general helpfulness and friendliness; they were
+10-year-old Mike Schweder (brother of Charles and Fred), 15-year-old
+Anoteelik (an Eskimo boy), and the latter’s sister, 5-year-old Rita.</p>
+
+<p>In a previous paper (1953) I have endeavored to express to various
+officials and friends my sincere appreciation of their courtesy and
+generosity in furthering the work of the expedition; and I can scarcely
+forbear to repeat here the names of at least a few of them: Dr.
+A.&nbsp;L. Washburn, at that time executive director of the Arctic
+Institute of North America; Mr. R.&nbsp;A. Gibson, deputy commissioner
+of the Admini&shy;stration of the Northwest Territories; and Mr.
+G.&nbsp;W. Malaher, director of the Game and Fisheries Branch, Manitoba.
+For the loan of a motion-picture camera, which secured for me some
+extremely gratifying scenes of the migrant hosts on the Barrens,
+I&nbsp;am greatly indebted to Mr. William C. Morrow. Dr. Ralph S. Palmer
+has kindly read, and made helpful comments upon, a&nbsp;preliminary
+draft of the present report.</p>
+
+<p>Through the courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History, the
+United States National Museum, and the United States Fish and Wildlife
+Service, I&nbsp;have been able to examine important comparative material
+in their collections.</p>
+
+<p>A grant from the National Science Foundation has enabled me to carry
+the investigation through to completion.</p>
+
+<p class = "footnote">
+<a name = "note1" id = "note1" href = "#tag1">1.</a>
+This statement, written long before the appearance of Banfield’s work of
+1954, no longer applies.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page7" id = "page7">7</a></span>
+<h3><a name = "migrations" id = "migrations">Migrations</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>The Barren Ground Caribou is the outstanding migratory land mammal of
+North America at the present day. (Some of the bats, though extensively
+migratory, obviously belong in a category too distinct for comparison.)
+We know as yet extremely little concerning the movements of individual
+Caribou;<a class = "tag" name = "tag2" id = "tag2" href = "#note2">2</a>
+but it is fairly safe to assume that among those reaching the southern
+limits of the winter range in central Manitoba or northwestern Ontario,
+there must be many whose summer range is at least 500 or 600 miles to
+the northward. The latitudinal extent of such wanderings is comparable
+with, or equivalent to, an annual round trip between Philadelphia,
+Pennsylvania, and Charleston, South Carolina. There is perhaps less
+information available concerning the migrations of the wild Reindeer of
+the Old World than concerning the movements of the Barren Ground Caribou
+of North America (<i>cf.</i> Jacobi, 1931: 191-200).</p>
+
+<p class = "footnote">
+<a name = "note2" id = "note2" href = "#tag2">2.</a>
+One means of gathering information on this subject would be to capture
+fawns as they swim across lakes or wide rivers on the autumn migration,
+then to affix numbered metal tags to their ears and to release them in
+time to rejoin their mothers. This would simply be a modification of the
+leg-banding method that has proved so highly successful in the study of
+bird migration. It would also be particularly useful in studies on age
+and growth.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "mig_limits" id = "mig_limits">
+Southern limits of winter range</a></h4>
+
+<p>In years long past the winter range extended at least occasionally as
+far south as Fort McMurray in Alberta and Cree Lake and the upper
+Mudjatick and Foster rivers in Saskatchewan, and rather regularly to
+Reindeer Lake (Preble, 1908: 137); and “on rare occasions as far south
+as Cumberland House on the Saskatchewan River” (Buchanan, 1920: 105). At
+an early date Richardson believed (1829: 243) that “none” of these
+Caribou “go to the southward of Churchill.”</p>
+
+<p>There are, however, records of long ago that deal with mass
+occurrences of Caribou on the lower courses of the Nelson, Hayes, and
+Severn rivers, emptying on the west coast of Hudson Bay. The records are
+very puzzling in several respects. Most of them do not definitely
+differentiate the species involved from the Barren Ground Caribou, but
+some of them (by Hearne, Richardson, and Preble) indicate that it is the
+Woodland Caribou. The direction of the migrations, as reported in some
+instances, is just the reverse of that taken at the present time by the
+Barren Ground species during its normal movements at corresponding
+seasons. Finally, it is all but impossible to reconcile the numbers
+reported with such knowledge
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page8" id = "page8">8</a></span>
+as we have of the status of the Woodland Caribou at any other period or
+in any other region.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the earliest account is by Dobbs (1744: 22):</p>
+
+<p>“They [residents at Fort Bourbon-York Factory] also take great
+numbers of Cariboux or Rain-Deer [sp.?]. In <i>March</i> and
+<i>April</i> they come from the North to the South, and extend then
+along the River 60 Leagues; they go again Northward in <i>July</i> and
+<i>August</i>; the Roads they make in the Snow are as well padded, and
+cross each other as often as the Streets in Paris.”</p>
+
+<p>In discussing the “Indian deer” or Woodland Caribou in the vicinity
+of Great Slave Lake, Hearne remarks (1795: 225): “This is that species
+of deer which are found so plentiful near York Fort and Severn
+River.”</p>
+
+<p>According to Thompson (1916: 100-101), an immense herd of “Rein Deer”
+[sp.?], estimated at the rather preposterous figure of 3,564,000
+individuals, crossed the Hayes River 20 miles above York Factory in late
+May, 1792. The direction of this migration is not indicated.</p>
+
+<p>Richardson writes (“1825”: 330) of the Woodland Caribou: “In the
+beginning of September, vast numbers of this kind of deer pass near York
+Factory .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. on their journey towards the north-west.”</p>
+
+<p>And again (1829: 250):</p>
+
+<p>“They cross the Nelson and Severn Rivers in immense herds in the
+month of May, pass the summer on the low, marshy shores of James’ Bay,
+and return to the northward, and at the same time retire more inland in
+the month of September.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. I have been informed by
+several of the residents at York Factory that the herds are sometimes so
+large as to require several hours to cross the river in a crowded
+phalanx.”</p>
+
+<p>The implication is that the herds passed <i>southward</i> in May. It
+should be borne in mind that these were apparently not personal
+observations of Richardson’s; and in his belief that the Barren Ground
+species did not go south of Churchill, he may have merely assumed that
+the animals in the York Factory region were the Woodland species.</p>
+
+<p>“Near York Factory, in 1831, this propensity [Indian
+destruc&shy;tiveness] .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. led to the indis&shy;criminate
+destruction of a countless herd of reindeer [sp.?], while crossing the
+broad stream of Haye’s River, in the height of
+summer.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. The deer have never since visited that part
+of the country in similar numbers.” (Simpson, 1843: 76).</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page9" id = "page9">9</a></span>
+<p>Referring to the York Factory region in 1837, John McLean writes
+(1932 [1849]: 195). “Not many years ago this part of the country was
+periodically visited by immense herds of rein-deer; at present there is
+scarcely one to be found.”</p>
+
+<p>A later account of Richardson’s (1852: 290) is somewhat ambiguous as
+to the species to which it refers:</p>
+
+<p>“The reindeer that visit Hudson’s Bay travel southward toward James’s
+Bay in spring. In the year 1833, vast numbers of them were killed by the
+Cree Indians at a noted pass three or four days march above York
+Factory. They were on their return northward, and were crossing Hayes
+River in incredible multitudes.”</p>
+
+<p>Pike writes (1917 [1892]: 50) that “within the last three years
+[<i>i.e.</i>, about 1888] the [Barren Ground?] caribou have appeared in
+their thousands at York Factory .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. where they have not been
+seen for over thirty years.”</p>
+
+<p>Preble (1902: 41) quotes Dr. Alexander Milne as thinking, after 14
+years’ residence at York Factory, that the small bands of “Woodland
+Caribou,” found between Churchill and Cape Churchill, form the “northern
+fringe of the bands which migrate to the coast in spring, the great
+majority of which in their journey cross to the south of Nelson River.”
+At that time, however, Preble (1902: 42), like Richardson before him,
+seems to have regarded the Churchill River as the southern limit of the
+Barren Ground species, and thus he may not have considered the
+possibility of the animals of Cape Churchill and the Nelson and Hayes
+rivers belonging to the same species.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult to draw any sure conclusions from the confusing
+records just quoted. Possibly chief reliance should be placed upon the
+testimony of such high authorities as Hearne, Richardson, and Preble
+when they refer to the animals as Woodland Caribou. Furthermore, none of
+the early writers identify them unequivocally as the Barren Ground
+species. It remains fairly evident that long ago some species of Caribou
+in great numbers did actually cross these rivers in a southerly
+direction in the spring, pass the summer on the coastal tundra east of
+York Factory, and return northward or northwestward in late summer or
+autumn. Whichever species it was, it represented a segment of the
+population that must have become reduced to utterly insignificant
+numbers, if not entirely extirpated, some decades ago. In any event, it
+does not seem very
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page10" id = "page10">10</a></span>
+likely that we shall ever be able to reconstruct the actual movements of
+the “incredible multitudes” in the York Factory region of more than a
+century ago.</p>
+
+<p>Since the beginning of the present century, until very recent years,
+there seem to have been few or no Manitoba records of <i>R.&nbsp;a.
+arcticus</i> from any locality so far to the southeast as York Factory.
+In 1947, however, Mr. G.&nbsp;W. Malaher, director of the Game and
+Fisheries Branch in Manitoba, informed me that during the previous
+couple of winters the animals had ranged southward on a broad front to
+the latitude of Oxford House, where they had not been known for 40 or 45
+years. It was surmised that the recent burning of large areas north of
+The Pas, resulting in the destruction of the Caribou’s normal winter
+food of lichens, had deflected the animals toward the southeast and had
+caused them to extend their migration beyond its normal limit. The Split
+Lake band of Indians (on the Nelson River) were said to have killed
+4,000 Caribou during the winter of 1946-47, and to have used half of
+them for dog feed.</p>
+
+<p>Arthur H. Lamont, in charge of the meteorological office at Fort
+Churchill, gave me information concerning Caribou that he had seen
+during a plane flight from that point to Edmonton on March 18, 1947. At
+midday he had sighted hundreds, in bands averaging 20 to 30 individuals,
+on some little lakes, averaging a quarter of a mile in diameter, near
+the southwestern end of Reindeer Lake. The animals were right in the
+middle of the frozen lakes (evidently for a noonday rest), and some of
+them were lying down. They paid no attention to the plane at a height of
+6,000 feet, but were frightened when it came down to 200 feet. This was
+the only area where Caribou were sighted during the entire flight.</p>
+
+<p>Duncan A. McLeod, of Winnipeg, informed me that he had seen thousands
+and thousands of Caribou on April 16, 1941, while he was flying from
+Isle à la Crosse to Beaverlodge on Lake Athabaska. They were nearer to
+Lake Athabaska than to the starting-point. They were congregated on
+frozen lakes about the middle of the day.</p>
+
+<p>“Their nomadic migrations during the past 10 years have brought
+caribou herds during winter months to northwestern Ontario (Little
+Sachigo Lake); central Manitoba (Cormorant, Cross, and Island Lakes);
+northern Saskatchewan (Churchill River); northeastern Alberta
+(Clearwater and Athabaska Rivers and Lake Claire)” (Banfield, 1949: 478,
+fig.&nbsp;1).</p>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page11" id = "page11">11</a></span>
+<h4><a name = "mig_spring_ch" id = "mig_spring_ch">
+Spring migration in the Churchill region</a></h4>
+
+<p>The Hudson Bay Railway is perhaps the only one in North America from
+which Barren Ground Caribou of the present subspecies have been seen. On
+May 21, 1947, a&nbsp;passenger reported three or four of the animals
+near Mile 326, between Gillam and Amery. Farther north, between Herchmer
+and Chesnaye, the railway passes for perhaps 30-40 miles through the
+western edge of a tundra area, interspersed with small spruce timber;
+this is known as the “Little Barrens.” It was a thrilling experience to
+see my first Caribou here, during a period of three-quarters of an hour
+on the afternoon of May 21, from Mile 453 to about Mile 475. There were
+eight bands, varying in number from 2 to 60 or 70 and averaging about 20
+individuals. The first and largest band was loping away from the train,
+at a distance of perhaps 350 yards. A&nbsp;band of 9 or 10, at about 250
+yards, exhibited both a trotting and a loping gait. Others, as far off
+as half a mile or a mile and therefore less alarmed, seemed to content
+themselves with trotting. They maintained a noticeably close formation
+while fleeing from the train. Yearlings, appearing only about half the
+size of the adults, were readily distin&shy;guishable. The animals were
+in the midst of their spring migration and were evidently moving in a
+general northerly direction over the snow-covered Barrens. The ice of
+the small lakes was still solid enough for the Caribou to trot over
+it.</p>
+
+<p>Two weeks previously a large movement had passed through this area,
+as I learned from several sources. A&nbsp;member of the Royal Canadian
+Mounted Police detachment at Churchill, for example, had traveled
+through the Caribou for a distance of 15 miles without coming to the end
+of them; he estimated their numbers at more than 5,000. Joe Chambers,
+a&nbsp;trapper of Goose Creek, said the animals had been very plentiful
+in April, moving generally northward. He spoke of finding a good many
+Caribou that Wolves had killed, contenting themselves with eating only
+the tongue and the unborn fawn.</p>
+
+<p>According to a railway conductor, only 12 Caribou were seen from the
+train as it passed through the Little Barrens on May 25, and none on May
+28.</p>
+
+<p>John Ingebrigtsen, of Churchill, reported passing a frozen lake
+somewhere east of the Duck Lake Post, that was “absolutely full” of
+Caribou. It was about a mile and a half long by half a mile wide, and he
+estimated the number of animals at not less than 20,000.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page12" id = "page12">12</a></span>
+This was in the early part of May, 1942 or 1943, when the spring
+migration was no doubt under way.</p>
+
+<p>During a plane flight from Eskimo Point to Baker Lake on May 22,
+1947, John M. Bourassa and Don Gallagher sighted numbers of Caribou,
+including one herd of about 500. On May 28 the former saw a Caribou
+between Churchill and Fort Churchill. From other sources I learned that
+small numbers occasionally pass along the outskirts of Churchill during
+the migrations.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Hazel R. Ellis (<i>in litt.</i>, April 13, 1953) reports
+seeing several bands of Caribou from the train as it approached
+Churchill on June&nbsp;8, 1947; also a band between Churchill and Fort
+Churchill on June 13 and 21, 1949, and a single animal on June 28, 1949,
+on the west side of the river near Churchill. On July&nbsp;5, 1949, she
+filmed a herd of over 40 Caribou at Bird Cove on Cape Churchill.</p>
+
+<p>Preble writes (1902: 41): “Between York Factory and Fort Churchill a
+few small bands [of Woodland Caribou] are found throughout the year on
+the ‘Barrens’.” He includes reports to this effect from several sources,
+including J.&nbsp;W. Tyrrell (1898). The latter, however, does not
+specify which species of Caribou his party encountered. It might be
+expected that <i>R.&nbsp;a. arcticus</i>, rather than <i>R. caribou
+sylvestris</i>, would be the proper inhabitant of this tundra area. It
+is beyond question that the animals seen in recent years on the “Little
+Barrens” between the Churchill and the Nelson Rivers are the Barren
+Ground species. Furthermore, Mr. G.&nbsp;W. Malaher, of the Manitoba
+Game and Fisheries Branch, informed me that a considerable number of
+this species spend the summer and have their fawns on the Barrens in
+this area.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "mig_spring_nu" id = "mig_spring_nu">
+Spring migration in the Nueltin Lake region</a></h4>
+
+<p>The general pattern of this migration, as manifested particularly
+about the northwestern portion of the lake, was explained by Charles
+Schweder. As a rule, practically all the local Caribou spend the winter
+in the wooded country to the southward. When the northward movement
+starts in the spring, the does precede the bucks; they migrate through
+this area mostly in May (and apparently more commonly in the latter half
+of the month), but to some extent in April or even earlier. During June
+the majority of the animals passing by are bucks. According to Fred
+Schweder, Jr., the spring migration here is more regular, less erratic,
+than the fall migration.</p>
+
+<p>When I arrived at Nueltin Lake on May 31, the spring migration
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page13" id = "page13">13</a></span>
+was in full swing; it continued through June in gradually lessening
+force, and the last northbound band was seen on July&nbsp;1. In the
+meantime many interesting details of caribou behavior came to light.</p>
+
+<p>While flying from Churchill to Duck Lake Post on May 31, at a height
+of about 500 feet, we detected three bands on the frozen surface of Seal
+River, where they were evidently taking a noonday rest. They numbered
+approximately 40, 20, and 6 individuals. Within 20 minutes after
+resuming our journey, from Duck Lake Post to Nueltin Lake, we saw four
+more bands, numbering from two to a dozen individuals. Finally, just
+before landing on Windy Bay, we noticed a band of perhaps 20 crossing
+the bay a mile from its head.</p>
+
+<p>Observations during the following 10 days showed that this was a very
+definite crossing-place for the Caribou, as if some invisible barrier on
+each side kept them to a certain line of march. Moreover, Charles
+Schweder informed me that they followed this identical route year after
+year. An examination of the local topography (<a href =
+"#map1">map&nbsp;1</a>) soon revealed the reason. The rugged south side
+of Windy Bay rises steeply for some 500 feet to the summit of the Windy
+Hills, and over a considerable distance there are precipices and talus
+slopes barring the passage of such animals as Caribou. But the mile-long
+South Bay, meeting Windy Bay at right angles, affords a convenient break
+in the hills; and the slopes thereabouts are gradual enough to be
+negotiated readily by the Caribou. So here they converge from the
+neighboring heights, making long, slanting trails through the snow that
+are visible for miles; they pass out of the narrow mouth of South Bay as
+through a funnel, then follow the beaten path of their predecessors
+across the ice of Windy Bay toward the farther shore, until they are
+lost to view among a cluster of islands. It may be further remarked that
+their course northeastward from the mouth of South Bay is less
+obstructed by islands than almost any near-by portion of Windy Bay.</p>
+
+<p>From our camp, a mile or so distant, Caribou in bands of
+approximately the following numbers were observed using this
+crossing-place during the early part of June: June 1&mdash;7, 10, 18,
+20, and several other bands of unrecorded size; June 2&mdash;10, 3, 7;
+June 3&mdash;4, 4, 10, 30, 70, and others; June 4&mdash;3, 40?; June
+5&mdash;40, 50, 75; June 6&mdash;25; June 10&mdash;8. Of course many
+others must have passed while our attention was elsewhere engaged. In
+most cases my records indicate the time of day when the bands were
+crossing Windy Bay.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page14" id = "page14">14</a></span>
+The periods were mainly from 10 to 11 a.m., from 2:30 to 5 p.m., and in
+the evening. Perhaps the infrequency of midday passages was due to the
+habit of the Caribou of resting at this period. One of the last bands to
+pass during the evening of June 1 consisted of about 20 individuals. Two
+big bucks were in the lead, and apparently a few others were scattered
+along the line. At the very rear was a big, extra-dark buck, immediately
+preceded by a yearling barely half its size.</p>
+
+<p>In crossing the bay ice, the animals traveled habitually in long
+files, one after the other, and yet not altogether in single file. In
+watching the endlessly interesting spectacle from camp, we could not
+always count the individuals exactly, for here and there a few would get
+abreast of others and be partly concealed. The general formation of each
+band was that of a much strung-out procession. For the most part the
+animals progressed at a moderate walking gait; there were no flies to
+spur them on at this season. On one occasion the forward element of a
+large band was actually running, but those in the rear were going
+calmly, and there was no visible cause of alarm. At mid-morning of June
+6 most of a band of 25 were lying down to rest on the bay ice, while a
+few remained standing.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Caribou in some numbers were advancing northward by
+crossing Windy River, the ice on which did not break up generally till
+June 14. On June&nbsp;3, for example, as I peeped out of my tent at 4
+a.m., there was a band of about 15 making a crossing a quarter of a mile
+above camp. Late in the afternoon several dozen did likewise close to
+the same place. At this period I did not get farther upstream to note
+how many might be passing there. On June 14, while the river ice was
+breaking up but while the bay ice was holding firm, two bucks moved
+about on the latter, just off the river’s mouth. They appeared to be
+seeking a safe crossing. The smaller of the two almost invariably
+preceded, just as if it were aware that it would be less likely to break
+through than its companion. For the most part they walked rather
+sedately, but now and then took up a very leisurely trot. On the
+following day a dozen crossed Windy Bay at about the same place. These
+were the last ones seen on the ice in June. Though the ice remained on
+the bay for some days longer, it had evidently become unsafe.</p>
+
+<p>Thereafter the Caribou obviously preferred the short passage of Windy
+River (no more than 50 or 60 yards wide in places) to a swim of half a
+mile or so across Windy Bay. So they appeared in
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page15" id = "page15">15</a></span>
+considerable numbers on the south bank of the river, reconnoi&shy;tering
+for a suitable place to cross. Many were deterred by movements or sounds
+in our camp on the north bank, including the yelping invariably set up
+by the tethered Husky dogs whenever they would catch sight of Caribou;
+the latter would then be likely either to retreat behind the ridges or
+to pass upstream along the south bank. Along the half-mile extent of
+this bank visible from our camp, I&nbsp;noted the following making the
+passage of the river by swimming: June 18, a&nbsp;band of half a dozen;
+June 20, a&nbsp;band of three landing practically in our dooryard and
+about 14 crossing at the mouth; June 21, six crossing at the mouth; June
+24, about 10 (mostly big bucks) landing just above the camp. On the
+morning of July 1 a buck swam across the bay just off the river’s mouth,
+and a little later a band of about 11&mdash;the last seen on the spring
+migration&mdash;were trotting upstream along the south bank.</p>
+
+<p>Various groups observed during June, principally on the south side of
+the bay and the river, furnished memorable spectacles. Besides resorting
+to open areas on the frozen lakes and rivers for their resting periods,
+the Caribou will also select some commanding hilltop for the same
+purpose. On June 3 a band of 75 appeared in midday on the summit of a
+rocky hill (“Caribou Knoll,” <a href = "#map1">map&nbsp;1</a>) rising to
+a height of some 150 feet on the far side of Windy River. While some
+kept on feeding, many of them lay down on snowbanks, apparently
+preferring these to the plentiful patches of bare ground, and doubtless
+passing the time by chewing their cuds. The velvet of the bucks’ new
+antlers was plainly visible through field-glasses. In the variety of
+their attitudes on this rocky height the animals were disposed perhaps
+more like alpine Chamois than like the generally conceived masses of
+Caribou on the low Barrens. What a subject for a Millais!</p>
+
+<p>It appears likely that the higher elevations may serve for the
+nocturnal rest as well as for a noonday siesta. During the evening of
+June&nbsp;1, for instance, some 75 Caribou in a loose aggregation were
+feeding over the summit of Josie’s Hill, beyond the junction of Windy
+and South bays. On June 20 I was enjoying a wonderfully clear and golden
+light that was cast on the imposing mass of this hill as the sun was
+setting at my back about 9 o’clock. The glory of that scene was enhanced
+by picking out with the naked eye, at a distance of a couple of miles,
+two separate bands of 12 to 15 Caribou making their way upward toward
+the broad, plateaulike summit. Meanwhile a lone Caribou was outlined
+against the sky on
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page16" id = "page16">16</a></span>
+one of the rocky ridges to the south. Might not these various movements
+have indicated a common urge to spend the semi-darkness of the Arctic
+summer night on some high, open area where a good lookout for Wolves
+could be kept?</p>
+
+<p>About 2 p.m. on June 15, a herd, perhaps half a hundred strong,
+appeared on a ridge directly across the river from camp. The animals
+made a lovely spectacle as they stood for a time, despite certain human
+movements in camp. Then they moved off upstream. A&nbsp;couple of hours
+later about 15 Caribou were feeding quietly on the south bank. On the
+following morning a band of 20 were doing likewise in nearly the same
+place. Among them were a patriarchal buck (apparently the leader),
+several other bucks, various does (one with hard horns), and a large
+proportion of yearlings. The bucks in general were lighter in
+color&mdash;more buffy; the does and yearlings, a&nbsp;sort of smoke
+gray. They seemed to be feeding to some extent on the patches of
+crowberry and dwarf birch. Presently they trotted off upstream, almost
+but not quite in single file, for a couple marched out of line with the
+others.</p>
+
+<p>On June 17 a band of about 20 appeared at a distance of 125 yards on
+the brow of a low hill near Stump Lake. Nearly all were big bucks, with
+velvety antlers up to about 20 inches in length. Perhaps three in the
+band were hornless&mdash;if not does, then young bucks that had very
+recently shed their antlers. Two of the bigger bucks were in the lead.
+At first the band came toward me, then went off at a tangent at a good
+pace, splashed across a little stream in a spirited action, and
+disappeared over the next ridge.</p>
+
+<p>Out of several bands appearing on June 20 on the opposite side of the
+river, one of about 14 individuals came down the slope near the mouth,
+took to the water at once, and made for the north shore. A&nbsp;strong
+buck landed first, and farthest upstream; others did nearly as well, but
+some of the smaller animals were swept by the strong current down into
+the bay and probably landed beyond the point. On reaching the shore, and
+even some minutes afterward, several of the Caribou could be seen
+shaking the water from their fur in doglike fashion.</p>
+
+<p>On the morning of June 21 a dozen came to the ridge across the river,
+briefly inspected the camp, and retreated. In a short time they
+returned, four antlered bucks in the lead, and some hornless individuals
+in the rear (almost in a separate band). Three of the bucks stood side
+by side, looking long and earnestly at the camp,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page17" id = "page17">17</a></span>
+while the others grazed. Finally dissatisfied with the prospect, they
+made off upstream.</p>
+
+<p>A little before 7 p.m. on the same day six Caribou appeared on the
+same ridge. For once the dogs were inattentive and silent. After
+promenading back and forth along the brow, the Caribou disappeared on
+the far side of the ridge; but in a few moments they were in the water
+at the river’s mouth, in very close formation, three of them swimming
+abreast. There were three good bucks and three smaller, hornless
+animals. After they got ashore at the opposite point, there was wagging
+of tails and shaking of ears, heads, and bodies, while the water flew
+off in a spray. Then they leisurely proceeded along the shore and around
+the point.</p>
+
+<p>About 7 p.m. on June 24 some 10 Caribou (mostly big bucks) swam the
+river and landed immediately above our camp. The last two, I&nbsp;noted,
+were heading almost upstream in the current that was running 6-8 miles
+per hour. They swam high, with the whole line of the back 2 or 3 inches
+out of the water and with the antlers tilted back to keep the snout
+above the surface. On landing, the animals hastened to the top of the
+Camp Ridge and ran off along it, while the chained and frustrated dogs
+expressed their feelings in the usual manner.</p>
+
+<p>As I was retiring to my tent on the Camp Ridge in the twilight about
+11:30 p.m. on June 29, I&nbsp;noticed a Caribou in the opposite edge of
+the river, about 125 yards away. For the most part it stood in about a
+foot of water and kept watching upstream. After some minutes I moved
+closer, right along the skyline; I&nbsp;waved a white pillow at it and
+shouted several times, but still it would not leave. Eventually it did
+move a few feet back from the water’s edge and there appeared to browse
+on some dwarf birches.</p>
+
+<p>The next day, watching from Pile o’ Rocks northwest of camp,
+I&nbsp;noticed three Caribou passing on a northeasterly course. They
+walked for the most part, but now and again trotted. They were two
+well-antlered bucks and a smaller individual with shorter horns. One of
+the former paused to graze in a green-sprouting sedge bog. It was
+perhaps such fresh summer vegetation that had helped to produce fat an
+inch thick on the haunches of an animal secured about this date.</p>
+
+<p>The area near the western border of Keewatin, lying at some distance
+south of Dubawnt Lake and west of the upper Kazan River, does not appear
+to attract large numbers of Caribou. Just once, in May, Charles Schweder
+has found them crossing a lake
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page18" id = "page18">18</a></span>
+which he considered Dubawnt, but may have been Kamiluk. In his trapping
+excursions in that area he has found trails and other signs all along
+the way, indicating that the animals at least pass through on their
+migrations.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "mig_summer" id = "mig_summer">
+Summer interlude</a></h4>
+
+<p>After July 1 no more Caribou were seen about the Windy River for five
+weeks. From information supplied by Charles Schweder, it appears that
+virtually all of the animals desert the southern portion of the Barren
+Grounds at this season. Before dropping their fawns, the does pass on
+for an undetermined distance to the northward of that portion of the
+upper Kazan River lying immediately below Ennadai Lake. The rear guard
+of the northward migration seems to be composed mainly of bucks and a
+few barren does.</p>
+
+<p>A general veil of mystery seems so far to have enshrouded most of the
+natal places (except the islands along the Arctic mainland coast) and
+the first few weeks in the life of the Caribou fawns.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page33" id = "page33">33</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig1" id = "fig1">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig1.jpg" width = "449" height = "289"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 1.</span> Half a dozen caribou trails
+along the Middle Ridge, looking SE. Ground plants: <i>Ledum
+decumbens</i>, <i>Empetrum nigrum</i>, <i>Arcto&shy;staphylos
+alpina</i>, <i>Loiseleuria procumbens</i>, and various lichens,
+including <i>Cladonia</i>. A miniature “glacier” in the distance. June
+24, 1947.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "mig_fall_nu" id = "mig_fall_nu">
+Fall migration in the Nueltin Lake region</a></h4>
+
+<p>In former times the southward migration reached the Nueltin Lake
+region in July (<i>cf.</i> Downes, 1943: 203-237), sometimes as early as
+the middle of the month. Suddenly the time of arrival shifted to (early)
+August, and has so remained. In Charles Schweder’s experience, the bucks
+nearly every year precede the does on the southward migration; this
+suggests that at least the majority of the bucks may not go so far north
+as the does. In a certain year the does actually appeared first in
+coming south. In normal years, according to Fred Schweder, Jr., the
+migration continues till October or November, by which time the animals
+have passed into the wooded country for the winter.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Schweder described the general pattern of fall migration as
+follows. At first two or three animals will appear, then a few more, and
+after several days a big movement, lasting three or four days, will pass
+through. Thereafter the numbers dwindle, though the migration continues.
+Curiously enough, there is a definite retrograde movement northward into
+the Barrens in September&mdash;sometimes as early as the first part of
+the month. Then there is a final movement toward the south in November,
+at the time of the first good snows; the largest herds of the year may
+then be seen. Just how far the migration in 1947 conformed to this
+pattern (outlined in early August) will be seen in the following
+pages.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page33b" id = "page33b">33</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig2" id = "fig2">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig2.jpg" width = "448" height = "312"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 2.</span> Caribou trails on the
+50-foot-high Little River Ridge. <i>Picea mariana</i>, <i>Betula
+glandulosa</i>, and <i>Empetrum nigrum</i>. June 19, 1947.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page19" id = "page19">19</a></span>
+<p>The big August movement occurs occasionally as early as the first
+days of the month, whereas it was delayed till the last week in 1947.
+About the first of August, 1943, according to Fred Schweder, Jr.,
+a&nbsp;thousand Caribou swam across the mouth of Windy River in the
+course of an hour, and there were other thousands during a two weeks’
+period. But such a large migration strikes this point only once in
+several years. In other years it may pass southward farther to the west,
+as in the vicinity of Simons’ Lake.</p>
+
+<p>In the fall of 1946&mdash;the very season when the Caribou bypassed
+the Eskimo camps on the upper Kazan River&mdash;there were said to have
+been far more than the normal numbers in the Windy River area. Thousands
+passed in one day, about October 10. The hills about Four-hill Creek
+then gave Fred Schweder, Jr., the impression of “moving with Deer.” By
+comparison, the numbers along the Windy River in 1947 were considered by
+the local residents to have been below normal, however impressive they
+may have been to a zoological visitor. On the other hand, it seemed to
+Charles Schweder, during his trip down the Thlewiaza River in late
+August of 1947, that Caribou were still very numerous; and he reported
+that people along the west coast of Hudson Bay were then getting more of
+the animals than in previous years.</p>
+
+<p>Only rarely do limited numbers of Caribou remain all winter in the
+Windy River area. During Charles Schweder’s years of residence there
+(about 1936-47) the animals had done so just once&mdash;on the Windy
+Hills. In 1946-47 Fred Schweder, Jr., found about 300 of them remaining
+all winter about the north end of Ennadai Lake. He said that the locally
+wintering animals are all bucks. Katello, an elderly Eskimo of the upper
+Kazan River, informed Charles Schweder that the Caribou used to remain
+there all winter, but now very rarely do so.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page34" id = "page34">34</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig3" id = "fig3">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig3.jpg" width = "444" height = "329"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 3.</span> A Caribou buck (specimen No.
+1065) being skinned by Fred, Mike, and Rita at the Bear Slough. August
+17, 1947.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>By the end of July, after both men and dogs had subsisted for several
+weeks on a diet devoid of caribou meat, an air of expectancy began to
+pervade the Windy River camp. The hunters roamed the Barrens or watched
+from some lookout post such as the Pile o’ Rocks (<a href =
+"#fig27">fig. 27</a>). No Caribou were detected during plane trips to
+the upper Kazan River and return on July 31 and August&nbsp;3, though
+their ancient, well-marked trails were visible along the ridges. It was
+not until August 6 that the first buck of the return movement was
+encountered. On the following day another animal was secured. On August
+10 and 11 only a few Caribou&mdash;not over 25 in a band&mdash;were seen
+by Charles Schweder and Fred Schweder, Jr.,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page20" id = "page20">20</a></span>
+from the air between the Windy and the Kazan rivers. It began to be
+feared that the bulk of the migration might pass somewhere to the
+westward. On August 13, however, at a distance of some miles from camp,
+Fred sighted 20 Caribou; all of them were does and fawns except for one
+buck. On August 17 he secured a good-sized buck (specimen No. 1065;
+figs. 3,&nbsp;4) at Bear Slough and saw five other bucks elsewhere. Two
+days later Anoteelik reported a band of 13.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page34b" id = "page34b">34</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig4" id = "fig4">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig4.jpg" width = "445" height = "279"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 4.</span> Skull, antlers, skin, and hind
+quarter of the same Caribou being transported to camp along the Camp
+Ridge. August 17, 1947.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On August 20 Fred reported about 300 Caribou moving in our direction
+across the Barrens east of Lake Charles; they proved to be the advance
+guard of a big movement. On the same afternoon I had filmed several
+bucks going their separate ways on the slopes about Pile o’ Rocks and
+Stony Man. They were moving along somewhat hurriedly, in a manner very
+different from the placid grazing of sheep or cattle. One or two does
+with fawns also appeared in the vicinity. (The passage of a Keewatin
+Tundra Wolf over the same ground a short time previously had no effect,
+as far as I observed, on the behavior of the animals at this time.)
+A&nbsp;grander, though more distant, spectacle gradually unfolded off to
+the eastward, beyond Little River, where several groups, numbering from
+3 to 20 or 25 individuals, were feeding quietly over the open Barrens.
+Their fresh dark autumn coats showed up much more conspicuously than had
+the cream-buff of their winter coats in June. Presently the scene became
+livelier, as the largest band, composed of does and fawns as well as
+lordly bucks, started to romp northward over the Barrens. One or more of
+the various kinds of insects that bring life-long misery to the Caribou
+may have stampeded them. This band swept past a group of half its size
+without at once involving it. A&nbsp;doe and a fawn remained lying down
+as the others passed.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page35" id = "page35">35</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig5" id = "fig5">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig5.jpg" width = "449" height = "289"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 5.</span> Anoteelik and Mike preparing to
+bring in a load of caribou meat with dogs and travois. Windy River post,
+August 19, 1947.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As the eye swept farther over that lonely land, still other Caribou
+were disclosed singly or in groups scattered over a couple of square
+miles. There was no strong herd instinct as they grazed at will. Even
+when on the march, they straggled along, some as much as 20 to 30 yards
+apart. As the sun sank lower, and the black flies became less active
+with the dropping temperature (about 53°), a lull ensued in the
+movements of the Caribou.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page35b" id = "page35b">35</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig6" id = "fig6">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig6.jpg" width = "448" height = "323"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 6.</span> Anoteelik and Mike pegging out
+caribou hides to dry on a gravelly ridge near the mouth of Windy River.
+August 23, 1947.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The big movement of the fall migration finally began to materialize
+on Sunday, August 24. This and the next few days were filled with
+memorable experiences. The throngs of Caribou passing at such times
+around the head of Windy Bay and across the lowermost
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page21" id = "page21">21</a></span>
+portions of Little and Windy rivers may be accounted for, in part, by
+the local topography (<a href = "#map1">map&nbsp;1</a>). The upper part
+of Windy Bay, occupied by numerous islands of various sizes and
+extending about 5 miles in an east-west direction, opposes something of
+a barrier to the Caribou in their southward trek. The easiest way to
+overcome this barrier is to by-pass it. So the migrant herds approaching
+the north shore of the bay turn westward toward Little River. At a point
+half a mile short of this stream a rather minor proportion of the
+Caribou actually do essay a passage of Windy Bay. They cross an island
+lying very close to the north shore, then steer for a small rocky islet
+a quarter of a mile northwest of the mouth of South Bay. Here they get a
+brief respite from swimming by walking through the shallow bordering
+waters, then continue straight on to the rugged south shore of Windy
+Bay. This course is roughly parallel to, and a quarter of a mile west
+of, the one pursued northward or northeastward across the ice in the
+spring migration. The Caribou were seen to follow this water route on
+various days from August 24 to September&nbsp;8, and again on
+October&nbsp;7. Like the one across the ice, it is probably a regular,
+well-established, annual route.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page36" id = "page36">36</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig7" id = "fig7">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig7.jpg" width = "444" height = "245"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 7.</span> About 75 Caribou (bucks, does,
+and fawns) at a rapid on Little River. August 25, 1947.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The greater number of the migrants proceed along the north shore of
+the bay to Little River and are there confronted with a choice of
+various further routes. Some continue for an indefinite distance up the
+northeastern bank, passing Lake Charles on their right, though other
+animals, coming from the north, may be following this bank in the
+opposite direction. Probably most of the Caribou arriving from the
+eastward either plunge into Little River at its mouth and swim across
+(<a href = "#fig9">figs. 9</a>, <a href = "#fig10">10</a>, <a href =
+"#fig12">12</a>) or pass upstream for a bare quarter of a mile and then
+wade across at a rapid (figs. 7,&nbsp;8).</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page36b" id = "page36b">36</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig8" id = "fig8">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig8.jpg" width = "444" height = "271"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 8.</span> About 22 Caribou crossing
+Little River at a rapid. Chiefly does and fawns, with several bucks
+bringing up the rear. August 26, 1947.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Without human interference, a large proportion of those that cross
+the lower part of Little River would doubtless proceed more or less
+directly to Windy River and cross near its mouth. But the human and
+canine inhabitants of the Windy River post seem to exert a strong
+influence in deflecting the Caribou northwestward along several more or
+less parallel ridges that rise to a maximum height of 40 or 50 feet.
+These are Little River, Middle, and Camp ridges (<a href =
+"#map1">map&nbsp;1</a>). Many animals follow the first of these to its
+northwestern end, then cross a bog and ascend the Middle Ridge. Some
+cross the southeastern end of Little River Ridge, scramble down its
+steep sides by strongly marked trails (<a href =
+"#fig2">fig.&nbsp;2</a>), and then
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page22" id = "page22">22</a></span>
+move across the Eastern Bog to the Middle Ridge. But when they reach the
+summit, they can see the post directly ahead, and generally hurry off
+northwestward along the ridge. Presently some may cross the Camp Slough
+(<a href = "#fig13">fig. 13</a>) to the Camp Ridge and then proceed
+either westward or northwestward. The Caribou have a strong predilection
+for following the treeless summits of the ridges wherever they are
+available and extend in a more or less desirable direction. On reaching
+the vicinity of the Bear Slough, where the three ridges are interrupted
+or peter out, the animals doubtless turn more or less southwestward to
+make a passage of Windy River at various points above its mouth. Under
+the conditions outlined above, it is obvious that some of the finest
+opportunities for close-range observation and photography lie at the two
+well-established crossings near the mouth of Little River.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page53" id = "page53">53</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig9" id = "fig9">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig9.jpg" width = "447" height = "264"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 9.</span> A band of Caribou swimming
+across Little River at its mouth and landing on the western shore.
+Toward the left, a&nbsp;doe standing broadside and enveloped in a cloud
+of spray being shaken off. August 28, 1947. (From a 16-mm. motion
+picture.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the dark and drizzly morning of August 24 (temp. 47°-48°) I
+noticed a number of Caribou, in groups of 2 to 20, traveling
+northwestward along Middle and Little River ridges. This indication of
+general activity enticed me to the top of the latter, whence I had a
+view of perhaps 8 or 10 animals scattered over the Barrens beyond Little
+River. Several were lying down just beyond the summit of a ridge between
+the river and Glacier Pond, so that little more than their antlers was
+visible. With the idea of finding out how closely I could approach these
+resting animals, I&nbsp;waded knee-deep across a rapid about 100 feet in
+width, and worked my way up the opposite slope until I once more caught
+sight of the tips of several antlers. Under cover of a rock and some
+dwarf birches, I&nbsp;crept ahead on hands and knees, with a miniature
+camera at the ready. I&nbsp;had arrived within 50 yards when the nearest
+buck got to its feet and stood looking at me. In hopes of photographing
+the rest while they were still lying down, I&nbsp;rose to my knees and
+hastily exposed the last bit of film in the camera. Still there was no
+immediate reaction on the part of the Caribou. Fortunately there was a
+cross wind. The first buck was so little alarmed that it leisurely
+sprinkled the ground. But presently it turned and walked off, presumably
+giving some signal of voice or posture (such as an erect tail) to the
+rest; for they got to their feet, not the half a dozen I expected, but
+half a hundred of them! Though they trotted off toward Windy Bay, they
+paused within a hundred yards and turned to stare at me. Several more
+relieved themselves as the first buck had done. By this time I saw that
+some of the Caribou, including a little fawn, were carrying their tails
+quite erect, as an expression
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page23" id = "page23">23</a></span>
+of suspicion or a signal of alarm. Evidently a majority of the band were
+bucks, but there were some does, with foot-long horns, and their fawns.
+On my way back to camp I noticed several groups of Caribou swimming
+across Windy Bay; perhaps they included the very animals I had so
+recently disturbed.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page53b" id = "page53b">53</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig10" id = "fig10">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig10.jpg" width = "447" height = "315"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 10.</span> Two Caribou bucks standing in
+the edge of Little River at its mouth after swimming across. August 28,
+1947. (From a 16-mm. motion picture.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the early afternoon it became evident that a further northwesterly
+movement was under way along the ridges between camp and Little River.
+The animals had doubtless made the passage of the river near its mouth.
+I&nbsp;followed some of them to a bog at the upper end of Little River
+Ridge, where I began to film several bucks and a lone, inquisitive,
+one-horned doe. While the latter was approaching me within a hundred
+feet, I&nbsp;caught a movement out of the corner of my eye, and all at
+once the bog seemed full of Caribou. There were 75-100 of them, chiefly
+bucks, and not more than 50 yards or so distant across the open bog.
+They presently moved on, without haste, and ascended the Middle
+Ridge.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page54" id = "page54">54</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig11" id = "fig11">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig11.jpg" width = "444" height = "301"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 11.</span> A one-horned doe, a hornless
+doe, a&nbsp;fawn, and a two-horned doe among a band of Caribou
+approaching the camera within a rod after swimming across Little River.
+August 28, 1947. (From a 16-mm. motion picture.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Several hours later about 50 more Caribou passed through this bog.
+Then a band of 17 came along, composed chiefly of does and their fawns,
+with a couple of young bucks; they did not even turn their heads in my
+direction as I stood in the open 50 yards away. Eventually a herd of
+about 150 (the largest I saw during the whole season) passed along the
+well-worn trails on the summit of the Middle Ridge. It seemed to include
+all sexes and ages, with possibly a majority of does and fawns; bringing
+up the rear was a limping patriarch with huge antlers, a&nbsp;heavy
+mane, and a lingering winter coat.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page54b" id = "page54b">54</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig12" id = "fig12">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig12.jpg" width = "444" height = "296"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 12.</span> A band of Caribou (chiefly big
+bucks) swimming across Little River at its mouth. August 28, 1947.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>During the remainder of the afternoon several other groups appeared
+in that general area. About 15 individuals descended Little River Ridge
+(<a href = "#fig2">fig.&nbsp;2</a>) to the Eastern Bog, but retraced
+their course after coming close to several of us; they were mostly does,
+with four fawns and a few bucks. Another band, of all ages and sexes and
+numbering perhaps a hundred individuals, crossed at the rapid on Little
+River. The temperatures that had prevailed during this day’s marked
+migratory movements varied from about 45° to 50°. They were low enough
+to keep the black flies completely in abeyance, and the mosquito season
+was virtually over. Although I noticed none of the parasitic flies,
+possibly enough of them were present to keep the Caribou moving actively
+against a moderate to brisk northerly wind. Now and again a big buck
+could be seen fairly jumping out of its skin with the vigor of vibrating
+its sides to shake off the tormentors.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page55" id = "page55">55</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig13" id = "fig13">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig13.jpg" width = "447" height = "313"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 13.</span> Camp Slough, with trails
+showing the recent passage of Caribou through the sedge growth
+(predominantly <i>Carex chordorrhiza</i>). Black spruce in the
+foreground and distance. August 29, 1947.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page24" id = "page24">24</a></span>
+<p>On August 25 (the second day of the big movement) I watched and
+filmed the pageant of Caribou migration from the southwestern bank of
+Little River. The turfy slopes of the Barrens, carpeted with low
+ericaceous shrubs, mosses, and reindeer lichens, and dotted here and
+there with little thickets of dwarf birch, spruce, and tamarack,
+stretched invitingly before me. Temperatures ranging from 40° to 51°,
+with a brisk northwest breeze sweeping down the river, happily
+suppressed most of the black flies.</p>
+
+<p>The Caribou came along at intervals from the eastward, in bands up to
+75 strong, either to make the passage of the river or to continue
+upstream along the opposite ridge. A&nbsp;small number might make the
+crossing in one or two files, but one of the larger bands might spread
+out widely in the shallow rapid. One of the photographs (<a href =
+"#fig7">fig.&nbsp;7</a>) shows approximately 75 Caribou going divergent
+ways at this rapid: about 20 passing upstream along the ridge on the far
+side, including some pausing to feed on the low vegetation; 8&nbsp;or 9
+moving down the slope of the ridge to the water’s edge; about 10 bucks,
+16 does, and 6 fawns making the passage of the river; and about 13
+arriving on the near shore and pausing to feed. The adults were able to
+step across in the swift water, while the fawns swam part of the way.
+The bucks were apparently in the minority again on this day.</p>
+
+<p>One group of some 40 does and fawns, after swimming the river near
+its mouth, came hurrying along the ridge in close array directly toward
+my station, and did not take alarm until they had arrived within 100
+feet. Then they turned tail and, each with its flag erect, beat a hasty
+retreat. The maneuver made a scene of considerable charm and interest.
+While I was filming a dozen Caribou in the Eastern Bog from the Middle
+Ridge, a&nbsp;stray fawn came up and halted for some seconds within a
+rod of me. The bewildered look in its big eyes was comical though
+pathetic. In presently dashing on, it passed within a dozen feet.</p>
+
+<p>Late in the afternoon Fred Schweder, Jr., reported about a thousand
+Caribou, in various bands up to 100 strong, crossing Little River here
+and there a mile or so above its mouth. They were traveling
+southwest.</p>
+
+<div class = "blockquote">
+
+<p>August 26 was marked by mist squalls, a maximum temperature of 45°,
+and a slackening in the numbers of passing Caribou. Late in the morning
+a band of more than 30 bucks, does, and fawns crossed the rapid on
+Little River. In the early afternoon scattering individuals and a band
+of 15 or 20 did likewise. Presently another band of about 22 animals
+came (<a href = "#fig8">fig.&nbsp;8</a>); it consisted chiefly of does
+and fawns, but there were several medium-sized bucks bringing
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page25" id = "page25">25</a></span>
+up the rear. They crossed the rapid in a somewhat V-shaped formation,
+open at the front. The vanguard reached a rocky strip 25 yards in front
+of my camera and began to feed contentedly on the low vegetation.
+However, a&nbsp;couple of does still in the water eyed me intently and
+presumably communicated their misgivings to the others, for all turned
+and went back through the river without panic or haste, although they
+trotted on reaching the farther shore. Later there were about 25 Caribou
+crossing the bay, and nearly as many on Little River Ridge.</p>
+
+<p>The weather on August 27, while mostly sunny, included occasional
+snow or sleet flurries; the northerly wind was brisk to strong; and the
+temperature, ranging from 37° to 50°, prevented the appearance of black
+flies. By 10:20 a.m. a&nbsp;band of about 10 does and fawns crossed the
+rapid on Little River. Two hours later 12-15 animals followed the same
+course, and presently 75-100 passed upstream on the far side, with a
+good deal of grunting. About 2:35 p.m. nearly a hundred Caribou, perhaps
+alarmed by a passing plane, dashed north out of the Eastern Bog. By 4:45
+p.m. 20 or more bucks, does, and fawns swam across Little River at its
+mouth; several of the biggest bucks, with enormous antlers, led the
+advance into the water. An hour later, on the eastern side of the river,
+half a dozen of the animals were lying down, but with heads erect, and
+facing down wind. At this period of the day several more bands of
+moderate size swam over to the west side of the river. A&nbsp;goodly
+number of the animals fed within 25 yards of me for a considerable
+time.</p>
+
+<p>The following day was nearly cloudless; wind moderate, westerly;
+temperature, 37.5° to 66°&mdash;high enough to bring out the black flies
+(but extremely few mosquitoes) after several days of virtual freedom
+from these scourges. Between 11:30 a.m. and 3 p.m. at least 500 Caribou,
+coming from the east, must have passed the mouth of Little River, some
+swimming across at that point (<a href = "#fig9">figs. 9</a>, <a href =
+"#fig12">12</a>), and others proceeding various distances upstream
+before undertaking the passage. A&nbsp;few of the larger bands numbered
+approximately 30, 40, and 75 individuals. Some consisted largely of does
+and fawns, some of big bucks. One of the larger bands approached the
+river on the run, plunged in recklessly, and landed on the western shore
+some 30 feet directly in front of my battery of cameras. Most of the
+animals on this and similar occasions were remarkably indifferent to me
+as I operated the cameras in full view of them. Some among them would
+approach within a rod or less and stare me in the face without alarm (<a
+href = "#fig11">figs. 11</a>, 14).</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page55b" id = "page55b">55</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig14" id = "fig14">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig14.jpg" width = "447" height = "263"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 14.</span> A Caribou <i>Elysium</i>: a
+hornless doe approaching within 15 feet of the photographer at the mouth
+of Little River. August 30, 1947.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>August 29 was a cloudy, nearly calm day, with temperatures ranging
+from 49.5° to 73°&mdash;conditions more propitious for black flies than
+for their victims. There was comparatively little local movement among
+the Caribou&mdash;in the morning two or three swimming across the bay
+and a band of 20 (6&nbsp;old bucks, the rest does and fawns) swimming
+south across the mouth of Windy River; in mid-<ins class = "correction"
+title = "text has ‘afternon’">afternoon</ins> a&nbsp;band of 10 running
+along the ridge on the eastern side of Little River; and about 100
+reported during the day in the vicinity of Windy Bay by Fred Schweder,
+Jr. The “big movement” had passed its peak.</p>
+
+<p>The next day was largely sunny, with a light easterly or
+southeasterly wind and temperatures of 50° to 68°. There were
+comparatively few black flies and fewer mosquitoes. During a five-hour
+vigil near the mouth of Little River I noticed only about 50 Caribou,
+most of them passing westward by
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page26" id = "page26">26</a></span>
+ones, twos, and intermediate numbers up to 17 (does and fawns) in a
+band. Mike Schweder reported a total of about 200 animals seen within a
+few miles of camp.</p>
+
+<p>The morning of August 31 was dismal and overcast, with a heavy
+shower; in the afternoon the sky cleared; wind brisk, south to west;
+temperature, 47° to 74.5°. Several Caribou passed along the eastern side
+of Little River, and Fred Schweder, Jr., reported about 300 some miles
+north of camp, moving in a southwesterly direction.</p>
+
+<p>Clouds and rain ushered in the morning of September 1; the afternoon
+was sunny; wind light to strong, west to northwest; temperature, 48° to
+60°. The next day was partly cloudy, with a mist squall or two; wind
+light to brisk, northwesterly; temperature, 38° to 51.5°. No Caribou
+were reported on either day.</p>
+
+<p>September 3 was largely cloudy, with some mist squalls; wind light to
+moderate, northerly to easterly; temperature, 40° to 51°. There were
+enough black flies to be slightly troublesome. Two bucks, two does, and
+a fawn were noted at Bear Slough.</p>
+
+<p>September 4 was partly cloudy, with drizzling rain; wind light, east
+to south and southwest; temperature, 43° to 58°. I saw about 22 Caribou
+(largely does and fawns), in several different groups, at Bear Slough
+and vicinity, and Fred Schweder, Jr., reported about 200 in the same
+area. Two were noted swimming to the south side of Windy Bay.</p>
+
+<p>September 5 was marked by a driving, day-long rainstorm; wind brisk,
+easterly; temperature, 43° to 50°. A band of about 20 Caribou (mostly
+does and fawns, with several middle-aged bucks), besides one or two
+single animals, were encountered at Bear Slough.</p>
+
+<p>September 6 was a cloudy, raw day, with several snow flurries; wind
+brisk, northerly; temperature, 33° to 35°. Not a fly was abroad. Two
+Caribou moved northwest along Little River Ridge; a&nbsp;band of about
+75 (mainly does and fawns, but with a fair number of big bucks) passed
+in the same direction along the Middle Ridge; and about 25 others grazed
+along the eastern side of Little River. Later about 15-20 more were seen
+about the mouth of Little River and on a near-by island, and eight swam
+across Windy Bay to the south side. Fred reported seeing about 300
+during the day north and west of camp; they were moving in a northerly
+direction.</p>
+
+<p>It was cloudy nearly all day on September 7; wind moderate,
+northerly; temperature, 33° to 40°. No black flies were in evidence.
+A&nbsp;dozen or more Caribou took to the water from an island in Windy
+Bay and made for the north shore. A&nbsp;band of about 25 passed along
+Little River Ridge toward the river’s mouth.</p>
+
+<p>September 8 was mostly cloudy; wind moderate to strong,
+southeasterly; temperature, 37° to 42°. Fred reported a band of about
+100 Caribou crossing the mouth of Little River toward the west.
+A&nbsp;dozen or more swam southward over Windy Bay at the usual
+crossing-place. Anoteelik brought in 13 tongues from that many freshly
+killed Caribou; he had secured them with a .22 rifle.</p>
+
+<p>A driving gale from the east, with rain and sleet, continued through
+the day on September&nbsp;9; temperature, 36° to 37°. A solitary buck
+inspected our camp from the south side of Windy River, then
+retreated.</p>
+
+<p>An overcast sky, with some drizzle and sleet, prevailed on September
+10;
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page27" id = "page27">27</a></span>
+wind light, east to northeast; temperature, 35.5° to 42.5°. No flies
+present for some days past. Fred reported about 20 Caribou moving
+westward in the vicinity of Little River.</p>
+
+<p>On September 11 clouds and mist squalls in the morning gave way to
+sunshine in the afternoon; wind light, easterly; temperature, 37° to
+45.5°. Caribou were noted as follows: five on the east side of Little
+River; two does and a fawn on an island in Windy Bay; a&nbsp;doe and a
+fawn swimming northward across this bay; half a dozen on Josie’s Hill.
+During a flight from Churchill to Nueltin Lake on this day, Charles
+Schweder detected no Caribou at all, and concluded that the bulk of the
+migrating herds had by this time passed to the southward of his course.
+During the latter part of August, while descending the Thlewiaza River
+from Nueltin Lake to Hudson Bay, he had seen thousands of the
+animals&mdash;as many as 5,000 in a single day, although no more than
+500 in a single herd.</p>
+
+<p>Sun, clouds, and rain marked September 12; wind moderate to light,
+south to west; temperature, 48° to 60°. Only two Caribou were
+reported.</p>
+
+<p>September 13 was cloudy, with intermittent mist squalls and a little
+sun; wind light to brisk, <ins class = "correction" title = "text has : for ;">northerly;</ins> temperature, 34° to about 44°. Two bands of
+Caribou (of four and five animals) appeared near the mouth of Windy
+River.</p>
+
+<p>It was generally cloudy, with a snow squall, on September 14; wind
+brisk to light, northerly; temperature, 33° to 41°. A doe and a fawn,
+proceeding northward, and four or five other Caribou appeared on the
+near-by ridges.</p>
+
+<p>The weather was clear on the 15th, with a moderate to brisk north
+wind and temperatures of 29° to 48°; ice at edge of the river. Fred
+reported about 100 Caribou (none of them bucks) north of camp, and
+Anoteelik secured 13 east of Little River.</p>
+
+<p>On the morning of the 16th intermittent snow flurries left a thin
+cover on the ground, but it was practically dissipated by the afternoon
+sun; wind brisk, northerly; temperature, 30° to 39°. Fred reported three
+old does without fawns, and no bucks.</p>
+
+<p>September 17 was mostly cloudy, with a little sun; wind light,
+northwest and west; temperature, 30° to 43°. A single Caribou was seen
+on the south side of Windy River.</p>
+
+<p>Clear skies prevailed on September 18; wind brisk, westerly;
+temperature, 35° to 53.5°; ice at edge of the river. A&nbsp;solitary
+black fly appeared. No Caribou reported.</p>
+
+<p>September 19 was another clear day; wind moderate to brisk,
+west-southwest; temperature, 42° to 60°. Anoteelik, camping on the
+Barrens about 2 miles to the north of camp for the past couple of days,
+reports having killed 20 Caribou (only one of them a buck).</p>
+
+<p>Light rain, soon changing to sleet, and then frequent snow squalls,
+provided the principal weather elements on September 20; wind light to
+strong, west to north; temperature, 27° to 43.5°. The ground became
+partly covered with snow. A&nbsp;big buck, followed several hours later
+by a doe and a fawn, swam across to the north side of Windy River at its
+mouth. Ten more Caribou were taken by Anoteelik. Charles considered that
+the retrograde movement to the north was definitely under way. There had
+been indications of it on various days from September 6 on.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page28" id = "page28">28</a></span>
+<p>Except for a few snow flurries, it was largely sunny on the 21st;
+wind brisk to moderate, north to northwest; temperature, 26° to 34°.
+About a quarter of an inch of snow remained in sheltered places.
+A&nbsp;doe and a fawn appeared near camp.</p>
+
+<p>There was considerable snowfall on the 22nd; wind light to moderate,
+westerly; temperature, 30° to 33°; ice in edge of the river.
+A&nbsp;large buck left tracks in the snow along the Windy River.</p>
+
+<p>September 23 was partly cloudy; wind brisk, north-northwest;
+temperature, 21° to 32°; about a quarter of an inch of snow on the
+ground, and a tundra pond mostly frozen over. Several small groups of
+Caribou (a&nbsp;doe and a fawn; three does and two fawns; and three
+others) appeared on the near-by ridges.</p>
+
+<p>September 24 was mostly cloudy; wind moderate to brisk, northerly;
+temperature, 26° to 41°; nearly an inch of fresh snow on the ground.
+About 15 does and fawns were resting or feeding quietly on the east side
+of Little River, and tracks of about half a dozen were noted on Camp
+Ridge. Charles Schweder reported about 50 Caribou, in three slightly
+separated bands, appearing during the evening on the south side of Windy
+River about 2 miles above its mouth, as if contemplating a crossing. He
+thought they may have been alarmed by Wolves.</p>
+
+<p>September 25 was a cloudy day; wind moderate to light, northerly to
+westerly; temperature, 31° to 36°; open ground largely bare by
+afternoon; ice forming on Windy Bay. Some Caribou tracks were noted on
+the north side of Windy River.</p>
+
+<p>There were clouds, a sprinkle or two of rain, and a little sunshine
+on the 26th; wind brisk to moderate, southwest to west; temperature, 36°
+to 47.5°; ground becoming practically bare. Three Caribou were seen
+beyond Little River, and a doe and a fawn on the south side of Windy
+River.</p>
+
+<p>The 27th was mostly cloudy, with a thick snow flurry; wind brisk,
+northwest; temperature, 33° to 40°. Two tundra ponds, previously frozen,
+were mostly open. Three bucks, a&nbsp;doe, and a fawn were noted on the
+south side of Windy River.</p>
+
+<p>September 28 was mostly cloudy; wind brisk to light, north-northwest;
+temperature, 28.5° to 40°; a little snow on the ground disappearing.
+Seven large bucks (six in one band, moving northward) passed over Camp
+Ridge, and a dozen other Caribou (including does) were seen beyond
+Little River.</p>
+
+<p>The 29th was chiefly sunny; wind very light to brisk, west to
+southwest; temperature, 29° to 48°; ground bare. A&nbsp;band of about 15
+Caribou appeared on the north side of Windy River at its mouth. They
+included four large and two smaller bucks, the remainder being does and
+fawns. They were apparently traveling south.</p>
+
+<p>The 30th was cloudy, with a sprinkle of rain; wind light, westerly;
+temperature, 39° to 48°; ground bare. A&nbsp;few black flies were
+brought out by the mild weather. During an all-morning trip to Point
+Lake, Charles saw no Caribou, but in the afternoon he reported about 200
+on the eastern side of Little River. There were also half a dozen bucks
+on the south side of Windy River.</p>
+
+<p>October 1 was a rare, fine, sunshiny day in the Barrens; wind
+moderate
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page29" id = "page29">29</a></span>
+to brisk, south to southwest; temperature, 37° to 61°; ground bare;
+tundra ponds mostly ice-covered. A&nbsp;blowfly crawled over a caribou
+carcass, and possibly a few black flies were abroad. Two bucks passed
+from the shoal water of Duck Bay over Little River Ridge. Charles
+reported about 40 Caribou moving north a mile or two north of camp, and
+I saw a single buck likewise engaged. During the preceding week or so
+Fred had seen a good many of the animals between the upper Kazan River
+and Nueltin Lake; they were moving south and west.</p>
+
+<p>The 2nd was another clear day; wind moderate, southwest; temperature,
+41° to 65°; ground bare. About five does and fawns were seen at dusk in
+the spruce tract near Four-hill Creek.</p>
+
+<p>The next day was drizzly and foggy throughout; wind light, southwest
+to southeast; temperature, 41° to 43.5°. No Caribou sighted. Eskimos
+arriving in camp reported them scarce along the way from the upper Kazan
+River.</p>
+
+<p>October 4 was a dismal, dark day, with steady light rain throughout;
+wind very light, easterly; temperature, 36° to 42.5°. Fred reported 20
+Caribou north of camp.</p>
+
+<p>Snow fell throughout the 5th; wind light, north-northwest;
+temperature, 31° to 35°. No Caribou sighted.</p>
+
+<p>With 6 inches of snow on the ground in the morning, there was some
+additional precipitation during the overcast day of October&nbsp;6; wind
+moderate to brisk, northeast; temperature, 31° to 33°; waters clear of
+ice. No Caribou sighted.</p>
+
+<p>October 7 was a generally cloudy day; wind moderate to very light,
+northerly; temperature, 24° to 29°; watercourses largely open. In the
+morning Charles reported a couple of hundred Caribou swimming southward
+across Windy Bay; he considered this a part of the final southward
+movement into the timbered country&mdash;apparently initiated by the
+recent snowstorm. Later he saw an approximately equal number 2 miles
+north of camp, moving toward the bay; and Fred encountered about 50 on
+the north side of the bay.</p>
+
+<p>Late on the 8th clouds gave way to sunshine; nearly calm to a gentle
+breeze from west and southwest; temperature, 26.5° to 33.5°; 6 inches of
+snow on ground. I&nbsp;obtained a distant view of about 100 Caribou
+resting near Glacier Pond. Perhaps less than a quarter of them were old
+bucks; the remainder, younger bucks, does, and fawns.</p>
+
+<p>October 9 was largely sunny, with light rain in the evening; wind
+light to moderate, southwest to south; temperature, 29° to 38°; ground
+with a 6-inch snow covering. No Caribou sighted.</p>
+
+<p>Some snow fell on the 10th, though the day was partly sunny; wind
+very light, south to west; temperature, 33° to 36°. No Caribou
+sighted.</p>
+
+<p>Clouds prevailed on the 11th; wind no more than very light, westerly;
+temperature, 33° to 38°; about 4 inches of snow on ground. Charles
+reported about a thousand Caribou scattered over a long hill several
+miles to the northwest; they were not traveling.</p>
+
+<p>October 12 was marked by clouds, mist, and rain; wind light to
+moderate, southwesterly; temperature, 32° to 40°. No Caribou
+sighted.</p>
+
+<p>There was a little sun on the 13th; wind light to moderate, west to
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page30" id = "page30">30</a></span>
+east; temperature, 37° to 45.5°; ground largely bare and tundra ponds
+open. In the afternoon we set out for Simons’ Lake, and camped about 4
+miles up the Windy River. No Caribou sighted.</p>
+
+<p>On the 14th we reached the upper end of Simons’ Lake, for a several
+days’ stay at a deserted trading-post. There were snow flurries and a
+little rain; wind brisk, westerly; temperature, 35° to 36°; ground
+mostly bare. A&nbsp;band of about 15 Caribou, a&nbsp;solitary buck, and
+many tracks and droppings were seen along the way.</p>
+
+<p>October 15 was partly cloudy; wind very light to light, west to
+northwest and east; temperature, 21° to 36°. Four Caribou sighted.</p>
+
+<p>October 16 was a stormy, cloudy day; wind brisk, easterly;
+temperature, 30.5° to 34°. About a dozen Caribou were noted in the
+vicinity of Simons’ Lake.</p>
+
+<p>A strong easterly gale during the night, with heavy rain, was
+followed during the day of the 17th by steady rain, with moderate to
+light easterly or southeasterly wind; temperature, 35° to 38°. A single
+Caribou seen.</p>
+
+<p>October 18 was partly cloudy; wind brisk to light, westerly;
+temperature, 31° to 41°; waters open; some small patches of snow in
+sight. Four Caribou (at least two of them bucks) passed by.</p>
+
+<p>The 19th was partly cloudy; nearly calm to moderate wind, west and
+northwest; temperature, 30° to 40°. About five or six bucks (three of
+them together) appeared, perhaps moving south.</p>
+
+<p>The weather on the 20th was raw, dismal, and gusty; wind brisk,
+northwest; temperature, 27° to about 35°; some ice on Simons’ Lake;
+a&nbsp;little fresh snow on higher hills. No Caribou sighted.</p>
+
+<p>October 21 was somewhat foggy; nearly calm; temperature, 25° to 32°;
+Simons’ Lake partly frozen; ground generally bare. A&nbsp;lone fawn was
+seen as we started on the return trip to the Windy River post.</p>
+
+<p>The 22nd was largely sunny; wind very light to brisk, southwesterly;
+temperature, about 30° to 46°. A medium-sized buck was seen near the
+mouth of Windy River.</p>
+
+<p>The 23rd was largely cloudy; wind brisk, southwest; temperature, 35°
+to 39°; ground practically all bare; bay and river open. A&nbsp;buck
+started to cross to the north side of Windy River, but went back.</p>
+
+<p>For the better part of a week, till October 29, I found no further
+fresh indications of Caribou in our vicinity. In the meantime the
+weather was largely cloudy, with some rain and snow (4-5 inches of the
+latter on the 27th); winds very light to moderate, swinging from east to
+south and west; temperature, 27° to 50°; waters generally open.</p>
+
+<p>October 29 was largely cloudy; a gentle wind, south to east;
+temperature, 29° to 35°; 4-5 inches of snow on ground; thin ice on a
+tundra pond. The fresh track of a buck (<a href = "#fig20">fig. 20</a>)
+was found near camp.</p>
+
+<p>On the 30th gentle rain changed to snow; calm to a moderate wind,
+northeast to north; temperature, 30° to 33°. Tracks showed the passing
+of about a dozen Caribou, including half a dozen that swam westward
+across the mouth of Little River, breaking through a rim of ice at the
+edge.</p>
+
+<p>Clouds prevailed on the 31st; wind moderate to brisk, northerly;
+temperature, 17° to 25.5°; 5-6 inches of snow on ground, with drifts up
+to a foot deep; river and lake open. Fred reported three Caribou.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page31" id = "page31">31</a></span>
+<p>November 1 marked the long-delayed “freeze-up.” Windy Bay and the
+edges of Windy River were frozen, while pieces of ice floated down the
+river. The day was cloudy, with continual snow flurries after noon; wind
+light to brisk, southeast; temperature, 21° to 31°; about 6 inches of
+snow on ground.</p>
+
+<p>The 2nd was cloudy, with some rain and sleet; wind moderate to brisk,
+southeast to west; temperature, 29° to 34°. No Caribou sighted for two
+days.</p>
+
+<p>On the 3rd it was cloudy all day; wind light, northwest; temperature,
+16° to 20°. A herd of about 50 Caribou (largely does, with a few fawns
+and well-antlered bucks) hurried down the side of Little River Ridge
+onto the ice of Duck Bay, with the apparent intention of crossing to the
+south side of Windy Bay; but they were intercepted by a hunter and
+retreated northwestward along the ridge. Fred secured three
+southward-traveling bucks at a distance from camp.</p>
+
+<p>No Caribou were sighted on the three following days (November 4
+to&nbsp;6), which were more or less cloudy, with some snow; wind light
+to brisk, southerly to northerly; temperature, 13° to 24.5°; ice 3
+inches thick on Windy Bay; about 6 inches of snow on ground.</p>
+
+<p>There was snow during the night of November 6 and the morning of the
+7th, resulting in drifts up to a yard deep; wind brisk, northerly;
+temperature, -3° to 13°. Fred reported “lots” of Caribou some 10 miles
+to the north, moving south.</p>
+
+<p>The next three days (November 8 to 10) varied from cloudy (with a
+snow flurry) to sunny; wind moderate to strong, northwest and north;
+temperature, -10.5° to 1°; 6-8 inches of snow (much drifted); Windy
+River gradually becoming ice-covered. No Caribou sighted.</p>
+
+<p>November 11 was partly sunny; wind moderate to brisk, northerly;
+temperature, 3° to 6.5°; about 8 inches of snow on the average. Mike
+Schweder reported five does moving south across the mouth of Windy River
+on the ice.</p>
+
+<p>Thereafter, until my departure on December 4, no more Caribou were
+actually seen in the vicinity of the headquarters on Windy River. There
+were, however, tracks of single animals on November 15 and 16. Moreover,
+during the period from about November 7 to 15, while traveling northward
+to the upper Kazan River, Charles Schweder saw thousands of Caribou, in
+herds up to 300, moving southward. He surmised that their course took
+them somewhere between Ennadai and Nueltin lakes. Fred also reported
+many to the northward on the 7th, as already noted. This was perhaps the
+last large migratory movement of the year in our general area.
+Thereafter virtually all of the animals were presumably in the timbered
+area to the southward. None was sighted from the plane during the flight
+to Churchill on December 4.</p>
+
+<p>On November 7 the temperature had taken a sharp downward turn,
+dropping below zero for the first time that season; and it did not again
+rise above 6.5° till November 12. This cold spell, combined with a snow
+blizzard from the north on the 6th and 7th, coincided at least in part
+with the large migratory movement noted above, and it may have been the
+stimulus for it.</p>
+
+<p>The general weather conditions that obtained from November 12 on
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page32" id = "page32">32</a></span>
+may be summarized as follows. It was at least predominantly cloudy on
+all but four or five days. There was snowfall on six days, and drifting
+snow in the air on several other days. The winds were predominantly
+north, northwest, and west; less commonly, east and southeast. They were
+a little more frequently light than moderate or brisk. The extremes of
+temperature during this period were 22.5° and -23°; the average daily
+mean, approximately 1°. There was an average of probably at least 8
+inches of snow on the ground, with deeper drifts. The river was not
+wholly frozen over at least up to the end of November.</p>
+
+</div>
+<!-- end long blockquote -->
+
+<h4><a name = "mig_retro" id = "mig_retro">
+Retrograde autumnal movement</a></h4>
+
+<p>It would doubtless be difficult to find, among other animals, any
+exact parallel to this curious feature of caribou migration. According
+to Charles Schweder, it takes place in the Nueltin Lake region in
+September&mdash;sometimes as early as the first of the month. Herds up
+to 200 strong may then be seen moving northward, but generally the
+numbers are smaller&mdash;say 10 to 30 in a band. Some of the more
+notable autumnal movements toward the north, as reported by Charles,
+were the following: at Simons’ Lake in 1936 and again in 1938, when
+herds of fat bucks were streaming past for a month and a half; likewise
+at Josie’s Bay in 1940; and through the Windy Hills and across Windy
+River in 1943. Fred Schweder, Jr., said that most of the animals, in
+returning northward at this season, cross Windy River 4 miles above its
+mouth or Windy Bay 4 miles from its head; comparatively few pass the
+mouths of Windy and Little rivers. He remarked further that it is mostly
+bucks, with few does and fawns, that make the passage on Windy Bay.</p>
+
+<p>More or less evidence of such a movement toward the north in 1947 has
+been presented in preceding pages, in the notes for September 6, 7, 11,
+14, 20, 24, and 28, October&nbsp;1, and even October 23. The numbers
+observed so involved on each of these days varied from a solitary buck
+or a doe with a fawn to about 300 of the animals. On some of these days,
+however, other Caribou were observed making their way toward the south.
+It is thus obvious that there was no universal impulse among the Caribou
+of a given area to move simul&shy;taneously in a certain direction.</p>
+
+<p>The general weather conditions on the nine above-mentioned days may
+be summarized as follows. Every day but one was largely or wholly
+cloudy; snow falling on three days, but ground bare on other days; wind
+predominantly from the north; extreme temperatures, 26° and 61°; mean
+daily average, 37.5°. Whether or not there is significance in the
+matter, it appears that on those days within the period extending from
+September 6 to October&nbsp;1, when
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page37" id = "page37">37</a></span>
+the Caribou were not definitely observed moving northward, the winds
+were less likely to be northerly. Furthermore, within this period there
+was never enough snow to interfere appreciably with the animals’ feeding
+on the ground lichens of the Barrens.</p>
+
+<p>By October 6 there were 6 inches of snow on the ground, and on the
+following day 200 Caribou swimming southward across Windy Bay may have
+marked the beginning of the final movement into the timbered country. It
+appears possible that a considerable fall of snow may have a definite
+influence in inducing the Caribou to retreat from the Barrens.</p>
+
+<p>On a trip from Windy River north to the Kazan River region in
+September, 1946, Charles Schweder found, during the first 45 miles, that
+the Caribou were moving north; at the Kazan they were moving south,
+although some were merely loitering. Northwest of the Kazan, the animals
+were taking a westward course. During the latter part of his return trip
+to Windy River, 11 or 12 days later, they had reversed the previous
+direction and were traveling south.</p>
+
+<p>For such a distinct and regular feature in the life cycle of the
+species as the retrograde autumnal movement there must be some
+biological explanation. Several possible factors appear reasonably
+clear. Perhaps we may consider the Barren Grounds the true and preferred
+home of <i>Rangifer arcticus</i>, from which a proportion of the
+population is driven during part of the year under stress of insect
+attacks or shortage of food. When the animals begin to enter the woods
+in August, there is no shortage of food; thus an insect-induced frenzy
+may possibly be regarded as a potent force driving them southward. In
+September a state of comparative peace descends upon the caribou world:
+the current crop of adult insects has subsided; the larvae of warble and
+nostril flies have not attained the formidable size of the following
+spring and perhaps are not yet causing any severe discomfort; little or
+no snow covers up the food supply; the lakes and rivers, still unfrozen,
+offer a ready way of escape from pursuing Wolves; moderate or even balmy
+weather gives nature a pleasant mood. In short, both man and beast may
+well look upon early autumn as the very finest time of year both on the
+Barrens and in the adjacent wooded country.</p>
+
+<p>Under these circumstances a definite retrograde movement out of the
+wooded country in September on the part of many Caribou must indicate
+their preference for the Barrens at this season. In any event, the
+movement begins just after the insect menace has
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page38" id = "page38">38</a></span>
+subsided to a negligible stage. Possibly another inducement for
+retreating from the wooded country in the early fall is the dearth of
+open areas in which the animals may spend their resting periods, in
+comparative safety from Wolves. It is only after the freeze-up that the
+surfaces of the lakes and rivers supply this desideratum. This condition
+lasts from November to June&mdash;precisely that part of the year in
+which the Caribou are present in the wooded country in the greatest
+numbers.</p>
+
+<p>But by November what are the conditions on the Barrens? The weather
+has become severe; snow has covered up a large part of the ground
+lichens; tree lichens are not to be had. And so at this season, with the
+coming of the first heavy snows, there is a final movement out of the
+Barrens into the shelter of the woods, leaving only a minority of the
+animals to face a bleak and bitter winter in the open country. The
+biggest herds of the year may then be seen passing southward. A&nbsp;few
+bucks are said to remain during most winters in the Windy River
+area.</p>
+
+<p>Far to the westward, toward Great Slave and Great Bear lakes, the
+retrograde movements are somewhat different and more complicated
+(Clarke, 1940: 96).</p>
+
+<p>“Mr. Carl Buchholz, of Churchill, describes the caribou migration at
+the 60th parallel, north of Churchill, as a southward migration in
+August, northward in September, and then south in the autumn” (Clarke,
+1940: 97). (See also the next paragraph.)</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "mig_fall_ch" id = "mig_fall_ch">
+Fall migration in the Churchill region</a></h4>
+
+<p>The following notes for 1947 were kindly furnished me by Angus
+MacIver. He reported large numbers of Caribou moving southward across
+Caribou Creek (25 miles south of Churchill) about November 10,
+a&nbsp;day after the local freeze-up. He would then see thousands in a
+day. Prior to that time (perhaps in September?) there had been two
+“runs” to the northward and northwestward; these presumably represented
+the normal retrograde migration in the fall. The herds engaged in these
+two northerly movements must have previously passed southward farther
+inland. He reported also that the rutting season this year had commenced
+a little later than the usual October 15.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References on migration.</i>&mdash;Dobbs, 1774: 20, 22; Hearne, 1795:
+39, 40, 56, 66, 74, 85-87, 286, 299; Franklin, 1823: 241-242; Sabine, in
+Franklin, 1823: 667; Richardson, “1825”: 328-329, and 1829: 242-243;
+Godman, 1831, <b>2</b>: 283-284; John Ross, 1835<i>a</i>: 328, 330, 337,
+376, 390, 529-530, 628; J.&nbsp;C. Ross, in John Ross, 1835<i>b</i>:
+xvii; Richardson, in Back, 1836: 498;
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page39" id = "page39">39</a></span>
+Simpson, 1843: 76, 196, 233, 277, 301, 320-321, 328, 386; Rae, 1850: 93;
+Richardson, 1852: 290, 296; Rae, 1852<i>a</i>: 79; J. Anderson, 1857:
+326, 328; Murray, 1858: 203; Richardson, 1861: 274, 275; B.&nbsp;R.
+Ross, 1861: 438-439; Osborn, 1865: 223-224, 226; Kumlien, 1879: 54; R.
+Bell, 1881: 15C; Caton, 1881: 108; Gilder, 1881: 196-197; Nourse, 1884:
+235, 356; Schwatka, 1885: 77-79, 83; Boas, 1888: 502; Collinson, 1889:
+244, 290; Pike, 1917 (1892): 48-49, 50, 89-91, 101, 174, 204, 209, 220;
+J.&nbsp;B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128-130; Dowling, 1893: 103, 107; J.&nbsp;B.
+Tyrrell, 1894: 442, 1896: 13, 63, and 1897: 10, 19, 21, 49-50, 76, 124,
+140, 142, 165; Russell, 1895: 48, and 1898: 88, 226; Whitney, 1896: 157,
+238, 241; Lydekker, 1898: 48; J.&nbsp;W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 77-78,
+80; Jones, 1899: 368, 374; Hanbury, 1900: 66-67, 69, 71; A.&nbsp;J.
+Stone, 1900: 50, 53; W.&nbsp;J. McLean, 1901: 5, 6; Elliot, 1902: 259,
+260, 274-275; Preble, 1902: 42; J.&nbsp;W. Tyrrell, 1924 (1902): 26, 31;
+Hanbury, 1904: 10, 30, 32, 34, 58, 93, 108, 120, 121, 139; Hornaday,
+1904: 137; Stone and Cram, 1904: 52; MacFarlane, 1905: 683-685;
+J.&nbsp;A. Allen, 1908<i>a</i>: 490; Amundsen, 1908, <b>1</b>: 97,
+102-106, 200, 247, 326-329; Preble, 1908: 137-139; Cameron, 1912: 127;
+Wheeler, 1912: 199-200; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, 1913<i>a</i>:&nbsp;6, and
+1913<i>b</i>: 502; Stefánsson, 1913<i>a</i>: 94-96, 99, 100, 103, 106,
+1913<i>b</i>: 203-204, 224-225, 263-265, 269, 294, 348-350, and 1914:
+39, 41, 54; Chambers, 1914: 93; Hornaday, 1914, <b>2</b>: 101-104;
+Wheeler, 1914: 58; Harper, 1915: 160; Camsell, 1916: 21; Thompson, 1916:
+99-101; Kindle, 1917: 107-108; Camsell and Malcolm, 1919: 46; Whittaker,
+1919: 166-167; Buchanan, 1920: 105-108, 128-129; Hewitt, 1921: 60-63;
+Stefánsson, 1921: 401; Jenness, 1922: 15, 17, 25-26, 125; Blanchet,
+1925: 32-34, and 1926<i>b</i>: 46-48; Mallet, 1926: 79; Preble, 1926:
+137-138; Rasmussen, 1927: 54, 214-217, 246; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 51,
+56, 101, 106; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 122, 125-128; Blanchet, 1930:
+49-52; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 58, 192-196; Hoare, 1930: 13, 14, 16,
+21, 22, 27, 31, 33, 36-38; Kitto, 1930: 87; Mallet, 1930: 20-23, 27;
+Jacobi, 1931: 80-84, 192-210; Harper, 1932: 30, 31; Munn, 1932: 58;
+Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 79, 81; Weyer, 1932: 40; Birket-Smith, 1933:
+91-94, 112, 118; Ingstad, 1933: 34, 134-135, 156-159, 161, 163, 225,
+229-231, 280, 291, 293, 296, 324; Weeks, 1933: 65; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson,
+1934<i>a</i>: 81, 1937: 103, and 1938: 400; Hornby, 1934: 105-107;
+Birket-Smith, 1936: 91; Hamilton, 1939: 244-247, 359; Murie, 1939: 244;
+Clarke, 1940: 8-9, 11, 85-100; G.&nbsp;M. Allen, 1942: 298-299; Soper,
+1942: 143; Downes, 1943: 215, 221, 224, 249, 250, 253-256, 260; Manning,
+1943<i>a</i>: 52, and 1943<i>b</i>: 103; Porsild, 1943: 389; Soper,
+1944: 248-249; Wright, 1944: 186, 190; Gavin, 1945: 227-228; R.&nbsp;M.
+Anderson, 1947: 178, and 1948: 15; Manning, 1948: 26-28; Rand,
+1948<i>a</i>: 212, and 1948<i>b</i>: 149; Banfield, 1949: 478, 481;
+Harper, 1949: 226-230, 239-240; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>:&nbsp;6, 9-12,
+28, and 1951<i>b</i>: 120; Anonymous, 1952: 267; Barnett, 1954: 96, 103.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+
+
+<h3><a name = "distribution" id = "distribution">
+Summation of Geographical Distribution</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>The localities from which hitherto unpublished notes on <i>Rangifer
+arcticus arcticus</i> are presented in this paper include the following.
+Keewatin: Nueltin, Windy, “Highway” (at source of Putahow River), and
+Ennadai lakes; Little Dubawnt, Kazan, Red, Windy, Little, and Thlewiaza
+rivers; between Eskimo Point and Baker Lake. Manitoba: Nueltin (southern
+part), Nejanilini, Reindeer, and Split lakes; Seal River; Churchill;
+Cape Churchill; “Little Barrens” south of Churchill; between Churchill
+and Knife Lake; Caribou Creek, 25 miles south of Churchill.
+Saskatchewan: small lakes southwest of Reindeer Lake; lakes south of
+Lake Athabaska. Details
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page40" id = "page40">40</a></span>
+as to occurrence and status in these localities are supplied on other
+pages.</p>
+
+<p>The Caribou have been so thoroughly distributed over the
+approximately 300,000 square miles of the mainland Barren Grounds
+between Hudson Bay and the Mackenzie Valley that it is fairly safe to
+say that there is scarcely one square mile in this vast territory that
+has not been trod by the animals during the past century. See maps by
+Preble (1908: pl. 19), Seton (1929, <b>3</b>: 60), Clarke (1940: figs.
+3,&nbsp;4), Banfield (1949: 479), and Anonymous (1952: 267).</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+The appended annotated bibliography supplies, in abstract form, most of
+the hitherto published information on the geographical distribution of
+<i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i>. In its preparation I have included
+records of Caribou from the Arctic islands north to Lancaster Sound,
+Barrow Strait, Viscount Melville Sound, and McClure Strait&mdash;all
+approximately in latitude 74° N. This has been done as a matter of
+having a convenient, well-defined regional boundary, not with any
+conviction that <i>arcticus</i> has ranged so far to the north in the
+more westerly islands, especially in recent years, when it is said to
+have become restricted to the southern fringe of the islands (Clarke,
+1940: 98; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, 1947: 178; Banfield, 1949: fig.&nbsp;1).
+The islands north of latitude 74° are doubtless the exclusive domain of
+<i>Rangifer pearyi</i>. It is possible that this species may also occur
+to some extent on Banks, Victoria, Prince of Wales, and Somerset
+islands. The typical <i>R.&nbsp;a. arcticus</i>, as currently
+recognized, ranges eastward to Baffin, Salisbury, Coats, and Southampton
+islands and to the western shore of Hudson Bay. (The animals of the last
+three islands may be distinct insular forms.) The southern limits of the
+winter range in northwestern Ontario, central Manitoba, northern
+Saskatchewan, and northeastern Alberta have been discussed in preceding
+pages. On the west the range extends to the Mackenzie Delta (formerly),
+Great Bear and Great Slave lakes, Wood Buffalo Park, and Lake Claire.
+The timbered country (Hudsonian and Canadian Zones) is practically
+entirely deserted by the Barren Ground Caribou in mid-summer. At this
+season, in Keewatin at least, the animals tend to draw away also from
+the southernmost portions of the Barren Grounds.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Since practically every paper in the entire
+bibliography presents some data on geographical distribution, only a
+few, containing more than an average amount of new or summarized
+information on the subject, have been selected for inclusion in the
+following list of references: Hearne, 1795; Franklin, 1823; Lyon, 1824;
+Franklin and Richardson, 1828; Simpson, 1843; Pike, 1917 (1892);
+Russell, 1898; Preble, 1902; Hanbury, 1904; Amundsen, <ins class =
+"correction" title = "text has : for ;">1908;</ins> Preble, 1908;
+R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, in Stefánsson, 1913<i>b</i>; Stefánsson,
+1913<i>a</i>, 1913<i>b</i>, and 1921; Hewitt, 1921; Jenness, 1922;
+Rasmussen, 1927; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>; Blanchet, 1930;
+Critchell-Bullock, 1930; Hoare, 1930; Jacobi, 1931; Clarke, 1940;
+Manning, 1943<i>a</i>; Wright, 1944; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, 1947; Manning,
+1948; Banfield, 1949 and 1951<i>a</i>.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>Distributional maps.</i>&mdash;Grant, 1903: map following p. 196;
+Preble, 1908: pl. 19; Dugmore, 1913: 138; Hewitt, 1921: 57; Seton, 1929,
+<b>3</b>: 60, map 2; Jacobi, 1931: 77, fig. 17; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson,
+1934<i>b</i>: 4062, fig. 6; Murie, 1939: 241; Clarke, 1940: figs.
+3,&nbsp;4; Banfield, 1949: 479, fig.&nbsp;1, and 1951<i>a</i>: figs.
+4-10; Anonymous, 1952: 267.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page41" id = "page41">41</a></span>
+<h3><a name = "ecology" id = "ecology">Ecology</a></h3>
+
+<h4><a name = "eco_habitats" id = "eco_habitats">
+Habitats</a></h4>
+
+<p>Within their natural range the Caribou apparently resort to
+practically every type of terrestrial and aquatic habitat (other than
+cliffs and precipices). On the Barren Grounds proper they frequent the
+open summits and slopes of the ridges, the dwarf birch thickets, the
+sedge bogs, and the peat bogs. Their trails traverse all the upland
+spruce and tamarack tracts, the wooded muskegs, and the willow thickets
+along the rivers. In the summer and fall they swim the rivers and the
+narrower lakes, and during the winter and spring they cross these on the
+ice. They do not avoid rapids; in fact, they seek the shallower ones as
+fords, and they swim the deeper ones (<i>cf.</i> Clarke, 1940: 88). They
+also cross the tundra ponds on the ice, but probably walk around these
+smaller bodies of water, as a rule, when they are not frozen. While they
+may prefer to approach the river crossings over open slopes, they do not
+hesitate to maintain trails through the dense thickets of willow on the
+banks.</p>
+
+<p>The winter habitat of the major part of the Barren Ground Caribou
+population comprises the Hudsonian and upper Canadian Zones. This
+forested habitat is characterized by sparser and smaller timber in the
+Hudsonian Zone and by denser and taller timber in the Canadian Zone.
+Important among the features of this winter habitat are the frozen
+surfaces of the lakes and rivers, where the Caribou are wont to
+congregate for their daily periods of rest (<i>cf.</i> Mallet, 1926: 79;
+Ingstad, 1933: 86).</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "eco_trails" id = "eco_trails">
+Trails</a></h4>
+
+<p>The favorite migratory highways are the long, sinuous ridges that
+stretch across the Barren Grounds in a sufficiently approximate
+north-south direction to serve the needs of the Caribou. Here their
+age-old trails are particularly in evidence and may even be detected
+from the air. A&nbsp;single small ridge may bear half a dozen or more
+such trails (<a href = "#fig1">fig.&nbsp;1</a>), roughly parallel but
+anastomosing at frequent intervals. They probably change but little from
+generation to generation. They provide the smoothest courses available,
+avoiding rocks and shrubs and traversing intervening bogs at the most
+suitable points. The summits of the ridges constitute vantage points
+from which the animals may keep a wide lookout for Wolves and human
+enemies, and on which they may obtain the maximum benefit from
+fly-deterring breezes. Man himself is glad to utilize these trails,
+whether on the Barrens or in the timber tracts, wherever they
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page42" id = "page42">42</a></span>
+lead in a direction he desires. They are kept open by the hurrying feet
+of hundreds or thousands of Caribou every year.</p>
+
+<p>Along a well-used trail extending through low Barrens near Duck Bay,
+I&nbsp;found a certain grass (<i>Agrostis scabra</i>) growing.
+I&nbsp;did not recognize or collect it elsewhere during the season. Is
+this perhaps like certain other species, such as <i>Juncus tenuis</i>
+(<i>fide</i> Dr. Edgar T. Wherry) and <i>Eleocharis baldwinii</i>, in
+curiously thriving on beaten paths?</p>
+
+<p>When the Caribou arrive at some lake or river, they generally follow
+the shores for a greater or lesser distance, seeking either a way around
+or a suitable crossing-place. The trails thus formed are generally on
+the nearest ridges rather than on the immediate shores. Their direction,
+as they conform to the winding shores, may diverge very widely from the
+desired migratory course.</p>
+
+<p>In many parts of the Barren Grounds there must be as many as 10
+linear miles of caribou trails to every square mile of territory. Even
+if there were only one mile of such trails to each square mile, the
+total, on the Barrens of Keewatin and Mackenzie alone, would equal or
+exceed all the railway mileage in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>In contrast to the narrow ridges, the broader hilltops in the Barrens
+offer such freedom of movement to the Caribou that trails are much less
+likely to be formed in such places, even when they are frequented by
+large numbers of the animals. Thus I found the broad summit of Josie’s
+Hill practically without well-defined trails, despite the regularity
+with which many migrant bands resort thither. In feeding or traveling
+over such an area, there is no occasion for restricting themselves to a
+narrow course. In crossing from one ridge to another through an
+intervening bog, the animals may leave numerous scattered and temporary
+trails in the dense sedge growth to mark their passage (<a href =
+"#fig13">fig. 13</a>). On the uniform surface of such a bog, as on the
+broad hilltops, there is no need to confine their steps to any
+particular course.</p>
+
+<p>It might be supposed that the Barren Ground Caribou would have some
+reluctance in entering thickly wooded tracts, where Wolves naturally
+have a much better chance of a close approach than on the open Barrens.
+As already stated, however, their trails may be found more or less
+throughout the spruce and tamarack growth in the Windy River area. One
+of these tracts, covering probably several square miles on the west side
+of Four-hill Creek, is fairly crisscrossed with trails. At deep dusk on
+October&nbsp;2, while several of us were skinning a Black Bear in this
+thick timber, about
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page43" id = "page43">43</a></span>
+five does and fawns trotted up quite close to us. Perhaps they were on
+their way to the open Barrens to pass the night. While wintering in the
+forested Hudsonian Zone, the animals may spend their nights as well as
+their diurnal resting periods on the frozen lakes and rivers.</p>
+
+<p>Fred Schweder, Jr., says that Caribou are somewhat fearful of sand
+hills or eskers, and that he has never seen one lying down in such a
+place; he believes this is because the Wolves frequent the eskers in
+summertime. On the other hand, Mr. G.&nbsp;W. Malaher spoke of a long
+esker that extends down the west side of Nueltin Lake and far to the
+southward; this, he said, forms a migration highway for the Caribou.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References on habitats and trails.</i>&mdash;J.&nbsp;B. Tyrrell,
+1892: 129, and 1895: 445; W.&nbsp;J. McLean, 1901:&nbsp;6; Blanchet,
+1925: 33, and 1926<i>a</i>: 73, 96-97; Mallet, 1926: 79, 80; Seton,
+1929, <b>3</b>: 100-102, 122, 127-128; Jacobi, 1931: 186-187; Ingstad,
+1933: 86; Murie, 1939: 246; Manning, 1948: 26-28; Rand, 1948<i>a</i>:
+212; Harper, 1949: 226, 228; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 3.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "eco_weather" id = "eco_weather">
+Influence of weather on distribution</a></h4>
+
+<p>In the section on <i>Migrations</i> the meteorological conditions in
+1947 have been reported for any possible bearing they may have had on
+the daily movements of the Caribou, particularly during the fall
+migration. The temperature has an important effect on the activity of
+the insect pests (see <i>Influence of insects on distribution</i>) and
+thus, to a certain extent during summer and fall, on the behavior and
+probably the distribution of the Caribou.</p>
+
+<p>Low winter temperatures on the Barren Grounds do not appear to be a
+factor of prime importance in the seasonal distribution of <i>R.&nbsp;a.
+arcticus</i>. “Some individuals and small herds remain in the northern
+part of the range at all seasons” (R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, 1947: 178).
+Peary’s Caribou (<i>R. pearyi</i>) inhabits the more northerly Arctic
+islands throughout the year, without engaging in such extensive
+migrations as its relative to the south.</p>
+
+<p>The forceful winds that blow over the Barren Grounds so much of the
+time are of distinct benefit to the Caribou during the summer in abating
+the very serious scourge of flies. If other things were equal (as they
+are not), this factor alone would make the Barrens a more favorable
+summer habitat than the forested country. (See <i>Retrograde autumnal
+movement</i>.) Air movements of similar strength during the winter must,
+through the wind-chill factor (<i>cf.</i> Siple and Passel, 1945), make
+life so much the harder for any living being; on the other hand, they
+tend to sweep the ridges bare of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page44" id = "page44">44</a></span>
+snow, thereby making readily available the Caribou’s principal winter
+food of reindeer lichens (<i>Cladonia</i> spp.)</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Armstrong, 1857: 479; Critchell-Bullock, 1930:
+192, 194-196; Hoare, 1930: 33; Jacobi, 1931: 193, 195; Clarke, 1940: 96,
+99; Banfield, <ins class = "correction" title = "‘a’ printed in plain (non-italic) type">1951<i>a</i></ins>: 27-29.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "eco_food" id = "eco_food">
+Influence of food supply on distribution</a></h4>
+
+<p>The strong winter winds on the Barrens affect the Caribou in still
+another way. While they pack the snow so firmly that man may dispense
+with snowshoes, this condition naturally increases the difficulty that
+the Caribou experience in pawing through the snow to reach the lichens
+that are covered by it. The limited grazing capacity of such areas as
+are laid bare by the wind may force a reduction in the wintering
+population. Although the snow in the timbered regions to the south
+covers virtually the whole surface of the land, it is evidently less
+compact and so offers more favorable feeding conditions than the areas
+of hard-packed snow on the Barrens. (Charles Schweder states that Willow
+Ptarmigan will fly out of the Barrens to spend the night in tracts of
+timber, where the snow is softer and thus more suitable for the
+nocturnal burrows of these birds.)</p>
+
+<p>Another apparent inducement for resorting to the tracts of timber in
+winter is the abundance there of tree lichens, such as <i>Alectoria</i>
+and <i>Usnea</i> (<i>cf.</i> Richardson, 1829: 243; J.&nbsp;B. Tyrrell,
+<ins class = "correction" title = "text has ; for :">1894:</ins> 441;
+Dix, 1951: 287), upon which the Caribou may feed without regard to snow
+conditions. (See also <a href = "#mig_retro"><i>Retrograde autumnal
+movement</i></a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Reindeer lichens (<i>Cladonia</i> spp.) and doubtless other lichens
+are of such slow growth that forest fires may deprive the Caribou of
+this indispensable food for a period of years. According to Mr.
+G.&nbsp;W. Malaher, the recent burning of a large area north of The Pas
+may have deflected the animals toward the southeast, causing them to
+extend their migration to an abnormal distance in that direction. For a
+similar reason in years past, according to Pike (1917 [1892]: 50), they
+avoided “great stretches of the country” near the Mackenzie River, and
+also on the south side of Great Slave Lake. A&nbsp;quarter of a century
+after Pike’s time, Dogribs reported that Caribou had not come to the
+lower Taltson River for several years, “because the timber had been
+burned off” (Harper, 1932: 30). Some years ago, extensive fires in
+Manitoba were said to have been deliberately set by prospectors with the
+aim of exposing the underlying rock.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page45" id = "page45">45</a></span>
+<p>Charles Schweder believes that the Caribou show a certain
+predilection for rocky places, owing to the more luxuriant growth of
+lichens there.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Richardson, “1825”: 328-329; Bompas, 1888: 24;
+Pike, 1917 (1892): 50; Wheeler, 1914: 60; Blanchet, 1930: 52; Jacobi,
+1931: 192, 194, 195; Harper, 1932: 30; Ingstad, 1933: 34, 161, 163;
+Hornby, 1934: 105; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, 1938: 400; Clarke, 1940: 100,
+106-107; G.&nbsp;M. Allen, 1942: 299; Downes, 1943: 261; Porsild, 1943:
+389; Wright, 1944: 186; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, 1948: 15; Banfield,
+1951<i>a</i>:&nbsp;5, 11, 27-29.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "eco_insects" id = "eco_insects">
+Influence of insects on distribution</a></h4>
+
+<p>It is quite possible that the blood-sucking mosquitoes (<i>Aedes</i>)
+and black flies (<i>Simulium</i>) and the parasitic warble flies
+(<i>Oedemagena</i>) and nostril flies (<i>Cephenemyia</i>) have a
+definite and important influence on the extent and dates of caribou
+migration.</p>
+
+<p>As far as I am able to judge from my own experience, mosquitoes are
+more or less equally numerous and ferocious in the Canadian, the
+Hudsonian, and the Arctic Zones of the Northwest. Naturally the season
+begins earlier in the more southerly localities. In two seasons (1914,
+1920) at the western end of Lake Athabaska they began to be troublesome
+about the middle of June, whereas at Nueltin Lake this stage was reached
+about the first of July. In the Athabaska and Great Slave lakes region
+(Canadian and Hudsonian Zones) I&nbsp;have never had occasion to regard
+black flies as serious in respect to either numbers or ferocity; but
+there is universal agreement that conditions are vastly different and
+worse on the Barren Grounds. At Nueltin Lake the <i>Simulium</i> hordes
+become troublesome at approximately the same time as the mosquitoes.
+Toward the end of August there is a merciful diminution in the numbers
+of both mosquitoes and black flies on the Barrens, and after the first
+of September they may be practically disregarded, except on an
+occasional day of unseasonable warmth.</p>
+
+<p>It may be remarked in passing that one of the insect terrors of the
+Athabaska region, the so-called “bulldog” (a&nbsp;species of Tabanidae),
+did not come to my attention as a pest at Nueltin Lake though I
+collected two species of <i>Tabanus</i>. Malloch (1919), in reporting on
+the Diptera of the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 1913-18, does not
+include a single species of Tabanidae. On the other hand, Twinn (1950:
+18) states that 17 species have been found at Churchill; he refers to
+tabanids as “very abundant in forested regions of the North.” The
+“bulldog” may be presumed to contribute to the summer misery of the
+Woodland Caribou and the Moose as well as of man.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page46" id = "page46">46</a></span>
+<p>The season during which the adult warble flies and nostril flies
+harass the Caribou probably lasts only a few weeks in July and August.
+While the adults evidently cause no pain, they no doubt arouse an
+instinctive dread in the prospective hosts of their larvae. While I have
+no information as to whether they follow the hosts into the wooded
+country, it would appear quite likely that they do so if we are to
+credit statements by Franklin (1823: 242), Richardson (1829: 251), and
+B.&nbsp;R. Ross (1861: 438) that these pests infest the Woodland Caribou
+as well as the Barren Ground species. Furthermore, <i>Cephenemyia</i>
+has been reported in Pennsylvania as a parasite of the White-tailed Deer
+(<i>Odocoileus</i>) (Stewart, 1930?). The scarcity of available study
+material may be judged from the fact that the Canadian Arctic Expedition
+of 1913-18 secured only three adults of <i>Oedemagena</i> and none of
+<i>Cephenemyia</i> (Malloch, 1919: 55-56).</p>
+
+<p>From the foregoing it may be seen that the wooded country represents
+a virtually fly-free haven for the Barren Ground Caribou during nearly
+ten months of the year. Is it any wonder, then, that they hasten
+throughout August toward or into the shelter of the woods, to gain
+freedom from the winged scourges of the Barrens? (See also <a href =
+"#mig_retro"><i>Retrograde autumnal movement</i></a>.)</p>
+
+<p>In the spring migration of 1947 the last of the Caribou passed the
+Windy River area on July&nbsp;1, just before the mosquitoes and black
+flies had become seriously troublesome. It might be surmised that the
+animals keep marching northward in advance of the appearance of these
+flies, as long as that is feasible; and that when fairly overwhelmed by
+the winged hordes, they desist from further progress in that direction.
+The fawns are born at such a time (in late May or June) as to pass their
+first few tender weeks before becoming subject to serious insect
+attacks.</p>
+
+<p>(See also <a href = "#mig_retro"><i>Retrograde autumnal
+movement</i></a>; <a href = "#eco_flies"><i>Relations to
+flies</i></a>.)</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Richardson, “1825”: 328-329; Hoare, 1930: 33,
+37-38; Jacobi, 1931: 193-195; Soper, 1936: 429; Hamilton, 1939: 247,
+301; Clarke, 1940: 95-96; Porsild, 1943: 389; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>:
+27-29.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "eco_combined" id = "eco_combined">
+Effect of combined environmental factors on distribution</a></h4>
+
+<p>The sum total of environmental factors apparently makes the Barren
+Grounds a distinctly more favorable summer habitat for the present
+species than the wooded country, since the latter region is virtually
+entirely deserted at that season. In general, the wooded country must be
+a more favorable winter habitat, since the bulk of the animals evidently
+resort to it at that time; yet its advantages
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page47" id = "page47">47</a></span>
+are by no means clear-cut or overwhelming, since a very considerable
+proportion of the Caribou elect to spend the winter on the Barrens
+(Hanbury, 1904: 93, 120, 139; Hoare, 1930: <ins class = "correction"
+title = "text has , for ;">22;</ins> Clarke, 1940: 8-9, 11, fig.&nbsp;4;
+Anonymous, 1952: 267).</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "eco_man" id = "eco_man">
+Relations to man</a></h4>
+
+<p>The Caribou dominates the thoughts, the speech, and the general human
+activities of the Barren Grounds. As the chief food resource of that
+region and the adjacent timbered country, it plays a highly important
+role in the economy of both primitive and civilized man. As long as
+those regions were occupied only by native Eskimos and Indians,
+employing such primitive weapons as bows and spears, the species was in
+no danger. Its vast numbers were maintained steadily from generation to
+generation, and were perhaps limited only by the grazing or browsing
+capacity of their range.</p>
+
+<p>With the advent of civilized man and the placing of firearms in the
+hands of the natives, the situation has deteriorated at a rate that
+becomes accelerated with the passage of time. If it had not been for the
+encroachment of civilization and the introduction of its instruments of
+destruction, the natives would have been assured of a proper meat supply
+for an indefinite period. Here and there some of them would miss a
+caribou migration and starve to death; yet the animals have been so
+generally available that many of the natives even today lack the
+foresight to put up an adequate supply of fish as an alternative winter
+food.</p>
+
+<p>Almost everywhere the annual slaughter is both excessive and
+wasteful. Few inhabitants of the North, whether native or white, stay
+their hands while Caribou are present and ammunition is available. There
+is undue reliance on a continuation of past abundance, and an
+indifference to the welfare or rights of posterity. The whole culture of
+the inland Eskimos and the northern Indians (the Caribou-eater
+Chipewyans in particular) is so thoroughly based upon Caribou that the
+decimation of these animals would mean a fundamental modification or
+virtual extermination of their culture.</p>
+
+<p>The average trapper of the Barren Grounds apparently aims at killing
+annually at least 100 Caribou. Only a small portion is required to feed
+himself and his family. The rest is designed for use as fox bait and dog
+feed. In September he goes over his trap-line, perhaps 100 miles long,
+and endeavors to kill Caribou at convenient intervals throughout its
+length. (In October, 1944, a&nbsp;single trapper killed 90 during two
+days of a big movement.) The animals are left
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page48" id = "page48">48</a></span>
+where they fall. Presently spells of warm weather may render the meat
+unsuitable for any one with more fastidious tastes than a hardy man of
+the Barrens. In any event, the beasts of the field evidently get the
+lion’s share, even when the trapper endeavors to cover the carcasses
+with rocks or spruces. Bears, Wolves, Foxes, Weasels, Wolverines,
+Lemmings, Rough-legged Hawks, Ravens, and Canada Jays help themselves to
+the free feast. Bears in particular are likely to consume the whole
+carcass; in the autumns of 1944 and 1947 they thus disposed of about 70
+and 40 caribou bodies, respectively, within a few miles of the Windy
+River post. If the season turns out to be a particularly poor one for
+Arctic Foxes, the trapper may abandon his trap-line for that winter, and
+dozens or scores of Caribou will have been sacrificed in vain.</p>
+
+<p>Fish, which are available in abundance nearly everywhere, would serve
+well enough for both fox bait and dog feed. But the average trapper
+prefers to secure Caribou&mdash;a less laborious matter than putting up
+a winter’s supply of fish; at the same time he may admit that fish are
+easier to handle in feeding and are preferable from that point of view.
+Charles Schweder has rarely found Caribou along his trap-line between
+the upper Kazan River and Dubawnt Lake. By using fish (out of the Little
+Dubawnt River) for fox bait, he avoids the necessity of making an early
+fall trip over that long distance to secure Caribou for his winter
+operations. A&nbsp;trapper from northern Manitoba informed me that the
+local Indians were complying with a recent government regulation that
+each owner must put up a certain number of fish for the consumption of
+his dogs&mdash;but, they were still feeding them with Caribou. The Split
+Lake band of Indians on the Nelson River, Manitoba, were reported to
+have killed 4,000 of the animals during the winter of 1946-47; the
+greater part of these were utilized ingloriously as dog feed.</p>
+
+<p>The hunting of such an extraordinarily unwary animal as the Barren
+Ground Caribou calls for extremely little skill. Scarcely anything more
+is required of the hunter (at least in southwestern Keewatin) than to
+place himself on their line of march and to await their arrival. No
+concealment is necessary, but quick movements are to be avoided, and the
+direction of the wind should be such that it will not carry the dread
+human scent to the animals. Even in perfectly open terrain one may
+generally walk slowly up to within shooting distance of resting Caribou.
+But if they are on the march and have already gone past, the hunter may
+not succeed in getting
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page49" id = "page49">49</a></span>
+close to them. Pursuing them on the run is likely to send them off in a
+panic. (There is some evidence that on the Arctic Coast and in the
+Barren Grounds of Mackenzie, where hunters are probably more numerous
+than in southwestern Keewatin, the Caribou are usually much more
+wary&mdash;<i>cf.</i> Amundsen, 1908, <b>1</b>: 103; Stefánsson,
+1913<i>b</i>: 278; Blanchet, 1925: 34; Ingstad, 1933: 88.) In the
+section on <i>Disposition</i> the destruction of about a quarter of a
+herd of 100 or more by a single hunter is described. On September 9 an
+Eskimo boy killed 13. On November 3 eight out of a herd of 50 were
+secured by another hunter in a few minutes’ time. During the autumn
+migration of 1947 one of the Eskimos on the upper Kazan had killed 85
+before the end of September. This band of Eskimos is said to have once
+slaughtered 500 animals, half of them in the river, where they did not
+even bother to pull them out; they had killed for the sheer delight of
+killing rather than for utilization. It is customary for them to spear
+more animals than they shoot. A&nbsp;trader’s family in the Nueltin Lake
+region used to kill 500 Caribou per year for their own use and for their
+23 dogs. In one instance a number of Caribou were shot from across a
+river; several hours elapsed before a canoe became available, and by
+that time the bodies were frozen so stiff that no attempt was made to
+use them. It was reported that tractor crews operating between Reindeer
+Lake and Flin Flon brought out many hind quarters to sell illegally at
+the latter point, leaving other parts of the bodies along the way. In
+the winter of 1944-45 Nueltin Lake was said to have been covered with
+the bodies of Caribou that the Chipewyans had shot for “fun” and had
+neglected to utilize. It was also reported that in May, 1947, there were
+many neglected bodies in the vicinity of Duck Lake, the local Chipewyans
+having killed the animals during the previous fall; meanwhile the spring
+migration had commenced and was furnishing all the fresh meat
+required.</p>
+
+<p>In the Windy River area nearly all the Caribou were secured with
+rifles. A&nbsp;few, however, were speared by the Eskimo boy as they swam
+across Windy Bay. The spears used here are manufactured articles of
+iron, fitted to a wooden shaft.</p>
+
+<p>Katello, a Kazan River Eskimo, informed Charles Schweder that his
+people used to construct snow-covered pits for the Caribou to fall into.
+The present generation is considered too lazy to undertake such a task.
+Although information is lacking in the present case, urine may have been
+employed to entice the Caribou into these pits, as reported by Hanbury
+(1904: 114-115, 123, fig.).</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page50" id = "page50">50</a></span>
+<p>A general deterioration of antler size in the Barren Ground Caribou
+seems to constitute a case parallel with that of the European Red Deer
+(<i>Cervus elaphus elaphus</i>). The reason is evidently the same in
+each case&mdash;the long-continued selection by hunters of old males
+with the best “heads.” Only the motive differs decidedly in each case:
+the European hunter looks upon the antlers themselves as the main prize;
+the Eskimo and the Indian are indifferent to these ornaments, but
+realize that the bucks with great antlers provide the most meat and
+<i>fat</i>. The bucks are said to become much fatter than the does. The
+Eskimos are especially keen on getting the big bucks. According to
+Charles Schweder, the old antlers left at the river crossings from
+bygone days are superior in size to those of the present day. He himself
+has never secured a set of antlers equal to one (<a href = "#fig25">fig.
+25</a>) lying on the shore of Simons’ Lake; it may have been there for
+20 or 30 years prior to 1947.</p>
+
+<p>From about mid-September to nearly mid-October the flesh is counted
+upon as being in especially fine condition. In August, 1947, the animals
+had scarcely any fat, but by the middle of September the roasts were
+delicious. On October 8 the fresh strips of back fat from several bucks
+weighed about 5 to 10 lbs. each. A&nbsp;good many of these strips were
+put in a storehouse at Windy River for winter use. Charles Schweder
+remarked on having seen such a piece of fat 3 inches thick. At the
+rutting season, which commences about mid-October, the bucks become very
+poor and thin. They neglect their feeding and do not have full stomachs,
+as earlier in the season. Their fat becomes tinted with red, and the
+flesh becomes so musky that even the dogs and the Wolves disdain it.
+(See also the section on <a href = "#morph_fat"><i>Fat</i></a>.)</p>
+
+<p>In some cases, when a local Caribou is being dressed, a part of the
+stomach is utilized as a receptacle into which the blood is dipped from
+the body cavity with the hands, in Eskimo style. The blood goes into the
+making of soup. The tripe also is relished. Once I found the children of
+our camp boiling up a section of the aorta as a delicacy. The ribs are
+commonly impaled on a stick thrust into the ground and roasted in front
+of an open fire. Leg bones may be cracked to render the raw marrow
+accessible; if they are cooked, the marrow may be blown out of the open
+ends with the mouth. The Padleimiut consume much of the meat in the raw
+state, and frequently wash it down with hot tea.</p>
+
+<p>Much needless wounding and suffering of the Caribou, as well as waste
+of valuable resources, result from extensive use of such a
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page51" id = "page51">51</a></span>
+small-calibred rifle as the .22. It may seem remarkable that such a
+large animal should succumb at all to such a slight weapon; but it does
+happen, usually after a number of shots. For example, an Eskimo boy
+secured 13 Caribou in a single day with a .22. On the other hand, many
+of the animals must get away from the hunter, only to die, after much
+suffering, at a considerable distance, where they are not likely to be
+recovered and utilized. The absolute outlawing of the use of the .22 on
+such large game would seem to be in order.</p>
+
+<p>Once Charles Schweder shot a doe whose jaw had been broken by a
+bullet. A&nbsp;piece of the bone had “grown into the tongue” but the jaw
+was healed.</p>
+
+<p>At the Windy River post, in the latter part of summer, portions of
+the caribou bodies are placed in the river not merely for refrigeration,
+but for protection from blowflies. Such meat is used mainly for the
+dogs. The Eskimos are said not to engage in this practice. Consequently,
+some of the caribou bodies lying about their camps become masses of
+maggots.</p>
+
+<p>On the last day of September I observed how Charles Schweder prepared
+a fresh caribou body in the field and endeavored to protect it from
+beasts and birds. First he cut off the head with his hunting-knife; then
+the hind legs, which were severed very readily at the hip joint. Next he
+opened the body cavity and pulled out the viscera, setting aside a mass
+of fat (apparently the omentum). The hind legs were placed beneath the
+body, and the head was thrust into the opening of the abdominal cavity,
+as an obstacle to such scavengers as Herring Gulls, Rough-legged Hawks,
+Canada Jays, Ravens, and Foxes (<i>cf.</i> Downes, 1943: 227, 228). The
+skin was left on the body, and the whole was covered with small spruce
+tops.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting device in the hunting of Caribou consists of “stone
+men”<a class = "tag" name = "endtag1" id = "endtag1" href =
+"#endnote1">A</a> (Harper, 1949: 231, fig.)<ins class = "correction"
+title = "final . missing">. </ins>They are made of rocks, piled one upon
+another in such a manner as to faintly suggest a human figure. “Moss”
+(either moss or lichens) is added to some of them to enhance the human
+appearance. A&nbsp;considerable number may be seen in the Windy River
+area, where they are generally placed along the summits of the ridges.
+Construction was probably begun many years ago by natives, and has been
+continued by the present residents. When Caribou, in fleeing from a
+hunter, catch sight of these “stone men,” they are likely to pause in
+suspicion of the figures, and to be deflected from their chosen course.
+This may give the hunter a chance to come within range of the animals.
+The Kazan
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page52" id = "page52">52</a></span>
+River Eskimos are said to use converging lines of such rock piles to
+direct migrating Caribou to certain river-crossings, where the hunters
+lie in wait for them. Occasionally a single pile is erected merely to
+mark the spot where a caribou body is left until the hunter can return
+with a dogteam to fetch the meat.</p>
+
+<p class = "mynote">
+<a name = "endnote1" id = "endnote1" href = "#endtag1">A.</a>
+<i>Inuksuit</i> (sing. <i>inuksuk</i>).</p>
+
+<p>On first securing one of the animals, the hunter makes a practice of
+cutting out the tongue and carrying it to camp in a pocket or a
+game-bag. On a subsequent trip, if there is sufficient snow on the
+ground, the meat is generally transported by dog sleigh or toboggan
+(<i>cf.</i> Harper, 1949: 231, fig.). Occasionally a hunter will carry
+it on his shoulder (<a href = "#fig4">fig.&nbsp;4</a>) or in a pack.</p>
+
+<p>In all the Canadian North, as far as I am aware, the Windy River post
+is virtually the only place where summer transpor&shy;tation is
+accomplished by dog-drawn travois (<a href = "#fig5">fig.&nbsp;5</a>).
+This device, consisting of two trailing poles, with a small platform
+midway, is recognizable immediately by readers of Parkman’s <i>Oregon
+Trail</i> (1849), where its use by Indians of our Western Plains is
+mentioned again and again. The travois was introduced into this region
+by the late Charles Planchek?, a&nbsp;Czech? trapper of somewhat
+sinister repute, whose headquarters were at Putahow Lake. He was the
+“Eskimo Charlie” of Downes (1943: 160-161, pl.). In years gone by he
+took a travois with him on a visit to the Windy River area, and it was
+thereupon copied and subsequently used regularly by the Schweder family.
+Their Eskimo friends of the upper Kazan will occasionally borrow one,
+but I am not aware that they have made any travois of their own. During
+the summer the two younger boys of the Windy River post made a practice
+of hauling in caribou meat from the surrounding Barrens by means of
+travois.</p>
+
+<p>In the latter part of summer some small pieces of caribou meat were
+occasionally laid on a stone for drying, in front of the door at the
+post. Other pieces were said to have been hung up in the air for the
+same purpose, without fire or smoke, out in the field where the animals
+were killed. Apparently blowflies did not pay much attention to this
+meat. No considerable quantity seemed to be preserved locally in this
+way. Three Caribou-eater Chipewyans from the south end of Nueltin Lake,
+who visited our camp in late October, were carrying dried meat with them
+as travel rations and eating it without cooking.</p>
+
+<p>The larvae of the warble fly (<i>Oedemagena tarandi</i>), found
+beneath the skin of the Caribou, are relished by the Eskimos, being
+eaten apparently while alive and raw. The Eskimo boy of our
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page57" id = "page57">57</a></span>
+camp continued this practice after his little sister had given it up.
+Hearne (1795: 197) reported the Indians as eating the warbles in his
+day.</p>
+
+<p>Only a small proportion of the hides of the locally killed Caribou
+are preserved. A&nbsp;hide that would fetch only a dollar at Reindeer
+Lake would not be worth transporting more than 250 miles from Nueltin
+Lake. Hearne long ago (1795: 84) remarked on the remoteness of the
+hunting grounds from the trading posts as a barrier to trade in the
+skins; and this condition prevails to a large extent to the present day.
+Thus only such hides as are required for domestic use are kept. Tanning,
+while done by the Eskimos of the upper Kazan, is not undertaken by the
+residents on Windy River. Here the task of drying the hides is left
+mainly to the children of the camp. Most of them are pegged out on the
+summit of a gravelly ridge, wooden pegs being driven with a rock through
+slits in the edges of the skin (<a href = "#fig6">fig.&nbsp;6</a>). Now
+and then one is nailed to the outer wall of a log cabin (<a href =
+"#fig18">fig. 18</a>).</p>
+
+<table class = "picture" summary = "two illustrations">
+<tr>
+<td class = "illustration">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page56" id = "page56">56</a></span>
+<a name = "fig15" id = "fig15">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig15.jpg" width = "217" height = "312"
+alt = "see caption"></td>
+<td class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig16" id = "fig16">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig16.jpg" width = "220" height = "313"
+alt = "see caption"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 15.</span> Anoteelik in caribou-skin
+clothing, holding a caribou spear. A&nbsp;buck on the skyline. Mouth of
+Windy River, September&nbsp;7, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 16.</span> Katello, a Padleimiut Eskimo
+from the upper Kazan River, in a coat (<i>attigi</i>) and boots
+(<i>komik</i>) of caribou skin. Windy River, Oct.&nbsp;6, 1947.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>One of the main uses of the hides is for winter clothing. The Windy
+River residents have their garments made by Eskimo women of the upper
+Kazan, whose tanning process leaves the fur intact. Early autumn hides,
+with new, comparatively short fur, are the ones in demand. The season
+for securing such hides is said to extend to mid-September. At that
+season the larvae of the warble fly have not developed far enough to
+have injured the hide appreciably. The long winter fur is much less
+suitable for clothing. In moderately cold weather a single coat
+(<i>attigi</i>), with the fur inside (<a href = "#fig16">fig. 16</a>),
+is worn by the Eskimos. This coat, when made for a man, extends very
+little farther downward at the rear than at the front; but a woman’s
+coat is considerably longer at the rear. The bottom is generally
+provided with a fringe consisting of small strips of caribou skin,
+perhaps 4 inches long and 1/16 inch wide. In mid-winter another coat,
+with the fur outside (<a href = "#fig15">fig. 15</a>), is slipped on
+over the other. Both are provided with hoods. Trousers, with the fur
+outside, are cut rather short at the bottom; some such material as rope
+is passed around the waist, without belt loops, to hold the trousers up.
+Boots (<i>komik</i>) of tanned caribou skin (<a href = "#fig16">fig.
+16</a>), reaching nearly to the knees, with the fur inside, make
+exceptionally warm footgear in winter. An extra piece is sewed on the
+sole, with the fur outside, but the hairs soon wear off. The seams are
+sewed with sinew. Another sort of boot, for summer use, is made of
+untanned skin, without the fur, and is more or less waterproof. Mittens
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page58" id = "page58">58</a></span>
+(<i>pahloot</i>) have the fur outside; the thumb piece, of a length
+suitable for a short Eskimo thumb, does not properly fit a white
+man.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn of 1947 the migrating Caribou did not reach the
+territory of the Chipewyans about the south end of Nueltin Lake till
+about November 1&mdash;by which time the fur had grown so long that it
+was not suitable for clothing. When I inquired of Charles Schweder how
+these natives managed under such circumstances, he replied that nowadays
+they use very little skin clothing&mdash;just manufactured clothing.
+Certainly the latter type was being worn by three men of this tribe that
+visited the Windy River post in late October. In this connection it is
+interesting to note that in November Charles brought to Windy River a
+bundle of fawn skins that he had secured from an Eskimo on the upper
+Kazan. Presently he traded them to a Cree halfbreed from the Putahow
+River, who was to have them made into a coat for himself. In years gone
+by the above-mentioned Chipewyans must have found some means of securing
+caribou skins for themselves in August or September; they could have
+accomplished this by moving to the northern part of Nueltin Lake,
+provided the animals had not reached the southern part at the proper
+season.</p>
+
+<p>From Charles Schweder I learned that the Hudson’s Bay Company
+acquires caribou skins (apparently tanned) from the Duck Lake Chipewyans
+at about a dollar apiece, puts them up in bales of perhaps 10 to 20
+skins, and ships them by steamer from Churchill to Baffin Island or
+thereabouts, for use by the Eskimos. He had seen about 25 or 30 such
+bales being loaded on a steamer in September, 1947. This trade evidently
+results from the present scarcity of Caribou on Baffin Island
+(<i>cf.</i> Manning, 1943<i>a</i>: 47-50; Soper, 1944: 247-250;
+Banfield, 1949: 481). Moccasins of caribou skin, made by the Duck Lake
+Chipewyans, were on sale at Churchill.</p>
+
+<p>The three Caribou-eater Chipewyans from the south end of Nueltin Lake
+brought mittens, gloves, and moccasins of caribou skin to trade at Windy
+River. Similar gloves were brought by a Cree halfbreed from the Putahow
+River.</p>
+
+<p>At the Windy River post furred caribou skins served in upholstering
+the seat, back, and arms of a couple of home-made chairs. They were used
+also as mattresses or blankets, in the making of sleeping bags, and even
+as insulating material on the outside of the cabin (Harper, 1949: 226,
+228, figs.). The Schweder boys also maintain tents of caribou skin at
+various points on their long trap-lines; they are much warmer than
+canvas tents, and require no outlay
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page59" id = "page59">59</a></span>
+of cash. The skins are nailed on poles arranged in tepee form; the
+height of such a tent is about 10 feet, and the diameter 9 or 10 feet.
+There is a home-made stove inside, with the smoke-pipe projecting
+outside about halfway to the top of the tent.</p>
+
+<p>The Eskimos of the Kazan River have large summer tents of caribou
+skin, and smaller ones of canvas. The former are the ones in which the
+drum dances are held. These Eskimos never make their winter houses
+wholly of snow, according to Charles Schweder, but use caribou skins for
+the roof.</p>
+
+<p>In illustration of the primary importance of the Caribou to both
+primitive and civilized man in the Arctic and the sub-Arctic, the
+numerous cases of partial or complete starvation in the absence of
+Caribou may be cited. The chronicles of northern explorers are replete
+with them. A&nbsp;notable case is that of John Hornby and his two
+companions on the Thelon River in the winter of 1926-27 (Hoare, 1930:
+25; Christian, 1937). In the autumn of 1946 only a small fraction of the
+normal caribou migration passed by the Eskimo camps on the upper Kazan
+River. These happy-go-lucky, utterly improvident people did not take
+steps to secure an alternative winter’s supply of fish, and by the
+following spring eight out of the band of 27 persons had succumbed
+directly or indirectly to starvation. (It is suspected that several were
+accounted for by anthropophagy.) Women, children, and dogs were the
+victims; no adult male succumbed. The casualties would doubtless have
+been more numerous if Charles Schweder had not reported the plight of
+the band when he made a trip to Reindeer Lake in March. Thereupon the
+government shipped emergency rations by plane as far as Nueltin Lake,
+and Charles transported them from that point by sleigh to the Kazan.
+Meanwhile he rescued two of the orphan children, took them to the Windy
+River post, and in a few more months formally adopted them.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "eco_ethno" id = "eco_ethno">
+Ethnological material from caribou products</a></h4>
+
+<p>In addition to the utilization of caribou products for the primary
+purposes of food, clothing, and shelter, as discussed in preceding
+pages, certain other uses of an ethnological nature may be mentioned
+here.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Schweder spoke of the former Eskimo use of splint bones from
+the legs of Caribou as needles, after a hole had been drilled or burned
+through the larger end. They are about the same length as a large
+darning needle. These people commonly
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page60" id = "page60">60</a></span>
+use the back sinew as thread or as wrapping on tools, drums, and the
+like. I&nbsp;saw a piece of back sinew being dried for future use at the
+Windy River post.</p>
+
+<p>Either lard or caribou fat serves as fuel for an “Eskimo candle”; the
+wick is a bit of rag or moss. The heat of the flame melts the fat where
+it is spread out in some small receptacle like a can cover. When our
+other means of illumination gave out at the Windy River post,
+I&nbsp;worked or wrote notes for many hours by the light of one of these
+candles. It gives approximately as much illumination as an ordinary
+tallow candle. One disadvantage of using caribou fat for this purpose is
+the considerable amount of smoke that it produces.</p>
+
+<p>The Eskimos make odd use of an antler as a brake for a sleigh, to
+prevent the harnessed dogs from running after any Caribou they may
+sight; on other occasions it retards the sleigh in descending a hill.
+Such an antler, that I found at the Windy River post, is notched near
+the base; a&nbsp;rope or thong, 2&nbsp;or 3 feet in length, is fastened
+at one end to this notch, and at the other to the side of the sleigh. To
+apply the brake, the driver simply presses down the points of the antler
+into the snow or ice.</p>
+
+<p>The drums used in the ceremonial dances of the Kazan River Eskimos
+are made of a piece of caribou skin stretched tightly over a circular
+frame of spruce and fastened in place with caribou sinew. They are about
+3 feet in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>In an Eskimo fish spear from the upper Kazan River an iron barb on
+one of the prongs is supported by a small piece of caribou antler and
+fastened with back sinew. The two large lateral prongs, of metal, are
+tied to the wooden shaft of the spear with braided sinew.</p>
+
+<p>Two snow-knives have handles of antler, about 10 and 11 inches in
+length. One of the handles has been planed down, and is wrapped with
+sinew.</p>
+
+<p>The handle of another implement, used in cleaning out grains of wood
+from a hole being drilled in wood, is also a piece of antler.</p>
+
+<p>A woman’s knife, or <i>ooloo</i>, has a section of antler for a
+handle.</p>
+
+<p>Strands of beads, used either for an ear pendant or for ornaments at
+the peak of a hood, have a caribou incisor fastened at the tip. The
+opposite end of the pendant is provided with a thin strip of caribou
+hide for fastening to a perforated ear lobe.</p>
+
+<p>The willow stems of pipes are wrapped with back sinew.</p>
+
+<p>Antler and sinew went into the making (by Anoteelik) of a “ring and
+pin” game.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page61" id = "page61">61</a></span>
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References on relations to Eskimos and Indians.</i>&mdash;Isham, 1949
+(1743): 152-154; Dobbs, 1744: 19; Hearne, 1795: 35, 78, 80-84, 96, 119,
+195-197, 297, 316-319, 321-325; Franklin, 1823: 243-244; Lyon, 1824:
+119, 123, 130, 144, 198, 229, 238, 241, 282, 311-317, 324, 327, 336;
+Parry, 1824: 289, 380, 403, 494-497, 505, 508, 512, 537; Richardson,
+“1825”: 330, 331; Franklin and Richardson, 1828: 200, 275; Richardson,
+1829: 242-244, 245-249; John Ross, 1835<i>a</i>: 243-244, 252, 352, 512,
+537; J.&nbsp;C. Ross, in John Ross, 1835<i>b</i>: xvii; Richardson, in
+Back, 1836: 499; Simpson, 1843: 76, 208, 312, 347, 355; J. McLean, 1932
+(1849): 195, 359; Richardson, 1852: 290; J. Anderson, 1856: 24, and
+1857: 321; Armstrong, 1857: 149, 154, 155, 166, 194; M’Clintock, 1860?:
+212; Richardson, 1861: 274; B.&nbsp;R. Ross, 1861: 439-440; Kennicott,
+in Anonymous, 1869: 170; Kumlien, 1879: 19, 23-25, 36-37, 54; Caton,
+1881: 366-371; Gilder, 1881: 11, 23, 25, 26, 28, 43, 50, 59, 61, 64, 67,
+71, 137-146, 154, 245-255; Nourse, 1884: 220, 232; Schwatka, 1885:
+59-86; Boas, 1888: 419, 429, 461-462, 501-503, 508-509, 522, 555-560;
+Bompas, 1888: 61, 100; Collinson, 1889: 277; MacFarlane, 1890: 32-34,
+38; Pike, 1917 (1892): 51-56, 59-60, 82, 209; J.&nbsp;B. Tyrrell, 1892:
+128-130; Dowling, 1893: 107; J.&nbsp;B. Tyrrell, 1894: 445, 1895:
+440-444, and 1897: 122, 126-127, 131-132, 151, 166-167; Russell, 1895:
+49-51, and 1898: 91, 134, 168-172, 176, 178, 187-189, 227-229; Whitney,
+1896: 161, 175, 176, 213, 237, 240, 242, 262; J.&nbsp;W. Tyrrell, 1908
+(1898): 80-81, 123-141, 241; Jones, 1899: 342, 429; Hanbury, 1900: 64,
+65; J.&nbsp;M. Bell, 1901<i>a</i>: 16, and 1901<i>b</i>: 252, 255, 258;
+Boas, 1901: 52, 54, 81, 102, 107, and 1907: 465, 493, 501; W.&nbsp;J.
+McLean, 1901: 5; Elliot, 1902: 276-279; J.&nbsp;W. Tyrrell, 1924 <ins
+class = "correction" title = "text has ; for :">(1902):</ins> 28, 37;
+Hanbury, 1904: 41, 43, 67, 70, 72, 75, 82, 114-115, 120, 121, 123, 137,
+143; MacFarlane, 1905: 680-683; Amundsen, 1908, <b>1</b>: 120, 201, 237,
+326-329, and <b>2</b>: 110; Preble, 1908: 137; Seton, 1911: 259-262;
+Cameron, 1912: 127, 309; Wheeler, 1912: 199-200; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson,
+1913<i>a</i>: 5, 6, 8, and 1913<i>b</i>: 502-505; <ins class =
+"correction" title = "text has ‘Stefansson’">Stefánsson</ins>,
+1913<i>a</i>: 105, and 1913<i>b</i>: 203, 215, 221, 281, 337-338, and
+1914: 48, 56-59, 97, 137, 139-141, 147-148, 150, 296, 353; Hornaday,
+1914, <b>2</b>: 97, 100; Wheeler, 1914: 52, 56, 58; Nelson, 1916:
+460-461; Thompson, 1916: 19, 99; J.&nbsp;B. Tyrrell, in Thompson, 1916:
+16; Buchanan, 1920: 113-151; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, in Stefánsson, 1921:
+743, 750; Hewitt, 1921: 58, 59, 64-66; Stefánsson, 1921: 401-402;
+Jenness, 1922: 47, 48, 61, 78-81, 97, 100-103, 124, 127-142, 148-151,
+182-189, 244, 248, 249; Blanchet, 1925: 34, 1926<i>a</i>: 98, and
+1926<i>b</i>: 47; Preble, 1926: 121; Craig, 1927: 22; Henderson, 1927:
+40; Rasmussen, 1927: 5, 23, 59-60, 65, 67, 68, 73-76, 103-106, 145,
+166-167, 245, 246; Anthony, 1928: 532; Kindle, 1928: 72-73;
+Birket-Smith, 1929 <ins class = "correction" title = "text has ; for :">(1):</ins> 9, 47, 52-53, 56, 57, 86, 89, 90, 94, 96, 98, 101, 102,
+104, 106-112, 133-144, 171, 186, 191, 196, 199-223, 232, 239-251, 262,
+263, 268-271; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 111-122, 133-134; Blanchet, 1930:
+50-51, 53; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193, and 1931: 32-33; Kitto, 1930:
+87-88, 90; Mallet, 1930: 13, 32, 85, 87, 89, 90, 92, 95, 102, 116,
+131-140; Jacobi, 1931: 156, 157, 159; Harper, 1932: 30, <ins class =
+"correction" title = "text has , for ;">31;</ins> Jenness, 1932: 47, 48,
+51, 58, 59, 75, 406-408, 411, 412, 414, 415; Munn, 1932: 191-192, 210,
+214, 255, 271, 278; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 80-83, 86-87; Weyer,
+1932: 38, 39; Birket-Smith, 1933: 100; Ingstad, 1933: 118, 122, 135,
+139, 162-163, 167, 186-187, 247, 253-254, 257-259; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson,
+1934<i>a</i>: 81, and 1937: 103; Godsell, 1934: 273-276, and 1937: 288;
+Hornby, 1934: 105; Birket-Smith, 1936: 90, 91, 110, 111, 115-116;
+Hamilton, 1939: 246, 352, 359; Clarke, 1940: 5-9, 84, 110, <ins class =
+"correction" title = "text has , for ;">112;</ins> G.&nbsp;M. Allen,
+1942: 297; Manning, 1942: 29, 1943<i>a</i>: 47, 50, and 1943<i>b</i>:
+103; Downes, 1943: 215, 227-228, 261-262; Soper, 1944: 248-250; Wright,
+1944: 185, 187, 188, 193; Rand, 1948<i>b</i>: 149; Yule, 1948: 288;
+Banfield, 1949: 477, 478, 481, and 1951<i>a</i>: 1,&nbsp;11, 14-15,
+42-50; Harper, 1949: 226, 230, 231; Hoffman, 1949: 12; Polunin, 1949:
+230; Scott, 1951: 127; Anonymous, 1952: 264.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References on relations to civilized man.</i>&mdash;Kennicott, in
+Anonymous, <ins class = "correction" title = "text has ; for :">1869:</ins> 166; Schwatka, 1885: 59-86; A.&nbsp;J. Stone, 1900: 57;
+Grant, 1903: 186; Cameron, 1912: 309; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, 1913<i>a</i>:
+5, <ins class = "correction" title = "text has , for ;">6;</ins>
+1913<i>b</i>: 504, and 1938: 400; Stefánsson, 1913<i>b</i>: 27;
+Hornaday, 1914, <b>2</b>: 100; Wheeler, 1914: 56; Hewitt, 1921: 11-12,
+59; Critchell-Bullock, 1931: 33; Godsell, 1937: 288; G.&nbsp;M. Allen,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page62" id = "page62">62</a></span>
+1942: 298-299; Manning, 1942: 28; [U.S.] War Department, 1944: 77;
+Harper, 1949: 239; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>:&nbsp;1, 14-15.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "eco_bears" id = "eco_bears">
+Relations to Black Bears</a></h4>
+
+<p>It is hardly to be expected that Black Bears (<i>Ursus americanus</i>
+subsp.) commit any depredations on adult, able-bodied Caribou unless
+under very exceptional circumstances. Since they do not normally venture
+to an appreciable distance into the Barren Grounds, their contacts with
+Caribou are mainly in the forested zone. For an untold period in the
+past there has been a very interesting tripartite relationship between
+Bears, Caribou, and Caribou-eater Chipewyans about the south end of
+Nueltin Lake. For information concerning it I am indebted to Charles
+Schweder. The Indians of that area have been in the habit of killing
+large numbers of Caribou, especially on the spring and fall migrations,
+and leaving many of the bodies, or parts of the bodies, out in the
+“bush.” The Bears have become accustomed to taking advantage of the
+situation, especially, perhaps, in the matter of fattening up for
+hibernation. This probably resulted in a certain concentration of the
+animals thereabouts. But of late years the local native population has
+seriously declined by reason of fatal illness and removal to other
+parts. Consequently, as Charles Schweder expressed it, there are no
+longer enough people there to feed the Bears! Three of the Chipewyans
+reported in late October, 1947, that they had lost a good many of their
+Caribou to the Bears during that season.</p>
+
+<p>This recent change in the food situation about the south end of
+Nueltin Lake has apparently resulted in, or at least coincided with, an
+influx of Bears in the Windy River area, where they were unknown until
+1944. During the next four years seven Bears were killed locally. The
+animals are said to have consumed about 70 Caribou bodies in the fall of
+1944, and about 40 in the fall of 1947 within a few miles of the Windy
+River post; thus they became a somewhat serious factor in the human
+economy of the area. The Caribou is evidently the chief loser in this
+curious relationship, but even the Bear, which may be regarded as the
+chief beneficiary, suffers from man’s retaliatory efforts.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "eco_foxes" id = "eco_foxes">
+Relations to foxes</a></h4>
+
+<p>The demand for Arctic Fox furs on the part of the fashionable women
+of the world sends the trapper on his winter rounds over the bleak and
+bitter Barren Grounds, where he depends upon his autumn kill of Caribou
+for sustenance for himself and his dogs as
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page63" id = "page63">63</a></span>
+well as for fox bait. It is thus quite obvious where a large share of
+the respon&shy;sibility for the dwindling numbers of the Caribou
+lies.</p>
+
+<p>Both Arctic and Red Foxes (<i>Alopex lagopus innuitus</i> and
+<i>Vulpes fulva</i> subsp.) are among the scavengers that help to
+consume caribou bodies that are left unguarded in the wilds. According
+to Charles Schweder, foxes of both species seem to follow the Wolves,
+presumably in the hope of securing the leavings of their kills.</p>
+
+<p>Charles also gave me an account of a remarkable sort of play between
+a Red Fox and a small buck Caribou. He had witnessed it in September,
+1943, about 18 miles north of Windy River, from a distance of half a
+mile. The Fox would approach the Caribou closely; the latter would then
+walk up to the Fox, which would retreat, not allowing the Caribou to
+come close enough to touch it. Neither animal was afraid of the other.
+They kept up this performance for about 5 minutes. The Fox then went
+among some bushes, where the Caribou tried to follow it. The larger
+animal was still there, feeding, when Charles passed on out of sight. He
+regarded the whole performance as a matter of playfulness. His recital
+put me in mind at once of a slightly similar play between a Newfoundland
+Caribou and a Red Fox, as recorded by Millais (1907: 302-303).
+Stefánsson (1921: 623-624) describes a game of tag between an Arctic Fox
+and several yearlings of <i>Rangifer pearyi</i> on Melville Island.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Blanchet, 1925: 34; Birket-Smith, 1929(1): 101;
+Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 143; Munn, 1932: 278; Ingstad, 1933: 90,
+157-159; Freuchen, 1935: 128; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 36.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "eco_wolves" id = "eco_wolves">
+Relations to Wolves</a></h4>
+
+<p>Aside from man, the principal predatory enemy of the Barren Ground
+Caribou is undoubtedly the Wolf. A&nbsp;comparison of a
+distri&shy;butional map of Caribou by Banfield (1949: 479, fig.&nbsp;1)
+with a distri&shy;butional map of Wolves by Goldman (1944: 414, fig. 14)
+indicates that the latter species is a considerably more plastic animal.
+No less than six subspecies of Wolves seem to occur in parts of the
+currently recognized range of a single subspecies of Caribou
+(<i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i>), as follows: <i>Canis lupus
+arctos</i>, Prince of Wales and Somerset islands; <i>Canis lupus
+manningi</i>, Baffin Island; <i>Canis lupus bernardi</i>, Victoria
+Island; <i>Canis lupus hudsonicus</i>, Keewatin, eastern Mackenzie,
+northern Manitoba, and northeastern Saskatchewan; <i>Canis lupus
+mackenzii</i>, northern Mackenzie; <i>Canis lupus occidentalis</i>,
+southern Mackenzie and northern Alberta and Saskatchewan.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page64" id = "page64">64</a></span>
+<p>The Keewatin Tundra Wolf (<i>C. l. hudsonicus</i>) is presumably the
+only one that concerns us here. However, its extension into the forested
+zone of northern Manitoba and northeastern Saskatchewan, as indicated on
+Goldman’s map, is still problematical. Goldman’s text (1944: 428-429) is
+quite indefinite on this point. There are such distinct differences
+between the general fauna of the Arctic Zone and that of the Hudsonian
+Zone that the Wolf of the latter zone may well prove to be
+differen&shy;tiable from <i>hudsonicus</i>, whose type locality is at
+Schultz Lake in west central Keewatin. It is an interesting question
+whether any Wolves of the Barren Grounds follow the Caribou southward
+into the timbered country in the fall; likewise, whether any individual
+Wolves of the latter region accompany the Caribou on their spring
+migration out into the Barrens. Little light on the subject seems
+available at present. There is no doubt, however, that a good many
+Wolves remain during the winter on parts of the Barren Grounds that have
+been deserted by the Caribou at that season. Furthermore, at the time of
+the spring migration, mature Wolves of the forest zone would be
+restricted to their home territory by the necessity of caring for their
+young ones.</p>
+
+<p>A Wolf is by no means able to capture a Caribou at will. During the
+season of open water the latter may effect a ready escape by plunging
+into the nearest river or lake and crossing to the other side. There is
+reason to believe that islands provide a good sanctuary during the
+summer (Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 108-109; Gavin, 1945: 228). In the winter
+the Caribou must depend primarily on its fleetness of foot. Even the
+fawns are reputed to be able to outdistance Wolves in a chase that is
+not too prolonged. An adult, if brought to bay after a long chase, is
+probably able to stand off a single Wolf indefinitely. Its powerful
+hoofs are its principal means of defense. Even if the antlers are
+brought into play, they are effective only during the limited period
+when they are fullgrown, hard, and free of velvet. When two or more
+Wolves manage to bring a Caribou to bay, the outcome is probably almost
+invariably in their favor. Charles Schweder has never known a Caribou to
+kill one of these predators in defending itself. In several cases
+reported by Fred Schweder, Jr., the last stand was made on the ice of
+lakes. The Caribou itself may choose such a place, as if aware that it
+may be more sure-footed on the ice than its enemy.</p>
+
+<p>After listening to wolf tales by residents of the frontier
+settlements rather than by real men of the “bush,” one might almost
+expect to see a couple of these bloodthirsty animals harrying the rear
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page65" id = "page65">65</a></span>
+of every band of Caribou and keeping up a relentless pursuit. However,
+during a sojourn of six months on one of the best Caribou ranges in
+Keewatin, where trapping has very little effect on Wolves, I&nbsp;saw
+just one of these animals alive, heard the howling on several occasions,
+and noted a single Caribou that had probably been killed by them. It is
+far from a common experience for the resident trappers to witness actual
+pursuit by Wolves or even to find their kills. The following instances,
+related by Fred Schweder, Jr., comprised his only direct observations on
+Wolves in pursuit of Caribou up to and including 1947, when he was
+eighteen years old.</p>
+
+<p>During the northward migration in May, 1945, a silent black Wolf
+pursued a band of 100 Caribou over the ice of Windy Bay. At one time it
+came within 100 feet, but thereafter they forged ahead. After half a
+mile the band split up, and the Wolf desisted. In October, 1946, Fred
+noticed a Caribou fighting off two Wolves on the ice of Nueltin Lake
+near its outlet. It used both horns and hoofs against its attackers.
+While one Wolf was in front, the other would try to get in the rear of
+the Caribou and hamstring it. This went on for two hours until darkness
+hid the scene. The next morning the Caribou was dead and half eaten. On
+October 16, 1947, a&nbsp;white Wolf was seen in pursuit of four
+fast-moving Caribou near Simons’ Lake. It was about half a mile in their
+rear, and presently halted, probably by reason of catching sight of
+Fred.</p>
+
+<p>November 7, 1947, was a blizzardy day; the air was full of drifting
+snow. Under these conditions a gray Wolf chased a buck and a doe right
+into the dooryard of one of Fred’s trapping camps 10 miles north of
+Windy River. It was only about 30 feet behind them. When the buck broke
+through the ice of a little creek, the Wolf went right past it in
+pursuit of the doe. The latter nearly ran into Fred’s toboggan, and he
+shot it at a distance of 20 feet. The Wolf came within 40 feet, but by
+the time it was recognized as not just another Caribou, it was 100 feet
+away. Fred then shot but merely wounded it, the sight being off his
+rifle. Meanwhile the buck escaped, but 3 miles away Fred met with it
+again and secured it. He recognized it as the same animal because at
+both encounters it was limping from a previous wound and was hornless as
+well.</p>
+
+<p>In late November Fred found two fullgrown bucks and a doe on the ice
+of Windy Lake, where they had been killed by Wolves. The bucks were
+antlered and had probably met their end several weeks previously. Yet
+their flesh was so musky and unpalatable, in consequence of the rutting
+season, that it had not been devoured.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page66" id = "page66">66</a></span>
+A long trail of blood and hair led to the spot where the doe had fallen,
+apparently a couple of weeks previously; it was still only half
+eaten.</p>
+
+<p>In Fred’s opinion, Caribou are apprehensive of sandy eskers as the
+haunt of Wolves, and do not linger there.</p>
+
+<p>On October 15 Charles Schweder pointed out the body of a Caribou in a
+little pond in the delta area at the head of Simons’ Lake. He considered
+it killed by Wolves some weeks previously; its antlers were in the
+velvet, and it had been eaten only about the head and hind quarters as
+it lay in the water.</p>
+
+<p>Joe Chambers, a trapper of Goose Creek (south of Churchill), stated
+that Wolves select the fattest Caribou, and that during the winter of
+1946-47 they had been devouring only such choice parts as the tongue and
+the unborn young.</p>
+
+<p>Caribou bodies are the primary bait for Wolves and Foxes on the
+Barren Grounds. Two traps are commonly placed at each carcass.</p>
+
+<p>Up to a couple of centuries ago, when the baneful effect of civilized
+man began to be felt, the Caribou throve and multiplied to a point where
+they probably strained the grazing capacity of the Barren Grounds.
+Neither primitive man nor the Wolf had any serious effect on the size or
+condition of the herds. The Caribou were numbered by millions, and they
+doubtless owed their vigor and their success as a species in no small
+measure to their friendly enemy, the Wolf. Through long ages the latter
+had tended to eliminate the weaklings, the sickly, and the less alert
+individuals, leaving the fitter animals to propagate their kind. Here
+was a fine example of natural selection operating to the advantage of
+the Caribou. Thus the Wolf may be safely considered a benefactor of the
+species as a whole&mdash;a regulator and protector of its vitality.</p>
+
+<p>There are only two regions of the world where Caribou (or Reindeer)
+have not long shared their territory with the Wolf&mdash;Spitsbergen and
+the Queen Charlotte Islands. And what sort of situation do we find
+there? Instead of thriving in the absence of such a natural predator,
+the animals of both regions are the runts of the whole Caribou-Reindeer
+tribe, and those of the Queen Charlottes have become virtually or wholly
+extinct (<i>cf.</i> Banfield, 1949: 481-482). Furthermore, the
+Newfoundland Caribou suffered a very serious decline after the
+Newfoundland Wolf became extinct at about the beginning of the present
+century. The lesson is obvious:
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page67" id = "page67">67</a></span>
+it is folly for man to imagine that he can benefit the Caribou by
+eliminating the Wolves.</p>
+
+<p>It is virtually axiomatic that no predatory species (other than
+modern man) exterminates its own food supply. Long ago nature must have
+established a fairly definite ratio between the populations of the Wolf
+and the Caribou. Although a certain fluctuation of that ratio could be
+expected from time to time, each fluctuation would be followed by a
+return to more or less normal conditions. The trend of evolution has
+doubtless been toward perfecting the Wolf in its ability to capture the
+Caribou, but at the same time toward perfecting the Caribou in its
+ability to escape the Wolf. Unequal progress of this sort on the part of
+the two species would presumably have been rather disastrous to the one
+or the other. But it is nature’s way to have preserved a proper balance
+between the abilities of the two species, and thus between their
+populations. This balance (a&nbsp;rather delicate one) has probably been
+upset to some extent by the advent of civilized man with his devices to
+the Barren Grounds.</p>
+
+<p>The Caribou “exemplify the survival of the fittest; none but the
+perfect are allowed to live and breed, hence their perfection. We
+believe that the wolf is in no small degree responsible for this high
+standard, and that were he killed off the species as a whole would
+suffer.” (Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 161.)</p>
+
+<p>“It is doubtful if the efforts of white or native hunters are of any
+importance whatever in the control of wolves in the caribou country, or
+could, under present circumstances ever be of any importance.” (Clarke,
+1940: 109).</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Franklin, 1823: 242, 327, 344, 486, 487; John
+Ross, 1835<i>a</i>: 402, 530, 534, 564; Back, 1836: 128-129; Simpson,
+1843: 232; Armstrong, 1857: 395, 480-481, 488, 525; Osborn, 1865:
+227-228, 231, 232; Kumlien, 1879: 53, 54; Gilder, 1881: 61; Bompas,
+1888: 60; Collinson, 1889: 244; Pike, 1917 (1892): 56-58; Whitney, 1896:
+239; Jones, 1899: 374-375; Preble, 1902: 41, and 1908: 214; Hanbury,
+1904: 89; MacFarlane, 1905: 692-693; Amundsen, 1908, <b>1</b>: 102;
+Seton, 1911: 225-226; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, 1913<i>b</i>: <ins class =
+"correction" title = "text has : for ;">516;</ins> Stefánsson,
+1913<i>a</i>: 93, and 1921: 248-249, 475-476; Blanchet, 1925: 34;
+Mallet, 1926: 79; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 51; Seton, 1929, <b>1</b>:
+344-346, and <b>3</b>: 108-109; Blanchet, 1930: 54-55;
+Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 159-162; Hoare, 1930: 22; Kitto, 1930: 89;
+Jacobi, 1931: 240-241; Harper, 1932: 31; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 33,
+35, 36, 81, 82, 84, 85; Ingstad, 1933: 157-159, 165-166, 207, 302-304,
+306-307; Hornby, 1934: 106, 108; Freuchen, 1935: 93, 120-122; Murie,
+1939: 245; Clarke, 1940: 107-109; Manning, 1942: 29, and 1943<i>a</i>:
+55; Downes, 1943: 262; Young, 1944: 236-238, 243; Yule, 1948: 288;
+Harper, 1949: 230-231, 239; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 37-41; Anonymous,
+1952: 263-265.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "eco_birds" id = "eco_birds">
+Relations to birds of prey</a></h4>
+
+<p>These relations are not so much of the living Caribou as of their
+bodies after death. The principal avian scavengers in the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page68" id = "page68">68</a></span>
+Windy River area seem to be the Rough-legged Hawk (<i>Buteo lagopus
+sancti-johannis</i>), the Herring Gull (<i>Larus argentatus
+smithsonianus</i>), the Canada Jay (<i>Perisoreus canadensis
+canadensis</i>), and the Raven (<i>Corvus corax principalis</i>). These
+birds are evidently attracted to the vicinity of camps and trap-lines by
+reason of the numbers of caribou bodies lying about. On their first
+arrival in late May or early June, before the lakes have opened up and
+while food in general is scarce, Herring Gulls seem particularly prone
+to assemble where Caribou have been recently killed. For example, up to
+June 3 only a handful of these birds had been seen about Windy River. On
+that day several Caribou were killed, and on June 4 about 100 Herring
+Gulls had gathered at the scene. Their scavenger activities make it
+especially necessary to protect the caribou bodies in the way described
+in the section on <i>Relations to man</i>. In a few days one of the
+bodies (apparently not so protected) had been almost entirely consumed.
+The Herring Gulls operate locally only from May to September, being
+absent during the rest of the year. A&nbsp;few Ring-billed Gulls
+(<i>Larus delawarensis</i>) appeared meanwhile and attacked a caribou
+carcass.</p>
+
+<p>The Rough-legged Hawk is far less numerous than the Herring Gull and
+so is a much less serious scavenger. Now and then, however, it may be
+noted feeding on a caribou carcass. Even the Long-tailed Jaeger
+(<i>Stercorarius longicaudus</i>) is reported in such a role. The Canada
+Jay and the Raven are permanent residents and are undoubtedly helped
+through the inhospitable winter by man-killed Caribou. On the other
+hand, a&nbsp;good many Ravens fall victims to the fox traps placed about
+the bodies. Charles Schweder has frequently seen Ravens following
+Wolves, as if in expectation of a kill. Buchanan remarks (1920: 248)
+concerning the Reindeer Lake region, that the Ravens “appear to remain
+in the vicinity of the Caribou herds all th[r]ough winter.” In the Windy
+River area the Canada Jay became noticeably more numerous in August,
+after the Caribou had returned from the north. The Ravens and the
+Rough-legs exhibited a similar increase in September and October.</p>
+
+<p>The depredations of these carnivorous birds result to the detriment
+of the living Caribou in that they virtually force the hunters and
+trappers to kill a larger number of the animals than would otherwise be
+necessary.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Hanbury, 1904: 135; Stefánsson, 1913<i>a</i>:
+93; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 108; Ingstad, 1933: 157-159; Downes, 1943:
+228; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 36, 42; Harper, 1953: 28, 60, 62-64, 72,
+74, 76.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page69" id = "page69">69</a></span>
+<h4><a name = "eco_misc" id = "eco_misc">
+Relations to miscellaneous animals</a></h4>
+
+<p>The Schweder boys spoke of Arctic Hares (<i>Lepus arcticus
+andersoni</i>) being in the habit of eating the stomach contents of
+Caribou after the animals have been dressed in the field. This
+represents merely harmless utilization of a normally waste product,
+although it serves some of the natives as <i>nerrooks</i> or “Eskimo
+salad” (<i>cf.</i> Richardson, 1829: 245). Wolverines, Mink, Weasels,
+and Lemmings help to consume unprotected caribou bodies. (In the Old
+World the Wolverine is regarded as a serious enemy of live Reindeer
+[Jacobi, 1931: 243; Harper, 1945: 473].)</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Pike, 1917 (1892): 56-58; Seton, 1911: 252,
+1929, <b>2</b>: 413, 424, 443, and 1929, <b>3</b>: 108; Harper, 1932:
+23; Ingstad, 1933: 157-159; Freuchen, 1935: 93, 99; Hoffman, 1949: 12;
+Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 36, 41; Harper, 1953: 40, 41.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "eco_flies" id = "eco_flies">
+Relations to flies</a></h4>
+
+<p>Flies of various kinds perhaps cause more wide-spread, year-round
+misery to the Caribou than all other pests and enemies combined. It is
+safe to say that not a single individual in the whole population escapes
+their attacks, and some even succumb to mosquitoes (Gavin, 1945: 228).
+The various biting and parasitic flies have already been discussed to
+some extent in the section on <i>Influence of insects on
+distribution</i>. Harassment by these pests is believed to be the
+leading cause of the haste with which the Caribou are frequently seen
+passing over the Barrens in summer. Downes (1943: 204) has commented on
+the habit of Chipewyan hunters in the Nueltin Lake region of examining
+the legs of Caribou for swellings caused by mosquito bites. In a buck
+secured on August 17 the legs exhibited numerous little bumps of this
+sort; furthermore, black flies covered the buck’s body, while scarcely
+troubling those of us who were preparing the specimen. Fortunately the
+suffering from mosquitoes and black flies on the Barrens is largely
+limited to the months of July and August.</p>
+
+<p>Even at this season the Caribou are granted occasional relief from
+the blood-sucking flies. The charac&shy;teristic strong winds of that
+region help greatly in keeping the insects in abeyance. Furthermore,
+both mosquitoes and black flies become more or less inactive whenever
+the temperature drops to the neighborhood of 45° (<i>cf.</i> Weber,
+1950: 196), and this happens fairly frequently even in mid-summer.
+Finally, the black flies retire during the hours of darkness; and short
+as these hours are, the relief they bring is very noteworthy. These
+conditions offer something of a contrast to those surrounding
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page70" id = "page70">70</a></span>
+the Woodland Caribou. It is difficult to see how that animal can secure
+a moment’s respite from mosquito attacks, by day or night, through most
+of the summer. In its forested habitat there is not sufficient lowering
+of the temperature nor sufficient penetration of strong winds. Hard as
+the life of the Barren Ground Caribou may be, it seems to have a few
+advantages not available to the Woodland Caribou; and possibly it is
+these that have enabled it to attain a vastly greater population than
+the other species.</p>
+
+<p>Of 52 mosquito specimens brought back from the Windy River area, 39
+were <i>Aedes nearcticus</i> Dyar, 2&nbsp;were probably <i>Aedes
+fitchii</i> (F. and Y.), and the remaining 11 were of the same genus but
+not in condition for specific determination (<i>cf.</i> Dyar, 1919;
+Weber, 1950: 196). <i>Ae. nearcticus</i> is holarctic in distribution;
+in North America it occurs chiefly on the Barren Grounds, but is known
+from as far south as Montana. <i>Ae. fitchii</i> ranges through the
+northern United States and Canada, north to the limit of trees. Of 26
+black flies, all were <i>Simulium venustum</i> Say, which occurs in
+northern Europe, Alaska, and Labrador, south to the Adirondacks,
+Illinois, Iowa, Georgia, and Alabama. (Names and ranges supplied by Dr.
+Alan Stone, of the United States Bureau of Entomology and Plant
+Quarantine.) These mosquitoes and black flies were presumably the
+species attacking the Caribou in the Nueltin Lake region.</p>
+
+<p>The effects of the two parasitic flies are felt nearly throughout the
+year. The adult warble fly (<i>Oedemagena tarandi</i>) is seen in the
+Windy River area in August, when the Caribou are on their southward
+march. On August 22 Fred Schweder, Jr., secured three of them on freshly
+killed Caribou and another that alighted on himself&mdash;all on an
+island in Windy Bay. His name for them is “deer fly.” He reported seeing
+about 50 of them on this day (more than ever before), although he
+sighted only 10 Caribou. As he remarked, these fuzzy flies look much
+like bumblebees. Three days later, along Little River, something buzzed
+past me while a band of Caribou were near. It was probably this species,
+although it suggested a hummingbird almost as much as a bumblebee. On
+several subsequent August days, while numbers of Caribou were passing
+very close to me, I&nbsp;detected no more of the warble flies. In
+general, they might well have escaped my notice owing to my
+preoccupation with photography; but on August 30, when I looked for them
+on one of the nearest animals, I&nbsp;saw none. Evidently they are not
+sufficiently numerous (like horse-flies on cattle) to be constantly in
+attendance on each Caribou. In fact, a&nbsp;comparative scarcity
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page71" id = "page71">71</a></span>
+(or at least difficulty of capture) may be surmised from the fact that
+the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913-18 brought back only three adult
+females&mdash;one from Teller, Alaska, and two from Bernard Harbour,
+Dolphin and Union Strait (Malloch, 1919: 55). Weber (1950) collected no
+Oestridae in Arctic Alaska.</p>
+
+<p>Apparently there has been scarcely any published study of the
+egg-laying or other habits of the adult <i>Oedemagena</i> in relation to
+<i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i>, other than a few recent notes by
+Banfield<ins class = "correction" title = "opening ( missing">
+(</ins>1951<i>a</i>: 31-32, fig. 17); but its behavior in relation to
+the Lapland Reindeer seems to be fairly well known, and it is summarized
+by Jacobi (1931: 245-246). In the case of the Reindeer, the fly’s eggs
+are laid (during the summer) generally on the legs, belly, and tail
+region of the victim; the larvae, on hatching, bore through the skin,
+travel widely through the body, and finally (in the autumn) reach the
+place for further development&mdash;beneath the skin of the back on both
+sides of the vertebral column. Each one makes a breathing-hole through
+the skin, and uses this as an exit when leaving the host in the
+following June. Only the younger animals, from one to about four or five
+years old, are heavily infested; those still older are spared, possibly
+having learned to guard themselves better against the fly. Curiously
+enough, the fawns are said to escape this parasitism entirely.</p>
+
+<p>My own observations on the larvae were restricted to a few Caribou
+specimens in June and in the autumn. As with the Reindeer, the Caribou
+fawns in their first autumn showed no visible infestation, as I noted in
+looking over some fresh hides on September 10, and as was noted again in
+a fawn of September 26. Fred Schweder, Jr., made the remark that larvae
+would be evident in the fawns by the following spring; this may indicate
+that the larvae have not, in the autumn, completed their journey to
+their final position on the Caribou’s back. I&nbsp;learned of no
+immunity on the part of old adults.</p>
+
+<p>Fullgrown larvae still remained in bucks secured on June 3 (fig. 17)
+and 18. According to Charles Schweder, they drop out in June. In the
+buck of June 3 there were perhaps several dozen warbles, each surrounded
+by a mass of repulsive tissue; in another buck of June 18, there were
+apparently more than 75. “It may be assumed,” says Johansen (1921: 24),
+“that the pupae lie on the ground for about a month before the flies
+appear.” He found (1921: 29) the adult flies abroad at Dolphin and Union
+Strait by July 14.</p>
+
+<table class = "picture" summary = "two illustrations">
+<tr>
+<td class = "illustration">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page56b" id = "page56b">56</a></span>
+<a name = "fig17" id = "fig17">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig17.jpg" width = "216" height = "285"
+alt = "see caption"></td>
+<td class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig18" id = "fig18">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig18.jpg" width = "221" height = "286"
+alt = "see caption"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 17.</span> Charles Schweder with the
+fresh, warble-infested hide of a Caribou buck (specimen No. 1033). Windy
+River, June&nbsp;3, 1947.</td>
+<td class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 18.</span> Hide of a Caribou doe, about
+four years old, with about 130 small warbles or warble scars
+(concentrated on the rump). Windy River, September 15, 1947.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page72" id = "page72">72</a></span>
+<p>In a buck of August 17 the new warbles (or perhaps merely warble
+scars from the previous June&mdash;<i>cf.</i> Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>:
+32) on the inside of the skin were not very numerous. Some were
+medium-sized, but most were so small that it was not deemed necessary to
+scrape them off; they had comparatively little fatty tissue about them
+and were merely allowed to dry up. The number of warbles (or warble
+scars) found in autumn specimens varied considerably, up to a maximum of
+roughly 200. They were situated mostly along the mid-dorsum, and more on
+the lower back or rump than farther forward. The number appeared to be
+approximately 130 in the skin of an adult doe that was nailed to the log
+wall of a cabin for drying on September 15 (fig. 18). A&nbsp;doe of
+September 21 seemed to have less than the usual number of warbles.</p>
+
+<p>The nostril fly (<i>Cephenemyia</i>) is another serious dipterous
+parasite of the Caribou. The life history of the European <i>C.
+nasalis</i> (L.) (or <i>C. trompe</i> [L.]) and its effect on Reindeer
+are discussed by Bergman (1917), Natvig (1918), and Jacobi (1931: 245)
+as follows.</p>
+
+<p>This fly attacks the host from June to September, depositing its
+viviparous larvae in the nostrils. The Reindeer attempts to fend off the
+fly, striking at it with its hoofs and keeping its nostrils closed as
+far as possible. Once deposited, the lively larvae crawl into the inner
+nasal passages and as far as the larynx, where they fasten themselves
+and live on the mucus. A&nbsp;Reindeer may harbor as many as 130 of
+these parasites. They range from 6 to 26 mm. in length. Their particular
+growth begins at the end of March, and they are ready for pupation up to
+May. The host assists their exit by continual sneezing and snuffling. In
+the last stages they are a great affliction for the host, and they
+sometimes cause its death. Pupation takes place in or on the ground,
+under some sort of cover, and it lasts for 15-19 days. The flies have
+been found emerging from July 12 to 31.</p>
+
+<p>The corresponding parasite of the Barren Ground Caribou is a similar
+or perhaps identical species, with a parallel life history. Its chief
+activity as an adult doubtless occurs in July and August. A&nbsp;number
+of the mature larvae were found in the throat of the buck of
+June&nbsp;3; two of them that were preserved measure approximately 7 mm.
+in diameter and 27 and 30 mm. in length. A&nbsp;large mass of such
+sizable parasites in the throat might easily become a serious obstacle
+to comfortable living or even to survival on the part of the host.
+Presumably the larvae drop to the ground at about the
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page73" id = "page73">73</a></span>
+same period as those of <i>Oedemagena</i>. Fred Schweder, Jr., remarked
+concerning the buck of August 17 that these larvae are never found at
+that season, and Charles Schweder made the same remark concerning a doe
+specimen of September 21. It would appear either that they remain so
+small as to escape detection at this time or that they do not reach the
+throat on their short journey from the nostrils until some later period
+of the year. Johansen (1921: 24) records larvae only 2-3 mm. long in the
+nasal passage at the end of May.</p>
+
+<p>Since the bulk of the Caribou population has passed well to the
+northward of the Nueltin Lake region by the time the larvae of
+<i>Oedemagena</i> and <i>Cephenemyia</i> drop out of the bodies of their
+hosts to pupate briefly on or in the ground (say in the latter part of
+June), one is tempted to speculate on the possibility that the adult
+flies found here in August may have followed their prospective victims
+for many miles in their southward migration. However, Porsild remarks
+(1943: 386) that they “apparently do not travel very far.”</p>
+
+<p>Certain kinds of behavior exhibited by the Caribou in attempting to
+fend off the parasitic flies are discussed in the section on <i>Shaking
+off moisture and insects</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The adults of <i>Oedemagena tarandi</i> (L.) were determined by Mr.
+C.&nbsp;W. Sabrosky, of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine;
+and the larvae of <i>Oedemagena</i> and <i>Cephenemyia</i> by Dr.
+W.&nbsp;W. Wirth, of the same bureau. The larvae of the latter genus are
+regarded as probably <i>C. trompe</i> (L.); they were new to the
+collection of the United States National Museum.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Hearne, 1795: 197; Franklin, 1823: 241;
+Richardson, “1825”: 328-330, and 1829: 242; Godman, 1831, <b>2</b>: 284;
+Murray, 1858: 210; B.&nbsp;R. Ross, 1861: 438; Pike, 1917 (1892): 58-59;
+J.&nbsp;B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128, and 1894: 442; Whitney, 1896: 239;
+Russell, 1898: 228-229; Jones, 1899: 411; Hanbury, 1900: 67, and 1904:
+32, 137, 194; Preble, 1902: 41; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, 1913<i>b</i>: 504;
+Stefánsson, 1913<i>b</i>: 204, 212-213, 333; Douglas, 1914: 191-192;
+Malloch, 1919: 55-56; Hewitt, 1921: 67; Johansen, 1921: 22-24, 29, 35,
+37; Stefánsson, 1921: 247; Blanchet, 1925: 32, and 1926<i>b</i>: 47;
+Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 56, 133; Seton, <ins class = "correction" title
+= "text has : for ,">1929,</ins> <b>3</b>: 109-<ins class = "correction"
+title = "text has anomalous ‘11’">111</ins>; Critchell-Bullock, 1930:
+193; Hoare, 1930: 33, 37-38; Kitto, 1930: 89; Jacobi, 1931: 244-245;
+Munn, 1932: 58; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 84-86; Birket-Smith, 1933:
+90, 92; Ingstad, 1933: 48, 135; Hornby, 1934: 105; Soper, 1936: 429;
+Henriksen, 1937: 25, 26; Hamilton, 1939: 247, 301; Murie, <ins class =
+"correction" title = "text has ; for :">1939:</ins> 245; Clarke, 1940:
+70, 95; Downes, 1943: 226, 255; Manning, 1943<i>a</i>: 53; Porsild,
+1943: 386; Gavin, 1945: 228; Harper, 1949: 228; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>:
+31-33; Barnett, 1954: 104.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "eco_ectoparasites" id = "eco_ectoparasites">
+Ectoparasites</a></h4>
+
+<p>It was in vain that I searched a number of fresh specimens for lice,
+mites, fleas, or ticks. The Schweder boys spoke of never having noticed
+any such parasites. Seton (1929) mentions none, and
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page74" id = "page74">74</a></span>
+Jacobi (1931: 243) records only a louse (<i>Linognathus tarandi</i>)
+from the Reindeer. “Lice are not known from caribou according to Ferris
+(in conversation)” (Weber, 1950: 154).</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "eco_reindeer" id = "eco_reindeer">
+Relations to Reindeer</a></h4>
+
+<p>Recent discussions of the possibility or advisability of introducing
+domesticated Reindeer to replace, or to augment the diminishing supply
+of, native American Caribou in various new localities prompt a brief
+review of the subject.</p>
+
+<p>It may be remarked at the outset that acclimatization attempts in the
+Old World have generally been abortive. Wild Reindeer introduced from
+Finmark into Iceland in the eighteenth century flourished for a time,
+but by 1917 they were almost exterminated. A&nbsp;number of different
+introductions into Great Britain, Denmark, Germany, Austria,
+Switzerland, and Italy came to naught. On the other hand, the
+introduction of Lapland Reindeer on the subantarctic island of South
+Georgia in 1908 seems to have turned out successfully. (Jacobi, 1931:
+158-165; Harper, 1945: 473-474.) A&nbsp;saving feature in each of the
+above-mentioned cases was the absence of any native Reindeer whose
+racial purity might have been destroyed by the newcomers.</p>
+
+<p>Decrease of local American stocks of Caribou, and consequent
+suffering of native populations who had in past generations depended
+upon these animals for a major portion of their food supply, have led to
+introduction of foreign Reindeer in several regions of North America,
+from Newfoundland and Labrador in the east to Alaska in the west. The
+persons responsible were doubtless inspired by high humanitarian
+motives; but it is doubtful if they could have thoroughly considered or
+foreseen the serious biological consequences of their efforts.</p>
+
+<p>In Alaska, importation of domesticated Siberian Reindeer began in
+1892. By the 1930’s the herds had increased to an estimated total of
+600,000. For various reasons, however, the industry has so far declined
+that by 1949 the total number of Alaskan Reindeer had become reduced to
+about 28,000 head. Disin&shy;clination of Eskimos for reindeer-herding
+and mixture of their stock with wild Caribou were important reasons for
+this decline. (Lantis, 1950.) From the biologist’s point of view, the
+most unfortunate result was the large-scale interbreeding with the
+native Grant’s Caribou (<i>Rangifer arcticus granti</i>) and the
+progressive extermination of that fine animal in a pure form by dilution
+with inferior alien blood. Among Alaskan
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page75" id = "page75">75</a></span>
+Reindeer, “constant inbreeding has led to a noticeable reduction in the
+prolificness of the females, and degeneration is to be observed in many
+herds” (Hewitt, 1921: 323).</p>
+
+<p>In 1908 Dr. Wilfred T. Grenfell brought 300 Lapland Reindeer to
+Newfoundland. After some years they were transferred to the north shore
+of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and finally to the island of Anticosti.
+(Hewitt, 1921: 324-328; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 92.) In 1911, 50 of these
+Reindeer were shipped from Newfoundland to the Slave River region. Most
+of them escaped (probably to contaminate the local stock of Caribou),
+and by 1916 the last survivor of this band in captivity had succumbed
+(Hewitt, 1921: 329-330).</p>
+
+<p>“A large part of the reindeer in Alaska are south of the Arctic
+Circle on the comparatively mild shores of Bering Sea, where there are
+several months of open tidewater navigation; vegetation is more
+luxuriant [than in Arctic Canada] and conditions easier in general.
+There the reindeer were introduced into a country where the wild caribou
+had been virtually exterminated, and a large native population were
+anxious to take up a new mode of support. The percentage of profits has
+appeared unduly large in Alaska because statisticians have been unable
+to take into account the value of the services of a large body of
+devoted missionaries, government teachers, and other unselfish persons
+who put their best efforts into years of unpaid extra work to make the
+reindeer successful and beneficial to their charges.</p>
+
+<p>“Canada has a large area of Arctic and sub-arctic lands beyond the
+reach of possible cultivation, still occupied by large numbers of wild
+caribou and remnants of musk-oxen, with native inhabitants who derive a
+living from them and add to the national wealth by fur production. These
+Indians and Eskimos are still far from being either able or willing to
+enter upon a pastoral stage of existence, and moreover, they are now
+enjoying an era of prosperity from the fur industry which may be
+temporary, but which they will not relinquish for the slower and less
+profitable prospects of the herder.” (R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, 1924:
+330-331.)</p>
+
+<p>In 1921 some Norwegian Reindeer were landed at Amadjuak, Baffin
+Island (Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 92). The lack of further reference to the
+Baffin Island animals by such subsequent investigators as Manning and
+Soper would seem to indicate that the reindeer have not survived, unless
+through mixture with the native Caribou. An attempt in 1922 at
+acclima&shy;tization in Michigan “ended in total failure” (Seton, 1929,
+<b>3</b>: 93).</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page76" id = "page76">76</a></span>
+<p>“The Barren Grounds . . . still feed enormous herds of
+caribou.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. The greatest danger to this industry
+[reindeer-raising] is just these wild herds, which would be very apt to
+absorb the tame animals. This problem may perhaps become a fatal one to
+the Eskimos, for there might very easily come a most difficult
+transitional period, when the caribou would be too few in numbers to
+form a definite basis for the existence of the people, but on the other
+hand numerous enough to make reindeer breeding difficult.”
+(Birket-Smith, 1933: 121.)</p>
+
+<p>In northwestern Alaska “large numbers of reindeer are constantly
+escaping the herders and joining the wild caribou. It seems that it will
+be but a short time until there will be no pure bred caribou along that
+part of the coast.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. As the reindeer are protected,
+and the caribou are killed at every opportunity, the former will
+doubtless prove the dominant animal and in time overcome the caribou,
+with hybridization the inevitable result.” (Bailey and Hendee, 1926:
+22.)</p>
+
+<p>“The caribou’s greatest menace is not the wolf, nor the hunter, but
+man’s economic developments, principally the raising of reindeer.
+Wherever reindeer herds are introduced, caribou must of course
+disappear, for both cannot occupy the same range. The disappearance of
+the caribou along the Bering Sea and Arctic coasts, while regrettable,
+was unavoidable in view of the development of reindeer herding in this
+section, which is ideal for the purpose.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.</p>
+
+<p>“The mingling of reindeer with the main caribou herds should be
+avoided. Reindeer herds maintained in close contact with migrating
+caribou suffer frequent losses through strays. Already the domestic
+reindeer are mingling with the caribou herd of Mount McKinley National
+Park.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. [Hybridization] would be regrettable in
+interior Alaska, which has produced a splendid type of wild caribou,
+coming near at least to being the largest on the continent.” (Murie,
+1935: 7.)</p>
+
+<p>Murie’s extensive experience with these animals in Alaska has led him
+to remark further (1939: 245):</p>
+
+<p>“The greatest hazard to the Caribou is the possible occupation of the
+range by man’s agricultural activities.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. The most
+serious danger is introduction of domesticated Reindeer on wild Caribou
+range, for the wild herds must be removed in order to make possible the
+safe herding of the domestic animals.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. There is not
+room for both of these animals on the same or closely adjacent
+ranges.”</p>
+
+<p>Porsild points out (1943: 386, 389) that sparsely covered grazing
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page77" id = "page77">77</a></span>
+areas are suitable for Caribou but not for Reindeer; and that the former
+disappear before expanding Reindeer culture.</p>
+
+<p>“Perhaps the worst threat of all to the caribou has been the
+introduction of reindeer culture along the arctic coast. This has
+resulted in interbreeding between the wild caribou and their inferior
+domesticated relatives. When and if this mixture extends to all the
+herds of the Barren Grounds, the caribou may be written off the record
+as a pure species; the animal will have become extinct through dilution,
+as the biologists express it.” (Harper, 1949: 239.)</p>
+
+<p>The American Society of Mammalogists, at its annual meeting in 1950,
+passed the following resolution (<i>Jour. Mammalogy</i> <b>31</b> (4):
+483, 1950):</p>
+
+<p>“That the American Society of Mammalogists urges that the Canadian
+Government not undertake the introduction of reindeer into Ungava.
+Before any introduction even is seriously considered, those persons
+involved in any planning are urged to make a thorough study beforehand
+of the problems of integrating lichen ecology, reindeer biology, and
+native culture&mdash;serious problems that have not been solved to date
+on any workable scale on the North American continent. It would be
+particularly deplorable if an introduction, to aid the natives, led to
+early successes and high hopes, then eventual failure.”</p>
+
+<p>Porsild, who knows the Reindeer thoroughly at first hand, has made
+(1951: 53) the following observation:</p>
+
+<p>“Thus far these experiments [at introduction into America] have met
+with only partial or indifferent success, because reindeer nomadism is
+incompatible with present trends of cultural development and because the
+North American Arctic is too thinly populated to provide a ready market
+for reindeer products.”</p>
+
+<p>Referring to the region of the Brooks Range in northern Alaska,
+Rausch says (1951: 190):</p>
+
+<p>“The mixture of inferior reindeer bloodlines with the native caribou
+is serious. This has already occurred to a considerable degree, and it
+is hoped that proper control will be exercised if the reindeer industry
+is revived in Alaska. Ear-notched animals have been killed in the
+Anaktuvuk Pass country, and white reindeer have been seen running with
+the caribou. The number of unrecognized reindeer passing through could
+be great.”</p>
+
+<p>At present the Barren Ground Caribou is apparently the third most
+abundant member of the deer family on our continent, being exceeded by
+the White-tailed Deer and the Mule Deer (<i>cf.</i> Jackson,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page78" id = "page78">78</a></span>
+1944: 7-8). No other member of this family could be expected to be so
+eminently and thoroughly adapted to its Arctic environment or to thrive
+so well on the very ground where nature has been molding and perfecting
+its characters for thousands of years. No naturally occurring
+relative&mdash;Moose, Deer, or Woodland Caribou&mdash;undertakes to
+compete with it on its own particular range. It requires practically
+nothing for the maintenance&mdash;and increase&mdash;of its present
+numbers, other than an enlightened policy of conservation. (As indicated
+on a previous page, the feminine wearers of Arctic Fox furs must bear a
+heavy share of respon&shy;sibility for the decline of the Barren Ground
+Caribou in recent decades.) Our highest authorities have pointed out the
+imprac&shy;ticability of Caribou and Reindeer occupying the same
+range.</p>
+
+<p>Would it not be the part of wisdom to exclude the inferior
+domesticated alien, with its difficult and generally unsuccessful
+culture in North America, and thereby to give the wonderful wild Caribou
+of the Barrens its best chance for survival?</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Chambers, 1914: 350-351; Hornaday, 1914,
+<b>2</b>: 105-108; Hewitt, 1921: 323, 329-330; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson,
+1924: 330; Kindle, 1928: 74; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 92-93; Blanchet,
+1930: 53-54; Birket-Smith, 1933: 121; Godsell, 1934: 276; Murie,
+1935:&nbsp;7, 1939: 245-246, and 1941: 435; Porsild, 1943: 386, 389;
+Rousseau, 1948: 96; Harper, 1949: 239; Polunin, 1949: 24; Lantis, 1950;
+Hustich, 1951; Porsild, 1951: 53; Rausch, 1951: 190; Scheffer, 1951.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+
+
+<h3><a name = "numerical" id = "numerical">
+Numerical Status</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>There seems to be a general impression, among those who have known
+the Barren Ground Caribou at first hand for a considerable period, that
+the population has been reduced by something like a half during the past
+generation. “Recent preliminary aerial survey has indicated that their
+numbers, although less than the previous estimates of 3,000,000
+(R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, 1938; Clarke, 1940), which were based upon the
+carrying capacity of the Arctic tundra, are probably comparable to their
+primitive numbers in the central portions of the range” (Banfield, 1949:
+478). A&nbsp;definite reduction is indicated along the Arctic coast and
+on the Arctic islands (R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, 1937: 103, and 1938: 400;
+Banfield, 1949: 478, 481, and 1951<i>a</i>: 13-14). While large numbers
+still remain in southwestern Keewatin, there are no reports of any such
+mass occurrence as was witnessed by the Tyrrell brothers on the upper
+Dubawnt River on July 29, 1893; that throng was estimated at 100,000 to
+200,000 animals (J.&nbsp;B. Tyrrell, 1897: 165).</p>
+
+<p>During the big movement of the last week of August, 1947, I may have
+seen as many as 500 Caribou on one or two days, in herds
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page79" id = "page79">79</a></span>
+numbering up to 150 individuals. A&nbsp;striking proportion of those
+observed seemed to occur in bands of roughly 25 animals. On August 25
+Fred Schweder, Jr., reported about a thousand crossing Little River, in
+bands of as many as 100 individuals. On October 11 Charles Schweder
+observed a thousand Caribou resting on a hill 3 miles long in the
+vicinity of Four-hill Creek. In November he found thousands, in herds up
+to 300 strong, moving south from the upper Kazan River. These figures
+may give a faintly approximate idea of the numbers occurring in the
+general region of Nueltin Lake in a year considered less good than an
+average one. On the other hand, toward the coast of Hudson Bay, there
+were reports of a greater number of autumn migrants than in ordinary
+years.</p>
+
+<p>In October, about 1944, tracks indicated that 2,000 or 3,000 animals
+had crossed Windy River in the vicinity of Four-hill Creek in the night
+(<i>fide</i> Charles Schweder). About October 10, 1946 (a&nbsp;year of
+unusual abundance), Fred Schweder, Jr., witnessed the passage of
+thousands in one day in this vicinity; he got the impression of “the
+hills moving with Deer.” (Yet this was the season when the Caribou
+passed mainly to one side of the upper Kazan River, so that nearly
+one-third of the local band of Eskimos starved to death.) In the first
+part of May, about 1942 or 1943, John Ingebrigtsen came to a nameless
+lake, about half a mile by a mile and a half in extent, somewhere east
+of Duck Lake, Manitoba. It appeared “absolutely full of Caribou,” and he
+estimated their number at not less than 20,000. This would mean a
+density of no more than about 50 per acre.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Jones, 1899: 368, 374; J.&nbsp;B. Tyrrell,
+1894: 442, and 1897: 10, 49-50, 165; Whitney, 1896: 240; Seton, 1911:
+220, 258-260; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, 1913<i>b</i>: <ins class =
+"correction" title = "text has : for ;">502;</ins> Hornaday, 1914,
+<b>2</b>: 225-226; Nelson, 1916: 460; Thompson, 1916: 100-101; Kindle,
+1917: 108-109; Buchanan, 1920: 130-131; Hewitt, 1921: 56, 64-66;
+Stefánsson, 1921: 255; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, 1924: 329; Blanchet,
+1926<i>b</i>: 48, and 1930: 52; Kindle, 1928: 72-73; Seton, 1929,
+<b>3</b>: 131-134; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 159-160; R.&nbsp;M.
+Anderson, in Hoare, 1930: 52-53; Kitto, 1930: 87; Jacobi, 1931: 201-202;
+Munn, 1932: 58; Birket-Smith, 1933: 89; Ingstad, 1933: 160; R.&nbsp;M.
+Anderson, 1938: 400; Clarke, 1940: 65, 84-91, 101-104; Downes, 1943:
+258-260; Wright, 1944: 185-188, 191, 193; Yule, 1948: 287-288; Banfield,
+1949: 478, 481, and 1951<i>a</i>:&nbsp;9, 13-14; Harper, 1949: 231, 239;
+Anonymous, 1952: 261; Barnett, 1954: 96.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+
+
+<h3><a name = "habits" id = "habits">General Habits</a></h3>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "habits_daily" id = "habits_daily">
+Daily periods of activity and rest</a></h4>
+
+<p>According to Charles Schweder, the Caribou do not move about much at
+night; that seems to be their principal time for sleep. They exhibit a
+definite tendency to pause and rest also toward the middle of the day.
+Several instances have already been given
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page80" id = "page80">80</a></span>
+of the animals resting at such a time on frozen lakes and rivers: lakes
+southwest of Reindeer Lake, March 18; lakes south of Lake Athabaska,
+April 16; Seal River, May 31; Windy Bay, June 6 (mid-morning). Open
+hilltops are evidently sought likewise for both nocturnal and mid-day
+rests: knoll by Windy River, June&nbsp;3; Josie’s Hill, June 20; ridge
+by Little River, August 24 (about 9 a.m.). (For details, see sections on
+<i>Winter range</i>, <i>Spring migration</i>, and <i>Fall
+migration</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>Although we noted a small band of Caribou passing through a thick and
+extensive stand of spruce at dusk on October&nbsp;2, Fred Schweder, Jr.,
+remarked that they do not rest in such a place; they are safer from
+Wolves in open areas. Charles Schweder reported about 50 Caribou, in
+three slightly separated bands, appearing on the south side of Windy
+River near Four-hill Creek during the evening of September 24, but not
+making up their minds to cross; he thought they might have been scared
+by Wolves. Possibly there was a similar explanation for the crossing of
+the river at this point by large numbers of the animals during an
+October night several years previously.</p>
+
+<p>According to Fred Schweder, Jr., a day’s movement of Caribou past the
+mouths of Little and Windy rivers during the fall migration generally
+does not commence before 10 a.m. and ends about 3 p.m. The explanation
+of such a phenomenon is none too obvious; and in any event, there were
+exceptions enough, though the general statement may hold true for the
+bulk of the migrants. As remarked in the section on <i>Spring
+migration</i>, the daily periods when the Caribou crossed the ice of
+Windy Bay were mainly from 10 to 11 a.m., from 2:30 to 5 p.m., and in
+the evening.</p>
+
+<p>On August 27, about 5:50 p.m., a majority (say half a dozen) of a
+small band of Caribou were lying down on a slope near the mouth of
+Little River. They faced down wind to watch for enemies in that
+direction, while their noses would warn them of any approaching from the
+opposite direction. Their attitude was very much like that of Norway
+Reindeer figured by Seton (1929, <b>3</b>: pls. 11, 15, 18).</p>
+
+<p>Charles Schweder spoke of having seen whole herds lying down to rest,
+while none of the animals remained standing up on guard. He had noted
+one such herd of 600 or 700 along the Thlewiaza River in August. He
+further stated that when the Caribou lie down to rest and to chew the
+cud, they hold the head up. They may also sleep in this position. In the
+hard winter of 1944-45, when the snow
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page81" id = "page81">81</a></span>
+was deep and the animals were tired and hungry, he came up to a resting
+herd. All but one of them got up and moved away. That one remained
+sleeping, head up and eyes closed; Charles walked up to within 10 feet
+and shot it. He has also seen resting Caribou lay their heads down on
+the side, but only for a few moments at a time.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;J.&nbsp;B. Tyrrell, 1892: 129; Jones, 1899:
+359; Harper, 1949: 227; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 23.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "habits_organization" id = "habits_organization">
+Organization of herds</a></h4>
+
+<p>The Barren Ground Caribou is a distinctly gregarious species. It goes
+in herds for at least the greater part of the year; this is especially
+true of the spring and autumn migration periods and of the winter
+months. We know comparatively little of the behavior of the does at
+fawning time in June; but probably there is a tendency toward
+solitariness on their part at that season. It is true that solitary
+Caribou may be met with at almost any season of the year; but this
+doubtless represents merely temporary rather than permanent segregation
+of such individuals. At the very end of the spring migration and at the
+beginning of the autumn migration, there may be, among the sparse
+southernmost elements of the population, a&nbsp;larger proportion of
+solitary animals.</p>
+
+<p>While marching over the Barrens and feeding as they go, the smaller
+bands maintain a fairly loose organization, as apparently best suiting
+their needs. On the other hand, the huge herds of former times, such as
+the Tyrrells met on the upper Dubawnt in 1893 (J.&nbsp;B. Tyrrell, 1897:
+49-50, pl.&nbsp;1; J.&nbsp;W. Tyrrell, 1908: <ins class = "correction"
+title = ". missing">pls.</ins> facing pp. 80, 81; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>:
+pl. 22), obviously maintained very compact ranks. In my limited
+experience, the animals bunched more closely in crossing the rivers than
+was normally the case on land among feeding herds. While swimming, they
+would follow each other in files at minimum intervals; but in stepping
+across rapids they might extend these intervals somewhat.</p>
+
+<p>When merely covering ground, without stopping to feed, or when
+following a trail through brush or along a narrow ridge, there is a
+strong tendency for the animals to go in a single file, or at least in a
+procession many times longer than wide. This was also apparent when they
+were crossing the ice of Windy Bay in June.</p>
+
+<p>When Caribou flee from some source of alarm, a distinct tendency
+toward compact bunching may be observed. This may have been developed as
+a measure of protection from pursuing Wolves; the latter could naturally
+overcome a straggling or isolated individual more readily than one in a
+compact herd. The Caribou running
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page82" id = "page82">82</a></span>
+away from the train in the “Little Barrens” south of Churchill very
+clearly demonstrated the tendency toward a close formation. (See also,
+in the section on <a href =
+"#habits_disposition"><i>Disposition</i></a>, the account of a herd
+attacked by a hunter near Lake Charles.)</p>
+
+<p>The larger herds of the autumn migration seemed to be generally
+composed of all sexes and ages; yet some sizable bands were made up
+chiefly of bucks on the one hand, or of does and fawns on the other
+hand. The rear guard of the spring migration and the vanguard of the
+autumn migration are generally composed of bucks, traveling either
+singly or in small bands; this state of affairs is looked upon as
+evidence that the majority of the bucks do not advance so far to the
+north in June and July as the does do.</p>
+
+<p>The following are a few examples of the composition and leadership
+(or rear-guarding) of groups of Caribou. (Other examples are mentioned
+in the sections on <i>Migration</i>.) A band of about 20, after feeding
+for a time on the south bank of Windy River on June 16, moved off
+upstream, mostly in single file, with a patriarchal buck in the lead.
+The remainder of the band included several lesser bucks and various does
+and yearlings. On the following day a band of equal size, composed
+chiefly of bucks but including three hornless individuals (does?), was
+led by two of the bigger bucks. When a band of some 40 does and fawns
+approached Little River to cross it on August 25, a&nbsp;doe came first
+to the water’s edge to make a careful inspection. On the same day I
+remarked having noted several times that a buck brought up the rear of a
+band. On August 26 I noted that a distinct majority in the herds of the
+previous two or three days were does and fawns, although there were
+generally a few bucks present also. At this period I got the impression
+that the number of individuals in a band was frequently not far from 25.
+On August 28, when a band of 40 crossed the mouth of Little River, three
+or four bucks plunged in first, but a doe was almost even with them. At
+the Bear Slough, on September 3, a&nbsp;group consisted of two bucks,
+two does, and a fawn. On September 15 Fred Schweder, Jr., reported
+seeing about 100 Caribou, with not a buck among them. On September 24
+about 15 does and fawns were resting or feeding quietly by Glacier Pond.
+On September 28 a band of six large bucks crossed the Camp Ridge. On
+October 1, an older and a younger buck appeared in the shoal waters of
+Duck Bay. On November&nbsp;3, in the same locality, a&nbsp;band of about
+50 was composed largely of does, but included a few fawns and a few
+well-antlered bucks. On
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page83" id = "page83">83</a></span>
+November 11 five does were reported crossing the mouth of Windy River on
+the ice.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Schweder remarked that the leader of a band is generally a
+doe; but sometimes it is a buck, or even a fawn. There is virtually no
+way of telling whether the same doe habitually leads a band. In the big
+migrant herds, bucks bring up the rear. Once in September, in a herd of
+about 100 animals, the front half was composed of does and fawns, the
+rear half of bucks. In the rutting season the does are naturally in the
+lead, the bucks following them.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Hearne, 1795: 198; Richardson, “1825”: 329;
+Simpson, 1843: 277, 281, 381; J. Anderson, 1856: 24, and 1857: 324;
+Schwatka, 1885: 83; Pike, 1917 (1892): 49, 174, 204, 209; Dowling, 1893:
+107; Stone and Cram, 1904: 52; Blanchet, 1925: 32-33, and 1926<i>b</i>:
+48; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 192-196; Hoare, 1930: 13, 33, 37; Kitto,
+1930: 88; Mallet, 1930: 20-23; Jacobi, 1931: 190, 203-204; Hornby, 1934:
+106; Birket-Smith, 1936: 112; Hamilton, 1939: 247; Clarke, 1940: 95;
+Downes, 1943: 256; Manning, 1943<i>a</i>: 52; Harper, 1949: 228, 229;
+Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 23-26.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "habits_disposition" id = "habits_disposition">
+Disposition</a></h4>
+
+<p>The Barren Ground Caribou comes close to holding the palm for
+unwariness among the larger land mammals of North America. It is
+fortunate that its range lies so far from the centers of civilization.
+It is scarcely conceivable that it could survive, as the White-tailed
+Deer does, in some of our most thickly settled areas. At the river
+crossings, where I watched the pageant of migration for day after day,
+some of the animals would come up to within a rod while I handled my
+cameras in the open, with no more cover than knee-high bushes and rocks
+(<a href = "#fig11">figs. 11</a>, <a href = "#fig14">14</a>). Where
+else, among the larger creatures of the wilderness, could one find such
+a close approximation to a Garden-of-Eden existence? Until they detected
+the human scent, they would stare at me at such close quarters with
+little more concern than so many barnyard cattle. (For examples, see the
+section on <i>Fall migration</i>.) Moreover, there were occasions when
+they must have gotten my wind and still did not show panic. There is an
+obvious deficiency of eyesight or judgment, or both.</p>
+
+<p>To account for their behavior on such occasions, I speculated as
+follows. The species has scarcely any predatory enemies save man, the
+Wolf, and (perhaps to some extent) the Wolverine. In their normal
+experience, any such enemy, if within close range, would be making an
+attack. Thus a questionable figure, not becoming evident to them until
+they are within close range, and then making no motion to attack, may be
+dismissed by them as something different and therefore harmless.</p>
+
+<p>The attitude of unconcern has probably been developed in
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page84" id = "page84">84</a></span>
+past generations through the habit of the Caribou of traveling in vast
+throngs. The threat of danger to a given individual in a herd of, say,
+100,000 is practically negligible. From time immemorial the river
+crossings have represented a particular point of attack on the part of
+the natives. Yet when a large band of Caribou come to such a crossing,
+they may plunge in with little pause or hesitation. On the other hand,
+when a lone doe with her fawn approaches the river bank, she may be very
+circumspect, taking time to look carefully upstream and down, and
+across, before venturing into the water. I&nbsp;also saw another doe
+with a fawn exercise similar precaution, when she was merely the first
+of a band of 40 to reach the river’s edge. It is probably concern for
+her fawn that renders a doe more circumspect than a buck.</p>
+
+<p>When Fred Schweder, Jr., was endeavoring to intercept a Wolf on
+September&nbsp;6, a&nbsp;fullgrown buck came feeding around a tree
+within 10 feet of him. The animal winded Fred without apparently seeing
+him, and went back and forth uncertainly for about a minute; finally it
+moved off very slowly.</p>
+
+<p>Stefánsson’s account (1913<i>b</i>) of his various adventures with
+Caribou near the Arctic coast of Mackenzie indicates a far wilder animal
+in that region than the one in Keewatin. It appeared a great deal easier
+for me, with no particular effort at caution, to get within photographic
+range (say a dozen feet to 50 yards) than for him to approach within
+rifle range (several hundred yards).</p>
+
+<p>Even after being fired upon, a single animal or a band in the Nueltin
+Lake region will rarely put distance between themselves and a hunter
+with all possible dispatch, as an alert White-tailed Deer would, but
+will run hither and thither in confusion, with frequent pauses to
+display their befuddlement. On October 8 I was a distant and saddened
+spectator of a scene of slaughter. A&nbsp;hundred or more Caribou were
+resting or feeding quietly on a bare ridge south of Lake Charles. They
+were distributed in a narrow formation, 75-100 yards long and from one
+to several animals deep. A&nbsp;hunter, approaching close to the south
+end of the herd, began firing. With one accord they made toward the
+north, but very shortly executed a sharp turn and came back rapidly in
+the opposite direction, passing in a narrow, compact column within 30
+feet of the hunter, who continued shooting. In 200 or 300 yards they
+paused and allowed the hunter to come up with them and resume shooting.
+The process was repeated over a distance of three miles; but the pursuer
+now and then circled ahead of the herd instead of following
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page85" id = "page85">85</a></span>
+in its tracks. The final toll: 29 Caribou hit and 22 or 23
+secured&mdash;virtually a quarter of the herd destroyed and most of it
+to be used for dog feed.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that the attachment between a doe and its fawn is such
+that when one of them is killed, the hunter can approach within 50 feet
+of the surviving doe or within 20 feet of the surviving fawn.
+A&nbsp;fawn is apt to linger for days in the vicinity where its dam has
+been killed.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Schweder has never seen fawns playing with each other or with
+their mothers; two or three times he has seen one frisking by
+itself&mdash;such as jumping about or running in a circle&mdash;but
+never for more than half a minute at a time. Seriousness of life for a
+Caribou seems confirmed from its infancy.</p>
+
+<p>In the hard winter of 1944-45, when the Caribou were tired and
+hungry, Charles had the rare experience of driving his dogteam right
+through herds on Nueltin Lake; the animals merely moved aside enough to
+let him pass. In like vein Joe Chambers spoke of encountering such
+numbers of migrating Caribou on or near the “Little Barrens” south of
+Churchill in the spring of 1947 that his dogs “went wild” and he had to
+halt for a time; the animals came within about 100 yards of his
+team.</p>
+
+<p>A Caribou bold enough to attack a man is very rarely heard of. Yet
+that was the experience of 15-year-old Anoteelik on September&nbsp;8.
+Having run out of ammunition, he undertook to kill a 2-year-old buck
+with a rock in a patch of timber. (Possibly the animal had already been
+wounded with Anoteelik’s .22 rifle.) When the missile failed of its
+mark, the buck made for the boy, who escaped by climbing a tree. Perhaps
+this is the first case on record of a man or a boy (especially an
+Eskimo!) being treed by a Barren Ground Caribou. Jenness mentions (1922:
+150) a&nbsp;case of an Eskimo being fatally gored by a Caribou on
+Victoria Island. Otherwise, under all general circumstances, and in
+contra&shy;distinction to the Bison, the Muskox, the Moose, and even the
+White-tailed Deer, the Caribou may be regarded as quite innocuous to
+man.</p>
+
+<p>The restlessness so frequently exhibited by Caribou during the
+summer, in trotting rapidly over the Barrens or in feeding hurriedly
+here and there while constantly forging ahead (in contrast to the
+placidity of grazing sheep and cattle), may be attributed in large part
+to the relentless scourge of fly pests.</p>
+
+<p>(See also <a href = "#eco_man"><i>Relations to man</i></a>.)</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Lyon, 1824: 336-337; J. McLean, 1932 (1849):
+359; Simpson,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page86" id = "page86">86</a></span>
+1843: 207; Armstrong, 1857: 478-479, 481-482; Gilder, 1881: 78;
+Schwatka, 1885: 85; Pike, 1917 (1892): 51-52, 90; Whitney, 1896: 242;
+Hanbury, 1904: 85; Amundsen, 1908, <b>1</b>: 103; Stefánsson,
+1913<i>b</i>: 278, and 1921: 251; Hornaday, 1914, <b>2</b>: 104;
+Jenness, 1922: 150; Blanchet, 1925: 34; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 106;
+Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 105-107; Jacobi, 1931: 219, 220; Ingstad, 1933:
+88, 293, 297; Downes, 1943: 236-237; Porsild, 1943: 389; Harper, 1949:
+229-230; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 22.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "habits_senses" id = "habits_senses">
+Senses</a></h4>
+
+<p>There is fairly general agreement on the Caribou’s keen sense of
+smell, good hearing, and less well-developed vision. But perhaps the
+last-mentioned attribute does not so much constitute poor eyesight as
+lack of <i>perception</i> or <i>recognition</i>. In other words, is it
+not possible that the animal is merely deficient in interpreting what it
+may see clearly enough?</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, 1913<i>a</i>: 8, and
+1913<i>b</i>: 504; Stefánsson, 1913<i>b</i>: 164, 1914: 58, and 1921:
+307; Blanchet, 1925: 34, and 1926<i>b</i>: 48; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1):
+106; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 104; Murie, 1939: 245; Banfield,
+1951<i>a</i>: 22.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "habits_gaits" id = "habits_gaits">
+Gaits</a></h4>
+
+<p>The three principal gaits of the Caribou are walking, trotting, and
+loping. The animal seems to be in such a constant hurry that trotting is
+fairly habitual. The speed of this gait varies with the urgency of the
+occasion; also, according to Stefánsson (1921: 248), with sex and age.
+When frightened by an enemy, a&nbsp;Caribou may start off with a loping
+gait, but it soon settles down to its space-consuming trot, which keeps
+it safely ahead of a Wolf in any brief chase. The initial leap takes all
+four feet off the ground at once (<i>cf.</i> Buchanan, 1920: 126).
+According to Charles Schweder, it is usually a single animal that reacts
+in this way; but he has seen as many as six together leaping into the
+air. Fred Schweder, Jr., has seen both bucks and does in this
+performance. My own observations covered two lone adults (at least one a
+buck) and a lone fawn. One of the former turned and took a step or so
+before making the leap. The fawn (at Simons’ Lake in October), after
+allowing a canoe to approach within 100 feet, started off twice in
+succession, and each time with an initial leap into the air before
+settling down to a trot.</p>
+
+<p>Even a summer fawn is reputed to be able to outdistance a Wolf. Lyon
+(1824: 67) found a Caribou too fleet for a greyhound.</p>
+
+<p>In trotting rapidly, a Caribou points its snout pretty straight to
+the front, thus tilting the antlers backward a little. This gait, with
+front legs stretching well out in front and hind legs thrust backward
+correspon&shy;dingly, gives a very charac&shy;teristic and distinctive
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page87" id = "page87">87</a></span>
+stamp to the appearance of a fast-trotting Caribou. (Compare the
+sketches of trotting Norway Reindeer by Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: pls. 15,
+18.) It is apparently quite different from any normal gait of the
+White-tailed Deer. A&nbsp;buck’s well-grown antlers are of such weight
+as apparently to force it to hold its head rather rigidly while going at
+speed. If its head swayed appreciably, the top-heavy antlers might tend
+to throw the animal off balance. In a trotting gait, the hind foot may
+be planted just beyond the spot where the front foot had rested. In
+walking, the print of the hind foot may be superimposed on that of the
+other (<a href = "#fig20">fig. 20</a>). The white “spats” just above the
+hoofs show to fine advantage when the Caribou trots; they fairly
+twinkle. In a retreating animal the white rump-patch appears in marked
+contrast to the dark brown adjacent fur.</p>
+
+<p>In stepping across a shallow rapid in peaceful surroundings, the
+rhythmic splashings of the water to the front and the sides of the
+alternately descending hoofs make a scene of rare charm. In moving
+through deeper water, where the bottom is rough, rocky, and slippery,
+the animals may pick their way quite slowly. When alarmed near the
+water’s edge from some such cause as detecting a human scent, they may
+make great splashing leaps into a river or bay, fairly enveloping
+themselves in huge clouds of spray. There can be few more spirited
+scenes of animal life in the North.</p>
+
+<p>I have seen several of the animals running with open mouths, even
+when they had gone no more than a quarter of a mile from a point of
+alarm. Every now and then a Caribou will be seen limping&mdash;perhaps
+from wounds, perhaps because of a leg sprained in rough terrain.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Lyon, 1824: 67; Osborn, 1865: 227; Russell,
+1895: 50, and 1898: 90; Hanbury, 1904: 131; Nelson, 1916: 460; Buchanan,
+1920: 126; Stefánsson, 1921: 248; Blanchet, 1925: 33, and 1926<i>b</i>:
+47; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 83;
+Ingstad, 1933: 87; Murie, 1939: 245; Downes, 1943: 236-237; Harper,
+1949: 226, 229; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 21.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "habits_tracks" id = "habits_tracks">
+Tracks</a></h4>
+
+<p>Caribou trails, resulting from the impact of countless hoofs on the
+same restricted courses for unnumbered years, have been discussed in the
+section on <i>Ecology</i>. The placing of the feet has been touched upon
+in the section on <i>Gaits</i>. The individual tracks remain to be
+considered.</p>
+
+<p>Each of two foot-prints photographed in mud was approximately 4
+inches (102 mm.) long and 4½ inches (114 mm.) wide. Another such
+photograph (fig. 19) shows tracks about 114 by 95
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page88" id = "page88">88</a></span>
+and 102 by 102 mm. The foot sketched by Seton (1929, <b>3</b>: 129) is
+obviously a front foot, though not so labeled; the hoofs as drawn are
+approximately 89 and 93 mm. in length; the width of the foot is
+approximately 100 mm.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page89" id = "page89">89</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig19" id = "fig19">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig19.jpg" width = "449" height = "323"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 19.</span> Caribou tracks in mud; one
+about 114 by 95 mm.; another, 102 by 102 mm. Between Bear Slough and
+Eider Pond, September&nbsp;3, 1947.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A track (fig. 20) photographed in 2-inch snow represents a hind
+foot-print superimposed upon a front foot-print in a walking gait;
+including the marks of the dew claws, it was approximately 6 inches (153
+mm.) long and 5 inches (127 mm.) wide. The “square-toed” appearance is
+very charac&shy;teristic.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page89b" id = "page89b">89</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig20" id = "fig20">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig20.jpg" width = "449" height = "317"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 20.</span> Caribou track in 2-inch snow;
+hind foot superimposed on track of front foot. Combined track about 153
+by 127 mm. Camp Ridge, October 29, 1947.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A front hoof is a little broader as well as longer than a hind hoof
+(<a href = "#fig24">fig. 24</a>). The extreme and average lengths of the
+front hoofs in five of my adult male specimens are 80-92 (85.2); of the
+hind hoofs, 74-84.5 (79.8). In an adult doe a front hoof measures 77;
+a&nbsp;hind hoof, 72.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>Reference.</i>&mdash;Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 19.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "habits_swimming" id = "habits_swimming">
+Swimming</a></h4>
+
+<p>In their extensive and long-continued migrations over a territory
+composed in large part of lakes, ponds, and rivers, the Caribou have
+almost daily need, from June to October, of surmounting these barriers
+by swimming. The low temperature of the water seems to have no deterring
+effect on them. Yet it appears that some of the animals may fail in
+attempting the passages of wide waters. Charles Schweder spoke of
+finding a number of dead Caribou, including bucks as well as fawns, that
+had apparently succumbed in crossing a 4-mile-wide lake on the Thlewiaza
+River. (Or had they perhaps come to grief in some upstream rapid and
+finally been washed ashore on the lake?) Bones on the shore indicated
+that this sort of tragedy might be more or less of an annual occurrence.
+Perhaps some of the victims had been wounded or were otherwise in poor
+condition.</p>
+
+<p>The buoyant, hollow hairs of a Caribou’s coat enable the swimming
+animal to keep almost the whole median dorsal line of its body perhaps 2
+or 3 inches above the surface (<a href = "#fig9">figs. 9</a>, <a href =
+"#fig12">12</a>). In a doe noticed on August 28 the lowest point on the
+top of the neck, just in front of the shoulders, was practically level
+with the surface, but elsewhere the dorsal line, from snout to tail, was
+out of the water. In both doe and fawn the head is held so high that the
+lower side of the snout at the tip does not touch the water; in the
+older bucks of the autumn, however, the weight of their antlers presses
+the head down until the lower side of the snout is frequently in contact
+with
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page95" id = "page95">95</a></span>
+the water. The swimming position tilts the antlers backward until the
+basal portion is practically horizontal (<a href = "#fig9">figs. 9</a>,
+<a href = "#fig12">12</a>). All ages and sexes, while swimming, hold the
+tail nearly erect; but the very tip (perhaps only the tuft of hairs)
+inclines toward the rear.</p>
+
+<p>On October 30 tracks indicated that half a dozen Caribou had swum
+across Little River near its mouth, breaking through a 10-foot rim of
+ice on the near side. When a herd of 2,000 or 3,000 crossed Windy River
+during an October night about 1944, as reported by Charles Schweder,
+they broke three channels through the thin ice that covered the
+river.</p>
+
+<p>Once Charles saw a buck cross the 100-yard-wide Nahiline Rapids on
+Kasmere River, where it drops about 40 feet in a quarter of a mile; yet
+the animal did not seem to be carried far downstream. When about 10
+Caribou (mostly big bucks) crossed the Windy River at our camp on June
+24, the last two, I&nbsp;noted, were pointing almost upstream in the 6-
+to 8-mile-per-hour current.</p>
+
+<p>The usual formation in which a small number of Caribou cross a bay or
+a quiet stretch of river is a single file, but a larger band is likely
+to make the passage in several simultaneous files. The fawns, in
+particular, follow as closely as possible behind their mothers.</p>
+
+<p>Although the Caribou are strong and speedy swimmers, the natives are
+able, in canoe or kayak, to overtake and spear them. In 1947 several
+fawns were speared in Windy Bay by Anoteelik.</p>
+
+<p>Other notes on swimming may be found in the sections dealing with
+<i>Migrations</i>.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Back, 1836: 367; Simpson, 1843: 76, 310; Rae,
+1850: 27; Richardson, 1852: 290; Schwatka, 1885: 68, 71-72; W.&nbsp;J.
+McLean, 1901:&nbsp;6; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, 1913<i>b</i>: 503; Blanchet,
+1925: 34; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 109-110; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 107;
+Hoare, 1930: 27, 31; Jacobi, 1931: 216; Clarke, 1940: 88-90; Downes,
+1943: 256; Harper, 1949: 227, 229, 230; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 21.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "habits_shaking" id = "habits_shaking">
+Shaking off moisture and insects</a></h4>
+
+<p>The long, dense fur of the Caribou holds so much moisture that when
+the animal emerges from swimming it endeavors to rid itself of the extra
+burden and cooling agency. This is effected to a large extent by a
+vigorous shaking of the body, head, and ears and a switching of the
+tail. The initial performance, lasting for perhaps a second or two, may
+be undertaken while the animal’s lower extremities are still in the
+water; and it is likely to be repeated from one to several times as it
+moves over the shore and ascends the adjacent ridge. The cloud of spray
+flying off is a sight to behold (<a href = "#fig9">fig.&nbsp;9</a>). The
+action is very much like that of a dog under similar circumstances.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page96" id = "page96">96</a></span>
+The fur may remain wet for a least 10 or 15 minutes after emergence from
+the water. In driving rain on September&nbsp;5, I&nbsp;noticed an
+individual in a band of 20 Caribou shaking itself and sending the rain
+drops flying off in spray, just as when one emerges from the water.</p>
+
+<p>The Caribou also go through a very similar but perhaps still more
+strenuous performance for the obvious purpose of shaking off flies
+(perhaps primarily the warble flies, <i>Oedemagena</i>). On August 20 a
+buck passing along a ridge in the Barrens agitated the hide on its body
+several times with considerable vigor. A&nbsp;young animal (fawn or
+yearling) thus shook itself on August 28 as it approached the far side
+of Little River. I&nbsp;got the distinct impression that the hide was
+shaken horizontally in the case of moisture, but vertically in the case
+of insects; for the present, however, this is best considered as just an
+impression, and not a statement of fact. The muscles that agitate the
+skin of the sides should be particularly well developed through frequent
+practice with water and flies during the warmer part of the year.</p>
+
+<p>At the mouth of Little River, on August 30, I heard one of the
+Caribou in a large band “blow its nose,” so to speak, with vigor. The
+sound suggested that produced by a horse in vibrating its nostrils by
+forcefully expelling air through them. I&nbsp;suspect that the Caribou
+uses the same means, in an effort to fend off a nostril fly
+(<i>Cephenemyia</i>) bent on depositing its larvae.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>Reference.</i>&mdash;Harper, 1949: 230.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "habits_signaling" id = "habits_signaling">
+Signaling</a></h4>
+
+<p>Apparently the commonest method employed by the Caribou for
+indicating or communicating suspicion or alarm is erecting the stub of a
+tail to a vertical position. This brings its white under side into full
+view, as the silent flashing of a danger signal to other Caribou.
+However, a&nbsp;solitary animal will exhibit signaling behavior as well
+as one in a band. The tail remains erect, whether the animal stands to
+stare uneasily at a suspicious object or flees from it in alarm. The
+action is common to old and young of both sexes. It is so
+charac&shy;teristic of a fleeing animal as to give significance to the
+expression, “high-tailing it.” In normal, unalarmed progress the tail
+extends backward in a drooping curve (<a href = "#fig11">figs. 11</a>,
+<a href = "#fig12">12</a>).</p>
+
+<p>I was not fortunate enough to detect any flashing of the white
+throat, as described by Preble (1902: 42).</p>
+
+<p>Another silent signal is a most peculiar sprawling posture of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page97" id = "page97">97</a></span>
+the hind legs, attained by thrusting one of them well out to one side
+and setting the foot down. The legs are not then symmetrically placed;
+the one not moved obviously bears most of the weight of the hind
+quarters. I&nbsp;managed to film this stance in a buck standing on a
+sky-line on August 24 (cover). On September 9 another buck assumed the
+posture while looking over our camp from a ridge on the opposite side of
+Windy River. According to Charles Schweder, this is an expression of
+suspicion or alarm, designed to communicate the same feeling to other
+Caribou. When the others notice it, they stop and assume the same pose;
+it may be observed in does and even fawns. Charles added that the tail
+is erected at the same time&mdash;a very natural accompaniment, though I
+failed to notice it.</p>
+
+<p>In all the literature on the Barren Ground Caribou, I have found just
+one reference to this posture, and that a distinctly fragmentary
+one:</p>
+
+<p>“While [the Caribou are] thus circling around I have often been
+amused at the manner in which they carry one hind leg. A&nbsp;novice in
+the hunting field, after having fired a shot in their direction, would
+think that he had broken one hind leg of each member of the herd.”
+(A.&nbsp;J. Stone, 1900: 53.)</p>
+
+<p>The author makes this observation just after mentioning a herd
+sighted near the shore of Franklin Bay. A&nbsp;virtually identical
+posture in the Norway Reindeer has been sketched by Seton (1929,
+<b>3</b>: 112, pl. 18), who labels it “surprize.” An analogy to the
+posture of the Caribou might be found in a hand thrust out, with fingers
+spread, by a military scout as a signal of warning or caution to his
+fellow scouts. A&nbsp;sprawling leg is perhaps the nearest approximation
+to the human signal that a Caribou can attain.</p>
+
+<p>As noted in the section on <i>Gaits</i>, an alarmed Caribou may set
+off by taking an initial leap into the air. According to Dugmore, such
+an act on the part of the Newfoundland Caribou plays an important role
+in its system of communi&shy;cations, not by means of sight or sound,
+but through the olfactory sense. He observes (1913: 89-90):</p>
+
+<p>“For hours afterwards <i>every</i> Caribou, on arriving at the place
+where the frightened ones had jumped, has started violently, and has on
+nearly every occasion turned and run in a manner that showed every
+indication of fear, even though my presence was entirely unknown to
+them. My idea is that when the animal is suddenly frightened it expels a
+certain fluid from the glands in the foot, and that
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page98" id = "page98">98</a></span>
+this fluid is a signal of alarm, a&nbsp;silent and invisible warning,
+but none the less so positive that none dare ignore it.”</p>
+
+<p>As for the foot click&mdash;a presumptive means of communication
+(<i>cf.</i> Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 69; Jacobi, 1931: 212-216)&mdash;I
+must confess that I was always so engrossed with photography whenever
+the Caribou were close at hand (up to within a dozen feet) that I had no
+thought of this pheno&shy;menon and did not detect it.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Richardson, 1829: 242; A.&nbsp;J. Stone, 1900:
+53; Preble, 1902: 42; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 105; Murie, 1939: 245;
+Harper, 1949: 230; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 19, 27.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "habits_food" id = "habits_food">
+Food</a></h4>
+
+<p>The ground lichens (including the various species of <i>Cladonia</i>)
+in the Windy River area in 1947 did not seem, for the most part, to have
+a height of more than 2 or 3 inches. The average length of several local
+specimens of <i>Cladonia</i> is approximately 51 mm. This condition was
+in considerable contrast to the great spongy masses I had noted in the
+Tazin River basin, between Athabaska and Great Slave lakes, in 1914.
+I&nbsp;have no means of knowing whether the condition in Keewatin
+represented severe cropping by Caribou in past years and subsequent slow
+recovery, or whether it is a normal condition. According to Charles
+Schweder, the growth depends upon rain, and so varies from year to year.
+During the warmer months, from June to September, the local Caribou
+seemed to me to be feeding very largely on the higher vegetation, such
+as willow, dwarf birch, alder, and sedges. I&nbsp;had no definite
+evidence of their consuming lichens during that period. By early October
+the species of <i>Cladonia</i> seemed to have attained a somewhat fuller
+growth than they had exhibited several months previously. Perez-Llano
+discusses (1944: 29-30) the utilization by Reindeer of various lichens.
+Dix has reported (1951) on a collection of lichens from the Windy River
+area.</p>
+
+<p>Some miscellaneous observations along Windy and Little rivers follow:
+June 16, 20 Caribou feeding apparently on patches of crowberry
+(<i>Empetrum</i>) and dwarf birch (<i>Betula glandulosa</i>) on a ridge;
+June 29, a&nbsp;Caribou feeding apparently on dwarf birches; June 30,
+a&nbsp;buck grazing in a sedge bog; August 26, several bucks browsing on
+willow tops (probably <i>Salix planifolia</i>) in a riverside thicket,
+and some does on dwarf birch and perhaps tall grass or low willow;
+August 27, numbers feeding largely on willow and dwarf birch; August 28
+and 30, low alders, willow, and dwarf birches nibbled off. By early
+October the leaves of the three last-mentioned
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page99" id = "page99">99</a></span>
+shrubs were no longer available, having dropped off. During the summer
+they had seemed to be preferred above the lichens. Cabot has remarked
+(1912: 46) on the fondness of <i>Rangifer arcticus caboti</i> for dwarf
+birch in Labrador.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Schweder reported as follows on the food of Caribou. In
+summer they live chiefly upon leaves, especially those of dwarf birch,
+and to some extent upon “grass” (probably largely sedges). Toward the
+last of June a Caribou was killed with fat an inch thick on its
+haunches&mdash;perhaps the effect of recent feeding on the fresh green
+vegetation. In August and September the animals also eat mushrooms and
+get very fat on them; they seem to be especially fond of a certain red
+kind, which Charles has found in their stomachs. The Eskimos’ name for
+mushrooms signifies “deer food.” The Caribou feed upon dead “grass”
+(perhaps mostly sedges) in the fall, but not in the winter. Charles has
+seen them digging through 4 feet of snow to get at the reindeer lichens;
+but for the most part their winter feeding in this region is on the tops
+of the hills, which remain bare. They also eat tree lichens, especially
+in the winter time.</p>
+
+<p>Charles has seen Caribou chew the cud while standing as well as while
+lying down. He once saw a buck thus occupied while standing on a hill
+for half a day in a breeze that kept the mosquitoes down.</p>
+
+<p>Among the hundreds of Caribou observed at the river crossings and
+elsewhere, I&nbsp;do not recall seeing a single one pause to drink.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Influence of food supply on distribution</i> of the Barren
+Ground Caribou has been discussed in a previous section.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Hearne, 1795: 317; Franklin, 1823: 242;
+Richardson, “1825”: 329, and 1829: 243; Godman, 1831, <b>2</b>: 284;
+Richardson, in Back, 1836: 498, and 1861: 275; Murray, 1858: 202;
+B.&nbsp;R. Ross, 1861: 439; Kumlien, 1879: 54; J.&nbsp;B. Tyrrell, 1894:
+441; Russell, 1898: 226; J.&nbsp;W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 80; Lydekker,
+1898: 49; Elliot, 1902: 276; Stone and Cram, 1904: 53; Buchanan, 1920:
+105-106, 131; Hewitt, 1921: 61; Blanchet, 1925: 33; Seton, 1929,
+<b>3</b>: 107-108; Kitto, 1930: 87; Jacobi, 1931: 223; Harper, 1932: 30;
+Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 84; Weyer, 1932: 39; Hornby, 1934: 105;
+Murie, 1939: 245; Clarke, 1940: 106-107; G.&nbsp;M. Allen, 1942: 299;
+Soper, 1942: 143; Downes, 1943: 228; Porsild, 1943: 383; R.&nbsp;M.
+Anderson, 1948: 15; Manning, 1948: 26-28; Rand, 1948<i>a</i>: 212;
+Harper, 1949: 230; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 11, 19-20, 28-29; Barnett,
+1954: 106.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "habits_scat" id = "habits_scat">
+Scatology</a></h4>
+
+<p>The pellets of the Caribou are small, more or less blackish, very
+irregular in shape, somewhat compressed, and generally deposited in
+little piles, in which the individual components do not stand out
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page100" id = "page100">100</a></span>
+very distinctly, being pressed against each other. They are quite unlike
+the oblong, curvilinear, comparatively symmetrical scats of the
+White-tailed Deer and the Moose. I&nbsp;did not observe, nor learn of,
+any particular seasonal variation in the shape or other characters.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 81; Manning,
+1943<i>a</i>: 50.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "habits_voice" id = "habits_voice">
+Voice</a></h4>
+
+<p>My impression of the adult Caribou is that it is a comparatively
+silent animal during most of the year. At the rutting season, however,
+when the bucks do their fighting with a clash of antlers, their voice is
+heard, as Fred Schweder, Jr., informed me. It is about as loud as the
+fawn’s grunt, but a different sort of sound. Fred has also known a doe
+to call when its fawn was shot.</p>
+
+<p>The only vocal sound that I heard from the Caribou was the grunt or
+bawling of the fawns on the fall migration, and only during the last
+week of August, when the “big movement” was under way. It was uttered
+chiefly at the river crossings, apparently as a result of the fawns’
+anxiety lest they be separated from their mothers during the slight
+uncertainty or confusion of these passages, when a considerable number
+of animals were participating. It seemed to be a fair equivalent of a
+human child’s crying out: “Don’t leave me behind!” or “Where are you,
+mamma?” The grunt is very different from the bleating of a lamb or the
+bawling of a domestic calf. It is a surprisingly raucous or guttural,
+almost explosive, yet not very loud note, which I rendered at various
+times as <i>gwuf</i>, <i>goff</i>, <i>gowk</i>, or <i>gorr</i>. Perhaps
+the last rendering comes nearest to the actual sound. With one or two
+exceptions, I&nbsp;did not identify any individual uttering one of these
+grunts; but the Schweder boys, from their intimate knowledge of the
+species, assured me that this was the voice of the fawn. In one case the
+sound came rather definitely from a fawn that had become somewhat
+separated from its band in going up the adjacent ridge after crossing
+Little River. But for the most part the grunts seemed to come from
+swimming animals.</p>
+
+<p>On August 30 another sort of sound&mdash;probably not a vocal
+one&mdash;seemed to come from one of the older animals among a large
+band crossing Little River. It was probably produced by a vigorous
+vibration of the nostrils. It is further discussed in the section on
+<i>Shaking off moisture and insects</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is rather astonishing that Seton, after seeing and studying many
+Caribou at close range in Mackenzie, should say no more
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page101" id = "page101">101</a></span>
+about their voice than: “They snort a good deal and grunt a little”
+(1911: 210). In his later monographic account he practically ignores the
+topic, merely referring to the animals’ “sniffing, snorting”
+(1929,&nbsp;3: 105).</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Lyon, 1824: 336; Pike, 1917 (1892): 89; Stone
+and Cram, 1904: 53; Seton, 1911: 210, and 1929, <b>3</b>: 105; Hornaday,
+1914, <b>2</b>: 103; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193; Sutton and Hamilton,
+1932: 84; Murie, 1939: 245; Downes, 1943: 226, 256-257; Harper, 1949:
+230; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 22.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "habits_repro" id = "habits_repro">
+Reproduction</a></h4>
+
+<p>By the time the rutting season arrived in mid-October, there were
+comparatively few Caribou left in the Windy River area. Consequently my
+information on the subject was derived mainly from Charles Schweder and
+Fred Schweder, Jr. Weeks before the scheduled season, there were certain
+manifes&shy;tations of the sexual urge. For example, on September 5
+about 20 Caribou were passing the Bear Slough. The band consisted mostly
+of does and fawns, but included several middle-aged bucks (with antlers
+much less than the maximum size) and possibly some younger bucks. Twice
+I saw one of the animals attempt to cover another, but driving rain and
+the compactness of the band prevented me from determining the sex or age
+of those involved. During a trip to the Kazan River, lasting from
+September 17 to October&nbsp;1, Fred observed a good deal of fighting
+among the Caribou&mdash;obviously a prelude to the mating season. In
+Charles’ opinion, these early contests are not very much in earnest; the
+real fighting begins about October 15. On October 8 Charles and Fred
+referred to fighting that was going on among a herd of about 100 between
+Glacier Pond and Lake Charles. Perhaps less than a quarter of this herd
+were older bucks; the rest, younger bucks, does, and fawns.</p>
+
+<p>In former years, while living at the “Old Post” on Red River, Charles
+used to go out and watch the fighting on a big open muskeg, about a mile
+square, where the Caribou would congregate practically every year at the
+rutting season, up to a thousand strong. They would stay for three or
+four days, then disappear. Nothing on the same scale had come to his
+notice in the vicinity of the Windy River post. At this season, when the
+animals are in large herds, the bucks utter their calls, as mentioned in
+the section on <i>Voice</i>. According to Fred, one sees in October a
+good many bucks with an antler broken off in the fighting. The break
+generally occurs at about the middle of the antler. On September 29
+Charles reported a buck with a broken antler, which he interpreted as
+evidence
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page102" id = "page102">102</a></span>
+of the beginning of the fighting season. During the rutting season he
+once shot a buck with a broken jaw, and another with an eye gone. The
+possible inference was that these injuries had been sustained in
+fighting. A&nbsp;buck secured on October 16 had apparently been wounded
+in fighting; there was pus in its neck, and it was considered unfit for
+eating. I&nbsp;heard nothing as to the possible use of hoofs in contests
+between bucks, as reported by Jacobi (1931: 233) for the Reindeer.</p>
+
+<p>During the rutting season the herd is likely to be a large one, and
+to do little traveling. It is composed of fawns as well as adults. The
+bucks pursue the does, and sometimes chase each other. Charles thinks
+the young bucks keep away from the does at this time, being unable to
+fight the older bucks with larger antlers. Fred reports a proportion of
+about 10 bucks to 50 does in these herds&mdash;a probable indication of
+polygamy. He expressed the opinion that the bucks do not mate until 8-10
+years old, and the does not until about four years old. However, he was
+basing his estimate of the age on the total number of points on the
+antlers&mdash;one point for each year; and on this basis the age was
+probably much overestimated. Earlier sexual maturity on the part of the
+doe might be another indication of polygamy in the species.</p>
+
+<p>At the onset of this season, the bucks neglect their feeding to some
+extent; consequently those killed have stomachs only partly filled,
+instead of completely filled, as at other times. By mid-October their
+fat becomes tinted with reddish, and the whole flesh becomes so rank and
+musky that it is disdained not only by human beings but even by the
+Wolves. This condition seems to be considerably more pronounced in the
+Caribou than in the White-tailed Deer. The hunters forego eating the old
+bucks for a period of several weeks. Meanwhile the younger bucks, not
+engaged in mating, remain fit to eat. Hearne (1795: 69) reported the
+flesh of bucks as still unpalatable as late as December 30.</p>
+
+<p>The rutting season is said to continue through October into November.
+The end of the period is uncertain, but it may coincide with the
+shedding of the antlers of the old bucks.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Hearne, 1795: 72, 198-199; Richardson, “1825”:
+327-328, 1829: 243, and 1861: 274; Pike, 1917 (1892): 48, 90; J.&nbsp;W.
+Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 80; Hanbury, 1904: 73; Stone and Cram, 1904: 52;
+Blanchet, 1925: 33; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 51, 56; Seton, 1929,
+<b>3</b>: 124-125; Jacobi, 1931: 232; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 81,
+84-86; Weyer, 1932: 40; Ingstad, 1933: 158; Hornby, 1934: 105; Murie,
+1939: 244; Manning, 1943<i>a</i>: 52; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 10, 26,
+31.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page103" id = "page103">103</a></span>
+<h4><a name = "habits_fawns" id = "habits_fawns">
+Fawns</a></h4>
+
+<p>Since the fawning takes place far to the north of the Nueltin Lake
+region, practically no local information concerning it was obtained.
+Charles Schweder stated that in the spring migration the pregnant does
+pass to an undetermined distance north of the upper Kazan River (below
+Ennadai Lake). Although the migration at Nueltin Lake continues
+throughout June, the rearguard is composed largely of bucks, and the
+comparatively few does accompanying them toward the last may be barren.
+Fisher (1821: 199) and Parry (1821: 183) report a small fawn of <i>R.
+pearyi</i> on Melville Island on June&nbsp;2. Richardson states (“1825”:
+329) that the young are born in May and June. There is evidently some
+geographical and individual variation in the time of birth (<i>cf.</i>
+Jacobi, 1931: 232). Apparently the gestation period in the Caribou
+covers approximately eight months or a little less. In the domesticated
+Reindeer it is 231 to 242 days, according to Jacobi (1931: 234); in the
+White-tailed Deer, 205 to 212 days, according to Seton (1929, <b>3</b>:
+258).</p>
+
+<p>Fred Schweder, Jr., stated that he had never found more than a single
+unborn fawn in any one of the animals he had secured; yet he has seen as
+many as four fawns following a doe. Of course there is no proof that
+this individual was the actual mother of so many fawns; a&nbsp;stray or
+bereaved youngster might well endeavor to attach itself to a foster
+mother. On August 28, at Little River, I&nbsp;saw a doe being followed
+by two fawns. On September 16 Fred reported seeing three old does
+without fawns. Presumably most of the does do not bear young until they
+are two years old (<i>cf.</i> Jacobi, 1931: 235); thus many yearling
+does without family cares should be observed during the summer.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page90" id = "page90">90</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig21" id = "fig21">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig21.jpg" width = "446" height = "280"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 21.</span> A Caribou doe (specimen No.
+1101). Mouth of Windy River, September 21, 1947.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On September 12 Charles Schweder stated that the does would soon be
+losing their milk; yet on occasion he has found them with milk as late
+as November (<i>cf.</i> Jacobi, 1931: 235). On September 21, when he
+secured a doe (fig. 21) that was accompanied by a fawn, I&nbsp;asked if
+he thought the latter was still nursing. By way of answer, he squeezed a
+couple of the doe’s mammae, and some milk exuded. Thus the mammary
+glands were still functioning at that date; they appeared well
+developed. By August 27, at an age of perhaps two and a half months, the
+fawns were browsing on their own account, and their teeth were well
+developed. Fred Schweder, Jr., then spoke of having seen fawns nursing
+four times during that month, the last occasion having been on the 25th.
+On the 27th I had the rare privilege of witnessing such a nursery rite
+across the mouth of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page104" id = "page104">104</a></span>
+Little River. The wilderness baby was so large that it was obliged to
+lower its forequarters very decidedly in order to reach the maternal
+font (from a lateral position). This attitude left its hind quarters
+thrust high and ludicrously into the air. I&nbsp;did not notice that it
+wriggled its tail as a bovine calf might have; but Charles Schweder
+spoke of having seen a fawn hold its tail erect while nursing. He also
+said that the bigger fawns kneel down with their front legs while so
+engaged. In his opinion, when a doe is killed in the autumn, its fawn
+does not go and join other Caribou, but lingers near the fatal spot
+until a Wolf or some other enemy overcomes it. For this reason it is his
+practice to secure the fawn also, if possible, when he takes the mother.
+On September 13 a fawn remained by its dead mother, permitting one of
+the hunters to approach within 30 feet and to throw rocks at it three
+times, finally taking it by that means. After a doe was killed on
+September 21, its fawn lingered in the vicinity for a day or two.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Franklin, 1823: 242; Richardson, “1825”: 329;
+John Ross, 1835<i>a</i>: 432; Simpson, 1843: 277, 281, 381; J. McLean,
+1932 (1849): 359; Armstrong, 1857: 477-478; Murray, 1858: 202; Osborn,
+1865: 227; Nourse, 1884: 264-265; Pike, 1917 (1892): 204, 209; Dowling,
+1893: 107: Russell, 1895: 51; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, 1913<i>b</i>:
+504-505; Hewitt, 1921: 62; Blanchet, 1926<i>b</i>: 47; Seton, 1929,
+<b>3</b>: 124-125; Blanchet, 1930: 49, 53; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 192,
+193; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 86; Ingstad, 1933: 161; Clarke, 1940:
+88-90; Gavin, 1945: 228; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 26, 27; Scott, 1951:
+179, 180; Barnett, 1954: 96.
+</blockquote>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page90b" id = "page90b">90</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig22" id = "fig22">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig22.jpg" width = "445" height = "328"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 22.</span> A Caribou buck (specimen No.
+1111). Mouth of Windy River, September 29, 1947.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "habits_growth" id = "habits_growth">
+Growth</a></h4>
+
+<p>During late August and early September the fawns probably averaged
+about 50 lb. in weight. (For the measurements of two specimens, see the
+section on <i>Measurements</i>.) Yet they varied so much in size that
+some appeared nearly twice as big as others. On September 7 an
+exceptionally small fawn was secured (estimated weight, 35 lb.) (fig.
+23). Its coat was soft and woolly, representing an earlier stage than
+that seen in any of the other fawns of that season. It was molting into
+the next pelage, and its hide was unprime. It must have been born at an
+unusually late date. Fred Schweder, Jr., remarked that he sometimes sees
+this stage in the growth of fawns when the Caribou come down early from
+the north (about the first of August), but it seems remarkable that it
+should have been found in a September fawn. The present specimen has
+actually smaller measurements than one secured on August 2 at Artillery
+Lake (Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 97). The collector reported that the parent
+doe appeared of ordinary size&mdash;not a particularly small or young
+one. The yearlings noted on the spring migration
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page105" id = "page105">105</a></span>
+in May (south of Churchill) and in June (at Nueltin Lake) appeared
+roughly half the size of the adults.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page91" id = "page91">91</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig23" id = "fig23">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig23.jpg" width = "448" height = "340"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 23.</span> A male Caribou fawn (specimen
+No. 1095), in its first, woolly pelage. Mouth of Windy River,
+September&nbsp;7, 1947.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Evidently several years are required for the attainment of full
+growth. The younger adult bucks, with smaller antlers, are appreciably
+inferior in body size to the older bucks, with better developed
+antlers.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 97, 98; Banfield,
+1951<i>a</i>: 30.
+</blockquote>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page91b" id = "page91b">91</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig24" id = "fig24">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig24.jpg" width = "446" height = "316"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 24.</span> Hoofs of a male Caribou fawn
+(specimen No. 1072); hind hoofs in the middle. Mouth of Windy River,
+August 21, 1947.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "habits_antlers" id = "habits_antlers">
+Antlers</a></h4>
+
+<p>In late August and early September antlers were already in evidence
+on the fawns, at an age of less than three months. They consisted of
+bony knobs, covered with skin, and were an inch or two long.
+I&nbsp;obtained no information as to when the fawns may shed the velvet
+or the antlers themselves. By analogy with the Reindeer (<i>cf.</i>
+Jacobi, 1931: 237), the fawns might be expected to drop their antlers in
+late winter.</p>
+
+<p>When the adult Caribou return from the north in August, the antlers
+of all are still in the velvet. However, completely hornless does are
+not particularly uncommon at this season; in Charles Schweder’s opinion,
+some remain permanently in that condition. Hornless does are reported in
+various forms of Caribou or Reindeer in both hemispheres (Jacobi, 1931:
+48). I&nbsp;saw also a few one-horned does on the autumn migration. In a
+single group of three adult does photographed at close range on August
+28, one was hornless and another one-horned (<a href = "#fig11">fig.
+11</a>). A&nbsp;considerable proportion of my other photographs of
+Caribou groups at this season show one or more animals with a single
+antler or none. The hornless condition appears to be astonishingly more
+common in Keewatin than in regions farther west. Stefánsson, whose field
+operations were chiefly in northern Mackenzie and southwestern Franklin,
+remarks (1913<i>b</i>: 151) on having found, at any season when Caribou
+are normally horned, just three hornless animals among a thousand at
+whose killing he had been present. Murie (1935: 20) speaks of having
+observed only one hornless doe in Alaska, in September.</p>
+
+<p>By late August the bucks’ antlers have attained nearly their full
+growth, though still in the velvet. The largest head of the season was
+obtained on August 22. Its measurements were: right antler, in straight
+line from base to tip of longest prong, 995; left antler, 980; distance
+between main tips of the two antlers, 620; brow tine, from base to upper
+tip, 335; to lower tip, 290. For the older bucks, the principal period
+for shedding the velvet is September 10 to 20, although Charles Schweder
+once observed a buck that had
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page106" id = "page106">106</a></span>
+completed the process by September 1, and Fred secured one in that
+condition on September&nbsp;6, 1947. In Alaska old bucks shed the velvet
+more or less regularly in September (Murie, 1935: 26). Sick or wounded
+animals are said to retain the velvet for an indefinite period. For
+example, a&nbsp;buck secured on September 29 had some velvet hanging in
+shreds from the tips of its antlers, and it was found to have been shot
+in the mouth sometime previously. The younger bucks and the does lose
+their velvet somewhat later than the older bucks (say toward the end of
+September). In a doe of September 21 (<a href = "#fig21">fig. 21</a>)
+the antlers were covered with velvet and still had soft tips.
+A&nbsp;young buck of October 2 was just shedding the velvet.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Schweder spoke of noting as many as 30-33 points on the
+antlers of old bucks. (He probably included the brow and the bez tines
+in this count.) He also referred to an exceptional set of antlers at
+Simons’ Lake with about 40 points; he had first noted it about 10 years
+previously, and it had doubtless been there for years before that. He
+had never been able to secure its equal. When I saw and photographed it
+in October (fig. 25), some of the points were broken off, so that an
+accurate count was impossible; but there must have been close to 40
+originally, even without the brow tines, which were missing. The
+palmation was much broader than I have seen in any other Caribou.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page92" id = "page92">92</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig25" id = "fig25">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig25.jpg" width = "444" height = "304"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 25.</span> Enormous set of old antlers of
+a Barren Ground Caribou, with exceptional palmation. (A&nbsp;10.5-inch
+length of a steel rule visible.) Simons’ Lake, October 15, 1947.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The prong projecting backward at the angle of the main beam is by no
+means so uncommon in the animals of this region as a Chipewyan hunter
+seemed to indicate to Downes (1943: 227-228).</p>
+
+<p>Charles Schweder found a pair of locked antlers about 1940 near
+Josie’s Bay. This was the only case of which he had any knowledge. An
+instance of locked antlers in <i>Rangifer pearyi</i> is mentioned by
+Peary (1907: 84).</p>
+
+<p>There is marked variation in the dates of shedding the antlers,
+according to sex, age, and physiological condition of the individual.
+This has resulted in various conflicting statements in the literature.
+In the present region, the old bucks with 25 or more points are said to
+shed their antlers about the end of October or in November, at the close
+of the rutting season. (Fred Schweder, Jr., encountered a hornless buck
+as early as November&nbsp;7, 1947.) The younger bucks, with 15 to 20
+points, and the does retain their antlers till late May or June of the
+following year. A&nbsp;doe of June 3 and another of June 16 were still
+horned. In Alaska “the young bucks may carry their
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page107" id = "page107">107</a></span>
+old antlers until late in April, while does carry theirs until the
+middle of May, some of them until June” (Murie, 1935: 26).</p>
+
+<p>John Ingebrigtsen reported having seen two or three shallow lakes,
+between Churchill and (South?) Knife Lake, whose bottoms were fairly
+covered with caribou antlers. They were visible through clear ice. It
+appears probable that these lakes, while ice-covered, were favored
+resorts of large numbers of Caribou for their midday or nocturnal rests
+at a period when they were shedding their antlers (November for the old
+bucks, May or June for the does and young bucks).</p>
+
+<p>It is natural that the season at which the new antlers of the Barren
+Ground Caribou begin to grow should vary greatly according to sex and
+age, just as the shedding of the antlers does; probably also, for the
+various forms of <i>Rangifer</i>, according to locality (<i>cf.</i>
+Jacobi, 1931: 237). On Southampton Island “the new antlers begin to
+appear in the males in March and April” (Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 85).
+In Alaska Murie (1935: 24) “has found old bucks late in April with
+velvet knobs well begun.” Seton’s account (1929, <b>3</b>: 102-103) of
+the seasonal change of antlers is not only meager but largely at
+variance with the information I assembled in Keewatin. Recently gathered
+information is supplied by Banfield (1951<i>a</i>: 17-18).</p>
+
+<p>Measurements of the length of antlers in the velvet (right and left,
+respectively) were recorded as follows: adult male, June 18, 420, 440;
+adult male (<a href = "#fig3">figs. 3</a>,&nbsp;<a href =
+"#fig4">4</a>), August 17, 1165, 1205; adult female (<a href =
+"#fig21">fig. 21</a>), September 21, 220, 165.</p>
+
+<p>Scratching or anointing of antlers in the velvet with a hind hoof was
+observed in an adult buck on June 16, and in a fawn on August 27.</p>
+
+<p>While there is undoubtedly some correlation between the age of a
+Caribou and the number of points on its antlers, I&nbsp;am not aware
+that such a correlation has been worked out to a satisfactory degree.
+The Schweder brothers judged a Caribou’s years by the number of points
+on both antlers, yet freely admitted that they had limited confidence in
+such a criterion. Probably they would be nearer the actual facts if they
+counted the points on only one antler. The situation is complicated by
+the fact (if we are to credit Jacobi, 1931: 238) that bucks in other
+forms of <i>Rangifer</i> exhibit the best development of antlers at six
+to eight years.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Hearne, 1795: 198-199; Franklin, 1823: 240-241;
+Lyon, 1824: 270; Richardson, “1825”: 327-328, and 1829: 241; Richardson,
+in Back, 1836: 499; Armstrong, 1857: 478; Murray, 1858: 199-206;
+B.&nbsp;R. Ross, 1861: 439; Osborn, 1865: 227; Pike, 1917 (1892): 49;
+J.&nbsp;B. Tyrrell,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page108" id = "page108">108</a></span>
+1892<ins class = "correction" title = "missing space">: </ins>128;
+Dowling, 1893: 107; Russell, 1895: 51, and 1898: 225; Whitney, 1896:
+238-239; J.&nbsp;W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 79-80; A.&nbsp;J. Stone, 1900:
+53; W.&nbsp;J. McLean, 1901:&nbsp;6; Elliot, 1902: 279-280; Hanbury,
+1904: 95, 116, 133; Hornaday, 1904: 138; J.&nbsp;A. Allen, 1908<i>a</i>:
+488; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, 1913<i>b</i>: 505; Stefánsson, 1913<i>b</i>:
+151; Buchanan, 1920: 126; Blanchet, 1925: 33, 1926<i>b</i>: 47-48, and
+1930: 49; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 50, 89, 239-251; Seton, 1929,
+<b>3</b>: 102-103; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 192; Jacobi, 1931: 237;
+Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 81-86; Ingstad, 1933: 159; Hornby, 1934: 105;
+Murie, 1935: 20, and 1939: 244; Clarke, 1940: 95; Downes, 1943: 228;
+Manning, 1943<i>a</i>: 52-53; Harper, 1949: 228; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>:
+17-18; Barnett, 1954: 104.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "habits_rubbing" id = "habits_rubbing">
+Rubbing trees</a></h4>
+
+<p>Charles Schweder gave the following account. The bucks hasten the
+shedding of the velvet in the autumn by rubbing their antlers on various
+trees&mdash;willow, spruce, or tamarack. The individual may complete the
+operation in possibly half a day. It is thought, however, that most of
+the velvet comes off at the first tree. The animals usually select a
+tree standing by itself rather than one in a thicket. It is usually a
+small tree&mdash;say 4 feet high and 1 inch in diameter. Perhaps a
+spruce is most often selected. Branches are broken and much of the bark
+is scraped off in the process. The velvet soon dries up, so that it is
+little noticed. Charles did not recall having seen any hanging in a
+tree.</p>
+
+<p>The numbers of rubbing trees that I noticed at Simons’ Lake in
+mid-October indicated that Caribou must have been much more numerous
+there during the previous month than in the vicinity of the Windy River
+post. These trees were particularly in evidence on the <ins class =
+"correction" title = "text has ‘outskirits’">outskirts</ins> of a spruce
+and tamarack thicket at the head of the lake. They were mostly
+tamaracks, with some black spruces. Of the two spruces shown in figure
+26, the larger was about 4 feet high. Many of the young trees had been
+killed. The branches and the tops had been pretty generally broken off
+and were lying on the ground. Most of the damage was fresh, but some of
+it dated from previous years.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>Reference.</i>&mdash;Hanbury, 1904: 232.
+</blockquote>
+
+<div class = "picture w250">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page92b" id = "page92b">92</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig26" id = "fig26">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig26.jpg" width = "247" height = "287"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 26.</span> Rubbing trees: two small black
+spruces (<i>Picea mariana</i>)&mdash;the larger 4 feet high&mdash;broken
+and barked by Caribou in rubbing velvet off the antlers. Simons’ Lake,
+October 18, 1947.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<h3><a name = "morphology" id = "morphology">
+Morphology and Taxonomy</a></h3>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "morph_pelage" id = "morph_pelage">
+Pelage and molt</a></h4>
+
+<p>When the Caribou migrate northward through the Nueltin Lake region in
+May and June, they still retain their winter pelage. It is now worn and
+faded, and harsh as well, in contrast to the fresh, dark, soft autumn
+coat.</p>
+
+<p>This stage is represented by an adult buck (No. 1046) of June 18. The
+general color above is Cream-Buff (capitalized color terms
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page109" id = "page109">109</a></span>
+are derived from Ridgway, 1912), changing gradually to Isabella Color on
+sides of head and body; no distinct dark longitudinal stripe on lower
+sides (such as appears in summer and autumn pelage); tail Cream-Buff
+above, the rest Cartridge Buff; rump-patch varying from Cartridge Buff
+to Cream-Buff; tip of snout and chin dirty whitish; small area below
+nostrils near Mummy Brown; triangular area behind nostrils Cream-Buff;
+crown Cartridge Buff; ears Olive-Buff on outer surface, Cartridge Buff
+on inner surface; posterior venter Cartridge Buff; legs Isabella Color
+in front, remainder Cream-Buff; hoofs black, bordered above with
+Cartridge Buff hairs, forming a band ½-2 inches in width; antler velvet
+in this and other specimens Olive-Brown. The marked difference between
+the dark brownish and white pelage of the autumn and the Cream-Buff coat
+of early June presumably results from wear and fading, without molt. The
+does and the yearlings in June appear grayer than the adult bucks.</p>
+
+<p>In another adult male (No. 1033), collected June 3, the darker part
+of the pelage is Buffy Brown rather than Cream-Buff.</p>
+
+<p>The molt of the bucks begins in June but takes place chiefly in July,
+while the animals are somewhere to the north of the Nueltin Lake region.
+On their return in August they have largely completed their summer
+transfor&shy;mation in appearance. A&nbsp;buck of August 17 had just a
+little of the winter fur still clinging to its lower back; and another
+on August 20 was in similar condition. At this season the white mane is
+developed only on its lower portion (<a href = "#fig9">figs. 9</a>,
+<a href = "#fig10">10</a>, <a href = "#fig12">12</a>), but by the end of
+September the white has spread upward over practically the whole neck
+(<a href = "#fig22">fig. 22</a>), and in some cases over the
+shoulders.</p>
+
+<p>In an adult male (No. 1144) of October 16, representing the pelage of
+the rutting season, the posterior crown is near Tilleul Buff, the
+anterior crown somewhat browner; sides of head and upper throat between
+Verona Brown and Buffy Brown; area about and between eyes somewhat
+darker; triangular area behind nostrils (apex extending halfway to eyes)
+and lower chin between Mummy Brown and Warm Blackish Brown; tip of snout
+and chin Cartridge Buff; ears pale creamy white on both surfaces; whole
+neck and shoulder mantle whitish, washed with Cartridge Buff, and
+changing gradually to the brownish of the sides of the head; long hairs
+along median ventral line of the neck tipped with Natal Brown; dorsal
+area, from shoulders to rump, Prout’s Brown; stripe on lower sides Mummy
+Brown, separated from dorsal area by an ill-defined lighter
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page110" id = "page110">110</a></span>
+stripe, mixed with whitish hairs; top of tail slightly paler than back,
+the rest white; small rump-patch mostly white; chest Mummy Brown;
+mid-venter varying from Deep Olive-Buff anteriorly to Cream-Buff
+posteriorly; posterior venter white; forelegs near Bone Brown; hind legs
+between Mummy Brown and Olive-Brown, with a pale spot on the inner side
+of the heel (this spot noticeable also in doe and fawn); hoofs black,
+bordered above with whitish hairs. The hides of this specimen and of two
+other adult bucks (No. 1111, September 29, and No. 1132, October 16)
+were prime. The dark lateral stripe, which shows quite distinctly in
+summer and fall specimens of both sexes (<a href = "#fig7">figs. 7</a>,
+<a href = "#fig8">8</a>, <a href = "#fig10">10</a>, <a href =
+"#fig21">21</a>, <a href = "#fig22">22</a>), from fawns (except very
+young ones) to adults, and which is also a prominent feature in Old
+World Reindeer (<i>cf.</i> Flerov, 1933), has been largely or wholly
+overlooked in some descriptions of <i>Rangifer a. arcticus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The summer molt occurs later in the does than in the bucks. Some of
+the former return toward the end of August while still retaining most of
+the winter pelage. Others exhibit remnants of it in patches, especially
+on the lower back; this was true even of an adult doe (No. 1101) secured
+as late as September 21 (<a href = "#fig21">fig. 21</a>). Its hide,
+however, was prime. In this specimen the crown is near Verona Brown,
+with varying admixture of whitish hairs; sides of head Verona Brown;
+upper throat a little paler; a&nbsp;poorly defined area behind nostrils,
+and lower chin, Mummy Brown; tip of snout and chin Cartridge Buff; ears
+Drab, varying to Pale Olive-Buff, especially on inner surface; neck Drab
+dorsally, mixed with whitish hairs, the remainder Pale Olive-Buff;
+dorsal area, from shoulder to rump, Mars Brown; lateral stripe on lower
+sides Mars Brown, separated from dorsal area by a poorly defined but
+conspicuous area of Light Cinnamon-Drab; top of tail like back, the rest
+whitish, washed laterally with Pale Pinkish Buff; small rump-patch
+mostly white; chest Mummy Brown; venter Light Drab, becoming whitish in
+inguinal region; forelegs Natal Brown, slightly darker in front; hind
+legs Natal Brown, with a pale spot on the inner edge of the heel; hoofs
+black, bordered above with whitish “spats” varying from ½ to 1½ inches
+in width.</p>
+
+<p>Another doe, secured on November 3 but not preserved, was apparently
+in long, full winter pelage, with whitish mane and shoulders. The dorsum
+generally was grayish; the top of the rump, buffy gray. The white
+rump-patch appeared to be more extensive, and to contain longer hairs,
+than in the doe of September 21; likewise the white “spats” appeared
+much more extensive.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page111" id = "page111">111</a></span>
+<p>As winter comes on, the fur of the Caribou grows longer and paler
+gray. One incipient stage of such a change from the summer coat began to
+be noticeable as early as September 13. A&nbsp;buck that came trotting
+down out of the Windy Hills on September 27 revealed the splendor of its
+new winter coat, with an amazing amount of creamy white, chiefly on the
+mane and shoulders. The long mane wears off during the winter, according
+to Charles Schweder. It looks best, he added, when the bucks start to
+fight in the fall. A&nbsp;yearling or large fawn on October 21 was
+distinctly creamy about the neck and shoulders. After describing a
+winter female from Wager River, Seton remarks (1929, <b>3</b>: 98): “The
+general impression is of a creamy white animal, with a gray blanket on
+its back.”</p>
+
+<p>For the first couple of months of its life the fawn wears a soft and
+woolly coat. An example was furnished by a male fawn (No. 1095; <a href
+= "#fig23">fig. 23</a>) of September 7, which must have been born
+several weeks later than the average date. It was actually smaller and
+less developed than another male fawn collected on August 20. It was
+molting into the next pelage (described in the following paragraph), and
+its hide was unprime. The general color is Deep Brownish Drab; this is
+overlaid with longer hairs of Pale Olive-Buff on the median dorsal line
+of the neck, on the venter, and on part of the legs; a&nbsp;median
+stripe on the back near Hay’s Brown; no distinct lateral stripe; ears
+and posterior crown Cartridge Buff; forepart of crown Deep Brownish
+Drab; area above eye Cream-Buff; snout varying from Deep Brownish Drab
+above to Pale Gull Gray on sides; transverse band behind nostrils Dusky
+Brown; tip of snout whitish; tail Deep Brownish Drab above, pale creamy
+on sides, and white beneath; rump-patch whitish; chin anteriorly
+whitish, posteriorly Dusky Drab; throat whitish to Pale Gull Gray; lower
+part of legs, in front, Buffy Brown; hoofs black, bordered above with a
+very narrow (¼-inch) strip of whitish hairs. A&nbsp;very similar young
+fawn, taken on August&nbsp;2, 1907, has been described by Seton (1929,
+<b>3</b>: 98).</p>
+
+<p>In a male fawn (No. 1072) collected on August 20 the general color is
+between Olive-Brown and Natal Brown; a&nbsp;paler longitudinal area
+separating the lateral stripe from the dorsal area; ears Clove Brown
+externally, pale creamy internally; transverse band behind nostrils
+Blackish Brown; tip of snout whitish; sides of head varying from
+Cream-Buff above eyes to Cartridge Buff below; tail Bone Brown above,
+white below; rump-patch whitish; legs Buffy Brown, darker in front; chin
+anteriorly whitish, posteriorly Hair Brown;
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page112" id = "page112">112</a></span>
+throat Cartridge Buff; venter Light Drab; hoofs black, bordered above
+with a narrow (¼- to ½-inch) strip of whitish hairs.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Franklin, 1823: 240-241; Richardson, 1829: 242;
+B.&nbsp;R. Ross, 1861: 439; Schwatka, 1885: 60-61; J.&nbsp;B. Tyrrell,
+1892: 128; Russell, 1898: 91, 226; J.&nbsp;W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 79;
+A.&nbsp;J. Stone, 1900: 52; Hanbury, 1904: 194; MacFarlane, 1905:
+682-683; Blanchet, 1925: 33, and 1926<i>b</i>: 47; Seton, 1929,
+<b>3</b>: 98-99, 104; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193; Jacobi, 1931: 236;
+Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 81, 84-86; Murie, 1939: 244; Clarke, 1940:
+89, 90; Downes, 1943: 226; Manning, 1943<i>a</i>: 53; Harper, 1949: 228,
+229, 230; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 15-17.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "morph_albinism" id = "morph_albinism">
+Albinism</a></h4>
+
+<p>In <i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> this appears to be an
+exceptionally rare phenomenon. There are references to albinos by the
+following authors: Russell (1895: 51; 1898: 91, 226), Whitney (1896:
+237), Boas (1901: 150, 501), MacFarlane (1905: 682-683), Ingstad (1933:
+312), and Degerbøl (1935: 49, 51).</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "morph_foot" id = "morph_foot">
+Foot-glands</a></h4>
+
+<p>I dissected out the glands from the hind feet of an adult male
+Caribou (No. 1046). Seton (1929, <b>3</b>: 68) has discussed these
+structures in the Woodland Caribou and the Norwegian Reindeer; and
+Pocock (1911: 960-962, fig. 138B) and Jacobi (1931: 22, fig.&nbsp;4), in
+the Reindeer. Many hairs had their base in the glands, and there was a
+fatty secretion on the hairs adjacent to the glands. I&nbsp;judged that
+the opening to the exterior extended in a more or less dorso-anterior
+direction. One of the suggested functions of these glands is anointing
+the velvet covering of the antlers. I&nbsp;was highly interested,
+therefore, in seeing an old buck on June 16 rub the tips of its growing
+antlers with each hind foot in turn. Meanwhile it inclined its antlers
+alternately to one side and backwards to place one of them at a time
+within convenient reach of the hind foot on that side. It seemed to rub
+its snout as well as the antler tips. In Charles Schweder’s experience
+this action was always carried out with the hind foot, not the forefoot.
+The latter contains a similar but smaller gland, according to Jacobi
+(1931: 22), while Pocock (1911: 960-961) gives contrary testimony. On
+August 27 I also saw a fawn rubbing a knob of its skin-covered antlers
+with a hind foot.</p>
+
+<p>Another function of the foot-glands is suggested by an observation of
+Dugmore’s (1913: 89-90), which has been mentioned in the section on
+<i>Signaling</i>. I could not definitely connect any of the various
+occasions of panic that I observed, with scent from the foot-glands of
+preceding Caribou that had been frightened.</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Caton, 1881: 265; Pocock, 1911: 960-962; Seton,
+1929, <b>3</b>: 68, 105; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 84; Harper, 1949:
+230.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page113" id = "page113">113</a></span>
+<h4><a name = "morph_mastology" id = "morph_mastology">
+Mastology</a></h4>
+
+<p>Very little seems to have been published on this subject. Jacobi
+(1931: 24) merely remarks that in the Reindeer the mammae number four,
+or occasionally six, but that the supernumerary ones are not functional.
+The four rudimentary mammae in a male fawn of <i>arcticus</i> (No. 1072)
+of August 20 seemed remarkable for their arrangement in a nearly
+straight transverse row&mdash;quite different from the more rectangular
+pattern in a domestic Cow or in a male Moose, as figured by Seton (1929,
+<b>3</b>: 221). In an adult doe (No. 1101) of September 21 the anterior
+pair are about twice as far apart as the posterior pair; each of the
+mammae appears no more than a couple of inches from the one nearest to
+it. The arrangement in a two-year-old buck, as shown by Seton (1929,
+<b>3</b>: 106), is approximately intermediate between linear and
+rectangular.</p>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "morph_fat" id = "morph_fat">
+Fat</a></h4>
+
+<p>A Caribou (probably a buck) secured about the end of June was
+reported to have back fat half an inch thick&mdash;possibly resulting
+from the fresh green spring feed. In August, however, scarcely any fat
+was to be found on the animals; perhaps the annual renewal of pelage and
+the summer harassment by flies had been deterrents to the storage of
+fat. In September and early October the Caribou were in prime condition.
+On September 19 there was a fresh piece of back fat half an inch thick;
+two days later there was another piece three times as thick. In 1943
+(a&nbsp;year of great mushroom growth) the animals were said to have
+become particularly fat. According to Charles Schweder, the doe never
+becomes so fat as the buck; one of September 21, still nursing, was just
+slightly fat. An adult buck of September 29 was recorded as “somewhat
+fat”; two of October 16 were “rather fat” and “quite fat.” Charles has
+seen as much as 3 inches of fat on a buck. The strips of back fat
+brought into camp on October 8 from several bucks weighed about 5 to 10
+lb. apiece. Such fatness evidently prepares the bucks for the strain of
+the rutting season, when they neglect their feeding and become very poor
+and thin. This loss of fat occurs in about two weeks. The does also lose
+some fat at this season, but slowly. In some winters the Caribou remain
+fat, but in other winters they do not. In the latter case there may be
+deep snow that hinders their feeding. In the spring the Caribou become
+fat again, and they are in that condition when they arrive from the
+south in May.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page114" id = "page114">114</a></span>
+<p>The eagerness of the Eskimos and the Indians for fat results in their
+selection of the biggest bucks, which generally carry the most fat.
+Charles Schweder spoke of the tail of such an animal almost
+disappearing, apparently engulfed in fat! Besides its use in the native
+diet, the fat goes into the making of “Eskimo candles” (see section on
+<i>Relations to man</i>).</p>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References.</i>&mdash;Franklin, 1823: 240; Armstrong, 1857: 477-478;
+Whitney, 1896: 161; Elliot, 1902: 276; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, in
+Stefánsson, 1913<i>b</i>: 505-506; Stefánsson, 1921: 231-234, 246-247,
+252; Jenness, 1922: 48, 101, 248; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 48, 90; Seton,
+1929, <b>3</b>: 113-114; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193; Weyer, 1932: 40;
+Hornby, 1934: 105; Hamilton, 1939: 109; Downes, 1943: 228; Manning,
+1943<i>a</i>: 53.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4 class = "smallcaps"><a name = "morph_body" id = "morph_body">
+Body-Measurements and Weights</a></h4>
+
+<table class = "columns" summary = "key to following table">
+<caption>Columns</caption>
+<tr>
+<td>A</td><td>No.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>B</td><td>Sex and age</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>C</td><td>Date</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>D</td><td>Length</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>E</td><td>Tail</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>F</td><td>Foot</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>G</td><td>Ear from crown</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>H</td><td>Height at shoulder</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>I</td><td>Shoulder joint to hip joint</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>J</td><td>Circumference of neck at base</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>K</td><td>Circumference of body behind shoulders</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>L</td><td>Length of front hoof</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>M</td><td>Length of hind hoof</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>N</td><td>Estimated weight (lbs.)</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "measure" summary = "see text">
+<tr>
+<th abbr = "number">A</th>
+<th abbr = "sex and age">B</th>
+<th abbr = "date">C</th>
+<th abbr = "length">D</th>
+<th abbr = "tail">E</th>
+<th abbr = "foot">F</th>
+<th abbr = "ear">G</th>
+<th abbr = "height">H</th>
+<th abbr = "shoulder to hip">I</th>
+<th abbr = "neck circumference">J</th>
+<th abbr = "body circumference">K</th>
+<th abbr = "front hoof">L</th>
+<th abbr = "hind hoof">M</th>
+<th abbr = "weight">N
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>1033</td>
+<td>♂ ad</td>
+<td>Jun 3</td>
+<td>1820</td>
+<td>160</td>
+<td>516</td>
+<td>130</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>1000</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>1000</td>
+<td>81.5</td>
+<td>78</td>
+<td>140</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>1046</td>
+<td>♂ ad</td>
+<td>Jun 18</td>
+<td>1880</td>
+<td>190</td>
+<td>546</td>
+<td>137</td>
+<td>1029</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>92</td>
+<td>84.5</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>1065</td>
+<td>♂ ad</td>
+<td>Aug 17</td>
+<td>1750</td>
+<td>146</td>
+<td>555</td>
+<td>120</td>
+<td>1080</td>
+<td>1010</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>1185<a class = "tag" name = "tag3" id = "tag3" href =
+"#note3">3</a></td>
+<td>80</td>
+<td>74</td>
+<td>200</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>1111</td>
+<td>♂ ad</td>
+<td>Sep 29</td>
+<td>1710</td>
+<td>155</td>
+<td>532</td>
+<td>129</td>
+<td>1020</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>740</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>82.5</td>
+<td>78</td>
+<td>200</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>1132</td>
+<td>♂ ad</td>
+<td>Oct 16</td>
+<td>1710</td>
+<td>120</td>
+<td>530</td>
+<td>120</td>
+<td>1002</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 975</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>200</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>1144</td>
+<td>♂ ad</td>
+<td>Oct 16</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>117</td>
+<td>545</td>
+<td>120</td>
+<td>1110</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>90</td>
+<td>84.5</td>
+<td>200</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "bottomline">
+<td colspan = "3">Average of ♂ ♂ ad</td>
+<td>1774</td>
+<td>148</td>
+<td>537</td>
+<td>126</td>
+<td>1080</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 995</td>
+<td>740</td>
+<td>1093</td>
+<td>85.2</td>
+<td>79.8</td>
+<td>188</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>1101</td>
+<td>♀ ad</td>
+<td>Sep 21</td>
+<td>1590</td>
+<td>113</td>
+<td>490</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 134</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 870</td>
+<td>860</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 490</td>
+<td>77</td>
+<td>72</td>
+<td>160</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>1095</td>
+<td>♂ juv</td>
+<td>Sep 7</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 960</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 90</td>
+<td>360</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 85</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 620</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 525</td>
+<td>290</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 610</td>
+<td>49</td>
+<td>45</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 35</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "bottomline">
+<td>1072</td>
+<td>♂ juv</td>
+<td>Aug 20</td>
+<td>1150</td>
+<td>125</td>
+<td>423</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 89</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 750</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 645</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>60.5</td>
+<td>55.5</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan = "14">
+<a name = "note3" id = "note3" href = "#tag3">3.</a>
+<i>After skinning.</i>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page115" id = "page115">115</a></span>
+<h4 class = "smallcaps"><a name = "morph_skull" id = "morph_skull">
+Measurements of Skulls</a></h4>
+
+<table class = "columns" summary = "key to following table">
+<caption>Columns</caption>
+<tr>
+<td>A</td><td>No.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>B</td><td>Sex and age</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>C</td><td>Date</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>D</td><td>Condylobasal length<a class = "tag" name = "tag4" id =
+"tag4" href = "#note4">4</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>E</td><td>Zygomatic width</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>F</td><td>Interorbital width</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>G</td><td>Length of nasal</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>H</td><td>Maxillary tooth-row</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>I</td><td>Mandibular tooth-row</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "measure" summary = "see text">
+<tr>
+<th abbr = "number">A</th>
+<th abbr = "sex and age">B</th>
+<th abbr = "date">C</th>
+<th abbr = "condylobasal">D</th>
+<th abbr = "zygomatic">E</th>
+<th abbr = "interorbital">F</th>
+<th abbr = "nasal">G</th>
+<th abbr = "maxillary">H</th>
+<th abbr = "mandibular">I</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>1065</td>
+<td>♂ ad</td>
+<td>Aug 17</td>
+<td>373</td>
+<td>130</td>
+<td>140</td>
+<td>125</td>
+<td>94</td>
+<td>101</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>1144</td>
+<td>♂ ad</td>
+<td>Oct 16</td>
+<td>356</td>
+<td>135</td>
+<td>140</td>
+<td>122</td>
+<td>82</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>1111</td>
+<td>♂ ad</td>
+<td>Sep 29</td>
+<td>359</td>
+<td>134</td>
+<td>138</td>
+<td>112</td>
+<td>82</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>1046</td>
+<td>♂ ad</td>
+<td>Jun 18</td>
+<td>374</td>
+<td>131</td>
+<td>135</td>
+<td>121</td>
+<td>97</td>
+<td>104</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "bottomline">
+<td>1132</td>
+<td>♂ ad</td>
+<td>Oct 16</td>
+<td>350</td>
+<td>136</td>
+<td>138</td>
+<td>117</td>
+<td>83</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 91</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "bottomline">
+<td colspan = "3">Average of ♂ ♂ ad</td>
+<td>362.4</td>
+<td>133.2</td>
+<td>138.2</td>
+<td>119.4</td>
+<td>87.6</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 98.7</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>1101</td>
+<td>♀ ad</td>
+<td>Sep 21</td>
+<td>324</td>
+<td>117</td>
+<td>121</td>
+<td>101</td>
+<td>85</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "bottomline">
+<td>1036</td>
+<td>♀ ad</td>
+<td>Sep &mdash;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>118</td>
+<td>120</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 83.5</td>
+<td>79</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 83.5</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>1072</td>
+<td>♂ juv</td>
+<td>Aug 20</td>
+<td>215</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 92</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 85</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 54</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "bottomline">
+<td>1095</td>
+<td>♂ juv</td>
+<td>Sep 7</td>
+<td>189</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 85</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 77</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 42</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan = "9">
+<a name = "note4" id = "note4" href = "#tag4">4.</a>
+<i>Tip of premaxillary to posterior plane of condyles.</i>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<h4 class = "smallcaps"><a name = "morph_antler" id = "morph_antler">
+Measurements of Antlers</a></h4>
+
+<table class = "columns" summary = "key to following table">
+<caption>Columns</caption>
+<tr>
+<td>A</td><td>No.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>B</td><td>Sex and age</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>C</td><td>Date</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>D</td><td>Total length, right antler</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>E</td><td>Total length, left antler</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>F</td><td>Brow antler, length</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>G</td><td>Brow antler, width</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>H</td><td>Greatest spread of beams (outside measurement)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>I</td><td>Total number of points</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "measure" summary = "see text">
+<tr>
+<th abbr = "number">A</th>
+<th abbr = "sex and age">B</th>
+<th abbr = "date">C</th>
+<th abbr = "right length">D</th>
+<th abbr = "left length">E</th>
+<th abbr = "brow length">F</th>
+<th abbr = "brow width">G</th>
+<th abbr = "spread">H</th>
+<th abbr = "points">I</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>1065</td>
+<td>♂ ad</td>
+<td>Aug 17</td>
+<td>1165<a class = "tag" name = "tag5" id = "tag5" href =
+"#note5">5</a></td>
+<td>1205<a class = "tag" href = "#note5">5</a></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>875<a class = "tag" href = "#note5">5</a></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>1144</td>
+<td>♂ ad</td>
+<td>Oct 16</td>
+<td>1200</td>
+<td>1180</td>
+<td>290</td>
+<td>232</td>
+<td>668</td>
+<td>32</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>1111</td>
+<td>♂ ad</td>
+<td>Sep 29</td>
+<td>1080</td>
+<td>1080</td>
+<td>279</td>
+<td>235</td>
+<td>655</td>
+<td>32</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "bottomline">
+<td>1132</td>
+<td>♂ ad</td>
+<td>Oct 16</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 960</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 903</td>
+<td>225</td>
+<td>197</td>
+<td>677</td>
+<td>30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "bottomline">
+<td colspan = "3">Average of last 3</td>
+<td>1080</td>
+<td>1054.3</td>
+<td>264.7</td>
+<td>221.3</td>
+<td>666.7</td>
+<td>31.3</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan = "9">
+<a name = "note5" id = "note5" href = "#tag5">5.</a>
+<i>Antlers in velvet. Unless otherwise specified, lengths of antlers
+were measured along the curve.</i>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h4 class = "smallcaps"><a name = "morph_testes" id = "morph_testes">
+Measurements of Testes</a></h4>
+
+<p>Seasonal change in the size of testes in adult males is indicated by
+the following data: June 3, 30×18 mm.; June 18, 51×28.5; August 17,
+50×35; September 29, 61×38; October 16, 60×40. Two male fawns: August
+20, 18×7; September&nbsp;7, 15×8.5.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page116" id = "page116">116</a></span>
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References on measurements.</i>&mdash;J. C. Ross, in John Ross,
+1835<i>b</i>: xviii; J.&nbsp;<ins class = "correction" title = ". invisible">A.</ins> Allen, 1910:&nbsp;8; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 97;
+Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 87; Flerov, 1934: 240; Murie, 1935: 75;
+Soper, 1944: 248; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 30.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References on weight.</i>&mdash;Parry, 1824: 305; Richardson, 1829:
+241, and 1852: 290; Armstrong, 1857: 475, 498; Baird, 1857: 635;
+M’Clintock, 1860?: 184; Osborn, 1865: 227; Schwatka, 1885: 84-85;
+Collinson, 1889: 153; J.&nbsp;B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128; Whitney, 1896: 237;
+J.&nbsp;W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 79; Jones, 1899: 329; Hornaday, 1904:
+138, and 1914, <b>2</b>: 104; J.&nbsp;A. Allen, 1910: <ins class =
+"correction" title = "text has , for ;">8;</ins> Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>:
+97-98; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 55; Hornby, 1934: 105; Banfield,
+1951<i>a</i>: 15, 30.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<h4><a name = "morph_geog" id = "morph_geog">
+Geographical variation</a></h4>
+
+<p>The comparatively few specimens available indicate that different
+populations on the mainland, between Hudson Bay and the Mackenzie River,
+vary in size. Final judgment on the significance of this variation must
+await the accumulation of more and better material. The lack of
+topotypical material from the Fort Enterprise area, Mackenzie, is a
+particular handicap.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+The extreme and average body measurements of five adult males from the
+Windy River area (see accompanying table) may be compared with those of
+three adult males, taken by R.&nbsp;M. Anderson, 1910 and 1912, at
+Langton and Darnley Bays (Nos. 34431, 34432, and 34435, Am. Mus. Nat.
+Hist.): length, 1980-2095 (2052); tail (two specimens), 152-165 (158.5);
+height at shoulder, 1066-1167 (1117); shoulder to hip (one specimen),
+964. The average length of these specimens exceeds that of the Windy
+River specimens by 278 mm.; the average height at the shoulder, by 37
+mm. The length of an adult male from Artillery Lake (J.&nbsp;A. Allen,
+1910:&nbsp;8) exceeds the Windy River average by 156 mm., and its
+shoulder height (Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 97), by 10 mm., but the length
+of its hind foot, as recorded, is 17 mm. less than the Windy River
+average.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+The measurements of four adult females, taken by Anderson, 1910 and
+1911, at Langton Bay, Horton River, and Great Bear Lake (Nos. 34429,
+34434, 34441, 34442, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.) are: length, 1625-1815 (1736);
+height at shoulder, 825-1066 (968); shoulder to hip (one specimen), 863.
+The average length of these specimens exceeds that of a Windy River
+adult female by 146 mm.; the average height at the shoulder, by 98 mm.
+The length of an adult female from Aylmer Lake (J.&nbsp;A. Allen,
+1910:&nbsp;8) exceeds that of the Windy River specimen by 112 mm.; the
+length of its hind foot, by 18 mm.; and the height at the shoulder
+(Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 97), by 43 mm.
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Thus there appears to be a fairly uniform tendency toward greater
+body measurements from southwestern Keewatin to northwestern Mackenzie.
+The weight of Seton’s male from Artillery Lake (270¾ lb.) considerably
+exceeds the maximum (200 lb.) that I estimated for any of the Windy
+River males. Maximum measurements are furnished by winter specimens from
+the region of Langton and Darnley Bays.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+The skulls of two adult males from Horton River and Artillery Lake (Nos.
+34502 and 29031, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.) measure, respectively:
+condylobasal length (tip of premaxillary to posterior plane of
+condyles), 381, 371; zygomatic
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page117" id = "page117">117</a></span>
+width, 138, approximately 142; interorbital width, 143, 144; nasal, 126,
+112; maxillary tooth-row, 87, 84; mandibular tooth-row (of No. 29031),
+93. The rostral profile of the former is slightly convex; of the latter
+nearly flat. Comparison with Windy River adult males (see accompanying
+table) indicates a longer and a broader skull in the more northwesterly
+specimens. The measurements of the skulls of Southampton Island
+specimens as presented by Sutton and Hamilton (1932: 87), suggest a
+somewhat larger animal than the mainland form.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+The left antler of an adult male from Horton River (No. 34502, Am. Mus.
+Nat. Hist.) measures: length, 1248; length of brow tine, 345; width of
+brow tine, 360; total points (both antlers), 16&nbsp;+&nbsp;14
+=&nbsp;30. The corresponding measurements of two sets of antlers from
+Fort Reliance in the American Museum of Natural History are: No. 121471
+(left), 1242-285-108; (right), 1244-412-294; total points,
+16&nbsp;+&nbsp;23 =&nbsp;39; No. 121473 (left), 1312-360-290 (broken);
+(right), 1230 (approx.), brow tine a spike, not palmated; total points,
+approximately 19&nbsp;+&nbsp;13 =&nbsp;32. The Fort Reliance specimens
+were selected by George G. Goodwin from a large number of old antlers
+lying about, and they are naturally above the average in size. The
+antlers of adult males from the Windy River area (see accompanying
+table) measure distinctly less than those just mentioned.
+</blockquote>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page93" id = "page93">93</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig27" id = "fig27">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig27.jpg" width = "448" height = "308"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 27.</span> Pile o’ Rocks, an ancient
+enclosure erected as a game lookout on the summit of a hill 1.5 miles
+NW. of the mouth of Windy River. June 30, 1947.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Anderson (1913<i>b</i>: 505) and Stefánsson (1913<i>a</i>: 106, and
+1913<i>b</i>: 241, 276-277) have called attention to certain rather
+well-defined differences between the Caribou on both sides of Coronation
+Gulf and those elsewhere in northern Mackenzie. It may be assumed that
+the summer home of the former type is on Victoria Island. Many of these
+animals in former years crossed over to the mainland in the autumn after
+the freezing of Dolphin and Union Strait, Coronation Gulf, and Dease
+Strait made such a migration possible; and they recrossed to the island
+in the spring. During recent years this migration has greatly dwindled
+(Blanchet, 1930: 50; Birket-Smith, 1933: 93; Clarke, 1940: 98; Gavin,
+1945: 227; Godsell, 1937: 288; Banfield, 1949: 481); consequently the
+Victoria Island population now seems to be largely confined to that
+island throughout the year. In the American Museum of Natural History I
+have examined several of Anderson’s specimens of 1911-1912 that are
+obviously of this form, and I should scarcely hesitate to give them
+nomenclatural recognition except for the fact that there has obviously
+been some confusion in the labeling of the specimens (after they reached
+the museum). Needless to say, a&nbsp;specimen selected as a type should
+bear unques&shy;tionable data.</p>
+
+<p>During the winter there is some interchange of populations between
+Banks and Victoria islands across the frozen Prince of Wales Strait
+(Armstrong, 1857: 297, 336). The description that Armstrong gives (1857:
+478), based ostensibly on Banks Island
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page118" id = "page118">118</a></span>
+specimens, indicates that the animals of that island are very close to,
+if not identical with, <i>Rangifer pearyi</i> of the more northerly
+Arctic islands. Yet there is no known interchange of populations across
+the frozen McClure Strait or other wide sea channels in approximately
+latitude 74° N.</p>
+
+<p>The Caribou of Boothia Peninsula and Somerset and Prince of Wales
+islands are said to be a small form (Wright, 1944: 195).</p>
+
+<p>The Caribou of the Dubawnt River region, as far as may be judged from
+J.&nbsp;B. Tyrrell’s photographs (1897: pl.&nbsp;1; Seton, 1929,
+<b>3</b>: pl. 22), are indistin&shy;guishable from those of the Nueltin
+Lake region.</p>
+
+<p>The Southampton Island antlers figured by Sutton and Hamilton (1932:
+pl.&nbsp;8) are so strikingly different from all but one (No. 1132) of
+those that I noticed in southwestern Keewatin that I should be much
+inclined to regard them as representing a separate subspecies, provided
+they are typical of that island. In most of the bucks of the Windy River
+area the beams are deeply and fairly uniformly bowed, although there is
+a strong tendency for approximately the basal third to be nearly
+straight, with a pronounced forward bend just above it (<i>cf.</i>
+<a href = "#fig3">figs. 3</a>, <a href = "#fig4">4</a>, <a href =
+"#fig9">9</a>, <a href = "#fig10">10</a>, <a href = "#fig12">12</a>,
+<a href = "#fig22">22</a>, <a href = "#fig25">25</a>). The bend at this
+point in the Southampton antlers is extremely slight by comparison. In
+mainland specimens the beam in cross-section is generally more or less
+round, with rarely any tendency toward flattening, such as may be seen
+in the Southampton set and in my No. 1132. Furthermore, I&nbsp;cannot
+recall in the mainland animals a single such pronounced zigzag effect as
+may be seen in the Southampton antlers. In extremely few of them does
+the bez tine originate at such a distance (apparently 8 inches or so)
+above the base, as in Sutton and Hamilton’s figure. The lack of
+palmation in the bez tines of their specimen is noteworthy.</p>
+
+<p>There is a distinct likelihood that the isolated herd of Coats Island
+(Wright, 1944: 188; Banfield, 1949: 481), and also that of Salisbury
+Island in Hudson Strait (Grant, 1903: 189; Tweedsmuir, 1951: 37), may be
+distinct from the populations on the nearest large land bodies.</p>
+
+<p>I have briefly examined a dozen or more heads (skulls with antlers)
+of the Labrador Barren Ground Caribou (<i>R.&nbsp;a. caboti</i>
+G.&nbsp;M. Allen) in the United States National Museum; they were
+collected by L.&nbsp;M. Turner in the 1880’s. Some of these antlers
+appear longer than any I saw in Keewatin. Furthermore, the tips of the
+bez tines
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page119" id = "page119">119</a></span>
+in these specimens seem, on the average, more strongly incurved than in
+<i>R.&nbsp;a. arcticus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>For the purpose of comparing the Barren Ground Caribou with the
+Western Woodland Caribou, <i>Rangifer caribou sylvestris</i>
+(Richardson), the following notes are offered on an adult male of the
+latter form in the United States Biological Surveys Collection (No.
+235361; fig. 28). It was secured by a Cree Indian on Stony Mountain,
+about 27 miles south of Fort McMurray, Alberta, on October 21, 1920, and
+it was measured and prepared by myself. The general dorsal color is near
+Prout’s Brown, overlaid more or less with longer whitish hairs; outer
+surface of ears near Prout’s Brown, with an admixture of grayish white
+hairs; tip of snout, between nostrils and upper lip, Cartridge Buff;
+this area of more restricted extent than the similar patch in
+<i>arcticus</i>; neck creamy; longest hairs of throat fringe about 20
+mm. (longer than in <i>arcticus</i>); no appreciable dark longitudinal
+stripe on lower sides, but an ill-defined lighter patch on the side
+behind the shoulder; rump-patch apparently less extensive than in
+<i>R.&nbsp;a. arcticus</i>; venter near Buffy Brown, posteriorly creamy;
+creamy white “spats” above hoofs ¼ to 1½ inches wide, not extending up
+hind leg as indicated by Seton (1929, <b>3</b>: pl. 10). Length, 2025;
+tail, 225; foot, 625; front hoof, 109; hind hoof, 101; estimated weight,
+300 lb. The Western Woodland Caribou is thus a distinctly larger animal
+than <i>R.&nbsp;a. arcticus</i>, with a noteworthy difference in the
+virtual absence of a light lateral stripe, setting off a darker stripe
+below it. The specific distinctness between the two animals seems
+abundantly clear.</p>
+
+<div class = "picture">
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page94" id = "page94">94</a></span>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig28" id = "fig28">&nbsp;</a><br>
+<img src = "images/fig28.jpg" width = "444" height = "356"
+alt = "see caption"></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 28.</span> Adult male Western Woodland
+Caribou (<i>Rangifer caribou sylvestris</i>) (No. 235361, U.S. Biol.
+Surveys Coll.). Stony Mountain, about 27 miles S. of Fort McMurray,
+Alberta, October 22, 1920. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References to general descriptions (including geographical
+variation).</i>&mdash;Richardson, 1829: 239, 241-242; Armstrong, 1857:
+478; Baird, 1857: 635; Caton, 1881: 105; Lydekker, 1898: 47-48, 1901:
+38-40, and 1915: 254; Elliot, 1901: 37, and 1902: 281-282, 286-287;
+Preble, 1902: 42-43; Stone and Cram, 1904: 52; J.&nbsp;A. Allen,
+1908<i>a</i>: 488; Millais, 1915: 261; Buchanan, 1920: 125-126; Anthony,
+1928: 530-531; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 98-99; Jacobi, 1931: 78-80; Sutton
+and Hamilton, 1932: 88; Degerbøl, 1935: 48-51; R.&nbsp;M. Anderson,
+1937: 103; Hamilton, 1939: 109; Murie, 1939: 239; G.&nbsp;M. Allen,
+1942: 297-298; Wright, 1944: 195; Rand, 1948<i>a</i>: 211-212; Banfield,
+1951<i>a</i>: 15-17; Mochi and Carter, 1953: text to pl. 9.
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote class = "reference">
+<i>References to illustrations.</i>&mdash;Parry, 1824: pl. facing p.
+508; Richardson, 1829: 240; Caton, 1881: 207; Pike, 1917 (1892): pl.
+facing p. 89; J.&nbsp;B. Tyrrell, 1897: pl. 1; J.&nbsp;W. Tyrrell, 1908
+(1898): pls. facing pp. 80, 81; Grant, 1903: 6th and 7th pls. following
+p. 196; J.&nbsp;A. Allen, 1908<i>a</i>: 500-503; Seton, 1911: 254, 256,
+262, and pls. facing pp. 222, 224, 226, 228, 234; Buchanan, 1920: pl.
+facing p. 132; Hewitt, 1921: pls. 3, 5; Blanchet, 1926<i>b</i>: 47;
+Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: pls. 17, 21, 22, 23; Blanchet, 1930: 50; Sutton
+and Hamilton, 1932: pl. 8, fig. 4; Ingstad, 1933: pl. facing p. 178;
+Clarke, 1940: frontisp., 85, 87, 89; Harper, 1949: 224, 229; Banfield,
+1951<i>a</i>: figs. 1, 2, 12-16, 20, 21, 23; Anonymous, 1952: 261, 263,
+266, 267; Mochi and Carter, 1953: pl.&nbsp;9; Barnett, 1954: 90-91,
+103-105.
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<div class = "literature">
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page120" id = "page120">120</a></span>
+<h3><a name = "literature" id = "literature">Literature Cited</a></h3>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Alcock, F. J.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1936.&nbsp; Geology of Lake Athabaska region,
+Saskatchewan. <i>Canada Dept. Mines, Geol. Survey Mem.</i> 196: [1]+41,
+8&nbsp;pl., 6&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Allen, Glover M.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1942.&nbsp; Extinct and vanishing mammals of the
+Western Hemisphere with the marine species of all the oceans. [New
+York]: xv + 620, 1&nbsp;pl., 24 fig.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Allen, J. A.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1908<i>a</i>. The Peary caribou (<i>Rangifer <ins class =
+"correction" title = "final ‘i’ not italicized">pearyi</ins></i> Allen).
+<i>Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.</i> <b>24</b> (22): 487-504, 12 fig.</p>
+
+<p>1908<i>b</i>. Note on the type locality of <i>Rangifer arctica</i>
+(Richardson). <i>Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.</i> <b>24</b> (29):
+583-584.</p>
+
+<p>1910.&nbsp; Mammals from the Athabaska-Mackenzie region of Canada.
+<i>Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.</i> <b>28</b> (2): 7-11.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Amundsen, Roald.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1908.&nbsp; The North West Passage. London:
+<b>1</b>: xiii + 335, 23 pl., 45 fig., 2&nbsp;maps; <b>2</b>: ix + 397,
+22 pl., 49 fig., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Anderson, James.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1856.&nbsp; Letter from Chief Factor James Anderson, to Sir George
+Simpson, F.R.G.S., Governor in Chief of Rupert Land. <i>Jour. Royal
+Geog. Soc.</i> <b>26</b>: 18-25.</p>
+
+<p>1857.&nbsp; Extracts from Chief-Factor James Anderson’s Arctic
+journal. (Communicated by John Richardson.) <i>Jour. Royal Geog.
+Soc.</i> <b>27</b>: 321-328.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Anderson, Rudolph Martin.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1913<i>a</i>. Arctic game notes. <i>Am. Mus. Jour.</i> <b>13</b> (1):
+4-21, 21 fig.</p>
+
+<p>1913<i>b</i>. Report on the natural history collections of the
+expedition. Mammals. In: Vilhjálmur Stefánsson, My life with the Eskimo:
+436-527, 4&nbsp;pl. New York.</p>
+
+<p>1924.&nbsp; The present status and future prospects of the larger
+mammals of Canada. <i>Scottish Geog. Mag.</i> <b>40</b> (Nov.):
+321-331.</p>
+
+<p>1934<i>a</i>. Mammals of the Eastern Arctic and Hudson Bay. In:
+Canada’s Eastern Arctic: 67-108, 8&nbsp;fig., 1&nbsp;map. Dept.
+Interior, Ottawa.</p>
+
+<p>1934<i>b</i>. The distribution, abundance, and economic importance of
+the game and fur-bearing mammals of western North America. <i>Proc.
+Fifth Pacific Sci. Congress</i>: 4055-4075, 17 maps.</p>
+
+<p>1937.&nbsp; Mammals and birds of the western Arctic district,
+Northwest Territories, Canada. In: Canada’s western northland: 97-122,
+4&nbsp;fig., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p>1938.&nbsp; The present status and distribution of the big game
+mammals of Canada. <i>Trans. Third No. Am. Wildlife Conference</i>:
+390-406.</p>
+
+<p>1947.&nbsp; Catalogue of Canadian Recent mammals. <i>Nat. Mus. Canada
+Bull.</i> 102: v&nbsp;+ 238, 1&nbsp;map, “1946.”</p>
+
+<p>1948.&nbsp; A survey of Canadian mammals of the north. <i>Prov.
+Quebec Assoc. Protection Fish and Game Ann. Rept. 1948</i>: 9-16.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page121" id = "page121">121</a></span>
+<p class = "smallcaps">Anonymous.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p><a name = "anon69" id = "anon69">1869.</a>&nbsp; Biography of Robert
+Kennicott. <i>Trans. Chicago Acad. Sci.</i> <b>1</b>: 133-226,
+1&nbsp;pl. (Contains extracts from his journals).</p>
+
+<p>1952.&nbsp; Canada counts its caribou. <i>Nat. Geog. Mag.</i>
+<b>102</b> (2): 261-268, 12 fig., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Anthony, H. E.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1928.&nbsp; Field book of North American mammals.
+New York<ins class = "correction" title = "text has - (hyphen)">&mdash;</ins>London: xxv + 625, 48 pl., 114 fig., 37 maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Armstrong, Alex.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1857.&nbsp; A personal narrative of the discovery
+of the North-West Passage.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. London: xxiv + 616,
+1&nbsp;pl., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Audubon, John James</span>, and <span class
+= "smallcaps">John Bachman</span>.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1854.&nbsp; The quadrupeds of North America. Vol.
+3. New York: v + 348, 55 pl.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Back, George.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1836.&nbsp; Narrative of the Arctic Land Expedition
+to the mouth of the Great Fish River, and along the shores of the Arctic
+Ocean, in the years 1833, 1834, and 1835. London: xi + 663, 16 pl.,
+2&nbsp;maps. (Also a Philadelphia ed., 1836, with 456 pp.)</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Bailey, Alfred M.</span>, and <span class =
+"smallcaps">Russell W. Hendee</span>.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1926.&nbsp; Notes on the mammals of northwestern
+Alaska. <i>Jour. Mammalogy</i> <b>7</b> (1): 9-28, 3&nbsp;pl.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Baird, Spencer F.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1857.&nbsp; General report upon the zoology of the
+several Pacific railroad routes. Part&nbsp;1. Mammals. <i>Reports of
+Explorations and Surveys, .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. from the Mississippi River to
+the Pacific Ocean</i> <b>8</b>: xxi-xlviii, 1-757, 44 pl., 35 fig.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Banfield, A. W. F.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1949.&nbsp; The present status of North American caribou. <i>Trans.
+Fourteenth No. Am. Wildlife Conference 1949</i>: 477-491,
+2&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p>1950.&nbsp; Caribou investigation. <i>Canadian Geog. Jour.</i>
+<b>40</b> (1): 48-51, 5&nbsp;fig.</p>
+
+<p>1951<i>a</i>. The barren-ground caribou. <i>Canada Dept. Resources
+and Development</i>, Ottawa: vi + 56, 24 fig., 8&nbsp;maps
+(Mimeographed.)</p>
+
+<p>1951<i>b</i>. Notes on the mammals of the Mackenzie District,
+Northwest Territories. <i>Arctic</i> <b>4</b> (2): 112-121, 4&nbsp;fig.,
+1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p>1952.&nbsp; Report on caribou investigations in the Canadian Arctic,
+1948-50. <i>Polar Record</i> <b>6</b> (44): 532-534. (Apparently a
+summary of Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>1954.&nbsp; Preliminary investigation of the barren ground caribou.
+Part 1. Former and present distribution, migrations, and status. Part 2.
+Life history, ecology, and utilization. <i>Canada Dept. Northern Affairs
+and National Resources, National Parks Branch, Canadian Wildlife
+Service, Wildlife Management Bull.</i>, ser.&nbsp;1, 10A: [2]+79,
+5&nbsp;fig., 12 maps; 10B: [2]+112, 30 fig., 1&nbsp;map. (Not seen until
+after the present report had gone to press.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Barnett, Lincoln.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1954.&nbsp; The world we live in: part 10. The
+arctic barrens. <i>Life</i> <b>36</b> (23): 90-115, 33 fig.,
+1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page122" id = "page122">122</a></span>
+<p class = "smallcaps">Beddard, Frank Evers.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1902.&nbsp; The Cambridge natural history. Vol. 10.
+Mammalia. London: xii + 605, 285 fig.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Bell, J. Macintosh.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1901<i>a</i>. Report on the topography and geology of Great Bear Lake
+and of a chain of lakes and streams thence to Great Slave Lake. <i>Ann.
+Rept. Geol. Survey Canada</i> <b>12</b> (n.s.) 1899, report C: 1-28.</p>
+
+<p>1901<i>b</i>. Explorations in the Great Bear Lake region. <i>Geog.
+Jour.</i> <b>18</b> (3): 249-258, 6&nbsp;fig.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Bell, Robert.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1881.&nbsp; Report on Hudson’s Bay and some of the
+lakes and rivers lying to the west of it. <i>Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey
+Canada Rept. Progress 1879-80</i>: [6], 1C-113C, 8&nbsp;pl.,
+1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Bergman, Arvid M.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1917.&nbsp; Om renens oestrider. <i>Entom.
+Tidskrift</i> <b>38</b>: 1-32, 113-146, 26 pl.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Birket-Smith, Kaj.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1929.&nbsp; The Caribou Eskimos. Material and social life and their
+cultural position. 1.&nbsp;Descriptive part. <i>Rept. Fifth Thule Exped.
+1921-24</i>, <b>5</b>: 1-306+[4], 116 fig., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p>1933.&nbsp; Geographical notes on the Barren Grounds. <i>Rept. Fifth
+Thule Exped. 1921-24</i>, <b>1</b> (4): 1-128+[4], 43 fig.,
+4&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p>1936.&nbsp; The Eskimos. New York: xiv + 250, 32 pl., 1 map.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Blanchet, G. H.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1925.&nbsp; An exploration into the northern plains north and east of
+Great Slave Lake, including the source of the Coppermine River.
+<i>Canadian Field-Naturalist</i> <b>38</b> (10): 183-187, “1924”;
+<b>39</b> (1): 12-16; (2): 30-34; (3): 52-54; 8&nbsp;fig., 1925.</p>
+
+<p>1926<i>a</i>. New light on forgotten trails in the far Northwest.
+<i>Canadian Field-Naturalist</i> <b>40</b> (4): 69-75; (5): 96-99;
+5&nbsp;fig., 2&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p>1926<i>b</i>. Great Slave Lake area, Northwest Territories. <i>Dept.
+Interior, North West Territories and Yukon Branch</i>, Ottawa: 3-58, 25
+fig., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p>1927.&nbsp; Crossing a great divide. <i>Bull. Geog. Soc.
+Philadelphia</i> <b>25</b>: 141-153, 4&nbsp;fig., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p>1930.&nbsp; Keewatin and northeastern Mackenzie. <i>Dept. Interior,
+North West Territories and Yukon Branch</i>, Ottawa: 1-78, 52 fig.,
+6&nbsp;charts.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Boas, Franz.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1888.&nbsp; The central Eskimo. <i>Sixth Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethnology
+1884-’85</i>: 399-675, 6&nbsp;pl., 152 fig., 7&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p>1901, 1907. The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay. <i>Bull. Am.
+Mus. Nat. Hist.</i> <b>15</b>, pt. 1: vi-xviii, 1-370, 1901; pt.&nbsp;2:
+371-570, 1907; 10 pl., 270 fig.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Bompas, William Carpenter.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1888.&nbsp; Diocese of Mackenzie River. London:
+[1]+108, 1 map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Buchanan, Angus.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1920.&nbsp; Wild life in Canada. Toronto: ix-xx,
+1-264, 16 pl., 1 map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Cabot, William B.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1912.&nbsp; In northern Labrador. Boston: xii +
+292, 48 pl., 2 maps.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page123" id = "page123">123</a></span>
+<p class = "smallcaps">Cameron, Agnes Deans.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1912.&nbsp; The new North . . . New York and
+London: xix + 398, 1 pl., 114 fig., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Camsell, Charles.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1916.&nbsp; An exploration of the Tazin and Taltson
+Rivers, North West Territories. <i>Geol. Survey</i> [Canada] <i>Mem.</i>
+84, <i>Geol. Ser.</i> 69: iii + 124, 18 pl., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Camsell, Charles, and Wyatt Malcolm.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1919.&nbsp; The Mackenzie River basin. <i>Canada
+Dept. Mines, Geol. Survey Mem.</i> 108: ii + 154, 14 pl.,
+2&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Caton, John Dean.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1881.&nbsp; The antelope and deer of America.
+Revised ed. Boston: v-xvi, 17-426, 1&nbsp;pl., 76 fig. (Orig. ed. in
+1877.)</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Chambers, Ernest J.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1914.&nbsp; The unexploited West. Dept. Interior,
+Ottawa: xv + 361+viii+xi, 52 fig., 8&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Christian, Edgar.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1937.&nbsp; Unflinching, a diary of tragic
+adventure. London: xi + 156, 8&nbsp;pl., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Clarke, C. H. D.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1940.&nbsp; A biological investigation of the
+Thelon Game Sanctuary. <i>Nat. Mus. Canada Bull.</i> 96: iv + 135,
+4&nbsp;pl., 21 fig., 4&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Collinson, Richard.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1889.&nbsp; Journal of H.M.S. Enterprise, on the
+expedition in search of Sir John Franklin’s ships by Behring Strait.
+1850-55. London: xii + 531, 2&nbsp;pl., 6&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Craig, J. D.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1927.&nbsp; Canadian Arctic Expedition 1923. In:
+Canada’s Arctic islands: 13-28, 9&nbsp;fig. Dept. Interior, Ottawa.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Critchell-Bullock, James C.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1930-1931. An expedition to sub-Arctic Canada,
+1924-25. <i>Canadian Field-Naturalist</i> <b>44</b> (3): 53-59; (4):
+81-87; (5): 111-117; (6): 140-145; (7): 156-162; (8): 187-196; (9):
+207-213, 1930; <b>45</b> (1): 11-18; (2): 31-35; 1&nbsp;pl., 1931.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Degerbøl, Magnus.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1935.&nbsp; Mammals. Part 1. Systematic notes.
+<i>Rept. Fifth Thule Exped. 1921-24</i>, <b>2</b> (4-5): 1-67, 12
+fig.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Dix, W. L.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1951.&nbsp; Lichens and hepatics of the Nueltin
+Lake Expedition, Keewatin. 1947. <i>Bryologist</i> <b>53</b> (4):
+283-288, 3&nbsp;fig., “December, 1950.”</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Dobbs, Arthur.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1744.&nbsp; An account of the countries adjoining
+to Hudson’s Bay. .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. London: ii + 211, 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Douglas, George M.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1914.&nbsp; Lands forlorn; a story of an expedition
+to Hearne’s Coppermine River. New York: xv + 285, 1&nbsp;pl., 185 fig.,
+1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Dowling, D. B.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1893.&nbsp; Narrative of a journey in 1890, from
+Great Slave Lake to Beechy
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page124" id = "page124">124</a></span>
+Lake, on the Great Fish River. From the journal of Mr. James
+McKinley.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. <i>Ottawa Naturalist</i> <b>7</b> (6):
+85-92; (7): 101-114.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Downes, P. G.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1943.&nbsp; Sleeping Island. New York: vii + 296,
+24 pl.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Dugmore, A. Radclyffe.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1913.&nbsp; The romance of the Newfoundland
+caribou, an intimate account of the life of the reindeer of North
+America. Philadelphia and London: viii + 192, 64 pl., 39 fig.,
+2&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Dutilly, Arthème.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1949.&nbsp; A bibliography of reindeer, caribou,
+and musk-ox. Dept. of the Army, Office of Quartermaster General,
+Military Planning Division, Research and Development Branch,
+Environmental Protection Section, Rept. 129, Washington: x&nbsp;+ 462.
+(Mimeographed.)</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Dyar, Harrison G.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1919.&nbsp; The mosquitoes collected by the
+Canadian Arctic Expedition, 1913-18. (Diptera, Culicidae.) <i>Rept.
+Canadian Arctic Exped. 1913-18</i>, <b>3</b>, part C: 31-33,
+2&nbsp;fig.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Ekblaw, W. Elmer.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1926.&nbsp; The American Arctic Archipelago. In:
+Victor E. Shelford (editor), Naturalist’s guide to the Americas: 98-102.
+Baltimore.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Elliot, Daniel Giraud.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1901.&nbsp; A synopsis of the mammals of North America and the
+adjacent seas. <i>Field Columbian Mus. Zool. Ser.</i> <b>2</b>: xv +
+471, 49 pl., 94 fig.</p>
+
+<p>1902.&nbsp; The caribou. In: Theodore Roosevelt, T. S. Van Dyke,
+D.&nbsp;G. Elliot, and A.&nbsp;J. Stone, The deer family: 259-287,
+8&nbsp;pl.</p>
+
+<p>1905.&nbsp; A check list of mammals of the North American continent,
+the West Indies, and the neighboring seas. <i>Field Columbian Mus.
+Publ.</i> 105, <i>Zool. Ser.</i> <b>6</b>: v + 761, 1&nbsp;pl.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Fisher, Alexander.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1821.&nbsp; A journal of a voyage of discovery to
+the Arctic regions, in His Majesty’s ships Hecla and Griper, in the
+years 1819 and 1820. Ed.&nbsp;2. London: iii-xi, 1-320, 18 fig.,
+1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Flerov, Constantine C.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1933.&nbsp; Review of the Palaearctic reindeer or caribou. <i>Jour.
+Mammalogy</i> <b>14</b> (4): 328-338, 9&nbsp;fig., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p>1934.&nbsp; A new palaeolithic reindeer from Siberia. <i>Jour.
+Mammalogy</i> <b>15</b> (3): 239-240.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Franklin, John.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1823.&nbsp; Narrative of a journey to the shores of
+the Polar Sea, in the years 1819, 20, 21, and 22. Zoological appendix:
+quadrupeds and birds, by Joseph Sabine, pp. 647-703; notices of the
+fishes, and botanical appendix, by John Richardson, pp. 705-783.
+London<ins class = "correction" title = ": missing">: </ins>xv + 783 +
+[1], 30 pl., 4&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Franklin, John</span>, and <span class =
+"smallcaps">John Richardson</span>.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1828.&nbsp; Narrative of a second expedition to the
+shores of the Polar Sea, in the years 1825, 1826, and 1827, by John
+Franklin.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Including an account of the progress of a
+detachment to the eastward, by John Richardson.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.
+London: 320 + clvii, 31 pl., 6&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page125" id = "page125">125</a></span>
+<p class = "smallcaps">Freuchen, Peter.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1935.&nbsp; Mammals. Part 2. Field notes and
+biological observations. <i>Rept. Fifth Thule Exped. 1921-24</i>,
+<b>2</b> (4-5): 68-278, 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Gavin, Angus.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1945.&nbsp; Notes on mammals observed in the Perry
+River district, Queen Maud Sea. <i>Jour. Mammalogy</i> <b>26</b> (3):
+226-230.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Gilder, William H.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1881.&nbsp; Schwatka’s search. Sledging in the
+Arctic in quest of the Franklin records. New York: xvi + 316, 12 pl., 18
+fig., 2&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Godman, John D.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1831.&nbsp; American natural history. Ed. 2, vol.
+2. Philadelphia: 1-330, 18 pl.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Godsell, Philip H.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1934.&nbsp; Arctic trader. New York: i-xvii, 19-329, 12 pl., 1
+map.</p>
+
+<p>1937.&nbsp; The “Blond” Eskimos and the “created want.” <i>Nat.
+Hist.</i> <b>39</b> (4): 285-289, 4&nbsp;fig.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Goldman, Edward A.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1944.&nbsp; Part 2. Classification of wolves. In:
+Stanley P. Young and Edward A. Goldman, The wolves of North America:
+387-636, 44 pl., 2&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Grant, Madison.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1903.&nbsp; The caribou. <i>Seventh Ann. Rept. New
+York Zool. Soc. .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. 1902</i>: 175-196, 32 pl.,
+1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Hamilton, W. J., Jr.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1939.&nbsp; American mammals, their lives, habits,
+and economic relations. New York: xii + 434, 1&nbsp;pl., 92 fig.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Hanbury, David T.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1900.&nbsp; A journey from Chesterfield Inlet to Great Slave Lake,
+1898-9. <i>Geog. Jour.</i> <b>16</b> (1): 63-77, 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p>1903.&nbsp; Through the Barren Ground of north-eastern Canada to the
+Arctic coast. <i>Geog. Jour.</i> <b>22</b> (2): 178-191, 9&nbsp;fig.,
+1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p>1904.&nbsp; Sport and travel in the northland of Canada. London and
+New York: xxxii + 319, 38 pl., 2&nbsp;fig., 2&nbsp;maps.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Harper, Francis.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1915.&nbsp; The Athabaska-Great Slave Lake expedition. <i>Summary
+Rept. Geol. Survey</i> [Canada] <i>1914</i>: 159-163.</p>
+
+<p>1932.&nbsp; Mammals of the Athabaska and Great Slave Lakes region.
+<i>Jour. Mammalogy</i> <b>13</b> (1): 19-36, 3&nbsp;pl.</p>
+
+<p>1945.&nbsp; Extinct and vanishing mammals of the Old World. <i>Am.
+Committee Internat. Wild Life Protection, Spl. Publ.</i> 12. New York:
+xvi + 850, 1&nbsp;pl., 67 fig.</p>
+
+<p>1949.&nbsp; In caribou land. <i>Nat. Hist.</i> <b>58</b> (5):
+224-231, 239-240, 12 fig., 2&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p>1953.&nbsp; Birds of the Nueltin Lake Expedition, Keewatin, 1947.
+<i>Am. Midland Naturalist</i> <b>49</b> (1): 1-116, 8&nbsp;fig.,
+1&nbsp;map. (“Jan.” = April?).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Hearne, Samuel.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1795.&nbsp; A journey from Prince of Wales’ Fort in
+Hudson’s Bay, to the Northern Ocean .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. in the years 1769,
+1770, 1771, 1772.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page126" id = "page126">126</a></span>
+London: xliv + 458, 9&nbsp;pl. (A&nbsp;Dublin edition, 1796, with nearly
+identical pagination.)</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Henderson, F. D.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1927.&nbsp; Canadian Arctic Expedition, 1924. In:
+Canada’s Arctic islands: 29-41, 6&nbsp;fig. Dept. Interior, Ottawa.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Henriksen, Kai L.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1937.&nbsp; Zoology. Insects collected on the Fifth
+Thule Expedition. <i>Rept. Fifth Thule Exped. 1921-24</i>, <b>2</b> (8).
+1-34, 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Hewitt, C. Gordon.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1921.&nbsp; The conservation of the wild life of
+Canada. New York: xxi + 344, 24 pl., 4&nbsp;fig., 10 maps,
+5&nbsp;charts.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Hoare, W. H. B.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1930.&nbsp; Conserving Canada’s musk-oxen; being an
+account of an investigation of the Thelon Game Sanctuary
+1928-29.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. (Including Appendix B, Notes on the
+musk-ox and the caribou, pp. 49-53, by R.&nbsp;M. Anderson.) Dept.
+Interior, Ottawa: 2-53, 22 fig., 4&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Hoffman, Arnold.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1949.&nbsp; The Northwest Territories: the last
+frontier. <i>Explorers’ Jour.</i> <b>27</b> (1): 10-12, 64.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Hooper, W. H.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1853.&nbsp; Ten months among the tents of the
+Tuski, with incidents of an Arctic boat expedition in search of Sir John
+Franklin, as far as the Mackenzie River, and Cape Bathurst. London: xvi
++ 417, 5&nbsp;pl., 6&nbsp;fig., 2&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Hornaday, William T.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1904.&nbsp; The American natural history. . . . New York: xxv + 449,
+343 fig., maps.</p>
+
+<p>1914.&nbsp; The American natural history. Fireside ed., vol. 2. New
+York: xv + 332, 23 pl., 62 fig., 6&nbsp;maps.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Hornby, John.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1934.&nbsp; Wild life in the Thelon River area,
+Northwest Territories, Canada. <i>Canadian Field-Naturalist</i>
+<b>48</b> (7): 105-115.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Hustich, Ilmari.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1951.&nbsp; The lichen woodlands in Labrador and
+their importance as winter pastures for domesticated reindeer. <i>Acta
+Geographica</i> <b>12</b> (1): 1-48, 18 fig., 4&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Ingstad, Helge.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1933.&nbsp; The land of feast and famine. New York:
+1-332, 31 pl., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Isham, James.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1949.&nbsp; James Isham’s observations on Hudsons
+Bay 1743. . . . (Edited by E.&nbsp;E. Rich and A.&nbsp;M. Johnson.)
+<i>Publ. Champlain Soc., Hudson’s Bay Company ser.</i> 12. Toronto:
+iii-cv, 1-198, 1&nbsp;pl., 18 fig.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Jackson, Hartley H. T.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1944.&nbsp; Big-game resources of the United States
+1937-1942. <i>U.S. Dept. Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Research
+Rept.</i>&nbsp;8: ii + 56, 31 fig.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page127" id = "page127">127</a></span>
+<p class = "smallcaps">Jacobi, Arnold.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1931.&nbsp; Das Rentier. <i>Zool. Anzeiger</i>,
+suppl. vol. 96: vii + 264, 6&nbsp;pl., 25 fig., 7&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Jenness, Diamond.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1922.&nbsp; The life of the Copper Eskimo. <i>Rept. Canadian Arctic
+Exped. 1913-18</i>, <b>12</b>: 1-277, 9&nbsp;pl., 69 fig.,
+2&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p>1932.&nbsp; The Indians of Canada. <i>Nat. Mus. Canada Bull.</i> 65:
+x&nbsp;+ 446, 7&nbsp;pl., 118 fig., 10 maps.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Johansen, Frits.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1921.&nbsp; Insect life on the western Arctic coast
+of America. <i>Rept. Canadian Arctic Exped. 1913-18</i>, <b>3</b>, pt.
+K: 1-61, 10 pl., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Jones, Charles J.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1899.&nbsp; Buffalo Jones’ forty years of
+adventure. . . . Compiled by Henry Inman. Topeka: xii + 469, 37 pl.,
+9&nbsp;fig.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Kennedy, William.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1853.&nbsp; A short narrative of the second voyage
+of the <i>Prince Albert</i>, in search of Sir John Franklin. London: xiv
++ xxv, 27-202, 4&nbsp;pl., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Kennicott, Robert.</span> (<i>See</i>
+<a href = "#anon69">Anonymous, 1869</a>.)</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Kindle, E. M.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1917.&nbsp; A note on the migration of the Barren Ground Caribou.
+<i>Ottawa Naturalist</i> <b>31</b> (9): 107-109.</p>
+
+<p>1928.&nbsp; Canada north of fifty-six degrees: the land of long
+summer days. <i>Canadian Field-Naturalist</i> <b>42</b> (3): 53-86, 19
+pl., 9&nbsp;fig., 4&nbsp;maps.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">King, Richard.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1836.&nbsp; Narrative of a journey on the shores of
+the Arctic Ocean, in 1833, 1834, and 1835; under the command of Capt.
+Back, R.N. London: <b>1</b>: ix + 312; <b>2</b>: viii + 321.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Kitto, F. H.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1930.&nbsp; The North West Territories 1930. Dept.
+Interior, Ottawa: 1-137, 44 fig., 3&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Kumlien, Ludwig.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1879.&nbsp; Contributions to the natural history of
+Arctic America.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. Introduction, ethnology, mammals.
+<i>Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus.</i> 15: 3-67.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Lantis, Margaret.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1950.&nbsp; The reindeer industry in Alaska.
+<i>Arctic</i> <b>3</b> (1): 27-44, 2&nbsp;fig., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Lofthouse, J.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1899.&nbsp; A trip on the Tha-anne River, Hudson
+Bay. <i>Geog. Jour.</i> <b>13</b> (3): 274-277, 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Lydekker, Richard.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1898.&nbsp; The deer of all lands. London: xx + 329, 24 pl., 80
+fig.</p>
+
+<p>1901.&nbsp; The great and small game of Europe, western &amp;
+northern Asia, and America; their distribution, habits, and structure.
+London: xx + 445, 8&nbsp;pl., 75 fig.</p>
+
+<p>1915.&nbsp; Catalogue of the ungulate mammals in the British Museum
+(Natural History). Vol.&nbsp;4. London: xxi + 438, 56 fig.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page128" id = "page128">128</a></span>
+<p class = "smallcaps">Lyon, George F.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1824.&nbsp; The private journal of Captain G. F.
+Lyon, of H.M.S. Hecla, during the recent voyage of discovery under
+Captain Parry. London: xiv + 468, 7&nbsp;pl., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<span class = "smallcaps">M’Clintock, F. L.</span>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1860? In the Arctic seas. A narrative of the
+discovery of the fate of Sir John Franklin and his companions.
+Philadelphia: xxiii + 375, 1&nbsp;pl., 5&nbsp;fig.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">MacFarlane, R.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1890.&nbsp; On an expedition down the Begh-ula or Anderson River.
+<i>Canadian Record Sci.</i> <b>4</b> (1): 28-53.</p>
+
+<p>1905.&nbsp; Notes on mammals collected and observed in the northern
+Mackenzie River district, Northwest Territories of
+Canada.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. <i>Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.</i> <b>28</b>
+(1405): 673-764, 5&nbsp;pl., 2&nbsp;fig.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">McLean, John.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1932.&nbsp; John McLean’s notes of a twenty-five
+year’s service in the Hudson’s Bay territory. (Edited by W.&nbsp;S.
+Wallace.) <i>Publ. Champlain Soc.</i> 19. Toronto: xxxvi + 402,
+1&nbsp;map. (Originally published in 1849.)</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">McLean, W. J.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1901.&nbsp; Notes and observations of travels on
+the Athabasca and Slave Lake regions in 1899. <i>Trans. Hist. and Sci.
+Soc. Manitoba</i> 58: 7&nbsp;pp.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Mallet, Thierry.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1926.&nbsp; Plain tales of the North. New York and London: 1-136.</p>
+
+<p>1930.&nbsp; Glimpses of the Barren Lands. New York: 1-142, 7 pl.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Malloch, J. R.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1919.&nbsp; The Diptera collected by the Canadian
+Expedition, 1913-1918. (Excluding the Tipulidae and Culicidae.) <i>Rept.
+Canadian Arctic Exped. 1913-18</i>, <b>3</b>, pt. C: 34-90,
+4&nbsp;pl.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Manning, T. H.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1942.&nbsp; Remarks on the physiography, Eskimo, and mammals of
+Southampton Island. <i>Canadian Geog. Jour.</i> <ins class =
+"correction" title = "printed as bold italics"><b>24</b></ins> (1):
+16-33, 16 fig., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p>1943<i>a</i>. Notes on the mammals of south and central west Baffin
+Island. <i>Jour. Mammalogy</i> <b>24</b> (1): 47-59, 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p>1943<i>b</i>. Notes on the coastal district of the eastern Barren
+Grounds and Melville Peninsula from Igloolik to Cape Fullerton.
+<i>Canadian Geog. Jour.</i> <b>26</b> (2): 84-105, 16 fig.,
+2&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p>1948.&nbsp; Notes on the country, birds and mammals west of Hudson
+Bay between Reindeer and Baker Lakes. <i>Canadian Field-Naturalist</i>
+<b>62</b> (1): 1-28, 8&nbsp;fig., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Millais, J. G.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1907.&nbsp; Newfoundland and its untrodden ways. London: xvi + 340,
+86 pl., 1&nbsp;fig., 2&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p>1915.&nbsp; The caribou. In: The gun at home &amp; abroad: the big
+game of Asia and North America: 255-280, 9&nbsp;pl. London.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page129" id = "page129">129</a></span>
+<p class = "smallcaps">Miller, Gerrit S., Jr.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1924.&nbsp; List of North American recent mammals
+1923. <i>U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull.</i> 128: xvi + 673.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Mochi, Ugo, and T. Donald Carter.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1953.&nbsp; Hoofed mammals of the world. New York
+and London: 89 unnumbered pp., 294 fig., 5&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Munn, Henry Toke.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1932.&nbsp; Prairie trails and Arctic by-ways.
+London: 1-288, 16 pl.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Murie, Olaus J.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1935.&nbsp; Alaska-Yukon caribou. <i>U.S. Dept. Agric., No. Am.
+Fauna</i> <b>54</b>: 1-93, 10 pl., 13 fig., 3&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p>1939.&nbsp; The Caribou. Description and distribution. In: Alfred
+Ely, H.&nbsp;E. Anthony, and R.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;M. Carpenter, North
+American big game: 239-246, 1&nbsp;pl., 1&nbsp;map. New York and
+London.</p>
+
+<p>1941.&nbsp; Wildlife introductions in Alaska. <i>Trans. Fifth No. Am.
+Wildlife Conference</i>: 432-436.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Murray, Andrew.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1858.&nbsp; Contributions to the natural history of
+the Hudson’s Bay Company’s territories. Part&nbsp;1.&mdash;Reindeer.
+<i>Edinburgh New Philos. Jour.</i> <b>7</b> (2): 189-210,
+4&nbsp;fig.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Natvig, L. Reinhardt.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1918.&nbsp; Beitrag zur Biologie der Dasselfliegen
+des Renntieres. <i>Tromsø Mus. Aarshefter</i> <b>38</b>/<b>39</b>:
+117-132, 1&nbsp;pl., 5&nbsp;fig.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Nelson, E. W.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1916.&nbsp; The larger North American mammals.
+<i>Nat. Geog. Mag.</i> <b>30</b> (5): 385-472, 33 pl., 24 fig.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Nourse, J. E.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1884.&nbsp; American explorations in the ice zones.
+. . . Boston: 3-578, 121 fig., 6&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Osborn, Sherard.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1852.&nbsp; Stray leaves from an Arctic journal; or, eighteen months
+in the polar regions, in search of Sir John Franklin’s Expedition, in
+the years 1850-51. New York: 1-216.</p>
+
+<p>1865.&nbsp; The discovery of a North-west Passage by H.M.S.
+Investigator, Capt. R. M’Clure, during the years
+1850-1851-1852-1853-1854. Ed.&nbsp;4. Edinburgh and London: xxvi + 358,
+1&nbsp;map. (Ed. 1&nbsp;in 1856.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Parry, William Edward.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1821.&nbsp; Journal of a voyage for the discovery of a north-west
+passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific; performed in the years
+1819-20, in His Majesty’s ships Hecla and Griper.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.
+Ed.&nbsp;2. London: [8] + xxix + 310 + clxxix, 14 pl., 6&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p>1824.&nbsp; Journal of a second voyage for the discovery of a
+north-west passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific; performed in the
+years 1821-22-23, in His Majesty’s ships Fury and
+Hecla.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. London: [6] + xxx + 572, clxxv-cccx, 30 pl.,
+16 fig., 9&nbsp;maps.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Peary, R. E.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1907.&nbsp; Nearest the Pole. . . . New York: xx +
+411, 65 pl., 2 maps.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page130" id = "page130">130</a></span>
+<p class = "smallcaps">Perez-Llano, George Albert.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1944.&nbsp; Lichens&mdash;their biological and
+economic significance. <i>Botanical Rev.</i> <b>10</b> (1): 1-65.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Pike, Warburton.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1917.&nbsp; The Barren Ground of northern Canada.
+[Ed. 2?] New York: xii + 334, 15 pl., 1&nbsp;map. (Originally published
+in 1892.)</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Pocock, R. I.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1911.&nbsp; On the specialized cutaneous glands of
+ruminants. <i>Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1910</i>: 840-986, 60 fig.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polunin, Nicholas.</i></p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1949.&nbsp; Arctic unfolding. . . . London: 1-348,
+33 pl., 3 maps.</p>
+
+<p><i>Porsild, A. E.</i></p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1943.&nbsp; Reindeer and caribou grazing in Canada. <i>Trans. Seventh
+No. Am. Wildlife Conference</i>: 381-390, “1942.”</p>
+
+<p>1950.&nbsp; A biological exploration of Banks and Victoria Islands.
+<i>Arctic</i> <b>3</b> (1): 45-54, 6&nbsp;fig., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p>1951.&nbsp; Caribou in Greenland. <i>Arctic Circular</i> <b>4</b>
+(4): 52-58. (Mimeographed.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Preble, Edward A.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1902.&nbsp; A biological investigation of the Hudson Bay region.
+<i>U.S. Dept. Agric., No. Am. Fauna</i> 22: 1-140, 13 pl.,
+1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p>1908.&nbsp; A biological investigation of the Athabaska-Mackenzie
+region. <i>U.S. Dept. Agric., No. Am. Fauna</i> 27: 1-574, 21 pl., 12
+fig., 8&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p>1926.&nbsp; The Mackenzie watershed; northern Hudson Bay region,
+upper Yukon region, and the Arctic islands. In: Victor E. Shelford
+(editor), Naturalist’s guide to the Americas: 115-141. Baltimore.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Rae, John.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1850.&nbsp; Narrative of an expedition to the shores of the Arctic
+Sea in 1846 and 47. London: viii + 248, 2&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p>1852<i>a</i>. Journey from Great Bear Lake to Wollaston Land.
+<i>Jour. Royal Geog. Soc. London</i> <b>22</b>: 73-82, 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p>1852<i>b</i>. Recent explorations along the south and east coast of
+Victoria Land. <i>Jour. Royal Geog. Soc. London</i> <b>22</b>: 82-96,
+1&nbsp;map.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Rand, A. L.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1948<i>a</i>. Mammals of the eastern Rockies and western plains of
+Canada. <i>Nat. Mus. Canada Bull.</i> 108: ii-vii, 1-237, 4&nbsp;pl., 81
+fig., 4&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p>1948<i>b</i>. Mr. W. H. Bryenton’s notes on Manitoba mammals of the
+Herb Lake-Flin Flon area. <i>Canadian Field-Naturalist</i> <b>62</b>
+(5): 140-150.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Rasmussen, Knud.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1927.&nbsp; Across Arctic America: narrative of the
+Fifth Thule Expedition. New York-London: 1-388, 66 pl., 4&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Raup, Hugh M.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1933.&nbsp; Range conditions in the Wood Buffalo
+Park of western Canada with notes on the history of the wood bison.
+<i>Am. Comm. Internat. Wild Life Protection, Spl. Publ.</i> <b>1</b>
+(2): 1-52, 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Rausch, Robert.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1951.&nbsp; Notes on the Nunamiut Eskimo and
+mammals of the Anaktuvuk
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page131" id = "page131">131</a></span>
+Pass region, Brooks Range, Alaska. <i>Arctic</i> <b>4</b> (3): 147-195,
+12 fig., 3&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Richardson, John.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>“1825.” Zoological appendix. No. 1. Account of the quadrupeds and
+birds. In: Appendix to Captain Parry’s journal of a second voyage for
+the discovery of a north-west passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific,
+performed in His Majesty’s ships Fury and Hecla, in the years
+1821-22-23: 287-379. London. (“Published probably in 1827”&mdash;Preble,
+1908: 536.)</p>
+
+<p>1829.&nbsp; Fauna boreali-americana . . . . Part 1. Quadrupeds.
+London; xlvi + 300, 28 pl., 5&nbsp;fig.</p>
+
+<p>1836.&nbsp; Zoological remarks. In: George Back, Narrative of the
+Arctic Land Expedition to the mouth of the Great Fish River, and along
+the shores of the Arctic Ocean, in the years 1833, 1834, and 1835:
+475-542. London.</p>
+
+<p>1852.&nbsp; Arctic Searching Expedition: a journal of a boat-voyage
+through Rupert’s Land and the Arctic Sea, in search of the discovery
+ships under command of Sir John Franklin. [Ed.&nbsp;2?] New York:
+iii-xi, 13-516, 8&nbsp;fig.</p>
+
+<p>1861.&nbsp; The polar regions. Edinburgh: ix + 400, 1 map.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Ridgway, Robert.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1912.&nbsp; Color standards and color nomenclature.
+Washington, D.C.: iv + 44, 53 pl.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Ross, Bernard R.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1861.&nbsp; An account of the animals useful in an economic point of
+view to the various Chipewyan tribes. <i>Canadian Naturalist and
+Geologist</i> <b>6</b> (6): 433-441.</p>
+
+<p>1862.&nbsp; List of mammals, birds, and eggs, observed in the
+McKenzie’s River district, with notices. <i>Canadian Naturalist and
+Geologist</i> <b>7</b> (2): 137-155.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Ross, James Clark.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1826.&nbsp; Natural history. Zoology. Mammalia. In:
+William Edward Parry, Journal of a third voyage for the discovery of a
+North-west Passage .&nbsp;.&nbsp;.: 92-95. London.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Ross, John.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1835<i>a</i>. Narrative of a second voyage in search of a North-west
+Passage .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. during the years 1829, 1830, 1831, 1832, 1833.
+London: [5] + xxxiv + 740, 23 pl., 5&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p>1835<i>b</i>. Appendix to the narrative of a second voyage in search
+of a North-west Passage .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. during the years 1829, 1830,
+1831, 1832, 1833. London: xii + 120 + cxliv + [1], 20 pl. (Includes a
+report by James Clark Ross on zoology [mammals], pp. vii-xxiv.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Rousseau, Jacques.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1948.&nbsp; The vegetation and life zones of George
+River, eastern Ungava and the welfare of the natives. <i>Arctic</i>
+<b>1</b> (2): 93-96.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Russell, Frank.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1895.&nbsp; Hunting the Barren Ground Caribou.
+<i>Ottawa Naturalist</i> <b>9</b> (2): 48-51.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page132" id = "page132">132</a></span>
+<p class = "hanging">1898.&nbsp; Explorations in the Far North. [Iowa
+City, Iowa]: ix + 290, 21 pl., 6&nbsp;fig., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Scheffer, Victor B.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1951.&nbsp; The rise and fall of a reindeer herd.
+<i>Sci. Monthly</i> <b>73</b> (6): 356-362, 9&nbsp;fig.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Schwatka, Frederick.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1885.&nbsp; Nimrod in the North. New York: 1-198, 1
+pl., 78 fig.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Scott, Peter.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1951.&nbsp; Wild geese and Eskimos. . . . London
+and New York: 1-254, 25 pl., 41 fig., 3&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Seton, Ernest Thompson.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1911.&nbsp; The Arctic prairies. New York: xvi + 415, 32 pl., 116
+fig., 9&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p>1929.&nbsp; Lives of game animals. . . . Garden City, N.Y.: <b>1</b>:
+xxxix + [1] + 640, 118 pl., 16 fig., 12 maps; <b>2</b>:&nbsp;xvii + [1]
++ 746, 98 pl., 27 fig., 13 maps; <b>3</b>:&nbsp;xix + [1] + 780, 96 pl.,
+23 fig., 10 maps.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Simpson, Thomas.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1843.&nbsp; Narrative of the discoveries on the
+north coast of America .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. during the years 1836-39. London:
+xix + 419, 2&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Siple, Paul A.</span>, and <span class =
+"smallcaps">Charles F. Passel</span>.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1945.&nbsp; Measurements of dry atmospheric cooling
+in subfreezing temperatures. <i>Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.</i> <b>89</b>
+(1): 177-199, 7&nbsp;fig., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Soper, J. Dewey.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1936.&nbsp; The Lake Harbour region, Baffin Island. <i>Geog. Rev.</i>
+<b>26</b> (3): 426-438, 9&nbsp;fig., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p>1942.&nbsp; Mammals of Wood Buffalo Park, northern Alberta and
+district of Mackenzie. <i>Jour. Mammalogy</i> <b>23</b> (2): 119-145,
+2&nbsp;pl., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p>1944.&nbsp; The mammals of southern Baffin Island, Northwest
+Territories, Canada. <i>Jour. Mammalogy</i> <b>25</b> (3): 221-254,
+2&nbsp;pl., 2&nbsp;fig., 2&nbsp;maps.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Stefánsson, Vilhjálmur.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1913<i>a</i>. Victoria Island and the surrounding seas. <i>Bull. Am.
+Geog. Soc.</i> <b>45</b> (2): 93-106, 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p>1913<i>b</i>. My life with the Eskimo. New York: ix + 538, 60 pl.,
+2&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p>1914.&nbsp; The Stefánsson-Anderson Arctic Expedition of the American
+Museum: preliminary ethnological report. <i>Anthrop. Papers Am. Mus.
+Nat. Hist.</i> <b>14</b>, pt.&nbsp;1: [1] + 395, 95 fig.,
+2&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p>1919.&nbsp; “Living off the country” as a method of Arctic
+exploration. <i>Geog. Rev.</i> <b>7</b> (5): 291-310, 15 fig.</p>
+
+<p>1921.&nbsp; The friendly Arctic. . . . (With appendix, including (pp.
+737-757): The work of the southern section of the expedition, by Rudolph
+M. Anderson.) New York: xxxi + 784, 70 pl., 9&nbsp;maps.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Stewart, Norman H.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1930? Preliminary report on the occurrence of the
+nose fly (Cephenomyia) in the deer of Pennsylvania. <i>Board Game
+Commissioners Pennsylvania Bull.</i> (12) rev.: 61-65, 2&nbsp;fig.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Stockwell, C. H.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1933.&nbsp; Great Slave Lake&mdash;Coppermine River
+area, Northwest Territories. <i>Canada Dept. Mines, Geol. Survey,
+Summary Rept. 1932</i>, pt. C: 64-72, 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page133" id = "page133">133</a></span>
+<p class = "smallcaps">Stone, A. J.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1900.&nbsp; Some results of a natural history
+journey to northern British Columbia, Alaska, and the Northwest
+Territory, in the interest of the American Museum of Natural History.
+<i>Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.</i> <b>13</b> (5): 31-62, 2&nbsp;fig.,
+3&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Stone, Witmer</span>, and <span class =
+"smallcaps">William Everett Cram</span>.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1904.&nbsp; American animals, a popular guide to
+the mammals of North America north of Mexico.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. New
+York: xxiii + 318, 86 pl., 17 fig.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "smallcaps">Sutton, George Miksch</span>, and <span
+class = "smallcaps">William J. Hamilton, Jr.</span></p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1932.&nbsp; The mammals of Southampton Island.
+<i>Mem. Carnegie Mus.</i> <b>12</b>, pt. 2, sect.&nbsp;1: 1-111,
+5&nbsp;pl., 4&nbsp;fig.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Thompson, David.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1916.&nbsp; David Thompson’s narrative of his
+explorations in western America 1784-1812. Edited by J.&nbsp;B. Tyrrell.
+<i>Publ. Champlain Soc.</i> 12: xcviii + 582, 21 pl., 2&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Tweedsmuir, [Lord].</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1951.&nbsp; Hudson’s Bay trader. New York: 1-195, 8
+pl., 1 map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Twinn, C. R.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1950.&nbsp; Studies of the biology and control of
+biting flies in northern Canada. <i>Arctic</i> <b>3</b> (1): 14-26, 11
+fig.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Tyrrell, James W.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1908.&nbsp; Across the sub-Arctics of Canada. Ed. 3. Toronto: i-viii,
+9-280, 18 pl., 66 fig., 3&nbsp;maps. (Orig. ed. in 1898.)</p>
+
+<p>1924.&nbsp; Report on an exploratory survey between Great Slave Lake
+and Hudson Bay, districts of Mackenzie and Keewatin. Dept. Interior,
+Ottawa: 1-38, maps. (Reprinted from <i>Ann. Rept. Dept. Interior</i>
+1901 [1902].)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Tyrrell, J. Burr.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1892.&nbsp; The winter home of the Barren Ground Caribou. <i>Ottawa
+Naturalist</i> <b>6</b> (8): 128-130.</p>
+
+<p>1894.&nbsp; An expedition through the Barren Lands of northern
+Canada. <i>Geog. Jour.</i> <b>4</b> (5): 437-450, 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p>1895.&nbsp; A second expedition through the Barren Lands of northern
+Canada. <i>Geog. Jour.</i> <b>6</b> (5): 438-448, 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p>1896.&nbsp; Report on the country between Athabasca Lake and
+Churchill River with notes on two routes travelled between the Churchill
+and Saskatchewan Rivers. Ann. <i>Rept. Geog. Survey Canada</i> <b>8</b>
+(n.s.), 1895, rept. D: 1-120, 3&nbsp;pl., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p>1897.&nbsp; Report on the Doobaunt, Kazan and Ferguson Rivers and the
+north-west coast of Hudson Bay, and on two overland routes from Hudson
+Bay to Lake Winnipeg. <i>Ann. Rept. Geol. Survey Canada</i> <b>9</b>
+(n.s.), 1896, rept. F: 1-218, 11 pl., 3&nbsp;maps.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">[United States] War Department.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1944.&nbsp; Arctic manual. <i>Technical Manual</i>
+1-240. Washington: 1-131, 21 fig., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Weber, Neal A.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1950.&nbsp; A survey of the insects and related
+arthropods of Arctic Alaska. Part&nbsp;1. <i>Trans. Am. Entom. Soc.</i>
+<b>76</b> (3): 147-206, 7&nbsp;pl.</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page134" id = "page134">134</a></span>
+<p class = "smallcaps">Weeks, L. J.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1933.&nbsp; Maguse River and part of Ferguson River
+basin, Northwest Territories. <i>Canada Dept. Mines, Geol. Survey,
+Summary Rept. 1932</i>, pt. C: 64-72, 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Weyer, Edward Moffatt, Jr.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1932.&nbsp; The Eskimos: their environment and
+folkways. New Haven: xvii + 491, 6&nbsp;fig., 23 maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Wheeler, David E.</p>
+
+<div class = "hanging">
+<p>1912.&nbsp; Notes on the spring migration at timber line, north of
+Great Slave Lake. <i>Auk</i> <b>29</b> (2): 198-204, 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p>1914.&nbsp; The Dog-rib Indian and his home. Bull. <i>Geog. Soc.
+Philadelphia</i> <b>12</b> (2): 47-69, 3&nbsp;pl., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Whitney, Caspar.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1896.&nbsp; On snow-shoes to the Barren Grounds. .
+. . New York: x + 324, 35 pl., 77 fig., 2&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Whittaker, E. J.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1919.&nbsp; Notes on midwinter life in the Far
+North. <i>Ottawa Naturalist</i> <b>32</b> (9): 166-167.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Wray, O. R.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1934.&nbsp; In the footsteps of Samuel Hearne.
+<i>Canadian Geog. Jour.</i> <b>9</b> (3): 138-146, 15 fig.,
+2&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Wright, J. G.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1944.&nbsp; Economic wildlife of Canada’s eastern
+Arctic&mdash;caribou. <i>Canadian Geog. Jour.</i> <b>29</b> (4):
+184-195, 12 fig., 1&nbsp;map.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Young, Stanley P.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1944.&nbsp; The wolves of North America. Part 1.
+Their history, life habits, economic status, and control. Washington:
+1-385, 74 pl., 4&nbsp;fig., 8&nbsp;maps.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Yule, Robert F.</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">1948.&nbsp; The disappearing caribou. <i>Canadian
+Medic. Assoc. Jour.</i> <b>58</b>: 287-288, 1&nbsp;fig.</p>
+
+</div>
+<!-- end div literature -->
+
+
+<h3><a name = "biblio" id = "biblio">
+Annotated Bibliographical References</a><br>
+to<br>
+<i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i></h3>
+
+
+<p>These references are arranged chronologically, year by year; but
+within a given year, the arrangement for the most part is alphabetical
+by authors. The full citations of the publications (here designated
+merely by author and year) may be found in the preceding “Literature
+Cited.”</p>
+
+<p>The name or names at the beginning of each entry are those by which
+the animal is referred to in that particular publication. If the author
+supplies a technical name (such as <i>Rangifer arcticus</i>), that name
+alone is furnished here. The authority for the technical name is
+included or omitted according to the usage of each author.
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page135" id = "page135">135</a></span>
+If he omits a technical name, the common name or names he employs (such
+as “Caribou” or “Reindeer”) are supplied.</p>
+
+<p>In some of the earlier accounts, particularly, more than one form of
+<i>Rangifer</i> (<i>e.g.</i>, Peary’s Caribou, the Labrador Caribou, or
+even the Woodland Caribou, in addition to the typical Barren Ground
+Caribou) may have been treated under a single designation, such as
+“Reindeer” or “<i>Cervus tarandus</i>.” In such case the word “part” is
+added in parentheses after the name at the beginning of the entry. As
+far as is possible or feasible, the references are here limited to
+<i>R.&nbsp;a. arcticus</i>. They constitute a partial summary of the
+nomenclatural history of the typical subspecies.</p>
+
+<p>The annotations aim to provide a sort of abstract of, or
+unalpha&shy;betized index to, the treatment of this animal in each
+publication. Each topic or rubric of the annotations (such as migration,
+distribution, food, voice, antlers, or relation to Wolves) is
+accompanied by page references.</p>
+
+<p>In the earlier part of the present publication, at the end of the
+discussion of each topic, references are given (merely by author, year,
+and page) to previous literature on the same topic. The Annotated
+Biblio&shy;graphical References now supplied represent an amplification
+of those earlier and briefer references&mdash;an intermediate stage
+between them and the original literature. It is hoped that they will
+prove particularly helpful to those who may not have ready access to all
+the items of the original literature. My own coverage of the literature
+has not been by any means exhaustive; limitations of time and
+insufficient accessibility of some of the rarer publications have been
+the principal factors involved in this deficiency.</p>
+
+<p>The chronological arrangement of the entries throws an interesting
+light on the gradual acquisition, during more than two centuries, of our
+present stock of information on the distribution, taxonomic characters,
+life habits, and general status of <i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i>. It
+may be remarked, however, that one of the very earliest accounts
+(Hearne, 1795) was one of the fullest. It contributes toward bringing
+into focus the remarkable attainments of that pioneer
+explorer-naturalist of the Barren Grounds.</p>
+
+<div class = "biblio">
+
+<p>“Deer” (one of three kinds): Isham, 1949 (1743): 151 (description);
+152 (inhabit Barren Grounds); 152-153 (snares); 154 (Eskimos hunting
+with spears and arrows).</p>
+
+<p>“Rain-deer” or “Cariboux”: Dobbs, 1774: 9, 78, 94 (Marble Island); 19
+(Indians living on Caribou W. of Hudson Bay); 20 (herds of up to 10,000
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page136" id = "page136">136</a></span>
+between Churchill and Nelson rivers); 22 (migration [of Barren Ground or
+Woodland species?] near York Factory&mdash;S. in March-April, N. in
+July-August); 47, 59 (N. of Churchill); 73-74 (Wager Inlet); 80 (Cape
+Fullerton).</p>
+
+<p>“Deer”: Hearne, 1795: 4, 7, 8, 14, 24 (vicinity of Seal River or
+Shethanei Lake); 28 (near Baralzon Lake); 35 (spearing by Chipewyans on
+upper Kazan River); 39, 40 (W. of upper Kazan River, July 22-30); 40-42,
+50-52 (vicinity of upper Dubawnt River); 50 (skins suitable for clothing
+in late August); 56, 66 (vicinity of Egg River, Manitoba, November and
+December); 67-68 (E. of Nueltin Lake); 69, 72, (Nueltin Lake); 69 (flesh
+of bucks still unpalatable on December 30); 73, 74 (W. of Nueltin Lake,
+January); 76 (plentiful W. of Kasba Lake); 77 (Snowbird Lake); 78
+(Indians living all winter on deer at Wholdaia Lake); 78-80 (description
+of a pound); 80-84 (deer in Indian economy); 84 (remoteness a barrier to
+trade in skins); 85-87 (W. of Wholdaia Lake, plentiful, March); 87
+(“Thelewey-aza-yeth” Lake [on Thelon River], numerous, April); 96
+(Indians living all winter on deer near Clowey Lake); 112, 114 (“Peshew”
+[Artillery?] Lake and vicinity); 117 (plentiful, vicinity of
+Thoy-noy-kyed and Thoy-coy-lyned lakes); 119, 123 (N. of Cogead Lake,
+where Indians kill deer at a river crossing); 139 (N. of Buffalo Lake);
+141 (E. of Coppermine River); 142, 143, 147, 171 (Coppermine River and
+vicinity); 184 (Stony Mountains); 195 (Thaye-chuck-gyed Lake [Lac de
+Gras?]; great numbers killed); 196-197 (use for clothing, boots, tents,
+etc.); 197 (warbles eaten by Indians); 198 (rutting season in October;
+subsequent segregation of sexes); 198-199 (old bucks’ antlers shed in
+November; young bucks still retain theirs at Christmas, and does till
+summer); 201, 204 (Point Lake); 222 (between Great Slave and MacKay
+lakes); 275 (large numbers reported on upper Taltson? River); 281 (W. of
+Hill Island Lake); 285, 286 (plentiful in April on Thee-lee-aza
+[Thelon?] River, NE. of Hill Island Lake); 293 (near Wholdaia Lake);
+295, 296 (W. and E. of Kazan River); 297 (method of drying meat); 299
+(plentiful in June, Nueltin Lake region); 300 (vicinity of Egg River,
+Manitoba); 316-319 (stomach contents, unborn young and uterus eaten by
+Indians); 321-322 (Indians driving deer between converging rows of
+sticks); 322-323 (tents of deerskin); 323-325 (skins used in manufacture
+of sledges, snowshoes, and clothing).</p>
+
+<p>“Rein-deer”: Parry, 1821: 273 (E. coast of Baffin Island).</p>
+
+<p>“Reindeer” or “deer”: Franklin, 1823: 215-227, 285 (Yellowknife River
+region); 230-232, 239-240, 245, 248, 268-271, 285, 297, 299, 309,
+315-320, 438-440, 459-462, 480-488 (Winter Lake region); 233, 324-325,
+418-426, 446-447 (Point Lake region); 240 (back fat; rutting season);
+240-241 (antler and pelage change); 241 (larvae of warble and nostril
+flies); 241-242 (migration); 242 (fawning; food; weight; predation by
+wolves); 243-244 (Indian hunting methods); 327, 328, 333, 337, 344
+(Coppermine River region); 327 (pursuit by a wolf); 344 (driven by
+wolves over a precipice); 363-374 (coast of Coronation Gulf); 379-395
+(Bathurst Inlet region); 397-400 (Hood River region); 404-413 (Contwoyto
+Lake region); 478 (Marten Lake); 486, 487 (pursuit and killing by
+wolves, Winter Lake region).</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page137" id = "page137">137</a></span>
+<p><i>Cervus Tarandas</i>. . .: Sabine, in Franklin, 1823: 665, 667
+(Barren Grounds, migrating in summer to Arctic islands).</p>
+
+<p>“Deer” or “reindeer”: Lyon, 1824: 48, 58-60 (Frozen Strait); 54
+(Repulse Bay); 64-67 (Gore Bay; too fleet for a greyhound); 70, 74, 76,
+77, 80, 82 (Lyon Inlet and vicinity); 119, 123, 130, 144, 203, 212
+(Winter Island; food of Eskimos; bows made of antlers; use of sinews;
+deerskin clothing); 192-198, 217, 221, 223, 229, 238, 241, 282-283,
+311-317 (Melville Peninsula, E. coast; deerskin clothing of Eskimos);
+257, 269-270 (near Fury and Hecla Strait; buck shedding velvet,
+September&nbsp;4); 324, 327 (Eskimo use of antlers in sledges and bows);
+336 (Melville Peninsula, in summer; voice; inquisi&shy;tiveness);
+336-337 (Eskimo hunting with bow and spearing in water); 415, 419-423,
+430, 436 (near Igloolik, Melville Peninsula, in June).</p>
+
+<p>“Deer” or “reindeer”: Parry, 1824: 42 (Southampton Island); 52, 61,
+69, 71, 72, 83, 84, 92, 101, 106-108, 214, 230, 235, 236, 245, 254, 265
+(s. Melville Peninsula and vicinity); 289, 305, 308, 324, 329, 332, 339,
+343, 434, 438, 439, 441, 446, 447, 453-460 (Fury and Hecla Strait); 289
+(stomach contents eaten by Eskimos); 305 (estimated weight 220 lb.); 380
+(venison supplied by Eskimos); 403 (15 deer killed by an Eskimo during a
+summer); 494-497 (deerskin clothing of Eskimos, Melville Peninsula); 505
+(their dependence on reindeer for food); 508 (Eskimo spear for killing
+deer in water); 512 (Eskimo methods of hunting deer); 513 (numerous,
+Cockburn Land); 537 (Eskimo use of skins and sinew).</p>
+
+<p><i>Cervus tarandus</i> L.: Richardson, “1825” (= 1827?): 326 (native
+names); 327-328 (antler growth and change); 328 (rutting season and
+strong-tasting meat, about beginning of October; warble flies); 328-329
+(migrations, in relation to attacks of parasitic flies and to food; does
+precede on northward migration); 329 (fawns born in May and June;
+stragglers in every part of the country at all seasons); 330
+(utilization of Caribou&mdash;including fly larvae&mdash;as food by
+natives; nostril flies); 331 (marrow used as hair-dressing by native
+women).</p>
+
+<p><i>Cervus tarandus</i>. . .: J. C. Ross, 1826: 94 (North Somerset
+Island).</p>
+
+<p>“Rein-deer”: Franklin, in Franklin and Richardson, 1828: 54, 57, 60,
+64, 71, 72, 288 (Great Bear Lake).</p>
+
+<p>“Rein-deer”: Richardson, in Franklin and Richardson, 1828: 200
+(sinews used in Eskimo bows); 209, 218 (between Mackenzie River and Cape
+Dalhousie); 224 (Liverpool Bay); 231 (E. of Cape Bathurst); 241, 246
+(near Cape Lyon); 249 (Cape Young); 255 (Dolphin and Union Strait);
+269-273 (lower Coppermine River); 275 (stalking device of Hare Indians);
+277 (Dease River); 282 (Great Bear Lake).</p>
+
+<p><i>Cervus tarandus</i>, var. [Greek: alpha] <i>arctica</i>
+Richardson: Richardson, 1829: 241-242 (original description); 239 (type
+locality, neighborhood of Fort Enterprise, Mackenzie); 241 (rutting
+season); 241-242 (antler change); 242 (pelage change; infestation with
+warble fly; foot click); 242-245 (economic uses of hide, flesh, bones,
+and antlers; migration; not wintering S. of Churchill); 242-244
+(reproduction); 243, 245 (food); 245 (organization of herds; easy of
+approach); 245-249 (native methods of hunting).</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page138" id = "page138">138</a></span>
+<p><i>Cervus tarandus</i> L.: Godman, 1831, <b>2</b>: 283-284
+(migration); 284 (food; gadfly attacking both Woodland and Barren Ground
+Caribou); 285-293 (quotations from Franklin, 1823).</p>
+
+<p>“Deer” or “reindeer”: John Ross, 1835<i>a</i>: 130-376, <i>passim</i>
+(Boothia Peninsula); 243-244 (Eskimo clothing of deerskin); 252 (Eskimo
+method of hunting); 328, 330 (only small numbers up to late April); 337
+(many, early May); 352 (stomach contents as food for Eskimos); 376
+(migrating N., May 26); 389 (large herd); 390 (hundreds, June&nbsp;4);
+402 (pursued and eaten by wolves); 432 (with fawns, June 10); 438 (many
+in June); 512 (many killed by Eskimos); 529 (many tracks, May 15); 530
+(many passing, followed by a wolf); 534 (many, May 21, with two wolves);
+537 (Eskimos killing deer in winter); 564 (a&nbsp;number pursued by a
+wolf); 612 (two, October 30); 628 (first tracks, March); 704 (tracks,
+Somerset Island, late June).</p>
+
+<p><i>Cervus tarandus</i>. . .: J. C. Ross, in John Ross, 1835<i>b</i>:
+xvii (great numbers, Boothia; weight 250 lb.; does arriving in April,
+bucks in May; fawns hunted by Eskimos with dogs; utilization by Eskimos;
+food; great numbers speared in water in autumn migration; stragglers
+found in winter); xviii (measurements).</p>
+
+<p>“Rein-deer” or “deer”: Back, 1836: 86 (Thelon River); 105 (Great
+Slave Lake); 116 (Hoar-frost River); 128-129 (near Artillery Lake,
+reindeer chased by wolves); 138-143 (Clinton-Colden and Aylmer lakes);
+156-157 (head of Great Fish River); 178, 205 (near Fort Reliance); 216,
+225, 234 (remaining on Barren Grounds near Great Slave Lake during
+winter); 261, 267, 268, 273, 280, 281, 285, 286 (Artillery Lake); 290,
+292 (Lake Aylmer); 299, 307, 311, 320, 323, 325, 328, 337 (upper Back’s
+River); 367 (lower Back’s River, deer drowned in rapids); 420 (Chantrey
+Inlet); 435, 439 (lower Back’s River).</p>
+
+<p><i>Cervus tarandus</i> Linn.: Richardson, in Back, 1836: 498 (Barren
+Grounds; migration; food); 499 (utilization by Indians and Eskimos;
+antlers).</p>
+
+<p>“Reindeer” or “deer”: Simpson, 1843: 76 (destruction in 1831 of a
+countless herd [of Woodland or Barren Ground species?] crossing Hayes
+River in summer); 196, 198 (Great Bear Lake, September); 206, 226, 232,
+242, 247, 249, 250 (between Great Bear Lake and Coppermine River); 207
+(solicitude of a buck for a wounded doe); 208 (antlers worn by Indian
+hunter as a decoy); 232 (deer driven over a cliff by wolves); 233
+(numerous near Dease River, early April); 255, 256, 261, 264 (lower
+Coppermine River, June); 266, 271, 273 (Coppermine River to Cape Barrow,
+July); 277 (does apparently crossing the ice to islands for fawning);
+278, 279 (Cape Barrow to Bathurst Inlet); 281 (first does with fawns
+seen, August&nbsp;3); 284 (Bathurst Inlet); 295, 297, 301 (E. of Cape
+Franklin, migrating S., late August); 309, 310 (lower Coppermine River,
+September; drowned in rapids); 312 (deer snares, Dease River); 320-321
+(retiring in winter to Coppermine River and country south of Great Bear
+Lake); 328 (numerous between Great Bear Lake and Mackenzie River in
+winter); 342 (between Great Bear Lake and Coppermine River, June); 347
+(Eskimos hunting on Richardson River, summer); 352 (lower Coppermine
+River); 355 (Eskimos at Cape Barrow gone inland to hunt deer, July); 361
+(Ellice River, July 31); 365,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page139" id = "page139">139</a></span>
+367 (Adelaide Peninsula); 370, 374 (Elliot Bay); 379 (King William
+Island); 381 (does and fawns near Ogden Bay, early September); 382
+(Melbourne Island); 386 (Victoria Island, early September); 391 (great
+numbers, lower Coppermine River, September 20).</p>
+
+<p>“Rein-deer”: J. McLean, 1932 (1849): 195 (immense herds [Woodland or
+Barren Ground sp.?] in York Factory region prior to 1837; their
+disappearance reducing Indians to want); 359 (Yellowknife Indians
+reported to have the art of taming fawns, which follow them like dogs
+till killed and utilized).</p>
+
+<p>“Deer” or “rein-deer”: Rae, 1850: 26, 27 (Rankin’s Inlet); 27
+(Eskimos spearing deer while crossing Chesterfield Inlet); 28 (Cape
+Fullerton); 31, 32 (near Whale Point); 35, 39 (Eskimo clothing of
+caribou skin, Repulse Bay); 40, 64, 65, 73, 74, 76, 80, 84, 91, 92, 133,
+134, 166, 169, 177 (Repulse Bay); 44 (stone monuments erected by Eskimos
+to deflect deer); 44, 68, 99 (Rae Isthmus); 52, 54, 55, 130, 132, 145,
+160, 161 (Committee Bay); 79 (use by Eskimos for clothing and food); 93
+(migrating N., Repulse Bay, early March); 116 (Pelly Bay); 149, 151
+(Melville Peninsula); 150 (use of stomach contents as food); 170 (Eskimo
+drum of caribou skin); 184, 186 (near Chesterfield Inlet).</p>
+
+<p>“Deer”: Osborn, 1852: 74 (near Pond Inlet).</p>
+
+<p>“Deer”: Rae, 1852<i>a</i>: 75 (Victoria Island, near Richardson
+Islands); 79 (many crossing Dolphin and Union Straits to Victoria
+Island).</p>
+
+<p>“Deer”: Rae, 1852<i>b</i>: 83 (lower Coppermine River); 91, 95
+(Victoria Island, vicinity of Albert Edward Bay).</p>
+
+<p>“Barren Ground reindeer”: Richardson, 1852: 156 (Point Atkinson); 158
+(Cape Brown); 166 (Franklin Bay); 173 (Buchanan River); 188 (Rae’s
+River); 198 (Kendall River region); 290 (Great Bear Lake; weight; great
+numbers [of Woodland or Barren Ground species?] crossing Hayes River,
+1833, and slaughtered there by Indians); 296 (Great Bear Lake, migrating
+N. in May).</p>
+
+<p>“Reindeer” or “deer”: Hooper, 1853: 296 (dried meat as winter fare at
+Fort Norman); 302 (few along Bear River, November); 342 (Kendall
+Island); 343 (Richard Island); 378, 381 (meat as winter fare at Fort
+Simpson); 391-393 (method of preparing pemmican).</p>
+
+<p>“Rein-deer”: Kennedy, 1853: 128 (numerous tracks, North Somerset,
+early April); 133 (Bellot Strait); 144, 150 (numerous, Prince of Wales
+Island, late April).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer caribou</i> . . . (<i>C. tarandus, var. A. Arctica</i>
+Richardson): Audubon and Bachman, 1854, <b>3</b>: 114 (quotations from
+Richardson, 1829, and Hearne, 1795; “in every part of Arctic America,
+including the region from Hudson’s Bay to far within the Arctic
+circle”).</p>
+
+<p>“Deer”: J. Anderson, 1856: 24 (about 100, mostly bucks, Adelaide
+Peninsula, early August; Eskimos at Lake Franklin preparing to hunt
+deer); 25 (a&nbsp;few does at Lake Macdougall, mid-August; numerous at
+Aylmer and Clinton-Colden Lakes, early September).</p>
+
+<p>“Deer”: J. Anderson, 1857: 321 (Eskimos hunting deer, Lake Franklin,
+July 30); 322 (mouth of Back’s River, July 30); 323 (fat bucks killed,
+Montreal Island, August 2-3); 324, 325, 327 (100, mostly bucks, Adelaide
+Peninsula, August 6, 7, 11); 326 (all tracks going S., August&nbsp;9);
+328
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page140" id = "page140">140</a></span>
+(25 going S., Lake Pelly; good deer passes between Lakes Pelly and Garry
+and at Hawk Rapids).</p>
+
+<p>“Reindeer” or “Deer”: Armstrong, 1857: 149, 154, 155 (Eskimos with
+Reindeer meat and skins, Point Warren, E. of Mackenzie River); 166
+(skins and meat at Eskimo camp near Cape Dalhousie); 194 (deerskin
+clothing of Eskimos on coast of Mackenzie); 210, 316, 322, 384, 391,
+395, 417 (Banks Island); 254, 335, 364, 365 (Victoria Island, in
+October, May, July, and August); 297, 336 (Prince of Wales Strait,
+January and May); 395 (predation by wolves, Banks Island); 475-488,
+497-499, 505-510, 514, 515, 521-530, 545-556, 568 (Banks Island; maximum
+weight 240 lb.; distribution; remain during winter; fawning; 112 killed
+at Bay of Mercy; quality of meat varying with season; wariness; antler
+change; description; graze with heads to wind; pursuit by wolves).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer groenlandicus</i> (Kerr) (part): Baird, 1857: 635
+(description; weight); 635-636 (distribution).</p>
+
+<p><i>Cervus Tarandus</i>, var. [Greek: a] <i>arctica</i> Richardson:
+Murray, 1858: 191 (Chesterfield Inlet region); 193-198 (comparison with
+Lapland reindeer); 199-206 (antlers and shedding); 201-204 (quotations
+from previous literature on antlers, food, fawning season, and winter
+range); 206 (teeth); 206-210 (fur); 210 (damage by warble flies).</p>
+
+<p>“Reindeer” or “deer”: M’Clintock, 1860?: 147 (s. shore of Pond
+Inlet); 167, 176, 177, 184-188, 191, 194, 201, 203, 217, 289, 290, 295,
+299 (Bellot Strait); 184 (buck at Bellot Strait, minus paunch, weighing
+354 lb.); 212 (Eskimo clothing of reindeer skins, Boothia Peninsula);
+219 (Somerset Island); 239 (Adelaide Peninsula); 244 (Montreal Island);
+245 (Chantrey Inlet); 252, 279, 280 (King William Island).</p>
+
+<p>“Rein-deer” (part): Richardson, 1861: 274 (migration; rutting season;
+utilization by Indians and Eskimos); 275 (moving N. at Repulse Bay,
+March&nbsp;1; food).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> . . .: B. R. Ross, 1861: 438 (between Hudson
+Bay and Arctic Ocean; infested by larvae of warble and nostril flies);
+438-439 (migrations); 439 (antler and pelage change; food); 439-440
+(value to Indians for food, clothing, etc.).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer <ins class = "correction" title = "spelling unchanged">Groënlandicus</ins></i> . . .: B. R. Ross, 1862: 141
+(distribution).</p>
+
+<p>“Reindeer” or “deer”: Osborn, 1865: 70 (Cape Bathurst); 80, 110, 162,
+170, 173, 182, 186, 188, 189, 192, 199, 206-208, 219 (Banks Island); 98,
+139, 146 (Victoria Island); 112 (Prince of Wales Strait, January);
+223-224 (resident in Arctic archipelago, including Banks Island); 226
+(no migration across Barrow Strait or Melville Sound); 227 (weight;
+gait; antler change; fawning); 227-228, 231, 232 (wolf predation).</p>
+
+<p>“Reindeer”: Kennicott, in Anonymous, 1869: 166 (dried reindeer meat
+one of chief foods at Fort Simpson); 170 (caribou clothing used by
+Yellow Knives).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer tarandus</i> (Linné) Bd.: Kumlien, 1879: 19 (Eskimo
+hunting at Cumberland Sound); 23-25 (Eskimo clothing of deerskin); 36-37
+(Eskimo arrows and bows of antlers); 53, 54 (pursuit by wolves); 54
+(abundant in Cumberland Sound region; migration; food; hunting and
+utilization by Eskimos).</p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page141" id = "page141">141</a></span>
+<p>“Barren ground caribou”: R. Bell, 1881: 15C (migrating in great
+numbers, Reindeer Lake).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer Groenlandicus</i> “Baird” (part): Caton, 1881: 105
+(description); 106 (Mackenzie River to Hudson Bay); 107 (food); 108
+(habits; migration); 366-371 (hunting by Indians and Eskimos).</p>
+
+<p>“Reindeer” or “deer”: Gilder, 1881: 11 (Eskimos near Lower Savage
+Islands, Hudson Strait, with skins and meat); 23, 25, 26, 28 (hunting by
+Eskimos near Connery River, Keewatin); 42, 46 (near Chesterfield Inlet);
+43 (Eskimo drum of deerskin); 50 (dog harness of deerskin); 59, 61, 64,
+67, 71 (522 reindeer killed by Schwatka’s party between Hudson Bay and
+King William Island); 61 (pursued by wolves); 78 (wariness in winter);
+83, 192 (Adelaide Peninsula); 122, 132, 153, 157, 161, 162 (King William
+Island); 137-146 (Eskimo use of skins and meat); 154 (Eskimos use of fat
+and meat); 196-197 (reindeer collecting in immense herds to cross
+Simpson Strait on ice in early October); 217, 218 (lower Back’s River,
+December); 223, 224, 225, 226 (numerous between Back’s River and
+Chesterfield Inlet, January); 254-255 (deerskins as Eskimo bedding).</p>
+
+<p>“Reindeer” or “deer”: Nourse, 1884: 220 (Eskimos dressing skins near
+Wager Bay); 232 (37 killed by Hall’s party in July, Wager Bay); 235
+(a&nbsp;thousand passing in a day; many cached near North Pole River,
+late September; seen from September to January, and reappearing in
+March); 256 (deer-hunting, Melville Peninsula); 264-265 (18 deer and a
+fawn near Cape Weynton); 351 (found abundant by Schwatka between Wager
+Bay and Back’s River); 354 (King William Island); 356 (plentiful, Terror
+Bay; immense herds, Simpson Strait, September to October 14).</p>
+
+<p>“Reindeer” or “Arctic deer”: Schwatka, 1885: 59-60, 65, 67-71, 73-75,
+81-82, 86 (hunting by Eskimos and whites in n. Keewatin); 60-64 (skins
+for clothing, bedding, and drums); 60-61 (molt); 65, 67 (use of meat);
+68, 71-72 (swimming); 72 (many on King William Island); 77-79 (migrating
+across Simpson’s Strait, June and October); 79 (Boothia and North
+Somerset); 81 (near mouth of Back’s River); 83 (rarely seen in herds of
+more than 100; migrations); 84-85 (weight); 85 (unwariness).</p>
+
+<p>“Deer”: Boas, 1888: 419 (deer in Eskimo economy); 429, 461-462, 501
+(Baffin Island; hunting by Eskimos in summer by spear or line of
+cairns); 438 (varying numbers on Cumberland Peninsula); 502 (migration,
+Baffin and King William Islands); 502-503 (bows made of antlers);
+508-509 (stalking and trapping by Eskimos); 522 (dressing of skins by
+Eskimos); 555-560 (clothing of deerskin).</p>
+
+<p>“Reindeer”: Bompas, 1888: 24 (deflected in their migrations in
+Mackenzie district by burning of the country); 60 (attacked by wolves);
+61 (Indian methods of hunting); 62 (palatability of the flesh); 100
+(utilization of hides and meat).</p>
+
+<p>“Deer”: Collinson, 1889: 153 (Banks Island; weight); 166, 171,
+173-175, 181, 186, 197, 209, 220, 237, 264, 272-274 (Victoria Island);
+200, 203, 229 (Prince of Wales Strait); 235 (Dolphin and Union Strait);
+243, 247, 281, 283 (Cambridge Bay); 244 (large herds waiting to cross
+Dease Strait, October; trailed by wolves); 277 (stone monuments of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page142" id = "page142">142</a></span>
+Eskimos for deflecting deer, Dease Strait); 290 (large numbers migrating
+in autumn from Victoria Island to mainland).</p>
+
+<p>“Reindeer”: MacFarlane, 1890: 32-34 (Anderson River; Eskimos hunting
+reindeer there; their clothing in part of deerskin); 38 (Eskimo fish
+nets of deer sinew); 38, 43, 47 (numerous on Anderson River).</p>
+
+<p>“Barren Ground caribou”: Pike, 1917 (1892): 43, 64 (near Lake
+Mackay); 44-46 (Lake Camsell); 48 (Arctic islands to s. part of Hudson
+Bay and vicinity of Fort Smith, W. to Mackenzie River; rutting season in
+October); 48-49 (migration); 49 (segregation of sexes; antler change);
+50 (migration deflected by burning of country; thousands [Barren Ground
+or Woodland species?] at York Factory, about 1888-1890; depletion by
+hunting); 51-55 (Indian methods of hunting; economic uses); 51-52, 90
+(unwariness); 56-58 (relations to Eskimos, wolves, and wolverines);
+58-59 (parasitic flies); 59-60 (Indian superstition); 67, 72 (Coppermine
+River above Lac de Gras); 76 (near Lake Mackay; Lake Camsell); 81-82 (S.
+of Lake Mackay; curing of meat and hides); 89-91 (la foule); 90 (rutting
+season over and bucks too strong to eat, late October); 101 (mostly
+passed into the woods by November 11); 108 (Lake Mackay); 134 (near Lac
+de Mort); 148 (near Gros Cap, Great Slave Lake, January); 171, 174, 177
+(N. of Great Slave Lake); 174 (bucks leaving woods in early June); 182
+(Lake Aylmer); 186, 199 (Back’s River, July); 201, 204 (near Lake
+Beechey; females with young, late July); 209 (females and young in great
+numbers, upper Back’s River); 217 (Clinton-Colden Lake, early August);
+220 (thousands at Ptarmigan Lake, August); 221 (Artillery Lake); 224,
+227 (Pike’s Portage).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer Groenlandicus</i> Linn.: J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128 (use in
+economy of northern Indians; weight; antler shedding; pelage change;
+infestation with warbles); 129 (wintering between Churchill River and
+Lake Athabaska; collecting on frozen lakes); 130 (Indian hunters killing
+100-400 apiece; Fond du Lac, Lake Athabaska, on a main migratory
+path).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer Groenlandica</i> Linn.: Dowling, 1893: 89 (Bear Head Lake
+[N. of Great Slave Lake]); 92 (near Lake Mackay, June 22); 103
+(a&nbsp;favorite crossing on Great Fish River near Musk-ox Lake); 107
+(Pike’s expedition living mainly on caribou; migrations; does fawning
+near the sea-coast, bucks following behind; horns in velvet prized as
+food by Indians).</p>
+
+<p>“Barren Ground caribou”: J. B. Tyrrell, 1894: 441 (<i>Alectoria
+jubata</i>, a lichen, at Daly Lake, as food of caribou); 442 (immense
+herd&mdash;“tens of thousands”&mdash;at Carey Lake, July 29; tormented
+by black flies; animals lean and poor); 445 (Eskimo wearing deerskin
+coat; Lady Marjorie Lake, lower Dubawnt River); 446 (caribou plentiful
+in country traversed as far as Baker Lake; last one shot there
+September&nbsp;3).</p>
+
+<p>“Barren Ground Caribou”: Russell, 1895: 48 (a mass of caribou passing
+Fort Rae for 14 days in 1877); 49 (a&nbsp;section of antler used by
+Indian as a powder horn); 49-50 (caribou N. of North Arm of Great Slave
+Lake, November); 50 (leaping high in air at start; Indian hunting
+methods); 51 (Indian use of meat; albino specimen; antler growth
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page143" id = "page143">143</a></span>
+and shedding; thousands near Bathurst Inlet, April; does fawning along
+sea coast in June).</p>
+
+<p>“Deer”: J. B. Tyrrell, 1895: 440 (deer meat bartered by Chipewyans at
+Brochet); 442-443 (Indians hunting deer at Ennadai Lake; large numbers
+encountered there; Eskimos skinning deer on upper Kazan River); 444
+(deerskin clothing purchased from Eskimos on Kazan River); 445 (no deer
+seen in rocky country along Ferguson River).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer <ins class = "correction" title = "spelling unchanged">Graenlandicus</ins></i> . . .: J.&nbsp;B. Tyrrell, 1896: 13
+(S. in winter to Reindeer Lake and Mudjatick and Foster Rivers); 63
+(migrating past Fond du Lac, Lake Athabaska).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Whitney, 1896: 157, 238, 241 (migrations); 161 (fat,
+pemmican, and dried meat); 175 (use of dried meat by Dogribs); 176
+(tepees of caribou skin); 202-206 (vicinity of Fort Enterprise); 210
+(near Point Lake); 210, 213 (Dogrib hunting methods); 237 (importance to
+Indians; weight; an albino); 238-239 (antler shedding); 239 (warble and
+nostril flies; persecution by wolves); 240 (seasonal condition of flesh;
+distribution; recent decrease); 242 (wasteful killing by Indians;
+variation in wariness); 252, 268-269 (S. of Coronation Gulf); 262
+(shoulder-blade as Indian talisman).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer Groenlandicus</i>. . .: J. B. Tyrrell, 1897: 10, 49-50,
+165 (herd of 100,000 to 200,000 at Carey Lake, Dubawnt River, late
+July); 12 (plentiful near Thelon-Dubawnt junction; scarce at Baker Lake,
+early September); 14 (S. of Dawson Inlet); 19, 124 (large numbers,
+Ennadai Lake, mid-August); 21, 140, 142 (plentiful along Ferguson River,
+September); 76 (plentiful along Dubawnt River); 122, 131-132 (hunted by
+Chipewyans, Ennadai Lake and Kazan River); 126-127, 131-132 (hunted by
+Eskimos, upper Kazan River); 134 (many near Yathkyed Lake); 150-151
+(near source of Owl River, Manitoba; hunted by Indians,
+Wapini&shy;hikiskow Lake); 166-167 (hunting by Chipewyans and Eskimos;
+use for food, clothing, and kayaks).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer tarandus arcticus</i>. . .: Lydekker, 1898: 47-48
+(description); 48 (distribution); 48-49 (migration; food).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer tarandus</i> (Linn.): Russell, 1898: 88 (great numbers
+passing Fort Rae for 14 days in 1877); 89 (N. of Fort Rae); 90 (leaping
+into air at start); 91 (use of flesh by Dog Ribs; albino specimen); 111,
+113, 119 (upper Coppermine River region, abundant in March); 134
+(caribou-skin clothing worn formerly by Loucheux at Fort McPherson); 139
+(on Mackenzie Delta in 1850); 168 (caribou-skin lodge at Fort Rae);
+169-172 (caribou-skin clothing among Dog Ribs); 176 (caribou-skin drum
+at Fort Rae; use of sinew); 178 (caribou-skin gun cases among Indians);
+187-189 (caribou-skin clothing among Eskimos); 225 (antler change); 226
+(albino; food; distribution and migrations); 227 (abundant along coast
+between Mackenzie River and Cape Bathurst, 1894; deer snares; spearing;
+hunting); 228-229 (utilization by Eskimos and Indians; parasitic
+flies).</p>
+
+<p>“Barren Ground Caribou,” “deer,” or “reindeer”: J. W. Tyrrell, 1908
+(1898): 77-78 (Barlow Lake; Carey Lake, thousands, late July); 79
+(weight 100-400 lb.; molt); 79-80 (antler change); 80 (relation of
+prongs to age; migration; food; reproduction); 80-81 (utilization of
+meat, skins,
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page144" id = "page144">144</a></span>
+and sinew); 87-88 (Dubawnt Lake); 97 (lower Dubawnt River); 98 (Wharton
+Lake); 123-138 (utilization by Eskimos); 139-141 (hunting by Eskimos);
+174-177 (near Dawson Inlet); 206-207 (E. of Churchill River); 215 (mouth
+of Nelson River [Woodland or Barren Ground species?]); 241 (importance
+to natives).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou” or “reindeer”: Jones, 1899: 328-332, 342-343, 353-355 (Fort
+Reliance and vicinity); 329 (weight); 338, 340, 365, 394 (Artillery Lake
+and vicinity); 342 (Indian corral or trap); 359 (noonday rest of
+caribou); 368 (immense band, Clinton-Colden Lake, early March); 374
+(tens of thousands of does daily, Clinton-Colden Lake, moving N.,
+March); 374-375 (relations to wolves); 381 (abundant, near mouth of
+Dubawnt River, March); 390 (near lower Dubawnt River); 411 (suffering
+from insects); 429 (spearing by Indians).</p>
+
+<p>“Deer”: Lofthouse, 1899: 275 (mouth of Tha-anne River, early
+July).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou or deer”: Hanbury, 1900: 64 (Eskimos bringing venison to
+Churchill and reporting deer numerous along the coast); 65 (importance
+of deer in northern travel; scarce along west coast of Hudson Bay in May
+and early June); 66-67 (very scarce at Baker Lake in June, plentiful in
+July); 67 (flesh unpalatable in fly-time; large bands at Aberdeen Lake,
+August); 69 (absent in winter on lower Thelon River; very scarce on
+Hanbury River, August); 71 (plentiful, Artillery Lake to Great Slave
+Lake, September).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson) (part): A. J. Stone, 1900: 50
+(distribution; migration); 51 (Richards Island); 53 (antlers; does and
+fawns moving N. in May, Franklin Bay; sprawling posture of hind leg); 57
+(disastrous results of whalers’ demands for meat; Darnley Bay; Bathurst
+Isthmus).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: J. M. Bell, 1901<i>a</i>: 16 (vast herds near Dismal Lake;
+use by Eskimos).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: J. M. Bell, 1901<i>b</i>: 252 (furnishing food and
+clothing for Hare Indians, Great Bear Lake); 255 (use by Eskimos near
+Coppermine River; vast herds); 258 (plentiful, but decreasing, S. of
+Great Bear Lake; wanton killing by Indian and Eskimos).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Boas, 1901: 52, 54 (Eskimo garments of caribou skin,
+Cumberland Sound); 81 (Eskimos hunting caribou with harpoons); 102, 107
+(Eskimo clothing of caribou skin, w. coast of Hudson Bay); 150 (albino
+caribou).&mdash;1907: 465 (Eskimos W. of Hudson Bay dependent on
+caribou); 474 (caribou plentiful on Southampton Island and larger than
+on mainland); 493 (caribou-hunting at Pond’s Inlet); 501 (taboo against
+killing albino caribou, W. of Hudson Bay).</p>
+
+<p>[<i>Rangifer</i>] <i>arcticus</i> (Rich.): Elliot, 1901: 37 (“Barren
+grounds of Arctic America, north of the tree limit, to the shores and
+islands of the Arctic Ocean”; diagnosis).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer tarandus arcticus</i> . . . (part): Lydekker, 1901: 38-40
+(description).</p>
+
+<p>“Reindeer and caribou (<ins class = "correction" title = "anomalous roman (non-italic) type in original">Rangifer caribou</ins>)”: W. J.
+McLean, 1901: 5&nbsp;(Great Slave Lake, annual arrival on August 12;
+hunting and utilization by Indians); 6&nbsp;(antler growth and change;
+migration; trails; swimming).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer tarandus</i> . . . (part): Beddard, 1902: 298
+(“circumpolar”).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> . . .: Elliot, 1902: 259 (“in 1856 they
+migrated to latitude 47° in great numbers to Lake Huron” [???]); 260,
+274-275 (migrations);
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page145" id = "page145">145</a></span>
+273 (Arctic regions, W. to Coppermine and Mackenzie Rivers); 276 (food;
+fat); 276-277 (utilization by Indians and Eskimos); 277-279 (native
+hunting methods); 279-280 (antlers shed by old bucks in December and
+January, carried by young bucks till spring, and by does till birth of
+fawns); 281-282, 286-287 (description).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): Preble, 1902: 41 (50 and 25
+miles S. of Eskimo Point; pursued by wolves; attacks of insects); 42
+(flashing a white throat-patch; summation of previous records; ranging
+S. to Churchill River and Reindeer Lake); 42-43 (pelage described).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: J. W. Tyrrell, 1924 (1902): 15 (Fort Reliance, Great Slave
+Lake); 17 (Pike’s Portage); 18-20 (Artillery Lake); 26 (nearly all gone
+farther N., only stragglers remaining along Hanbury River, early July);
+27-28 (numerous tracks but few animals, middle Thelon River, early July;
+hundreds killed by spring ice or Eskimos); 31 (large band moving S.,
+Thelon River, July 23); 33-35 (between Thelon River and Artillery Lake);
+37 (great bands of caribou the chief food supply in Thelon River
+region).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer <ins class = "correction" title = "spelling unchanged">articus</ins></i> . . . (part): Grant, 1903: 186 (Barren
+Grounds W. of Hudson Bay, W. to Mackenzie River, S. in winter to
+Churchill River and Reindeer Lake; threatened with extinction by
+whalers); 189 (Salisbury Island).</p>
+
+<p>“Deer”: Hanbury, 1903: 185 (between Lake Pelly and Arctic coast,
+May).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou” or “deer”: Hanbury, 1904: 8 (Marble Island and Chesterfield
+Inlet, June); 9&nbsp;(Baker Lake, July); 10 (large bands migrating S.,
+Aberdeen Lake, early August); 14 (scarce, Hanbury River); 16 (plentiful,
+Lockhart River); 30 (Pike’s Portage, late July); 31 (Artillery Lake); 32
+(Abbott Lake; scourged by warble flies); 34 (large bands migrating S.,
+Hanbury River, late July); 41 (hunted by Eskimos near Thelon-Dubawnt
+junction); 43-44, 47 (Schultz Lake); 43 (voice; spearing by Eskimos); 48
+(scarce, Baker Lake, early September); 49 (Chesterfield Inlet); 51
+(plentiful near Marble Island, mid-September); 58 (leaving the coast,
+late September); 67 (dressing of skins by Eskimos); 70, 72 (killed by
+Eskimos, Baker Lake); 73 (thousands at Baker Lake; fierce combats
+between old bucks in October rutting season); 75 (deerskin roof of
+igloo); 82 (deerskin clothing of Eskimos); 84, 88-90 (NW. of Baker Lake,
+November); 85 (unwariness); 89 (pursuit by wolves); 93 (bucks remaining
+all winter on Back’s River); 95 (numerous, Chesterfield Inlet; in
+December the old bucks had dropped their antlers); 100 (near Depot
+Island); 104-107 (Chesterfield Inlet region); 108 (does migrating N. in
+April); 111 (plentiful, Baker Lake, March); 113 (many, Schultz Lake,
+March); 114-115, 123 (snow pitfalls made by Eskimos); 115, 116
+(numerous, Aberdeen Lake, March); 116 (antlers of bucks commencing to
+grow); 118 (NW. of Aberdeen Lake; buck weighing 280 lb.); 119 (Buchanan
+River); 120 (migration; many remaining on Barrens all winter; deer meat
+essential to Eskimos on Back’s River); 121 (frequent famine among
+Indians and Eskimos; caribou formerly migrating S. and W. to Forts
+Simpson and Providence); 127-131 (Pelly Lake and vicinity); 131 (antics;
+jumping and trotting); 133-137 (near Ogden Bay); 133 (majority of does
+shedding antlers by late April);
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page146" id = "page146">146</a></span>
+135 (ravens feeding on carcasses); 137 (warbles eaten by Eskimos); 139
+(caribou wintering on Kent Peninsula, at Cape Barrow, and on Victoria
+Island); 143 (Arctic coast Eskimos going inland, summer and fall, to
+live on deer); 149 (White Bear Point); 153-167 (mainland near Kent
+Peninsula); 164-174 (Bathurst Inlet); 177, 185-197 (scarce, Cape Barrow
+to Coppermine River); 194 (molting, July; suffering from mosquitoes);
+200-208 (lower Coppermine River); 209, 210 (Kendall River); 215-221
+(Dismal Lake); 223, 229-233 (Dease River); 232 (rubbing trees).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> . . . (part): Hornaday, 1904: 136 (Great
+Bear and Great Slave Lakes to Cape Bathurst); 137 (Carey Lake;
+migration); 138 (weight; antlers).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): Stone and Cram, 1904: 52
+(description; Arctic islands to Hudson Bay and Mackenzie River;
+migration; rutting in October; sexual segregation); 53 (food; Mackay
+Lake; grunting). (Chiefly quoted from Pike, 1892.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson) (part): Elliot, 1905: 401
+(“Barren grounds of Arctic America north of the tree limit, to the
+shores and islands of the Arctic Ocean”).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): MacFarlane, 1905: 680
+(Mackenzie Basin; depletion through wanton slaughter by Indians);
+681-682 (Anderson River, in winter; hunting and utilization by Eskimos
+and Indians); 682-683 (albino); 683 (trade in skins; wintering at Prince
+of Wales Strait and Mercy Bay, Banks Island; migration between Arctic
+islands and mainland); 684-685 (table of migration at Reindeer Lake);
+692-693 (predation by wolves).</p>
+
+<p><i>R[angifer] arcticus</i>. . .: J. A. Allen, 1908<i>a</i>: 488
+(specimens from near Wager River described); 490 (migration).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arctica</i> (Richardson): J. A. Allen, 1908<i>b</i>: 584
+(type locality, Fort Enterprise).</p>
+
+<p>“Reindeer”: Amundsen, 1908, <b>1</b>: 76 (Boothia); 83-84 (King
+William Island, September); 97 (reported formerly at Simpson Strait in
+large herds in autumn); 99 (20 killed, King William Island, late
+September); 102-106 (common in October, passing S. over Simpson Strait;
+very shy; no wolves on King William Island); 120 (Eskimos trading
+skins); 200 (King William Island, first reindeer of season seen, June);
+201 (supplied by Eskimos); 224 (Simpson Strait); 235, 241-243 (King
+William Island, September); 237 (Eskimos hunting in September); 247
+(large herds passing over ice of Simpson Strait); 248 (King William
+Island, October 15); 326-329 (hunting and utilization by Eskimos in
+Boothia; few reindeer coming N. as early as May).&mdash;1908, <b>2</b>:
+110 (many killed by Eskimos, King William Island); 311-316 (several,
+April); 322-325 (Royal Geographical Society Islands).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson) (part): Preble, 1908: 137
+(Barren Grounds and islands northward; Great Bear Lake to Hudson Bay;
+economy; probably two or more races; E. of Fort Smith in winter; long
+ago S. to Fort McMurray); 138 (in 1902-03 to Cree Lake; large numbers,
+Great Slave to Great Bear lakes; lower Coppermine River); 139
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page147" id = "page147">147</a></span>
+(migration); 139-143 (summation of previous records); 214 (wolves living
+largely on caribou).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): J. A. Allen, 1910: 8 (7 August
+specimens from Artillery and Aylmer lakes; measurements and weight).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): Seton, 1911: 206-262, 341
+(Artillery, Ptarmigan, Clinton-Colden, and Aylmer lakes; habits); 210
+(voice); 220, 258-260 (numbers); 225-226 (relation to wolves); 259-262
+(slaughter by natives and whalers).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Cameron, 1912: 127 (place in economy
+of Caribou-eater Chipewyans; migration; on Lake Athabaska in winter);
+309 (Fort Rae as a “meat-post” for the Mackenzie District).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Wheeler, 1912: 199 (Fort Enterprise and Coppermine River;
+1910 a very poor caribou year; females and yearlings taken in April;
+females [only?] wintering between Rae and Enterprise, and largely
+exterminated; usual numbers in 1911; large migration of males commenced
+May 18); 200 (between Coppermine River and Bathurst Inlet; by June 10
+all caribou beyond [N. of] Coppermine River).</p>
+
+<p>“Barren ground caribou”: R. M. Anderson, 1913<i>a</i>: 5 (recent
+great decrease); 6&nbsp;(stragglers left in Mackenzie Delta region;
+great diminution along Arctic coast E. to Cape Parry, since recent
+advent of whaling ships; great numbers on Victoria Island in summer,
+crossing to mainland for winter; Great Bear Lake and Coppermine River;
+drives and spearing by Eskimos); 6, 8 (importance to Eskimos for
+clothing and meat); 8&nbsp;(poor sight of caribou; hunting methods).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): R. M. Anderson, in Stefánsson,
+1913<i>b</i>: 502 (importance in native economy; recent enormous
+decrease; few left in Eskimo Lakes region, on Cape Bathurst, and at
+Langton and Darnley Bays; great number in summer on Victoria Island,
+migrating to the mainland); 503 (Great Bear Lake; Coppermine River;
+occurrence on Arctic coast at any season; Eskimos driving them between
+lines of stone monuments into water and there spearing them); 504
+(hunting methods; senses; infestation by bot-fly); 504-505 (fawning);
+505 (geographical variation; antler growth and change); 505-506 (fat);
+516 (relations to wolves).</p>
+
+<p><ins class = "correction" title = "anomalous italics unchanged"><i>“Caribou”</i></ins>: Stefánsson, 1913<i>a</i>: 93 (ravens
+in Arctic feeding on caribou left by wolves); 94 (caribou moving N.,
+Prince Albert Sound, Victoria Island, May 12); 95-96 (migrating across
+Dolphin and Union Strait, March and May); 99 (plentiful on Dease River,
+winter of 1910-11; abundant on lower Coppermine River, March; no great
+numbers cross central Coronation Gulf; wintering on coast E. of
+Coppermine; many moving N. across w. Coronation Gulf and Dolphin and
+Union Strait, April and May, and w. Victoria Island, May); 100
+(migration across Kent Peninsula and in se. Victoria Island); 102 (E. of
+Cape Bexley); 103, 106 (numbers wintering on Banks Island, but few or
+none on Victoria Island); 105 (Eskimos hunting caribou in summer on s.
+Victoria Island); 106 (caribou wintering from Cape Bathurst to Kent
+Peninsula; migration N. across Coronation Gulf and Dolphin and Union
+Strait, April 1-May 20, and S. in the fall as soon as the ice is strong
+enough; tens of
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page148" id = "page148">148</a></span>
+thousands on Dease River in late October; differences between Victoria
+Island and mainland specimens).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Stefánsson, 1913<i>b</i>: 27 (Fort Smith a “meat post”);
+29 (abundant at Fort Norman 50 years previously); 127, 128, 156, 158
+(Langton Bay); 130, 135, 137, 141, 142 (Horton River); 146 (Cape Parry);
+151 (extreme scarcity of hornless caribou); 163 (Cape Lyon); 164 (Port
+Pierce; human eye keener than caribou’s); 203 (summer hunting by Eskimos
+S. of Dolphin and Union Strait); 203-204 (migration N. to Victoria
+Island); 204 (bot-fly larvae); 205 (near Dolphin and Union Strait); 210,
+212, 213 (lower Coppermine River); 212-213 (seeking protection from
+mosquitoes on snow banks); 214 (Dismal Lake); 215 (summer hunting by
+Eskimos on Dease River); 219 (Great Bear Lake); 221 (August skins for
+Eskimo clothing); 224-225 (hundreds of thousands, Dease River, October);
+228, 235 (N. of Great Bear Lake); 231, 232 (Horton River); 238, 239
+(Kendall River); 241 (lower Coppermine River); 241-244 (geographical
+variation in caribou); 263-265, 269 (migrating N. across Coronation Gulf
+and Dolphin and Union Strait, early May); 274, 278, 287, 289, 297, 298,
+301 (Victoria Island); 276-277 (variation from mainland animals); 278
+(habitual wariness); 281 (caribou-skin tents and Eskimo hunting,
+Victoria Island); 289 (Banks Island); 294 (few on Victoria Island in
+winter); 324 (Cape Parry); 333 (Langton Bay; skins spoiled by warble fly
+larvae, June and early July; skins thick in summer and fall); 335
+(“Endicott” [= Melville] Mountains); 337-338 (Eskimo methods of hunting
+and curing meat); 348-350 (migrating NW., Horton River, October); 364
+(Langton Bay, February-March).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): Chambers, 1914: 93 (immense
+herd, between Churchill and Owl River, December); 291-294 (Great Bear
+and Great Slave Lakes); 294 (Mackenzie Delta region); 342-350 (summation
+of records on the Barren Grounds).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Douglas, 1914: 103, 167, 168, 179, 180 (Dease River); 121,
+190, 192, 196, 214 (lower Coppermine River); 137 (Great Bear Lake); 157,
+158 (very scarce, Great Bear Lake, winter); 185 (Dismal Lakes); 191-192
+(larvae of warble and nostril flies).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> . . . (part): Hornaday, 1914, <b>2</b>: 97
+(importance to Indians); 100 (the great mass between Cape Bathurst and
+Great Slave Lake; tens of thousands killed by natives for whalers);
+101-104 (migrations); 103 (voice); 104 (tameness of large numbers;
+weight); 225-226 (numbers).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou” or “deer”: Stefánsson, 1914: 13 (former abundance from
+Mackenzie River eastward); 26 (scarce near <b>Rae River</b>); 39 (common
+the year round on Banks Island; abundant in summer, but scarce in
+winter, Victoria Island); 41 (migrating S. across Coronation Gulf in
+November); 48 (stomach contents and droppings eaten by Eskimos,
+Coronation Gulf); 54 (crossing ice in migrating N., April and May); 56
+(chief source of Eskimo food in summer, Coronation Gulf); 57 (hunting
+with spear and bow); 58 (poor eyesight); 58-59 (use as food by Eskimos);
+97 (kayak used in spearing caribou); 137, 139 (former hunting in
+Mackenzie Delta region); 140-141 (skin clothing in Mackenzie Delta
+region); 147-148 (methods of removing and drying skins, Mackenzie
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page149" id = "page149">149</a></span>
+Delta region); 150 (use of skins and sinew); 275 (status about Great
+Bear Lake); 296 (droppings and warbles eaten by Eskimos, Victoria
+Island); 353 (caribou taboos); 355-356 (many on Mackenzie coast).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Wheeler, 1914: 52 (Dog-rib clothing of caribou skins); 54
+(between Forts Rae and Enterprise); 56 (Fort Rae’s early trade in
+caribou meat and skins); 58 (countless thousands, moving E., Great Slave
+Lake; Indian use of meat); 60 (caribou scarce N. of Great Slave Lake
+after burning of country); 65 (plentiful, Little Marten Lake); 67 (near
+Lake Providence).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Harper, 1915: 160 (Tazin-Taltson
+Basin).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer tarandus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Lydekker, 1915: 254
+(biblio&shy;graphical references; type locality; description; Baffin
+Island).</p>
+
+<p><i>Tarandus rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): Millais, 1915:
+255-256 (considered conspecific with Woodland Caribou); 258, 263
+(supposed interbreeding with Woodland Caribou); 261 (description; in
+winter ranging “west to the Rockies above Fort Vermilion”[!]).</p>
+
+<p>“Barren Ground Caribou”: Camsell, 1916: 21 (Tazin-Taltson Basin,
+autumn and winter).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> . . . (part): Nelson, 1916: 460 (Arctic
+barrens; numbers; Artillery Lake; gait); 460-461 (use as food).</p>
+
+<p>“Rein Deer”: Thompson, 1916: 19 (Eskimo lances pointed with
+leg-bone); 99 ([Barren Ground or Woodland species?] numerous in spring
+on Hayes River, where snared by Indians); 100-101 (immense herd
+estimated at 3,564,000 individuals, crossing Hayes River 20 miles above
+York Factory in late May, 1792).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: J. B. Tyrrell, in Thompson, 1916: 16 (Eskimos on Kazan
+River subsisting chiefly on caribou, killing them with spears and using
+their skins for clothing and kayaks).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> . . .: Kindle, 1917: 107-108 (tens of
+thousands E. of Slave River, early winter); 108-109 (previous accounts
+of great numbers).</p>
+
+<p>“Barren Ground Caribou”: Camsell and Malcolm, 1919: 46 (e. border of
+Mackenzie Basin; migration).</p>
+
+<p>“Barren Ground caribou”: Malloch, 1919: 55-56 (larvae of
+<i>Oedemagena tarandi</i> from skin of caribou, Dolphin and Union
+Strait, Bernard Harbour, and Coronation Gulf); 56 (larvae of
+<i>Cephenemyia</i> sp. from nasal passages of caribou, May 25, Bernard
+Harbour).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Stefánsson, 1919: 310 (hunting in the Arctic).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Whittaker, 1919: 166 (in greater numbers than usual, E. of
+Slave River, winter); 167 (1,000 does crossing Great Slave Lake in March
+toward Barren Grounds).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Buchanan, 1920: 105 (S. in winter to
+Reindeer Lake and Churchill River, rarely to Cumberland House); 105-108,
+128-129 (migration); 105-106, 131 (food); 113-125, 134-137, 142-151
+(hunting by Indians and others); 122, 124 (traveling upwind); 125-126
+(description); 126 (antler change; gait); 130-131 (numbers); 135-136
+(snares); 136-140 (economic uses by Indians).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: R. M. Anderson, in Stefánsson, 1921: 743, 750 (Eskimos
+killing caribou, Victoria Island); 749 (Hood River); 750 (Bathurst
+Inlet).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> . . . (part): Hewitt, 1921: 11-12 (as a
+source of meat
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page150" id = "page150">150</a></span>
+and clothing); 56 (most abundant of the larger land mammals of the
+world); 58, 64-66 (place in native economy; range and numbers becoming
+restricted by excessive slaughter); 59-60 (distribution); 59
+(destruction by Eskimos and whalers); 60-63 (migration); 61 (food); 62
+(fawning); 67 (warble flies, black flies, and mosquitoes).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Johansen, 1921: 22-24 (larvae and
+adults of <i>Oedemagena tarandi</i> and larvae of <i>Cephenemyia</i>
+sp., both parasites of caribou, at Bernard Harbour); 29 (adult <i>Oe.
+tarandi</i>, Dolphin and Union Strait); 35, 37 (larvae of <i>Oe.
+tarandi</i>, lower Coppermine River and Victoria Island).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Stefánsson, 1921: 18 (abundant, Banks Island, winter);
+227-230 (Norway Island [W. of Banks Island]); 231-234 (qualities of meat
+and fat); 242-249, 255, 258, 262, 281-283, 358, 364, 397, 369, 372, 473,
+475, 476 (hunting on Banks Island); 246-247 (fat); 247 (attacks by
+insects); 248 (speed according to sex and age); 248-249 (pursuit by
+wolves); 251 (wariness on Banks Island); 252 (back fat); 255 (perhaps
+2,000-3,000 caribou on Banks Island in summer); 307 (sight); 401
+(hunting on Victoria Island, September; some migrating S. to mainland);
+401-402 (stone monuments used by Eskimos for driving caribou to ambush);
+475-476 (relations of caribou and wolves).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou” or “deer”: Jenness, 1922: 15, 17 (migration between
+mainland and Arctic islands; one route across Cape Krusenstern); 20-21
+(Coppermine River to Great Bear Lake); 22 (Cape Barrow to Bathurst
+Inlet); 25-26 (Victoria Island in summer); 47 (spearing from kayaks in
+Coppermine region); 48, 101, 248 (use of fat for fuel); 61 (skins as
+bedding); 78-81 (skins as tent material); 97 (stomach contents eaten by
+Eskimos); 100-103 (Caribou as food of Eskimos; hunting on ice of
+Coronation Gulf and on Victoria Island; Coppermine River to Bathurst
+Inlet); 124 (summer hunting by Eskimos about Dolphin and Union Strait);
+125 (October passage from Victoria Island to mainland); 127-142 (hunting
+on Victoria Island, April to October); 148-151 (Eskimo hunting methods
+about Coronation Gulf and on Victoria Island; attacks on Eskimos by
+Caribou); 182-189 (Eskimo superstitions concerning Caribou); 244, 249
+(scarcity and destruction at Coronation Gulf).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: R. M. Anderson, 1924: 329 (varying
+estimates of numbers; Barren Grounds of central mainland); 330
+(relations to reindeer).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Miller, 1924: 491
+(nomenclature; type locality).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Blanchet, 1925: 15 (upper Coppermine); 32-34 (migration);
+32-33 (sexual segregation); 33 (fawning; food; torment of flies; gait;
+molt; antler growth and change); 34 (senses; utilization by Indians;
+wariness; swimming; relations to wolves and foxes; Great Slave Lake to
+Great Bear Lake and Back’s River).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Blanchet, 1926<i>a</i>: 73 (trails, Nonacho Lake); 96-97
+(trail and signs, Lake Eileen); 98 (caribou in economy of the
+Caribou-eater Chipewyans).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Blanchet, 1926<i>b</i>: 46-48
+(migrations); 47 (fawning in early June; attacks of flies; gait; molt;
+utilization of hides); 47-48
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page151" id = "page151">151</a></span>
+(antler change); 48 (senses; segregation by sex and age; numbers in
+millions; Lake MacKay, Great Bear Lake, Lac de Gras, Clinton-Colden and
+Aylmer lakes; wintering S. to Cree, Foster, and Reindeer lakes).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer</i> spp.: Ekblaw, 1926: 101 (s. Arctic Archipelago).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Mallet, 1926: 79 (migration; wintering about Reindeer,
+Cree, Wollaston, and Nueltin lakes and Pakatawagan; predilection for
+frozen lakes; predation by wolves); 80 (dependence of travelers on
+Caribou for food; hunting on the ice of lakes).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Preble, 1926: 119 (Barren Grounds);
+121 (depletion along Arctic coast E. to Coppermine River); 125
+(Yellowknife Preserve); 137 (Back’s River Preserve; great numbers;
+migration); 138 (Arctic islands; partial migration); 139 (Banks and
+Victoria islands).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Blanchet, 1927: 145 (Abitau River); 149 (sw. tributary of
+Dubawnt River, July&nbsp;5).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Craig, 1927: 22 (Admiralty Inlet; former abundance;
+depletion by hunting).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Henderson, 1927: 40 (Clyde River, Baffin Island; annual
+caribou hunt by Eskimos).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Rasmussen, 1927: 5 (Eskimos clad in caribou skin, Melville
+Peninsula); 20-21 (hunting on Melville Peninsula); 23 (Eskimo stores of
+caribou meat); 54 (caribou moving N., Baker Lake, May); 59-60, 103, 105
+(hunting by Eskimos, lower Kazan River); 63, 68 (Yathkyed Lake); 65
+(warble fly larvae as Eskimo delicacy); 67 (decrease in Eskimos and
+caribou at Yathkyed Lake); 68 (stone cairns for deflecting caribou);
+73-77 (Eskimo hunting methods); 104-106 (Eskimos starving for lack of
+caribou, lower Kazan River); 145 (Eskimos hunting near Admiralty Inlet);
+166-167 (caribou obtained by Eskimos, Pelly Bay); 205 (King William
+Island); 214-217 (migration, September 15-21, King William Island); 245
+(Eskimos of Victoria Island living on caribou in summer and autumn); 246
+(enormous herds crossing delta of Ellice River; Kent Peninsula becoming
+depopulated of Eskimos through failure of caribou).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Anthony, 1928:
+530-531 (description); 532 (Barren Grounds; former abundance;
+destruction).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Kindle, 1928: 72-73 (numbers estimated at more than
+30,000,000; utilization by natives for clothing and meat); 74 (economic
+value of reindeer).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 9, 47, 57
+(importance to Caribou Eskimos); 48 (back fat); 50 (wintering on Barren
+Grounds; moving against wind; antler shedding; poor quality of winter
+meat); 51 (wolves hunting caribou; does first on spring migration;
+fawning in June); 52-53 (Eskimos feasting on caribou in spring); 56
+(fawning in late June and early July; great migration at Baker Lake,
+late July; plagued by <i>Oedemagena tarandi</i>; most important Eskimo
+hunting in late summer and early autumn); 86 (tents of caribou skin
+among Caribou Eskimos); 89 (Eskimo spade made of antler); 90 (bags of
+caribou skin; fat for illumination); 94 (skins for household use); 96
+(the principal diet among Caribou Eskimos); 98 (hunting by means of
+fences); 100 (Yathkyed Lake); 101 (heedless slaughter by Eskimos;
+migration always incalculable; fox-trapping
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page152" id = "page152">152</a></span>
+replacing caribou-hunting); 102 (former use of bow in hunting); 104
+(arrowheads of caribou bones); 106 (hunting by Eskimos; wariness; keen
+hearing and smell; buck attacking a man at Vansittart Island;
+deer-crossings in region of Baker Lake and Kazan River); 107 (Eskimo
+hunting methods); 108 (snow pitfalls); 109-110 (spearing in water;
+swimming ability); 110-111 (driving between lines of cairns); 112
+(snares); 133 (gadfly larvae as Eskimo delicacy); 134-135 (seasonal
+hunting); 135 (frequent starvation of Eskimos in lack of caribou); 137
+(staple food of Caribou Eskimos); 138-139 (taboos in use of meat);
+140-147 (Eskimo dressing of carcasses); 141-144 (raw, cooked, and dried
+meat in Eskimo diet); 171 (meat as dog food); 186 (deerskin for kayaks);
+191, 196, 199-223 (Eskimo clothing of deerskin); 232, 239-251 (various
+Eskimo uses of skin, bones, and antlers); 262, 263 (Eskimo laws for
+hunting caribou); 268-271 (drums of deerskin).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Seton, 1929,
+<b>3</b>: 95-135 (monographic); 97-99 (measurements, weight, color); 102
+(distribution); 102-103 (antlers); 104 (molt; senses); 105
+(communication; voice); 105-107 (disposition); 107 (aquatic ability);
+107-108 (food); 108-109 (Wolves and other predators); 109-110 (effect of
+mosquitoes); 110-111 (warble and nostril flies); 111-116 (utilization of
+flesh and hide by natives and civilized man); 113-114 (fat); 117-122
+(hunting by Eskimos and Indians); 122 (Artillery Lake to Back’s River;
+Arctic islands; migration); 124-125 (reproduction); 125-127 (migration);
+127-128 (wintering between Great Bear, Great Slave, and Athabaska lakes
+and Hudson Bay); 131 (Mackenzie River to Cape Bathurst; Langton and
+Darnley Bays); 131-134 (numbers perhaps 30,000,000); 133-134
+(destruction by Indians, whalers, and Eskimos).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Blanchet, 1930: 49 (E. of Great Bear, Great Slave, and
+Athabaska Lakes; fawns born in late May or June; antler growth and
+shedding); 49-52 (migration; Lac de Gras, Lake MacKay, Beverly,
+Aberdeen, and Baker lakes; Coppermine, Lockhart, Taltson, Dubawnt,
+Kazan, and Ferguson rivers; S. to Cree and Reindeer lakes and Churchill;
+only a small migration now from Victoria Island to mainland; Wager and
+Repulse bays); 50-51 (importance to Indians and Eskimos; Dawson Inlet to
+North Seal River; inland from Eskimo Point and Nunalla; Padlei); 52
+(food destroyed by fire; several millions); 53 (fawning area); 53-54
+(possibilities for reindeer); 54-55 (relation of wolves to caribou).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 55
+(Artillery Lake; weight; therapeutic value of meat); 58 (Thelon River,
+thousands, late July); 143 (use as fox bait); 159-160 (numbers); 159-162
+(useful role of Wolf as Caribou predator); 192 (wind direction scarcely
+affecting migration; Artillery Lake, mostly bucks, September to
+November; bucks getting lean, October 17; antlers dropping and flesh
+improving, November 7; practically all (buck) antlers dropped, November
+19; Artillery Lake, several hundred does, November 4, then continuing to
+pass N. during winter; bands of bucks passing S., November 26 to
+December&nbsp;9; young bucks with does during winter; does dropping
+antlers, March 24 to mid-April; all does gone N. by April 27; bucks
+moved N. of Hanbury River by June 20; main s. migration, Thelon River,
+July 23; all sexes and ages, in bands
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page153" id = "page153">153</a></span>
+up to 2,000&mdash;total number 10,000+); 193 (scourged and driven by
+insects; voice; stage of pelage differing in sexes; delta of Dubawnt
+River; possibly yearling doe with fawn; flies gone August 24, animals
+putting on fat; does massing in September, hundreds slaughtered by
+Eskimos at Thelon-Dubawnt mouth; last seen, Baker Lake,
+September&nbsp;5); 194-196 (table of Caribou movements&mdash;localities,
+dates, numbers, sex, wind.)&mdash;1931: 32 (conservation); 33 (trade in
+hides; Back’s River Eskimos living “solely” on Caribou).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Hoare, 1930: 13 (bucks migrating NE., June, Artillery Lake
+to Ford Lake); 14 (10,000+ near Campbell Lake, going SW., late July); 16
+(bands near Smart Lake, August); 21 (Ford Lake, early December); 22
+(Artillery Lake and Pike’s Portage, numerous, December; wolf predation);
+27 (small bands swimming lower Thelon River, late June); 31 (swimming
+Hanbury River, July); 33 (great numbers of bucks going S. Thelon River,
+July 22; relation of migrations to insects and storms); 36 (circular
+migration about e. end of Great Slave Lake; ne. migration in spring down
+Thelon River); 37-38 (relation of migration to mosquitoes); 52-53
+(summation by R.&nbsp;M. Anderson: carrying capacity of range&mdash;60
+acres per Caribou; probably total not over 3,000,000).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Kitto, 1930: 87 (food; economy;
+numbers and depletion; migrations); 88 (effect of firearms; segregation
+of sexes and ages); 89 (wolves; insect pests); 89-90 (conservation
+measures); 110 (Keewatin, mainland and Southampton and Coats islands;
+Churchill, Eskimo Point, and Baker Lake).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Mallet, 1930: 13 (Eskimo clothing of skins, Kazan River);
+20-23 (great migrant herd, led by a doe, crossing Kazan River near
+Yathkyed Lake); 27 (small herds migrating S., Ennadai Lake, August); 32
+(Chipewyan drum of caribou skin); 85 (Eskimos between Nueltin and Baker
+lakes living on caribou); 87 (Eskimo clothing of caribou fur); 89
+(Eskimos starving for lack of caribou); 90 (500 consumed per winter by
+20-odd Eskimos); 92 (caribou-skin gloves; tongues as provisions for
+journey); 95 (Eskimos eating raw frozen caribou in winter and “lukewarm
+meat” in summer); 102 (Eskimo tent of skins on Kazan River); 116
+(Indians eating caribou on Kasmere River); 131-140 (Eskimo band
+succumbing to starvation for lack of caribou).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> Richardson: Jacobi, 1931: 78-80
+(description); 80-84 (N. to Baffin Island and other Arctic islands; E.
+to Hudson Bay, Southampton Island, and Melville Peninsula; S. to
+Churchill River, Reindeer Lake, and Fort McMurray; W. to Athabaska and
+Mackenzie Rivers); 140 (phylogeny); 156, 157, 159 (depletion by natives,
+whalers, and traders); 186-187 (habitat); 190 (occurrence in herds);
+192-210 (migrations: causes, extent, routes, numbers, behavior,
+segregation by sex and age, dates, winter quarters); 216 (swimming);
+219, 220 (unwariness; curiosity); 223 (food); 232 (reproduction); 236
+(molt); 237 (change of antlers); 240-241 (predation by wolves); 244-245
+(parasitic flies).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Harper, 1932: 30
+(Lake Athabaska; excessive slaughter by Indians; Tazin Highlands; food;
+Thainka Lake; junction of Tazin and Taltson Rivers; avoiding lower
+Taltson River after
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page154" id = "page154">154</a></span>
+fire); 31 (Great Slave Lake; “near Artillery Lake” [= Stark Lake?];
+Indians spearing hundreds in water; migration; havoc by wolves;
+Caribou-eater Chipewyans).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Jenness, 1932: 47, 48, 58, 59 (caribou in Indian economy);
+51, 58, 75, 406-408, 411, 412, 414, 415 (caribou in Eskimo economy).</p>
+
+<p>“Cariboo” or “deer”: Munn, 1932: 57 (Artillery Lake); 58 (great
+migration of perhaps 2,000,000 between Artillery and Great Slave lakes;
+relation to mosquitoes); 168 (Baffin Island); 191-192 (Eskimo
+sleeping-bags and clothing of caribou skin, Baffin Island); 210, 214
+(Eskimos hunting deer, Southampton Island); 255 (trade in skins from
+Melville Peninsula); 271 (depletion of Baffin Island herds); 278
+(decimation of caribou in w. Arctic due to Eskimos trapping white fox
+instead of sealing in winter).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Sutton and Hamilton,
+1932: 33, 35, 36, 81, 82, 84, 85 (predation by wolves, Southampton
+Island); 79 (formerly abundant, but no longer); 79, 81 (migration);
+80-83, 86-87 (hunting and utilization by Eskimos); 81 (scatology); 81,
+84-86 (reproduction); 81-86 (antler growth and shedding); 83 (standing
+on hind legs); 84 (food; foot-glands; voice); 84-86 (parasitic and other
+flies); 87-88 (description); 88 (previous records on Southampton
+Island).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer tarandus arcticus</i>. . .: Weyer, 1932: 38 (most
+important land animal to Eskimos); 39 (utilization by Eskimos; food); 40
+(fawning period; seasonal fat; migration).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Birket-Smith, 1933: 89 (immense
+numbers on Barren Grounds, but recently declining); 90 (gadflies
+plaguing caribou); 91-92 (migration); 92 (thousands at Baker Lake, late
+July; scourged by mosquitoes); 93 (no longer migrating from Victoria
+Island to mainland); 94 (occurrence in autumn and winter at Repulse
+Bay); 100 (good hunting near Whale Point, Roe’s Welcome; use of cairns
+in hunting by Eskimos); 106 (not many near Eskimo Point); 112 (great
+migration at Baker Lake beginning in June); 118 (deer crossings on lower
+Kazan River); 121 (difficulty of reconciling reindeer culture with
+presence of caribou).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Ingstad, 1933: 34 (caribou deflected on s. side of Great
+Slave Lake by forest fires); 48 (buck on Barren Grounds harassed by
+black flies); 85, 110 (E. of Great Slave Lake); 86 (asleep on ice of
+lakes); 87 (leaping into air before running off); 88 (varying wariness);
+90 (carcass as fox bait near Artillery Lake); 118, 122 (use of meat and
+hides by Indians, Great Slave Lake); 134-135, 324 (spring migration
+across Great Slave Lake); 135 (antler velvet eaten by Indians; larvae of
+nostril and warble flies); 139 (Indian drum of caribou skin); 156-159
+(migration; followed by wolves, ravens, foxes, and wolverines); 158
+(rutting season and behavior); 159 (antler shedding); 160 (numbers); 161
+(migration influenced by grazing available; fawning on Arctic islands);
+162 (separation into different herd groupings); 162-163<ins class =
+"correction" title = "open ( missing"> (</ins>destruction by Eskimos
+with firearms along Arctic coast); 163 (migration deflected by burning
+of country); 165-166 (conservation; wolf predation); 167 (dependence of
+Caribou-eater Indians on this animal); 176, 181 (Stark Lake and
+vicinity); 186-187 (use of meat by Caribou-eaters); 204, 216, 218, 220,
+222 (upper Thelon River region); 207 (predation
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page155" id = "page155">155</a></span>
+by wolves); 225, 229-231 (Nonacho Lake area); 247, 253 (dependence of
+Barren Ground Indians on caribou); 253-254 (former hunting with spears,
+bows, dogteams, barriers, snares); 257-259 (Indian use of meat and
+hides); 280 (migrating near e. end of Great Slave Lake); 291, 293, 296
+(thousands in winter on Barrens E. of Great Slave <ins class =
+"correction" title = "close ) missing">Lake);</ins> 293, 297
+(unwariness); 302-304, 306-307 (predation by wolves on Barren Grounds);
+312 (albino caribou).</p>
+
+<p>“Barren land caribou”: Stockwell, 1933: 45 (large herds in August,
+Point, Thonokied, and MacKay lakes and Coppermine River).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Weeks, 1933: 65 (very plentiful on Maguse River after
+August&nbsp;4).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): R. M. Anderson,
+1934<i>a</i>: 81 (utilization of skin and meat; migrations; Melville
+Peninsula, Boothia Peninsula, and Baffin Island).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: R. M. Anderson, 1934<i>b</i>: 4062,
+fig. 9 (map shows range of subsp. arcticus extending N. only to Arctic
+coast and over Baffin Island).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Flerov, 1934: 240 (cranial
+measurements).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Godsell, 1934: 273-276 (trade with Eskimos on Arctic coast
+resulting in great slaughter of caribou); 276 (importation of reindeer
+to Mackenzie Delta region to replace caribou).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): Hornby, 1934: 105 (food;
+weight; fat; migrations influenced by natives, unfrozen large lakes, and
+fires; effects of flies; rutting season and behavior; antler shedding);
+106 (irregular migrations; sexual segregation; wolf predation); 106-107
+(movements, numbers, and dates in region between Great Slave and Baker
+lakes); 108 (beneficial effect of wolves on caribou).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Wray, 1934: 141 (abundant, Lac de Gras, 1932); 144 (few S.
+of Mackay Lake).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Degerbøl, 1935: 48-51
+(specimens from Baffin Island and Melville Peninsula, including an
+albino from Rae Isthmus; descriptions).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Freuchen, 1935: 93 (abundance of rabbits supposed to
+lessen wolf predation on caribou); 99 (wolverine reputed to attack
+sleeping caribou); 120 (pursuit by wolves near Wager Inlet); 121
+(followed by wolves, Melville Peninsula; predation by wolves,
+Southampton Island); 122 (wolves said not to follow caribou across
+streams; wolf methods of hunting caribou); 128 (caribou carcasses
+consumed by Arctic foxes).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Murie, 1935: 74, 75
+(type locality; skull measurements).</p>
+
+<p>“Barren ground caribou”: Alcock, 1936: 9 (Lake Athabaska).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Birket-Smith, 1936: 90 (importance to
+Eskimos); 91 (migration; snow pitfalls, baited with urine; hunting with
+spears, rows of stone cairns, snares, and bows); 110 (dependence of
+Caribou Eskimos on Caribou); 111 (frequent famine and cannibalism among
+them for lack of Caribou; lookout knolls for Caribou); 112 (sexual
+segregation in herds); 115-116 (clothing of caribou skin).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Soper, 1936: 429 (resorting to Grinnell Glacier, Baffin
+Island, to escape mosquitoes).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): R. M. Anderson, 1937:
+103 (lower
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page156" id = "page156">156</a></span>
+Mackenzie River to Hudson Bay; use of skin and meat; scarce on coast W.
+of Bathurst Inlet; concentration between Bathurst Inlet, Great Slave
+Lake, and Baker Lake; S. into Wood Buffalo Park; use of rifles by
+Central Eskimos resulting in decrease; apparent inter&shy;gradation with
+<i>R.&nbsp;a. pearyi</i> in northern islands).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Godsell, 1937: 288 (caribou migrating between mainland and
+Arctic islands exterminated by Eskimos with ammunition supplied by
+traders); 289 (reindeer imported to mouth of Mackenzie to replace
+vanished caribou).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Henriksen, 1937: 25 (larvae of
+<i>Cephenomyia trompe</i> L. from nasal passage, Baker Lake,
+May&nbsp;2); 26 (larvae of <i>Oedemagena tarandi</i> collected from
+caribou in May, Gore Bay, Lyon Inlet, and Melville Peninsula).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i>. . .: R. M. Anderson, 1938: 400
+(perhaps no great reduction in numbers, but some shifting of range from
+human encroachments and fire; wintering S. to n. Manitoba and
+Saskatchewan and ne. Alberta; estimate of 3,000,000).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Hamilton, 1939: 109 (hoofs; function
+of fat); 244-247 (migrations); 246, 352, 359 (importance to Indians and
+Eskimos); 247 (influence of mosquitoes on movements; sexual
+segregation); 301 (distribution determined by insect pests); 359
+(immense herd in ne. Saskatchewan).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> Richardson: Murie, 1939: 239
+(Mackenzie River to Hudson Bay and Baffin Island, including some of the
+Arctic islands; diagnosis); 244 (antlers; pelage; migration; rut in
+September and October); 245 (food; ankle click; voice; gait; senses;
+insect pests; Wolves and other predators); 245-246 (danger from
+introduction of Reindeer); 246 (adaptation to environment).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): Clarke, 1940: 5, 7 (dependence
+of Indians and Eskimos on caribou); 8-9 (Rum Lake country a wintering
+ground; Eskimos from Back’s River to Wager Inlet and Baker Lake
+dependent on winter caribou; likewise those at Beverly, Aberdeen, and
+Schultz lakes); 11 (great winter herd S. and W. of Bathurst Inlet); 65
+(fluctuations; current abundance in Hanbury-Thelon region and scarcity
+at Baker Lake); 70 (parasites; diseases); 84 (economic importance);
+85-86 (migrating southward in late July in Thelon Game Sanctuary and at
+Tourgis Lake, in early August at Hanbury, Artillery, Clinton-Colden, and
+Aylmer lakes, and from early August to late September at Taltson River
+and Thekulthili and Nonacho lakes; in autumn near Lac de Gras and on
+upper Back’s River; in autumn and winter at Reliance and Snowdrift);
+87-90 (at least 100,000 migrating N. in early July at Hanbury and Thelon
+rivers, including does with month-old fawns); 89, 90 (molt); 91
+(previous records in Thelon Sanctuary region); 92-93 (near Lake
+Athabaska and Slave River and at Hill Island Lake in early August; Wood
+Buffalo Park in winter; the various groups and their movements defined);
+93-95 (early ideas of migrations); 95 (fallacies; sexual segregation;
+antlers; influence of flies); 96-97 (details of migratory movements;
+retrograde autumnal movement); 98 (extermination of bands formerly
+migrating from mainland to Victoria and King William islands); 98-100
+(irregular migrations; influences&mdash;such
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page157" id = "page157">157</a></span>
+as wide open waters, overgrazing, and fires&mdash;affecting migrations);
+101-104 (carrying capacity of range; numbers estimated at 3,000,000;
+increase and decrease); 104-106 (accidents); 106-107 (effects of fire
+and overgrazing; food); 107-110 (wolves and other predators); 110
+(hunting and its effects); 112 (importance to natives).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): G. M. Allen, 1942:
+297 (mainstay of Eskimos and Indians); 297-298 (description); 298-299
+(Hudson Bay to Mackenzie River, N. to Banks and Victoria Islands,
+Boothia, Southampton and Baffin Islands, S. to Churchill River, Reindeer
+Lake, and ne. Alberta; migratory habit; shift of range due to human
+crowding and destruction of winter forage by fire); 299 (increased
+slaughter in winter range; reduction on Southampton Island).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Manning, 1942: 28 (rapidly reduced on Southampton Island
+after establishment of a post in 1924); 29 (insufficient skins for
+Eskimo clothing); 29 (wolves, for lack of caribou, became extinct on
+Southampton by 1937).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Soper, 1942: 143 (in
+1932-33, E. of Fort Smith, S. to 30th base line; along N. shore of Lake
+Athabaska to Fond du Lac; W. of Slave River, between Lobstick Creek and
+Grand Detour and into Wood Buffalo Park; Tethul River to Tsu Lake and
+Taltson River; in 1933-34, crossing Slave River from E. in vicinity of
+Caribou and Stony Islands and Buffalo Landing, and feeding on goose
+grass [=&nbsp;<i>Equisetum, fide</i> Raup, 1933: 39]).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Downes, 1943: 203 (Windy Lake, late July); 215 (1925-26
+and 1938-39 bad years for caribou on upper Kazan River; consequent
+mortality among Eskimos); 221 (Red River, July 28); 224, 249, 250
+(Simons’ Lake); 226 (grunting; shaking heads on account of flies; buck
+with winter pelage); 227 (butchering operation); 228 (use of antlers and
+hoofs; feeding on dwarf birch; protecting carcasses from gulls); 236-237
+(antics of a buck); 253 (Red River); 255 (warble and nostril flies); 256
+(does beginning to appear; swimming ability); 256-257 (snuffing,
+snorting, and coughing); 258-260 (estimates of numbers); 260 (change of
+migration routes through human activities and forest fires); 261-262
+(effect of natives and wolves); pl. following p. 296 (Kasmere
+River).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): Manning, 1943<i>a</i>: 47
+(recent depletion by Eskimos); 49-52 (w. Baffin Island; Koukdjuak and
+Hantzsch rivers; Bowman, Taverner, Wordie, and Harbour bays; Tweedsmuir
+Islands; Baird Peninsula; Lake Nettilling; Cumberland Sound; Fury and
+Hecla Strait); 50 (summer and winter droppings; exterminated from most
+of Foxe Peninsula); 51 (estimated population in central western Baffin
+Island 10,000); 51-52 (migratory movements); 52 (sexual segregation and
+herding; females bearing young at end of second year); 52-53 (antler
+growth and shedding); 53 (molt; development of warble flies, and their
+scarcity in fawns; accumulation of fat); 55 (annual kill by wolves on w.
+Baffin Island estimated at 2,000 animals over one year of age).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Manning, 1943<i>b</i>: 103 (former migration&mdash;now
+ceased&mdash;from the S. to Melville Peninsula, where the animals are
+now scarce; still numerous on Baffin Island N. of Fury and Hecla Strait;
+fairly numerous, Repulse Bay
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page158" id = "page158">158</a></span>
+to Chesterfield Inlet; dearth of skins for Eskimo clothing; numerous
+herds about Piling, Baffin Island).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i>. . .: Porsild, 1943: 383 (food);
+386 (warble and nostril flies “apparently do not travel very far”;
+sparsely covered grazing areas suitable for caribou but not for
+reindeer); 389 (migration affected by rotational grazing and seasonal
+and local abundance of mosquitoes or flies; wariness varying with size
+of herd; caribou disappear before expanding reindeer culture).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Soper, 1944: 274-250
+(great reduction in southern coastal region of Baffin Island; few left
+on Foxe Peninsula; Hantzsch and Soper rivers; Bowman, Amadjuak, and
+Frobisher bays; Lake Harbour; Nettilling Lake; Big Island; Grinnell
+Glacier; Cockburn Land); 248 (measurements); 248-249 (migrations);
+248-250 (utilization by Eskimos).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: [U.S.] War Department, 1944: 40 (Canadian mainland and
+Arctic islands); 77 (importance as food).</p>
+
+<p>“Barren ground caribou”: Wright, 1944: 185 (late summer skins for
+clothing; high value of the meat; reduction in numbers); 186 (migration
+routes changed by overgrazing, fires, and excessive hunting; numbers);
+187 (annual consumption in Keewatin not less than 22,000; decrease on
+Boothia and Melville peninsulas; locally plentiful in w. Baffin Island;
+scarce on King William Island; none on Adelaide Peninsula; great
+decrease on Southampton Island); 188 (small herds on Coats Island;
+varying numbers on Baffin Island, where skins are imported for clothing;
+a&nbsp;herd on Bylot Island); 189 (scarce at Arctic Bay and on Brodeur
+Peninsula); 190 (migration on Baffin Island); 191 (Baffin population
+estimated at 25,000); 193 (tables of numbers taken annually on Baffin
+Island and in Keewatin); 195 (smaller caribou on Boothia Peninsula and
+on Somerset and Prince of Wales islands).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Young, 1944: 236-238, 243 (predation by wolves in the
+Barren Grounds, including Southampton Island and Artillery Lake).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Gavin, 1945: 227-228
+(recent increase at Perry River and Bathurst Inlet; partly resident on
+mainland but also migratory, a&nbsp;few crossing to Victoria Island);
+228 (many fawning on small coastal islands and Kent Peninsula; many
+succumbing to mosquitoes; damage by larvae of warble fly).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): R. M. Anderson, 1947:
+178 (type locality; Mackenzie and Keewatin, from Hudson Bay and Melville
+Peninsula W. to lower Mackenzie Valley, and N. to s. fringe of islands
+N. of the mainland Arctic coast; migrating S. to Churchill River or
+beyond, Reindeer Lake, Lake Athabaska, and occasionally the Wood Buffalo
+Park in ne. Alberta).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: R. M. Anderson, 1948: 15 (decrease;
+shift of range attributed to fire or overgrazing; need of protection;
+killing from planes; Northwest Territories; northern Manitoba,
+Saskatchewan, and Alberta).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): Manning, 1948: 26-28 (Eyrie,
+Big Sand, Neck, Sandhill, Malaher, Boundary, Boulder, South Henik, Camp,
+Carr, Alder, Victory, Ninety-seven, Twin, and Baker lakes; Tha-anne and
+Kazan rivers; W. of Padlei; Christopher Island; Chesterfield Inlet;
+Tavani;
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page159" id = "page159">159</a></span>
+most numerous in the more southerly and westerly of these localities in
+Manitoba and Keewatin; heavy grazing on lichens where the caribou had
+been numerous; migration; trails).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> Richardson: Rand, 1948<i>a</i>:
+211-212 (diagnosis); 212 (Northwest Territories, wandering southward in
+winter as far as Fort McMurray (formerly) and Wood Buffalo Park; food;
+habitat).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> Richardson: Rand, 1948<i>b</i>: 149
+(numerous at Burnt Wood River, W. of Nelson House, winter of 1944-45,
+and in Herb Lake area, Manitoba, winters of 1944-45 and 1945-46;
+hundreds killed by Indians).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Yule, 1948: 287 (a losing battle for survival; not half as
+many as a few years previously); 288 (considerable herds between
+Churchill and Gillam, but fewer to the westward; excessive kill;
+consumption by dogs and wolves; disaster confronting Indians and Eskimos
+through diminishing supply of caribou).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i>. . .: Banfield, 1949: 477
+(economy); 478 (Mackenzie and Keewatin; numbers less than previous
+estimate of 3,000,000; S. in winter to nw. Ontario, central Manitoba, n.
+Saskatchewan, ne. Alberta, Wood Buffalo Park, and Norman Wells; small
+bands remaining on Boothia and Adelaide peninsulas, S. of Pelly Bay, on
+Somerset, Prince of Wales, and Russell islands, and at Daly Bay;
+believed extirpated on King William Island; Melville Peninsula); 481
+(near Wager Bay; fairly plentiful along Arctic coast from Back’s River
+to Horton River, in Perry River district, and on Kent Peninsula, where a
+few cross to Victoria Island; population on Southampton Island estimated
+at 300, on Coats Island at 1,000 and on Baffin Island at 25,000;
+apparently extirpated on Bylot Island in 1941; Eskimo pressure on Baffin
+Island herds). (Fig. 1&nbsp;suggests n. limit at s. Victoria Island and
+Prince of Wales and Somerset islands.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i>. . .: Harper, 1949: 226 (Kazan
+River; Eskimos starving for lack of caribou); 226-230, 239-240
+(migration and its pattern); 226 (wintering S. to Churchill and Nelson
+rivers; Nueltin Lake); 226, 228 (habitat; trails); 226-227, 229-230
+(locomotion); 227 (daily periods of rest); 228, 229, 230 (pelage and
+molt); 228 (insect pests); 228, 229 (organization of herds); 229
+(antlers); 229-230 (disposition); 230 (grunting; shaking water off;
+foot-glands; food); 230-231 (utilization of hides and meat); 230-231,
+239 (the wolf a beneficial predator); 231, 239 (numbers); 239 (civilized
+man the chief enemy; menace of reindeer culture).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Hoffman, 1949: 12 (herds of 50,000 in Mackenzie region
+spotted by aircraft; Indians and Eskimos thus directed to them; caribou
+hides shipped to Eskimos along Arctic coast, who are thus giving up
+seal-hunting).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> agg.: Polunin, 1949: 24 (contemplated
+introduction of Reindeer to replace Caribou); 72 (Frobisher Bay); 227,
+230 (reported increase in NE. of Southampton Island); 230 (Eskimos on
+Southampton Island learning conservation methods); 233, 238, 262, 264
+(Christopher Island, Baker Lake).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Porsild, 1950: 54 (relatively plentiful, 1949, Banks and
+Victoria islands).</p>
+
+<p>“Barren-ground caribou”: Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 1 (importance in
+northern economy); 3&nbsp;(physical environment); 4&nbsp;(former and
+present distribution);
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page160" id = "page160">160</a></span>
+4-5 (winter ranges); 5&nbsp;(influences of fire on distribution);
+6&nbsp;(summer ranges; retrograde autumnal movement); 9&nbsp;(estimated
+mainland population 670,000); 9-12 (migration); 10 (retrograde autumnal
+movement; rutting in October or November); 11 (influences of excessive
+hunting and fires on migration); 12-15 (changes in range and status); 13
+(estimated population of 1,750,000 in 1900); 14-15 (destruction by
+whalers and natives); 15-17 (description; pelage and molt); 15 (weight);
+17-18 (antler growth and change); 18 (tooth wear with age); 19 (body
+form; foot-prints; foot-click); 19-20 (food); 21 (locomotion; swimming);
+22 (voice; senses; disposition); 23-24 (group behavior); 24-26 (sexual
+segregation); 26 (rutting behavior); 27 (fawning behavior; warning
+behavior); 27-29 (influence of food, weather, and flies on migration);
+30 (vital statistics; growth); 31 (sexual maturity); 31-33 (warble
+flies); 33 (nostril flies, mosquitoes, and black flies); 33-35 (internal
+parasites); 35 (bacterial diseases); 35-36 (accidents); 36-37 (relations
+to other animals); 37-41 (relations to wolves; annual loss from wolf
+predation estimated at no more than 5 percent); 41 (wolverine only a
+scavenger); 42 (few kills by barren-ground grizzlies or golden eagles);
+42-43 (effect of firearms and wastage by natives); 43-44 (caches); 44-45
+(meat used as human food, dog feed, and fox bait); 46-47 (hides used for
+clothing, upholstery, tents, moccasins, etc.); 47 (use of sinew,
+antlers, and fat); 47-50 (human population in caribou range; annual kill
+estimated at 93,000 as a minimum).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Banfield,
+1951<i>b</i>: 120 (Mackenzie; wintering in forest, summering on tundra;
+specimens).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Scott, 1951: 17 (Musk Ox Lake, Mackenzie); 19 (near
+Beechey Lake); 37, 41, 83, 87, 88, 175, 214, 216 (Perry River,
+Keewatin); 127 (use by Eskimos); 179, 180 (doe with fawn, July 21); 199
+(several thousand, July 27); 234 (Baker Lake).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Tweedsmuir, 1951: 18 (reduction on Baffin Island); 37
+(Salisbury Island); 111 (gone from Foxe Land).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Anonymous, 1952: 261 (decline in numbers from 1,750,000 in
+1900 to 670,000 in 1952); 263, 265, 267 (wolves harrying herds); 264
+(annual kill estimated at 100,000; natural enemies account for 68,000
+more); 267 (summer and winter ranges mapped).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i>. . .: Mochi and Carter, 1953: pl.
+9, fig.&nbsp;3, and accompanying text (description; distribution).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Harper, 1953: 28 (caribou bodies in Nueltin Lake region
+fed upon by Rough-legged Hawks, Ravens, and Herring Gulls); 40 (lack of
+Caribou leading to large consumption of Ptarmigan as dog feed); 41
+(Caribou preferred to Ptarmigan as Eskimo food); 60 (Long-tailed Jaegers
+feeding on caribou bodies); 62, 63 (depredations by Herring Gulls on
+caribou bodies); 64 (Ring-billed Gulls feeding on caribou bodies); 72
+(Canada Jays as substitute for dog feed when caribou are lacking; these
+birds as scavengers on caribou bodies); 74 (Ravens and Canada Jays as
+scavengers); 76 (Ravens feeding upon caribou bodies and following Wolves
+in expectation of a caribou kill).</p>
+
+<p>“Caribou”: Barnett, 1954: 96 (migration; fawning; numbers); 103
+(migration); 104 (warble fly; antlers); 106 (lichens as food).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<!-- end div biblio -->
+
+
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page161" id = "page161">161</a></span>
+<h2><a name = "index" id = "index">INDEX</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>The principal items selected for inclusion in this index are: names
+of animals other than Richardson’s Barren Ground Caribou (<i>Rangifer
+arcticus arcticus</i>); names of plants; names of institutions; and
+names of authors and other persons.</p>
+
+<p>The index does not cover the bibliographical references in smaller
+type inserted at the end of each section, from pages 38 to 119; nor does
+it cover the two large sections devoted wholly to bibliography (pp.
+120-160).</p>
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+
+<p>Links lead to the top of the page.</p>
+
+<p class = "center">
+<a href = "#index_A">&nbsp;A&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_B">&nbsp;B&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_C">&nbsp;C&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_D">&nbsp;D&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_E">&nbsp;E&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_F">&nbsp;F&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_G">&nbsp;G&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_H">&nbsp;H&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_I">&nbsp;I&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_J">&nbsp;J&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_K">&nbsp;K&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_L">&nbsp;L&nbsp;</a><br>
+<a href = "#index_M">&nbsp;M&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_N">&nbsp;N&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_O">&nbsp;O&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_P">&nbsp;P&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_R">&nbsp;R&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_S">&nbsp;S&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_T">&nbsp;T&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_U">&nbsp;U&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_V">&nbsp;V&nbsp;</a>
+<a href = "#index_W">&nbsp;W&nbsp;</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class = "index">
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_A" id = "index_A"><i>Aedes</i></a>,
+<a href = "#page45">45</a></p>
+<p class = "inset"><i>fitchii</i>, <a href = "#page70">70</a></p>
+<p class = "inset"><i>nearcticus</i>, <a href = "#page70">70</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Agrostis scabra</i>, <a href = "#page42">42</a></p>
+
+<p>Alder, <a href = "#page98">98</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Alectoria</i>, <a href = "#page44">44</a></p>
+
+<p>Allen, J. A., <a href = "#page116">116</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Alopex lagopus innuitus</i>, <a href = "#page63">63</a></p>
+
+<p>American Committee for International Wild Life Protection, reverse of
+title-page</p>
+
+<p>American Museum of Natural History, <a href = "#page6">6</a>,
+<a href = "#page117">117</a></p>
+
+<p>American Society of Mammalogists, <a href = "#page77">77</a></p>
+
+<p>Amundsen, Roald, <a href = "#page49">49</a></p>
+
+<p>Anderson, R. M., <a href = "#page40">40</a>,
+<a href = "#page43">43</a>,
+<a href = "#page75">75</a>,
+<a href = "#page78">78</a>,
+<a href = "#page116">116</a>,
+<a href = "#page117">117</a></p>
+
+<p>Anonymous, <a href = "#page40">40</a>,
+<a href = "#page47">47</a></p>
+
+<p>Anoteelik, <a href = "#page6">6</a>,
+<a href = "#page26">26</a>,
+<a href = "#page27">27</a>,
+<a href = "#page35">35</a> (fig.),
+<a href = "#page56">56</a> (fig.),
+<a href = "#page60">60</a>,
+<a href = "#page85">85</a>,
+<a href = "#page95">95</a></p>
+
+<p>Arctic Institute of North America, <a href = "#page5">5</a>, inside
+of back cover</p>
+
+<p><i>Arctostaphylos alpina</i>, <a href = "#page33">33</a> (fig.)</p>
+
+<p>Armstrong, Alex, <a href = "#page117">117</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_B" id = "index_B">Bailey</a>, Alfred M., and Russell W.
+Hendee, <a href = "#page72">72</a></p>
+
+<p>Banfield, A. W. F., <a href = "#page5">5</a>,
+<a href = "#page10">10</a>,
+<a href = "#page40">40</a>,
+<a href = "#page58">58</a>,
+<a href = "#page63">63</a>,
+<a href = "#page66">66</a>,
+<a href = "#page71">71</a>,
+<a href = "#page76">76</a>,
+<a href = "#page78">78</a>,
+<a href = "#page107">107</a>,
+<a href = "#page117">117</a>,
+<a href = "#page118">118</a></p>
+
+<p>Bear(s), Black, <a href = "#page42">42</a>,
+<a href = "#page48">48</a>,
+<a href = "#page62">62</a></p>
+
+<p>Bergman, Arvid M., <a href = "#page72">72</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Betula glandulosa</i>, <a href = "#page33b">33</a> (fig.),
+<a href = "#page98">98</a></p>
+
+<p>Birch, dwarf, <a href = "#page16">16</a>,
+<a href = "#page17">17</a>,
+<a href = "#page22">22</a>,
+<a href = "#page24">24</a>,
+<a href = "#page41">41</a>,
+<a href = "#page98">98</a>,
+<a href = "#page99">99</a></p>
+
+<p>Birket-Smith, Kaj, <a href = "#page76">76</a>,
+<a href = "#page117">117</a></p>
+
+<p>Bison, <a href = "#page85">85</a></p>
+
+<p>Blanchet, G. H., <a href = "#page49">49</a>,
+<a href = "#page117">117</a></p>
+
+<p>Blowfly(ies), <a href = "#page29">29</a>,
+<a href = "#page51">51</a>,
+<a href = "#page52">52</a></p>
+
+<p>Boas, Franz, <a href = "#page112">112</a></p>
+
+<p>Bourassa, John M., <a href = "#page12">12</a></p>
+
+<p>Buchanan, Angus, <a href = "#page7">7</a>,
+<a href = "#page68">68</a>,
+<a href = "#page86">86</a></p>
+
+<p>Buchholz, Carl, <a href = "#page38">38</a></p>
+
+<p>“Bulldog” (Tabanidae), <a href = "#page45">45</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Buteo lagopus sancti-johannis</i>, <a href = "#page68">68</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_C" id = "index_C">Cabot</a>, William B., <a href =
+"#page99">99</a></p>
+
+<p>Calf, bovine, <a href = "#page104">104</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Canis</i>,</p>
+<p class = "inset"><i>lupus arctos</i>, <a href = "#page63">63</a></p>
+<p class = "inset"><i>lupus bernardi</i>, <a href = "#page63">63</a></p>
+<p class = "inset"><i>lupus hudsonicus</i>, <a href = "#page63">63</a>,
+<a href = "#page64">64</a></p>
+<p class = "inset"><i>lupus mackenzii</i>, <a href =
+"#page63">63</a></p>
+<p class = "inset"><i>lupus manningi</i>, <a href = "#page63">63</a></p>
+<p class = "inset"><i>lupus occidentalis</i>, <a href =
+"#page63">63</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Carex chordorrhiza</i>, <a href = "#page55">55</a> (fig.)</p>
+
+<p>Caribou,</p>
+<p class = "inset">Grant’s, <a href = "#page74">74</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">Labrador Barren Ground, <a href =
+"#page118">118</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">Newfoundland, <a href = "#page63">63</a>,
+<a href = "#page66">66</a>,
+<a href = "#page97">97</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">Peary’s, <a href = "#page43">43</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">(Western) Woodland, <a href = "#page7">7</a>-<a href
+= "#page9">9</a>,
+<a href = "#page12">12</a>,
+<a href = "#page45">45</a>,
+<a href = "#page46">46</a>,
+<a href = "#page70">70</a>,
+<a href = "#page78">78</a>,
+<a href = "#page112">112</a>,
+<a href = "#page94">94</a> (fig.),
+<a href = "#page119">119</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Cephenemyia</i>, <a href = "#page45">45</a>,
+<a href = "#page46">46</a>,
+<a href = "#page72">72</a>,
+<a href = "#page73">73</a>,
+<a href = "#page96">96</a></p>
+<p class = "inset"><i>nasalis</i>, <a href = "#page72">72</a></p>
+<p class = "inset"><i>trompe</i>, <a href = "#page72">72</a>,
+<a href = "#page73">73</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Cervus elaphus elaphus</i>, <a href = "#page50">50</a></p>
+
+<p>Chambers, Joe, <a href = "#page11">11</a>,
+<a href = "#page66">66</a>,
+<a href = "#page85">85</a></p>
+
+<p>Chipewyans, Caribou-eater, <a href = "#page47">47</a>,
+<a href = "#page49">49</a>,
+<a href = "#page52">52</a>,
+<a href = "#page58">58</a>,
+<a href = "#page62">62</a>,
+<a href = "#page69">69</a></p>
+
+<p>Christian, Edgar, <a href = "#page59">59</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Cladonia</i>, <a href = "#page33">33</a> (fig.),
+<a href = "#page44">44</a>,
+<a href = "#page98">98</a></p>
+
+<p>Clarke, C. H. D., <a href = "#page38">38</a>,
+<a href = "#page40">40</a>,
+<a href = "#page41">41</a>,
+<a href = "#page47">47</a>,
+<a href = "#page67">67</a>,
+<a href = "#page78">78</a>,
+<a href = "#page117">117</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Corvus corax principalis</i>, <a href = "#page68">68</a></p>
+
+<p>Cow, domestic, <a href = "#page113">113</a></p>
+
+<p>Critchell-Bullock, James C., <a href = "#page67">67</a></p>
+
+<p>Crowberry, <a href = "#page16">16</a>,
+<a href = "#page98">98</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_D" id = "index_D">Deer</a>,</p>
+<p class = "inset">European Red, <a href = "#page50">50</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">“Indian,” <a href = "#page8">8</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">Mule, <a href = "#page77">77</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">White-tailed, <a href = "#page46">46</a>,
+<a href = "#page77">77</a>,
+<a href = "#page78">78</a>,
+<a href = "#page83">83</a>-<a href = "#page85">85</a>,
+<a href = "#page87">87</a>,
+<a href = "#page100">100</a>,
+<a href = "#page102">102</a>,
+<a href = "#page103">103</a></p>
+
+<p>Degerbøl, Magnus, <a href = "#page112">112</a></p>
+
+<p>Dix, W. L., <a href = "#page44">44</a>,
+<a href = "#page98">98</a></p>
+
+<p>Dobbs, Arthur, <a href = "#page8">8</a></p>
+
+<p>Dogs, (Husky), <a href = "#page15">15</a>,
+<a href = "#page17">17</a>,
+<a href = "#page19">19</a>,
+<a href = "#page21">21</a>,
+<a href = "#page47">47</a>-<a href = "#page52">52</a>,
+<a href = "#page59">59</a>,
+<a href = "#page60">60</a>,
+<a href = "#page62">62</a>,
+<a href = "#page85">85</a></p>
+
+<p>Downes, P. G., <a href = "#page18">18</a>,
+<a href = "#page51">51</a>,
+<a href = "#page52">52</a>,
+<a href = "#page69">69</a>,
+<a href = "#page106">106</a></p>
+
+<p>Dugmore, A. Radclyffe, <a href = "#page97">97</a>,
+<a href = "#page112">112</a></p>
+
+<p>Dyar, Harrison G., <a href = "#page70">70</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_E" id = "index_E"><i>Eleocharis baldwinii</i></a>,
+<a href = "#page42">42</a></p>
+
+<p>Ellis, Hazel R., <a href = "#page12">12</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Empetrum nigrum</i>, <a href = "#page33">33</a> (figs.),
+<a href = "#page98">98</a></p>
+
+<p>Eskimo(s), <a href = "#page5">5</a>,
+<a href = "#page6">6</a>,
+<a href = "#page19">19</a>,
+<a href = "#page29">29</a>,
+<a href = "#page34">34</a> (figs.),
+<a href = "#page35">35</a> (figs.),
+<a href = "#page47">47</a>,
+<a href = "#page49">49</a>-<a href = "#page52">52</a>,
+<a href = "#page56">56</a> (figs.),
+<a href = "#page57">57</a>-<a href = "#page60">60</a>,
+<a href = "#page74">74</a>-<a href = "#page76">76</a>,
+<a href = "#page79">79</a>,
+<a href = "#page99">99</a>,
+<a href = "#page114">114</a></p>
+
+<p>“Eskimo candle(s),” <a href = "#page60">60</a>,
+<a href = "#page114">114</a></p>
+
+<p>“Eskimo Charlie,” <a href = "#page52">52</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_F" id = "index_F">Fish</a>,
+<a href = "#page47">47</a>,
+<a href = "#page48">48</a>,
+<a href = "#page59">59</a>,
+<a href = "#page60">60</a></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page162" id = "page162">162</a></span>
+<p>Fisher, Alexander, <a href = "#page103">103</a></p>
+
+<p>Fleas, <a href = "#page73">73</a></p>
+
+<p>Flerov, Constantine C., <a href = "#page110">110</a></p>
+
+<p>Fly(ies), <a href = "#page14">14</a>,
+<a href = "#page23">23</a>,
+<a href = "#page27">27</a>,
+<a href = "#page41">41</a>,
+<a href = "#page43">43</a>,
+<a href = "#page69">69</a>,
+<a href = "#page85">85</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">black, <a href = "#page20">20</a>,
+<a href = "#page23">23</a>-<a href = "#page28">28</a>,
+<a href = "#page45">45</a>,
+<a href = "#page46">46</a>,
+<a href = "#page69">69</a>,
+<a href = "#page70">70</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">“deer,” <a href = "#page70">70</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">nostril, <a href = "#page37">37</a>,
+<a href = "#page45">45</a>,
+<a href = "#page46">46</a>,
+<a href = "#page72">72</a>,
+<a href = "#page73">73</a>,
+<a href = "#page96">96</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">warble, <a href = "#page37">37</a>,
+<a href = "#page45">45</a>,
+<a href = "#page46">46</a>,
+<a href = "#page52">52</a>,
+<a href = "#page56b">56</a> (figs.), <a href = "#page57">57</a>,
+<a href = "#page70">70</a>-<a href = "#page72">72</a>,
+<a href = "#page96">96</a></p>
+
+<p>Fox(es), <a href = "#page47">47</a>,
+<a href = "#page48">48</a>,
+<a href = "#page51">51</a>,
+<a href = "#page62">62</a>,
+<a href = "#page66">66</a>,
+<a href = "#page68">68</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">Arctic, <a href = "#page48">48</a>,
+<a href = "#page62">62</a>,
+<a href = "#page63">63</a>,
+<a href = "#page78">78</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">Red, <a href = "#page63">63</a></p>
+
+<p>Franklin, Sir John, <a href = "#page46">46</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_G" id = "index_G">Gallagher</a>, Don, <a href =
+"#page12">12</a></p>
+
+<p>Gavin, Angus, <a href = "#page64">64</a>,
+<a href = "#page69">69</a>,
+<a href = "#page117">117</a></p>
+
+<p>Gibson, R. A., <a href = "#page6">6</a></p>
+
+<p>Godsell, Philip H., <a href = "#page117">117</a></p>
+
+<p>Goldman, Edward A., <a href = "#page63">63</a>,
+<a href = "#page64">64</a></p>
+
+<p>Goodwin, George G., <a href = "#page117">117</a></p>
+
+<p>Grant, Madison, <a href = "#page118">118</a></p>
+
+<p>Grass(es), <a href = "#page98">98</a>,
+<a href = "#page99">99</a></p>
+
+<p>Gull(s),</p>
+<p class = "inset">Herring, <a href = "#page51">51</a>,
+<a href = "#page68">68</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">Ring-billed, <a href = "#page68">68</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_H" id = "index_H">Hanbury</a>, David T., <a href =
+"#page47">47</a>,
+<a href = "#page49">49</a></p>
+
+<p>Hares, Arctic, <a href = "#page69">69</a></p>
+
+<p>Harper, Francis, <a href = "#page44">44</a>,
+<a href = "#page51">51</a>,
+<a href = "#page52">52</a>,
+<a href = "#page58">58</a>,
+<a href = "#page69">69</a>,
+<a href = "#page74">74</a>,
+<a href = "#page77">77</a></p>
+
+<p>Hawk(s), Rough-legged, <a href = "#page48">48</a>,
+<a href = "#page51">51</a>,
+<a href = "#page68">68</a></p>
+
+<p>Hearne, Samuel, <a href = "#page5">5</a>,
+<a href = "#page7">7</a>-<a href = "#page9">9</a>,
+<a href = "#page57">57</a>,
+<a href = "#page102">102</a></p>
+
+<p>Hewitt, C. Gordon, <a href = "#page75">75</a></p>
+
+<p>Hoare, W. H. B., <a href = "#page47">47</a>,
+<a href = "#page59">59</a></p>
+
+<p>Hornby, John, <a href = "#page59">59</a></p>
+
+<p>Horse, <a href = "#page96">96</a></p>
+
+<p>Hudson’s Bay Company, <a href = "#page58">58</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_I" id = "index_I">Indian(s)</a>,
+<a href = "#page5">5</a>,
+<a href = "#page47">47</a>,
+<a href = "#page48">48</a>,
+<a href = "#page50">50</a>,
+<a href = "#page52">52</a>,
+<a href = "#page57">57</a>,
+<a href = "#page75">75</a>,
+<a href = "#page114">114</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">Chipewyan. <i>See</i> Chipewyans, Caribou-eater</p>
+<p class = "inset">Cree, <a href = "#page58">58</a>,
+<a href = "#page94">94</a> (fig.)</p>
+
+<p>Ingebrigtsen, John, <a href = "#page11">11</a>,
+<a href = "#page79">79</a>,
+<a href = "#page107">107</a></p>
+
+<p>Ingstad, Helge, <a href = "#page41">41</a>,
+<a href = "#page49">49</a>,
+<a href = "#page112">112</a></p>
+
+<p>Insects, <a href = "#page20">20</a>,
+<a href = "#page37">37</a>,
+<a href = "#page43">43</a>,
+<a href = "#page45">45</a>,
+<a href = "#page46">46</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_J" id = "index_J">Jackson</a>, Hartley H. T., <a href =
+"#page77">77</a></p>
+
+<p>Jacobi, Arnold, <a href = "#page7">7</a>,
+<a href = "#page69">69</a>,
+<a href = "#page71">71</a>,
+<a href = "#page72">72</a>,
+<a href = "#page74">74</a>,
+<a href = "#page98">98</a>,
+<a href = "#page102">102</a>,
+<a href = "#page103">103</a>,
+<a href = "#page105">105</a>,
+<a href = "#page107">107</a>,
+<a href = "#page112">112</a>,
+<a href = "#page113">113</a></p>
+
+<p>Jaeger, Long-tailed, <a href = "#page68">68</a></p>
+
+<p>Jay(s), Canada, <a href = "#page48">48</a>,
+<a href = "#page51">51</a>,
+<a href = "#page68">68</a></p>
+
+<p>Jenness, Diamond, <a href = "#page85">85</a></p>
+
+<p>Johansen, Frits, <a href = "#page71">71</a>,
+<a href = "#page73">73</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Juncus tenuis</i>, <a href = "#page42">42</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_K" id = "index_K">Katello</a>,
+<a href = "#page19">19</a>,
+<a href = "#page49">49</a>,
+<a href = "#page56">56</a> (fig.)</p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_L" id = "index_L">Lamont</a>, Arthur H., <a href =
+"#page10">10</a></p>
+
+<p>Lantis, Margaret, <a href = "#page74">74</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Larus</i></p>
+<p class = "inset"><i>argentatus smithsonianus</i>, <a href =
+"#page68">68</a></p>
+<p class = "inset"><i>delawarensis</i>, <a href = "#page68">68</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Ledum decumbens</i>, <a href = "#page33">33</a> (fig.)</p>
+
+<p>Lemmings (<i>Dicrostonyx</i>), <a href = "#page48">48</a>,
+<a href = "#page69">69</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Lepus arcticus andersoni</i>, <a href = "#page69">69</a></p>
+
+<p>Lice (or louse), <a href = "#page73">73</a>,
+<a href = "#page74">74</a></p>
+
+<p>Lichens, <a href = "#page37">37</a>,
+<a href = "#page38">38</a>,
+<a href = "#page44">44</a>,
+<a href = "#page45">45</a>,
+<a href = "#page51">51</a>,
+<a href = "#page98">98</a>,
+<a href = "#page99">99</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">reindeer, <a href = "#page24">24</a>,
+<a href = "#page44">44</a>,
+<a href = "#page99">99</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Linognathus tarandi</i>, <a href = "#page74">74</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Loiseleuria procumbens</i>, <a href = "#page33">33</a> (fig.)</p>
+
+<p>Lyon, George F., <a href = "#page86">86</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_M" id = "index_M">MacFarlane</a>, Roderick, <a href =
+"#page112">112</a></p>
+
+<p>MacIver, Angus, <a href = "#page38">38</a></p>
+
+<p>McLean, John, <a href = "#page9">9</a></p>
+
+<p>McLeod, Duncan A., <a href = "#page10">10</a></p>
+
+<p>Malaher, G. W., <a href = "#page6">6</a>,
+<a href = "#page10">10</a>,
+<a href = "#page12">12</a>,
+<a href = "#page43">43</a>,
+<a href = "#page44">44</a></p>
+
+<p>Mallet, Thierry, <a href = "#page41">41</a></p>
+
+<p>Malloch, J. R., <a href = "#page45">45</a>,
+<a href = "#page46">46</a></p>
+
+<p>Manning, T. H., <a href = "#page58">58</a>,
+<a href = "#page75">75</a></p>
+
+<p>Millais, J. G., <a href = "#page15">15</a>,
+<a href = "#page63">63</a></p>
+
+<p>Mink, <a href = "#page69">69</a></p>
+
+<p>Mites, <a href = "#page73">73</a></p>
+
+<p>Moose, <a href = "#page45">45</a>,
+<a href = "#page78">78</a>,
+<a href = "#page85">85</a>,
+<a href = "#page100">100</a>,
+<a href = "#page113">113</a></p>
+
+<p>Morrow, William C., <a href = "#page6">6</a></p>
+
+<p>Mosquito(es), <a href = "#page23">23</a>,
+<a href = "#page25">25</a>,
+<a href = "#page45">45</a>,
+<a href = "#page46">46</a>,
+<a href = "#page69">69</a>,
+<a href = "#page70">70</a>,
+<a href = "#page99">99</a></p>
+
+<p>Moss(es), <a href = "#page24">24</a>,
+<a href = "#page51">51</a>,
+<a href = "#page60">60</a></p>
+
+<p>Murie, Olaus J., <a href = "#page105">105</a>-<a href =
+"#page107">107</a></p>
+
+<p>Mushrooms, <a href = "#page99">99</a>,
+<a href = "#page113">113</a></p>
+
+<p>Muskox, <a href = "#page85">85</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_N" id = "index_N">National Science Foundation</a>,
+reverse of title-page, <a href = "#page6">6</a></p>
+
+<p>Natvig, L. Reinhardt, <a href = "#page72">72</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_O" id = "index_O"><i>Oedemagena</i></a>,
+<a href = "#page45">45</a>,
+<a href = "#page46">46</a>,
+<a href = "#page96">96</a></p>
+<p class = "inset"><i>tarandi</i>, <a href = "#page52">52</a>,
+<a href = "#page70">70</a>,
+<a href = "#page71">71</a>,
+<a href = "#page73">73</a></p>
+
+<p>Office of Naval Research, <a href = "#page6">6</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_P" id = "index_P">Padleimiut</a>,
+<a href = "#page50">50</a></p>
+
+<p>Palmer, Ralph S., <a href = "#page6">6</a></p>
+
+<p>Parkman, Francis, <a href = "#page52">52</a></p>
+
+<p>Parry, William Edward, <a href = "#page103">103</a></p>
+
+<p>Peary, R. E., <a href = "#page106">106</a></p>
+
+<p>Perez-Llano, George A., <a href = "#page98">98</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Perisoreus canadensis canadensis</i>, <a href =
+"#page68">68</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Picea mariana</i>, <a href = "#page33b">33</a> (fig.), <a href =
+"#page92b">92</a> (fig.)</p>
+
+<p>Pike, Warburton, <a href = "#page9">9</a>,
+<a href = "#page44">44</a></p>
+
+<p>Planchek?, Charles, <a href = "#page52">52</a></p>
+
+<p>Pocock, R. I., <a href = "#page112">112</a></p>
+
+<p>Poole, Earl L., cover</p>
+
+<p>Porsild, A. E., <a href = "#page73">73</a>,
+<a href = "#page76">76</a>,
+<a href = "#page77">77</a></p>
+
+<p>Preble, Edward A., <a href = "#page7">7</a>,
+<a href = "#page9">9</a>,
+<a href = "#page12">12</a>,
+<a href = "#page40">40</a>,
+<a href = "#page96">96</a></p>
+
+<p>Ptarmigan, Willow, <a href = "#page44">44</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_R" id = "index_R"><i>Rangifer</i></a></p>
+<p class = "inset"><i>arcticus caboti</i>, <a href = "#page99">99</a>,
+<a href = "#page118">118</a></p>
+<p class = "inset"><i>arcticus granti</i>, <a href =
+"#page74">74</a></p>
+<p class = "inset"><i>caribou sylvestris</i>, <a href =
+"#page12">12</a>,
+<a href = "#page94">94</a> (fig.), <a href = "#page119">119</a></p>
+<p class = "inset"><i>pearyi</i>, <a href = "#page40">40</a>,
+<a href = "#page43">43</a>,
+<a href = "#page63">63</a>,
+<a href = "#page103">103</a>,
+<a href = "#page106">106</a>,
+<a href = "#page118">118</a></p>
+<p class = "inset"><i>tarandus</i>, <a href = "#page5">5</a></p>
+
+<p>Rausch, Robert, <a href = "#page77">77</a></p>
+
+<p>Raven(s), <a href = "#page48">48</a>,
+<a href = "#page51">51</a>,
+<a href = "#page68">68</a></p>
+
+<p>Reindeer, <a href = "#page7">7</a>,
+<a href = "#page66">66</a>,
+<a href = "#page69">69</a>,
+<a href = "#page74">74</a>,
+<a href = "#page76">76</a>-<a href = "#page78">78</a>,
+<a href = "#page110">110</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">Lapland, Norway, or Norwegian, <a href =
+"#page5">5</a>,
+<a href = "#page71">71</a>,
+<a href = "#page72">72</a>,
+<a href = "#page74">74</a>,
+<a href = "#page75">75</a>,
+<a href = "#page80">80</a>,
+<a href = "#page87">87</a>,
+<a href = "#page97">97</a>,
+<a href = "#page103">103</a>,
+<a href = "#page105">105</a>,
+<a href = "#page112">112</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">Siberian, <a href = "#page74">74</a>,
+<a href = "#page75">75</a>,
+<a href = "#page77">77</a></p>
+
+<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page163" id = "page163">163</a></span>
+<p>Richardson, Sir John, <a href = "#page5">5</a>,
+<a href = "#page7">7</a>-<a href = "#page9">9</a>,
+<a href = "#page44">44</a>,
+<a href = "#page46">46</a>,
+<a href = "#page69">69</a>,
+<a href = "#page103">103</a></p>
+
+<p>Rita, <a href = "#page6">6</a>,
+<a href = "#page34">34</a> (fig.), <a href = "#page35">35</a> (fig.),
+<a href = "#page56b">56</a> (fig.)</p>
+
+<p>Ross, Bernard R., <a href = "#page46">46</a></p>
+
+<p>Russell, Frank, <a href = "#page112">112</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_S" id = "index_S">Sabrosky</a>, C. W., <a href =
+"#page73">73</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Salix planifolia</i>, <a href = "#page98">98</a></p>
+
+<p>Schweder,</p>
+<p class = "inset">Charles, <a href = "#page6">6</a>,
+<a href = "#page12">12</a>,
+<a href = "#page13">13</a>,
+<a href = "#page17">17</a>-<a href = "#page19">19</a>,
+<a href = "#page27">27</a>-<a href = "#page29">29</a>,
+<a href = "#page31">31</a>,
+<a href = "#page32">32</a>,
+<a href = "#page37">37</a>,
+<a href = "#page44">44</a>,
+<a href = "#page45">45</a>,
+<a href = "#page48">48</a>-<a href = "#page51">51</a>,
+<a href = "#page56b">56</a> (fig.),
+<a href = "#page58">58</a>,
+<a href = "#page59">59</a>,
+<a href = "#page62">62</a>-<a href = "#page64">64</a>,
+<a href = "#page66">66</a>,
+<a href = "#page68">68</a>,
+<a href = "#page69">69</a>,
+<a href = "#page71">71</a>,
+<a href = "#page73">73</a>,
+<a href = "#page79">79</a>-<a href = "#page81">81</a>,
+<a href = "#page83">83</a>,
+<a href = "#page85">85</a>,
+<a href = "#page86">86</a>,
+<a href = "#page88">88</a>,
+<a href = "#page95">95</a>,
+<a href = "#page97">97</a>-<a href = "#page108">108</a>,
+<a href = "#page111">111</a>-<a href = "#page114">114</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">Fred, Jr., <a href = "#page6">6</a>,
+<a href = "#page12">12</a>,
+<a href = "#page18">18</a>-<a href = "#page20">20</a>,
+<a href = "#page24">24</a>-<a href = "#page27">27</a>,
+<a href = "#page29">29</a>-<a href = "#page32">32</a>,
+<a href = "#page34">34</a> (figs.), <a href = "#page43">43</a>,
+<a href = "#page58">58</a>,
+<a href = "#page64">64</a>-<a href = "#page66">66</a>,
+<a href = "#page69">69</a>-<a href = "#page71">71</a>,
+<a href = "#page73">73</a>,
+<a href = "#page79">79</a>,
+<a href = "#page80">80</a>,
+<a href = "#page82">82</a>,
+<a href = "#page84">84</a>,
+<a href = "#page86">86</a>,
+<a href = "#page100">100</a>-<a href = "#page104">104</a>,
+<a href = "#page106">106</a>,
+<a href = "#page107">107</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">Mike, <a href = "#page6">6</a>,
+<a href = "#page26">26</a>,
+<a href = "#page31">31</a>,
+<a href = "#page34">34</a>-<a href = "#page35">35</a> (figs.)</p>
+
+<p>Sedge(s), <a href = "#page17">17</a>,
+<a href = "#page42">42</a>,
+<a href = "#page55">55</a> (fig.), <a href = "#page98">98</a>,
+<a href = "#page99">99</a></p>
+
+<p>Seton, Ernest Thompson, <a href = "#page5">5</a>,
+<a href = "#page40">40</a>,
+<a href = "#page64">64</a>,
+<a href = "#page73">73</a>,
+<a href = "#page75">75</a>,
+<a href = "#page80">80</a>,
+<a href = "#page81">81</a>,
+<a href = "#page87">87</a>,
+<a href = "#page88">88</a>,
+<a href = "#page97">97</a>,
+<a href = "#page98">98</a>,
+<a href = "#page100">100</a>,
+<a href = "#page101">101</a>,
+<a href = "#page103">103</a>,
+<a href = "#page104">104</a>,
+<a href = "#page107">107</a>,
+<a href = "#page111">111</a>-<a href = "#page113">113</a>,
+<a href = "#page116">116</a>,
+<a href = "#page118">118</a>,
+<a href = "#page119">119</a></p>
+
+<p>Simpson, Thomas, <a href = "#page8">8</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Simulium</i>, <a href = "#page45">45</a></p>
+<p class = "inset"><i>venustum</i>, <a href = "#page70">70</a></p>
+
+<p>Soper, J. Dewey, <a href = "#page58">58</a>,
+<a href = "#page75">75</a></p>
+
+<p>Spruce, <a href = "#page24">24</a>,
+<a href = "#page41">41</a>,
+<a href = "#page42">42</a>,
+<a href = "#page51">51</a>,
+<a href = "#page60">60</a>,
+<a href = "#page108">108</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">black, <a href = "#page55">55</a> (fig.), <a href =
+"#page92b">92</a> (fig.), <a href = "#page108">108</a></p>
+
+<p>Stefánsson, Vilhjálmur, <a href = "#page49">49</a>,
+<a href = "#page63">63</a>,
+<a href = "#page84">84</a>,
+<a href = "#page86">86</a>,
+<a href = "#page105">105</a>,
+<a href = "#page117">117</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Stercorarius longicaudus</i>, <a href = "#page68">68</a></p>
+
+<p>Stewart, Norman H., <a href = "#page46">46</a></p>
+
+<p>Stone, A. J., <a href = "#page97">97</a></p>
+
+<p>Stone, Dr. Alan, <a href = "#page70">70</a></p>
+
+<p>Sutton, George M., and William J. Hamilton, Jr., <a href =
+"#page107">107</a>,
+<a href = "#page117">117</a>,
+<a href = "#page118">118</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_T" id = "index_T"><i>Tabanus</i></a>,
+<a href = "#page45">45</a></p>
+
+<p>Tamarack, <a href = "#page24">24</a>,
+<a href = "#page41">41</a>,
+<a href = "#page42">42</a>,
+<a href = "#page108">108</a></p>
+
+<p>Thompson, David, <a href = "#page8">8</a></p>
+
+<p>Ticks, <a href = "#page73">73</a></p>
+
+<p>Turner, L. M., <a href = "#page118">118</a></p>
+
+<p>Tweedsmuir, Lord, <a href = "#page118">118</a></p>
+
+<p>Twinn, C. R., <a href = "#page45">45</a></p>
+
+<p>Tyrrell,</p>
+<p class = "inset">James W., <a href = "#page12">12</a>,
+<a href = "#page78">78</a>,
+<a href = "#page81">81</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">J. Burr, <a href = "#page44">44</a>,
+<a href = "#page78">78</a>,
+<a href = "#page81">81</a>,
+<a href = "#page118">118</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_U" id = "index_U">United States Bureau of Entomology
+and Plant Quarantine</a>,
+<a href = "#page70">70</a>,
+<a href = "#page73">73</a></p>
+
+<p>United States Fish and Wildlife Service, <a href = "#page6">6</a></p>
+
+<p>United States National Museum, <a href = "#page6">6</a>,
+<a href = "#page118">118</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Usnea</i>, <a href = "#page44">44</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Ursus americanus</i>, <a href = "#page62">62</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_V" id = "index_V"><i>Vulpes fulva</i></a>,
+<a href = "#page63">63</a></p>
+
+
+<p class = "letter">
+<a name = "index_W" id = "index_W">Washburn</a>, Dr. A. L., <a href =
+"#page6">6</a></p>
+
+<p>Weasels, <a href = "#page48">48</a>,
+<a href = "#page69">69</a></p>
+
+<p>Weber, Neal A., <a href = "#page69">69</a>,
+<a href = "#page71">71</a>,
+<a href = "#page74">74</a></p>
+
+<p>Wherry, Dr. Edgar T., <a href = "#page42">42</a></p>
+
+<p>Whitney, Caspar, <a href = "#page112">112</a></p>
+
+<p>Wildlife Management Institute, reverse of title-page</p>
+
+<p>Willow, <a href = "#page41">41</a>,
+<a href = "#page60">60</a>,
+<a href = "#page98">98</a>,
+<a href = "#page108">108</a></p>
+
+<p>Wirth, Dr. W. W., <a href = "#page73">73</a></p>
+
+<p>Wolf(ves),</p>
+<p class = "inset">Keewatin Tundra, <a href = "#page11">11</a>,
+<a href = "#page16">16</a>,
+<a href = "#page20">20</a>,
+<a href = "#page28">28</a>,
+<a href = "#page37">37</a>,
+<a href = "#page38">38</a>,
+<a href = "#page41">41</a>,
+<a href = "#page42">42</a>,
+<a href = "#page48">48</a>,
+<a href = "#page50">50</a>,
+<a href = "#page63">63</a>-<a href = "#page68">68</a>,
+<a href = "#page80">80</a>,
+<a href = "#page81">81</a>,
+<a href = "#page83">83</a>,
+<a href = "#page84">84</a>,
+<a href = "#page86">86</a>,
+<a href = "#page102">102</a>,
+<a href = "#page104">104</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">Alaska, <a href = "#page76">76</a></p>
+<p class = "inset">Newfoundland, <a href = "#page66">66</a></p>
+
+<p>Wolverine(s), <a href = "#page48">48</a>,
+<a href = "#page69">69</a>,
+<a href = "#page83">83</a></p>
+
+<p>Wright, J. G., <a href = "#page118">118</a></p>
+
+</div>
+<!-- end div index -->
+
+</div>
+<!-- end div maintext -->
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
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+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #33721 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/33721)