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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:00:04 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:00:04 -0700 |
| commit | 10f231b971e8f747a0cbebfc27fa587f525227ff (patch) | |
| tree | 7dd560f89dde27a5545f0266a60a0981b1d2b65d /33721-h | |
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diff --git a/33721-h/33721-h.htm b/33721-h/33721-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..dc3e0f7 --- /dev/null +++ b/33721-h/33721-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,10914 @@ + +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<title>Barren Ground Caribou</title> +<meta http-equiv = "Content-Type" content = "text/html; charset=UTF-8"> + +<style type = "text/css"> + + +body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + +div.maintext, div.page {margin-top: 4em; margin-bottom: 4em;} + +i {font-variant: normal;} /* switch off small caps */ +img {border: none; text-decoration: none;} + +hr {width: 80%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; +text-align: center;} + +table a, .mynote a {text-decoration: none;} +a.tag {text-decoration: none; vertical-align: .3em; font-size: 80%; +padding-left: .25em; line-height: .1em;} + +h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6 {text-align: center; font-style: normal; +font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.5; margin-top: .5em; +margin-bottom: .5em;} + +h1 {font-size: 250%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} +h2 {font-size: 200%;} +div.maintext h2 {font-size: 150%; letter-spacing: .2em; +margin-right: -.2em;} +h3 {font-size: 150%;} +div.maintext h3 {font-size: 120%; font-variant: small-caps; +margin-top: 2em;} +h4, .four {font-size: 120%; letter-spacing: normal;} +div.maintext h4 {font-size: 108%; font-style: italic;} +div.maintext h4.smallcaps {font-style: normal;} +h5 {font-size: 100%;} +h6 {font-size: 85%;} +h6.extended {letter-spacing: 0.2em; margin-right: -.2em;} + +p, blockquote {margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: 1.2;} + +blockquote, div.blockquote p {font-size: 96%; margin-left: 1em; +margin-right: 2em; line-height: 1.25;} +blockquote.reference {font-size: 92%; margin-left: 2em; +line-height: 1.3;} + +div.lines {margin: 1em; padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em; +border-top: 4px double black; border-bottom: 1px solid black;} + +div.picture {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 1em; +margin-bottom: 2em; width: 450px;} +div.picture.w500 {width: 500px;} +div.picture.w250 {width: 250px;} + +p.illustration {text-align: center; margin-top: 1em; +margin-bottom: 1em;} +p.caption {font-size: 88%;} + +p.center {text-align: center;} + +p.inset, div.inset {margin-left: 2em;} + +/* hanging indents */ + +div.literature p.hanging, div.literature div.hanging p +{margin-left: 5em; text-indent: -3.25em;} + +div.biblio p {margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; font-size: 96%;} + +div.index p {margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; font-size: 92%; +margin-top: .2em;} +div.index p.inset {margin-top: 0; text-indent: -1em;} +div.index p.letter {margin-top: 1em;} + +/* footnotes */ + +p.footnote {margin: 1em 2em; font-size: 92%;} + + +/* tables */ + +table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; +margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; font-size: inherit; +font-family: inherit; border-collapse: collapse;} + +td {vertical-align: top; text-align: left; padding: .1em;} + +td.number, td.item {text-align: right;} + +table.toc td {padding: .2em .3em;} +table.toc td.number {vertical-align: bottom; padding-left: 2em;} +table.toc td.inset {padding-left: 2em;} + +table.picture {border-spacing: 1em;} +td.illustration {text-align: center;} +td.caption {font-size: 88%;} + +table.columns {font-size: 92%; margin-left: 1em;} +table.columns caption {text-align: left; font-weight: bold;} +table.columns td {padding-left: .5em;} + +table.measure {font-size: 92%; margin-left: 0; +border-top: 4px double black; border-bottom: 4px double black; +border-collapse: collapse;} +table.measure th {font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; +text-align: center; padding: .25em 1em .25em .25em; +border-bottom: 1px solid black;} +table.measure td {padding: .5em; vertical-align: bottom;} +tr.bottomline td {border-bottom: 1px solid black;} + + +/* conditional */ + +table p {margin-top: 0; margin-left: 2em; +text-indent: -2em; line-height: normal;} + + +/* text formatting */ + +.smallcaps {font-variant: small-caps;} +span.smallest {font-size: 75%;} + + +/* correction popup */ + +ins.correction {text-decoration: none; border-bottom: thin dotted red;} + +/* page number */ + +span.pagenum {position: absolute; right: 2%; font-size: smaller; +font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; text-align: right; +text-indent: 0;} +.picture span.pagenum {font-style: italic;} +.picture span.pagenum:before {font-style: normal; content: "[";} +.picture span.pagenum:after {font-style: normal; content: "]";} + +/* Transcriber's Note */ + +.mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; +font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 90%;} + +div.mynote {margin: 1em 5%; padding: .5em 1em 1em;} +p.mynote {margin: 1em 5%; padding: 1em;} +span.mynote {padding: .25em .5em;} + + +</style> +</head> + +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's The Barren Ground Caribou of Keewatin, by Francis Harper + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Barren Ground Caribou of Keewatin + +Author: Francis Harper + +Release Date: September 14, 2010 [EBook #33721] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BARREN GROUND CARIBOU OF KEEWATIN *** + + + + +Produced by Louise Hope, Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, some +images courtesy of The Internet Archive and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + +<div class = "mynote"> +<p><a name = "start" id = "start">This text</a> includes two characters +that require UTF-8 (Unicode) file encoding:</p> + +<p class = "inset"> +♂♀ (“male” and “female” symbols, used in the Tables)</p> + +<p>If these characters do not display properly, or if the apostrophes +and quotation marks in this paragraph appear as garbage, you may have an +incompatible browser or unavailable fonts. First, make sure that the +browser’s “character set” or “file encoding” is set to Unicode (UTF-8). +You may also need to change your browser’s default font.</p> + +<p>Typographical errors are shown in the text with <ins class = +"correction" title = "like this">mouse-hover popups</ins>. Inconsistent +capitalization is unchanged, as is the variable spelling of “Dog Rib” : +“Dog-rib” : “Dogrib”.</p> + +<p>In references and bibliographies, irregular spellings such as “rain +deer” or “cariboo”, and variant forms of scientific names, are assumed +to be reproduced from their original sources. All brackets are in the +1955 original. The same applies to question marks and similar editorial +punctuation.</p> + +<p><i>Geographical Note:</i> Lake Nueltin straddles the border between +Nunavut and Manitoba. The area covered by the map is in southern +Nunavut, in the region now written Kivalliq. “Eskimo Point” is modern +Arviat.</p> + +<p>The opinions expressed in this book are not necessarily those of the +transcriber.</p> + +<p class = "center"> +<a href = "#contents">Contents</a><br> +<a href = "#illus">Illustrations</a><br> +<a href = "#intro">Main Text</a><br> +<a href = "#biblio">Annotated Bibliography</a></p> + +</div> + +<div class = "page"> + +<div class = "picture"> +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/cover.png" width = "414" height = "689" +alt = "see caption" title = "THE BARREN GROUND CARIBOU OF KEEWATIN"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Cover</span> A Caribou buck signaling with a +sprawling posture of the left hind leg. Drawing by Earl L. Poole; based +upon a motion-picture film taken August 24, 1947, near the Windy River +post.</p> +</div> + +</div> + + +<h1>THE<br> +BARREN GROUND CARIBOU<br> +OF KEEWATIN</h1> + + +<div class = "page"> + +<div class = "picture w500"> +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "map1" id = "map1"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/map_thumb.png" width = "463" height = "199" +alt = "see caption" usemap = "#map_one"></p> + +<map name = "map_one"> +<area shape = "rect" coords = "224,102,323,199" +href = "images/map_detail.png" target = "_blank" alt = "square inset"> +<area shape = "poly" coords = +"0,0,462,0,463,199,323,199,323,102,224,102,224,199,0,199,0,0" +href = "images/map_large.png" target = "_blank" alt = "rest of map"> +</map> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Map 1.</span> The Windy River area at the +northwestern extremity of Nueltin Lake, Keewatin. (Most of the smaller +features bear merely local or unofficial names.)</p> + +<p class = "center"> +<span class = "mynote">Click map for close-up view. <br> + The square detail can also be viewed separately.</span></p> + +</div> + +</div> + + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page1" id = "page1">1</a></span> +<h2>THE<br> +BARREN GROUND<br> +CARIBOU<br> +OF KEEWATIN</h2> + +<h2 class = "four">BY<br> +FRANCIS HARPER</h2> + +<p> <br> </p> + +<h6 class = "extended">UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS<br> +LAWRENCE · KANSAS</h6> + + +<div class = "page"> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page2" id = "page2">2</a></span> + +<div class = "lines"> +<h5 class = "smallcaps">University of Kansas<br> +Museum of Natural History</h5> +</div> + +<h6>EDITOR: E. RAYMOND HALL</h6> + +<h5><i>Miscellaneous Publication No. 6, pp. 1-164, 28 figs., 1 map<br> +Published October 21, 1955</i></h5> + +<p> <br> </p> + +<h6>Means for publication were supplied by:<br> +National Science Foundation<br> +Wildlife Management Institute<br> +American Committee for International Wildlife Protection</h6> + +<p> <br> </p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/printed.png" width = "50" height = "30" +alt = "PRINTED IN U.S.A." title = "PRINTED IN U.S.A."></p> + +<h6>THE ALLEN PRESS<br> +Lawrence, Kansas<br> +1955</h6> + +</div> + + +<div class = "maintext"> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page3" id = "page3">3</a></span> +<h2><a name = "contents" id = "contents">CONTENTS</a></h2> + +<table class = "toc" summary = "contents"> +<tr> +<td><i><a href = "#illus">List of Illustrations</a></i></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "smallcaps">Introduction</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page5">5</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "smallcaps">Migrations</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page7">7</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Southern limits of winter range</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page7">7</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Spring migration in the Churchill region</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page11">11</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Spring migration in the Nueltin Lake region</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page12">12</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Summer interlude</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page18">18</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Fall migration in the Nueltin Lake region</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page18">18</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Retrograde autumnal movement</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page32">32</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Fall migration in the Churchill region</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page38">38</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "smallcaps">Summation of Geographical Distribution</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page39">39</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "smallcaps">Ecology</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page41">41</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Habitats</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page41">41</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Trails</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page41">41</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Influence of weather on distribution</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page43">43</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Influence of food supply on distribution</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page44">44</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Influence of insects on distribution</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page45">45</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"><p>Effect of combined environmental factors on +distribution</p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page46">46</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Relations to man</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page47">47</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Ethnological material from caribou products</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page59">59</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Relations to Black Bears</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page62">62</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Relations to foxes</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page62">62</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Relations to Wolves</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page63">63</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Relations to birds of prey</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page67">67</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Relations to miscellaneous animals</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page69">69</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Relations to flies</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page69">69</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Ectoparasites</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page73">73</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Relations to Reindeer</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page74">74</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "smallcaps">Numerical Status</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page78">78</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "smallcaps">General Habits</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page79">79</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Daily periods of activity and rest</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page79">79</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Organization of herds</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page81">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Disposition</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page83">83</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Senses</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page86">86</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Gaits</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page86">86</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Tracks</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page87">87</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Swimming</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page88">88</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Shaking off moisture and insects</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page95">95</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page4" id = "page4">4</a></span> +Signaling</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page96">96</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Food</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page98">98</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Scatology</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page99">99</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Voice</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page100">100</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Reproduction</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page101">101</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Fawns</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page103">103</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Growth</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page104">104</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Antlers</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page105">105</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Rubbing trees</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page108">108</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "smallcaps">Morphology and Taxonomy</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page108">108</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Pelage and molt</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page108">108</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Albinism</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page112">112</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Foot-glands</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page112">112</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Mastology</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page113">113</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Fat</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page113">113</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Body measurements and weights</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page114">114</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Measurements of skulls</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page115">115</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Measurements of antlers</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page115">115</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Measurements of testes</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page115">115</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "inset">Geographical variation</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page116">116</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "smallcaps">Literature Cited</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page120">120</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "smallcaps"><p>Annotated Bibliographical References to +<i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i></p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page134">134</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "smallcaps">Index</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page161">161</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h3><a name = "illus" id = "illus"> +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</a><br> +<span class = "smallest">(<i>added by transcriber</i>)</span></h3> + +<p class = "mynote"> +In the printed text, illustrations were grouped into three blocks, +probably for mechanical reasons. For this e-text, each illustration has +been placed as close as practical to its discussion in the text, while +keeping them in numerical order. The List of Illustration and marginal +page numbers both show the original location.</p> + +<table class = "toc" summary = "list of illustrations"> +<tr> +<td class = "item smallcaps"><a href = "#fig1">Fig. 1.</a></td> +<td>Half a dozen caribou trails along the Middle Ridge, looking SE. +Ground plants: <i>Ledum decumbens</i>, <i>Empetrum nigrum</i>, +<i>Arcto­staphylos alpina</i>, <i>Loiseleuria procumbens</i>, and +various lichens, including <i>Cladonia</i>. A miniature “glacier” +in the distance. June 24, 1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page33">33</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig2">2.</a></td> +<td> Caribou trails on the 50-foot-high Little River Ridge. <i>Picea +mariana</i>, <i>Betula glandulosa</i>, and <i>Empetrum nigrum</i>. June +19, 1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page33b">33</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig3">3.</a></td> +<td> A Caribou buck (specimen No. 1065) being skinned by Fred, Mike, and +Rita at the Bear Slough. August 17, 1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page34">34</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig4">4.</a></td> +<td> Skull, antlers, skin, and hind quarter of the same Caribou being +transported to camp along the Camp Ridge. August 17, 1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page34b">34</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig5">5.</a></td> +<td> Anoteelik and Mike preparing to bring in a load of caribou meat +with dogs and travois. Windy River post, August 19, 1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page35">35</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig6">6.</a></td> +<td> Anoteelik and Mike pegging out caribou hides to dry on a gravelly +ridge near the mouth of Windy River. August 23, 1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page35b">35</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig7">7.</a></td> +<td> About 75 Caribou (bucks, does, and fawns) at a rapid on Little +River. August 25, 1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page36">36</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig8">8.</a></td> +<td> About 22 Caribou crossing Little River at a rapid. Chiefly does and +fawns, with several bucks bringing up the rear. August 26, 1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page36b">36</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig9">9.</a></td> +<td> A band of Caribou swimming across Little River at its mouth and +landing on the western shore. Toward the left, a doe standing +broadside and enveloped in a cloud of spray being shaken off. August 28, +1947. (From a 16-mm. motion picture.)</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page53">53</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig10">10.</a></td> +<td> Two Caribou bucks standing in the edge of Little River at its mouth +after swimming across. August 28, 1947. (From a 16-mm. motion +picture.)</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page53b">53</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig11">11.</a></td> +<td> A one-horned doe, a hornless doe, a fawn, and a two-horned doe +among a band of Caribou approaching the camera within a rod after +swimming across Little River. August 28, 1947. (From a 16-mm. motion +picture.)</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page54">54</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig12">12.</a></td> +<td> A band of Caribou (chiefly big bucks) swimming across Little River +at its mouth. August 28, 1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page54b">54</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig13">13.</a></td> +<td> Camp Slough, with trails showing the recent passage of Caribou +through the sedge growth (predominantly <i>Carex chordorrhiza</i>). +Black spruce in the foreground and distance. August 29, 1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page55">55</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig14">14.</a></td> +<td> A Caribou <i>Elysium</i>: a hornless doe approaching within 15 feet +of the photographer at the mouth of Little River. August 30, 1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page55b">55</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig15">15.</a></td> +<td> Anoteelik in caribou-skin clothing, holding a caribou spear. +A buck on the skyline. Mouth of Windy River, September 7, +1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page56">56</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig16">16.</a></td> +<td> Katello, a Padleimiut Eskimo from the upper Kazan River, in a coat +(<i>attigi</i>) and boots (<i>komik</i>) of caribou skin. Windy River, +Oct. 6, 1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page56">56</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig17">17.</a></td> +<td> Charles Schweder with the fresh, warble-infested hide of a Caribou +buck (specimen No. 1033). Windy River, June 3, 1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page56b">56</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig18">18.</a></td> +<td> Hide of a Caribou doe, about four years old, with about 130 small +warbles or warble scars (concentrated on the rump). Windy River, +September 15, 1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page56b">56</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig19">19.</a></td> +<td> Caribou tracks in mud; one about 114 by 95 mm.; another, 102 by 102 +mm. Between Bear Slough and Eider Pond, September 3, 1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page89">89</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig20">20.</a></td> +<td> Caribou track in 2-inch snow; hind foot superimposed on track of +front foot. Combined track about 153 by 127 mm. Camp Ridge, October 29, +1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page89b">89</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig21">21.</a></td> +<td> A Caribou doe (specimen No. 1101). Mouth of Windy River, September +21, 1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page90">90</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig22">22.</a></td> +<td> A Caribou buck (specimen No. 1111). Mouth of Windy River, September +29, 1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page90b">90</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig23">23.</a></td> +<td> A male Caribou fawn (specimen No. 1095), in its first, woolly +pelage. Mouth of Windy River, September 7, 1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page91">91</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig24">24.</a></td> +<td> Hoofs of a male Caribou fawn (specimen No. 1072); hind hoofs in the +middle. Mouth of Windy River, August 21, 1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page91b">91</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig25">25.</a></td> +<td> Enormous set of old antlers of a Barren Ground Caribou, with +exceptional palmation. (A 10.5-inch length of a steel rule +visible.) Simons’ Lake, October 15, 1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page92">92</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig26">26.</a></td> +<td> Rubbing trees: two small black spruces (<i>Picea +mariana</i>)—the larger 4 feet high—broken and barked by +Caribou in rubbing velvet off the antlers. Simons’ Lake, October 18, +1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page92b">92</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig27">27.</a></td> +<td> Pile o’ Rocks, an ancient enclosure erected as a game lookout on +the summit of a hill 1.5 miles NW. of the mouth of Windy River. June 30, +1947.</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page93">93</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig28">28.</a></td> +<td> Adult male Western Woodland Caribou (<i>Rangifer caribou +sylvestris</i>) (No. 235361, U.S. Biol. Surveys Coll.). Stony Mountain, +about 27 miles S. of Fort McMurray, Alberta, October 22, 1920. (U.S. +Fish and Wildlife Service.)</td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page94">94</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page5" id = "page5">5</a></span> +<h3><a name = "intro" id = "intro">Introduction</a></h3> + + +<p>No other large North American land mammal is of such primary +importance as the Barren Ground Caribou (<i>Rangifer arcticus +arcticus</i>) as a source of food and clothing for so many primitive +Eskimo and Indian tribes; no other performs such extensive and +spectacular migrations; no other may be seen in such vast herds; no +other exhibits so close an approach to a Garden-of-Eden trustfulness in +the presence of man. And perhaps no other is more worthy of being +cherished and safeguarded in its natural haunts for the benefit and +enjoyment of future generations.</p> + +<p>The original valid designation, in technical nomenclature, of the +Barren Ground Caribou of the Mackenzie-Keewatin region dates back to +1829, when Sir John Richardson described it in the <i>Fauna +Boreali-Americana</i> as <i>Cervus tarandus</i> var. <i>arctica</i>. The +type locality is Fort Enterprise (about lat. 64° 30´ N., long. 113° W.), +on Winter Lake, an expansion of Snare River, Mackenzie. Since the +typical subspecies appears to lack a distin­guishing common name, it +would seem fitting to associate with it the name of its worthy +describer; thus, Richardson’s Barren Ground Caribou. The author’s +intimate acquaintance with the animal should have enabled him to draw up +a somewhat fuller and more adequate description than he did. Previous +travelers in the Barren Grounds, among whom Samuel Hearne (1795) was +particularly notable, had contributed accounts of the species, without +differen­tiating it from the Lapland Reindeer (<i>Rangifer +tarandus</i>) or without giving it a distinctive technical name.</p> + +<p>Since Richardson’s time the mainland form of western Canada has been +discussed by many zoologists and explorers. The most comprehensive +account of its life history hitherto published is that by Seton (1929, +<b>3</b>: 95-135),<a class = "tag" name = "tag1" id = "tag1" href = +"#note1">1</a> whose personal experience was gained in the region of +Artillery, Clinton-Colden, and Aylmer lakes. Dearth of adequate material +(particularly from the type locality or adjacent areas) makes it all but +impossible to determine whether there is any significant geographical +variation between the herds of central Mackenzie and those of +Keewatin.</p> + +<p>The foremost objective of an expedition I made in 1947 to Nueltin +Lake, in southwestern Keewatin, was a study of the Barren Ground +Caribou. The expedition was supported by the Arctic Institute +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page6" id = "page6">6</a></span> +of North America, with funds supplied by the Office of Naval Research. +My headquarters were at the little Windy River trading post, at the +northwestern extremity of Nueltin Lake (<a href = +"#map1">map 1</a>). There, for a period of six months, +I enjoyed the fine hospitality of Charles Schweder and Fred +Schweder, Jr. They had lived on intimate terms with the Caribou during +most of their youthful lives, and they freely shared with me the +knowledge they had thus gained concerning the ways of life of these +wonderful creatures. They secured nearly all the specimens that went +into my collection. The three other residents of the post also deserve +my gratitude for their general helpfulness and friendliness; they were +10-year-old Mike Schweder (brother of Charles and Fred), 15-year-old +Anoteelik (an Eskimo boy), and the latter’s sister, 5-year-old Rita.</p> + +<p>In a previous paper (1953) I have endeavored to express to various +officials and friends my sincere appreciation of their courtesy and +generosity in furthering the work of the expedition; and I can scarcely +forbear to repeat here the names of at least a few of them: Dr. +A. L. Washburn, at that time executive director of the Arctic +Institute of North America; Mr. R. A. Gibson, deputy commissioner +of the Admini­stration of the Northwest Territories; and Mr. +G. W. Malaher, director of the Game and Fisheries Branch, Manitoba. +For the loan of a motion-picture camera, which secured for me some +extremely gratifying scenes of the migrant hosts on the Barrens, +I am greatly indebted to Mr. William C. Morrow. Dr. Ralph S. Palmer +has kindly read, and made helpful comments upon, a preliminary +draft of the present report.</p> + +<p>Through the courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History, the +United States National Museum, and the United States Fish and Wildlife +Service, I have been able to examine important comparative material +in their collections.</p> + +<p>A grant from the National Science Foundation has enabled me to carry +the investigation through to completion.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note1" id = "note1" href = "#tag1">1.</a> +This statement, written long before the appearance of Banfield’s work of +1954, no longer applies.</p> + + + + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page7" id = "page7">7</a></span> +<h3><a name = "migrations" id = "migrations">Migrations</a></h3> + + +<p>The Barren Ground Caribou is the outstanding migratory land mammal of +North America at the present day. (Some of the bats, though extensively +migratory, obviously belong in a category too distinct for comparison.) +We know as yet extremely little concerning the movements of individual +Caribou;<a class = "tag" name = "tag2" id = "tag2" href = "#note2">2</a> +but it is fairly safe to assume that among those reaching the southern +limits of the winter range in central Manitoba or northwestern Ontario, +there must be many whose summer range is at least 500 or 600 miles to +the northward. The latitudinal extent of such wanderings is comparable +with, or equivalent to, an annual round trip between Philadelphia, +Pennsylvania, and Charleston, South Carolina. There is perhaps less +information available concerning the migrations of the wild Reindeer of +the Old World than concerning the movements of the Barren Ground Caribou +of North America (<i>cf.</i> Jacobi, 1931: 191-200).</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note2" id = "note2" href = "#tag2">2.</a> +One means of gathering information on this subject would be to capture +fawns as they swim across lakes or wide rivers on the autumn migration, +then to affix numbered metal tags to their ears and to release them in +time to rejoin their mothers. This would simply be a modification of the +leg-banding method that has proved so highly successful in the study of +bird migration. It would also be particularly useful in studies on age +and growth.</p> + + +<h4><a name = "mig_limits" id = "mig_limits"> +Southern limits of winter range</a></h4> + +<p>In years long past the winter range extended at least occasionally as +far south as Fort McMurray in Alberta and Cree Lake and the upper +Mudjatick and Foster rivers in Saskatchewan, and rather regularly to +Reindeer Lake (Preble, 1908: 137); and “on rare occasions as far south +as Cumberland House on the Saskatchewan River” (Buchanan, 1920: 105). At +an early date Richardson believed (1829: 243) that “none” of these +Caribou “go to the southward of Churchill.”</p> + +<p>There are, however, records of long ago that deal with mass +occurrences of Caribou on the lower courses of the Nelson, Hayes, and +Severn rivers, emptying on the west coast of Hudson Bay. The records are +very puzzling in several respects. Most of them do not definitely +differentiate the species involved from the Barren Ground Caribou, but +some of them (by Hearne, Richardson, and Preble) indicate that it is the +Woodland Caribou. The direction of the migrations, as reported in some +instances, is just the reverse of that taken at the present time by the +Barren Ground species during its normal movements at corresponding +seasons. Finally, it is all but impossible to reconcile the numbers +reported with such knowledge +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page8" id = "page8">8</a></span> +as we have of the status of the Woodland Caribou at any other period or +in any other region.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the earliest account is by Dobbs (1744: 22):</p> + +<p>“They [residents at Fort Bourbon-York Factory] also take great +numbers of Cariboux or Rain-Deer [sp.?]. In <i>March</i> and +<i>April</i> they come from the North to the South, and extend then +along the River 60 Leagues; they go again Northward in <i>July</i> and +<i>August</i>; the Roads they make in the Snow are as well padded, and +cross each other as often as the Streets in Paris.”</p> + +<p>In discussing the “Indian deer” or Woodland Caribou in the vicinity +of Great Slave Lake, Hearne remarks (1795: 225): “This is that species +of deer which are found so plentiful near York Fort and Severn +River.”</p> + +<p>According to Thompson (1916: 100-101), an immense herd of “Rein Deer” +[sp.?], estimated at the rather preposterous figure of 3,564,000 +individuals, crossed the Hayes River 20 miles above York Factory in late +May, 1792. The direction of this migration is not indicated.</p> + +<p>Richardson writes (“1825”: 330) of the Woodland Caribou: “In the +beginning of September, vast numbers of this kind of deer pass near York +Factory . . . on their journey towards the north-west.”</p> + +<p>And again (1829: 250):</p> + +<p>“They cross the Nelson and Severn Rivers in immense herds in the +month of May, pass the summer on the low, marshy shores of James’ Bay, +and return to the northward, and at the same time retire more inland in +the month of September. . . . I have been informed by +several of the residents at York Factory that the herds are sometimes so +large as to require several hours to cross the river in a crowded +phalanx.”</p> + +<p>The implication is that the herds passed <i>southward</i> in May. It +should be borne in mind that these were apparently not personal +observations of Richardson’s; and in his belief that the Barren Ground +species did not go south of Churchill, he may have merely assumed that +the animals in the York Factory region were the Woodland species.</p> + +<p>“Near York Factory, in 1831, this propensity [Indian +destruc­tiveness] . . . led to the indis­criminate +destruction of a countless herd of reindeer [sp.?], while crossing the +broad stream of Haye’s River, in the height of +summer. . . . The deer have never since visited that part +of the country in similar numbers.” (Simpson, 1843: 76).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page9" id = "page9">9</a></span> +<p>Referring to the York Factory region in 1837, John McLean writes +(1932 [1849]: 195). “Not many years ago this part of the country was +periodically visited by immense herds of rein-deer; at present there is +scarcely one to be found.”</p> + +<p>A later account of Richardson’s (1852: 290) is somewhat ambiguous as +to the species to which it refers:</p> + +<p>“The reindeer that visit Hudson’s Bay travel southward toward James’s +Bay in spring. In the year 1833, vast numbers of them were killed by the +Cree Indians at a noted pass three or four days march above York +Factory. They were on their return northward, and were crossing Hayes +River in incredible multitudes.”</p> + +<p>Pike writes (1917 [1892]: 50) that “within the last three years +[<i>i.e.</i>, about 1888] the [Barren Ground?] caribou have appeared in +their thousands at York Factory . . . where they have not been +seen for over thirty years.”</p> + +<p>Preble (1902: 41) quotes Dr. Alexander Milne as thinking, after 14 +years’ residence at York Factory, that the small bands of “Woodland +Caribou,” found between Churchill and Cape Churchill, form the “northern +fringe of the bands which migrate to the coast in spring, the great +majority of which in their journey cross to the south of Nelson River.” +At that time, however, Preble (1902: 42), like Richardson before him, +seems to have regarded the Churchill River as the southern limit of the +Barren Ground species, and thus he may not have considered the +possibility of the animals of Cape Churchill and the Nelson and Hayes +rivers belonging to the same species.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to draw any sure conclusions from the confusing +records just quoted. Possibly chief reliance should be placed upon the +testimony of such high authorities as Hearne, Richardson, and Preble +when they refer to the animals as Woodland Caribou. Furthermore, none of +the early writers identify them unequivocally as the Barren Ground +species. It remains fairly evident that long ago some species of Caribou +in great numbers did actually cross these rivers in a southerly +direction in the spring, pass the summer on the coastal tundra east of +York Factory, and return northward or northwestward in late summer or +autumn. Whichever species it was, it represented a segment of the +population that must have become reduced to utterly insignificant +numbers, if not entirely extirpated, some decades ago. In any event, it +does not seem very +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page10" id = "page10">10</a></span> +likely that we shall ever be able to reconstruct the actual movements of +the “incredible multitudes” in the York Factory region of more than a +century ago.</p> + +<p>Since the beginning of the present century, until very recent years, +there seem to have been few or no Manitoba records of <i>R. a. +arcticus</i> from any locality so far to the southeast as York Factory. +In 1947, however, Mr. G. W. Malaher, director of the Game and +Fisheries Branch in Manitoba, informed me that during the previous +couple of winters the animals had ranged southward on a broad front to +the latitude of Oxford House, where they had not been known for 40 or 45 +years. It was surmised that the recent burning of large areas north of +The Pas, resulting in the destruction of the Caribou’s normal winter +food of lichens, had deflected the animals toward the southeast and had +caused them to extend their migration beyond its normal limit. The Split +Lake band of Indians (on the Nelson River) were said to have killed +4,000 Caribou during the winter of 1946-47, and to have used half of +them for dog feed.</p> + +<p>Arthur H. Lamont, in charge of the meteorological office at Fort +Churchill, gave me information concerning Caribou that he had seen +during a plane flight from that point to Edmonton on March 18, 1947. At +midday he had sighted hundreds, in bands averaging 20 to 30 individuals, +on some little lakes, averaging a quarter of a mile in diameter, near +the southwestern end of Reindeer Lake. The animals were right in the +middle of the frozen lakes (evidently for a noonday rest), and some of +them were lying down. They paid no attention to the plane at a height of +6,000 feet, but were frightened when it came down to 200 feet. This was +the only area where Caribou were sighted during the entire flight.</p> + +<p>Duncan A. McLeod, of Winnipeg, informed me that he had seen thousands +and thousands of Caribou on April 16, 1941, while he was flying from +Isle à la Crosse to Beaverlodge on Lake Athabaska. They were nearer to +Lake Athabaska than to the starting-point. They were congregated on +frozen lakes about the middle of the day.</p> + +<p>“Their nomadic migrations during the past 10 years have brought +caribou herds during winter months to northwestern Ontario (Little +Sachigo Lake); central Manitoba (Cormorant, Cross, and Island Lakes); +northern Saskatchewan (Churchill River); northeastern Alberta +(Clearwater and Athabaska Rivers and Lake Claire)” (Banfield, 1949: 478, +fig. 1).</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page11" id = "page11">11</a></span> +<h4><a name = "mig_spring_ch" id = "mig_spring_ch"> +Spring migration in the Churchill region</a></h4> + +<p>The Hudson Bay Railway is perhaps the only one in North America from +which Barren Ground Caribou of the present subspecies have been seen. On +May 21, 1947, a passenger reported three or four of the animals +near Mile 326, between Gillam and Amery. Farther north, between Herchmer +and Chesnaye, the railway passes for perhaps 30-40 miles through the +western edge of a tundra area, interspersed with small spruce timber; +this is known as the “Little Barrens.” It was a thrilling experience to +see my first Caribou here, during a period of three-quarters of an hour +on the afternoon of May 21, from Mile 453 to about Mile 475. There were +eight bands, varying in number from 2 to 60 or 70 and averaging about 20 +individuals. The first and largest band was loping away from the train, +at a distance of perhaps 350 yards. A band of 9 or 10, at about 250 +yards, exhibited both a trotting and a loping gait. Others, as far off +as half a mile or a mile and therefore less alarmed, seemed to content +themselves with trotting. They maintained a noticeably close formation +while fleeing from the train. Yearlings, appearing only about half the +size of the adults, were readily distin­guishable. The animals were +in the midst of their spring migration and were evidently moving in a +general northerly direction over the snow-covered Barrens. The ice of +the small lakes was still solid enough for the Caribou to trot over +it.</p> + +<p>Two weeks previously a large movement had passed through this area, +as I learned from several sources. A member of the Royal Canadian +Mounted Police detachment at Churchill, for example, had traveled +through the Caribou for a distance of 15 miles without coming to the end +of them; he estimated their numbers at more than 5,000. Joe Chambers, +a trapper of Goose Creek, said the animals had been very plentiful +in April, moving generally northward. He spoke of finding a good many +Caribou that Wolves had killed, contenting themselves with eating only +the tongue and the unborn fawn.</p> + +<p>According to a railway conductor, only 12 Caribou were seen from the +train as it passed through the Little Barrens on May 25, and none on May +28.</p> + +<p>John Ingebrigtsen, of Churchill, reported passing a frozen lake +somewhere east of the Duck Lake Post, that was “absolutely full” of +Caribou. It was about a mile and a half long by half a mile wide, and he +estimated the number of animals at not less than 20,000. +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page12" id = "page12">12</a></span> +This was in the early part of May, 1942 or 1943, when the spring +migration was no doubt under way.</p> + +<p>During a plane flight from Eskimo Point to Baker Lake on May 22, +1947, John M. Bourassa and Don Gallagher sighted numbers of Caribou, +including one herd of about 500. On May 28 the former saw a Caribou +between Churchill and Fort Churchill. From other sources I learned that +small numbers occasionally pass along the outskirts of Churchill during +the migrations.</p> + +<p>Professor Hazel R. Ellis (<i>in litt.</i>, April 13, 1953) reports +seeing several bands of Caribou from the train as it approached +Churchill on June 8, 1947; also a band between Churchill and Fort +Churchill on June 13 and 21, 1949, and a single animal on June 28, 1949, +on the west side of the river near Churchill. On July 5, 1949, she +filmed a herd of over 40 Caribou at Bird Cove on Cape Churchill.</p> + +<p>Preble writes (1902: 41): “Between York Factory and Fort Churchill a +few small bands [of Woodland Caribou] are found throughout the year on +the ‘Barrens’.” He includes reports to this effect from several sources, +including J. W. Tyrrell (1898). The latter, however, does not +specify which species of Caribou his party encountered. It might be +expected that <i>R. a. arcticus</i>, rather than <i>R. caribou +sylvestris</i>, would be the proper inhabitant of this tundra area. It +is beyond question that the animals seen in recent years on the “Little +Barrens” between the Churchill and the Nelson Rivers are the Barren +Ground species. Furthermore, Mr. G. W. Malaher, of the Manitoba +Game and Fisheries Branch, informed me that a considerable number of +this species spend the summer and have their fawns on the Barrens in +this area.</p> + + +<h4><a name = "mig_spring_nu" id = "mig_spring_nu"> +Spring migration in the Nueltin Lake region</a></h4> + +<p>The general pattern of this migration, as manifested particularly +about the northwestern portion of the lake, was explained by Charles +Schweder. As a rule, practically all the local Caribou spend the winter +in the wooded country to the southward. When the northward movement +starts in the spring, the does precede the bucks; they migrate through +this area mostly in May (and apparently more commonly in the latter half +of the month), but to some extent in April or even earlier. During June +the majority of the animals passing by are bucks. According to Fred +Schweder, Jr., the spring migration here is more regular, less erratic, +than the fall migration.</p> + +<p>When I arrived at Nueltin Lake on May 31, the spring migration +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page13" id = "page13">13</a></span> +was in full swing; it continued through June in gradually lessening +force, and the last northbound band was seen on July 1. In the +meantime many interesting details of caribou behavior came to light.</p> + +<p>While flying from Churchill to Duck Lake Post on May 31, at a height +of about 500 feet, we detected three bands on the frozen surface of Seal +River, where they were evidently taking a noonday rest. They numbered +approximately 40, 20, and 6 individuals. Within 20 minutes after +resuming our journey, from Duck Lake Post to Nueltin Lake, we saw four +more bands, numbering from two to a dozen individuals. Finally, just +before landing on Windy Bay, we noticed a band of perhaps 20 crossing +the bay a mile from its head.</p> + +<p>Observations during the following 10 days showed that this was a very +definite crossing-place for the Caribou, as if some invisible barrier on +each side kept them to a certain line of march. Moreover, Charles +Schweder informed me that they followed this identical route year after +year. An examination of the local topography (<a href = +"#map1">map 1</a>) soon revealed the reason. The rugged south side +of Windy Bay rises steeply for some 500 feet to the summit of the Windy +Hills, and over a considerable distance there are precipices and talus +slopes barring the passage of such animals as Caribou. But the mile-long +South Bay, meeting Windy Bay at right angles, affords a convenient break +in the hills; and the slopes thereabouts are gradual enough to be +negotiated readily by the Caribou. So here they converge from the +neighboring heights, making long, slanting trails through the snow that +are visible for miles; they pass out of the narrow mouth of South Bay as +through a funnel, then follow the beaten path of their predecessors +across the ice of Windy Bay toward the farther shore, until they are +lost to view among a cluster of islands. It may be further remarked that +their course northeastward from the mouth of South Bay is less +obstructed by islands than almost any near-by portion of Windy Bay.</p> + +<p>From our camp, a mile or so distant, Caribou in bands of +approximately the following numbers were observed using this +crossing-place during the early part of June: June 1—7, 10, 18, +20, and several other bands of unrecorded size; June 2—10, 3, 7; +June 3—4, 4, 10, 30, 70, and others; June 4—3, 40?; June +5—40, 50, 75; June 6—25; June 10—8. Of course many +others must have passed while our attention was elsewhere engaged. In +most cases my records indicate the time of day when the bands were +crossing Windy Bay. +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page14" id = "page14">14</a></span> +The periods were mainly from 10 to 11 a.m., from 2:30 to 5 p.m., and in +the evening. Perhaps the infrequency of midday passages was due to the +habit of the Caribou of resting at this period. One of the last bands to +pass during the evening of June 1 consisted of about 20 individuals. Two +big bucks were in the lead, and apparently a few others were scattered +along the line. At the very rear was a big, extra-dark buck, immediately +preceded by a yearling barely half its size.</p> + +<p>In crossing the bay ice, the animals traveled habitually in long +files, one after the other, and yet not altogether in single file. In +watching the endlessly interesting spectacle from camp, we could not +always count the individuals exactly, for here and there a few would get +abreast of others and be partly concealed. The general formation of each +band was that of a much strung-out procession. For the most part the +animals progressed at a moderate walking gait; there were no flies to +spur them on at this season. On one occasion the forward element of a +large band was actually running, but those in the rear were going +calmly, and there was no visible cause of alarm. At mid-morning of June +6 most of a band of 25 were lying down to rest on the bay ice, while a +few remained standing.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Caribou in some numbers were advancing northward by +crossing Windy River, the ice on which did not break up generally till +June 14. On June 3, for example, as I peeped out of my tent at 4 +a.m., there was a band of about 15 making a crossing a quarter of a mile +above camp. Late in the afternoon several dozen did likewise close to +the same place. At this period I did not get farther upstream to note +how many might be passing there. On June 14, while the river ice was +breaking up but while the bay ice was holding firm, two bucks moved +about on the latter, just off the river’s mouth. They appeared to be +seeking a safe crossing. The smaller of the two almost invariably +preceded, just as if it were aware that it would be less likely to break +through than its companion. For the most part they walked rather +sedately, but now and then took up a very leisurely trot. On the +following day a dozen crossed Windy Bay at about the same place. These +were the last ones seen on the ice in June. Though the ice remained on +the bay for some days longer, it had evidently become unsafe.</p> + +<p>Thereafter the Caribou obviously preferred the short passage of Windy +River (no more than 50 or 60 yards wide in places) to a swim of half a +mile or so across Windy Bay. So they appeared in +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page15" id = "page15">15</a></span> +considerable numbers on the south bank of the river, reconnoi­tering +for a suitable place to cross. Many were deterred by movements or sounds +in our camp on the north bank, including the yelping invariably set up +by the tethered Husky dogs whenever they would catch sight of Caribou; +the latter would then be likely either to retreat behind the ridges or +to pass upstream along the south bank. Along the half-mile extent of +this bank visible from our camp, I noted the following making the +passage of the river by swimming: June 18, a band of half a dozen; +June 20, a band of three landing practically in our dooryard and +about 14 crossing at the mouth; June 21, six crossing at the mouth; June +24, about 10 (mostly big bucks) landing just above the camp. On the +morning of July 1 a buck swam across the bay just off the river’s mouth, +and a little later a band of about 11—the last seen on the spring +migration—were trotting upstream along the south bank.</p> + +<p>Various groups observed during June, principally on the south side of +the bay and the river, furnished memorable spectacles. Besides resorting +to open areas on the frozen lakes and rivers for their resting periods, +the Caribou will also select some commanding hilltop for the same +purpose. On June 3 a band of 75 appeared in midday on the summit of a +rocky hill (“Caribou Knoll,” <a href = "#map1">map 1</a>) rising to +a height of some 150 feet on the far side of Windy River. While some +kept on feeding, many of them lay down on snowbanks, apparently +preferring these to the plentiful patches of bare ground, and doubtless +passing the time by chewing their cuds. The velvet of the bucks’ new +antlers was plainly visible through field-glasses. In the variety of +their attitudes on this rocky height the animals were disposed perhaps +more like alpine Chamois than like the generally conceived masses of +Caribou on the low Barrens. What a subject for a Millais!</p> + +<p>It appears likely that the higher elevations may serve for the +nocturnal rest as well as for a noonday siesta. During the evening of +June 1, for instance, some 75 Caribou in a loose aggregation were +feeding over the summit of Josie’s Hill, beyond the junction of Windy +and South bays. On June 20 I was enjoying a wonderfully clear and golden +light that was cast on the imposing mass of this hill as the sun was +setting at my back about 9 o’clock. The glory of that scene was enhanced +by picking out with the naked eye, at a distance of a couple of miles, +two separate bands of 12 to 15 Caribou making their way upward toward +the broad, plateaulike summit. Meanwhile a lone Caribou was outlined +against the sky on +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page16" id = "page16">16</a></span> +one of the rocky ridges to the south. Might not these various movements +have indicated a common urge to spend the semi-darkness of the Arctic +summer night on some high, open area where a good lookout for Wolves +could be kept?</p> + +<p>About 2 p.m. on June 15, a herd, perhaps half a hundred strong, +appeared on a ridge directly across the river from camp. The animals +made a lovely spectacle as they stood for a time, despite certain human +movements in camp. Then they moved off upstream. A couple of hours +later about 15 Caribou were feeding quietly on the south bank. On the +following morning a band of 20 were doing likewise in nearly the same +place. Among them were a patriarchal buck (apparently the leader), +several other bucks, various does (one with hard horns), and a large +proportion of yearlings. The bucks in general were lighter in +color—more buffy; the does and yearlings, a sort of smoke +gray. They seemed to be feeding to some extent on the patches of +crowberry and dwarf birch. Presently they trotted off upstream, almost +but not quite in single file, for a couple marched out of line with the +others.</p> + +<p>On June 17 a band of about 20 appeared at a distance of 125 yards on +the brow of a low hill near Stump Lake. Nearly all were big bucks, with +velvety antlers up to about 20 inches in length. Perhaps three in the +band were hornless—if not does, then young bucks that had very +recently shed their antlers. Two of the bigger bucks were in the lead. +At first the band came toward me, then went off at a tangent at a good +pace, splashed across a little stream in a spirited action, and +disappeared over the next ridge.</p> + +<p>Out of several bands appearing on June 20 on the opposite side of the +river, one of about 14 individuals came down the slope near the mouth, +took to the water at once, and made for the north shore. A strong +buck landed first, and farthest upstream; others did nearly as well, but +some of the smaller animals were swept by the strong current down into +the bay and probably landed beyond the point. On reaching the shore, and +even some minutes afterward, several of the Caribou could be seen +shaking the water from their fur in doglike fashion.</p> + +<p>On the morning of June 21 a dozen came to the ridge across the river, +briefly inspected the camp, and retreated. In a short time they +returned, four antlered bucks in the lead, and some hornless individuals +in the rear (almost in a separate band). Three of the bucks stood side +by side, looking long and earnestly at the camp, +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page17" id = "page17">17</a></span> +while the others grazed. Finally dissatisfied with the prospect, they +made off upstream.</p> + +<p>A little before 7 p.m. on the same day six Caribou appeared on the +same ridge. For once the dogs were inattentive and silent. After +promenading back and forth along the brow, the Caribou disappeared on +the far side of the ridge; but in a few moments they were in the water +at the river’s mouth, in very close formation, three of them swimming +abreast. There were three good bucks and three smaller, hornless +animals. After they got ashore at the opposite point, there was wagging +of tails and shaking of ears, heads, and bodies, while the water flew +off in a spray. Then they leisurely proceeded along the shore and around +the point.</p> + +<p>About 7 p.m. on June 24 some 10 Caribou (mostly big bucks) swam the +river and landed immediately above our camp. The last two, I noted, +were heading almost upstream in the current that was running 6-8 miles +per hour. They swam high, with the whole line of the back 2 or 3 inches +out of the water and with the antlers tilted back to keep the snout +above the surface. On landing, the animals hastened to the top of the +Camp Ridge and ran off along it, while the chained and frustrated dogs +expressed their feelings in the usual manner.</p> + +<p>As I was retiring to my tent on the Camp Ridge in the twilight about +11:30 p.m. on June 29, I noticed a Caribou in the opposite edge of +the river, about 125 yards away. For the most part it stood in about a +foot of water and kept watching upstream. After some minutes I moved +closer, right along the skyline; I waved a white pillow at it and +shouted several times, but still it would not leave. Eventually it did +move a few feet back from the water’s edge and there appeared to browse +on some dwarf birches.</p> + +<p>The next day, watching from Pile o’ Rocks northwest of camp, +I noticed three Caribou passing on a northeasterly course. They +walked for the most part, but now and again trotted. They were two +well-antlered bucks and a smaller individual with shorter horns. One of +the former paused to graze in a green-sprouting sedge bog. It was +perhaps such fresh summer vegetation that had helped to produce fat an +inch thick on the haunches of an animal secured about this date.</p> + +<p>The area near the western border of Keewatin, lying at some distance +south of Dubawnt Lake and west of the upper Kazan River, does not appear +to attract large numbers of Caribou. Just once, in May, Charles Schweder +has found them crossing a lake +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page18" id = "page18">18</a></span> +which he considered Dubawnt, but may have been Kamiluk. In his trapping +excursions in that area he has found trails and other signs all along +the way, indicating that the animals at least pass through on their +migrations.</p> + + +<h4><a name = "mig_summer" id = "mig_summer"> +Summer interlude</a></h4> + +<p>After July 1 no more Caribou were seen about the Windy River for five +weeks. From information supplied by Charles Schweder, it appears that +virtually all of the animals desert the southern portion of the Barren +Grounds at this season. Before dropping their fawns, the does pass on +for an undetermined distance to the northward of that portion of the +upper Kazan River lying immediately below Ennadai Lake. The rear guard +of the northward migration seems to be composed mainly of bucks and a +few barren does.</p> + +<p>A general veil of mystery seems so far to have enshrouded most of the +natal places (except the islands along the Arctic mainland coast) and +the first few weeks in the life of the Caribou fawns.</p> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page33" id = "page33">33</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig1" id = "fig1"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig1.jpg" width = "449" height = "289" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 1.</span> Half a dozen caribou trails +along the Middle Ridge, looking SE. Ground plants: <i>Ledum +decumbens</i>, <i>Empetrum nigrum</i>, <i>Arcto­staphylos +alpina</i>, <i>Loiseleuria procumbens</i>, and various lichens, +including <i>Cladonia</i>. A miniature “glacier” in the distance. June +24, 1947.</p> +</div> + + +<h4><a name = "mig_fall_nu" id = "mig_fall_nu"> +Fall migration in the Nueltin Lake region</a></h4> + +<p>In former times the southward migration reached the Nueltin Lake +region in July (<i>cf.</i> Downes, 1943: 203-237), sometimes as early as +the middle of the month. Suddenly the time of arrival shifted to (early) +August, and has so remained. In Charles Schweder’s experience, the bucks +nearly every year precede the does on the southward migration; this +suggests that at least the majority of the bucks may not go so far north +as the does. In a certain year the does actually appeared first in +coming south. In normal years, according to Fred Schweder, Jr., the +migration continues till October or November, by which time the animals +have passed into the wooded country for the winter.</p> + +<p>Charles Schweder described the general pattern of fall migration as +follows. At first two or three animals will appear, then a few more, and +after several days a big movement, lasting three or four days, will pass +through. Thereafter the numbers dwindle, though the migration continues. +Curiously enough, there is a definite retrograde movement northward into +the Barrens in September—sometimes as early as the first part of +the month. Then there is a final movement toward the south in November, +at the time of the first good snows; the largest herds of the year may +then be seen. Just how far the migration in 1947 conformed to this +pattern (outlined in early August) will be seen in the following +pages.</p> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page33b" id = "page33b">33</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig2" id = "fig2"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig2.jpg" width = "448" height = "312" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 2.</span> Caribou trails on the +50-foot-high Little River Ridge. <i>Picea mariana</i>, <i>Betula +glandulosa</i>, and <i>Empetrum nigrum</i>. June 19, 1947.</p> +</div> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page19" id = "page19">19</a></span> +<p>The big August movement occurs occasionally as early as the first +days of the month, whereas it was delayed till the last week in 1947. +About the first of August, 1943, according to Fred Schweder, Jr., +a thousand Caribou swam across the mouth of Windy River in the +course of an hour, and there were other thousands during a two weeks’ +period. But such a large migration strikes this point only once in +several years. In other years it may pass southward farther to the west, +as in the vicinity of Simons’ Lake.</p> + +<p>In the fall of 1946—the very season when the Caribou bypassed +the Eskimo camps on the upper Kazan River—there were said to have +been far more than the normal numbers in the Windy River area. Thousands +passed in one day, about October 10. The hills about Four-hill Creek +then gave Fred Schweder, Jr., the impression of “moving with Deer.” By +comparison, the numbers along the Windy River in 1947 were considered by +the local residents to have been below normal, however impressive they +may have been to a zoological visitor. On the other hand, it seemed to +Charles Schweder, during his trip down the Thlewiaza River in late +August of 1947, that Caribou were still very numerous; and he reported +that people along the west coast of Hudson Bay were then getting more of +the animals than in previous years.</p> + +<p>Only rarely do limited numbers of Caribou remain all winter in the +Windy River area. During Charles Schweder’s years of residence there +(about 1936-47) the animals had done so just once—on the Windy +Hills. In 1946-47 Fred Schweder, Jr., found about 300 of them remaining +all winter about the north end of Ennadai Lake. He said that the locally +wintering animals are all bucks. Katello, an elderly Eskimo of the upper +Kazan River, informed Charles Schweder that the Caribou used to remain +there all winter, but now very rarely do so.</p> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page34" id = "page34">34</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig3" id = "fig3"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig3.jpg" width = "444" height = "329" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 3.</span> A Caribou buck (specimen No. +1065) being skinned by Fred, Mike, and Rita at the Bear Slough. August +17, 1947.</p> +</div> + +<p>By the end of July, after both men and dogs had subsisted for several +weeks on a diet devoid of caribou meat, an air of expectancy began to +pervade the Windy River camp. The hunters roamed the Barrens or watched +from some lookout post such as the Pile o’ Rocks (<a href = +"#fig27">fig. 27</a>). No Caribou were detected during plane trips to +the upper Kazan River and return on July 31 and August 3, though +their ancient, well-marked trails were visible along the ridges. It was +not until August 6 that the first buck of the return movement was +encountered. On the following day another animal was secured. On August +10 and 11 only a few Caribou—not over 25 in a band—were seen +by Charles Schweder and Fred Schweder, Jr., +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page20" id = "page20">20</a></span> +from the air between the Windy and the Kazan rivers. It began to be +feared that the bulk of the migration might pass somewhere to the +westward. On August 13, however, at a distance of some miles from camp, +Fred sighted 20 Caribou; all of them were does and fawns except for one +buck. On August 17 he secured a good-sized buck (specimen No. 1065; +figs. 3, 4) at Bear Slough and saw five other bucks elsewhere. Two +days later Anoteelik reported a band of 13.</p> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page34b" id = "page34b">34</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig4" id = "fig4"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig4.jpg" width = "445" height = "279" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 4.</span> Skull, antlers, skin, and hind +quarter of the same Caribou being transported to camp along the Camp +Ridge. August 17, 1947.</p> +</div> + +<p>On August 20 Fred reported about 300 Caribou moving in our direction +across the Barrens east of Lake Charles; they proved to be the advance +guard of a big movement. On the same afternoon I had filmed several +bucks going their separate ways on the slopes about Pile o’ Rocks and +Stony Man. They were moving along somewhat hurriedly, in a manner very +different from the placid grazing of sheep or cattle. One or two does +with fawns also appeared in the vicinity. (The passage of a Keewatin +Tundra Wolf over the same ground a short time previously had no effect, +as far as I observed, on the behavior of the animals at this time.) +A grander, though more distant, spectacle gradually unfolded off to +the eastward, beyond Little River, where several groups, numbering from +3 to 20 or 25 individuals, were feeding quietly over the open Barrens. +Their fresh dark autumn coats showed up much more conspicuously than had +the cream-buff of their winter coats in June. Presently the scene became +livelier, as the largest band, composed of does and fawns as well as +lordly bucks, started to romp northward over the Barrens. One or more of +the various kinds of insects that bring life-long misery to the Caribou +may have stampeded them. This band swept past a group of half its size +without at once involving it. A doe and a fawn remained lying down +as the others passed.</p> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page35" id = "page35">35</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig5" id = "fig5"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig5.jpg" width = "449" height = "289" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 5.</span> Anoteelik and Mike preparing to +bring in a load of caribou meat with dogs and travois. Windy River post, +August 19, 1947.</p> +</div> + +<p>As the eye swept farther over that lonely land, still other Caribou +were disclosed singly or in groups scattered over a couple of square +miles. There was no strong herd instinct as they grazed at will. Even +when on the march, they straggled along, some as much as 20 to 30 yards +apart. As the sun sank lower, and the black flies became less active +with the dropping temperature (about 53°), a lull ensued in the +movements of the Caribou.</p> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page35b" id = "page35b">35</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig6" id = "fig6"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig6.jpg" width = "448" height = "323" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 6.</span> Anoteelik and Mike pegging out +caribou hides to dry on a gravelly ridge near the mouth of Windy River. +August 23, 1947.</p> +</div> + +<p>The big movement of the fall migration finally began to materialize +on Sunday, August 24. This and the next few days were filled with +memorable experiences. The throngs of Caribou passing at such times +around the head of Windy Bay and across the lowermost +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page21" id = "page21">21</a></span> +portions of Little and Windy rivers may be accounted for, in part, by +the local topography (<a href = "#map1">map 1</a>). The upper part +of Windy Bay, occupied by numerous islands of various sizes and +extending about 5 miles in an east-west direction, opposes something of +a barrier to the Caribou in their southward trek. The easiest way to +overcome this barrier is to by-pass it. So the migrant herds approaching +the north shore of the bay turn westward toward Little River. At a point +half a mile short of this stream a rather minor proportion of the +Caribou actually do essay a passage of Windy Bay. They cross an island +lying very close to the north shore, then steer for a small rocky islet +a quarter of a mile northwest of the mouth of South Bay. Here they get a +brief respite from swimming by walking through the shallow bordering +waters, then continue straight on to the rugged south shore of Windy +Bay. This course is roughly parallel to, and a quarter of a mile west +of, the one pursued northward or northeastward across the ice in the +spring migration. The Caribou were seen to follow this water route on +various days from August 24 to September 8, and again on +October 7. Like the one across the ice, it is probably a regular, +well-established, annual route.</p> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page36" id = "page36">36</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig7" id = "fig7"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig7.jpg" width = "444" height = "245" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 7.</span> About 75 Caribou (bucks, does, +and fawns) at a rapid on Little River. August 25, 1947.</p> +</div> + +<p>The greater number of the migrants proceed along the north shore of +the bay to Little River and are there confronted with a choice of +various further routes. Some continue for an indefinite distance up the +northeastern bank, passing Lake Charles on their right, though other +animals, coming from the north, may be following this bank in the +opposite direction. Probably most of the Caribou arriving from the +eastward either plunge into Little River at its mouth and swim across +(<a href = "#fig9">figs. 9</a>, <a href = "#fig10">10</a>, <a href = +"#fig12">12</a>) or pass upstream for a bare quarter of a mile and then +wade across at a rapid (figs. 7, 8).</p> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page36b" id = "page36b">36</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig8" id = "fig8"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig8.jpg" width = "444" height = "271" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 8.</span> About 22 Caribou crossing +Little River at a rapid. Chiefly does and fawns, with several bucks +bringing up the rear. August 26, 1947.</p> +</div> + +<p>Without human interference, a large proportion of those that cross +the lower part of Little River would doubtless proceed more or less +directly to Windy River and cross near its mouth. But the human and +canine inhabitants of the Windy River post seem to exert a strong +influence in deflecting the Caribou northwestward along several more or +less parallel ridges that rise to a maximum height of 40 or 50 feet. +These are Little River, Middle, and Camp ridges (<a href = +"#map1">map 1</a>). Many animals follow the first of these to its +northwestern end, then cross a bog and ascend the Middle Ridge. Some +cross the southeastern end of Little River Ridge, scramble down its +steep sides by strongly marked trails (<a href = +"#fig2">fig. 2</a>), and then +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page22" id = "page22">22</a></span> +move across the Eastern Bog to the Middle Ridge. But when they reach the +summit, they can see the post directly ahead, and generally hurry off +northwestward along the ridge. Presently some may cross the Camp Slough +(<a href = "#fig13">fig. 13</a>) to the Camp Ridge and then proceed +either westward or northwestward. The Caribou have a strong predilection +for following the treeless summits of the ridges wherever they are +available and extend in a more or less desirable direction. On reaching +the vicinity of the Bear Slough, where the three ridges are interrupted +or peter out, the animals doubtless turn more or less southwestward to +make a passage of Windy River at various points above its mouth. Under +the conditions outlined above, it is obvious that some of the finest +opportunities for close-range observation and photography lie at the two +well-established crossings near the mouth of Little River.</p> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page53" id = "page53">53</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig9" id = "fig9"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig9.jpg" width = "447" height = "264" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 9.</span> A band of Caribou swimming +across Little River at its mouth and landing on the western shore. +Toward the left, a doe standing broadside and enveloped in a cloud +of spray being shaken off. August 28, 1947. (From a 16-mm. motion +picture.)</p> +</div> + +<p>On the dark and drizzly morning of August 24 (temp. 47°-48°) I +noticed a number of Caribou, in groups of 2 to 20, traveling +northwestward along Middle and Little River ridges. This indication of +general activity enticed me to the top of the latter, whence I had a +view of perhaps 8 or 10 animals scattered over the Barrens beyond Little +River. Several were lying down just beyond the summit of a ridge between +the river and Glacier Pond, so that little more than their antlers was +visible. With the idea of finding out how closely I could approach these +resting animals, I waded knee-deep across a rapid about 100 feet in +width, and worked my way up the opposite slope until I once more caught +sight of the tips of several antlers. Under cover of a rock and some +dwarf birches, I crept ahead on hands and knees, with a miniature +camera at the ready. I had arrived within 50 yards when the nearest +buck got to its feet and stood looking at me. In hopes of photographing +the rest while they were still lying down, I rose to my knees and +hastily exposed the last bit of film in the camera. Still there was no +immediate reaction on the part of the Caribou. Fortunately there was a +cross wind. The first buck was so little alarmed that it leisurely +sprinkled the ground. But presently it turned and walked off, presumably +giving some signal of voice or posture (such as an erect tail) to the +rest; for they got to their feet, not the half a dozen I expected, but +half a hundred of them! Though they trotted off toward Windy Bay, they +paused within a hundred yards and turned to stare at me. Several more +relieved themselves as the first buck had done. By this time I saw that +some of the Caribou, including a little fawn, were carrying their tails +quite erect, as an expression +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page23" id = "page23">23</a></span> +of suspicion or a signal of alarm. Evidently a majority of the band were +bucks, but there were some does, with foot-long horns, and their fawns. +On my way back to camp I noticed several groups of Caribou swimming +across Windy Bay; perhaps they included the very animals I had so +recently disturbed.</p> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page53b" id = "page53b">53</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig10" id = "fig10"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig10.jpg" width = "447" height = "315" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 10.</span> Two Caribou bucks standing in +the edge of Little River at its mouth after swimming across. August 28, +1947. (From a 16-mm. motion picture.)</p> +</div> + +<p>In the early afternoon it became evident that a further northwesterly +movement was under way along the ridges between camp and Little River. +The animals had doubtless made the passage of the river near its mouth. +I followed some of them to a bog at the upper end of Little River +Ridge, where I began to film several bucks and a lone, inquisitive, +one-horned doe. While the latter was approaching me within a hundred +feet, I caught a movement out of the corner of my eye, and all at +once the bog seemed full of Caribou. There were 75-100 of them, chiefly +bucks, and not more than 50 yards or so distant across the open bog. +They presently moved on, without haste, and ascended the Middle +Ridge.</p> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page54" id = "page54">54</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig11" id = "fig11"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig11.jpg" width = "444" height = "301" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 11.</span> A one-horned doe, a hornless +doe, a fawn, and a two-horned doe among a band of Caribou +approaching the camera within a rod after swimming across Little River. +August 28, 1947. (From a 16-mm. motion picture.)</p> +</div> + +<p>Several hours later about 50 more Caribou passed through this bog. +Then a band of 17 came along, composed chiefly of does and their fawns, +with a couple of young bucks; they did not even turn their heads in my +direction as I stood in the open 50 yards away. Eventually a herd of +about 150 (the largest I saw during the whole season) passed along the +well-worn trails on the summit of the Middle Ridge. It seemed to include +all sexes and ages, with possibly a majority of does and fawns; bringing +up the rear was a limping patriarch with huge antlers, a heavy +mane, and a lingering winter coat.</p> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page54b" id = "page54b">54</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig12" id = "fig12"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig12.jpg" width = "444" height = "296" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 12.</span> A band of Caribou (chiefly big +bucks) swimming across Little River at its mouth. August 28, 1947.</p> +</div> + +<p>During the remainder of the afternoon several other groups appeared +in that general area. About 15 individuals descended Little River Ridge +(<a href = "#fig2">fig. 2</a>) to the Eastern Bog, but retraced +their course after coming close to several of us; they were mostly does, +with four fawns and a few bucks. Another band, of all ages and sexes and +numbering perhaps a hundred individuals, crossed at the rapid on Little +River. The temperatures that had prevailed during this day’s marked +migratory movements varied from about 45° to 50°. They were low enough +to keep the black flies completely in abeyance, and the mosquito season +was virtually over. Although I noticed none of the parasitic flies, +possibly enough of them were present to keep the Caribou moving actively +against a moderate to brisk northerly wind. Now and again a big buck +could be seen fairly jumping out of its skin with the vigor of vibrating +its sides to shake off the tormentors.</p> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page55" id = "page55">55</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig13" id = "fig13"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig13.jpg" width = "447" height = "313" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 13.</span> Camp Slough, with trails +showing the recent passage of Caribou through the sedge growth +(predominantly <i>Carex chordorrhiza</i>). Black spruce in the +foreground and distance. August 29, 1947.</p> +</div> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page24" id = "page24">24</a></span> +<p>On August 25 (the second day of the big movement) I watched and +filmed the pageant of Caribou migration from the southwestern bank of +Little River. The turfy slopes of the Barrens, carpeted with low +ericaceous shrubs, mosses, and reindeer lichens, and dotted here and +there with little thickets of dwarf birch, spruce, and tamarack, +stretched invitingly before me. Temperatures ranging from 40° to 51°, +with a brisk northwest breeze sweeping down the river, happily +suppressed most of the black flies.</p> + +<p>The Caribou came along at intervals from the eastward, in bands up to +75 strong, either to make the passage of the river or to continue +upstream along the opposite ridge. A small number might make the +crossing in one or two files, but one of the larger bands might spread +out widely in the shallow rapid. One of the photographs (<a href = +"#fig7">fig. 7</a>) shows approximately 75 Caribou going divergent +ways at this rapid: about 20 passing upstream along the ridge on the far +side, including some pausing to feed on the low vegetation; 8 or 9 +moving down the slope of the ridge to the water’s edge; about 10 bucks, +16 does, and 6 fawns making the passage of the river; and about 13 +arriving on the near shore and pausing to feed. The adults were able to +step across in the swift water, while the fawns swam part of the way. +The bucks were apparently in the minority again on this day.</p> + +<p>One group of some 40 does and fawns, after swimming the river near +its mouth, came hurrying along the ridge in close array directly toward +my station, and did not take alarm until they had arrived within 100 +feet. Then they turned tail and, each with its flag erect, beat a hasty +retreat. The maneuver made a scene of considerable charm and interest. +While I was filming a dozen Caribou in the Eastern Bog from the Middle +Ridge, a stray fawn came up and halted for some seconds within a +rod of me. The bewildered look in its big eyes was comical though +pathetic. In presently dashing on, it passed within a dozen feet.</p> + +<p>Late in the afternoon Fred Schweder, Jr., reported about a thousand +Caribou, in various bands up to 100 strong, crossing Little River here +and there a mile or so above its mouth. They were traveling +southwest.</p> + +<div class = "blockquote"> + +<p>August 26 was marked by mist squalls, a maximum temperature of 45°, +and a slackening in the numbers of passing Caribou. Late in the morning +a band of more than 30 bucks, does, and fawns crossed the rapid on +Little River. In the early afternoon scattering individuals and a band +of 15 or 20 did likewise. Presently another band of about 22 animals +came (<a href = "#fig8">fig. 8</a>); it consisted chiefly of does +and fawns, but there were several medium-sized bucks bringing +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page25" id = "page25">25</a></span> +up the rear. They crossed the rapid in a somewhat V-shaped formation, +open at the front. The vanguard reached a rocky strip 25 yards in front +of my camera and began to feed contentedly on the low vegetation. +However, a couple of does still in the water eyed me intently and +presumably communicated their misgivings to the others, for all turned +and went back through the river without panic or haste, although they +trotted on reaching the farther shore. Later there were about 25 Caribou +crossing the bay, and nearly as many on Little River Ridge.</p> + +<p>The weather on August 27, while mostly sunny, included occasional +snow or sleet flurries; the northerly wind was brisk to strong; and the +temperature, ranging from 37° to 50°, prevented the appearance of black +flies. By 10:20 a.m. a band of about 10 does and fawns crossed the +rapid on Little River. Two hours later 12-15 animals followed the same +course, and presently 75-100 passed upstream on the far side, with a +good deal of grunting. About 2:35 p.m. nearly a hundred Caribou, perhaps +alarmed by a passing plane, dashed north out of the Eastern Bog. By 4:45 +p.m. 20 or more bucks, does, and fawns swam across Little River at its +mouth; several of the biggest bucks, with enormous antlers, led the +advance into the water. An hour later, on the eastern side of the river, +half a dozen of the animals were lying down, but with heads erect, and +facing down wind. At this period of the day several more bands of +moderate size swam over to the west side of the river. A goodly +number of the animals fed within 25 yards of me for a considerable +time.</p> + +<p>The following day was nearly cloudless; wind moderate, westerly; +temperature, 37.5° to 66°—high enough to bring out the black flies +(but extremely few mosquitoes) after several days of virtual freedom +from these scourges. Between 11:30 a.m. and 3 p.m. at least 500 Caribou, +coming from the east, must have passed the mouth of Little River, some +swimming across at that point (<a href = "#fig9">figs. 9</a>, <a href = +"#fig12">12</a>), and others proceeding various distances upstream +before undertaking the passage. A few of the larger bands numbered +approximately 30, 40, and 75 individuals. Some consisted largely of does +and fawns, some of big bucks. One of the larger bands approached the +river on the run, plunged in recklessly, and landed on the western shore +some 30 feet directly in front of my battery of cameras. Most of the +animals on this and similar occasions were remarkably indifferent to me +as I operated the cameras in full view of them. Some among them would +approach within a rod or less and stare me in the face without alarm (<a +href = "#fig11">figs. 11</a>, 14).</p> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page55b" id = "page55b">55</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig14" id = "fig14"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig14.jpg" width = "447" height = "263" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 14.</span> A Caribou <i>Elysium</i>: a +hornless doe approaching within 15 feet of the photographer at the mouth +of Little River. August 30, 1947.</p> +</div> + +<p>August 29 was a cloudy, nearly calm day, with temperatures ranging +from 49.5° to 73°—conditions more propitious for black flies than +for their victims. There was comparatively little local movement among +the Caribou—in the morning two or three swimming across the bay +and a band of 20 (6 old bucks, the rest does and fawns) swimming +south across the mouth of Windy River; in mid-<ins class = "correction" +title = "text has ‘afternon’">afternoon</ins> a band of 10 running +along the ridge on the eastern side of Little River; and about 100 +reported during the day in the vicinity of Windy Bay by Fred Schweder, +Jr. The “big movement” had passed its peak.</p> + +<p>The next day was largely sunny, with a light easterly or +southeasterly wind and temperatures of 50° to 68°. There were +comparatively few black flies and fewer mosquitoes. During a five-hour +vigil near the mouth of Little River I noticed only about 50 Caribou, +most of them passing westward by +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page26" id = "page26">26</a></span> +ones, twos, and intermediate numbers up to 17 (does and fawns) in a +band. Mike Schweder reported a total of about 200 animals seen within a +few miles of camp.</p> + +<p>The morning of August 31 was dismal and overcast, with a heavy +shower; in the afternoon the sky cleared; wind brisk, south to west; +temperature, 47° to 74.5°. Several Caribou passed along the eastern side +of Little River, and Fred Schweder, Jr., reported about 300 some miles +north of camp, moving in a southwesterly direction.</p> + +<p>Clouds and rain ushered in the morning of September 1; the afternoon +was sunny; wind light to strong, west to northwest; temperature, 48° to +60°. The next day was partly cloudy, with a mist squall or two; wind +light to brisk, northwesterly; temperature, 38° to 51.5°. No Caribou +were reported on either day.</p> + +<p>September 3 was largely cloudy, with some mist squalls; wind light to +moderate, northerly to easterly; temperature, 40° to 51°. There were +enough black flies to be slightly troublesome. Two bucks, two does, and +a fawn were noted at Bear Slough.</p> + +<p>September 4 was partly cloudy, with drizzling rain; wind light, east +to south and southwest; temperature, 43° to 58°. I saw about 22 Caribou +(largely does and fawns), in several different groups, at Bear Slough +and vicinity, and Fred Schweder, Jr., reported about 200 in the same +area. Two were noted swimming to the south side of Windy Bay.</p> + +<p>September 5 was marked by a driving, day-long rainstorm; wind brisk, +easterly; temperature, 43° to 50°. A band of about 20 Caribou (mostly +does and fawns, with several middle-aged bucks), besides one or two +single animals, were encountered at Bear Slough.</p> + +<p>September 6 was a cloudy, raw day, with several snow flurries; wind +brisk, northerly; temperature, 33° to 35°. Not a fly was abroad. Two +Caribou moved northwest along Little River Ridge; a band of about +75 (mainly does and fawns, but with a fair number of big bucks) passed +in the same direction along the Middle Ridge; and about 25 others grazed +along the eastern side of Little River. Later about 15-20 more were seen +about the mouth of Little River and on a near-by island, and eight swam +across Windy Bay to the south side. Fred reported seeing about 300 +during the day north and west of camp; they were moving in a northerly +direction.</p> + +<p>It was cloudy nearly all day on September 7; wind moderate, +northerly; temperature, 33° to 40°. No black flies were in evidence. +A dozen or more Caribou took to the water from an island in Windy +Bay and made for the north shore. A band of about 25 passed along +Little River Ridge toward the river’s mouth.</p> + +<p>September 8 was mostly cloudy; wind moderate to strong, +southeasterly; temperature, 37° to 42°. Fred reported a band of about +100 Caribou crossing the mouth of Little River toward the west. +A dozen or more swam southward over Windy Bay at the usual +crossing-place. Anoteelik brought in 13 tongues from that many freshly +killed Caribou; he had secured them with a .22 rifle.</p> + +<p>A driving gale from the east, with rain and sleet, continued through +the day on September 9; temperature, 36° to 37°. A solitary buck +inspected our camp from the south side of Windy River, then +retreated.</p> + +<p>An overcast sky, with some drizzle and sleet, prevailed on September +10; +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page27" id = "page27">27</a></span> +wind light, east to northeast; temperature, 35.5° to 42.5°. No flies +present for some days past. Fred reported about 20 Caribou moving +westward in the vicinity of Little River.</p> + +<p>On September 11 clouds and mist squalls in the morning gave way to +sunshine in the afternoon; wind light, easterly; temperature, 37° to +45.5°. Caribou were noted as follows: five on the east side of Little +River; two does and a fawn on an island in Windy Bay; a doe and a +fawn swimming northward across this bay; half a dozen on Josie’s Hill. +During a flight from Churchill to Nueltin Lake on this day, Charles +Schweder detected no Caribou at all, and concluded that the bulk of the +migrating herds had by this time passed to the southward of his course. +During the latter part of August, while descending the Thlewiaza River +from Nueltin Lake to Hudson Bay, he had seen thousands of the +animals—as many as 5,000 in a single day, although no more than +500 in a single herd.</p> + +<p>Sun, clouds, and rain marked September 12; wind moderate to light, +south to west; temperature, 48° to 60°. Only two Caribou were +reported.</p> + +<p>September 13 was cloudy, with intermittent mist squalls and a little +sun; wind light to brisk, <ins class = "correction" title = "text has : for ;">northerly;</ins> temperature, 34° to about 44°. Two bands of +Caribou (of four and five animals) appeared near the mouth of Windy +River.</p> + +<p>It was generally cloudy, with a snow squall, on September 14; wind +brisk to light, northerly; temperature, 33° to 41°. A doe and a fawn, +proceeding northward, and four or five other Caribou appeared on the +near-by ridges.</p> + +<p>The weather was clear on the 15th, with a moderate to brisk north +wind and temperatures of 29° to 48°; ice at edge of the river. Fred +reported about 100 Caribou (none of them bucks) north of camp, and +Anoteelik secured 13 east of Little River.</p> + +<p>On the morning of the 16th intermittent snow flurries left a thin +cover on the ground, but it was practically dissipated by the afternoon +sun; wind brisk, northerly; temperature, 30° to 39°. Fred reported three +old does without fawns, and no bucks.</p> + +<p>September 17 was mostly cloudy, with a little sun; wind light, +northwest and west; temperature, 30° to 43°. A single Caribou was seen +on the south side of Windy River.</p> + +<p>Clear skies prevailed on September 18; wind brisk, westerly; +temperature, 35° to 53.5°; ice at edge of the river. A solitary +black fly appeared. No Caribou reported.</p> + +<p>September 19 was another clear day; wind moderate to brisk, +west-southwest; temperature, 42° to 60°. Anoteelik, camping on the +Barrens about 2 miles to the north of camp for the past couple of days, +reports having killed 20 Caribou (only one of them a buck).</p> + +<p>Light rain, soon changing to sleet, and then frequent snow squalls, +provided the principal weather elements on September 20; wind light to +strong, west to north; temperature, 27° to 43.5°. The ground became +partly covered with snow. A big buck, followed several hours later +by a doe and a fawn, swam across to the north side of Windy River at its +mouth. Ten more Caribou were taken by Anoteelik. Charles considered that +the retrograde movement to the north was definitely under way. There had +been indications of it on various days from September 6 on.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page28" id = "page28">28</a></span> +<p>Except for a few snow flurries, it was largely sunny on the 21st; +wind brisk to moderate, north to northwest; temperature, 26° to 34°. +About a quarter of an inch of snow remained in sheltered places. +A doe and a fawn appeared near camp.</p> + +<p>There was considerable snowfall on the 22nd; wind light to moderate, +westerly; temperature, 30° to 33°; ice in edge of the river. +A large buck left tracks in the snow along the Windy River.</p> + +<p>September 23 was partly cloudy; wind brisk, north-northwest; +temperature, 21° to 32°; about a quarter of an inch of snow on the +ground, and a tundra pond mostly frozen over. Several small groups of +Caribou (a doe and a fawn; three does and two fawns; and three +others) appeared on the near-by ridges.</p> + +<p>September 24 was mostly cloudy; wind moderate to brisk, northerly; +temperature, 26° to 41°; nearly an inch of fresh snow on the ground. +About 15 does and fawns were resting or feeding quietly on the east side +of Little River, and tracks of about half a dozen were noted on Camp +Ridge. Charles Schweder reported about 50 Caribou, in three slightly +separated bands, appearing during the evening on the south side of Windy +River about 2 miles above its mouth, as if contemplating a crossing. He +thought they may have been alarmed by Wolves.</p> + +<p>September 25 was a cloudy day; wind moderate to light, northerly to +westerly; temperature, 31° to 36°; open ground largely bare by +afternoon; ice forming on Windy Bay. Some Caribou tracks were noted on +the north side of Windy River.</p> + +<p>There were clouds, a sprinkle or two of rain, and a little sunshine +on the 26th; wind brisk to moderate, southwest to west; temperature, 36° +to 47.5°; ground becoming practically bare. Three Caribou were seen +beyond Little River, and a doe and a fawn on the south side of Windy +River.</p> + +<p>The 27th was mostly cloudy, with a thick snow flurry; wind brisk, +northwest; temperature, 33° to 40°. Two tundra ponds, previously frozen, +were mostly open. Three bucks, a doe, and a fawn were noted on the +south side of Windy River.</p> + +<p>September 28 was mostly cloudy; wind brisk to light, north-northwest; +temperature, 28.5° to 40°; a little snow on the ground disappearing. +Seven large bucks (six in one band, moving northward) passed over Camp +Ridge, and a dozen other Caribou (including does) were seen beyond +Little River.</p> + +<p>The 29th was chiefly sunny; wind very light to brisk, west to +southwest; temperature, 29° to 48°; ground bare. A band of about 15 +Caribou appeared on the north side of Windy River at its mouth. They +included four large and two smaller bucks, the remainder being does and +fawns. They were apparently traveling south.</p> + +<p>The 30th was cloudy, with a sprinkle of rain; wind light, westerly; +temperature, 39° to 48°; ground bare. A few black flies were +brought out by the mild weather. During an all-morning trip to Point +Lake, Charles saw no Caribou, but in the afternoon he reported about 200 +on the eastern side of Little River. There were also half a dozen bucks +on the south side of Windy River.</p> + +<p>October 1 was a rare, fine, sunshiny day in the Barrens; wind +moderate +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page29" id = "page29">29</a></span> +to brisk, south to southwest; temperature, 37° to 61°; ground bare; +tundra ponds mostly ice-covered. A blowfly crawled over a caribou +carcass, and possibly a few black flies were abroad. Two bucks passed +from the shoal water of Duck Bay over Little River Ridge. Charles +reported about 40 Caribou moving north a mile or two north of camp, and +I saw a single buck likewise engaged. During the preceding week or so +Fred had seen a good many of the animals between the upper Kazan River +and Nueltin Lake; they were moving south and west.</p> + +<p>The 2nd was another clear day; wind moderate, southwest; temperature, +41° to 65°; ground bare. About five does and fawns were seen at dusk in +the spruce tract near Four-hill Creek.</p> + +<p>The next day was drizzly and foggy throughout; wind light, southwest +to southeast; temperature, 41° to 43.5°. No Caribou sighted. Eskimos +arriving in camp reported them scarce along the way from the upper Kazan +River.</p> + +<p>October 4 was a dismal, dark day, with steady light rain throughout; +wind very light, easterly; temperature, 36° to 42.5°. Fred reported 20 +Caribou north of camp.</p> + +<p>Snow fell throughout the 5th; wind light, north-northwest; +temperature, 31° to 35°. No Caribou sighted.</p> + +<p>With 6 inches of snow on the ground in the morning, there was some +additional precipitation during the overcast day of October 6; wind +moderate to brisk, northeast; temperature, 31° to 33°; waters clear of +ice. No Caribou sighted.</p> + +<p>October 7 was a generally cloudy day; wind moderate to very light, +northerly; temperature, 24° to 29°; watercourses largely open. In the +morning Charles reported a couple of hundred Caribou swimming southward +across Windy Bay; he considered this a part of the final southward +movement into the timbered country—apparently initiated by the +recent snowstorm. Later he saw an approximately equal number 2 miles +north of camp, moving toward the bay; and Fred encountered about 50 on +the north side of the bay.</p> + +<p>Late on the 8th clouds gave way to sunshine; nearly calm to a gentle +breeze from west and southwest; temperature, 26.5° to 33.5°; 6 inches of +snow on ground. I obtained a distant view of about 100 Caribou +resting near Glacier Pond. Perhaps less than a quarter of them were old +bucks; the remainder, younger bucks, does, and fawns.</p> + +<p>October 9 was largely sunny, with light rain in the evening; wind +light to moderate, southwest to south; temperature, 29° to 38°; ground +with a 6-inch snow covering. No Caribou sighted.</p> + +<p>Some snow fell on the 10th, though the day was partly sunny; wind +very light, south to west; temperature, 33° to 36°. No Caribou +sighted.</p> + +<p>Clouds prevailed on the 11th; wind no more than very light, westerly; +temperature, 33° to 38°; about 4 inches of snow on ground. Charles +reported about a thousand Caribou scattered over a long hill several +miles to the northwest; they were not traveling.</p> + +<p>October 12 was marked by clouds, mist, and rain; wind light to +moderate, southwesterly; temperature, 32° to 40°. No Caribou +sighted.</p> + +<p>There was a little sun on the 13th; wind light to moderate, west to +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page30" id = "page30">30</a></span> +east; temperature, 37° to 45.5°; ground largely bare and tundra ponds +open. In the afternoon we set out for Simons’ Lake, and camped about 4 +miles up the Windy River. No Caribou sighted.</p> + +<p>On the 14th we reached the upper end of Simons’ Lake, for a several +days’ stay at a deserted trading-post. There were snow flurries and a +little rain; wind brisk, westerly; temperature, 35° to 36°; ground +mostly bare. A band of about 15 Caribou, a solitary buck, and +many tracks and droppings were seen along the way.</p> + +<p>October 15 was partly cloudy; wind very light to light, west to +northwest and east; temperature, 21° to 36°. Four Caribou sighted.</p> + +<p>October 16 was a stormy, cloudy day; wind brisk, easterly; +temperature, 30.5° to 34°. About a dozen Caribou were noted in the +vicinity of Simons’ Lake.</p> + +<p>A strong easterly gale during the night, with heavy rain, was +followed during the day of the 17th by steady rain, with moderate to +light easterly or southeasterly wind; temperature, 35° to 38°. A single +Caribou seen.</p> + +<p>October 18 was partly cloudy; wind brisk to light, westerly; +temperature, 31° to 41°; waters open; some small patches of snow in +sight. Four Caribou (at least two of them bucks) passed by.</p> + +<p>The 19th was partly cloudy; nearly calm to moderate wind, west and +northwest; temperature, 30° to 40°. About five or six bucks (three of +them together) appeared, perhaps moving south.</p> + +<p>The weather on the 20th was raw, dismal, and gusty; wind brisk, +northwest; temperature, 27° to about 35°; some ice on Simons’ Lake; +a little fresh snow on higher hills. No Caribou sighted.</p> + +<p>October 21 was somewhat foggy; nearly calm; temperature, 25° to 32°; +Simons’ Lake partly frozen; ground generally bare. A lone fawn was +seen as we started on the return trip to the Windy River post.</p> + +<p>The 22nd was largely sunny; wind very light to brisk, southwesterly; +temperature, about 30° to 46°. A medium-sized buck was seen near the +mouth of Windy River.</p> + +<p>The 23rd was largely cloudy; wind brisk, southwest; temperature, 35° +to 39°; ground practically all bare; bay and river open. A buck +started to cross to the north side of Windy River, but went back.</p> + +<p>For the better part of a week, till October 29, I found no further +fresh indications of Caribou in our vicinity. In the meantime the +weather was largely cloudy, with some rain and snow (4-5 inches of the +latter on the 27th); winds very light to moderate, swinging from east to +south and west; temperature, 27° to 50°; waters generally open.</p> + +<p>October 29 was largely cloudy; a gentle wind, south to east; +temperature, 29° to 35°; 4-5 inches of snow on ground; thin ice on a +tundra pond. The fresh track of a buck (<a href = "#fig20">fig. 20</a>) +was found near camp.</p> + +<p>On the 30th gentle rain changed to snow; calm to a moderate wind, +northeast to north; temperature, 30° to 33°. Tracks showed the passing +of about a dozen Caribou, including half a dozen that swam westward +across the mouth of Little River, breaking through a rim of ice at the +edge.</p> + +<p>Clouds prevailed on the 31st; wind moderate to brisk, northerly; +temperature, 17° to 25.5°; 5-6 inches of snow on ground, with drifts up +to a foot deep; river and lake open. Fred reported three Caribou.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page31" id = "page31">31</a></span> +<p>November 1 marked the long-delayed “freeze-up.” Windy Bay and the +edges of Windy River were frozen, while pieces of ice floated down the +river. The day was cloudy, with continual snow flurries after noon; wind +light to brisk, southeast; temperature, 21° to 31°; about 6 inches of +snow on ground.</p> + +<p>The 2nd was cloudy, with some rain and sleet; wind moderate to brisk, +southeast to west; temperature, 29° to 34°. No Caribou sighted for two +days.</p> + +<p>On the 3rd it was cloudy all day; wind light, northwest; temperature, +16° to 20°. A herd of about 50 Caribou (largely does, with a few fawns +and well-antlered bucks) hurried down the side of Little River Ridge +onto the ice of Duck Bay, with the apparent intention of crossing to the +south side of Windy Bay; but they were intercepted by a hunter and +retreated northwestward along the ridge. Fred secured three +southward-traveling bucks at a distance from camp.</p> + +<p>No Caribou were sighted on the three following days (November 4 +to 6), which were more or less cloudy, with some snow; wind light +to brisk, southerly to northerly; temperature, 13° to 24.5°; ice 3 +inches thick on Windy Bay; about 6 inches of snow on ground.</p> + +<p>There was snow during the night of November 6 and the morning of the +7th, resulting in drifts up to a yard deep; wind brisk, northerly; +temperature, -3° to 13°. Fred reported “lots” of Caribou some 10 miles +to the north, moving south.</p> + +<p>The next three days (November 8 to 10) varied from cloudy (with a +snow flurry) to sunny; wind moderate to strong, northwest and north; +temperature, -10.5° to 1°; 6-8 inches of snow (much drifted); Windy +River gradually becoming ice-covered. No Caribou sighted.</p> + +<p>November 11 was partly sunny; wind moderate to brisk, northerly; +temperature, 3° to 6.5°; about 8 inches of snow on the average. Mike +Schweder reported five does moving south across the mouth of Windy River +on the ice.</p> + +<p>Thereafter, until my departure on December 4, no more Caribou were +actually seen in the vicinity of the headquarters on Windy River. There +were, however, tracks of single animals on November 15 and 16. Moreover, +during the period from about November 7 to 15, while traveling northward +to the upper Kazan River, Charles Schweder saw thousands of Caribou, in +herds up to 300, moving southward. He surmised that their course took +them somewhere between Ennadai and Nueltin lakes. Fred also reported +many to the northward on the 7th, as already noted. This was perhaps the +last large migratory movement of the year in our general area. +Thereafter virtually all of the animals were presumably in the timbered +area to the southward. None was sighted from the plane during the flight +to Churchill on December 4.</p> + +<p>On November 7 the temperature had taken a sharp downward turn, +dropping below zero for the first time that season; and it did not again +rise above 6.5° till November 12. This cold spell, combined with a snow +blizzard from the north on the 6th and 7th, coincided at least in part +with the large migratory movement noted above, and it may have been the +stimulus for it.</p> + +<p>The general weather conditions that obtained from November 12 on +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page32" id = "page32">32</a></span> +may be summarized as follows. It was at least predominantly cloudy on +all but four or five days. There was snowfall on six days, and drifting +snow in the air on several other days. The winds were predominantly +north, northwest, and west; less commonly, east and southeast. They were +a little more frequently light than moderate or brisk. The extremes of +temperature during this period were 22.5° and -23°; the average daily +mean, approximately 1°. There was an average of probably at least 8 +inches of snow on the ground, with deeper drifts. The river was not +wholly frozen over at least up to the end of November.</p> + +</div> +<!-- end long blockquote --> + +<h4><a name = "mig_retro" id = "mig_retro"> +Retrograde autumnal movement</a></h4> + +<p>It would doubtless be difficult to find, among other animals, any +exact parallel to this curious feature of caribou migration. According +to Charles Schweder, it takes place in the Nueltin Lake region in +September—sometimes as early as the first of the month. Herds up +to 200 strong may then be seen moving northward, but generally the +numbers are smaller—say 10 to 30 in a band. Some of the more +notable autumnal movements toward the north, as reported by Charles, +were the following: at Simons’ Lake in 1936 and again in 1938, when +herds of fat bucks were streaming past for a month and a half; likewise +at Josie’s Bay in 1940; and through the Windy Hills and across Windy +River in 1943. Fred Schweder, Jr., said that most of the animals, in +returning northward at this season, cross Windy River 4 miles above its +mouth or Windy Bay 4 miles from its head; comparatively few pass the +mouths of Windy and Little rivers. He remarked further that it is mostly +bucks, with few does and fawns, that make the passage on Windy Bay.</p> + +<p>More or less evidence of such a movement toward the north in 1947 has +been presented in preceding pages, in the notes for September 6, 7, 11, +14, 20, 24, and 28, October 1, and even October 23. The numbers +observed so involved on each of these days varied from a solitary buck +or a doe with a fawn to about 300 of the animals. On some of these days, +however, other Caribou were observed making their way toward the south. +It is thus obvious that there was no universal impulse among the Caribou +of a given area to move simul­taneously in a certain direction.</p> + +<p>The general weather conditions on the nine above-mentioned days may +be summarized as follows. Every day but one was largely or wholly +cloudy; snow falling on three days, but ground bare on other days; wind +predominantly from the north; extreme temperatures, 26° and 61°; mean +daily average, 37.5°. Whether or not there is significance in the +matter, it appears that on those days within the period extending from +September 6 to October 1, when +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page37" id = "page37">37</a></span> +the Caribou were not definitely observed moving northward, the winds +were less likely to be northerly. Furthermore, within this period there +was never enough snow to interfere appreciably with the animals’ feeding +on the ground lichens of the Barrens.</p> + +<p>By October 6 there were 6 inches of snow on the ground, and on the +following day 200 Caribou swimming southward across Windy Bay may have +marked the beginning of the final movement into the timbered country. It +appears possible that a considerable fall of snow may have a definite +influence in inducing the Caribou to retreat from the Barrens.</p> + +<p>On a trip from Windy River north to the Kazan River region in +September, 1946, Charles Schweder found, during the first 45 miles, that +the Caribou were moving north; at the Kazan they were moving south, +although some were merely loitering. Northwest of the Kazan, the animals +were taking a westward course. During the latter part of his return trip +to Windy River, 11 or 12 days later, they had reversed the previous +direction and were traveling south.</p> + +<p>For such a distinct and regular feature in the life cycle of the +species as the retrograde autumnal movement there must be some +biological explanation. Several possible factors appear reasonably +clear. Perhaps we may consider the Barren Grounds the true and preferred +home of <i>Rangifer arcticus</i>, from which a proportion of the +population is driven during part of the year under stress of insect +attacks or shortage of food. When the animals begin to enter the woods +in August, there is no shortage of food; thus an insect-induced frenzy +may possibly be regarded as a potent force driving them southward. In +September a state of comparative peace descends upon the caribou world: +the current crop of adult insects has subsided; the larvae of warble and +nostril flies have not attained the formidable size of the following +spring and perhaps are not yet causing any severe discomfort; little or +no snow covers up the food supply; the lakes and rivers, still unfrozen, +offer a ready way of escape from pursuing Wolves; moderate or even balmy +weather gives nature a pleasant mood. In short, both man and beast may +well look upon early autumn as the very finest time of year both on the +Barrens and in the adjacent wooded country.</p> + +<p>Under these circumstances a definite retrograde movement out of the +wooded country in September on the part of many Caribou must indicate +their preference for the Barrens at this season. In any event, the +movement begins just after the insect menace has +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page38" id = "page38">38</a></span> +subsided to a negligible stage. Possibly another inducement for +retreating from the wooded country in the early fall is the dearth of +open areas in which the animals may spend their resting periods, in +comparative safety from Wolves. It is only after the freeze-up that the +surfaces of the lakes and rivers supply this desideratum. This condition +lasts from November to June—precisely that part of the year in +which the Caribou are present in the wooded country in the greatest +numbers.</p> + +<p>But by November what are the conditions on the Barrens? The weather +has become severe; snow has covered up a large part of the ground +lichens; tree lichens are not to be had. And so at this season, with the +coming of the first heavy snows, there is a final movement out of the +Barrens into the shelter of the woods, leaving only a minority of the +animals to face a bleak and bitter winter in the open country. The +biggest herds of the year may then be seen passing southward. A few +bucks are said to remain during most winters in the Windy River +area.</p> + +<p>Far to the westward, toward Great Slave and Great Bear lakes, the +retrograde movements are somewhat different and more complicated +(Clarke, 1940: 96).</p> + +<p>“Mr. Carl Buchholz, of Churchill, describes the caribou migration at +the 60th parallel, north of Churchill, as a southward migration in +August, northward in September, and then south in the autumn” (Clarke, +1940: 97). (See also the next paragraph.)</p> + + +<h4><a name = "mig_fall_ch" id = "mig_fall_ch"> +Fall migration in the Churchill region</a></h4> + +<p>The following notes for 1947 were kindly furnished me by Angus +MacIver. He reported large numbers of Caribou moving southward across +Caribou Creek (25 miles south of Churchill) about November 10, +a day after the local freeze-up. He would then see thousands in a +day. Prior to that time (perhaps in September?) there had been two +“runs” to the northward and northwestward; these presumably represented +the normal retrograde migration in the fall. The herds engaged in these +two northerly movements must have previously passed southward farther +inland. He reported also that the rutting season this year had commenced +a little later than the usual October 15.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References on migration.</i>—Dobbs, 1774: 20, 22; Hearne, 1795: +39, 40, 56, 66, 74, 85-87, 286, 299; Franklin, 1823: 241-242; Sabine, in +Franklin, 1823: 667; Richardson, “1825”: 328-329, and 1829: 242-243; +Godman, 1831, <b>2</b>: 283-284; John Ross, 1835<i>a</i>: 328, 330, 337, +376, 390, 529-530, 628; J. C. Ross, in John Ross, 1835<i>b</i>: +xvii; Richardson, in Back, 1836: 498; +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page39" id = "page39">39</a></span> +Simpson, 1843: 76, 196, 233, 277, 301, 320-321, 328, 386; Rae, 1850: 93; +Richardson, 1852: 290, 296; Rae, 1852<i>a</i>: 79; J. Anderson, 1857: +326, 328; Murray, 1858: 203; Richardson, 1861: 274, 275; B. R. +Ross, 1861: 438-439; Osborn, 1865: 223-224, 226; Kumlien, 1879: 54; R. +Bell, 1881: 15C; Caton, 1881: 108; Gilder, 1881: 196-197; Nourse, 1884: +235, 356; Schwatka, 1885: 77-79, 83; Boas, 1888: 502; Collinson, 1889: +244, 290; Pike, 1917 (1892): 48-49, 50, 89-91, 101, 174, 204, 209, 220; +J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128-130; Dowling, 1893: 103, 107; J. B. +Tyrrell, 1894: 442, 1896: 13, 63, and 1897: 10, 19, 21, 49-50, 76, 124, +140, 142, 165; Russell, 1895: 48, and 1898: 88, 226; Whitney, 1896: 157, +238, 241; Lydekker, 1898: 48; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 77-78, +80; Jones, 1899: 368, 374; Hanbury, 1900: 66-67, 69, 71; A. J. +Stone, 1900: 50, 53; W. J. McLean, 1901: 5, 6; Elliot, 1902: 259, +260, 274-275; Preble, 1902: 42; J. W. Tyrrell, 1924 (1902): 26, 31; +Hanbury, 1904: 10, 30, 32, 34, 58, 93, 108, 120, 121, 139; Hornaday, +1904: 137; Stone and Cram, 1904: 52; MacFarlane, 1905: 683-685; +J. A. Allen, 1908<i>a</i>: 490; Amundsen, 1908, <b>1</b>: 97, +102-106, 200, 247, 326-329; Preble, 1908: 137-139; Cameron, 1912: 127; +Wheeler, 1912: 199-200; R. M. Anderson, 1913<i>a</i>: 6, and +1913<i>b</i>: 502; Stefánsson, 1913<i>a</i>: 94-96, 99, 100, 103, 106, +1913<i>b</i>: 203-204, 224-225, 263-265, 269, 294, 348-350, and 1914: +39, 41, 54; Chambers, 1914: 93; Hornaday, 1914, <b>2</b>: 101-104; +Wheeler, 1914: 58; Harper, 1915: 160; Camsell, 1916: 21; Thompson, 1916: +99-101; Kindle, 1917: 107-108; Camsell and Malcolm, 1919: 46; Whittaker, +1919: 166-167; Buchanan, 1920: 105-108, 128-129; Hewitt, 1921: 60-63; +Stefánsson, 1921: 401; Jenness, 1922: 15, 17, 25-26, 125; Blanchet, +1925: 32-34, and 1926<i>b</i>: 46-48; Mallet, 1926: 79; Preble, 1926: +137-138; Rasmussen, 1927: 54, 214-217, 246; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 51, +56, 101, 106; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 122, 125-128; Blanchet, 1930: +49-52; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 58, 192-196; Hoare, 1930: 13, 14, 16, +21, 22, 27, 31, 33, 36-38; Kitto, 1930: 87; Mallet, 1930: 20-23, 27; +Jacobi, 1931: 80-84, 192-210; Harper, 1932: 30, 31; Munn, 1932: 58; +Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 79, 81; Weyer, 1932: 40; Birket-Smith, 1933: +91-94, 112, 118; Ingstad, 1933: 34, 134-135, 156-159, 161, 163, 225, +229-231, 280, 291, 293, 296, 324; Weeks, 1933: 65; R. M. Anderson, +1934<i>a</i>: 81, 1937: 103, and 1938: 400; Hornby, 1934: 105-107; +Birket-Smith, 1936: 91; Hamilton, 1939: 244-247, 359; Murie, 1939: 244; +Clarke, 1940: 8-9, 11, 85-100; G. M. Allen, 1942: 298-299; Soper, +1942: 143; Downes, 1943: 215, 221, 224, 249, 250, 253-256, 260; Manning, +1943<i>a</i>: 52, and 1943<i>b</i>: 103; Porsild, 1943: 389; Soper, +1944: 248-249; Wright, 1944: 186, 190; Gavin, 1945: 227-228; R. M. +Anderson, 1947: 178, and 1948: 15; Manning, 1948: 26-28; Rand, +1948<i>a</i>: 212, and 1948<i>b</i>: 149; Banfield, 1949: 478, 481; +Harper, 1949: 226-230, 239-240; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 6, 9-12, +28, and 1951<i>b</i>: 120; Anonymous, 1952: 267; Barnett, 1954: 96, 103. +</blockquote> + + + + +<h3><a name = "distribution" id = "distribution"> +Summation of Geographical Distribution</a></h3> + + +<p>The localities from which hitherto unpublished notes on <i>Rangifer +arcticus arcticus</i> are presented in this paper include the following. +Keewatin: Nueltin, Windy, “Highway” (at source of Putahow River), and +Ennadai lakes; Little Dubawnt, Kazan, Red, Windy, Little, and Thlewiaza +rivers; between Eskimo Point and Baker Lake. Manitoba: Nueltin (southern +part), Nejanilini, Reindeer, and Split lakes; Seal River; Churchill; +Cape Churchill; “Little Barrens” south of Churchill; between Churchill +and Knife Lake; Caribou Creek, 25 miles south of Churchill. +Saskatchewan: small lakes southwest of Reindeer Lake; lakes south of +Lake Athabaska. Details +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page40" id = "page40">40</a></span> +as to occurrence and status in these localities are supplied on other +pages.</p> + +<p>The Caribou have been so thoroughly distributed over the +approximately 300,000 square miles of the mainland Barren Grounds +between Hudson Bay and the Mackenzie Valley that it is fairly safe to +say that there is scarcely one square mile in this vast territory that +has not been trod by the animals during the past century. See maps by +Preble (1908: pl. 19), Seton (1929, <b>3</b>: 60), Clarke (1940: figs. +3, 4), Banfield (1949: 479), and Anonymous (1952: 267).</p> + +<blockquote> +The appended annotated bibliography supplies, in abstract form, most of +the hitherto published information on the geographical distribution of +<i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i>. In its preparation I have included +records of Caribou from the Arctic islands north to Lancaster Sound, +Barrow Strait, Viscount Melville Sound, and McClure Strait—all +approximately in latitude 74° N. This has been done as a matter of +having a convenient, well-defined regional boundary, not with any +conviction that <i>arcticus</i> has ranged so far to the north in the +more westerly islands, especially in recent years, when it is said to +have become restricted to the southern fringe of the islands (Clarke, +1940: 98; R. M. Anderson, 1947: 178; Banfield, 1949: fig. 1). +The islands north of latitude 74° are doubtless the exclusive domain of +<i>Rangifer pearyi</i>. It is possible that this species may also occur +to some extent on Banks, Victoria, Prince of Wales, and Somerset +islands. The typical <i>R. a. arcticus</i>, as currently +recognized, ranges eastward to Baffin, Salisbury, Coats, and Southampton +islands and to the western shore of Hudson Bay. (The animals of the last +three islands may be distinct insular forms.) The southern limits of the +winter range in northwestern Ontario, central Manitoba, northern +Saskatchewan, and northeastern Alberta have been discussed in preceding +pages. On the west the range extends to the Mackenzie Delta (formerly), +Great Bear and Great Slave lakes, Wood Buffalo Park, and Lake Claire. +The timbered country (Hudsonian and Canadian Zones) is practically +entirely deserted by the Barren Ground Caribou in mid-summer. At this +season, in Keewatin at least, the animals tend to draw away also from +the southernmost portions of the Barren Grounds. +</blockquote> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Since practically every paper in the entire +bibliography presents some data on geographical distribution, only a +few, containing more than an average amount of new or summarized +information on the subject, have been selected for inclusion in the +following list of references: Hearne, 1795; Franklin, 1823; Lyon, 1824; +Franklin and Richardson, 1828; Simpson, 1843; Pike, 1917 (1892); +Russell, 1898; Preble, 1902; Hanbury, 1904; Amundsen, <ins class = +"correction" title = "text has : for ;">1908;</ins> Preble, 1908; +R. M. Anderson, in Stefánsson, 1913<i>b</i>; Stefánsson, +1913<i>a</i>, 1913<i>b</i>, and 1921; Hewitt, 1921; Jenness, 1922; +Rasmussen, 1927; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>; Blanchet, 1930; +Critchell-Bullock, 1930; Hoare, 1930; Jacobi, 1931; Clarke, 1940; +Manning, 1943<i>a</i>; Wright, 1944; R. M. Anderson, 1947; Manning, +1948; Banfield, 1949 and 1951<i>a</i>. +</blockquote> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>Distributional maps.</i>—Grant, 1903: map following p. 196; +Preble, 1908: pl. 19; Dugmore, 1913: 138; Hewitt, 1921: 57; Seton, 1929, +<b>3</b>: 60, map 2; Jacobi, 1931: 77, fig. 17; R. M. Anderson, +1934<i>b</i>: 4062, fig. 6; Murie, 1939: 241; Clarke, 1940: figs. +3, 4; Banfield, 1949: 479, fig. 1, and 1951<i>a</i>: figs. +4-10; Anonymous, 1952: 267. +</blockquote> + + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page41" id = "page41">41</a></span> +<h3><a name = "ecology" id = "ecology">Ecology</a></h3> + +<h4><a name = "eco_habitats" id = "eco_habitats"> +Habitats</a></h4> + +<p>Within their natural range the Caribou apparently resort to +practically every type of terrestrial and aquatic habitat (other than +cliffs and precipices). On the Barren Grounds proper they frequent the +open summits and slopes of the ridges, the dwarf birch thickets, the +sedge bogs, and the peat bogs. Their trails traverse all the upland +spruce and tamarack tracts, the wooded muskegs, and the willow thickets +along the rivers. In the summer and fall they swim the rivers and the +narrower lakes, and during the winter and spring they cross these on the +ice. They do not avoid rapids; in fact, they seek the shallower ones as +fords, and they swim the deeper ones (<i>cf.</i> Clarke, 1940: 88). They +also cross the tundra ponds on the ice, but probably walk around these +smaller bodies of water, as a rule, when they are not frozen. While they +may prefer to approach the river crossings over open slopes, they do not +hesitate to maintain trails through the dense thickets of willow on the +banks.</p> + +<p>The winter habitat of the major part of the Barren Ground Caribou +population comprises the Hudsonian and upper Canadian Zones. This +forested habitat is characterized by sparser and smaller timber in the +Hudsonian Zone and by denser and taller timber in the Canadian Zone. +Important among the features of this winter habitat are the frozen +surfaces of the lakes and rivers, where the Caribou are wont to +congregate for their daily periods of rest (<i>cf.</i> Mallet, 1926: 79; +Ingstad, 1933: 86).</p> + + +<h4><a name = "eco_trails" id = "eco_trails"> +Trails</a></h4> + +<p>The favorite migratory highways are the long, sinuous ridges that +stretch across the Barren Grounds in a sufficiently approximate +north-south direction to serve the needs of the Caribou. Here their +age-old trails are particularly in evidence and may even be detected +from the air. A single small ridge may bear half a dozen or more +such trails (<a href = "#fig1">fig. 1</a>), roughly parallel but +anastomosing at frequent intervals. They probably change but little from +generation to generation. They provide the smoothest courses available, +avoiding rocks and shrubs and traversing intervening bogs at the most +suitable points. The summits of the ridges constitute vantage points +from which the animals may keep a wide lookout for Wolves and human +enemies, and on which they may obtain the maximum benefit from +fly-deterring breezes. Man himself is glad to utilize these trails, +whether on the Barrens or in the timber tracts, wherever they +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page42" id = "page42">42</a></span> +lead in a direction he desires. They are kept open by the hurrying feet +of hundreds or thousands of Caribou every year.</p> + +<p>Along a well-used trail extending through low Barrens near Duck Bay, +I found a certain grass (<i>Agrostis scabra</i>) growing. +I did not recognize or collect it elsewhere during the season. Is +this perhaps like certain other species, such as <i>Juncus tenuis</i> +(<i>fide</i> Dr. Edgar T. Wherry) and <i>Eleocharis baldwinii</i>, in +curiously thriving on beaten paths?</p> + +<p>When the Caribou arrive at some lake or river, they generally follow +the shores for a greater or lesser distance, seeking either a way around +or a suitable crossing-place. The trails thus formed are generally on +the nearest ridges rather than on the immediate shores. Their direction, +as they conform to the winding shores, may diverge very widely from the +desired migratory course.</p> + +<p>In many parts of the Barren Grounds there must be as many as 10 +linear miles of caribou trails to every square mile of territory. Even +if there were only one mile of such trails to each square mile, the +total, on the Barrens of Keewatin and Mackenzie alone, would equal or +exceed all the railway mileage in the United States.</p> + +<p>In contrast to the narrow ridges, the broader hilltops in the Barrens +offer such freedom of movement to the Caribou that trails are much less +likely to be formed in such places, even when they are frequented by +large numbers of the animals. Thus I found the broad summit of Josie’s +Hill practically without well-defined trails, despite the regularity +with which many migrant bands resort thither. In feeding or traveling +over such an area, there is no occasion for restricting themselves to a +narrow course. In crossing from one ridge to another through an +intervening bog, the animals may leave numerous scattered and temporary +trails in the dense sedge growth to mark their passage (<a href = +"#fig13">fig. 13</a>). On the uniform surface of such a bog, as on the +broad hilltops, there is no need to confine their steps to any +particular course.</p> + +<p>It might be supposed that the Barren Ground Caribou would have some +reluctance in entering thickly wooded tracts, where Wolves naturally +have a much better chance of a close approach than on the open Barrens. +As already stated, however, their trails may be found more or less +throughout the spruce and tamarack growth in the Windy River area. One +of these tracts, covering probably several square miles on the west side +of Four-hill Creek, is fairly crisscrossed with trails. At deep dusk on +October 2, while several of us were skinning a Black Bear in this +thick timber, about +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page43" id = "page43">43</a></span> +five does and fawns trotted up quite close to us. Perhaps they were on +their way to the open Barrens to pass the night. While wintering in the +forested Hudsonian Zone, the animals may spend their nights as well as +their diurnal resting periods on the frozen lakes and rivers.</p> + +<p>Fred Schweder, Jr., says that Caribou are somewhat fearful of sand +hills or eskers, and that he has never seen one lying down in such a +place; he believes this is because the Wolves frequent the eskers in +summertime. On the other hand, Mr. G. W. Malaher spoke of a long +esker that extends down the west side of Nueltin Lake and far to the +southward; this, he said, forms a migration highway for the Caribou.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References on habitats and trails.</i>—J. B. Tyrrell, +1892: 129, and 1895: 445; W. J. McLean, 1901: 6; Blanchet, +1925: 33, and 1926<i>a</i>: 73, 96-97; Mallet, 1926: 79, 80; Seton, +1929, <b>3</b>: 100-102, 122, 127-128; Jacobi, 1931: 186-187; Ingstad, +1933: 86; Murie, 1939: 246; Manning, 1948: 26-28; Rand, 1948<i>a</i>: +212; Harper, 1949: 226, 228; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 3. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "eco_weather" id = "eco_weather"> +Influence of weather on distribution</a></h4> + +<p>In the section on <i>Migrations</i> the meteorological conditions in +1947 have been reported for any possible bearing they may have had on +the daily movements of the Caribou, particularly during the fall +migration. The temperature has an important effect on the activity of +the insect pests (see <i>Influence of insects on distribution</i>) and +thus, to a certain extent during summer and fall, on the behavior and +probably the distribution of the Caribou.</p> + +<p>Low winter temperatures on the Barren Grounds do not appear to be a +factor of prime importance in the seasonal distribution of <i>R. a. +arcticus</i>. “Some individuals and small herds remain in the northern +part of the range at all seasons” (R. M. Anderson, 1947: 178). +Peary’s Caribou (<i>R. pearyi</i>) inhabits the more northerly Arctic +islands throughout the year, without engaging in such extensive +migrations as its relative to the south.</p> + +<p>The forceful winds that blow over the Barren Grounds so much of the +time are of distinct benefit to the Caribou during the summer in abating +the very serious scourge of flies. If other things were equal (as they +are not), this factor alone would make the Barrens a more favorable +summer habitat than the forested country. (See <i>Retrograde autumnal +movement</i>.) Air movements of similar strength during the winter must, +through the wind-chill factor (<i>cf.</i> Siple and Passel, 1945), make +life so much the harder for any living being; on the other hand, they +tend to sweep the ridges bare of +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page44" id = "page44">44</a></span> +snow, thereby making readily available the Caribou’s principal winter +food of reindeer lichens (<i>Cladonia</i> spp.)</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Armstrong, 1857: 479; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: +192, 194-196; Hoare, 1930: 33; Jacobi, 1931: 193, 195; Clarke, 1940: 96, +99; Banfield, <ins class = "correction" title = "‘a’ printed in plain (non-italic) type">1951<i>a</i></ins>: 27-29. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "eco_food" id = "eco_food"> +Influence of food supply on distribution</a></h4> + +<p>The strong winter winds on the Barrens affect the Caribou in still +another way. While they pack the snow so firmly that man may dispense +with snowshoes, this condition naturally increases the difficulty that +the Caribou experience in pawing through the snow to reach the lichens +that are covered by it. The limited grazing capacity of such areas as +are laid bare by the wind may force a reduction in the wintering +population. Although the snow in the timbered regions to the south +covers virtually the whole surface of the land, it is evidently less +compact and so offers more favorable feeding conditions than the areas +of hard-packed snow on the Barrens. (Charles Schweder states that Willow +Ptarmigan will fly out of the Barrens to spend the night in tracts of +timber, where the snow is softer and thus more suitable for the +nocturnal burrows of these birds.)</p> + +<p>Another apparent inducement for resorting to the tracts of timber in +winter is the abundance there of tree lichens, such as <i>Alectoria</i> +and <i>Usnea</i> (<i>cf.</i> Richardson, 1829: 243; J. B. Tyrrell, +<ins class = "correction" title = "text has ; for :">1894:</ins> 441; +Dix, 1951: 287), upon which the Caribou may feed without regard to snow +conditions. (See also <a href = "#mig_retro"><i>Retrograde autumnal +movement</i></a>.)</p> + +<p>Reindeer lichens (<i>Cladonia</i> spp.) and doubtless other lichens +are of such slow growth that forest fires may deprive the Caribou of +this indispensable food for a period of years. According to Mr. +G. W. Malaher, the recent burning of a large area north of The Pas +may have deflected the animals toward the southeast, causing them to +extend their migration to an abnormal distance in that direction. For a +similar reason in years past, according to Pike (1917 [1892]: 50), they +avoided “great stretches of the country” near the Mackenzie River, and +also on the south side of Great Slave Lake. A quarter of a century +after Pike’s time, Dogribs reported that Caribou had not come to the +lower Taltson River for several years, “because the timber had been +burned off” (Harper, 1932: 30). Some years ago, extensive fires in +Manitoba were said to have been deliberately set by prospectors with the +aim of exposing the underlying rock.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page45" id = "page45">45</a></span> +<p>Charles Schweder believes that the Caribou show a certain +predilection for rocky places, owing to the more luxuriant growth of +lichens there.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Richardson, “1825”: 328-329; Bompas, 1888: 24; +Pike, 1917 (1892): 50; Wheeler, 1914: 60; Blanchet, 1930: 52; Jacobi, +1931: 192, 194, 195; Harper, 1932: 30; Ingstad, 1933: 34, 161, 163; +Hornby, 1934: 105; R. M. Anderson, 1938: 400; Clarke, 1940: 100, +106-107; G. M. Allen, 1942: 299; Downes, 1943: 261; Porsild, 1943: +389; Wright, 1944: 186; R. M. Anderson, 1948: 15; Banfield, +1951<i>a</i>: 5, 11, 27-29. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "eco_insects" id = "eco_insects"> +Influence of insects on distribution</a></h4> + +<p>It is quite possible that the blood-sucking mosquitoes (<i>Aedes</i>) +and black flies (<i>Simulium</i>) and the parasitic warble flies +(<i>Oedemagena</i>) and nostril flies (<i>Cephenemyia</i>) have a +definite and important influence on the extent and dates of caribou +migration.</p> + +<p>As far as I am able to judge from my own experience, mosquitoes are +more or less equally numerous and ferocious in the Canadian, the +Hudsonian, and the Arctic Zones of the Northwest. Naturally the season +begins earlier in the more southerly localities. In two seasons (1914, +1920) at the western end of Lake Athabaska they began to be troublesome +about the middle of June, whereas at Nueltin Lake this stage was reached +about the first of July. In the Athabaska and Great Slave lakes region +(Canadian and Hudsonian Zones) I have never had occasion to regard +black flies as serious in respect to either numbers or ferocity; but +there is universal agreement that conditions are vastly different and +worse on the Barren Grounds. At Nueltin Lake the <i>Simulium</i> hordes +become troublesome at approximately the same time as the mosquitoes. +Toward the end of August there is a merciful diminution in the numbers +of both mosquitoes and black flies on the Barrens, and after the first +of September they may be practically disregarded, except on an +occasional day of unseasonable warmth.</p> + +<p>It may be remarked in passing that one of the insect terrors of the +Athabaska region, the so-called “bulldog” (a species of Tabanidae), +did not come to my attention as a pest at Nueltin Lake though I +collected two species of <i>Tabanus</i>. Malloch (1919), in reporting on +the Diptera of the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 1913-18, does not +include a single species of Tabanidae. On the other hand, Twinn (1950: +18) states that 17 species have been found at Churchill; he refers to +tabanids as “very abundant in forested regions of the North.” The +“bulldog” may be presumed to contribute to the summer misery of the +Woodland Caribou and the Moose as well as of man.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page46" id = "page46">46</a></span> +<p>The season during which the adult warble flies and nostril flies +harass the Caribou probably lasts only a few weeks in July and August. +While the adults evidently cause no pain, they no doubt arouse an +instinctive dread in the prospective hosts of their larvae. While I have +no information as to whether they follow the hosts into the wooded +country, it would appear quite likely that they do so if we are to +credit statements by Franklin (1823: 242), Richardson (1829: 251), and +B. R. Ross (1861: 438) that these pests infest the Woodland Caribou +as well as the Barren Ground species. Furthermore, <i>Cephenemyia</i> +has been reported in Pennsylvania as a parasite of the White-tailed Deer +(<i>Odocoileus</i>) (Stewart, 1930?). The scarcity of available study +material may be judged from the fact that the Canadian Arctic Expedition +of 1913-18 secured only three adults of <i>Oedemagena</i> and none of +<i>Cephenemyia</i> (Malloch, 1919: 55-56).</p> + +<p>From the foregoing it may be seen that the wooded country represents +a virtually fly-free haven for the Barren Ground Caribou during nearly +ten months of the year. Is it any wonder, then, that they hasten +throughout August toward or into the shelter of the woods, to gain +freedom from the winged scourges of the Barrens? (See also <a href = +"#mig_retro"><i>Retrograde autumnal movement</i></a>.)</p> + +<p>In the spring migration of 1947 the last of the Caribou passed the +Windy River area on July 1, just before the mosquitoes and black +flies had become seriously troublesome. It might be surmised that the +animals keep marching northward in advance of the appearance of these +flies, as long as that is feasible; and that when fairly overwhelmed by +the winged hordes, they desist from further progress in that direction. +The fawns are born at such a time (in late May or June) as to pass their +first few tender weeks before becoming subject to serious insect +attacks.</p> + +<p>(See also <a href = "#mig_retro"><i>Retrograde autumnal +movement</i></a>; <a href = "#eco_flies"><i>Relations to +flies</i></a>.)</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Richardson, “1825”: 328-329; Hoare, 1930: 33, +37-38; Jacobi, 1931: 193-195; Soper, 1936: 429; Hamilton, 1939: 247, +301; Clarke, 1940: 95-96; Porsild, 1943: 389; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: +27-29. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "eco_combined" id = "eco_combined"> +Effect of combined environmental factors on distribution</a></h4> + +<p>The sum total of environmental factors apparently makes the Barren +Grounds a distinctly more favorable summer habitat for the present +species than the wooded country, since the latter region is virtually +entirely deserted at that season. In general, the wooded country must be +a more favorable winter habitat, since the bulk of the animals evidently +resort to it at that time; yet its advantages +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page47" id = "page47">47</a></span> +are by no means clear-cut or overwhelming, since a very considerable +proportion of the Caribou elect to spend the winter on the Barrens +(Hanbury, 1904: 93, 120, 139; Hoare, 1930: <ins class = "correction" +title = "text has , for ;">22;</ins> Clarke, 1940: 8-9, 11, fig. 4; +Anonymous, 1952: 267).</p> + + +<h4><a name = "eco_man" id = "eco_man"> +Relations to man</a></h4> + +<p>The Caribou dominates the thoughts, the speech, and the general human +activities of the Barren Grounds. As the chief food resource of that +region and the adjacent timbered country, it plays a highly important +role in the economy of both primitive and civilized man. As long as +those regions were occupied only by native Eskimos and Indians, +employing such primitive weapons as bows and spears, the species was in +no danger. Its vast numbers were maintained steadily from generation to +generation, and were perhaps limited only by the grazing or browsing +capacity of their range.</p> + +<p>With the advent of civilized man and the placing of firearms in the +hands of the natives, the situation has deteriorated at a rate that +becomes accelerated with the passage of time. If it had not been for the +encroachment of civilization and the introduction of its instruments of +destruction, the natives would have been assured of a proper meat supply +for an indefinite period. Here and there some of them would miss a +caribou migration and starve to death; yet the animals have been so +generally available that many of the natives even today lack the +foresight to put up an adequate supply of fish as an alternative winter +food.</p> + +<p>Almost everywhere the annual slaughter is both excessive and +wasteful. Few inhabitants of the North, whether native or white, stay +their hands while Caribou are present and ammunition is available. There +is undue reliance on a continuation of past abundance, and an +indifference to the welfare or rights of posterity. The whole culture of +the inland Eskimos and the northern Indians (the Caribou-eater +Chipewyans in particular) is so thoroughly based upon Caribou that the +decimation of these animals would mean a fundamental modification or +virtual extermination of their culture.</p> + +<p>The average trapper of the Barren Grounds apparently aims at killing +annually at least 100 Caribou. Only a small portion is required to feed +himself and his family. The rest is designed for use as fox bait and dog +feed. In September he goes over his trap-line, perhaps 100 miles long, +and endeavors to kill Caribou at convenient intervals throughout its +length. (In October, 1944, a single trapper killed 90 during two +days of a big movement.) The animals are left +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page48" id = "page48">48</a></span> +where they fall. Presently spells of warm weather may render the meat +unsuitable for any one with more fastidious tastes than a hardy man of +the Barrens. In any event, the beasts of the field evidently get the +lion’s share, even when the trapper endeavors to cover the carcasses +with rocks or spruces. Bears, Wolves, Foxes, Weasels, Wolverines, +Lemmings, Rough-legged Hawks, Ravens, and Canada Jays help themselves to +the free feast. Bears in particular are likely to consume the whole +carcass; in the autumns of 1944 and 1947 they thus disposed of about 70 +and 40 caribou bodies, respectively, within a few miles of the Windy +River post. If the season turns out to be a particularly poor one for +Arctic Foxes, the trapper may abandon his trap-line for that winter, and +dozens or scores of Caribou will have been sacrificed in vain.</p> + +<p>Fish, which are available in abundance nearly everywhere, would serve +well enough for both fox bait and dog feed. But the average trapper +prefers to secure Caribou—a less laborious matter than putting up +a winter’s supply of fish; at the same time he may admit that fish are +easier to handle in feeding and are preferable from that point of view. +Charles Schweder has rarely found Caribou along his trap-line between +the upper Kazan River and Dubawnt Lake. By using fish (out of the Little +Dubawnt River) for fox bait, he avoids the necessity of making an early +fall trip over that long distance to secure Caribou for his winter +operations. A trapper from northern Manitoba informed me that the +local Indians were complying with a recent government regulation that +each owner must put up a certain number of fish for the consumption of +his dogs—but, they were still feeding them with Caribou. The Split +Lake band of Indians on the Nelson River, Manitoba, were reported to +have killed 4,000 of the animals during the winter of 1946-47; the +greater part of these were utilized ingloriously as dog feed.</p> + +<p>The hunting of such an extraordinarily unwary animal as the Barren +Ground Caribou calls for extremely little skill. Scarcely anything more +is required of the hunter (at least in southwestern Keewatin) than to +place himself on their line of march and to await their arrival. No +concealment is necessary, but quick movements are to be avoided, and the +direction of the wind should be such that it will not carry the dread +human scent to the animals. Even in perfectly open terrain one may +generally walk slowly up to within shooting distance of resting Caribou. +But if they are on the march and have already gone past, the hunter may +not succeed in getting +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page49" id = "page49">49</a></span> +close to them. Pursuing them on the run is likely to send them off in a +panic. (There is some evidence that on the Arctic Coast and in the +Barren Grounds of Mackenzie, where hunters are probably more numerous +than in southwestern Keewatin, the Caribou are usually much more +wary—<i>cf.</i> Amundsen, 1908, <b>1</b>: 103; Stefánsson, +1913<i>b</i>: 278; Blanchet, 1925: 34; Ingstad, 1933: 88.) In the +section on <i>Disposition</i> the destruction of about a quarter of a +herd of 100 or more by a single hunter is described. On September 9 an +Eskimo boy killed 13. On November 3 eight out of a herd of 50 were +secured by another hunter in a few minutes’ time. During the autumn +migration of 1947 one of the Eskimos on the upper Kazan had killed 85 +before the end of September. This band of Eskimos is said to have once +slaughtered 500 animals, half of them in the river, where they did not +even bother to pull them out; they had killed for the sheer delight of +killing rather than for utilization. It is customary for them to spear +more animals than they shoot. A trader’s family in the Nueltin Lake +region used to kill 500 Caribou per year for their own use and for their +23 dogs. In one instance a number of Caribou were shot from across a +river; several hours elapsed before a canoe became available, and by +that time the bodies were frozen so stiff that no attempt was made to +use them. It was reported that tractor crews operating between Reindeer +Lake and Flin Flon brought out many hind quarters to sell illegally at +the latter point, leaving other parts of the bodies along the way. In +the winter of 1944-45 Nueltin Lake was said to have been covered with +the bodies of Caribou that the Chipewyans had shot for “fun” and had +neglected to utilize. It was also reported that in May, 1947, there were +many neglected bodies in the vicinity of Duck Lake, the local Chipewyans +having killed the animals during the previous fall; meanwhile the spring +migration had commenced and was furnishing all the fresh meat +required.</p> + +<p>In the Windy River area nearly all the Caribou were secured with +rifles. A few, however, were speared by the Eskimo boy as they swam +across Windy Bay. The spears used here are manufactured articles of +iron, fitted to a wooden shaft.</p> + +<p>Katello, a Kazan River Eskimo, informed Charles Schweder that his +people used to construct snow-covered pits for the Caribou to fall into. +The present generation is considered too lazy to undertake such a task. +Although information is lacking in the present case, urine may have been +employed to entice the Caribou into these pits, as reported by Hanbury +(1904: 114-115, 123, fig.).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page50" id = "page50">50</a></span> +<p>A general deterioration of antler size in the Barren Ground Caribou +seems to constitute a case parallel with that of the European Red Deer +(<i>Cervus elaphus elaphus</i>). The reason is evidently the same in +each case—the long-continued selection by hunters of old males +with the best “heads.” Only the motive differs decidedly in each case: +the European hunter looks upon the antlers themselves as the main prize; +the Eskimo and the Indian are indifferent to these ornaments, but +realize that the bucks with great antlers provide the most meat and +<i>fat</i>. The bucks are said to become much fatter than the does. The +Eskimos are especially keen on getting the big bucks. According to +Charles Schweder, the old antlers left at the river crossings from +bygone days are superior in size to those of the present day. He himself +has never secured a set of antlers equal to one (<a href = "#fig25">fig. +25</a>) lying on the shore of Simons’ Lake; it may have been there for +20 or 30 years prior to 1947.</p> + +<p>From about mid-September to nearly mid-October the flesh is counted +upon as being in especially fine condition. In August, 1947, the animals +had scarcely any fat, but by the middle of September the roasts were +delicious. On October 8 the fresh strips of back fat from several bucks +weighed about 5 to 10 lbs. each. A good many of these strips were +put in a storehouse at Windy River for winter use. Charles Schweder +remarked on having seen such a piece of fat 3 inches thick. At the +rutting season, which commences about mid-October, the bucks become very +poor and thin. They neglect their feeding and do not have full stomachs, +as earlier in the season. Their fat becomes tinted with red, and the +flesh becomes so musky that even the dogs and the Wolves disdain it. +(See also the section on <a href = "#morph_fat"><i>Fat</i></a>.)</p> + +<p>In some cases, when a local Caribou is being dressed, a part of the +stomach is utilized as a receptacle into which the blood is dipped from +the body cavity with the hands, in Eskimo style. The blood goes into the +making of soup. The tripe also is relished. Once I found the children of +our camp boiling up a section of the aorta as a delicacy. The ribs are +commonly impaled on a stick thrust into the ground and roasted in front +of an open fire. Leg bones may be cracked to render the raw marrow +accessible; if they are cooked, the marrow may be blown out of the open +ends with the mouth. The Padleimiut consume much of the meat in the raw +state, and frequently wash it down with hot tea.</p> + +<p>Much needless wounding and suffering of the Caribou, as well as waste +of valuable resources, result from extensive use of such a +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page51" id = "page51">51</a></span> +small-calibred rifle as the .22. It may seem remarkable that such a +large animal should succumb at all to such a slight weapon; but it does +happen, usually after a number of shots. For example, an Eskimo boy +secured 13 Caribou in a single day with a .22. On the other hand, many +of the animals must get away from the hunter, only to die, after much +suffering, at a considerable distance, where they are not likely to be +recovered and utilized. The absolute outlawing of the use of the .22 on +such large game would seem to be in order.</p> + +<p>Once Charles Schweder shot a doe whose jaw had been broken by a +bullet. A piece of the bone had “grown into the tongue” but the jaw +was healed.</p> + +<p>At the Windy River post, in the latter part of summer, portions of +the caribou bodies are placed in the river not merely for refrigeration, +but for protection from blowflies. Such meat is used mainly for the +dogs. The Eskimos are said not to engage in this practice. Consequently, +some of the caribou bodies lying about their camps become masses of +maggots.</p> + +<p>On the last day of September I observed how Charles Schweder prepared +a fresh caribou body in the field and endeavored to protect it from +beasts and birds. First he cut off the head with his hunting-knife; then +the hind legs, which were severed very readily at the hip joint. Next he +opened the body cavity and pulled out the viscera, setting aside a mass +of fat (apparently the omentum). The hind legs were placed beneath the +body, and the head was thrust into the opening of the abdominal cavity, +as an obstacle to such scavengers as Herring Gulls, Rough-legged Hawks, +Canada Jays, Ravens, and Foxes (<i>cf.</i> Downes, 1943: 227, 228). The +skin was left on the body, and the whole was covered with small spruce +tops.</p> + +<p>An interesting device in the hunting of Caribou consists of “stone +men”<a class = "tag" name = "endtag1" id = "endtag1" href = +"#endnote1">A</a> (Harper, 1949: 231, fig.)<ins class = "correction" +title = "final . missing">. </ins>They are made of rocks, piled one upon +another in such a manner as to faintly suggest a human figure. “Moss” +(either moss or lichens) is added to some of them to enhance the human +appearance. A considerable number may be seen in the Windy River +area, where they are generally placed along the summits of the ridges. +Construction was probably begun many years ago by natives, and has been +continued by the present residents. When Caribou, in fleeing from a +hunter, catch sight of these “stone men,” they are likely to pause in +suspicion of the figures, and to be deflected from their chosen course. +This may give the hunter a chance to come within range of the animals. +The Kazan +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page52" id = "page52">52</a></span> +River Eskimos are said to use converging lines of such rock piles to +direct migrating Caribou to certain river-crossings, where the hunters +lie in wait for them. Occasionally a single pile is erected merely to +mark the spot where a caribou body is left until the hunter can return +with a dogteam to fetch the meat.</p> + +<p class = "mynote"> +<a name = "endnote1" id = "endnote1" href = "#endtag1">A.</a> +<i>Inuksuit</i> (sing. <i>inuksuk</i>).</p> + +<p>On first securing one of the animals, the hunter makes a practice of +cutting out the tongue and carrying it to camp in a pocket or a +game-bag. On a subsequent trip, if there is sufficient snow on the +ground, the meat is generally transported by dog sleigh or toboggan +(<i>cf.</i> Harper, 1949: 231, fig.). Occasionally a hunter will carry +it on his shoulder (<a href = "#fig4">fig. 4</a>) or in a pack.</p> + +<p>In all the Canadian North, as far as I am aware, the Windy River post +is virtually the only place where summer transpor­tation is +accomplished by dog-drawn travois (<a href = "#fig5">fig. 5</a>). +This device, consisting of two trailing poles, with a small platform +midway, is recognizable immediately by readers of Parkman’s <i>Oregon +Trail</i> (1849), where its use by Indians of our Western Plains is +mentioned again and again. The travois was introduced into this region +by the late Charles Planchek?, a Czech? trapper of somewhat +sinister repute, whose headquarters were at Putahow Lake. He was the +“Eskimo Charlie” of Downes (1943: 160-161, pl.). In years gone by he +took a travois with him on a visit to the Windy River area, and it was +thereupon copied and subsequently used regularly by the Schweder family. +Their Eskimo friends of the upper Kazan will occasionally borrow one, +but I am not aware that they have made any travois of their own. During +the summer the two younger boys of the Windy River post made a practice +of hauling in caribou meat from the surrounding Barrens by means of +travois.</p> + +<p>In the latter part of summer some small pieces of caribou meat were +occasionally laid on a stone for drying, in front of the door at the +post. Other pieces were said to have been hung up in the air for the +same purpose, without fire or smoke, out in the field where the animals +were killed. Apparently blowflies did not pay much attention to this +meat. No considerable quantity seemed to be preserved locally in this +way. Three Caribou-eater Chipewyans from the south end of Nueltin Lake, +who visited our camp in late October, were carrying dried meat with them +as travel rations and eating it without cooking.</p> + +<p>The larvae of the warble fly (<i>Oedemagena tarandi</i>), found +beneath the skin of the Caribou, are relished by the Eskimos, being +eaten apparently while alive and raw. The Eskimo boy of our +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page57" id = "page57">57</a></span> +camp continued this practice after his little sister had given it up. +Hearne (1795: 197) reported the Indians as eating the warbles in his +day.</p> + +<p>Only a small proportion of the hides of the locally killed Caribou +are preserved. A hide that would fetch only a dollar at Reindeer +Lake would not be worth transporting more than 250 miles from Nueltin +Lake. Hearne long ago (1795: 84) remarked on the remoteness of the +hunting grounds from the trading posts as a barrier to trade in the +skins; and this condition prevails to a large extent to the present day. +Thus only such hides as are required for domestic use are kept. Tanning, +while done by the Eskimos of the upper Kazan, is not undertaken by the +residents on Windy River. Here the task of drying the hides is left +mainly to the children of the camp. Most of them are pegged out on the +summit of a gravelly ridge, wooden pegs being driven with a rock through +slits in the edges of the skin (<a href = "#fig6">fig. 6</a>). Now +and then one is nailed to the outer wall of a log cabin (<a href = +"#fig18">fig. 18</a>).</p> + +<table class = "picture" summary = "two illustrations"> +<tr> +<td class = "illustration"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page56" id = "page56">56</a></span> +<a name = "fig15" id = "fig15"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig15.jpg" width = "217" height = "312" +alt = "see caption"></td> +<td class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig16" id = "fig16"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig16.jpg" width = "220" height = "313" +alt = "see caption"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 15.</span> Anoteelik in caribou-skin +clothing, holding a caribou spear. A buck on the skyline. Mouth of +Windy River, September 7, 1947.</td> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 16.</span> Katello, a Padleimiut Eskimo +from the upper Kazan River, in a coat (<i>attigi</i>) and boots +(<i>komik</i>) of caribou skin. Windy River, Oct. 6, 1947.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>One of the main uses of the hides is for winter clothing. The Windy +River residents have their garments made by Eskimo women of the upper +Kazan, whose tanning process leaves the fur intact. Early autumn hides, +with new, comparatively short fur, are the ones in demand. The season +for securing such hides is said to extend to mid-September. At that +season the larvae of the warble fly have not developed far enough to +have injured the hide appreciably. The long winter fur is much less +suitable for clothing. In moderately cold weather a single coat +(<i>attigi</i>), with the fur inside (<a href = "#fig16">fig. 16</a>), +is worn by the Eskimos. This coat, when made for a man, extends very +little farther downward at the rear than at the front; but a woman’s +coat is considerably longer at the rear. The bottom is generally +provided with a fringe consisting of small strips of caribou skin, +perhaps 4 inches long and 1/16 inch wide. In mid-winter another coat, +with the fur outside (<a href = "#fig15">fig. 15</a>), is slipped on +over the other. Both are provided with hoods. Trousers, with the fur +outside, are cut rather short at the bottom; some such material as rope +is passed around the waist, without belt loops, to hold the trousers up. +Boots (<i>komik</i>) of tanned caribou skin (<a href = "#fig16">fig. +16</a>), reaching nearly to the knees, with the fur inside, make +exceptionally warm footgear in winter. An extra piece is sewed on the +sole, with the fur outside, but the hairs soon wear off. The seams are +sewed with sinew. Another sort of boot, for summer use, is made of +untanned skin, without the fur, and is more or less waterproof. Mittens +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page58" id = "page58">58</a></span> +(<i>pahloot</i>) have the fur outside; the thumb piece, of a length +suitable for a short Eskimo thumb, does not properly fit a white +man.</p> + +<p>In the autumn of 1947 the migrating Caribou did not reach the +territory of the Chipewyans about the south end of Nueltin Lake till +about November 1—by which time the fur had grown so long that it +was not suitable for clothing. When I inquired of Charles Schweder how +these natives managed under such circumstances, he replied that nowadays +they use very little skin clothing—just manufactured clothing. +Certainly the latter type was being worn by three men of this tribe that +visited the Windy River post in late October. In this connection it is +interesting to note that in November Charles brought to Windy River a +bundle of fawn skins that he had secured from an Eskimo on the upper +Kazan. Presently he traded them to a Cree halfbreed from the Putahow +River, who was to have them made into a coat for himself. In years gone +by the above-mentioned Chipewyans must have found some means of securing +caribou skins for themselves in August or September; they could have +accomplished this by moving to the northern part of Nueltin Lake, +provided the animals had not reached the southern part at the proper +season.</p> + +<p>From Charles Schweder I learned that the Hudson’s Bay Company +acquires caribou skins (apparently tanned) from the Duck Lake Chipewyans +at about a dollar apiece, puts them up in bales of perhaps 10 to 20 +skins, and ships them by steamer from Churchill to Baffin Island or +thereabouts, for use by the Eskimos. He had seen about 25 or 30 such +bales being loaded on a steamer in September, 1947. This trade evidently +results from the present scarcity of Caribou on Baffin Island +(<i>cf.</i> Manning, 1943<i>a</i>: 47-50; Soper, 1944: 247-250; +Banfield, 1949: 481). Moccasins of caribou skin, made by the Duck Lake +Chipewyans, were on sale at Churchill.</p> + +<p>The three Caribou-eater Chipewyans from the south end of Nueltin Lake +brought mittens, gloves, and moccasins of caribou skin to trade at Windy +River. Similar gloves were brought by a Cree halfbreed from the Putahow +River.</p> + +<p>At the Windy River post furred caribou skins served in upholstering +the seat, back, and arms of a couple of home-made chairs. They were used +also as mattresses or blankets, in the making of sleeping bags, and even +as insulating material on the outside of the cabin (Harper, 1949: 226, +228, figs.). The Schweder boys also maintain tents of caribou skin at +various points on their long trap-lines; they are much warmer than +canvas tents, and require no outlay +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page59" id = "page59">59</a></span> +of cash. The skins are nailed on poles arranged in tepee form; the +height of such a tent is about 10 feet, and the diameter 9 or 10 feet. +There is a home-made stove inside, with the smoke-pipe projecting +outside about halfway to the top of the tent.</p> + +<p>The Eskimos of the Kazan River have large summer tents of caribou +skin, and smaller ones of canvas. The former are the ones in which the +drum dances are held. These Eskimos never make their winter houses +wholly of snow, according to Charles Schweder, but use caribou skins for +the roof.</p> + +<p>In illustration of the primary importance of the Caribou to both +primitive and civilized man in the Arctic and the sub-Arctic, the +numerous cases of partial or complete starvation in the absence of +Caribou may be cited. The chronicles of northern explorers are replete +with them. A notable case is that of John Hornby and his two +companions on the Thelon River in the winter of 1926-27 (Hoare, 1930: +25; Christian, 1937). In the autumn of 1946 only a small fraction of the +normal caribou migration passed by the Eskimo camps on the upper Kazan +River. These happy-go-lucky, utterly improvident people did not take +steps to secure an alternative winter’s supply of fish, and by the +following spring eight out of the band of 27 persons had succumbed +directly or indirectly to starvation. (It is suspected that several were +accounted for by anthropophagy.) Women, children, and dogs were the +victims; no adult male succumbed. The casualties would doubtless have +been more numerous if Charles Schweder had not reported the plight of +the band when he made a trip to Reindeer Lake in March. Thereupon the +government shipped emergency rations by plane as far as Nueltin Lake, +and Charles transported them from that point by sleigh to the Kazan. +Meanwhile he rescued two of the orphan children, took them to the Windy +River post, and in a few more months formally adopted them.</p> + + +<h4><a name = "eco_ethno" id = "eco_ethno"> +Ethnological material from caribou products</a></h4> + +<p>In addition to the utilization of caribou products for the primary +purposes of food, clothing, and shelter, as discussed in preceding +pages, certain other uses of an ethnological nature may be mentioned +here.</p> + +<p>Charles Schweder spoke of the former Eskimo use of splint bones from +the legs of Caribou as needles, after a hole had been drilled or burned +through the larger end. They are about the same length as a large +darning needle. These people commonly +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page60" id = "page60">60</a></span> +use the back sinew as thread or as wrapping on tools, drums, and the +like. I saw a piece of back sinew being dried for future use at the +Windy River post.</p> + +<p>Either lard or caribou fat serves as fuel for an “Eskimo candle”; the +wick is a bit of rag or moss. The heat of the flame melts the fat where +it is spread out in some small receptacle like a can cover. When our +other means of illumination gave out at the Windy River post, +I worked or wrote notes for many hours by the light of one of these +candles. It gives approximately as much illumination as an ordinary +tallow candle. One disadvantage of using caribou fat for this purpose is +the considerable amount of smoke that it produces.</p> + +<p>The Eskimos make odd use of an antler as a brake for a sleigh, to +prevent the harnessed dogs from running after any Caribou they may +sight; on other occasions it retards the sleigh in descending a hill. +Such an antler, that I found at the Windy River post, is notched near +the base; a rope or thong, 2 or 3 feet in length, is fastened +at one end to this notch, and at the other to the side of the sleigh. To +apply the brake, the driver simply presses down the points of the antler +into the snow or ice.</p> + +<p>The drums used in the ceremonial dances of the Kazan River Eskimos +are made of a piece of caribou skin stretched tightly over a circular +frame of spruce and fastened in place with caribou sinew. They are about +3 feet in diameter.</p> + +<p>In an Eskimo fish spear from the upper Kazan River an iron barb on +one of the prongs is supported by a small piece of caribou antler and +fastened with back sinew. The two large lateral prongs, of metal, are +tied to the wooden shaft of the spear with braided sinew.</p> + +<p>Two snow-knives have handles of antler, about 10 and 11 inches in +length. One of the handles has been planed down, and is wrapped with +sinew.</p> + +<p>The handle of another implement, used in cleaning out grains of wood +from a hole being drilled in wood, is also a piece of antler.</p> + +<p>A woman’s knife, or <i>ooloo</i>, has a section of antler for a +handle.</p> + +<p>Strands of beads, used either for an ear pendant or for ornaments at +the peak of a hood, have a caribou incisor fastened at the tip. The +opposite end of the pendant is provided with a thin strip of caribou +hide for fastening to a perforated ear lobe.</p> + +<p>The willow stems of pipes are wrapped with back sinew.</p> + +<p>Antler and sinew went into the making (by Anoteelik) of a “ring and +pin” game.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page61" id = "page61">61</a></span> +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References on relations to Eskimos and Indians.</i>—Isham, 1949 +(1743): 152-154; Dobbs, 1744: 19; Hearne, 1795: 35, 78, 80-84, 96, 119, +195-197, 297, 316-319, 321-325; Franklin, 1823: 243-244; Lyon, 1824: +119, 123, 130, 144, 198, 229, 238, 241, 282, 311-317, 324, 327, 336; +Parry, 1824: 289, 380, 403, 494-497, 505, 508, 512, 537; Richardson, +“1825”: 330, 331; Franklin and Richardson, 1828: 200, 275; Richardson, +1829: 242-244, 245-249; John Ross, 1835<i>a</i>: 243-244, 252, 352, 512, +537; J. C. Ross, in John Ross, 1835<i>b</i>: xvii; Richardson, in +Back, 1836: 499; Simpson, 1843: 76, 208, 312, 347, 355; J. McLean, 1932 +(1849): 195, 359; Richardson, 1852: 290; J. Anderson, 1856: 24, and +1857: 321; Armstrong, 1857: 149, 154, 155, 166, 194; M’Clintock, 1860?: +212; Richardson, 1861: 274; B. R. Ross, 1861: 439-440; Kennicott, +in Anonymous, 1869: 170; Kumlien, 1879: 19, 23-25, 36-37, 54; Caton, +1881: 366-371; Gilder, 1881: 11, 23, 25, 26, 28, 43, 50, 59, 61, 64, 67, +71, 137-146, 154, 245-255; Nourse, 1884: 220, 232; Schwatka, 1885: +59-86; Boas, 1888: 419, 429, 461-462, 501-503, 508-509, 522, 555-560; +Bompas, 1888: 61, 100; Collinson, 1889: 277; MacFarlane, 1890: 32-34, +38; Pike, 1917 (1892): 51-56, 59-60, 82, 209; J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: +128-130; Dowling, 1893: 107; J. B. Tyrrell, 1894: 445, 1895: +440-444, and 1897: 122, 126-127, 131-132, 151, 166-167; Russell, 1895: +49-51, and 1898: 91, 134, 168-172, 176, 178, 187-189, 227-229; Whitney, +1896: 161, 175, 176, 213, 237, 240, 242, 262; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 +(1898): 80-81, 123-141, 241; Jones, 1899: 342, 429; Hanbury, 1900: 64, +65; J. M. Bell, 1901<i>a</i>: 16, and 1901<i>b</i>: 252, 255, 258; +Boas, 1901: 52, 54, 81, 102, 107, and 1907: 465, 493, 501; W. J. +McLean, 1901: 5; Elliot, 1902: 276-279; J. W. Tyrrell, 1924 <ins +class = "correction" title = "text has ; for :">(1902):</ins> 28, 37; +Hanbury, 1904: 41, 43, 67, 70, 72, 75, 82, 114-115, 120, 121, 123, 137, +143; MacFarlane, 1905: 680-683; Amundsen, 1908, <b>1</b>: 120, 201, 237, +326-329, and <b>2</b>: 110; Preble, 1908: 137; Seton, 1911: 259-262; +Cameron, 1912: 127, 309; Wheeler, 1912: 199-200; R. M. Anderson, +1913<i>a</i>: 5, 6, 8, and 1913<i>b</i>: 502-505; <ins class = +"correction" title = "text has ‘Stefansson’">Stefánsson</ins>, +1913<i>a</i>: 105, and 1913<i>b</i>: 203, 215, 221, 281, 337-338, and +1914: 48, 56-59, 97, 137, 139-141, 147-148, 150, 296, 353; Hornaday, +1914, <b>2</b>: 97, 100; Wheeler, 1914: 52, 56, 58; Nelson, 1916: +460-461; Thompson, 1916: 19, 99; J. B. Tyrrell, in Thompson, 1916: +16; Buchanan, 1920: 113-151; R. M. Anderson, in Stefánsson, 1921: +743, 750; Hewitt, 1921: 58, 59, 64-66; Stefánsson, 1921: 401-402; +Jenness, 1922: 47, 48, 61, 78-81, 97, 100-103, 124, 127-142, 148-151, +182-189, 244, 248, 249; Blanchet, 1925: 34, 1926<i>a</i>: 98, and +1926<i>b</i>: 47; Preble, 1926: 121; Craig, 1927: 22; Henderson, 1927: +40; Rasmussen, 1927: 5, 23, 59-60, 65, 67, 68, 73-76, 103-106, 145, +166-167, 245, 246; Anthony, 1928: 532; Kindle, 1928: 72-73; +Birket-Smith, 1929 <ins class = "correction" title = "text has ; for :">(1):</ins> 9, 47, 52-53, 56, 57, 86, 89, 90, 94, 96, 98, 101, 102, +104, 106-112, 133-144, 171, 186, 191, 196, 199-223, 232, 239-251, 262, +263, 268-271; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 111-122, 133-134; Blanchet, 1930: +50-51, 53; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193, and 1931: 32-33; Kitto, 1930: +87-88, 90; Mallet, 1930: 13, 32, 85, 87, 89, 90, 92, 95, 102, 116, +131-140; Jacobi, 1931: 156, 157, 159; Harper, 1932: 30, <ins class = +"correction" title = "text has , for ;">31;</ins> Jenness, 1932: 47, 48, +51, 58, 59, 75, 406-408, 411, 412, 414, 415; Munn, 1932: 191-192, 210, +214, 255, 271, 278; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 80-83, 86-87; Weyer, +1932: 38, 39; Birket-Smith, 1933: 100; Ingstad, 1933: 118, 122, 135, +139, 162-163, 167, 186-187, 247, 253-254, 257-259; R. M. Anderson, +1934<i>a</i>: 81, and 1937: 103; Godsell, 1934: 273-276, and 1937: 288; +Hornby, 1934: 105; Birket-Smith, 1936: 90, 91, 110, 111, 115-116; +Hamilton, 1939: 246, 352, 359; Clarke, 1940: 5-9, 84, 110, <ins class = +"correction" title = "text has , for ;">112;</ins> G. M. Allen, +1942: 297; Manning, 1942: 29, 1943<i>a</i>: 47, 50, and 1943<i>b</i>: +103; Downes, 1943: 215, 227-228, 261-262; Soper, 1944: 248-250; Wright, +1944: 185, 187, 188, 193; Rand, 1948<i>b</i>: 149; Yule, 1948: 288; +Banfield, 1949: 477, 478, 481, and 1951<i>a</i>: 1, 11, 14-15, +42-50; Harper, 1949: 226, 230, 231; Hoffman, 1949: 12; Polunin, 1949: +230; Scott, 1951: 127; Anonymous, 1952: 264. +</blockquote> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References on relations to civilized man.</i>—Kennicott, in +Anonymous, <ins class = "correction" title = "text has ; for :">1869:</ins> 166; Schwatka, 1885: 59-86; A. J. Stone, 1900: 57; +Grant, 1903: 186; Cameron, 1912: 309; R. M. Anderson, 1913<i>a</i>: +5, <ins class = "correction" title = "text has , for ;">6;</ins> +1913<i>b</i>: 504, and 1938: 400; Stefánsson, 1913<i>b</i>: 27; +Hornaday, 1914, <b>2</b>: 100; Wheeler, 1914: 56; Hewitt, 1921: 11-12, +59; Critchell-Bullock, 1931: 33; Godsell, 1937: 288; G. M. Allen, +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page62" id = "page62">62</a></span> +1942: 298-299; Manning, 1942: 28; [U.S.] War Department, 1944: 77; +Harper, 1949: 239; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 1, 14-15. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "eco_bears" id = "eco_bears"> +Relations to Black Bears</a></h4> + +<p>It is hardly to be expected that Black Bears (<i>Ursus americanus</i> +subsp.) commit any depredations on adult, able-bodied Caribou unless +under very exceptional circumstances. Since they do not normally venture +to an appreciable distance into the Barren Grounds, their contacts with +Caribou are mainly in the forested zone. For an untold period in the +past there has been a very interesting tripartite relationship between +Bears, Caribou, and Caribou-eater Chipewyans about the south end of +Nueltin Lake. For information concerning it I am indebted to Charles +Schweder. The Indians of that area have been in the habit of killing +large numbers of Caribou, especially on the spring and fall migrations, +and leaving many of the bodies, or parts of the bodies, out in the +“bush.” The Bears have become accustomed to taking advantage of the +situation, especially, perhaps, in the matter of fattening up for +hibernation. This probably resulted in a certain concentration of the +animals thereabouts. But of late years the local native population has +seriously declined by reason of fatal illness and removal to other +parts. Consequently, as Charles Schweder expressed it, there are no +longer enough people there to feed the Bears! Three of the Chipewyans +reported in late October, 1947, that they had lost a good many of their +Caribou to the Bears during that season.</p> + +<p>This recent change in the food situation about the south end of +Nueltin Lake has apparently resulted in, or at least coincided with, an +influx of Bears in the Windy River area, where they were unknown until +1944. During the next four years seven Bears were killed locally. The +animals are said to have consumed about 70 Caribou bodies in the fall of +1944, and about 40 in the fall of 1947 within a few miles of the Windy +River post; thus they became a somewhat serious factor in the human +economy of the area. The Caribou is evidently the chief loser in this +curious relationship, but even the Bear, which may be regarded as the +chief beneficiary, suffers from man’s retaliatory efforts.</p> + + +<h4><a name = "eco_foxes" id = "eco_foxes"> +Relations to foxes</a></h4> + +<p>The demand for Arctic Fox furs on the part of the fashionable women +of the world sends the trapper on his winter rounds over the bleak and +bitter Barren Grounds, where he depends upon his autumn kill of Caribou +for sustenance for himself and his dogs as +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page63" id = "page63">63</a></span> +well as for fox bait. It is thus quite obvious where a large share of +the respon­sibility for the dwindling numbers of the Caribou +lies.</p> + +<p>Both Arctic and Red Foxes (<i>Alopex lagopus innuitus</i> and +<i>Vulpes fulva</i> subsp.) are among the scavengers that help to +consume caribou bodies that are left unguarded in the wilds. According +to Charles Schweder, foxes of both species seem to follow the Wolves, +presumably in the hope of securing the leavings of their kills.</p> + +<p>Charles also gave me an account of a remarkable sort of play between +a Red Fox and a small buck Caribou. He had witnessed it in September, +1943, about 18 miles north of Windy River, from a distance of half a +mile. The Fox would approach the Caribou closely; the latter would then +walk up to the Fox, which would retreat, not allowing the Caribou to +come close enough to touch it. Neither animal was afraid of the other. +They kept up this performance for about 5 minutes. The Fox then went +among some bushes, where the Caribou tried to follow it. The larger +animal was still there, feeding, when Charles passed on out of sight. He +regarded the whole performance as a matter of playfulness. His recital +put me in mind at once of a slightly similar play between a Newfoundland +Caribou and a Red Fox, as recorded by Millais (1907: 302-303). +Stefánsson (1921: 623-624) describes a game of tag between an Arctic Fox +and several yearlings of <i>Rangifer pearyi</i> on Melville Island.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Blanchet, 1925: 34; Birket-Smith, 1929(1): 101; +Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 143; Munn, 1932: 278; Ingstad, 1933: 90, +157-159; Freuchen, 1935: 128; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 36. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "eco_wolves" id = "eco_wolves"> +Relations to Wolves</a></h4> + +<p>Aside from man, the principal predatory enemy of the Barren Ground +Caribou is undoubtedly the Wolf. A comparison of a +distri­butional map of Caribou by Banfield (1949: 479, fig. 1) +with a distri­butional map of Wolves by Goldman (1944: 414, fig. 14) +indicates that the latter species is a considerably more plastic animal. +No less than six subspecies of Wolves seem to occur in parts of the +currently recognized range of a single subspecies of Caribou +(<i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i>), as follows: <i>Canis lupus +arctos</i>, Prince of Wales and Somerset islands; <i>Canis lupus +manningi</i>, Baffin Island; <i>Canis lupus bernardi</i>, Victoria +Island; <i>Canis lupus hudsonicus</i>, Keewatin, eastern Mackenzie, +northern Manitoba, and northeastern Saskatchewan; <i>Canis lupus +mackenzii</i>, northern Mackenzie; <i>Canis lupus occidentalis</i>, +southern Mackenzie and northern Alberta and Saskatchewan.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page64" id = "page64">64</a></span> +<p>The Keewatin Tundra Wolf (<i>C. l. hudsonicus</i>) is presumably the +only one that concerns us here. However, its extension into the forested +zone of northern Manitoba and northeastern Saskatchewan, as indicated on +Goldman’s map, is still problematical. Goldman’s text (1944: 428-429) is +quite indefinite on this point. There are such distinct differences +between the general fauna of the Arctic Zone and that of the Hudsonian +Zone that the Wolf of the latter zone may well prove to be +differen­tiable from <i>hudsonicus</i>, whose type locality is at +Schultz Lake in west central Keewatin. It is an interesting question +whether any Wolves of the Barren Grounds follow the Caribou southward +into the timbered country in the fall; likewise, whether any individual +Wolves of the latter region accompany the Caribou on their spring +migration out into the Barrens. Little light on the subject seems +available at present. There is no doubt, however, that a good many +Wolves remain during the winter on parts of the Barren Grounds that have +been deserted by the Caribou at that season. Furthermore, at the time of +the spring migration, mature Wolves of the forest zone would be +restricted to their home territory by the necessity of caring for their +young ones.</p> + +<p>A Wolf is by no means able to capture a Caribou at will. During the +season of open water the latter may effect a ready escape by plunging +into the nearest river or lake and crossing to the other side. There is +reason to believe that islands provide a good sanctuary during the +summer (Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 108-109; Gavin, 1945: 228). In the winter +the Caribou must depend primarily on its fleetness of foot. Even the +fawns are reputed to be able to outdistance Wolves in a chase that is +not too prolonged. An adult, if brought to bay after a long chase, is +probably able to stand off a single Wolf indefinitely. Its powerful +hoofs are its principal means of defense. Even if the antlers are +brought into play, they are effective only during the limited period +when they are fullgrown, hard, and free of velvet. When two or more +Wolves manage to bring a Caribou to bay, the outcome is probably almost +invariably in their favor. Charles Schweder has never known a Caribou to +kill one of these predators in defending itself. In several cases +reported by Fred Schweder, Jr., the last stand was made on the ice of +lakes. The Caribou itself may choose such a place, as if aware that it +may be more sure-footed on the ice than its enemy.</p> + +<p>After listening to wolf tales by residents of the frontier +settlements rather than by real men of the “bush,” one might almost +expect to see a couple of these bloodthirsty animals harrying the rear +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page65" id = "page65">65</a></span> +of every band of Caribou and keeping up a relentless pursuit. However, +during a sojourn of six months on one of the best Caribou ranges in +Keewatin, where trapping has very little effect on Wolves, I saw +just one of these animals alive, heard the howling on several occasions, +and noted a single Caribou that had probably been killed by them. It is +far from a common experience for the resident trappers to witness actual +pursuit by Wolves or even to find their kills. The following instances, +related by Fred Schweder, Jr., comprised his only direct observations on +Wolves in pursuit of Caribou up to and including 1947, when he was +eighteen years old.</p> + +<p>During the northward migration in May, 1945, a silent black Wolf +pursued a band of 100 Caribou over the ice of Windy Bay. At one time it +came within 100 feet, but thereafter they forged ahead. After half a +mile the band split up, and the Wolf desisted. In October, 1946, Fred +noticed a Caribou fighting off two Wolves on the ice of Nueltin Lake +near its outlet. It used both horns and hoofs against its attackers. +While one Wolf was in front, the other would try to get in the rear of +the Caribou and hamstring it. This went on for two hours until darkness +hid the scene. The next morning the Caribou was dead and half eaten. On +October 16, 1947, a white Wolf was seen in pursuit of four +fast-moving Caribou near Simons’ Lake. It was about half a mile in their +rear, and presently halted, probably by reason of catching sight of +Fred.</p> + +<p>November 7, 1947, was a blizzardy day; the air was full of drifting +snow. Under these conditions a gray Wolf chased a buck and a doe right +into the dooryard of one of Fred’s trapping camps 10 miles north of +Windy River. It was only about 30 feet behind them. When the buck broke +through the ice of a little creek, the Wolf went right past it in +pursuit of the doe. The latter nearly ran into Fred’s toboggan, and he +shot it at a distance of 20 feet. The Wolf came within 40 feet, but by +the time it was recognized as not just another Caribou, it was 100 feet +away. Fred then shot but merely wounded it, the sight being off his +rifle. Meanwhile the buck escaped, but 3 miles away Fred met with it +again and secured it. He recognized it as the same animal because at +both encounters it was limping from a previous wound and was hornless as +well.</p> + +<p>In late November Fred found two fullgrown bucks and a doe on the ice +of Windy Lake, where they had been killed by Wolves. The bucks were +antlered and had probably met their end several weeks previously. Yet +their flesh was so musky and unpalatable, in consequence of the rutting +season, that it had not been devoured. +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page66" id = "page66">66</a></span> +A long trail of blood and hair led to the spot where the doe had fallen, +apparently a couple of weeks previously; it was still only half +eaten.</p> + +<p>In Fred’s opinion, Caribou are apprehensive of sandy eskers as the +haunt of Wolves, and do not linger there.</p> + +<p>On October 15 Charles Schweder pointed out the body of a Caribou in a +little pond in the delta area at the head of Simons’ Lake. He considered +it killed by Wolves some weeks previously; its antlers were in the +velvet, and it had been eaten only about the head and hind quarters as +it lay in the water.</p> + +<p>Joe Chambers, a trapper of Goose Creek (south of Churchill), stated +that Wolves select the fattest Caribou, and that during the winter of +1946-47 they had been devouring only such choice parts as the tongue and +the unborn young.</p> + +<p>Caribou bodies are the primary bait for Wolves and Foxes on the +Barren Grounds. Two traps are commonly placed at each carcass.</p> + +<p>Up to a couple of centuries ago, when the baneful effect of civilized +man began to be felt, the Caribou throve and multiplied to a point where +they probably strained the grazing capacity of the Barren Grounds. +Neither primitive man nor the Wolf had any serious effect on the size or +condition of the herds. The Caribou were numbered by millions, and they +doubtless owed their vigor and their success as a species in no small +measure to their friendly enemy, the Wolf. Through long ages the latter +had tended to eliminate the weaklings, the sickly, and the less alert +individuals, leaving the fitter animals to propagate their kind. Here +was a fine example of natural selection operating to the advantage of +the Caribou. Thus the Wolf may be safely considered a benefactor of the +species as a whole—a regulator and protector of its vitality.</p> + +<p>There are only two regions of the world where Caribou (or Reindeer) +have not long shared their territory with the Wolf—Spitsbergen and +the Queen Charlotte Islands. And what sort of situation do we find +there? Instead of thriving in the absence of such a natural predator, +the animals of both regions are the runts of the whole Caribou-Reindeer +tribe, and those of the Queen Charlottes have become virtually or wholly +extinct (<i>cf.</i> Banfield, 1949: 481-482). Furthermore, the +Newfoundland Caribou suffered a very serious decline after the +Newfoundland Wolf became extinct at about the beginning of the present +century. The lesson is obvious: +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page67" id = "page67">67</a></span> +it is folly for man to imagine that he can benefit the Caribou by +eliminating the Wolves.</p> + +<p>It is virtually axiomatic that no predatory species (other than +modern man) exterminates its own food supply. Long ago nature must have +established a fairly definite ratio between the populations of the Wolf +and the Caribou. Although a certain fluctuation of that ratio could be +expected from time to time, each fluctuation would be followed by a +return to more or less normal conditions. The trend of evolution has +doubtless been toward perfecting the Wolf in its ability to capture the +Caribou, but at the same time toward perfecting the Caribou in its +ability to escape the Wolf. Unequal progress of this sort on the part of +the two species would presumably have been rather disastrous to the one +or the other. But it is nature’s way to have preserved a proper balance +between the abilities of the two species, and thus between their +populations. This balance (a rather delicate one) has probably been +upset to some extent by the advent of civilized man with his devices to +the Barren Grounds.</p> + +<p>The Caribou “exemplify the survival of the fittest; none but the +perfect are allowed to live and breed, hence their perfection. We +believe that the wolf is in no small degree responsible for this high +standard, and that were he killed off the species as a whole would +suffer.” (Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 161.)</p> + +<p>“It is doubtful if the efforts of white or native hunters are of any +importance whatever in the control of wolves in the caribou country, or +could, under present circumstances ever be of any importance.” (Clarke, +1940: 109).</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Franklin, 1823: 242, 327, 344, 486, 487; John +Ross, 1835<i>a</i>: 402, 530, 534, 564; Back, 1836: 128-129; Simpson, +1843: 232; Armstrong, 1857: 395, 480-481, 488, 525; Osborn, 1865: +227-228, 231, 232; Kumlien, 1879: 53, 54; Gilder, 1881: 61; Bompas, +1888: 60; Collinson, 1889: 244; Pike, 1917 (1892): 56-58; Whitney, 1896: +239; Jones, 1899: 374-375; Preble, 1902: 41, and 1908: 214; Hanbury, +1904: 89; MacFarlane, 1905: 692-693; Amundsen, 1908, <b>1</b>: 102; +Seton, 1911: 225-226; R. M. Anderson, 1913<i>b</i>: <ins class = +"correction" title = "text has : for ;">516;</ins> Stefánsson, +1913<i>a</i>: 93, and 1921: 248-249, 475-476; Blanchet, 1925: 34; +Mallet, 1926: 79; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 51; Seton, 1929, <b>1</b>: +344-346, and <b>3</b>: 108-109; Blanchet, 1930: 54-55; +Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 159-162; Hoare, 1930: 22; Kitto, 1930: 89; +Jacobi, 1931: 240-241; Harper, 1932: 31; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 33, +35, 36, 81, 82, 84, 85; Ingstad, 1933: 157-159, 165-166, 207, 302-304, +306-307; Hornby, 1934: 106, 108; Freuchen, 1935: 93, 120-122; Murie, +1939: 245; Clarke, 1940: 107-109; Manning, 1942: 29, and 1943<i>a</i>: +55; Downes, 1943: 262; Young, 1944: 236-238, 243; Yule, 1948: 288; +Harper, 1949: 230-231, 239; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 37-41; Anonymous, +1952: 263-265. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "eco_birds" id = "eco_birds"> +Relations to birds of prey</a></h4> + +<p>These relations are not so much of the living Caribou as of their +bodies after death. The principal avian scavengers in the +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page68" id = "page68">68</a></span> +Windy River area seem to be the Rough-legged Hawk (<i>Buteo lagopus +sancti-johannis</i>), the Herring Gull (<i>Larus argentatus +smithsonianus</i>), the Canada Jay (<i>Perisoreus canadensis +canadensis</i>), and the Raven (<i>Corvus corax principalis</i>). These +birds are evidently attracted to the vicinity of camps and trap-lines by +reason of the numbers of caribou bodies lying about. On their first +arrival in late May or early June, before the lakes have opened up and +while food in general is scarce, Herring Gulls seem particularly prone +to assemble where Caribou have been recently killed. For example, up to +June 3 only a handful of these birds had been seen about Windy River. On +that day several Caribou were killed, and on June 4 about 100 Herring +Gulls had gathered at the scene. Their scavenger activities make it +especially necessary to protect the caribou bodies in the way described +in the section on <i>Relations to man</i>. In a few days one of the +bodies (apparently not so protected) had been almost entirely consumed. +The Herring Gulls operate locally only from May to September, being +absent during the rest of the year. A few Ring-billed Gulls +(<i>Larus delawarensis</i>) appeared meanwhile and attacked a caribou +carcass.</p> + +<p>The Rough-legged Hawk is far less numerous than the Herring Gull and +so is a much less serious scavenger. Now and then, however, it may be +noted feeding on a caribou carcass. Even the Long-tailed Jaeger +(<i>Stercorarius longicaudus</i>) is reported in such a role. The Canada +Jay and the Raven are permanent residents and are undoubtedly helped +through the inhospitable winter by man-killed Caribou. On the other +hand, a good many Ravens fall victims to the fox traps placed about +the bodies. Charles Schweder has frequently seen Ravens following +Wolves, as if in expectation of a kill. Buchanan remarks (1920: 248) +concerning the Reindeer Lake region, that the Ravens “appear to remain +in the vicinity of the Caribou herds all th[r]ough winter.” In the Windy +River area the Canada Jay became noticeably more numerous in August, +after the Caribou had returned from the north. The Ravens and the +Rough-legs exhibited a similar increase in September and October.</p> + +<p>The depredations of these carnivorous birds result to the detriment +of the living Caribou in that they virtually force the hunters and +trappers to kill a larger number of the animals than would otherwise be +necessary.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Hanbury, 1904: 135; Stefánsson, 1913<i>a</i>: +93; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 108; Ingstad, 1933: 157-159; Downes, 1943: +228; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 36, 42; Harper, 1953: 28, 60, 62-64, 72, +74, 76. +</blockquote> + + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page69" id = "page69">69</a></span> +<h4><a name = "eco_misc" id = "eco_misc"> +Relations to miscellaneous animals</a></h4> + +<p>The Schweder boys spoke of Arctic Hares (<i>Lepus arcticus +andersoni</i>) being in the habit of eating the stomach contents of +Caribou after the animals have been dressed in the field. This +represents merely harmless utilization of a normally waste product, +although it serves some of the natives as <i>nerrooks</i> or “Eskimo +salad” (<i>cf.</i> Richardson, 1829: 245). Wolverines, Mink, Weasels, +and Lemmings help to consume unprotected caribou bodies. (In the Old +World the Wolverine is regarded as a serious enemy of live Reindeer +[Jacobi, 1931: 243; Harper, 1945: 473].)</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Pike, 1917 (1892): 56-58; Seton, 1911: 252, +1929, <b>2</b>: 413, 424, 443, and 1929, <b>3</b>: 108; Harper, 1932: +23; Ingstad, 1933: 157-159; Freuchen, 1935: 93, 99; Hoffman, 1949: 12; +Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 36, 41; Harper, 1953: 40, 41. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "eco_flies" id = "eco_flies"> +Relations to flies</a></h4> + +<p>Flies of various kinds perhaps cause more wide-spread, year-round +misery to the Caribou than all other pests and enemies combined. It is +safe to say that not a single individual in the whole population escapes +their attacks, and some even succumb to mosquitoes (Gavin, 1945: 228). +The various biting and parasitic flies have already been discussed to +some extent in the section on <i>Influence of insects on +distribution</i>. Harassment by these pests is believed to be the +leading cause of the haste with which the Caribou are frequently seen +passing over the Barrens in summer. Downes (1943: 204) has commented on +the habit of Chipewyan hunters in the Nueltin Lake region of examining +the legs of Caribou for swellings caused by mosquito bites. In a buck +secured on August 17 the legs exhibited numerous little bumps of this +sort; furthermore, black flies covered the buck’s body, while scarcely +troubling those of us who were preparing the specimen. Fortunately the +suffering from mosquitoes and black flies on the Barrens is largely +limited to the months of July and August.</p> + +<p>Even at this season the Caribou are granted occasional relief from +the blood-sucking flies. The charac­teristic strong winds of that +region help greatly in keeping the insects in abeyance. Furthermore, +both mosquitoes and black flies become more or less inactive whenever +the temperature drops to the neighborhood of 45° (<i>cf.</i> Weber, +1950: 196), and this happens fairly frequently even in mid-summer. +Finally, the black flies retire during the hours of darkness; and short +as these hours are, the relief they bring is very noteworthy. These +conditions offer something of a contrast to those surrounding +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page70" id = "page70">70</a></span> +the Woodland Caribou. It is difficult to see how that animal can secure +a moment’s respite from mosquito attacks, by day or night, through most +of the summer. In its forested habitat there is not sufficient lowering +of the temperature nor sufficient penetration of strong winds. Hard as +the life of the Barren Ground Caribou may be, it seems to have a few +advantages not available to the Woodland Caribou; and possibly it is +these that have enabled it to attain a vastly greater population than +the other species.</p> + +<p>Of 52 mosquito specimens brought back from the Windy River area, 39 +were <i>Aedes nearcticus</i> Dyar, 2 were probably <i>Aedes +fitchii</i> (F. and Y.), and the remaining 11 were of the same genus but +not in condition for specific determination (<i>cf.</i> Dyar, 1919; +Weber, 1950: 196). <i>Ae. nearcticus</i> is holarctic in distribution; +in North America it occurs chiefly on the Barren Grounds, but is known +from as far south as Montana. <i>Ae. fitchii</i> ranges through the +northern United States and Canada, north to the limit of trees. Of 26 +black flies, all were <i>Simulium venustum</i> Say, which occurs in +northern Europe, Alaska, and Labrador, south to the Adirondacks, +Illinois, Iowa, Georgia, and Alabama. (Names and ranges supplied by Dr. +Alan Stone, of the United States Bureau of Entomology and Plant +Quarantine.) These mosquitoes and black flies were presumably the +species attacking the Caribou in the Nueltin Lake region.</p> + +<p>The effects of the two parasitic flies are felt nearly throughout the +year. The adult warble fly (<i>Oedemagena tarandi</i>) is seen in the +Windy River area in August, when the Caribou are on their southward +march. On August 22 Fred Schweder, Jr., secured three of them on freshly +killed Caribou and another that alighted on himself—all on an +island in Windy Bay. His name for them is “deer fly.” He reported seeing +about 50 of them on this day (more than ever before), although he +sighted only 10 Caribou. As he remarked, these fuzzy flies look much +like bumblebees. Three days later, along Little River, something buzzed +past me while a band of Caribou were near. It was probably this species, +although it suggested a hummingbird almost as much as a bumblebee. On +several subsequent August days, while numbers of Caribou were passing +very close to me, I detected no more of the warble flies. In +general, they might well have escaped my notice owing to my +preoccupation with photography; but on August 30, when I looked for them +on one of the nearest animals, I saw none. Evidently they are not +sufficiently numerous (like horse-flies on cattle) to be constantly in +attendance on each Caribou. In fact, a comparative scarcity +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page71" id = "page71">71</a></span> +(or at least difficulty of capture) may be surmised from the fact that +the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913-18 brought back only three adult +females—one from Teller, Alaska, and two from Bernard Harbour, +Dolphin and Union Strait (Malloch, 1919: 55). Weber (1950) collected no +Oestridae in Arctic Alaska.</p> + +<p>Apparently there has been scarcely any published study of the +egg-laying or other habits of the adult <i>Oedemagena</i> in relation to +<i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i>, other than a few recent notes by +Banfield<ins class = "correction" title = "opening ( missing"> +(</ins>1951<i>a</i>: 31-32, fig. 17); but its behavior in relation to +the Lapland Reindeer seems to be fairly well known, and it is summarized +by Jacobi (1931: 245-246). In the case of the Reindeer, the fly’s eggs +are laid (during the summer) generally on the legs, belly, and tail +region of the victim; the larvae, on hatching, bore through the skin, +travel widely through the body, and finally (in the autumn) reach the +place for further development—beneath the skin of the back on both +sides of the vertebral column. Each one makes a breathing-hole through +the skin, and uses this as an exit when leaving the host in the +following June. Only the younger animals, from one to about four or five +years old, are heavily infested; those still older are spared, possibly +having learned to guard themselves better against the fly. Curiously +enough, the fawns are said to escape this parasitism entirely.</p> + +<p>My own observations on the larvae were restricted to a few Caribou +specimens in June and in the autumn. As with the Reindeer, the Caribou +fawns in their first autumn showed no visible infestation, as I noted in +looking over some fresh hides on September 10, and as was noted again in +a fawn of September 26. Fred Schweder, Jr., made the remark that larvae +would be evident in the fawns by the following spring; this may indicate +that the larvae have not, in the autumn, completed their journey to +their final position on the Caribou’s back. I learned of no +immunity on the part of old adults.</p> + +<p>Fullgrown larvae still remained in bucks secured on June 3 (fig. 17) +and 18. According to Charles Schweder, they drop out in June. In the +buck of June 3 there were perhaps several dozen warbles, each surrounded +by a mass of repulsive tissue; in another buck of June 18, there were +apparently more than 75. “It may be assumed,” says Johansen (1921: 24), +“that the pupae lie on the ground for about a month before the flies +appear.” He found (1921: 29) the adult flies abroad at Dolphin and Union +Strait by July 14.</p> + +<table class = "picture" summary = "two illustrations"> +<tr> +<td class = "illustration"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page56b" id = "page56b">56</a></span> +<a name = "fig17" id = "fig17"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig17.jpg" width = "216" height = "285" +alt = "see caption"></td> +<td class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig18" id = "fig18"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig18.jpg" width = "221" height = "286" +alt = "see caption"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 17.</span> Charles Schweder with the +fresh, warble-infested hide of a Caribou buck (specimen No. 1033). Windy +River, June 3, 1947.</td> +<td class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 18.</span> Hide of a Caribou doe, about +four years old, with about 130 small warbles or warble scars +(concentrated on the rump). Windy River, September 15, 1947.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page72" id = "page72">72</a></span> +<p>In a buck of August 17 the new warbles (or perhaps merely warble +scars from the previous June—<i>cf.</i> Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: +32) on the inside of the skin were not very numerous. Some were +medium-sized, but most were so small that it was not deemed necessary to +scrape them off; they had comparatively little fatty tissue about them +and were merely allowed to dry up. The number of warbles (or warble +scars) found in autumn specimens varied considerably, up to a maximum of +roughly 200. They were situated mostly along the mid-dorsum, and more on +the lower back or rump than farther forward. The number appeared to be +approximately 130 in the skin of an adult doe that was nailed to the log +wall of a cabin for drying on September 15 (fig. 18). A doe of +September 21 seemed to have less than the usual number of warbles.</p> + +<p>The nostril fly (<i>Cephenemyia</i>) is another serious dipterous +parasite of the Caribou. The life history of the European <i>C. +nasalis</i> (L.) (or <i>C. trompe</i> [L.]) and its effect on Reindeer +are discussed by Bergman (1917), Natvig (1918), and Jacobi (1931: 245) +as follows.</p> + +<p>This fly attacks the host from June to September, depositing its +viviparous larvae in the nostrils. The Reindeer attempts to fend off the +fly, striking at it with its hoofs and keeping its nostrils closed as +far as possible. Once deposited, the lively larvae crawl into the inner +nasal passages and as far as the larynx, where they fasten themselves +and live on the mucus. A Reindeer may harbor as many as 130 of +these parasites. They range from 6 to 26 mm. in length. Their particular +growth begins at the end of March, and they are ready for pupation up to +May. The host assists their exit by continual sneezing and snuffling. In +the last stages they are a great affliction for the host, and they +sometimes cause its death. Pupation takes place in or on the ground, +under some sort of cover, and it lasts for 15-19 days. The flies have +been found emerging from July 12 to 31.</p> + +<p>The corresponding parasite of the Barren Ground Caribou is a similar +or perhaps identical species, with a parallel life history. Its chief +activity as an adult doubtless occurs in July and August. A number +of the mature larvae were found in the throat of the buck of +June 3; two of them that were preserved measure approximately 7 mm. +in diameter and 27 and 30 mm. in length. A large mass of such +sizable parasites in the throat might easily become a serious obstacle +to comfortable living or even to survival on the part of the host. +Presumably the larvae drop to the ground at about the +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page73" id = "page73">73</a></span> +same period as those of <i>Oedemagena</i>. Fred Schweder, Jr., remarked +concerning the buck of August 17 that these larvae are never found at +that season, and Charles Schweder made the same remark concerning a doe +specimen of September 21. It would appear either that they remain so +small as to escape detection at this time or that they do not reach the +throat on their short journey from the nostrils until some later period +of the year. Johansen (1921: 24) records larvae only 2-3 mm. long in the +nasal passage at the end of May.</p> + +<p>Since the bulk of the Caribou population has passed well to the +northward of the Nueltin Lake region by the time the larvae of +<i>Oedemagena</i> and <i>Cephenemyia</i> drop out of the bodies of their +hosts to pupate briefly on or in the ground (say in the latter part of +June), one is tempted to speculate on the possibility that the adult +flies found here in August may have followed their prospective victims +for many miles in their southward migration. However, Porsild remarks +(1943: 386) that they “apparently do not travel very far.”</p> + +<p>Certain kinds of behavior exhibited by the Caribou in attempting to +fend off the parasitic flies are discussed in the section on <i>Shaking +off moisture and insects</i>.</p> + +<p>The adults of <i>Oedemagena tarandi</i> (L.) were determined by Mr. +C. W. Sabrosky, of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine; +and the larvae of <i>Oedemagena</i> and <i>Cephenemyia</i> by Dr. +W. W. Wirth, of the same bureau. The larvae of the latter genus are +regarded as probably <i>C. trompe</i> (L.); they were new to the +collection of the United States National Museum.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Hearne, 1795: 197; Franklin, 1823: 241; +Richardson, “1825”: 328-330, and 1829: 242; Godman, 1831, <b>2</b>: 284; +Murray, 1858: 210; B. R. Ross, 1861: 438; Pike, 1917 (1892): 58-59; +J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128, and 1894: 442; Whitney, 1896: 239; +Russell, 1898: 228-229; Jones, 1899: 411; Hanbury, 1900: 67, and 1904: +32, 137, 194; Preble, 1902: 41; R. M. Anderson, 1913<i>b</i>: 504; +Stefánsson, 1913<i>b</i>: 204, 212-213, 333; Douglas, 1914: 191-192; +Malloch, 1919: 55-56; Hewitt, 1921: 67; Johansen, 1921: 22-24, 29, 35, +37; Stefánsson, 1921: 247; Blanchet, 1925: 32, and 1926<i>b</i>: 47; +Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 56, 133; Seton, <ins class = "correction" title += "text has : for ,">1929,</ins> <b>3</b>: 109-<ins class = "correction" +title = "text has anomalous ‘11’">111</ins>; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: +193; Hoare, 1930: 33, 37-38; Kitto, 1930: 89; Jacobi, 1931: 244-245; +Munn, 1932: 58; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 84-86; Birket-Smith, 1933: +90, 92; Ingstad, 1933: 48, 135; Hornby, 1934: 105; Soper, 1936: 429; +Henriksen, 1937: 25, 26; Hamilton, 1939: 247, 301; Murie, <ins class = +"correction" title = "text has ; for :">1939:</ins> 245; Clarke, 1940: +70, 95; Downes, 1943: 226, 255; Manning, 1943<i>a</i>: 53; Porsild, +1943: 386; Gavin, 1945: 228; Harper, 1949: 228; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: +31-33; Barnett, 1954: 104. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "eco_ectoparasites" id = "eco_ectoparasites"> +Ectoparasites</a></h4> + +<p>It was in vain that I searched a number of fresh specimens for lice, +mites, fleas, or ticks. The Schweder boys spoke of never having noticed +any such parasites. Seton (1929) mentions none, and +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page74" id = "page74">74</a></span> +Jacobi (1931: 243) records only a louse (<i>Linognathus tarandi</i>) +from the Reindeer. “Lice are not known from caribou according to Ferris +(in conversation)” (Weber, 1950: 154).</p> + + +<h4><a name = "eco_reindeer" id = "eco_reindeer"> +Relations to Reindeer</a></h4> + +<p>Recent discussions of the possibility or advisability of introducing +domesticated Reindeer to replace, or to augment the diminishing supply +of, native American Caribou in various new localities prompt a brief +review of the subject.</p> + +<p>It may be remarked at the outset that acclimatization attempts in the +Old World have generally been abortive. Wild Reindeer introduced from +Finmark into Iceland in the eighteenth century flourished for a time, +but by 1917 they were almost exterminated. A number of different +introductions into Great Britain, Denmark, Germany, Austria, +Switzerland, and Italy came to naught. On the other hand, the +introduction of Lapland Reindeer on the subantarctic island of South +Georgia in 1908 seems to have turned out successfully. (Jacobi, 1931: +158-165; Harper, 1945: 473-474.) A saving feature in each of the +above-mentioned cases was the absence of any native Reindeer whose +racial purity might have been destroyed by the newcomers.</p> + +<p>Decrease of local American stocks of Caribou, and consequent +suffering of native populations who had in past generations depended +upon these animals for a major portion of their food supply, have led to +introduction of foreign Reindeer in several regions of North America, +from Newfoundland and Labrador in the east to Alaska in the west. The +persons responsible were doubtless inspired by high humanitarian +motives; but it is doubtful if they could have thoroughly considered or +foreseen the serious biological consequences of their efforts.</p> + +<p>In Alaska, importation of domesticated Siberian Reindeer began in +1892. By the 1930’s the herds had increased to an estimated total of +600,000. For various reasons, however, the industry has so far declined +that by 1949 the total number of Alaskan Reindeer had become reduced to +about 28,000 head. Disin­clination of Eskimos for reindeer-herding +and mixture of their stock with wild Caribou were important reasons for +this decline. (Lantis, 1950.) From the biologist’s point of view, the +most unfortunate result was the large-scale interbreeding with the +native Grant’s Caribou (<i>Rangifer arcticus granti</i>) and the +progressive extermination of that fine animal in a pure form by dilution +with inferior alien blood. Among Alaskan +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page75" id = "page75">75</a></span> +Reindeer, “constant inbreeding has led to a noticeable reduction in the +prolificness of the females, and degeneration is to be observed in many +herds” (Hewitt, 1921: 323).</p> + +<p>In 1908 Dr. Wilfred T. Grenfell brought 300 Lapland Reindeer to +Newfoundland. After some years they were transferred to the north shore +of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and finally to the island of Anticosti. +(Hewitt, 1921: 324-328; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 92.) In 1911, 50 of these +Reindeer were shipped from Newfoundland to the Slave River region. Most +of them escaped (probably to contaminate the local stock of Caribou), +and by 1916 the last survivor of this band in captivity had succumbed +(Hewitt, 1921: 329-330).</p> + +<p>“A large part of the reindeer in Alaska are south of the Arctic +Circle on the comparatively mild shores of Bering Sea, where there are +several months of open tidewater navigation; vegetation is more +luxuriant [than in Arctic Canada] and conditions easier in general. +There the reindeer were introduced into a country where the wild caribou +had been virtually exterminated, and a large native population were +anxious to take up a new mode of support. The percentage of profits has +appeared unduly large in Alaska because statisticians have been unable +to take into account the value of the services of a large body of +devoted missionaries, government teachers, and other unselfish persons +who put their best efforts into years of unpaid extra work to make the +reindeer successful and beneficial to their charges.</p> + +<p>“Canada has a large area of Arctic and sub-arctic lands beyond the +reach of possible cultivation, still occupied by large numbers of wild +caribou and remnants of musk-oxen, with native inhabitants who derive a +living from them and add to the national wealth by fur production. These +Indians and Eskimos are still far from being either able or willing to +enter upon a pastoral stage of existence, and moreover, they are now +enjoying an era of prosperity from the fur industry which may be +temporary, but which they will not relinquish for the slower and less +profitable prospects of the herder.” (R. M. Anderson, 1924: +330-331.)</p> + +<p>In 1921 some Norwegian Reindeer were landed at Amadjuak, Baffin +Island (Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 92). The lack of further reference to the +Baffin Island animals by such subsequent investigators as Manning and +Soper would seem to indicate that the reindeer have not survived, unless +through mixture with the native Caribou. An attempt in 1922 at +acclima­tization in Michigan “ended in total failure” (Seton, 1929, +<b>3</b>: 93).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page76" id = "page76">76</a></span> +<p>“The Barren Grounds . . . still feed enormous herds of +caribou. . . . The greatest danger to this industry +[reindeer-raising] is just these wild herds, which would be very apt to +absorb the tame animals. This problem may perhaps become a fatal one to +the Eskimos, for there might very easily come a most difficult +transitional period, when the caribou would be too few in numbers to +form a definite basis for the existence of the people, but on the other +hand numerous enough to make reindeer breeding difficult.” +(Birket-Smith, 1933: 121.)</p> + +<p>In northwestern Alaska “large numbers of reindeer are constantly +escaping the herders and joining the wild caribou. It seems that it will +be but a short time until there will be no pure bred caribou along that +part of the coast. . . . As the reindeer are protected, +and the caribou are killed at every opportunity, the former will +doubtless prove the dominant animal and in time overcome the caribou, +with hybridization the inevitable result.” (Bailey and Hendee, 1926: +22.)</p> + +<p>“The caribou’s greatest menace is not the wolf, nor the hunter, but +man’s economic developments, principally the raising of reindeer. +Wherever reindeer herds are introduced, caribou must of course +disappear, for both cannot occupy the same range. The disappearance of +the caribou along the Bering Sea and Arctic coasts, while regrettable, +was unavoidable in view of the development of reindeer herding in this +section, which is ideal for the purpose. . . .</p> + +<p>“The mingling of reindeer with the main caribou herds should be +avoided. Reindeer herds maintained in close contact with migrating +caribou suffer frequent losses through strays. Already the domestic +reindeer are mingling with the caribou herd of Mount McKinley National +Park. . . . [Hybridization] would be regrettable in +interior Alaska, which has produced a splendid type of wild caribou, +coming near at least to being the largest on the continent.” (Murie, +1935: 7.)</p> + +<p>Murie’s extensive experience with these animals in Alaska has led him +to remark further (1939: 245):</p> + +<p>“The greatest hazard to the Caribou is the possible occupation of the +range by man’s agricultural activities. . . . The most +serious danger is introduction of domesticated Reindeer on wild Caribou +range, for the wild herds must be removed in order to make possible the +safe herding of the domestic animals. . . . There is not +room for both of these animals on the same or closely adjacent +ranges.”</p> + +<p>Porsild points out (1943: 386, 389) that sparsely covered grazing +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page77" id = "page77">77</a></span> +areas are suitable for Caribou but not for Reindeer; and that the former +disappear before expanding Reindeer culture.</p> + +<p>“Perhaps the worst threat of all to the caribou has been the +introduction of reindeer culture along the arctic coast. This has +resulted in interbreeding between the wild caribou and their inferior +domesticated relatives. When and if this mixture extends to all the +herds of the Barren Grounds, the caribou may be written off the record +as a pure species; the animal will have become extinct through dilution, +as the biologists express it.” (Harper, 1949: 239.)</p> + +<p>The American Society of Mammalogists, at its annual meeting in 1950, +passed the following resolution (<i>Jour. Mammalogy</i> <b>31</b> (4): +483, 1950):</p> + +<p>“That the American Society of Mammalogists urges that the Canadian +Government not undertake the introduction of reindeer into Ungava. +Before any introduction even is seriously considered, those persons +involved in any planning are urged to make a thorough study beforehand +of the problems of integrating lichen ecology, reindeer biology, and +native culture—serious problems that have not been solved to date +on any workable scale on the North American continent. It would be +particularly deplorable if an introduction, to aid the natives, led to +early successes and high hopes, then eventual failure.”</p> + +<p>Porsild, who knows the Reindeer thoroughly at first hand, has made +(1951: 53) the following observation:</p> + +<p>“Thus far these experiments [at introduction into America] have met +with only partial or indifferent success, because reindeer nomadism is +incompatible with present trends of cultural development and because the +North American Arctic is too thinly populated to provide a ready market +for reindeer products.”</p> + +<p>Referring to the region of the Brooks Range in northern Alaska, +Rausch says (1951: 190):</p> + +<p>“The mixture of inferior reindeer bloodlines with the native caribou +is serious. This has already occurred to a considerable degree, and it +is hoped that proper control will be exercised if the reindeer industry +is revived in Alaska. Ear-notched animals have been killed in the +Anaktuvuk Pass country, and white reindeer have been seen running with +the caribou. The number of unrecognized reindeer passing through could +be great.”</p> + +<p>At present the Barren Ground Caribou is apparently the third most +abundant member of the deer family on our continent, being exceeded by +the White-tailed Deer and the Mule Deer (<i>cf.</i> Jackson, +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page78" id = "page78">78</a></span> +1944: 7-8). No other member of this family could be expected to be so +eminently and thoroughly adapted to its Arctic environment or to thrive +so well on the very ground where nature has been molding and perfecting +its characters for thousands of years. No naturally occurring +relative—Moose, Deer, or Woodland Caribou—undertakes to +compete with it on its own particular range. It requires practically +nothing for the maintenance—and increase—of its present +numbers, other than an enlightened policy of conservation. (As indicated +on a previous page, the feminine wearers of Arctic Fox furs must bear a +heavy share of respon­sibility for the decline of the Barren Ground +Caribou in recent decades.) Our highest authorities have pointed out the +imprac­ticability of Caribou and Reindeer occupying the same +range.</p> + +<p>Would it not be the part of wisdom to exclude the inferior +domesticated alien, with its difficult and generally unsuccessful +culture in North America, and thereby to give the wonderful wild Caribou +of the Barrens its best chance for survival?</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Chambers, 1914: 350-351; Hornaday, 1914, +<b>2</b>: 105-108; Hewitt, 1921: 323, 329-330; R. M. Anderson, +1924: 330; Kindle, 1928: 74; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 92-93; Blanchet, +1930: 53-54; Birket-Smith, 1933: 121; Godsell, 1934: 276; Murie, +1935: 7, 1939: 245-246, and 1941: 435; Porsild, 1943: 386, 389; +Rousseau, 1948: 96; Harper, 1949: 239; Polunin, 1949: 24; Lantis, 1950; +Hustich, 1951; Porsild, 1951: 53; Rausch, 1951: 190; Scheffer, 1951. +</blockquote> + + + + +<h3><a name = "numerical" id = "numerical"> +Numerical Status</a></h3> + + +<p>There seems to be a general impression, among those who have known +the Barren Ground Caribou at first hand for a considerable period, that +the population has been reduced by something like a half during the past +generation. “Recent preliminary aerial survey has indicated that their +numbers, although less than the previous estimates of 3,000,000 +(R. M. Anderson, 1938; Clarke, 1940), which were based upon the +carrying capacity of the Arctic tundra, are probably comparable to their +primitive numbers in the central portions of the range” (Banfield, 1949: +478). A definite reduction is indicated along the Arctic coast and +on the Arctic islands (R. M. Anderson, 1937: 103, and 1938: 400; +Banfield, 1949: 478, 481, and 1951<i>a</i>: 13-14). While large numbers +still remain in southwestern Keewatin, there are no reports of any such +mass occurrence as was witnessed by the Tyrrell brothers on the upper +Dubawnt River on July 29, 1893; that throng was estimated at 100,000 to +200,000 animals (J. B. Tyrrell, 1897: 165).</p> + +<p>During the big movement of the last week of August, 1947, I may have +seen as many as 500 Caribou on one or two days, in herds +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page79" id = "page79">79</a></span> +numbering up to 150 individuals. A striking proportion of those +observed seemed to occur in bands of roughly 25 animals. On August 25 +Fred Schweder, Jr., reported about a thousand crossing Little River, in +bands of as many as 100 individuals. On October 11 Charles Schweder +observed a thousand Caribou resting on a hill 3 miles long in the +vicinity of Four-hill Creek. In November he found thousands, in herds up +to 300 strong, moving south from the upper Kazan River. These figures +may give a faintly approximate idea of the numbers occurring in the +general region of Nueltin Lake in a year considered less good than an +average one. On the other hand, toward the coast of Hudson Bay, there +were reports of a greater number of autumn migrants than in ordinary +years.</p> + +<p>In October, about 1944, tracks indicated that 2,000 or 3,000 animals +had crossed Windy River in the vicinity of Four-hill Creek in the night +(<i>fide</i> Charles Schweder). About October 10, 1946 (a year of +unusual abundance), Fred Schweder, Jr., witnessed the passage of +thousands in one day in this vicinity; he got the impression of “the +hills moving with Deer.” (Yet this was the season when the Caribou +passed mainly to one side of the upper Kazan River, so that nearly +one-third of the local band of Eskimos starved to death.) In the first +part of May, about 1942 or 1943, John Ingebrigtsen came to a nameless +lake, about half a mile by a mile and a half in extent, somewhere east +of Duck Lake, Manitoba. It appeared “absolutely full of Caribou,” and he +estimated their number at not less than 20,000. This would mean a +density of no more than about 50 per acre.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Jones, 1899: 368, 374; J. B. Tyrrell, +1894: 442, and 1897: 10, 49-50, 165; Whitney, 1896: 240; Seton, 1911: +220, 258-260; R. M. Anderson, 1913<i>b</i>: <ins class = +"correction" title = "text has : for ;">502;</ins> Hornaday, 1914, +<b>2</b>: 225-226; Nelson, 1916: 460; Thompson, 1916: 100-101; Kindle, +1917: 108-109; Buchanan, 1920: 130-131; Hewitt, 1921: 56, 64-66; +Stefánsson, 1921: 255; R. M. Anderson, 1924: 329; Blanchet, +1926<i>b</i>: 48, and 1930: 52; Kindle, 1928: 72-73; Seton, 1929, +<b>3</b>: 131-134; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 159-160; R. M. +Anderson, in Hoare, 1930: 52-53; Kitto, 1930: 87; Jacobi, 1931: 201-202; +Munn, 1932: 58; Birket-Smith, 1933: 89; Ingstad, 1933: 160; R. M. +Anderson, 1938: 400; Clarke, 1940: 65, 84-91, 101-104; Downes, 1943: +258-260; Wright, 1944: 185-188, 191, 193; Yule, 1948: 287-288; Banfield, +1949: 478, 481, and 1951<i>a</i>: 9, 13-14; Harper, 1949: 231, 239; +Anonymous, 1952: 261; Barnett, 1954: 96. +</blockquote> + + + + +<h3><a name = "habits" id = "habits">General Habits</a></h3> + + +<h4><a name = "habits_daily" id = "habits_daily"> +Daily periods of activity and rest</a></h4> + +<p>According to Charles Schweder, the Caribou do not move about much at +night; that seems to be their principal time for sleep. They exhibit a +definite tendency to pause and rest also toward the middle of the day. +Several instances have already been given +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page80" id = "page80">80</a></span> +of the animals resting at such a time on frozen lakes and rivers: lakes +southwest of Reindeer Lake, March 18; lakes south of Lake Athabaska, +April 16; Seal River, May 31; Windy Bay, June 6 (mid-morning). Open +hilltops are evidently sought likewise for both nocturnal and mid-day +rests: knoll by Windy River, June 3; Josie’s Hill, June 20; ridge +by Little River, August 24 (about 9 a.m.). (For details, see sections on +<i>Winter range</i>, <i>Spring migration</i>, and <i>Fall +migration</i>.)</p> + +<p>Although we noted a small band of Caribou passing through a thick and +extensive stand of spruce at dusk on October 2, Fred Schweder, Jr., +remarked that they do not rest in such a place; they are safer from +Wolves in open areas. Charles Schweder reported about 50 Caribou, in +three slightly separated bands, appearing on the south side of Windy +River near Four-hill Creek during the evening of September 24, but not +making up their minds to cross; he thought they might have been scared +by Wolves. Possibly there was a similar explanation for the crossing of +the river at this point by large numbers of the animals during an +October night several years previously.</p> + +<p>According to Fred Schweder, Jr., a day’s movement of Caribou past the +mouths of Little and Windy rivers during the fall migration generally +does not commence before 10 a.m. and ends about 3 p.m. The explanation +of such a phenomenon is none too obvious; and in any event, there were +exceptions enough, though the general statement may hold true for the +bulk of the migrants. As remarked in the section on <i>Spring +migration</i>, the daily periods when the Caribou crossed the ice of +Windy Bay were mainly from 10 to 11 a.m., from 2:30 to 5 p.m., and in +the evening.</p> + +<p>On August 27, about 5:50 p.m., a majority (say half a dozen) of a +small band of Caribou were lying down on a slope near the mouth of +Little River. They faced down wind to watch for enemies in that +direction, while their noses would warn them of any approaching from the +opposite direction. Their attitude was very much like that of Norway +Reindeer figured by Seton (1929, <b>3</b>: pls. 11, 15, 18).</p> + +<p>Charles Schweder spoke of having seen whole herds lying down to rest, +while none of the animals remained standing up on guard. He had noted +one such herd of 600 or 700 along the Thlewiaza River in August. He +further stated that when the Caribou lie down to rest and to chew the +cud, they hold the head up. They may also sleep in this position. In the +hard winter of 1944-45, when the snow +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page81" id = "page81">81</a></span> +was deep and the animals were tired and hungry, he came up to a resting +herd. All but one of them got up and moved away. That one remained +sleeping, head up and eyes closed; Charles walked up to within 10 feet +and shot it. He has also seen resting Caribou lay their heads down on +the side, but only for a few moments at a time.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 129; Jones, 1899: +359; Harper, 1949: 227; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 23. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "habits_organization" id = "habits_organization"> +Organization of herds</a></h4> + +<p>The Barren Ground Caribou is a distinctly gregarious species. It goes +in herds for at least the greater part of the year; this is especially +true of the spring and autumn migration periods and of the winter +months. We know comparatively little of the behavior of the does at +fawning time in June; but probably there is a tendency toward +solitariness on their part at that season. It is true that solitary +Caribou may be met with at almost any season of the year; but this +doubtless represents merely temporary rather than permanent segregation +of such individuals. At the very end of the spring migration and at the +beginning of the autumn migration, there may be, among the sparse +southernmost elements of the population, a larger proportion of +solitary animals.</p> + +<p>While marching over the Barrens and feeding as they go, the smaller +bands maintain a fairly loose organization, as apparently best suiting +their needs. On the other hand, the huge herds of former times, such as +the Tyrrells met on the upper Dubawnt in 1893 (J. B. Tyrrell, 1897: +49-50, pl. 1; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908: <ins class = "correction" +title = ". missing">pls.</ins> facing pp. 80, 81; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: +pl. 22), obviously maintained very compact ranks. In my limited +experience, the animals bunched more closely in crossing the rivers than +was normally the case on land among feeding herds. While swimming, they +would follow each other in files at minimum intervals; but in stepping +across rapids they might extend these intervals somewhat.</p> + +<p>When merely covering ground, without stopping to feed, or when +following a trail through brush or along a narrow ridge, there is a +strong tendency for the animals to go in a single file, or at least in a +procession many times longer than wide. This was also apparent when they +were crossing the ice of Windy Bay in June.</p> + +<p>When Caribou flee from some source of alarm, a distinct tendency +toward compact bunching may be observed. This may have been developed as +a measure of protection from pursuing Wolves; the latter could naturally +overcome a straggling or isolated individual more readily than one in a +compact herd. The Caribou running +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page82" id = "page82">82</a></span> +away from the train in the “Little Barrens” south of Churchill very +clearly demonstrated the tendency toward a close formation. (See also, +in the section on <a href = +"#habits_disposition"><i>Disposition</i></a>, the account of a herd +attacked by a hunter near Lake Charles.)</p> + +<p>The larger herds of the autumn migration seemed to be generally +composed of all sexes and ages; yet some sizable bands were made up +chiefly of bucks on the one hand, or of does and fawns on the other +hand. The rear guard of the spring migration and the vanguard of the +autumn migration are generally composed of bucks, traveling either +singly or in small bands; this state of affairs is looked upon as +evidence that the majority of the bucks do not advance so far to the +north in June and July as the does do.</p> + +<p>The following are a few examples of the composition and leadership +(or rear-guarding) of groups of Caribou. (Other examples are mentioned +in the sections on <i>Migration</i>.) A band of about 20, after feeding +for a time on the south bank of Windy River on June 16, moved off +upstream, mostly in single file, with a patriarchal buck in the lead. +The remainder of the band included several lesser bucks and various does +and yearlings. On the following day a band of equal size, composed +chiefly of bucks but including three hornless individuals (does?), was +led by two of the bigger bucks. When a band of some 40 does and fawns +approached Little River to cross it on August 25, a doe came first +to the water’s edge to make a careful inspection. On the same day I +remarked having noted several times that a buck brought up the rear of a +band. On August 26 I noted that a distinct majority in the herds of the +previous two or three days were does and fawns, although there were +generally a few bucks present also. At this period I got the impression +that the number of individuals in a band was frequently not far from 25. +On August 28, when a band of 40 crossed the mouth of Little River, three +or four bucks plunged in first, but a doe was almost even with them. At +the Bear Slough, on September 3, a group consisted of two bucks, +two does, and a fawn. On September 15 Fred Schweder, Jr., reported +seeing about 100 Caribou, with not a buck among them. On September 24 +about 15 does and fawns were resting or feeding quietly by Glacier Pond. +On September 28 a band of six large bucks crossed the Camp Ridge. On +October 1, an older and a younger buck appeared in the shoal waters of +Duck Bay. On November 3, in the same locality, a band of about +50 was composed largely of does, but included a few fawns and a few +well-antlered bucks. On +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page83" id = "page83">83</a></span> +November 11 five does were reported crossing the mouth of Windy River on +the ice.</p> + +<p>Charles Schweder remarked that the leader of a band is generally a +doe; but sometimes it is a buck, or even a fawn. There is virtually no +way of telling whether the same doe habitually leads a band. In the big +migrant herds, bucks bring up the rear. Once in September, in a herd of +about 100 animals, the front half was composed of does and fawns, the +rear half of bucks. In the rutting season the does are naturally in the +lead, the bucks following them.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Hearne, 1795: 198; Richardson, “1825”: 329; +Simpson, 1843: 277, 281, 381; J. Anderson, 1856: 24, and 1857: 324; +Schwatka, 1885: 83; Pike, 1917 (1892): 49, 174, 204, 209; Dowling, 1893: +107; Stone and Cram, 1904: 52; Blanchet, 1925: 32-33, and 1926<i>b</i>: +48; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 192-196; Hoare, 1930: 13, 33, 37; Kitto, +1930: 88; Mallet, 1930: 20-23; Jacobi, 1931: 190, 203-204; Hornby, 1934: +106; Birket-Smith, 1936: 112; Hamilton, 1939: 247; Clarke, 1940: 95; +Downes, 1943: 256; Manning, 1943<i>a</i>: 52; Harper, 1949: 228, 229; +Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 23-26. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "habits_disposition" id = "habits_disposition"> +Disposition</a></h4> + +<p>The Barren Ground Caribou comes close to holding the palm for +unwariness among the larger land mammals of North America. It is +fortunate that its range lies so far from the centers of civilization. +It is scarcely conceivable that it could survive, as the White-tailed +Deer does, in some of our most thickly settled areas. At the river +crossings, where I watched the pageant of migration for day after day, +some of the animals would come up to within a rod while I handled my +cameras in the open, with no more cover than knee-high bushes and rocks +(<a href = "#fig11">figs. 11</a>, <a href = "#fig14">14</a>). Where +else, among the larger creatures of the wilderness, could one find such +a close approximation to a Garden-of-Eden existence? Until they detected +the human scent, they would stare at me at such close quarters with +little more concern than so many barnyard cattle. (For examples, see the +section on <i>Fall migration</i>.) Moreover, there were occasions when +they must have gotten my wind and still did not show panic. There is an +obvious deficiency of eyesight or judgment, or both.</p> + +<p>To account for their behavior on such occasions, I speculated as +follows. The species has scarcely any predatory enemies save man, the +Wolf, and (perhaps to some extent) the Wolverine. In their normal +experience, any such enemy, if within close range, would be making an +attack. Thus a questionable figure, not becoming evident to them until +they are within close range, and then making no motion to attack, may be +dismissed by them as something different and therefore harmless.</p> + +<p>The attitude of unconcern has probably been developed in +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page84" id = "page84">84</a></span> +past generations through the habit of the Caribou of traveling in vast +throngs. The threat of danger to a given individual in a herd of, say, +100,000 is practically negligible. From time immemorial the river +crossings have represented a particular point of attack on the part of +the natives. Yet when a large band of Caribou come to such a crossing, +they may plunge in with little pause or hesitation. On the other hand, +when a lone doe with her fawn approaches the river bank, she may be very +circumspect, taking time to look carefully upstream and down, and +across, before venturing into the water. I also saw another doe +with a fawn exercise similar precaution, when she was merely the first +of a band of 40 to reach the river’s edge. It is probably concern for +her fawn that renders a doe more circumspect than a buck.</p> + +<p>When Fred Schweder, Jr., was endeavoring to intercept a Wolf on +September 6, a fullgrown buck came feeding around a tree +within 10 feet of him. The animal winded Fred without apparently seeing +him, and went back and forth uncertainly for about a minute; finally it +moved off very slowly.</p> + +<p>Stefánsson’s account (1913<i>b</i>) of his various adventures with +Caribou near the Arctic coast of Mackenzie indicates a far wilder animal +in that region than the one in Keewatin. It appeared a great deal easier +for me, with no particular effort at caution, to get within photographic +range (say a dozen feet to 50 yards) than for him to approach within +rifle range (several hundred yards).</p> + +<p>Even after being fired upon, a single animal or a band in the Nueltin +Lake region will rarely put distance between themselves and a hunter +with all possible dispatch, as an alert White-tailed Deer would, but +will run hither and thither in confusion, with frequent pauses to +display their befuddlement. On October 8 I was a distant and saddened +spectator of a scene of slaughter. A hundred or more Caribou were +resting or feeding quietly on a bare ridge south of Lake Charles. They +were distributed in a narrow formation, 75-100 yards long and from one +to several animals deep. A hunter, approaching close to the south +end of the herd, began firing. With one accord they made toward the +north, but very shortly executed a sharp turn and came back rapidly in +the opposite direction, passing in a narrow, compact column within 30 +feet of the hunter, who continued shooting. In 200 or 300 yards they +paused and allowed the hunter to come up with them and resume shooting. +The process was repeated over a distance of three miles; but the pursuer +now and then circled ahead of the herd instead of following +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page85" id = "page85">85</a></span> +in its tracks. The final toll: 29 Caribou hit and 22 or 23 +secured—virtually a quarter of the herd destroyed and most of it +to be used for dog feed.</p> + +<p>It is said that the attachment between a doe and its fawn is such +that when one of them is killed, the hunter can approach within 50 feet +of the surviving doe or within 20 feet of the surviving fawn. +A fawn is apt to linger for days in the vicinity where its dam has +been killed.</p> + +<p>Charles Schweder has never seen fawns playing with each other or with +their mothers; two or three times he has seen one frisking by +itself—such as jumping about or running in a circle—but +never for more than half a minute at a time. Seriousness of life for a +Caribou seems confirmed from its infancy.</p> + +<p>In the hard winter of 1944-45, when the Caribou were tired and +hungry, Charles had the rare experience of driving his dogteam right +through herds on Nueltin Lake; the animals merely moved aside enough to +let him pass. In like vein Joe Chambers spoke of encountering such +numbers of migrating Caribou on or near the “Little Barrens” south of +Churchill in the spring of 1947 that his dogs “went wild” and he had to +halt for a time; the animals came within about 100 yards of his +team.</p> + +<p>A Caribou bold enough to attack a man is very rarely heard of. Yet +that was the experience of 15-year-old Anoteelik on September 8. +Having run out of ammunition, he undertook to kill a 2-year-old buck +with a rock in a patch of timber. (Possibly the animal had already been +wounded with Anoteelik’s .22 rifle.) When the missile failed of its +mark, the buck made for the boy, who escaped by climbing a tree. Perhaps +this is the first case on record of a man or a boy (especially an +Eskimo!) being treed by a Barren Ground Caribou. Jenness mentions (1922: +150) a case of an Eskimo being fatally gored by a Caribou on +Victoria Island. Otherwise, under all general circumstances, and in +contra­distinction to the Bison, the Muskox, the Moose, and even the +White-tailed Deer, the Caribou may be regarded as quite innocuous to +man.</p> + +<p>The restlessness so frequently exhibited by Caribou during the +summer, in trotting rapidly over the Barrens or in feeding hurriedly +here and there while constantly forging ahead (in contrast to the +placidity of grazing sheep and cattle), may be attributed in large part +to the relentless scourge of fly pests.</p> + +<p>(See also <a href = "#eco_man"><i>Relations to man</i></a>.)</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Lyon, 1824: 336-337; J. McLean, 1932 (1849): +359; Simpson, +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page86" id = "page86">86</a></span> +1843: 207; Armstrong, 1857: 478-479, 481-482; Gilder, 1881: 78; +Schwatka, 1885: 85; Pike, 1917 (1892): 51-52, 90; Whitney, 1896: 242; +Hanbury, 1904: 85; Amundsen, 1908, <b>1</b>: 103; Stefánsson, +1913<i>b</i>: 278, and 1921: 251; Hornaday, 1914, <b>2</b>: 104; +Jenness, 1922: 150; Blanchet, 1925: 34; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 106; +Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 105-107; Jacobi, 1931: 219, 220; Ingstad, 1933: +88, 293, 297; Downes, 1943: 236-237; Porsild, 1943: 389; Harper, 1949: +229-230; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 22. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "habits_senses" id = "habits_senses"> +Senses</a></h4> + +<p>There is fairly general agreement on the Caribou’s keen sense of +smell, good hearing, and less well-developed vision. But perhaps the +last-mentioned attribute does not so much constitute poor eyesight as +lack of <i>perception</i> or <i>recognition</i>. In other words, is it +not possible that the animal is merely deficient in interpreting what it +may see clearly enough?</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—R. M. Anderson, 1913<i>a</i>: 8, and +1913<i>b</i>: 504; Stefánsson, 1913<i>b</i>: 164, 1914: 58, and 1921: +307; Blanchet, 1925: 34, and 1926<i>b</i>: 48; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): +106; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 104; Murie, 1939: 245; Banfield, +1951<i>a</i>: 22. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "habits_gaits" id = "habits_gaits"> +Gaits</a></h4> + +<p>The three principal gaits of the Caribou are walking, trotting, and +loping. The animal seems to be in such a constant hurry that trotting is +fairly habitual. The speed of this gait varies with the urgency of the +occasion; also, according to Stefánsson (1921: 248), with sex and age. +When frightened by an enemy, a Caribou may start off with a loping +gait, but it soon settles down to its space-consuming trot, which keeps +it safely ahead of a Wolf in any brief chase. The initial leap takes all +four feet off the ground at once (<i>cf.</i> Buchanan, 1920: 126). +According to Charles Schweder, it is usually a single animal that reacts +in this way; but he has seen as many as six together leaping into the +air. Fred Schweder, Jr., has seen both bucks and does in this +performance. My own observations covered two lone adults (at least one a +buck) and a lone fawn. One of the former turned and took a step or so +before making the leap. The fawn (at Simons’ Lake in October), after +allowing a canoe to approach within 100 feet, started off twice in +succession, and each time with an initial leap into the air before +settling down to a trot.</p> + +<p>Even a summer fawn is reputed to be able to outdistance a Wolf. Lyon +(1824: 67) found a Caribou too fleet for a greyhound.</p> + +<p>In trotting rapidly, a Caribou points its snout pretty straight to +the front, thus tilting the antlers backward a little. This gait, with +front legs stretching well out in front and hind legs thrust backward +correspon­dingly, gives a very charac­teristic and distinctive +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page87" id = "page87">87</a></span> +stamp to the appearance of a fast-trotting Caribou. (Compare the +sketches of trotting Norway Reindeer by Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: pls. 15, +18.) It is apparently quite different from any normal gait of the +White-tailed Deer. A buck’s well-grown antlers are of such weight +as apparently to force it to hold its head rather rigidly while going at +speed. If its head swayed appreciably, the top-heavy antlers might tend +to throw the animal off balance. In a trotting gait, the hind foot may +be planted just beyond the spot where the front foot had rested. In +walking, the print of the hind foot may be superimposed on that of the +other (<a href = "#fig20">fig. 20</a>). The white “spats” just above the +hoofs show to fine advantage when the Caribou trots; they fairly +twinkle. In a retreating animal the white rump-patch appears in marked +contrast to the dark brown adjacent fur.</p> + +<p>In stepping across a shallow rapid in peaceful surroundings, the +rhythmic splashings of the water to the front and the sides of the +alternately descending hoofs make a scene of rare charm. In moving +through deeper water, where the bottom is rough, rocky, and slippery, +the animals may pick their way quite slowly. When alarmed near the +water’s edge from some such cause as detecting a human scent, they may +make great splashing leaps into a river or bay, fairly enveloping +themselves in huge clouds of spray. There can be few more spirited +scenes of animal life in the North.</p> + +<p>I have seen several of the animals running with open mouths, even +when they had gone no more than a quarter of a mile from a point of +alarm. Every now and then a Caribou will be seen limping—perhaps +from wounds, perhaps because of a leg sprained in rough terrain.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Lyon, 1824: 67; Osborn, 1865: 227; Russell, +1895: 50, and 1898: 90; Hanbury, 1904: 131; Nelson, 1916: 460; Buchanan, +1920: 126; Stefánsson, 1921: 248; Blanchet, 1925: 33, and 1926<i>b</i>: +47; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 83; +Ingstad, 1933: 87; Murie, 1939: 245; Downes, 1943: 236-237; Harper, +1949: 226, 229; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 21. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "habits_tracks" id = "habits_tracks"> +Tracks</a></h4> + +<p>Caribou trails, resulting from the impact of countless hoofs on the +same restricted courses for unnumbered years, have been discussed in the +section on <i>Ecology</i>. The placing of the feet has been touched upon +in the section on <i>Gaits</i>. The individual tracks remain to be +considered.</p> + +<p>Each of two foot-prints photographed in mud was approximately 4 +inches (102 mm.) long and 4½ inches (114 mm.) wide. Another such +photograph (fig. 19) shows tracks about 114 by 95 +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page88" id = "page88">88</a></span> +and 102 by 102 mm. The foot sketched by Seton (1929, <b>3</b>: 129) is +obviously a front foot, though not so labeled; the hoofs as drawn are +approximately 89 and 93 mm. in length; the width of the foot is +approximately 100 mm.</p> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page89" id = "page89">89</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig19" id = "fig19"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig19.jpg" width = "449" height = "323" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 19.</span> Caribou tracks in mud; one +about 114 by 95 mm.; another, 102 by 102 mm. Between Bear Slough and +Eider Pond, September 3, 1947.</p> +</div> + +<p>A track (fig. 20) photographed in 2-inch snow represents a hind +foot-print superimposed upon a front foot-print in a walking gait; +including the marks of the dew claws, it was approximately 6 inches (153 +mm.) long and 5 inches (127 mm.) wide. The “square-toed” appearance is +very charac­teristic.</p> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page89b" id = "page89b">89</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig20" id = "fig20"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig20.jpg" width = "449" height = "317" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 20.</span> Caribou track in 2-inch snow; +hind foot superimposed on track of front foot. Combined track about 153 +by 127 mm. Camp Ridge, October 29, 1947.</p> +</div> + +<p>A front hoof is a little broader as well as longer than a hind hoof +(<a href = "#fig24">fig. 24</a>). The extreme and average lengths of the +front hoofs in five of my adult male specimens are 80-92 (85.2); of the +hind hoofs, 74-84.5 (79.8). In an adult doe a front hoof measures 77; +a hind hoof, 72.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>Reference.</i>—Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 19. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "habits_swimming" id = "habits_swimming"> +Swimming</a></h4> + +<p>In their extensive and long-continued migrations over a territory +composed in large part of lakes, ponds, and rivers, the Caribou have +almost daily need, from June to October, of surmounting these barriers +by swimming. The low temperature of the water seems to have no deterring +effect on them. Yet it appears that some of the animals may fail in +attempting the passages of wide waters. Charles Schweder spoke of +finding a number of dead Caribou, including bucks as well as fawns, that +had apparently succumbed in crossing a 4-mile-wide lake on the Thlewiaza +River. (Or had they perhaps come to grief in some upstream rapid and +finally been washed ashore on the lake?) Bones on the shore indicated +that this sort of tragedy might be more or less of an annual occurrence. +Perhaps some of the victims had been wounded or were otherwise in poor +condition.</p> + +<p>The buoyant, hollow hairs of a Caribou’s coat enable the swimming +animal to keep almost the whole median dorsal line of its body perhaps 2 +or 3 inches above the surface (<a href = "#fig9">figs. 9</a>, <a href = +"#fig12">12</a>). In a doe noticed on August 28 the lowest point on the +top of the neck, just in front of the shoulders, was practically level +with the surface, but elsewhere the dorsal line, from snout to tail, was +out of the water. In both doe and fawn the head is held so high that the +lower side of the snout at the tip does not touch the water; in the +older bucks of the autumn, however, the weight of their antlers presses +the head down until the lower side of the snout is frequently in contact +with +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page95" id = "page95">95</a></span> +the water. The swimming position tilts the antlers backward until the +basal portion is practically horizontal (<a href = "#fig9">figs. 9</a>, +<a href = "#fig12">12</a>). All ages and sexes, while swimming, hold the +tail nearly erect; but the very tip (perhaps only the tuft of hairs) +inclines toward the rear.</p> + +<p>On October 30 tracks indicated that half a dozen Caribou had swum +across Little River near its mouth, breaking through a 10-foot rim of +ice on the near side. When a herd of 2,000 or 3,000 crossed Windy River +during an October night about 1944, as reported by Charles Schweder, +they broke three channels through the thin ice that covered the +river.</p> + +<p>Once Charles saw a buck cross the 100-yard-wide Nahiline Rapids on +Kasmere River, where it drops about 40 feet in a quarter of a mile; yet +the animal did not seem to be carried far downstream. When about 10 +Caribou (mostly big bucks) crossed the Windy River at our camp on June +24, the last two, I noted, were pointing almost upstream in the 6- +to 8-mile-per-hour current.</p> + +<p>The usual formation in which a small number of Caribou cross a bay or +a quiet stretch of river is a single file, but a larger band is likely +to make the passage in several simultaneous files. The fawns, in +particular, follow as closely as possible behind their mothers.</p> + +<p>Although the Caribou are strong and speedy swimmers, the natives are +able, in canoe or kayak, to overtake and spear them. In 1947 several +fawns were speared in Windy Bay by Anoteelik.</p> + +<p>Other notes on swimming may be found in the sections dealing with +<i>Migrations</i>.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Back, 1836: 367; Simpson, 1843: 76, 310; Rae, +1850: 27; Richardson, 1852: 290; Schwatka, 1885: 68, 71-72; W. J. +McLean, 1901: 6; R. M. Anderson, 1913<i>b</i>: 503; Blanchet, +1925: 34; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 109-110; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 107; +Hoare, 1930: 27, 31; Jacobi, 1931: 216; Clarke, 1940: 88-90; Downes, +1943: 256; Harper, 1949: 227, 229, 230; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 21. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "habits_shaking" id = "habits_shaking"> +Shaking off moisture and insects</a></h4> + +<p>The long, dense fur of the Caribou holds so much moisture that when +the animal emerges from swimming it endeavors to rid itself of the extra +burden and cooling agency. This is effected to a large extent by a +vigorous shaking of the body, head, and ears and a switching of the +tail. The initial performance, lasting for perhaps a second or two, may +be undertaken while the animal’s lower extremities are still in the +water; and it is likely to be repeated from one to several times as it +moves over the shore and ascends the adjacent ridge. The cloud of spray +flying off is a sight to behold (<a href = "#fig9">fig. 9</a>). The +action is very much like that of a dog under similar circumstances. +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page96" id = "page96">96</a></span> +The fur may remain wet for a least 10 or 15 minutes after emergence from +the water. In driving rain on September 5, I noticed an +individual in a band of 20 Caribou shaking itself and sending the rain +drops flying off in spray, just as when one emerges from the water.</p> + +<p>The Caribou also go through a very similar but perhaps still more +strenuous performance for the obvious purpose of shaking off flies +(perhaps primarily the warble flies, <i>Oedemagena</i>). On August 20 a +buck passing along a ridge in the Barrens agitated the hide on its body +several times with considerable vigor. A young animal (fawn or +yearling) thus shook itself on August 28 as it approached the far side +of Little River. I got the distinct impression that the hide was +shaken horizontally in the case of moisture, but vertically in the case +of insects; for the present, however, this is best considered as just an +impression, and not a statement of fact. The muscles that agitate the +skin of the sides should be particularly well developed through frequent +practice with water and flies during the warmer part of the year.</p> + +<p>At the mouth of Little River, on August 30, I heard one of the +Caribou in a large band “blow its nose,” so to speak, with vigor. The +sound suggested that produced by a horse in vibrating its nostrils by +forcefully expelling air through them. I suspect that the Caribou +uses the same means, in an effort to fend off a nostril fly +(<i>Cephenemyia</i>) bent on depositing its larvae.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>Reference.</i>—Harper, 1949: 230. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "habits_signaling" id = "habits_signaling"> +Signaling</a></h4> + +<p>Apparently the commonest method employed by the Caribou for +indicating or communicating suspicion or alarm is erecting the stub of a +tail to a vertical position. This brings its white under side into full +view, as the silent flashing of a danger signal to other Caribou. +However, a solitary animal will exhibit signaling behavior as well +as one in a band. The tail remains erect, whether the animal stands to +stare uneasily at a suspicious object or flees from it in alarm. The +action is common to old and young of both sexes. It is so +charac­teristic of a fleeing animal as to give significance to the +expression, “high-tailing it.” In normal, unalarmed progress the tail +extends backward in a drooping curve (<a href = "#fig11">figs. 11</a>, +<a href = "#fig12">12</a>).</p> + +<p>I was not fortunate enough to detect any flashing of the white +throat, as described by Preble (1902: 42).</p> + +<p>Another silent signal is a most peculiar sprawling posture of +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page97" id = "page97">97</a></span> +the hind legs, attained by thrusting one of them well out to one side +and setting the foot down. The legs are not then symmetrically placed; +the one not moved obviously bears most of the weight of the hind +quarters. I managed to film this stance in a buck standing on a +sky-line on August 24 (cover). On September 9 another buck assumed the +posture while looking over our camp from a ridge on the opposite side of +Windy River. According to Charles Schweder, this is an expression of +suspicion or alarm, designed to communicate the same feeling to other +Caribou. When the others notice it, they stop and assume the same pose; +it may be observed in does and even fawns. Charles added that the tail +is erected at the same time—a very natural accompaniment, though I +failed to notice it.</p> + +<p>In all the literature on the Barren Ground Caribou, I have found just +one reference to this posture, and that a distinctly fragmentary +one:</p> + +<p>“While [the Caribou are] thus circling around I have often been +amused at the manner in which they carry one hind leg. A novice in +the hunting field, after having fired a shot in their direction, would +think that he had broken one hind leg of each member of the herd.” +(A. J. Stone, 1900: 53.)</p> + +<p>The author makes this observation just after mentioning a herd +sighted near the shore of Franklin Bay. A virtually identical +posture in the Norway Reindeer has been sketched by Seton (1929, +<b>3</b>: 112, pl. 18), who labels it “surprize.” An analogy to the +posture of the Caribou might be found in a hand thrust out, with fingers +spread, by a military scout as a signal of warning or caution to his +fellow scouts. A sprawling leg is perhaps the nearest approximation +to the human signal that a Caribou can attain.</p> + +<p>As noted in the section on <i>Gaits</i>, an alarmed Caribou may set +off by taking an initial leap into the air. According to Dugmore, such +an act on the part of the Newfoundland Caribou plays an important role +in its system of communi­cations, not by means of sight or sound, +but through the olfactory sense. He observes (1913: 89-90):</p> + +<p>“For hours afterwards <i>every</i> Caribou, on arriving at the place +where the frightened ones had jumped, has started violently, and has on +nearly every occasion turned and run in a manner that showed every +indication of fear, even though my presence was entirely unknown to +them. My idea is that when the animal is suddenly frightened it expels a +certain fluid from the glands in the foot, and that +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page98" id = "page98">98</a></span> +this fluid is a signal of alarm, a silent and invisible warning, +but none the less so positive that none dare ignore it.”</p> + +<p>As for the foot click—a presumptive means of communication +(<i>cf.</i> Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 69; Jacobi, 1931: 212-216)—I +must confess that I was always so engrossed with photography whenever +the Caribou were close at hand (up to within a dozen feet) that I had no +thought of this pheno­menon and did not detect it.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Richardson, 1829: 242; A. J. Stone, 1900: +53; Preble, 1902: 42; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 105; Murie, 1939: 245; +Harper, 1949: 230; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 19, 27. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "habits_food" id = "habits_food"> +Food</a></h4> + +<p>The ground lichens (including the various species of <i>Cladonia</i>) +in the Windy River area in 1947 did not seem, for the most part, to have +a height of more than 2 or 3 inches. The average length of several local +specimens of <i>Cladonia</i> is approximately 51 mm. This condition was +in considerable contrast to the great spongy masses I had noted in the +Tazin River basin, between Athabaska and Great Slave lakes, in 1914. +I have no means of knowing whether the condition in Keewatin +represented severe cropping by Caribou in past years and subsequent slow +recovery, or whether it is a normal condition. According to Charles +Schweder, the growth depends upon rain, and so varies from year to year. +During the warmer months, from June to September, the local Caribou +seemed to me to be feeding very largely on the higher vegetation, such +as willow, dwarf birch, alder, and sedges. I had no definite +evidence of their consuming lichens during that period. By early October +the species of <i>Cladonia</i> seemed to have attained a somewhat fuller +growth than they had exhibited several months previously. Perez-Llano +discusses (1944: 29-30) the utilization by Reindeer of various lichens. +Dix has reported (1951) on a collection of lichens from the Windy River +area.</p> + +<p>Some miscellaneous observations along Windy and Little rivers follow: +June 16, 20 Caribou feeding apparently on patches of crowberry +(<i>Empetrum</i>) and dwarf birch (<i>Betula glandulosa</i>) on a ridge; +June 29, a Caribou feeding apparently on dwarf birches; June 30, +a buck grazing in a sedge bog; August 26, several bucks browsing on +willow tops (probably <i>Salix planifolia</i>) in a riverside thicket, +and some does on dwarf birch and perhaps tall grass or low willow; +August 27, numbers feeding largely on willow and dwarf birch; August 28 +and 30, low alders, willow, and dwarf birches nibbled off. By early +October the leaves of the three last-mentioned +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page99" id = "page99">99</a></span> +shrubs were no longer available, having dropped off. During the summer +they had seemed to be preferred above the lichens. Cabot has remarked +(1912: 46) on the fondness of <i>Rangifer arcticus caboti</i> for dwarf +birch in Labrador.</p> + +<p>Charles Schweder reported as follows on the food of Caribou. In +summer they live chiefly upon leaves, especially those of dwarf birch, +and to some extent upon “grass” (probably largely sedges). Toward the +last of June a Caribou was killed with fat an inch thick on its +haunches—perhaps the effect of recent feeding on the fresh green +vegetation. In August and September the animals also eat mushrooms and +get very fat on them; they seem to be especially fond of a certain red +kind, which Charles has found in their stomachs. The Eskimos’ name for +mushrooms signifies “deer food.” The Caribou feed upon dead “grass” +(perhaps mostly sedges) in the fall, but not in the winter. Charles has +seen them digging through 4 feet of snow to get at the reindeer lichens; +but for the most part their winter feeding in this region is on the tops +of the hills, which remain bare. They also eat tree lichens, especially +in the winter time.</p> + +<p>Charles has seen Caribou chew the cud while standing as well as while +lying down. He once saw a buck thus occupied while standing on a hill +for half a day in a breeze that kept the mosquitoes down.</p> + +<p>Among the hundreds of Caribou observed at the river crossings and +elsewhere, I do not recall seeing a single one pause to drink.</p> + +<p>The <i>Influence of food supply on distribution</i> of the Barren +Ground Caribou has been discussed in a previous section.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Hearne, 1795: 317; Franklin, 1823: 242; +Richardson, “1825”: 329, and 1829: 243; Godman, 1831, <b>2</b>: 284; +Richardson, in Back, 1836: 498, and 1861: 275; Murray, 1858: 202; +B. R. Ross, 1861: 439; Kumlien, 1879: 54; J. B. Tyrrell, 1894: +441; Russell, 1898: 226; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 80; Lydekker, +1898: 49; Elliot, 1902: 276; Stone and Cram, 1904: 53; Buchanan, 1920: +105-106, 131; Hewitt, 1921: 61; Blanchet, 1925: 33; Seton, 1929, +<b>3</b>: 107-108; Kitto, 1930: 87; Jacobi, 1931: 223; Harper, 1932: 30; +Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 84; Weyer, 1932: 39; Hornby, 1934: 105; +Murie, 1939: 245; Clarke, 1940: 106-107; G. M. Allen, 1942: 299; +Soper, 1942: 143; Downes, 1943: 228; Porsild, 1943: 383; R. M. +Anderson, 1948: 15; Manning, 1948: 26-28; Rand, 1948<i>a</i>: 212; +Harper, 1949: 230; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 11, 19-20, 28-29; Barnett, +1954: 106. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "habits_scat" id = "habits_scat"> +Scatology</a></h4> + +<p>The pellets of the Caribou are small, more or less blackish, very +irregular in shape, somewhat compressed, and generally deposited in +little piles, in which the individual components do not stand out +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page100" id = "page100">100</a></span> +very distinctly, being pressed against each other. They are quite unlike +the oblong, curvilinear, comparatively symmetrical scats of the +White-tailed Deer and the Moose. I did not observe, nor learn of, +any particular seasonal variation in the shape or other characters.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 81; Manning, +1943<i>a</i>: 50. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "habits_voice" id = "habits_voice"> +Voice</a></h4> + +<p>My impression of the adult Caribou is that it is a comparatively +silent animal during most of the year. At the rutting season, however, +when the bucks do their fighting with a clash of antlers, their voice is +heard, as Fred Schweder, Jr., informed me. It is about as loud as the +fawn’s grunt, but a different sort of sound. Fred has also known a doe +to call when its fawn was shot.</p> + +<p>The only vocal sound that I heard from the Caribou was the grunt or +bawling of the fawns on the fall migration, and only during the last +week of August, when the “big movement” was under way. It was uttered +chiefly at the river crossings, apparently as a result of the fawns’ +anxiety lest they be separated from their mothers during the slight +uncertainty or confusion of these passages, when a considerable number +of animals were participating. It seemed to be a fair equivalent of a +human child’s crying out: “Don’t leave me behind!” or “Where are you, +mamma?” The grunt is very different from the bleating of a lamb or the +bawling of a domestic calf. It is a surprisingly raucous or guttural, +almost explosive, yet not very loud note, which I rendered at various +times as <i>gwuf</i>, <i>goff</i>, <i>gowk</i>, or <i>gorr</i>. Perhaps +the last rendering comes nearest to the actual sound. With one or two +exceptions, I did not identify any individual uttering one of these +grunts; but the Schweder boys, from their intimate knowledge of the +species, assured me that this was the voice of the fawn. In one case the +sound came rather definitely from a fawn that had become somewhat +separated from its band in going up the adjacent ridge after crossing +Little River. But for the most part the grunts seemed to come from +swimming animals.</p> + +<p>On August 30 another sort of sound—probably not a vocal +one—seemed to come from one of the older animals among a large +band crossing Little River. It was probably produced by a vigorous +vibration of the nostrils. It is further discussed in the section on +<i>Shaking off moisture and insects</i>.</p> + +<p>It is rather astonishing that Seton, after seeing and studying many +Caribou at close range in Mackenzie, should say no more +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page101" id = "page101">101</a></span> +about their voice than: “They snort a good deal and grunt a little” +(1911: 210). In his later monographic account he practically ignores the +topic, merely referring to the animals’ “sniffing, snorting” +(1929, 3: 105).</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Lyon, 1824: 336; Pike, 1917 (1892): 89; Stone +and Cram, 1904: 53; Seton, 1911: 210, and 1929, <b>3</b>: 105; Hornaday, +1914, <b>2</b>: 103; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193; Sutton and Hamilton, +1932: 84; Murie, 1939: 245; Downes, 1943: 226, 256-257; Harper, 1949: +230; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 22. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "habits_repro" id = "habits_repro"> +Reproduction</a></h4> + +<p>By the time the rutting season arrived in mid-October, there were +comparatively few Caribou left in the Windy River area. Consequently my +information on the subject was derived mainly from Charles Schweder and +Fred Schweder, Jr. Weeks before the scheduled season, there were certain +manifes­tations of the sexual urge. For example, on September 5 +about 20 Caribou were passing the Bear Slough. The band consisted mostly +of does and fawns, but included several middle-aged bucks (with antlers +much less than the maximum size) and possibly some younger bucks. Twice +I saw one of the animals attempt to cover another, but driving rain and +the compactness of the band prevented me from determining the sex or age +of those involved. During a trip to the Kazan River, lasting from +September 17 to October 1, Fred observed a good deal of fighting +among the Caribou—obviously a prelude to the mating season. In +Charles’ opinion, these early contests are not very much in earnest; the +real fighting begins about October 15. On October 8 Charles and Fred +referred to fighting that was going on among a herd of about 100 between +Glacier Pond and Lake Charles. Perhaps less than a quarter of this herd +were older bucks; the rest, younger bucks, does, and fawns.</p> + +<p>In former years, while living at the “Old Post” on Red River, Charles +used to go out and watch the fighting on a big open muskeg, about a mile +square, where the Caribou would congregate practically every year at the +rutting season, up to a thousand strong. They would stay for three or +four days, then disappear. Nothing on the same scale had come to his +notice in the vicinity of the Windy River post. At this season, when the +animals are in large herds, the bucks utter their calls, as mentioned in +the section on <i>Voice</i>. According to Fred, one sees in October a +good many bucks with an antler broken off in the fighting. The break +generally occurs at about the middle of the antler. On September 29 +Charles reported a buck with a broken antler, which he interpreted as +evidence +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page102" id = "page102">102</a></span> +of the beginning of the fighting season. During the rutting season he +once shot a buck with a broken jaw, and another with an eye gone. The +possible inference was that these injuries had been sustained in +fighting. A buck secured on October 16 had apparently been wounded +in fighting; there was pus in its neck, and it was considered unfit for +eating. I heard nothing as to the possible use of hoofs in contests +between bucks, as reported by Jacobi (1931: 233) for the Reindeer.</p> + +<p>During the rutting season the herd is likely to be a large one, and +to do little traveling. It is composed of fawns as well as adults. The +bucks pursue the does, and sometimes chase each other. Charles thinks +the young bucks keep away from the does at this time, being unable to +fight the older bucks with larger antlers. Fred reports a proportion of +about 10 bucks to 50 does in these herds—a probable indication of +polygamy. He expressed the opinion that the bucks do not mate until 8-10 +years old, and the does not until about four years old. However, he was +basing his estimate of the age on the total number of points on the +antlers—one point for each year; and on this basis the age was +probably much overestimated. Earlier sexual maturity on the part of the +doe might be another indication of polygamy in the species.</p> + +<p>At the onset of this season, the bucks neglect their feeding to some +extent; consequently those killed have stomachs only partly filled, +instead of completely filled, as at other times. By mid-October their +fat becomes tinted with reddish, and the whole flesh becomes so rank and +musky that it is disdained not only by human beings but even by the +Wolves. This condition seems to be considerably more pronounced in the +Caribou than in the White-tailed Deer. The hunters forego eating the old +bucks for a period of several weeks. Meanwhile the younger bucks, not +engaged in mating, remain fit to eat. Hearne (1795: 69) reported the +flesh of bucks as still unpalatable as late as December 30.</p> + +<p>The rutting season is said to continue through October into November. +The end of the period is uncertain, but it may coincide with the +shedding of the antlers of the old bucks.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Hearne, 1795: 72, 198-199; Richardson, “1825”: +327-328, 1829: 243, and 1861: 274; Pike, 1917 (1892): 48, 90; J. W. +Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 80; Hanbury, 1904: 73; Stone and Cram, 1904: 52; +Blanchet, 1925: 33; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 51, 56; Seton, 1929, +<b>3</b>: 124-125; Jacobi, 1931: 232; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 81, +84-86; Weyer, 1932: 40; Ingstad, 1933: 158; Hornby, 1934: 105; Murie, +1939: 244; Manning, 1943<i>a</i>: 52; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 10, 26, +31. +</blockquote> + + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page103" id = "page103">103</a></span> +<h4><a name = "habits_fawns" id = "habits_fawns"> +Fawns</a></h4> + +<p>Since the fawning takes place far to the north of the Nueltin Lake +region, practically no local information concerning it was obtained. +Charles Schweder stated that in the spring migration the pregnant does +pass to an undetermined distance north of the upper Kazan River (below +Ennadai Lake). Although the migration at Nueltin Lake continues +throughout June, the rearguard is composed largely of bucks, and the +comparatively few does accompanying them toward the last may be barren. +Fisher (1821: 199) and Parry (1821: 183) report a small fawn of <i>R. +pearyi</i> on Melville Island on June 2. Richardson states (“1825”: +329) that the young are born in May and June. There is evidently some +geographical and individual variation in the time of birth (<i>cf.</i> +Jacobi, 1931: 232). Apparently the gestation period in the Caribou +covers approximately eight months or a little less. In the domesticated +Reindeer it is 231 to 242 days, according to Jacobi (1931: 234); in the +White-tailed Deer, 205 to 212 days, according to Seton (1929, <b>3</b>: +258).</p> + +<p>Fred Schweder, Jr., stated that he had never found more than a single +unborn fawn in any one of the animals he had secured; yet he has seen as +many as four fawns following a doe. Of course there is no proof that +this individual was the actual mother of so many fawns; a stray or +bereaved youngster might well endeavor to attach itself to a foster +mother. On August 28, at Little River, I saw a doe being followed +by two fawns. On September 16 Fred reported seeing three old does +without fawns. Presumably most of the does do not bear young until they +are two years old (<i>cf.</i> Jacobi, 1931: 235); thus many yearling +does without family cares should be observed during the summer.</p> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page90" id = "page90">90</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig21" id = "fig21"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig21.jpg" width = "446" height = "280" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 21.</span> A Caribou doe (specimen No. +1101). Mouth of Windy River, September 21, 1947.</p> +</div> + +<p>On September 12 Charles Schweder stated that the does would soon be +losing their milk; yet on occasion he has found them with milk as late +as November (<i>cf.</i> Jacobi, 1931: 235). On September 21, when he +secured a doe (fig. 21) that was accompanied by a fawn, I asked if +he thought the latter was still nursing. By way of answer, he squeezed a +couple of the doe’s mammae, and some milk exuded. Thus the mammary +glands were still functioning at that date; they appeared well +developed. By August 27, at an age of perhaps two and a half months, the +fawns were browsing on their own account, and their teeth were well +developed. Fred Schweder, Jr., then spoke of having seen fawns nursing +four times during that month, the last occasion having been on the 25th. +On the 27th I had the rare privilege of witnessing such a nursery rite +across the mouth of +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page104" id = "page104">104</a></span> +Little River. The wilderness baby was so large that it was obliged to +lower its forequarters very decidedly in order to reach the maternal +font (from a lateral position). This attitude left its hind quarters +thrust high and ludicrously into the air. I did not notice that it +wriggled its tail as a bovine calf might have; but Charles Schweder +spoke of having seen a fawn hold its tail erect while nursing. He also +said that the bigger fawns kneel down with their front legs while so +engaged. In his opinion, when a doe is killed in the autumn, its fawn +does not go and join other Caribou, but lingers near the fatal spot +until a Wolf or some other enemy overcomes it. For this reason it is his +practice to secure the fawn also, if possible, when he takes the mother. +On September 13 a fawn remained by its dead mother, permitting one of +the hunters to approach within 30 feet and to throw rocks at it three +times, finally taking it by that means. After a doe was killed on +September 21, its fawn lingered in the vicinity for a day or two.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Franklin, 1823: 242; Richardson, “1825”: 329; +John Ross, 1835<i>a</i>: 432; Simpson, 1843: 277, 281, 381; J. McLean, +1932 (1849): 359; Armstrong, 1857: 477-478; Murray, 1858: 202; Osborn, +1865: 227; Nourse, 1884: 264-265; Pike, 1917 (1892): 204, 209; Dowling, +1893: 107: Russell, 1895: 51; R. M. Anderson, 1913<i>b</i>: +504-505; Hewitt, 1921: 62; Blanchet, 1926<i>b</i>: 47; Seton, 1929, +<b>3</b>: 124-125; Blanchet, 1930: 49, 53; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 192, +193; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 86; Ingstad, 1933: 161; Clarke, 1940: +88-90; Gavin, 1945: 228; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 26, 27; Scott, 1951: +179, 180; Barnett, 1954: 96. +</blockquote> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page90b" id = "page90b">90</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig22" id = "fig22"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig22.jpg" width = "445" height = "328" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 22.</span> A Caribou buck (specimen No. +1111). Mouth of Windy River, September 29, 1947.</p> +</div> + + +<h4><a name = "habits_growth" id = "habits_growth"> +Growth</a></h4> + +<p>During late August and early September the fawns probably averaged +about 50 lb. in weight. (For the measurements of two specimens, see the +section on <i>Measurements</i>.) Yet they varied so much in size that +some appeared nearly twice as big as others. On September 7 an +exceptionally small fawn was secured (estimated weight, 35 lb.) (fig. +23). Its coat was soft and woolly, representing an earlier stage than +that seen in any of the other fawns of that season. It was molting into +the next pelage, and its hide was unprime. It must have been born at an +unusually late date. Fred Schweder, Jr., remarked that he sometimes sees +this stage in the growth of fawns when the Caribou come down early from +the north (about the first of August), but it seems remarkable that it +should have been found in a September fawn. The present specimen has +actually smaller measurements than one secured on August 2 at Artillery +Lake (Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 97). The collector reported that the parent +doe appeared of ordinary size—not a particularly small or young +one. The yearlings noted on the spring migration +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page105" id = "page105">105</a></span> +in May (south of Churchill) and in June (at Nueltin Lake) appeared +roughly half the size of the adults.</p> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page91" id = "page91">91</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig23" id = "fig23"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig23.jpg" width = "448" height = "340" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 23.</span> A male Caribou fawn (specimen +No. 1095), in its first, woolly pelage. Mouth of Windy River, +September 7, 1947.</p> +</div> + +<p>Evidently several years are required for the attainment of full +growth. The younger adult bucks, with smaller antlers, are appreciably +inferior in body size to the older bucks, with better developed +antlers.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 97, 98; Banfield, +1951<i>a</i>: 30. +</blockquote> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page91b" id = "page91b">91</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig24" id = "fig24"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig24.jpg" width = "446" height = "316" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 24.</span> Hoofs of a male Caribou fawn +(specimen No. 1072); hind hoofs in the middle. Mouth of Windy River, +August 21, 1947.</p> +</div> + + +<h4><a name = "habits_antlers" id = "habits_antlers"> +Antlers</a></h4> + +<p>In late August and early September antlers were already in evidence +on the fawns, at an age of less than three months. They consisted of +bony knobs, covered with skin, and were an inch or two long. +I obtained no information as to when the fawns may shed the velvet +or the antlers themselves. By analogy with the Reindeer (<i>cf.</i> +Jacobi, 1931: 237), the fawns might be expected to drop their antlers in +late winter.</p> + +<p>When the adult Caribou return from the north in August, the antlers +of all are still in the velvet. However, completely hornless does are +not particularly uncommon at this season; in Charles Schweder’s opinion, +some remain permanently in that condition. Hornless does are reported in +various forms of Caribou or Reindeer in both hemispheres (Jacobi, 1931: +48). I saw also a few one-horned does on the autumn migration. In a +single group of three adult does photographed at close range on August +28, one was hornless and another one-horned (<a href = "#fig11">fig. +11</a>). A considerable proportion of my other photographs of +Caribou groups at this season show one or more animals with a single +antler or none. The hornless condition appears to be astonishingly more +common in Keewatin than in regions farther west. Stefánsson, whose field +operations were chiefly in northern Mackenzie and southwestern Franklin, +remarks (1913<i>b</i>: 151) on having found, at any season when Caribou +are normally horned, just three hornless animals among a thousand at +whose killing he had been present. Murie (1935: 20) speaks of having +observed only one hornless doe in Alaska, in September.</p> + +<p>By late August the bucks’ antlers have attained nearly their full +growth, though still in the velvet. The largest head of the season was +obtained on August 22. Its measurements were: right antler, in straight +line from base to tip of longest prong, 995; left antler, 980; distance +between main tips of the two antlers, 620; brow tine, from base to upper +tip, 335; to lower tip, 290. For the older bucks, the principal period +for shedding the velvet is September 10 to 20, although Charles Schweder +once observed a buck that had +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page106" id = "page106">106</a></span> +completed the process by September 1, and Fred secured one in that +condition on September 6, 1947. In Alaska old bucks shed the velvet +more or less regularly in September (Murie, 1935: 26). Sick or wounded +animals are said to retain the velvet for an indefinite period. For +example, a buck secured on September 29 had some velvet hanging in +shreds from the tips of its antlers, and it was found to have been shot +in the mouth sometime previously. The younger bucks and the does lose +their velvet somewhat later than the older bucks (say toward the end of +September). In a doe of September 21 (<a href = "#fig21">fig. 21</a>) +the antlers were covered with velvet and still had soft tips. +A young buck of October 2 was just shedding the velvet.</p> + +<p>Charles Schweder spoke of noting as many as 30-33 points on the +antlers of old bucks. (He probably included the brow and the bez tines +in this count.) He also referred to an exceptional set of antlers at +Simons’ Lake with about 40 points; he had first noted it about 10 years +previously, and it had doubtless been there for years before that. He +had never been able to secure its equal. When I saw and photographed it +in October (fig. 25), some of the points were broken off, so that an +accurate count was impossible; but there must have been close to 40 +originally, even without the brow tines, which were missing. The +palmation was much broader than I have seen in any other Caribou.</p> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page92" id = "page92">92</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig25" id = "fig25"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig25.jpg" width = "444" height = "304" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 25.</span> Enormous set of old antlers of +a Barren Ground Caribou, with exceptional palmation. (A 10.5-inch +length of a steel rule visible.) Simons’ Lake, October 15, 1947.</p> +</div> + +<p>The prong projecting backward at the angle of the main beam is by no +means so uncommon in the animals of this region as a Chipewyan hunter +seemed to indicate to Downes (1943: 227-228).</p> + +<p>Charles Schweder found a pair of locked antlers about 1940 near +Josie’s Bay. This was the only case of which he had any knowledge. An +instance of locked antlers in <i>Rangifer pearyi</i> is mentioned by +Peary (1907: 84).</p> + +<p>There is marked variation in the dates of shedding the antlers, +according to sex, age, and physiological condition of the individual. +This has resulted in various conflicting statements in the literature. +In the present region, the old bucks with 25 or more points are said to +shed their antlers about the end of October or in November, at the close +of the rutting season. (Fred Schweder, Jr., encountered a hornless buck +as early as November 7, 1947.) The younger bucks, with 15 to 20 +points, and the does retain their antlers till late May or June of the +following year. A doe of June 3 and another of June 16 were still +horned. In Alaska “the young bucks may carry their +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page107" id = "page107">107</a></span> +old antlers until late in April, while does carry theirs until the +middle of May, some of them until June” (Murie, 1935: 26).</p> + +<p>John Ingebrigtsen reported having seen two or three shallow lakes, +between Churchill and (South?) Knife Lake, whose bottoms were fairly +covered with caribou antlers. They were visible through clear ice. It +appears probable that these lakes, while ice-covered, were favored +resorts of large numbers of Caribou for their midday or nocturnal rests +at a period when they were shedding their antlers (November for the old +bucks, May or June for the does and young bucks).</p> + +<p>It is natural that the season at which the new antlers of the Barren +Ground Caribou begin to grow should vary greatly according to sex and +age, just as the shedding of the antlers does; probably also, for the +various forms of <i>Rangifer</i>, according to locality (<i>cf.</i> +Jacobi, 1931: 237). On Southampton Island “the new antlers begin to +appear in the males in March and April” (Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 85). +In Alaska Murie (1935: 24) “has found old bucks late in April with +velvet knobs well begun.” Seton’s account (1929, <b>3</b>: 102-103) of +the seasonal change of antlers is not only meager but largely at +variance with the information I assembled in Keewatin. Recently gathered +information is supplied by Banfield (1951<i>a</i>: 17-18).</p> + +<p>Measurements of the length of antlers in the velvet (right and left, +respectively) were recorded as follows: adult male, June 18, 420, 440; +adult male (<a href = "#fig3">figs. 3</a>, <a href = +"#fig4">4</a>), August 17, 1165, 1205; adult female (<a href = +"#fig21">fig. 21</a>), September 21, 220, 165.</p> + +<p>Scratching or anointing of antlers in the velvet with a hind hoof was +observed in an adult buck on June 16, and in a fawn on August 27.</p> + +<p>While there is undoubtedly some correlation between the age of a +Caribou and the number of points on its antlers, I am not aware +that such a correlation has been worked out to a satisfactory degree. +The Schweder brothers judged a Caribou’s years by the number of points +on both antlers, yet freely admitted that they had limited confidence in +such a criterion. Probably they would be nearer the actual facts if they +counted the points on only one antler. The situation is complicated by +the fact (if we are to credit Jacobi, 1931: 238) that bucks in other +forms of <i>Rangifer</i> exhibit the best development of antlers at six +to eight years.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Hearne, 1795: 198-199; Franklin, 1823: 240-241; +Lyon, 1824: 270; Richardson, “1825”: 327-328, and 1829: 241; Richardson, +in Back, 1836: 499; Armstrong, 1857: 478; Murray, 1858: 199-206; +B. R. Ross, 1861: 439; Osborn, 1865: 227; Pike, 1917 (1892): 49; +J. B. Tyrrell, +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page108" id = "page108">108</a></span> +1892<ins class = "correction" title = "missing space">: </ins>128; +Dowling, 1893: 107; Russell, 1895: 51, and 1898: 225; Whitney, 1896: +238-239; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 79-80; A. J. Stone, 1900: +53; W. J. McLean, 1901: 6; Elliot, 1902: 279-280; Hanbury, +1904: 95, 116, 133; Hornaday, 1904: 138; J. A. Allen, 1908<i>a</i>: +488; R. M. Anderson, 1913<i>b</i>: 505; Stefánsson, 1913<i>b</i>: +151; Buchanan, 1920: 126; Blanchet, 1925: 33, 1926<i>b</i>: 47-48, and +1930: 49; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 50, 89, 239-251; Seton, 1929, +<b>3</b>: 102-103; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 192; Jacobi, 1931: 237; +Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 81-86; Ingstad, 1933: 159; Hornby, 1934: 105; +Murie, 1935: 20, and 1939: 244; Clarke, 1940: 95; Downes, 1943: 228; +Manning, 1943<i>a</i>: 52-53; Harper, 1949: 228; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: +17-18; Barnett, 1954: 104. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "habits_rubbing" id = "habits_rubbing"> +Rubbing trees</a></h4> + +<p>Charles Schweder gave the following account. The bucks hasten the +shedding of the velvet in the autumn by rubbing their antlers on various +trees—willow, spruce, or tamarack. The individual may complete the +operation in possibly half a day. It is thought, however, that most of +the velvet comes off at the first tree. The animals usually select a +tree standing by itself rather than one in a thicket. It is usually a +small tree—say 4 feet high and 1 inch in diameter. Perhaps a +spruce is most often selected. Branches are broken and much of the bark +is scraped off in the process. The velvet soon dries up, so that it is +little noticed. Charles did not recall having seen any hanging in a +tree.</p> + +<p>The numbers of rubbing trees that I noticed at Simons’ Lake in +mid-October indicated that Caribou must have been much more numerous +there during the previous month than in the vicinity of the Windy River +post. These trees were particularly in evidence on the <ins class = +"correction" title = "text has ‘outskirits’">outskirts</ins> of a spruce +and tamarack thicket at the head of the lake. They were mostly +tamaracks, with some black spruces. Of the two spruces shown in figure +26, the larger was about 4 feet high. Many of the young trees had been +killed. The branches and the tops had been pretty generally broken off +and were lying on the ground. Most of the damage was fresh, but some of +it dated from previous years.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>Reference.</i>—Hanbury, 1904: 232. +</blockquote> + +<div class = "picture w250"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page92b" id = "page92b">92</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig26" id = "fig26"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig26.jpg" width = "247" height = "287" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 26.</span> Rubbing trees: two small black +spruces (<i>Picea mariana</i>)—the larger 4 feet high—broken +and barked by Caribou in rubbing velvet off the antlers. Simons’ Lake, +October 18, 1947.</p> +</div> + + + + +<h3><a name = "morphology" id = "morphology"> +Morphology and Taxonomy</a></h3> + + +<h4><a name = "morph_pelage" id = "morph_pelage"> +Pelage and molt</a></h4> + +<p>When the Caribou migrate northward through the Nueltin Lake region in +May and June, they still retain their winter pelage. It is now worn and +faded, and harsh as well, in contrast to the fresh, dark, soft autumn +coat.</p> + +<p>This stage is represented by an adult buck (No. 1046) of June 18. The +general color above is Cream-Buff (capitalized color terms +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page109" id = "page109">109</a></span> +are derived from Ridgway, 1912), changing gradually to Isabella Color on +sides of head and body; no distinct dark longitudinal stripe on lower +sides (such as appears in summer and autumn pelage); tail Cream-Buff +above, the rest Cartridge Buff; rump-patch varying from Cartridge Buff +to Cream-Buff; tip of snout and chin dirty whitish; small area below +nostrils near Mummy Brown; triangular area behind nostrils Cream-Buff; +crown Cartridge Buff; ears Olive-Buff on outer surface, Cartridge Buff +on inner surface; posterior venter Cartridge Buff; legs Isabella Color +in front, remainder Cream-Buff; hoofs black, bordered above with +Cartridge Buff hairs, forming a band ½-2 inches in width; antler velvet +in this and other specimens Olive-Brown. The marked difference between +the dark brownish and white pelage of the autumn and the Cream-Buff coat +of early June presumably results from wear and fading, without molt. The +does and the yearlings in June appear grayer than the adult bucks.</p> + +<p>In another adult male (No. 1033), collected June 3, the darker part +of the pelage is Buffy Brown rather than Cream-Buff.</p> + +<p>The molt of the bucks begins in June but takes place chiefly in July, +while the animals are somewhere to the north of the Nueltin Lake region. +On their return in August they have largely completed their summer +transfor­mation in appearance. A buck of August 17 had just a +little of the winter fur still clinging to its lower back; and another +on August 20 was in similar condition. At this season the white mane is +developed only on its lower portion (<a href = "#fig9">figs. 9</a>, +<a href = "#fig10">10</a>, <a href = "#fig12">12</a>), but by the end of +September the white has spread upward over practically the whole neck +(<a href = "#fig22">fig. 22</a>), and in some cases over the +shoulders.</p> + +<p>In an adult male (No. 1144) of October 16, representing the pelage of +the rutting season, the posterior crown is near Tilleul Buff, the +anterior crown somewhat browner; sides of head and upper throat between +Verona Brown and Buffy Brown; area about and between eyes somewhat +darker; triangular area behind nostrils (apex extending halfway to eyes) +and lower chin between Mummy Brown and Warm Blackish Brown; tip of snout +and chin Cartridge Buff; ears pale creamy white on both surfaces; whole +neck and shoulder mantle whitish, washed with Cartridge Buff, and +changing gradually to the brownish of the sides of the head; long hairs +along median ventral line of the neck tipped with Natal Brown; dorsal +area, from shoulders to rump, Prout’s Brown; stripe on lower sides Mummy +Brown, separated from dorsal area by an ill-defined lighter +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page110" id = "page110">110</a></span> +stripe, mixed with whitish hairs; top of tail slightly paler than back, +the rest white; small rump-patch mostly white; chest Mummy Brown; +mid-venter varying from Deep Olive-Buff anteriorly to Cream-Buff +posteriorly; posterior venter white; forelegs near Bone Brown; hind legs +between Mummy Brown and Olive-Brown, with a pale spot on the inner side +of the heel (this spot noticeable also in doe and fawn); hoofs black, +bordered above with whitish hairs. The hides of this specimen and of two +other adult bucks (No. 1111, September 29, and No. 1132, October 16) +were prime. The dark lateral stripe, which shows quite distinctly in +summer and fall specimens of both sexes (<a href = "#fig7">figs. 7</a>, +<a href = "#fig8">8</a>, <a href = "#fig10">10</a>, <a href = +"#fig21">21</a>, <a href = "#fig22">22</a>), from fawns (except very +young ones) to adults, and which is also a prominent feature in Old +World Reindeer (<i>cf.</i> Flerov, 1933), has been largely or wholly +overlooked in some descriptions of <i>Rangifer a. arcticus</i>.</p> + +<p>The summer molt occurs later in the does than in the bucks. Some of +the former return toward the end of August while still retaining most of +the winter pelage. Others exhibit remnants of it in patches, especially +on the lower back; this was true even of an adult doe (No. 1101) secured +as late as September 21 (<a href = "#fig21">fig. 21</a>). Its hide, +however, was prime. In this specimen the crown is near Verona Brown, +with varying admixture of whitish hairs; sides of head Verona Brown; +upper throat a little paler; a poorly defined area behind nostrils, +and lower chin, Mummy Brown; tip of snout and chin Cartridge Buff; ears +Drab, varying to Pale Olive-Buff, especially on inner surface; neck Drab +dorsally, mixed with whitish hairs, the remainder Pale Olive-Buff; +dorsal area, from shoulder to rump, Mars Brown; lateral stripe on lower +sides Mars Brown, separated from dorsal area by a poorly defined but +conspicuous area of Light Cinnamon-Drab; top of tail like back, the rest +whitish, washed laterally with Pale Pinkish Buff; small rump-patch +mostly white; chest Mummy Brown; venter Light Drab, becoming whitish in +inguinal region; forelegs Natal Brown, slightly darker in front; hind +legs Natal Brown, with a pale spot on the inner edge of the heel; hoofs +black, bordered above with whitish “spats” varying from ½ to 1½ inches +in width.</p> + +<p>Another doe, secured on November 3 but not preserved, was apparently +in long, full winter pelage, with whitish mane and shoulders. The dorsum +generally was grayish; the top of the rump, buffy gray. The white +rump-patch appeared to be more extensive, and to contain longer hairs, +than in the doe of September 21; likewise the white “spats” appeared +much more extensive.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page111" id = "page111">111</a></span> +<p>As winter comes on, the fur of the Caribou grows longer and paler +gray. One incipient stage of such a change from the summer coat began to +be noticeable as early as September 13. A buck that came trotting +down out of the Windy Hills on September 27 revealed the splendor of its +new winter coat, with an amazing amount of creamy white, chiefly on the +mane and shoulders. The long mane wears off during the winter, according +to Charles Schweder. It looks best, he added, when the bucks start to +fight in the fall. A yearling or large fawn on October 21 was +distinctly creamy about the neck and shoulders. After describing a +winter female from Wager River, Seton remarks (1929, <b>3</b>: 98): “The +general impression is of a creamy white animal, with a gray blanket on +its back.”</p> + +<p>For the first couple of months of its life the fawn wears a soft and +woolly coat. An example was furnished by a male fawn (No. 1095; <a href += "#fig23">fig. 23</a>) of September 7, which must have been born +several weeks later than the average date. It was actually smaller and +less developed than another male fawn collected on August 20. It was +molting into the next pelage (described in the following paragraph), and +its hide was unprime. The general color is Deep Brownish Drab; this is +overlaid with longer hairs of Pale Olive-Buff on the median dorsal line +of the neck, on the venter, and on part of the legs; a median +stripe on the back near Hay’s Brown; no distinct lateral stripe; ears +and posterior crown Cartridge Buff; forepart of crown Deep Brownish +Drab; area above eye Cream-Buff; snout varying from Deep Brownish Drab +above to Pale Gull Gray on sides; transverse band behind nostrils Dusky +Brown; tip of snout whitish; tail Deep Brownish Drab above, pale creamy +on sides, and white beneath; rump-patch whitish; chin anteriorly +whitish, posteriorly Dusky Drab; throat whitish to Pale Gull Gray; lower +part of legs, in front, Buffy Brown; hoofs black, bordered above with a +very narrow (¼-inch) strip of whitish hairs. A very similar young +fawn, taken on August 2, 1907, has been described by Seton (1929, +<b>3</b>: 98).</p> + +<p>In a male fawn (No. 1072) collected on August 20 the general color is +between Olive-Brown and Natal Brown; a paler longitudinal area +separating the lateral stripe from the dorsal area; ears Clove Brown +externally, pale creamy internally; transverse band behind nostrils +Blackish Brown; tip of snout whitish; sides of head varying from +Cream-Buff above eyes to Cartridge Buff below; tail Bone Brown above, +white below; rump-patch whitish; legs Buffy Brown, darker in front; chin +anteriorly whitish, posteriorly Hair Brown; +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page112" id = "page112">112</a></span> +throat Cartridge Buff; venter Light Drab; hoofs black, bordered above +with a narrow (¼- to ½-inch) strip of whitish hairs.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Franklin, 1823: 240-241; Richardson, 1829: 242; +B. R. Ross, 1861: 439; Schwatka, 1885: 60-61; J. B. Tyrrell, +1892: 128; Russell, 1898: 91, 226; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 79; +A. J. Stone, 1900: 52; Hanbury, 1904: 194; MacFarlane, 1905: +682-683; Blanchet, 1925: 33, and 1926<i>b</i>: 47; Seton, 1929, +<b>3</b>: 98-99, 104; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193; Jacobi, 1931: 236; +Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 81, 84-86; Murie, 1939: 244; Clarke, 1940: +89, 90; Downes, 1943: 226; Manning, 1943<i>a</i>: 53; Harper, 1949: 228, +229, 230; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 15-17. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "morph_albinism" id = "morph_albinism"> +Albinism</a></h4> + +<p>In <i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> this appears to be an +exceptionally rare phenomenon. There are references to albinos by the +following authors: Russell (1895: 51; 1898: 91, 226), Whitney (1896: +237), Boas (1901: 150, 501), MacFarlane (1905: 682-683), Ingstad (1933: +312), and Degerbøl (1935: 49, 51).</p> + + +<h4><a name = "morph_foot" id = "morph_foot"> +Foot-glands</a></h4> + +<p>I dissected out the glands from the hind feet of an adult male +Caribou (No. 1046). Seton (1929, <b>3</b>: 68) has discussed these +structures in the Woodland Caribou and the Norwegian Reindeer; and +Pocock (1911: 960-962, fig. 138B) and Jacobi (1931: 22, fig. 4), in +the Reindeer. Many hairs had their base in the glands, and there was a +fatty secretion on the hairs adjacent to the glands. I judged that +the opening to the exterior extended in a more or less dorso-anterior +direction. One of the suggested functions of these glands is anointing +the velvet covering of the antlers. I was highly interested, +therefore, in seeing an old buck on June 16 rub the tips of its growing +antlers with each hind foot in turn. Meanwhile it inclined its antlers +alternately to one side and backwards to place one of them at a time +within convenient reach of the hind foot on that side. It seemed to rub +its snout as well as the antler tips. In Charles Schweder’s experience +this action was always carried out with the hind foot, not the forefoot. +The latter contains a similar but smaller gland, according to Jacobi +(1931: 22), while Pocock (1911: 960-961) gives contrary testimony. On +August 27 I also saw a fawn rubbing a knob of its skin-covered antlers +with a hind foot.</p> + +<p>Another function of the foot-glands is suggested by an observation of +Dugmore’s (1913: 89-90), which has been mentioned in the section on +<i>Signaling</i>. I could not definitely connect any of the various +occasions of panic that I observed, with scent from the foot-glands of +preceding Caribou that had been frightened.</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Caton, 1881: 265; Pocock, 1911: 960-962; Seton, +1929, <b>3</b>: 68, 105; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 84; Harper, 1949: +230. +</blockquote> + + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page113" id = "page113">113</a></span> +<h4><a name = "morph_mastology" id = "morph_mastology"> +Mastology</a></h4> + +<p>Very little seems to have been published on this subject. Jacobi +(1931: 24) merely remarks that in the Reindeer the mammae number four, +or occasionally six, but that the supernumerary ones are not functional. +The four rudimentary mammae in a male fawn of <i>arcticus</i> (No. 1072) +of August 20 seemed remarkable for their arrangement in a nearly +straight transverse row—quite different from the more rectangular +pattern in a domestic Cow or in a male Moose, as figured by Seton (1929, +<b>3</b>: 221). In an adult doe (No. 1101) of September 21 the anterior +pair are about twice as far apart as the posterior pair; each of the +mammae appears no more than a couple of inches from the one nearest to +it. The arrangement in a two-year-old buck, as shown by Seton (1929, +<b>3</b>: 106), is approximately intermediate between linear and +rectangular.</p> + + +<h4><a name = "morph_fat" id = "morph_fat"> +Fat</a></h4> + +<p>A Caribou (probably a buck) secured about the end of June was +reported to have back fat half an inch thick—possibly resulting +from the fresh green spring feed. In August, however, scarcely any fat +was to be found on the animals; perhaps the annual renewal of pelage and +the summer harassment by flies had been deterrents to the storage of +fat. In September and early October the Caribou were in prime condition. +On September 19 there was a fresh piece of back fat half an inch thick; +two days later there was another piece three times as thick. In 1943 +(a year of great mushroom growth) the animals were said to have +become particularly fat. According to Charles Schweder, the doe never +becomes so fat as the buck; one of September 21, still nursing, was just +slightly fat. An adult buck of September 29 was recorded as “somewhat +fat”; two of October 16 were “rather fat” and “quite fat.” Charles has +seen as much as 3 inches of fat on a buck. The strips of back fat +brought into camp on October 8 from several bucks weighed about 5 to 10 +lb. apiece. Such fatness evidently prepares the bucks for the strain of +the rutting season, when they neglect their feeding and become very poor +and thin. This loss of fat occurs in about two weeks. The does also lose +some fat at this season, but slowly. In some winters the Caribou remain +fat, but in other winters they do not. In the latter case there may be +deep snow that hinders their feeding. In the spring the Caribou become +fat again, and they are in that condition when they arrive from the +south in May.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page114" id = "page114">114</a></span> +<p>The eagerness of the Eskimos and the Indians for fat results in their +selection of the biggest bucks, which generally carry the most fat. +Charles Schweder spoke of the tail of such an animal almost +disappearing, apparently engulfed in fat! Besides its use in the native +diet, the fat goes into the making of “Eskimo candles” (see section on +<i>Relations to man</i>).</p> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References.</i>—Franklin, 1823: 240; Armstrong, 1857: 477-478; +Whitney, 1896: 161; Elliot, 1902: 276; R. M. Anderson, in +Stefánsson, 1913<i>b</i>: 505-506; Stefánsson, 1921: 231-234, 246-247, +252; Jenness, 1922: 48, 101, 248; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 48, 90; Seton, +1929, <b>3</b>: 113-114; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 193; Weyer, 1932: 40; +Hornby, 1934: 105; Hamilton, 1939: 109; Downes, 1943: 228; Manning, +1943<i>a</i>: 53. +</blockquote> + + +<h4 class = "smallcaps"><a name = "morph_body" id = "morph_body"> +Body-Measurements and Weights</a></h4> + +<table class = "columns" summary = "key to following table"> +<caption>Columns</caption> +<tr> +<td>A</td><td>No.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>B</td><td>Sex and age</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>C</td><td>Date</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>D</td><td>Length</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>E</td><td>Tail</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>F</td><td>Foot</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>G</td><td>Ear from crown</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>H</td><td>Height at shoulder</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>I</td><td>Shoulder joint to hip joint</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>J</td><td>Circumference of neck at base</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>K</td><td>Circumference of body behind shoulders</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>L</td><td>Length of front hoof</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>M</td><td>Length of hind hoof</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>N</td><td>Estimated weight (lbs.)</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "measure" summary = "see text"> +<tr> +<th abbr = "number">A</th> +<th abbr = "sex and age">B</th> +<th abbr = "date">C</th> +<th abbr = "length">D</th> +<th abbr = "tail">E</th> +<th abbr = "foot">F</th> +<th abbr = "ear">G</th> +<th abbr = "height">H</th> +<th abbr = "shoulder to hip">I</th> +<th abbr = "neck circumference">J</th> +<th abbr = "body circumference">K</th> +<th abbr = "front hoof">L</th> +<th abbr = "hind hoof">M</th> +<th abbr = "weight">N +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>1033</td> +<td>♂ ad</td> +<td>Jun 3</td> +<td>1820</td> +<td>160</td> +<td>516</td> +<td>130</td> +<td> </td> +<td>1000</td> +<td> </td> +<td>1000</td> +<td>81.5</td> +<td>78</td> +<td>140</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>1046</td> +<td>♂ ad</td> +<td>Jun 18</td> +<td>1880</td> +<td>190</td> +<td>546</td> +<td>137</td> +<td>1029</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td>92</td> +<td>84.5</td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>1065</td> +<td>♂ ad</td> +<td>Aug 17</td> +<td>1750</td> +<td>146</td> +<td>555</td> +<td>120</td> +<td>1080</td> +<td>1010</td> +<td> </td> +<td>1185<a class = "tag" name = "tag3" id = "tag3" href = +"#note3">3</a></td> +<td>80</td> +<td>74</td> +<td>200</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>1111</td> +<td>♂ ad</td> +<td>Sep 29</td> +<td>1710</td> +<td>155</td> +<td>532</td> +<td>129</td> +<td>1020</td> +<td> </td> +<td>740</td> +<td> </td> +<td>82.5</td> +<td>78</td> +<td>200</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>1132</td> +<td>♂ ad</td> +<td>Oct 16</td> +<td>1710</td> +<td>120</td> +<td>530</td> +<td>120</td> +<td>1002</td> +<td> 975</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td>200</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>1144</td> +<td>♂ ad</td> +<td>Oct 16</td> +<td> </td> +<td>117</td> +<td>545</td> +<td>120</td> +<td>1110</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td>90</td> +<td>84.5</td> +<td>200</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "bottomline"> +<td colspan = "3">Average of ♂ ♂ ad</td> +<td>1774</td> +<td>148</td> +<td>537</td> +<td>126</td> +<td>1080</td> +<td> 995</td> +<td>740</td> +<td>1093</td> +<td>85.2</td> +<td>79.8</td> +<td>188</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>1101</td> +<td>♀ ad</td> +<td>Sep 21</td> +<td>1590</td> +<td>113</td> +<td>490</td> +<td> </td> +<td> 134</td> +<td> 870</td> +<td>860</td> +<td> 490</td> +<td>77</td> +<td>72</td> +<td>160</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>1095</td> +<td>♂ juv</td> +<td>Sep 7</td> +<td> 960</td> +<td> 90</td> +<td>360</td> +<td> 85</td> +<td> 620</td> +<td> 525</td> +<td>290</td> +<td> 610</td> +<td>49</td> +<td>45</td> +<td> 35</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "bottomline"> +<td>1072</td> +<td>♂ juv</td> +<td>Aug 20</td> +<td>1150</td> +<td>125</td> +<td>423</td> +<td> 89</td> +<td> 750</td> +<td> 645</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td>60.5</td> +<td>55.5</td> +<td> 50</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan = "14"> +<a name = "note3" id = "note3" href = "#tag3">3.</a> +<i>After skinning.</i> +</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page115" id = "page115">115</a></span> +<h4 class = "smallcaps"><a name = "morph_skull" id = "morph_skull"> +Measurements of Skulls</a></h4> + +<table class = "columns" summary = "key to following table"> +<caption>Columns</caption> +<tr> +<td>A</td><td>No.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>B</td><td>Sex and age</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>C</td><td>Date</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>D</td><td>Condylobasal length<a class = "tag" name = "tag4" id = +"tag4" href = "#note4">4</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>E</td><td>Zygomatic width</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>F</td><td>Interorbital width</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>G</td><td>Length of nasal</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>H</td><td>Maxillary tooth-row</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>I</td><td>Mandibular tooth-row</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "measure" summary = "see text"> +<tr> +<th abbr = "number">A</th> +<th abbr = "sex and age">B</th> +<th abbr = "date">C</th> +<th abbr = "condylobasal">D</th> +<th abbr = "zygomatic">E</th> +<th abbr = "interorbital">F</th> +<th abbr = "nasal">G</th> +<th abbr = "maxillary">H</th> +<th abbr = "mandibular">I</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>1065</td> +<td>♂ ad</td> +<td>Aug 17</td> +<td>373</td> +<td>130</td> +<td>140</td> +<td>125</td> +<td>94</td> +<td>101</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>1144</td> +<td>♂ ad</td> +<td>Oct 16</td> +<td>356</td> +<td>135</td> +<td>140</td> +<td>122</td> +<td>82</td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>1111</td> +<td>♂ ad</td> +<td>Sep 29</td> +<td>359</td> +<td>134</td> +<td>138</td> +<td>112</td> +<td>82</td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>1046</td> +<td>♂ ad</td> +<td>Jun 18</td> +<td>374</td> +<td>131</td> +<td>135</td> +<td>121</td> +<td>97</td> +<td>104</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "bottomline"> +<td>1132</td> +<td>♂ ad</td> +<td>Oct 16</td> +<td>350</td> +<td>136</td> +<td>138</td> +<td>117</td> +<td>83</td> +<td> 91</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "bottomline"> +<td colspan = "3">Average of ♂ ♂ ad</td> +<td>362.4</td> +<td>133.2</td> +<td>138.2</td> +<td>119.4</td> +<td>87.6</td> +<td> 98.7</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>1101</td> +<td>♀ ad</td> +<td>Sep 21</td> +<td>324</td> +<td>117</td> +<td>121</td> +<td>101</td> +<td>85</td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr class = "bottomline"> +<td>1036</td> +<td>♀ ad</td> +<td>Sep —</td> +<td> </td> +<td>118</td> +<td>120</td> +<td> 83.5</td> +<td>79</td> +<td> 83.5</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>1072</td> +<td>♂ juv</td> +<td>Aug 20</td> +<td>215</td> +<td> 92</td> +<td> 85</td> +<td> 54</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr class = "bottomline"> +<td>1095</td> +<td>♂ juv</td> +<td>Sep 7</td> +<td>189</td> +<td> 85</td> +<td> 77</td> +<td> 42</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "9"> +<a name = "note4" id = "note4" href = "#tag4">4.</a> +<i>Tip of premaxillary to posterior plane of condyles.</i> +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h4 class = "smallcaps"><a name = "morph_antler" id = "morph_antler"> +Measurements of Antlers</a></h4> + +<table class = "columns" summary = "key to following table"> +<caption>Columns</caption> +<tr> +<td>A</td><td>No.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>B</td><td>Sex and age</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>C</td><td>Date</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>D</td><td>Total length, right antler</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>E</td><td>Total length, left antler</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>F</td><td>Brow antler, length</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>G</td><td>Brow antler, width</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>H</td><td>Greatest spread of beams (outside measurement)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>I</td><td>Total number of points</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "measure" summary = "see text"> +<tr> +<th abbr = "number">A</th> +<th abbr = "sex and age">B</th> +<th abbr = "date">C</th> +<th abbr = "right length">D</th> +<th abbr = "left length">E</th> +<th abbr = "brow length">F</th> +<th abbr = "brow width">G</th> +<th abbr = "spread">H</th> +<th abbr = "points">I</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>1065</td> +<td>♂ ad</td> +<td>Aug 17</td> +<td>1165<a class = "tag" name = "tag5" id = "tag5" href = +"#note5">5</a></td> +<td>1205<a class = "tag" href = "#note5">5</a></td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td>875<a class = "tag" href = "#note5">5</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>1144</td> +<td>♂ ad</td> +<td>Oct 16</td> +<td>1200</td> +<td>1180</td> +<td>290</td> +<td>232</td> +<td>668</td> +<td>32</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>1111</td> +<td>♂ ad</td> +<td>Sep 29</td> +<td>1080</td> +<td>1080</td> +<td>279</td> +<td>235</td> +<td>655</td> +<td>32</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "bottomline"> +<td>1132</td> +<td>♂ ad</td> +<td>Oct 16</td> +<td> 960</td> +<td> 903</td> +<td>225</td> +<td>197</td> +<td>677</td> +<td>30</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "bottomline"> +<td colspan = "3">Average of last 3</td> +<td>1080</td> +<td>1054.3</td> +<td>264.7</td> +<td>221.3</td> +<td>666.7</td> +<td>31.3</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "9"> +<a name = "note5" id = "note5" href = "#tag5">5.</a> +<i>Antlers in velvet. Unless otherwise specified, lengths of antlers +were measured along the curve.</i> +</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h4 class = "smallcaps"><a name = "morph_testes" id = "morph_testes"> +Measurements of Testes</a></h4> + +<p>Seasonal change in the size of testes in adult males is indicated by +the following data: June 3, 30×18 mm.; June 18, 51×28.5; August 17, +50×35; September 29, 61×38; October 16, 60×40. Two male fawns: August +20, 18×7; September 7, 15×8.5.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page116" id = "page116">116</a></span> +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References on measurements.</i>—J. C. Ross, in John Ross, +1835<i>b</i>: xviii; J. <ins class = "correction" title = ". invisible">A.</ins> Allen, 1910: 8; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 97; +Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 87; Flerov, 1934: 240; Murie, 1935: 75; +Soper, 1944: 248; Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 30. +</blockquote> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References on weight.</i>—Parry, 1824: 305; Richardson, 1829: +241, and 1852: 290; Armstrong, 1857: 475, 498; Baird, 1857: 635; +M’Clintock, 1860?: 184; Osborn, 1865: 227; Schwatka, 1885: 84-85; +Collinson, 1889: 153; J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128; Whitney, 1896: 237; +J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 79; Jones, 1899: 329; Hornaday, 1904: +138, and 1914, <b>2</b>: 104; J. A. Allen, 1910: <ins class = +"correction" title = "text has , for ;">8;</ins> Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: +97-98; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 55; Hornby, 1934: 105; Banfield, +1951<i>a</i>: 15, 30. +</blockquote> + + +<h4><a name = "morph_geog" id = "morph_geog"> +Geographical variation</a></h4> + +<p>The comparatively few specimens available indicate that different +populations on the mainland, between Hudson Bay and the Mackenzie River, +vary in size. Final judgment on the significance of this variation must +await the accumulation of more and better material. The lack of +topotypical material from the Fort Enterprise area, Mackenzie, is a +particular handicap.</p> + +<blockquote> +The extreme and average body measurements of five adult males from the +Windy River area (see accompanying table) may be compared with those of +three adult males, taken by R. M. Anderson, 1910 and 1912, at +Langton and Darnley Bays (Nos. 34431, 34432, and 34435, Am. Mus. Nat. +Hist.): length, 1980-2095 (2052); tail (two specimens), 152-165 (158.5); +height at shoulder, 1066-1167 (1117); shoulder to hip (one specimen), +964. The average length of these specimens exceeds that of the Windy +River specimens by 278 mm.; the average height at the shoulder, by 37 +mm. The length of an adult male from Artillery Lake (J. A. Allen, +1910: 8) exceeds the Windy River average by 156 mm., and its +shoulder height (Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 97), by 10 mm., but the length +of its hind foot, as recorded, is 17 mm. less than the Windy River +average. +</blockquote> + +<blockquote> +The measurements of four adult females, taken by Anderson, 1910 and +1911, at Langton Bay, Horton River, and Great Bear Lake (Nos. 34429, +34434, 34441, 34442, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.) are: length, 1625-1815 (1736); +height at shoulder, 825-1066 (968); shoulder to hip (one specimen), 863. +The average length of these specimens exceeds that of a Windy River +adult female by 146 mm.; the average height at the shoulder, by 98 mm. +The length of an adult female from Aylmer Lake (J. A. Allen, +1910: 8) exceeds that of the Windy River specimen by 112 mm.; the +length of its hind foot, by 18 mm.; and the height at the shoulder +(Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 97), by 43 mm. +</blockquote> + +<p>Thus there appears to be a fairly uniform tendency toward greater +body measurements from southwestern Keewatin to northwestern Mackenzie. +The weight of Seton’s male from Artillery Lake (270¾ lb.) considerably +exceeds the maximum (200 lb.) that I estimated for any of the Windy +River males. Maximum measurements are furnished by winter specimens from +the region of Langton and Darnley Bays.</p> + +<blockquote> +The skulls of two adult males from Horton River and Artillery Lake (Nos. +34502 and 29031, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.) measure, respectively: +condylobasal length (tip of premaxillary to posterior plane of +condyles), 381, 371; zygomatic +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page117" id = "page117">117</a></span> +width, 138, approximately 142; interorbital width, 143, 144; nasal, 126, +112; maxillary tooth-row, 87, 84; mandibular tooth-row (of No. 29031), +93. The rostral profile of the former is slightly convex; of the latter +nearly flat. Comparison with Windy River adult males (see accompanying +table) indicates a longer and a broader skull in the more northwesterly +specimens. The measurements of the skulls of Southampton Island +specimens as presented by Sutton and Hamilton (1932: 87), suggest a +somewhat larger animal than the mainland form. +</blockquote> + +<blockquote> +The left antler of an adult male from Horton River (No. 34502, Am. Mus. +Nat. Hist.) measures: length, 1248; length of brow tine, 345; width of +brow tine, 360; total points (both antlers), 16 + 14 += 30. The corresponding measurements of two sets of antlers from +Fort Reliance in the American Museum of Natural History are: No. 121471 +(left), 1242-285-108; (right), 1244-412-294; total points, +16 + 23 = 39; No. 121473 (left), 1312-360-290 (broken); +(right), 1230 (approx.), brow tine a spike, not palmated; total points, +approximately 19 + 13 = 32. The Fort Reliance specimens +were selected by George G. Goodwin from a large number of old antlers +lying about, and they are naturally above the average in size. The +antlers of adult males from the Windy River area (see accompanying +table) measure distinctly less than those just mentioned. +</blockquote> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page93" id = "page93">93</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig27" id = "fig27"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig27.jpg" width = "448" height = "308" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 27.</span> Pile o’ Rocks, an ancient +enclosure erected as a game lookout on the summit of a hill 1.5 miles +NW. of the mouth of Windy River. June 30, 1947.</p> +</div> + +<p>Anderson (1913<i>b</i>: 505) and Stefánsson (1913<i>a</i>: 106, and +1913<i>b</i>: 241, 276-277) have called attention to certain rather +well-defined differences between the Caribou on both sides of Coronation +Gulf and those elsewhere in northern Mackenzie. It may be assumed that +the summer home of the former type is on Victoria Island. Many of these +animals in former years crossed over to the mainland in the autumn after +the freezing of Dolphin and Union Strait, Coronation Gulf, and Dease +Strait made such a migration possible; and they recrossed to the island +in the spring. During recent years this migration has greatly dwindled +(Blanchet, 1930: 50; Birket-Smith, 1933: 93; Clarke, 1940: 98; Gavin, +1945: 227; Godsell, 1937: 288; Banfield, 1949: 481); consequently the +Victoria Island population now seems to be largely confined to that +island throughout the year. In the American Museum of Natural History I +have examined several of Anderson’s specimens of 1911-1912 that are +obviously of this form, and I should scarcely hesitate to give them +nomenclatural recognition except for the fact that there has obviously +been some confusion in the labeling of the specimens (after they reached +the museum). Needless to say, a specimen selected as a type should +bear unques­tionable data.</p> + +<p>During the winter there is some interchange of populations between +Banks and Victoria islands across the frozen Prince of Wales Strait +(Armstrong, 1857: 297, 336). The description that Armstrong gives (1857: +478), based ostensibly on Banks Island +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page118" id = "page118">118</a></span> +specimens, indicates that the animals of that island are very close to, +if not identical with, <i>Rangifer pearyi</i> of the more northerly +Arctic islands. Yet there is no known interchange of populations across +the frozen McClure Strait or other wide sea channels in approximately +latitude 74° N.</p> + +<p>The Caribou of Boothia Peninsula and Somerset and Prince of Wales +islands are said to be a small form (Wright, 1944: 195).</p> + +<p>The Caribou of the Dubawnt River region, as far as may be judged from +J. B. Tyrrell’s photographs (1897: pl. 1; Seton, 1929, +<b>3</b>: pl. 22), are indistin­guishable from those of the Nueltin +Lake region.</p> + +<p>The Southampton Island antlers figured by Sutton and Hamilton (1932: +pl. 8) are so strikingly different from all but one (No. 1132) of +those that I noticed in southwestern Keewatin that I should be much +inclined to regard them as representing a separate subspecies, provided +they are typical of that island. In most of the bucks of the Windy River +area the beams are deeply and fairly uniformly bowed, although there is +a strong tendency for approximately the basal third to be nearly +straight, with a pronounced forward bend just above it (<i>cf.</i> +<a href = "#fig3">figs. 3</a>, <a href = "#fig4">4</a>, <a href = +"#fig9">9</a>, <a href = "#fig10">10</a>, <a href = "#fig12">12</a>, +<a href = "#fig22">22</a>, <a href = "#fig25">25</a>). The bend at this +point in the Southampton antlers is extremely slight by comparison. In +mainland specimens the beam in cross-section is generally more or less +round, with rarely any tendency toward flattening, such as may be seen +in the Southampton set and in my No. 1132. Furthermore, I cannot +recall in the mainland animals a single such pronounced zigzag effect as +may be seen in the Southampton antlers. In extremely few of them does +the bez tine originate at such a distance (apparently 8 inches or so) +above the base, as in Sutton and Hamilton’s figure. The lack of +palmation in the bez tines of their specimen is noteworthy.</p> + +<p>There is a distinct likelihood that the isolated herd of Coats Island +(Wright, 1944: 188; Banfield, 1949: 481), and also that of Salisbury +Island in Hudson Strait (Grant, 1903: 189; Tweedsmuir, 1951: 37), may be +distinct from the populations on the nearest large land bodies.</p> + +<p>I have briefly examined a dozen or more heads (skulls with antlers) +of the Labrador Barren Ground Caribou (<i>R. a. caboti</i> +G. M. Allen) in the United States National Museum; they were +collected by L. M. Turner in the 1880’s. Some of these antlers +appear longer than any I saw in Keewatin. Furthermore, the tips of the +bez tines +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page119" id = "page119">119</a></span> +in these specimens seem, on the average, more strongly incurved than in +<i>R. a. arcticus</i>.</p> + +<p>For the purpose of comparing the Barren Ground Caribou with the +Western Woodland Caribou, <i>Rangifer caribou sylvestris</i> +(Richardson), the following notes are offered on an adult male of the +latter form in the United States Biological Surveys Collection (No. +235361; fig. 28). It was secured by a Cree Indian on Stony Mountain, +about 27 miles south of Fort McMurray, Alberta, on October 21, 1920, and +it was measured and prepared by myself. The general dorsal color is near +Prout’s Brown, overlaid more or less with longer whitish hairs; outer +surface of ears near Prout’s Brown, with an admixture of grayish white +hairs; tip of snout, between nostrils and upper lip, Cartridge Buff; +this area of more restricted extent than the similar patch in +<i>arcticus</i>; neck creamy; longest hairs of throat fringe about 20 +mm. (longer than in <i>arcticus</i>); no appreciable dark longitudinal +stripe on lower sides, but an ill-defined lighter patch on the side +behind the shoulder; rump-patch apparently less extensive than in +<i>R. a. arcticus</i>; venter near Buffy Brown, posteriorly creamy; +creamy white “spats” above hoofs ¼ to 1½ inches wide, not extending up +hind leg as indicated by Seton (1929, <b>3</b>: pl. 10). Length, 2025; +tail, 225; foot, 625; front hoof, 109; hind hoof, 101; estimated weight, +300 lb. The Western Woodland Caribou is thus a distinctly larger animal +than <i>R. a. arcticus</i>, with a noteworthy difference in the +virtual absence of a light lateral stripe, setting off a darker stripe +below it. The specific distinctness between the two animals seems +abundantly clear.</p> + +<div class = "picture"> +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page94" id = "page94">94</a></span> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<a name = "fig28" id = "fig28"> </a><br> +<img src = "images/fig28.jpg" width = "444" height = "356" +alt = "see caption"></p> + +<p class = "caption"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 28.</span> Adult male Western Woodland +Caribou (<i>Rangifer caribou sylvestris</i>) (No. 235361, U.S. Biol. +Surveys Coll.). Stony Mountain, about 27 miles S. of Fort McMurray, +Alberta, October 22, 1920. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.)</p> +</div> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References to general descriptions (including geographical +variation).</i>—Richardson, 1829: 239, 241-242; Armstrong, 1857: +478; Baird, 1857: 635; Caton, 1881: 105; Lydekker, 1898: 47-48, 1901: +38-40, and 1915: 254; Elliot, 1901: 37, and 1902: 281-282, 286-287; +Preble, 1902: 42-43; Stone and Cram, 1904: 52; J. A. Allen, +1908<i>a</i>: 488; Millais, 1915: 261; Buchanan, 1920: 125-126; Anthony, +1928: 530-531; Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: 98-99; Jacobi, 1931: 78-80; Sutton +and Hamilton, 1932: 88; Degerbøl, 1935: 48-51; R. M. Anderson, +1937: 103; Hamilton, 1939: 109; Murie, 1939: 239; G. M. Allen, +1942: 297-298; Wright, 1944: 195; Rand, 1948<i>a</i>: 211-212; Banfield, +1951<i>a</i>: 15-17; Mochi and Carter, 1953: text to pl. 9. +</blockquote> + +<blockquote class = "reference"> +<i>References to illustrations.</i>—Parry, 1824: pl. facing p. +508; Richardson, 1829: 240; Caton, 1881: 207; Pike, 1917 (1892): pl. +facing p. 89; J. B. Tyrrell, 1897: pl. 1; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 +(1898): pls. facing pp. 80, 81; Grant, 1903: 6th and 7th pls. following +p. 196; J. A. Allen, 1908<i>a</i>: 500-503; Seton, 1911: 254, 256, +262, and pls. facing pp. 222, 224, 226, 228, 234; Buchanan, 1920: pl. +facing p. 132; Hewitt, 1921: pls. 3, 5; Blanchet, 1926<i>b</i>: 47; +Seton, 1929, <b>3</b>: pls. 17, 21, 22, 23; Blanchet, 1930: 50; Sutton +and Hamilton, 1932: pl. 8, fig. 4; Ingstad, 1933: pl. facing p. 178; +Clarke, 1940: frontisp., 85, 87, 89; Harper, 1949: 224, 229; Banfield, +1951<i>a</i>: figs. 1, 2, 12-16, 20, 21, 23; Anonymous, 1952: 261, 263, +266, 267; Mochi and Carter, 1953: pl. 9; Barnett, 1954: 90-91, +103-105. +</blockquote> + + +<div class = "literature"> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page120" id = "page120">120</a></span> +<h3><a name = "literature" id = "literature">Literature Cited</a></h3> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Alcock, F. J.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1936. Geology of Lake Athabaska region, +Saskatchewan. <i>Canada Dept. Mines, Geol. 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Preliminary investigation of the barren ground caribou. +Part 1. Former and present distribution, migrations, and status. Part 2. +Life history, ecology, and utilization. <i>Canada Dept. Northern Affairs +and National Resources, National Parks Branch, Canadian Wildlife +Service, Wildlife Management Bull.</i>, ser. 1, 10A: [2]+79, +5 fig., 12 maps; 10B: [2]+112, 30 fig., 1 map. (Not seen until +after the present report had gone to press.)</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Barnett, Lincoln.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1954. The world we live in: part 10. The +arctic barrens. <i>Life</i> <b>36</b> (23): 90-115, 33 fig., +1 map.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page122" id = "page122">122</a></span> +<p class = "smallcaps">Beddard, Frank Evers.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1902. The Cambridge natural history. Vol. 10. +Mammalia. London: xii + 605, 285 fig.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Bell, J. Macintosh.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1901<i>a</i>. Report on the topography and geology of Great Bear Lake +and of a chain of lakes and streams thence to Great Slave Lake. <i>Ann. +Rept. Geol. Survey Canada</i> <b>12</b> (n.s.) 1899, report C: 1-28.</p> + +<p>1901<i>b</i>. Explorations in the Great Bear Lake region. <i>Geog. +Jour.</i> <b>18</b> (3): 249-258, 6 fig.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Bell, Robert.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1881. Report on Hudson’s Bay and some of the +lakes and rivers lying to the west of it. <i>Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey +Canada Rept. Progress 1879-80</i>: [6], 1C-113C, 8 pl., +1 map.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Bergman, Arvid M.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1917. Om renens oestrider. <i>Entom. +Tidskrift</i> <b>38</b>: 1-32, 113-146, 26 pl.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Birket-Smith, Kaj.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1929. The Caribou Eskimos. Material and social life and their +cultural position. 1. Descriptive part. <i>Rept. 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In northern Labrador. Boston: xii + +292, 48 pl., 2 maps.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page123" id = "page123">123</a></span> +<p class = "smallcaps">Cameron, Agnes Deans.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1912. The new North . . . New York and +London: xix + 398, 1 pl., 114 fig., 1 map.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Camsell, Charles.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1916. An exploration of the Tazin and Taltson +Rivers, North West Territories. <i>Geol. Survey</i> [Canada] <i>Mem.</i> +84, <i>Geol. Ser.</i> 69: iii + 124, 18 pl., 1 map.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Camsell, Charles, and Wyatt Malcolm.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1919. The Mackenzie River basin. <i>Canada +Dept. Mines, Geol. Survey Mem.</i> 108: ii + 154, 14 pl., +2 maps.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Caton, John Dean.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1881. The antelope and deer of America. +Revised ed. Boston: v-xvi, 17-426, 1 pl., 76 fig. 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London: ii + 211, 1 map.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Douglas, George M.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1914. Lands forlorn; a story of an expedition +to Hearne’s Coppermine River. New York: xv + 285, 1 pl., 185 fig., +1 map.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Dowling, D. B.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1893. Narrative of a journey in 1890, from +Great Slave Lake to Beechy +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page124" id = "page124">124</a></span> +Lake, on the Great Fish River. From the journal of Mr. James +McKinley. . . . <i>Ottawa Naturalist</i> <b>7</b> (6): +85-92; (7): 101-114.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Downes, P. G.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1943. Sleeping Island. New York: vii + 296, +24 pl.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Dugmore, A. Radclyffe.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1913. The romance of the Newfoundland +caribou, an intimate account of the life of the reindeer of North +America. Philadelphia and London: viii + 192, 64 pl., 39 fig., +2 maps.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Dutilly, Arthème.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1949. A bibliography of reindeer, caribou, +and musk-ox. Dept. of the Army, Office of Quartermaster General, +Military Planning Division, Research and Development Branch, +Environmental Protection Section, Rept. 129, Washington: x + 462. +(Mimeographed.)</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Dyar, Harrison G.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1919. The mosquitoes collected by the +Canadian Arctic Expedition, 1913-18. (Diptera, Culicidae.) <i>Rept. +Canadian Arctic Exped. 1913-18</i>, <b>3</b>, part C: 31-33, +2 fig.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Ekblaw, W. Elmer.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1926. The American Arctic Archipelago. In: +Victor E. Shelford (editor), Naturalist’s guide to the Americas: 98-102. +Baltimore.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Elliot, Daniel Giraud.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1901. 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A new palaeolithic reindeer from Siberia. <i>Jour. +Mammalogy</i> <b>15</b> (3): 239-240.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Franklin, John.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1823. Narrative of a journey to the shores of +the Polar Sea, in the years 1819, 20, 21, and 22. Zoological appendix: +quadrupeds and birds, by Joseph Sabine, pp. 647-703; notices of the +fishes, and botanical appendix, by John Richardson, pp. 705-783. +London<ins class = "correction" title = ": missing">: </ins>xv + 783 + +[1], 30 pl., 4 maps.</p> + +<p><span class = "smallcaps">Franklin, John</span>, and <span class = +"smallcaps">John Richardson</span>.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1828. Narrative of a second expedition to the +shores of the Polar Sea, in the years 1825, 1826, and 1827, by John +Franklin. . . . Including an account of the progress of a +detachment to the eastward, by John Richardson. . . . +London: 320 + clvii, 31 pl., 6 maps.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page125" id = "page125">125</a></span> +<p class = "smallcaps">Freuchen, Peter.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1935. Mammals. Part 2. Field notes and +biological observations. <i>Rept. Fifth Thule Exped. 1921-24</i>, +<b>2</b> (4-5): 68-278, 1 map.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Gavin, Angus.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1945. Notes on mammals observed in the Perry +River district, Queen Maud Sea. <i>Jour. Mammalogy</i> <b>26</b> (3): +226-230.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Gilder, William H.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1881. Schwatka’s search. Sledging in the +Arctic in quest of the Franklin records. New York: xvi + 316, 12 pl., 18 +fig., 2 maps.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Godman, John D.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1831. American natural history. Ed. 2, vol. +2. Philadelphia: 1-330, 18 pl.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Godsell, Philip H.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1934. Arctic trader. New York: i-xvii, 19-329, 12 pl., 1 +map.</p> + +<p>1937. The “Blond” Eskimos and the “created want.” <i>Nat. +Hist.</i> <b>39</b> (4): 285-289, 4 fig.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Goldman, Edward A.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1944. Part 2. Classification of wolves. In: +Stanley P. Young and Edward A. Goldman, The wolves of North America: +387-636, 44 pl., 2 maps.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Grant, Madison.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1903. The caribou. <i>Seventh Ann. Rept. New +York Zool. Soc. . . . 1902</i>: 175-196, 32 pl., +1 map.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Hamilton, W. J., Jr.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1939. American mammals, their lives, habits, +and economic relations. New York: xii + 434, 1 pl., 92 fig.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Hanbury, David T.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1900. A journey from Chesterfield Inlet to Great Slave Lake, +1898-9. <i>Geog. Jour.</i> <b>16</b> (1): 63-77, 1 map.</p> + +<p>1903. Through the Barren Ground of north-eastern Canada to the +Arctic coast. <i>Geog. Jour.</i> <b>22</b> (2): 178-191, 9 fig., +1 map.</p> + +<p>1904. Sport and travel in the northland of Canada. London and +New York: xxxii + 319, 38 pl., 2 fig., 2 maps.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Harper, Francis.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1915. The Athabaska-Great Slave Lake expedition. <i>Summary +Rept. Geol. Survey</i> [Canada] <i>1914</i>: 159-163.</p> + +<p>1932. Mammals of the Athabaska and Great Slave Lakes region. +<i>Jour. Mammalogy</i> <b>13</b> (1): 19-36, 3 pl.</p> + +<p>1945. Extinct and vanishing mammals of the Old World. <i>Am. +Committee Internat. Wild Life Protection, Spl. Publ.</i> 12. New York: +xvi + 850, 1 pl., 67 fig.</p> + +<p>1949. In caribou land. <i>Nat. Hist.</i> <b>58</b> (5): +224-231, 239-240, 12 fig., 2 maps.</p> + +<p>1953. Birds of the Nueltin Lake Expedition, Keewatin, 1947. +<i>Am. Midland Naturalist</i> <b>49</b> (1): 1-116, 8 fig., +1 map. (“Jan.” = April?).</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Hearne, Samuel.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1795. A journey from Prince of Wales’ Fort in +Hudson’s Bay, to the Northern Ocean . . . in the years 1769, +1770, 1771, 1772. +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page126" id = "page126">126</a></span> +London: xliv + 458, 9 pl. (A Dublin edition, 1796, with nearly +identical pagination.)</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Henderson, F. D.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1927. Canadian Arctic Expedition, 1924. In: +Canada’s Arctic islands: 29-41, 6 fig. Dept. Interior, Ottawa.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Henriksen, Kai L.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1937. Zoology. Insects collected on the Fifth +Thule Expedition. <i>Rept. Fifth Thule Exped. 1921-24</i>, <b>2</b> (8). +1-34, 1 map.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Hewitt, C. Gordon.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1921. The conservation of the wild life of +Canada. New York: xxi + 344, 24 pl., 4 fig., 10 maps, +5 charts.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Hoare, W. H. B.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1930. Conserving Canada’s musk-oxen; being an +account of an investigation of the Thelon Game Sanctuary +1928-29. . . . (Including Appendix B, Notes on the +musk-ox and the caribou, pp. 49-53, by R. M. Anderson.) Dept. +Interior, Ottawa: 2-53, 22 fig., 4 maps.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Hoffman, Arnold.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1949. The Northwest Territories: the last +frontier. <i>Explorers’ Jour.</i> <b>27</b> (1): 10-12, 64.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Hooper, W. H.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1853. Ten months among the tents of the +Tuski, with incidents of an Arctic boat expedition in search of Sir John +Franklin, as far as the Mackenzie River, and Cape Bathurst. London: xvi ++ 417, 5 pl., 6 fig., 2 maps.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Hornaday, William T.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1904. The American natural history. . . . New York: xxv + 449, +343 fig., maps.</p> + +<p>1914. The American natural history. Fireside ed., vol. 2. New +York: xv + 332, 23 pl., 62 fig., 6 maps.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Hornby, John.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1934. Wild life in the Thelon River area, +Northwest Territories, Canada. <i>Canadian Field-Naturalist</i> +<b>48</b> (7): 105-115.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Hustich, Ilmari.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1951. The lichen woodlands in Labrador and +their importance as winter pastures for domesticated reindeer. <i>Acta +Geographica</i> <b>12</b> (1): 1-48, 18 fig., 4 maps.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Ingstad, Helge.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1933. The land of feast and famine. New York: +1-332, 31 pl., 1 map.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Isham, James.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1949. James Isham’s observations on Hudsons +Bay 1743. . . . (Edited by E. E. Rich and A. M. Johnson.) +<i>Publ. Champlain Soc., Hudson’s Bay Company ser.</i> 12. Toronto: +iii-cv, 1-198, 1 pl., 18 fig.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Jackson, Hartley H. T.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1944. Big-game resources of the United States +1937-1942. <i>U.S. Dept. Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Research +Rept.</i> 8: ii + 56, 31 fig.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page127" id = "page127">127</a></span> +<p class = "smallcaps">Jacobi, Arnold.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1931. Das Rentier. <i>Zool. Anzeiger</i>, +suppl. vol. 96: vii + 264, 6 pl., 25 fig., 7 maps.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Jenness, Diamond.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1922. The life of the Copper Eskimo. <i>Rept. Canadian Arctic +Exped. 1913-18</i>, <b>12</b>: 1-277, 9 pl., 69 fig., +2 maps.</p> + +<p>1932. The Indians of Canada. <i>Nat. Mus. Canada Bull.</i> 65: +x + 446, 7 pl., 118 fig., 10 maps.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Johansen, Frits.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1921. Insect life on the western Arctic coast +of America. <i>Rept. Canadian Arctic Exped. 1913-18</i>, <b>3</b>, pt. +K: 1-61, 10 pl., 1 map.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Jones, Charles J.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1899. Buffalo Jones’ forty years of +adventure. . . . Compiled by Henry Inman. Topeka: xii + 469, 37 pl., +9 fig.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Kennedy, William.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1853. A short narrative of the second voyage +of the <i>Prince Albert</i>, in search of Sir John Franklin. London: xiv ++ xxv, 27-202, 4 pl., 1 map.</p> + +<p><span class = "smallcaps">Kennicott, Robert.</span> (<i>See</i> +<a href = "#anon69">Anonymous, 1869</a>.)</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Kindle, E. M.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1917. A note on the migration of the Barren Ground Caribou. +<i>Ottawa Naturalist</i> <b>31</b> (9): 107-109.</p> + +<p>1928. Canada north of fifty-six degrees: the land of long +summer days. <i>Canadian Field-Naturalist</i> <b>42</b> (3): 53-86, 19 +pl., 9 fig., 4 maps.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">King, Richard.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1836. Narrative of a journey on the shores of +the Arctic Ocean, in 1833, 1834, and 1835; under the command of Capt. +Back, R.N. London: <b>1</b>: ix + 312; <b>2</b>: viii + 321.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Kitto, F. H.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1930. The North West Territories 1930. Dept. +Interior, Ottawa: 1-137, 44 fig., 3 maps.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Kumlien, Ludwig.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1879. Contributions to the natural history of +Arctic America. . . . Introduction, ethnology, mammals. +<i>Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus.</i> 15: 3-67.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Lantis, Margaret.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1950. The reindeer industry in Alaska. +<i>Arctic</i> <b>3</b> (1): 27-44, 2 fig., 1 map.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Lofthouse, J.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1899. A trip on the Tha-anne River, Hudson +Bay. <i>Geog. Jour.</i> <b>13</b> (3): 274-277, 1 map.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Lydekker, Richard.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1898. The deer of all lands. London: xx + 329, 24 pl., 80 +fig.</p> + +<p>1901. The great and small game of Europe, western & +northern Asia, and America; their distribution, habits, and structure. +London: xx + 445, 8 pl., 75 fig.</p> + +<p>1915. Catalogue of the ungulate mammals in the British Museum +(Natural History). Vol. 4. London: xxi + 438, 56 fig.</p> +</div> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page128" id = "page128">128</a></span> +<p class = "smallcaps">Lyon, George F.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1824. The private journal of Captain G. F. +Lyon, of H.M.S. Hecla, during the recent voyage of discovery under +Captain Parry. London: xiv + 468, 7 pl., 1 map.</p> + +<span class = "smallcaps">M’Clintock, F. L.</span> + +<p class = "hanging">1860? In the Arctic seas. A narrative of the +discovery of the fate of Sir John Franklin and his companions. +Philadelphia: xxiii + 375, 1 pl., 5 fig.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">MacFarlane, R.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1890. On an expedition down the Begh-ula or Anderson River. +<i>Canadian Record Sci.</i> <b>4</b> (1): 28-53.</p> + +<p>1905. Notes on mammals collected and observed in the northern +Mackenzie River district, Northwest Territories of +Canada. . . . <i>Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.</i> <b>28</b> +(1405): 673-764, 5 pl., 2 fig.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">McLean, John.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1932. John McLean’s notes of a twenty-five +year’s service in the Hudson’s Bay territory. (Edited by W. S. +Wallace.) <i>Publ. Champlain Soc.</i> 19. Toronto: xxxvi + 402, +1 map. (Originally published in 1849.)</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">McLean, W. J.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1901. Notes and observations of travels on +the Athabasca and Slave Lake regions in 1899. <i>Trans. Hist. and Sci. +Soc. Manitoba</i> 58: 7 pp.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Mallet, Thierry.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1926. Plain tales of the North. New York and London: 1-136.</p> + +<p>1930. Glimpses of the Barren Lands. New York: 1-142, 7 pl.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Malloch, J. R.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1919. The Diptera collected by the Canadian +Expedition, 1913-1918. (Excluding the Tipulidae and Culicidae.) <i>Rept. +Canadian Arctic Exped. 1913-18</i>, <b>3</b>, pt. C: 34-90, +4 pl.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Manning, T. H.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1942. Remarks on the physiography, Eskimo, and mammals of +Southampton Island. <i>Canadian Geog. Jour.</i> <ins class = +"correction" title = "printed as bold italics"><b>24</b></ins> (1): +16-33, 16 fig., 1 map.</p> + +<p>1943<i>a</i>. Notes on the mammals of south and central west Baffin +Island. <i>Jour. Mammalogy</i> <b>24</b> (1): 47-59, 1 map.</p> + +<p>1943<i>b</i>. Notes on the coastal district of the eastern Barren +Grounds and Melville Peninsula from Igloolik to Cape Fullerton. +<i>Canadian Geog. Jour.</i> <b>26</b> (2): 84-105, 16 fig., +2 maps.</p> + +<p>1948. Notes on the country, birds and mammals west of Hudson +Bay between Reindeer and Baker Lakes. <i>Canadian Field-Naturalist</i> +<b>62</b> (1): 1-28, 8 fig., 1 map.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Millais, J. G.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1907. Newfoundland and its untrodden ways. London: xvi + 340, +86 pl., 1 fig., 2 maps.</p> + +<p>1915. The caribou. In: The gun at home & abroad: the big +game of Asia and North America: 255-280, 9 pl. London.</p> +</div> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page129" id = "page129">129</a></span> +<p class = "smallcaps">Miller, Gerrit S., Jr.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1924. List of North American recent mammals +1923. <i>U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull.</i> 128: xvi + 673.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Mochi, Ugo, and T. Donald Carter.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1953. Hoofed mammals of the world. New York +and London: 89 unnumbered pp., 294 fig., 5 maps.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Munn, Henry Toke.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1932. Prairie trails and Arctic by-ways. +London: 1-288, 16 pl.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Murie, Olaus J.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1935. Alaska-Yukon caribou. <i>U.S. Dept. Agric., No. Am. +Fauna</i> <b>54</b>: 1-93, 10 pl., 13 fig., 3 maps.</p> + +<p>1939. The Caribou. Description and distribution. In: Alfred +Ely, H. E. Anthony, and R. R. M. Carpenter, North +American big game: 239-246, 1 pl., 1 map. New York and +London.</p> + +<p>1941. Wildlife introductions in Alaska. <i>Trans. Fifth No. Am. +Wildlife Conference</i>: 432-436.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Murray, Andrew.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1858. Contributions to the natural history of +the Hudson’s Bay Company’s territories. Part 1.—Reindeer. +<i>Edinburgh New Philos. Jour.</i> <b>7</b> (2): 189-210, +4 fig.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Natvig, L. Reinhardt.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1918. Beitrag zur Biologie der Dasselfliegen +des Renntieres. <i>Tromsø Mus. Aarshefter</i> <b>38</b>/<b>39</b>: +117-132, 1 pl., 5 fig.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Nelson, E. W.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1916. The larger North American mammals. +<i>Nat. Geog. Mag.</i> <b>30</b> (5): 385-472, 33 pl., 24 fig.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Nourse, J. E.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1884. American explorations in the ice zones. +. . . Boston: 3-578, 121 fig., 6 maps.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Osborn, Sherard.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1852. Stray leaves from an Arctic journal; or, eighteen months +in the polar regions, in search of Sir John Franklin’s Expedition, in +the years 1850-51. New York: 1-216.</p> + +<p>1865. 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New York: xx + +411, 65 pl., 2 maps.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page130" id = "page130">130</a></span> +<p class = "smallcaps">Perez-Llano, George Albert.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1944. Lichens—their biological and +economic significance. <i>Botanical Rev.</i> <b>10</b> (1): 1-65.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Pike, Warburton.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1917. The Barren Ground of northern Canada. +[Ed. 2?] New York: xii + 334, 15 pl., 1 map. (Originally published +in 1892.)</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Pocock, R. I.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1911. On the specialized cutaneous glands of +ruminants. <i>Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1910</i>: 840-986, 60 fig.</p> + +<p><i>Polunin, Nicholas.</i></p> + +<p class = "hanging">1949. Arctic unfolding. . . . London: 1-348, +33 pl., 3 maps.</p> + +<p><i>Porsild, A. E.</i></p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1943. Reindeer and caribou grazing in Canada. <i>Trans. Seventh +No. Am. 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Narrative of an expedition to the shores of the Arctic +Sea in 1846 and 47. London: viii + 248, 2 maps.</p> + +<p>1852<i>a</i>. Journey from Great Bear Lake to Wollaston Land. +<i>Jour. Royal Geog. Soc. London</i> <b>22</b>: 73-82, 1 map.</p> + +<p>1852<i>b</i>. Recent explorations along the south and east coast of +Victoria Land. <i>Jour. Royal Geog. Soc. London</i> <b>22</b>: 82-96, +1 map.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Rand, A. L.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1948<i>a</i>. Mammals of the eastern Rockies and western plains of +Canada. <i>Nat. Mus. Canada Bull.</i> 108: ii-vii, 1-237, 4 pl., 81 +fig., 4 maps.</p> + +<p>1948<i>b</i>. Mr. W. H. Bryenton’s notes on Manitoba mammals of the +Herb Lake-Flin Flon area. <i>Canadian Field-Naturalist</i> <b>62</b> +(5): 140-150.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Rasmussen, Knud.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1927. Across Arctic America: narrative of the +Fifth Thule Expedition. 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London. (“Published probably in 1827”—Preble, +1908: 536.)</p> + +<p>1829. Fauna boreali-americana . . . . Part 1. Quadrupeds. +London; xlvi + 300, 28 pl., 5 fig.</p> + +<p>1836. Zoological remarks. In: George Back, Narrative of the +Arctic Land Expedition to the mouth of the Great Fish River, and along +the shores of the Arctic Ocean, in the years 1833, 1834, and 1835: +475-542. London.</p> + +<p>1852. Arctic Searching Expedition: a journal of a boat-voyage +through Rupert’s Land and the Arctic Sea, in search of the discovery +ships under command of Sir John Franklin. [Ed. 2?] New York: +iii-xi, 13-516, 8 fig.</p> + +<p>1861. The polar regions. Edinburgh: ix + 400, 1 map.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Ridgway, Robert.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1912. Color standards and color nomenclature. +Washington, D.C.: iv + 44, 53 pl.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Ross, Bernard R.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1861. An account of the animals useful in an economic point of +view to the various Chipewyan tribes. <i>Canadian Naturalist and +Geologist</i> <b>6</b> (6): 433-441.</p> + +<p>1862. List of mammals, birds, and eggs, observed in the +McKenzie’s River district, with notices. <i>Canadian Naturalist and +Geologist</i> <b>7</b> (2): 137-155.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Ross, James Clark.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1826. Natural history. Zoology. Mammalia. In: +William Edward Parry, Journal of a third voyage for the discovery of a +North-west Passage . . .: 92-95. London.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Ross, John.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1835<i>a</i>. Narrative of a second voyage in search of a North-west +Passage . . . during the years 1829, 1830, 1831, 1832, 1833. +London: [5] + xxxiv + 740, 23 pl., 5 maps.</p> + +<p>1835<i>b</i>. Appendix to the narrative of a second voyage in search +of a North-west Passage . . . during the years 1829, 1830, +1831, 1832, 1833. London: xii + 120 + cxliv + [1], 20 pl. (Includes a +report by James Clark Ross on zoology [mammals], pp. vii-xxiv.)</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Rousseau, Jacques.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1948. The vegetation and life zones of George +River, eastern Ungava and the welfare of the natives. <i>Arctic</i> +<b>1</b> (2): 93-96.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Russell, Frank.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1895. Hunting the Barren Ground Caribou. +<i>Ottawa Naturalist</i> <b>9</b> (2): 48-51.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page132" id = "page132">132</a></span> +<p class = "hanging">1898. Explorations in the Far North. [Iowa +City, Iowa]: ix + 290, 21 pl., 6 fig., 1 map.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Scheffer, Victor B.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1951. The rise and fall of a reindeer herd. +<i>Sci. Monthly</i> <b>73</b> (6): 356-362, 9 fig.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Schwatka, Frederick.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1885. Nimrod in the North. New York: 1-198, 1 +pl., 78 fig.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Scott, Peter.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1951. Wild geese and Eskimos. . . . London +and New York: 1-254, 25 pl., 41 fig., 3 maps.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Seton, Ernest Thompson.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1911. The Arctic prairies. New York: xvi + 415, 32 pl., 116 +fig., 9 maps.</p> + +<p>1929. Lives of game animals. . . . Garden City, N.Y.: <b>1</b>: +xxxix + [1] + 640, 118 pl., 16 fig., 12 maps; <b>2</b>: xvii + [1] ++ 746, 98 pl., 27 fig., 13 maps; <b>3</b>: xix + [1] + 780, 96 pl., +23 fig., 10 maps.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Simpson, Thomas.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1843. Narrative of the discoveries on the +north coast of America . . . during the years 1836-39. London: +xix + 419, 2 maps.</p> + +<p><span class = "smallcaps">Siple, Paul A.</span>, and <span class = +"smallcaps">Charles F. Passel</span>.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1945. Measurements of dry atmospheric cooling +in subfreezing temperatures. <i>Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.</i> <b>89</b> +(1): 177-199, 7 fig., 1 map.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Soper, J. Dewey.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1936. The Lake Harbour region, Baffin Island. <i>Geog. Rev.</i> +<b>26</b> (3): 426-438, 9 fig., 1 map.</p> + +<p>1942. Mammals of Wood Buffalo Park, northern Alberta and +district of Mackenzie. <i>Jour. Mammalogy</i> <b>23</b> (2): 119-145, +2 pl., 1 map.</p> + +<p>1944. The mammals of southern Baffin Island, Northwest +Territories, Canada. <i>Jour. Mammalogy</i> <b>25</b> (3): 221-254, +2 pl., 2 fig., 2 maps.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Stefánsson, Vilhjálmur.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1913<i>a</i>. Victoria Island and the surrounding seas. <i>Bull. Am. +Geog. Soc.</i> <b>45</b> (2): 93-106, 1 map.</p> + +<p>1913<i>b</i>. My life with the Eskimo. New York: ix + 538, 60 pl., +2 maps.</p> + +<p>1914. The Stefánsson-Anderson Arctic Expedition of the American +Museum: preliminary ethnological report. <i>Anthrop. Papers Am. Mus. +Nat. Hist.</i> <b>14</b>, pt. 1: [1] + 395, 95 fig., +2 maps.</p> + +<p>1919. “Living off the country” as a method of Arctic +exploration. <i>Geog. Rev.</i> <b>7</b> (5): 291-310, 15 fig.</p> + +<p>1921. The friendly Arctic. . . . (With appendix, including (pp. +737-757): The work of the southern section of the expedition, by Rudolph +M. Anderson.) New York: xxxi + 784, 70 pl., 9 maps.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Stewart, Norman H.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1930? Preliminary report on the occurrence of the +nose fly (Cephenomyia) in the deer of Pennsylvania. <i>Board Game +Commissioners Pennsylvania Bull.</i> (12) rev.: 61-65, 2 fig.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Stockwell, C. H.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1933. Great Slave Lake—Coppermine River +area, Northwest Territories. <i>Canada Dept. Mines, Geol. Survey, +Summary Rept. 1932</i>, pt. C: 64-72, 1 map.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page133" id = "page133">133</a></span> +<p class = "smallcaps">Stone, A. J.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1900. Some results of a natural history +journey to northern British Columbia, Alaska, and the Northwest +Territory, in the interest of the American Museum of Natural History. +<i>Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.</i> <b>13</b> (5): 31-62, 2 fig., +3 maps.</p> + +<p><span class = "smallcaps">Stone, Witmer</span>, and <span class = +"smallcaps">William Everett Cram</span>.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1904. American animals, a popular guide to +the mammals of North America north of Mexico. . . . New +York: xxiii + 318, 86 pl., 17 fig.</p> + +<p><span class = "smallcaps">Sutton, George Miksch</span>, and <span +class = "smallcaps">William J. Hamilton, Jr.</span></p> + +<p class = "hanging">1932. The mammals of Southampton Island. +<i>Mem. Carnegie Mus.</i> <b>12</b>, pt. 2, sect. 1: 1-111, +5 pl., 4 fig.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Thompson, David.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1916. David Thompson’s narrative of his +explorations in western America 1784-1812. Edited by J. B. Tyrrell. +<i>Publ. Champlain Soc.</i> 12: xcviii + 582, 21 pl., 2 maps.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Tweedsmuir, [Lord].</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1951. Hudson’s Bay trader. New York: 1-195, 8 +pl., 1 map.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Twinn, C. R.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1950. Studies of the biology and control of +biting flies in northern Canada. <i>Arctic</i> <b>3</b> (1): 14-26, 11 +fig.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Tyrrell, James W.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1908. Across the sub-Arctics of Canada. Ed. 3. Toronto: i-viii, +9-280, 18 pl., 66 fig., 3 maps. (Orig. ed. in 1898.)</p> + +<p>1924. Report on an exploratory survey between Great Slave Lake +and Hudson Bay, districts of Mackenzie and Keewatin. Dept. Interior, +Ottawa: 1-38, maps. (Reprinted from <i>Ann. Rept. Dept. Interior</i> +1901 [1902].)</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Tyrrell, J. Burr.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1892. The winter home of the Barren Ground Caribou. <i>Ottawa +Naturalist</i> <b>6</b> (8): 128-130.</p> + +<p>1894. An expedition through the Barren Lands of northern +Canada. <i>Geog. Jour.</i> <b>4</b> (5): 437-450, 1 map.</p> + +<p>1895. A second expedition through the Barren Lands of northern +Canada. <i>Geog. Jour.</i> <b>6</b> (5): 438-448, 1 map.</p> + +<p>1896. Report on the country between Athabasca Lake and +Churchill River with notes on two routes travelled between the Churchill +and Saskatchewan Rivers. Ann. <i>Rept. Geog. Survey Canada</i> <b>8</b> +(n.s.), 1895, rept. D: 1-120, 3 pl., 1 map.</p> + +<p>1897. Report on the Doobaunt, Kazan and Ferguson Rivers and the +north-west coast of Hudson Bay, and on two overland routes from Hudson +Bay to Lake Winnipeg. <i>Ann. Rept. Geol. Survey Canada</i> <b>9</b> +(n.s.), 1896, rept. F: 1-218, 11 pl., 3 maps.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">[United States] War Department.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1944. Arctic manual. <i>Technical Manual</i> +1-240. Washington: 1-131, 21 fig., 1 map.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Weber, Neal A.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1950. A survey of the insects and related +arthropods of Arctic Alaska. Part 1. <i>Trans. Am. Entom. Soc.</i> +<b>76</b> (3): 147-206, 7 pl.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page134" id = "page134">134</a></span> +<p class = "smallcaps">Weeks, L. J.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1933. Maguse River and part of Ferguson River +basin, Northwest Territories. <i>Canada Dept. Mines, Geol. Survey, +Summary Rept. 1932</i>, pt. C: 64-72, 1 map.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Weyer, Edward Moffatt, Jr.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1932. The Eskimos: their environment and +folkways. New Haven: xvii + 491, 6 fig., 23 maps.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Wheeler, David E.</p> + +<div class = "hanging"> +<p>1912. Notes on the spring migration at timber line, north of +Great Slave Lake. <i>Auk</i> <b>29</b> (2): 198-204, 1 map.</p> + +<p>1914. The Dog-rib Indian and his home. Bull. <i>Geog. Soc. +Philadelphia</i> <b>12</b> (2): 47-69, 3 pl., 1 map.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Whitney, Caspar.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1896. On snow-shoes to the Barren Grounds. . +. . New York: x + 324, 35 pl., 77 fig., 2 maps.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Whittaker, E. J.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1919. Notes on midwinter life in the Far +North. <i>Ottawa Naturalist</i> <b>32</b> (9): 166-167.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Wray, O. R.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1934. In the footsteps of Samuel Hearne. +<i>Canadian Geog. Jour.</i> <b>9</b> (3): 138-146, 15 fig., +2 maps.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Wright, J. G.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1944. Economic wildlife of Canada’s eastern +Arctic—caribou. <i>Canadian Geog. Jour.</i> <b>29</b> (4): +184-195, 12 fig., 1 map.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Young, Stanley P.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1944. The wolves of North America. Part 1. +Their history, life habits, economic status, and control. Washington: +1-385, 74 pl., 4 fig., 8 maps.</p> + +<p class = "smallcaps">Yule, Robert F.</p> + +<p class = "hanging">1948. The disappearing caribou. <i>Canadian +Medic. Assoc. Jour.</i> <b>58</b>: 287-288, 1 fig.</p> + +</div> +<!-- end div literature --> + + +<h3><a name = "biblio" id = "biblio"> +Annotated Bibliographical References</a><br> +to<br> +<i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i></h3> + + +<p>These references are arranged chronologically, year by year; but +within a given year, the arrangement for the most part is alphabetical +by authors. The full citations of the publications (here designated +merely by author and year) may be found in the preceding “Literature +Cited.”</p> + +<p>The name or names at the beginning of each entry are those by which +the animal is referred to in that particular publication. If the author +supplies a technical name (such as <i>Rangifer arcticus</i>), that name +alone is furnished here. The authority for the technical name is +included or omitted according to the usage of each author. +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page135" id = "page135">135</a></span> +If he omits a technical name, the common name or names he employs (such +as “Caribou” or “Reindeer”) are supplied.</p> + +<p>In some of the earlier accounts, particularly, more than one form of +<i>Rangifer</i> (<i>e.g.</i>, Peary’s Caribou, the Labrador Caribou, or +even the Woodland Caribou, in addition to the typical Barren Ground +Caribou) may have been treated under a single designation, such as +“Reindeer” or “<i>Cervus tarandus</i>.” In such case the word “part” is +added in parentheses after the name at the beginning of the entry. As +far as is possible or feasible, the references are here limited to +<i>R. a. arcticus</i>. They constitute a partial summary of the +nomenclatural history of the typical subspecies.</p> + +<p>The annotations aim to provide a sort of abstract of, or +unalpha­betized index to, the treatment of this animal in each +publication. Each topic or rubric of the annotations (such as migration, +distribution, food, voice, antlers, or relation to Wolves) is +accompanied by page references.</p> + +<p>In the earlier part of the present publication, at the end of the +discussion of each topic, references are given (merely by author, year, +and page) to previous literature on the same topic. The Annotated +Biblio­graphical References now supplied represent an amplification +of those earlier and briefer references—an intermediate stage +between them and the original literature. It is hoped that they will +prove particularly helpful to those who may not have ready access to all +the items of the original literature. My own coverage of the literature +has not been by any means exhaustive; limitations of time and +insufficient accessibility of some of the rarer publications have been +the principal factors involved in this deficiency.</p> + +<p>The chronological arrangement of the entries throws an interesting +light on the gradual acquisition, during more than two centuries, of our +present stock of information on the distribution, taxonomic characters, +life habits, and general status of <i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i>. It +may be remarked, however, that one of the very earliest accounts +(Hearne, 1795) was one of the fullest. It contributes toward bringing +into focus the remarkable attainments of that pioneer +explorer-naturalist of the Barren Grounds.</p> + +<div class = "biblio"> + +<p>“Deer” (one of three kinds): Isham, 1949 (1743): 151 (description); +152 (inhabit Barren Grounds); 152-153 (snares); 154 (Eskimos hunting +with spears and arrows).</p> + +<p>“Rain-deer” or “Cariboux”: Dobbs, 1774: 9, 78, 94 (Marble Island); 19 +(Indians living on Caribou W. of Hudson Bay); 20 (herds of up to 10,000 +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page136" id = "page136">136</a></span> +between Churchill and Nelson rivers); 22 (migration [of Barren Ground or +Woodland species?] near York Factory—S. in March-April, N. in +July-August); 47, 59 (N. of Churchill); 73-74 (Wager Inlet); 80 (Cape +Fullerton).</p> + +<p>“Deer”: Hearne, 1795: 4, 7, 8, 14, 24 (vicinity of Seal River or +Shethanei Lake); 28 (near Baralzon Lake); 35 (spearing by Chipewyans on +upper Kazan River); 39, 40 (W. of upper Kazan River, July 22-30); 40-42, +50-52 (vicinity of upper Dubawnt River); 50 (skins suitable for clothing +in late August); 56, 66 (vicinity of Egg River, Manitoba, November and +December); 67-68 (E. of Nueltin Lake); 69, 72, (Nueltin Lake); 69 (flesh +of bucks still unpalatable on December 30); 73, 74 (W. of Nueltin Lake, +January); 76 (plentiful W. of Kasba Lake); 77 (Snowbird Lake); 78 +(Indians living all winter on deer at Wholdaia Lake); 78-80 (description +of a pound); 80-84 (deer in Indian economy); 84 (remoteness a barrier to +trade in skins); 85-87 (W. of Wholdaia Lake, plentiful, March); 87 +(“Thelewey-aza-yeth” Lake [on Thelon River], numerous, April); 96 +(Indians living all winter on deer near Clowey Lake); 112, 114 (“Peshew” +[Artillery?] Lake and vicinity); 117 (plentiful, vicinity of +Thoy-noy-kyed and Thoy-coy-lyned lakes); 119, 123 (N. of Cogead Lake, +where Indians kill deer at a river crossing); 139 (N. of Buffalo Lake); +141 (E. of Coppermine River); 142, 143, 147, 171 (Coppermine River and +vicinity); 184 (Stony Mountains); 195 (Thaye-chuck-gyed Lake [Lac de +Gras?]; great numbers killed); 196-197 (use for clothing, boots, tents, +etc.); 197 (warbles eaten by Indians); 198 (rutting season in October; +subsequent segregation of sexes); 198-199 (old bucks’ antlers shed in +November; young bucks still retain theirs at Christmas, and does till +summer); 201, 204 (Point Lake); 222 (between Great Slave and MacKay +lakes); 275 (large numbers reported on upper Taltson? River); 281 (W. of +Hill Island Lake); 285, 286 (plentiful in April on Thee-lee-aza +[Thelon?] River, NE. of Hill Island Lake); 293 (near Wholdaia Lake); +295, 296 (W. and E. of Kazan River); 297 (method of drying meat); 299 +(plentiful in June, Nueltin Lake region); 300 (vicinity of Egg River, +Manitoba); 316-319 (stomach contents, unborn young and uterus eaten by +Indians); 321-322 (Indians driving deer between converging rows of +sticks); 322-323 (tents of deerskin); 323-325 (skins used in manufacture +of sledges, snowshoes, and clothing).</p> + +<p>“Rein-deer”: Parry, 1821: 273 (E. coast of Baffin Island).</p> + +<p>“Reindeer” or “deer”: Franklin, 1823: 215-227, 285 (Yellowknife River +region); 230-232, 239-240, 245, 248, 268-271, 285, 297, 299, 309, +315-320, 438-440, 459-462, 480-488 (Winter Lake region); 233, 324-325, +418-426, 446-447 (Point Lake region); 240 (back fat; rutting season); +240-241 (antler and pelage change); 241 (larvae of warble and nostril +flies); 241-242 (migration); 242 (fawning; food; weight; predation by +wolves); 243-244 (Indian hunting methods); 327, 328, 333, 337, 344 +(Coppermine River region); 327 (pursuit by a wolf); 344 (driven by +wolves over a precipice); 363-374 (coast of Coronation Gulf); 379-395 +(Bathurst Inlet region); 397-400 (Hood River region); 404-413 (Contwoyto +Lake region); 478 (Marten Lake); 486, 487 (pursuit and killing by +wolves, Winter Lake region).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page137" id = "page137">137</a></span> +<p><i>Cervus Tarandas</i>. . .: Sabine, in Franklin, 1823: 665, 667 +(Barren Grounds, migrating in summer to Arctic islands).</p> + +<p>“Deer” or “reindeer”: Lyon, 1824: 48, 58-60 (Frozen Strait); 54 +(Repulse Bay); 64-67 (Gore Bay; too fleet for a greyhound); 70, 74, 76, +77, 80, 82 (Lyon Inlet and vicinity); 119, 123, 130, 144, 203, 212 +(Winter Island; food of Eskimos; bows made of antlers; use of sinews; +deerskin clothing); 192-198, 217, 221, 223, 229, 238, 241, 282-283, +311-317 (Melville Peninsula, E. coast; deerskin clothing of Eskimos); +257, 269-270 (near Fury and Hecla Strait; buck shedding velvet, +September 4); 324, 327 (Eskimo use of antlers in sledges and bows); +336 (Melville Peninsula, in summer; voice; inquisi­tiveness); +336-337 (Eskimo hunting with bow and spearing in water); 415, 419-423, +430, 436 (near Igloolik, Melville Peninsula, in June).</p> + +<p>“Deer” or “reindeer”: Parry, 1824: 42 (Southampton Island); 52, 61, +69, 71, 72, 83, 84, 92, 101, 106-108, 214, 230, 235, 236, 245, 254, 265 +(s. Melville Peninsula and vicinity); 289, 305, 308, 324, 329, 332, 339, +343, 434, 438, 439, 441, 446, 447, 453-460 (Fury and Hecla Strait); 289 +(stomach contents eaten by Eskimos); 305 (estimated weight 220 lb.); 380 +(venison supplied by Eskimos); 403 (15 deer killed by an Eskimo during a +summer); 494-497 (deerskin clothing of Eskimos, Melville Peninsula); 505 +(their dependence on reindeer for food); 508 (Eskimo spear for killing +deer in water); 512 (Eskimo methods of hunting deer); 513 (numerous, +Cockburn Land); 537 (Eskimo use of skins and sinew).</p> + +<p><i>Cervus tarandus</i> L.: Richardson, “1825” (= 1827?): 326 (native +names); 327-328 (antler growth and change); 328 (rutting season and +strong-tasting meat, about beginning of October; warble flies); 328-329 +(migrations, in relation to attacks of parasitic flies and to food; does +precede on northward migration); 329 (fawns born in May and June; +stragglers in every part of the country at all seasons); 330 +(utilization of Caribou—including fly larvae—as food by +natives; nostril flies); 331 (marrow used as hair-dressing by native +women).</p> + +<p><i>Cervus tarandus</i>. . .: J. C. Ross, 1826: 94 (North Somerset +Island).</p> + +<p>“Rein-deer”: Franklin, in Franklin and Richardson, 1828: 54, 57, 60, +64, 71, 72, 288 (Great Bear Lake).</p> + +<p>“Rein-deer”: Richardson, in Franklin and Richardson, 1828: 200 +(sinews used in Eskimo bows); 209, 218 (between Mackenzie River and Cape +Dalhousie); 224 (Liverpool Bay); 231 (E. of Cape Bathurst); 241, 246 +(near Cape Lyon); 249 (Cape Young); 255 (Dolphin and Union Strait); +269-273 (lower Coppermine River); 275 (stalking device of Hare Indians); +277 (Dease River); 282 (Great Bear Lake).</p> + +<p><i>Cervus tarandus</i>, var. [Greek: alpha] <i>arctica</i> +Richardson: Richardson, 1829: 241-242 (original description); 239 (type +locality, neighborhood of Fort Enterprise, Mackenzie); 241 (rutting +season); 241-242 (antler change); 242 (pelage change; infestation with +warble fly; foot click); 242-245 (economic uses of hide, flesh, bones, +and antlers; migration; not wintering S. of Churchill); 242-244 +(reproduction); 243, 245 (food); 245 (organization of herds; easy of +approach); 245-249 (native methods of hunting).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page138" id = "page138">138</a></span> +<p><i>Cervus tarandus</i> L.: Godman, 1831, <b>2</b>: 283-284 +(migration); 284 (food; gadfly attacking both Woodland and Barren Ground +Caribou); 285-293 (quotations from Franklin, 1823).</p> + +<p>“Deer” or “reindeer”: John Ross, 1835<i>a</i>: 130-376, <i>passim</i> +(Boothia Peninsula); 243-244 (Eskimo clothing of deerskin); 252 (Eskimo +method of hunting); 328, 330 (only small numbers up to late April); 337 +(many, early May); 352 (stomach contents as food for Eskimos); 376 +(migrating N., May 26); 389 (large herd); 390 (hundreds, June 4); +402 (pursued and eaten by wolves); 432 (with fawns, June 10); 438 (many +in June); 512 (many killed by Eskimos); 529 (many tracks, May 15); 530 +(many passing, followed by a wolf); 534 (many, May 21, with two wolves); +537 (Eskimos killing deer in winter); 564 (a number pursued by a +wolf); 612 (two, October 30); 628 (first tracks, March); 704 (tracks, +Somerset Island, late June).</p> + +<p><i>Cervus tarandus</i>. . .: J. C. Ross, in John Ross, 1835<i>b</i>: +xvii (great numbers, Boothia; weight 250 lb.; does arriving in April, +bucks in May; fawns hunted by Eskimos with dogs; utilization by Eskimos; +food; great numbers speared in water in autumn migration; stragglers +found in winter); xviii (measurements).</p> + +<p>“Rein-deer” or “deer”: Back, 1836: 86 (Thelon River); 105 (Great +Slave Lake); 116 (Hoar-frost River); 128-129 (near Artillery Lake, +reindeer chased by wolves); 138-143 (Clinton-Colden and Aylmer lakes); +156-157 (head of Great Fish River); 178, 205 (near Fort Reliance); 216, +225, 234 (remaining on Barren Grounds near Great Slave Lake during +winter); 261, 267, 268, 273, 280, 281, 285, 286 (Artillery Lake); 290, +292 (Lake Aylmer); 299, 307, 311, 320, 323, 325, 328, 337 (upper Back’s +River); 367 (lower Back’s River, deer drowned in rapids); 420 (Chantrey +Inlet); 435, 439 (lower Back’s River).</p> + +<p><i>Cervus tarandus</i> Linn.: Richardson, in Back, 1836: 498 (Barren +Grounds; migration; food); 499 (utilization by Indians and Eskimos; +antlers).</p> + +<p>“Reindeer” or “deer”: Simpson, 1843: 76 (destruction in 1831 of a +countless herd [of Woodland or Barren Ground species?] crossing Hayes +River in summer); 196, 198 (Great Bear Lake, September); 206, 226, 232, +242, 247, 249, 250 (between Great Bear Lake and Coppermine River); 207 +(solicitude of a buck for a wounded doe); 208 (antlers worn by Indian +hunter as a decoy); 232 (deer driven over a cliff by wolves); 233 +(numerous near Dease River, early April); 255, 256, 261, 264 (lower +Coppermine River, June); 266, 271, 273 (Coppermine River to Cape Barrow, +July); 277 (does apparently crossing the ice to islands for fawning); +278, 279 (Cape Barrow to Bathurst Inlet); 281 (first does with fawns +seen, August 3); 284 (Bathurst Inlet); 295, 297, 301 (E. of Cape +Franklin, migrating S., late August); 309, 310 (lower Coppermine River, +September; drowned in rapids); 312 (deer snares, Dease River); 320-321 +(retiring in winter to Coppermine River and country south of Great Bear +Lake); 328 (numerous between Great Bear Lake and Mackenzie River in +winter); 342 (between Great Bear Lake and Coppermine River, June); 347 +(Eskimos hunting on Richardson River, summer); 352 (lower Coppermine +River); 355 (Eskimos at Cape Barrow gone inland to hunt deer, July); 361 +(Ellice River, July 31); 365, +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page139" id = "page139">139</a></span> +367 (Adelaide Peninsula); 370, 374 (Elliot Bay); 379 (King William +Island); 381 (does and fawns near Ogden Bay, early September); 382 +(Melbourne Island); 386 (Victoria Island, early September); 391 (great +numbers, lower Coppermine River, September 20).</p> + +<p>“Rein-deer”: J. McLean, 1932 (1849): 195 (immense herds [Woodland or +Barren Ground sp.?] in York Factory region prior to 1837; their +disappearance reducing Indians to want); 359 (Yellowknife Indians +reported to have the art of taming fawns, which follow them like dogs +till killed and utilized).</p> + +<p>“Deer” or “rein-deer”: Rae, 1850: 26, 27 (Rankin’s Inlet); 27 +(Eskimos spearing deer while crossing Chesterfield Inlet); 28 (Cape +Fullerton); 31, 32 (near Whale Point); 35, 39 (Eskimo clothing of +caribou skin, Repulse Bay); 40, 64, 65, 73, 74, 76, 80, 84, 91, 92, 133, +134, 166, 169, 177 (Repulse Bay); 44 (stone monuments erected by Eskimos +to deflect deer); 44, 68, 99 (Rae Isthmus); 52, 54, 55, 130, 132, 145, +160, 161 (Committee Bay); 79 (use by Eskimos for clothing and food); 93 +(migrating N., Repulse Bay, early March); 116 (Pelly Bay); 149, 151 +(Melville Peninsula); 150 (use of stomach contents as food); 170 (Eskimo +drum of caribou skin); 184, 186 (near Chesterfield Inlet).</p> + +<p>“Deer”: Osborn, 1852: 74 (near Pond Inlet).</p> + +<p>“Deer”: Rae, 1852<i>a</i>: 75 (Victoria Island, near Richardson +Islands); 79 (many crossing Dolphin and Union Straits to Victoria +Island).</p> + +<p>“Deer”: Rae, 1852<i>b</i>: 83 (lower Coppermine River); 91, 95 +(Victoria Island, vicinity of Albert Edward Bay).</p> + +<p>“Barren Ground reindeer”: Richardson, 1852: 156 (Point Atkinson); 158 +(Cape Brown); 166 (Franklin Bay); 173 (Buchanan River); 188 (Rae’s +River); 198 (Kendall River region); 290 (Great Bear Lake; weight; great +numbers [of Woodland or Barren Ground species?] crossing Hayes River, +1833, and slaughtered there by Indians); 296 (Great Bear Lake, migrating +N. in May).</p> + +<p>“Reindeer” or “deer”: Hooper, 1853: 296 (dried meat as winter fare at +Fort Norman); 302 (few along Bear River, November); 342 (Kendall +Island); 343 (Richard Island); 378, 381 (meat as winter fare at Fort +Simpson); 391-393 (method of preparing pemmican).</p> + +<p>“Rein-deer”: Kennedy, 1853: 128 (numerous tracks, North Somerset, +early April); 133 (Bellot Strait); 144, 150 (numerous, Prince of Wales +Island, late April).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer caribou</i> . . . (<i>C. tarandus, var. A. Arctica</i> +Richardson): Audubon and Bachman, 1854, <b>3</b>: 114 (quotations from +Richardson, 1829, and Hearne, 1795; “in every part of Arctic America, +including the region from Hudson’s Bay to far within the Arctic +circle”).</p> + +<p>“Deer”: J. Anderson, 1856: 24 (about 100, mostly bucks, Adelaide +Peninsula, early August; Eskimos at Lake Franklin preparing to hunt +deer); 25 (a few does at Lake Macdougall, mid-August; numerous at +Aylmer and Clinton-Colden Lakes, early September).</p> + +<p>“Deer”: J. Anderson, 1857: 321 (Eskimos hunting deer, Lake Franklin, +July 30); 322 (mouth of Back’s River, July 30); 323 (fat bucks killed, +Montreal Island, August 2-3); 324, 325, 327 (100, mostly bucks, Adelaide +Peninsula, August 6, 7, 11); 326 (all tracks going S., August 9); +328 +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page140" id = "page140">140</a></span> +(25 going S., Lake Pelly; good deer passes between Lakes Pelly and Garry +and at Hawk Rapids).</p> + +<p>“Reindeer” or “Deer”: Armstrong, 1857: 149, 154, 155 (Eskimos with +Reindeer meat and skins, Point Warren, E. of Mackenzie River); 166 +(skins and meat at Eskimo camp near Cape Dalhousie); 194 (deerskin +clothing of Eskimos on coast of Mackenzie); 210, 316, 322, 384, 391, +395, 417 (Banks Island); 254, 335, 364, 365 (Victoria Island, in +October, May, July, and August); 297, 336 (Prince of Wales Strait, +January and May); 395 (predation by wolves, Banks Island); 475-488, +497-499, 505-510, 514, 515, 521-530, 545-556, 568 (Banks Island; maximum +weight 240 lb.; distribution; remain during winter; fawning; 112 killed +at Bay of Mercy; quality of meat varying with season; wariness; antler +change; description; graze with heads to wind; pursuit by wolves).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer groenlandicus</i> (Kerr) (part): Baird, 1857: 635 +(description; weight); 635-636 (distribution).</p> + +<p><i>Cervus Tarandus</i>, var. [Greek: a] <i>arctica</i> Richardson: +Murray, 1858: 191 (Chesterfield Inlet region); 193-198 (comparison with +Lapland reindeer); 199-206 (antlers and shedding); 201-204 (quotations +from previous literature on antlers, food, fawning season, and winter +range); 206 (teeth); 206-210 (fur); 210 (damage by warble flies).</p> + +<p>“Reindeer” or “deer”: M’Clintock, 1860?: 147 (s. shore of Pond +Inlet); 167, 176, 177, 184-188, 191, 194, 201, 203, 217, 289, 290, 295, +299 (Bellot Strait); 184 (buck at Bellot Strait, minus paunch, weighing +354 lb.); 212 (Eskimo clothing of reindeer skins, Boothia Peninsula); +219 (Somerset Island); 239 (Adelaide Peninsula); 244 (Montreal Island); +245 (Chantrey Inlet); 252, 279, 280 (King William Island).</p> + +<p>“Rein-deer” (part): Richardson, 1861: 274 (migration; rutting season; +utilization by Indians and Eskimos); 275 (moving N. at Repulse Bay, +March 1; food).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> . . .: B. R. Ross, 1861: 438 (between Hudson +Bay and Arctic Ocean; infested by larvae of warble and nostril flies); +438-439 (migrations); 439 (antler and pelage change; food); 439-440 +(value to Indians for food, clothing, etc.).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer <ins class = "correction" title = "spelling unchanged">Groënlandicus</ins></i> . . .: B. R. Ross, 1862: 141 +(distribution).</p> + +<p>“Reindeer” or “deer”: Osborn, 1865: 70 (Cape Bathurst); 80, 110, 162, +170, 173, 182, 186, 188, 189, 192, 199, 206-208, 219 (Banks Island); 98, +139, 146 (Victoria Island); 112 (Prince of Wales Strait, January); +223-224 (resident in Arctic archipelago, including Banks Island); 226 +(no migration across Barrow Strait or Melville Sound); 227 (weight; +gait; antler change; fawning); 227-228, 231, 232 (wolf predation).</p> + +<p>“Reindeer”: Kennicott, in Anonymous, 1869: 166 (dried reindeer meat +one of chief foods at Fort Simpson); 170 (caribou clothing used by +Yellow Knives).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer tarandus</i> (Linné) Bd.: Kumlien, 1879: 19 (Eskimo +hunting at Cumberland Sound); 23-25 (Eskimo clothing of deerskin); 36-37 +(Eskimo arrows and bows of antlers); 53, 54 (pursuit by wolves); 54 +(abundant in Cumberland Sound region; migration; food; hunting and +utilization by Eskimos).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page141" id = "page141">141</a></span> +<p>“Barren ground caribou”: R. Bell, 1881: 15C (migrating in great +numbers, Reindeer Lake).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer Groenlandicus</i> “Baird” (part): Caton, 1881: 105 +(description); 106 (Mackenzie River to Hudson Bay); 107 (food); 108 +(habits; migration); 366-371 (hunting by Indians and Eskimos).</p> + +<p>“Reindeer” or “deer”: Gilder, 1881: 11 (Eskimos near Lower Savage +Islands, Hudson Strait, with skins and meat); 23, 25, 26, 28 (hunting by +Eskimos near Connery River, Keewatin); 42, 46 (near Chesterfield Inlet); +43 (Eskimo drum of deerskin); 50 (dog harness of deerskin); 59, 61, 64, +67, 71 (522 reindeer killed by Schwatka’s party between Hudson Bay and +King William Island); 61 (pursued by wolves); 78 (wariness in winter); +83, 192 (Adelaide Peninsula); 122, 132, 153, 157, 161, 162 (King William +Island); 137-146 (Eskimo use of skins and meat); 154 (Eskimos use of fat +and meat); 196-197 (reindeer collecting in immense herds to cross +Simpson Strait on ice in early October); 217, 218 (lower Back’s River, +December); 223, 224, 225, 226 (numerous between Back’s River and +Chesterfield Inlet, January); 254-255 (deerskins as Eskimo bedding).</p> + +<p>“Reindeer” or “deer”: Nourse, 1884: 220 (Eskimos dressing skins near +Wager Bay); 232 (37 killed by Hall’s party in July, Wager Bay); 235 +(a thousand passing in a day; many cached near North Pole River, +late September; seen from September to January, and reappearing in +March); 256 (deer-hunting, Melville Peninsula); 264-265 (18 deer and a +fawn near Cape Weynton); 351 (found abundant by Schwatka between Wager +Bay and Back’s River); 354 (King William Island); 356 (plentiful, Terror +Bay; immense herds, Simpson Strait, September to October 14).</p> + +<p>“Reindeer” or “Arctic deer”: Schwatka, 1885: 59-60, 65, 67-71, 73-75, +81-82, 86 (hunting by Eskimos and whites in n. Keewatin); 60-64 (skins +for clothing, bedding, and drums); 60-61 (molt); 65, 67 (use of meat); +68, 71-72 (swimming); 72 (many on King William Island); 77-79 (migrating +across Simpson’s Strait, June and October); 79 (Boothia and North +Somerset); 81 (near mouth of Back’s River); 83 (rarely seen in herds of +more than 100; migrations); 84-85 (weight); 85 (unwariness).</p> + +<p>“Deer”: Boas, 1888: 419 (deer in Eskimo economy); 429, 461-462, 501 +(Baffin Island; hunting by Eskimos in summer by spear or line of +cairns); 438 (varying numbers on Cumberland Peninsula); 502 (migration, +Baffin and King William Islands); 502-503 (bows made of antlers); +508-509 (stalking and trapping by Eskimos); 522 (dressing of skins by +Eskimos); 555-560 (clothing of deerskin).</p> + +<p>“Reindeer”: Bompas, 1888: 24 (deflected in their migrations in +Mackenzie district by burning of the country); 60 (attacked by wolves); +61 (Indian methods of hunting); 62 (palatability of the flesh); 100 +(utilization of hides and meat).</p> + +<p>“Deer”: Collinson, 1889: 153 (Banks Island; weight); 166, 171, +173-175, 181, 186, 197, 209, 220, 237, 264, 272-274 (Victoria Island); +200, 203, 229 (Prince of Wales Strait); 235 (Dolphin and Union Strait); +243, 247, 281, 283 (Cambridge Bay); 244 (large herds waiting to cross +Dease Strait, October; trailed by wolves); 277 (stone monuments of +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page142" id = "page142">142</a></span> +Eskimos for deflecting deer, Dease Strait); 290 (large numbers migrating +in autumn from Victoria Island to mainland).</p> + +<p>“Reindeer”: MacFarlane, 1890: 32-34 (Anderson River; Eskimos hunting +reindeer there; their clothing in part of deerskin); 38 (Eskimo fish +nets of deer sinew); 38, 43, 47 (numerous on Anderson River).</p> + +<p>“Barren Ground caribou”: Pike, 1917 (1892): 43, 64 (near Lake +Mackay); 44-46 (Lake Camsell); 48 (Arctic islands to s. part of Hudson +Bay and vicinity of Fort Smith, W. to Mackenzie River; rutting season in +October); 48-49 (migration); 49 (segregation of sexes; antler change); +50 (migration deflected by burning of country; thousands [Barren Ground +or Woodland species?] at York Factory, about 1888-1890; depletion by +hunting); 51-55 (Indian methods of hunting; economic uses); 51-52, 90 +(unwariness); 56-58 (relations to Eskimos, wolves, and wolverines); +58-59 (parasitic flies); 59-60 (Indian superstition); 67, 72 (Coppermine +River above Lac de Gras); 76 (near Lake Mackay; Lake Camsell); 81-82 (S. +of Lake Mackay; curing of meat and hides); 89-91 (la foule); 90 (rutting +season over and bucks too strong to eat, late October); 101 (mostly +passed into the woods by November 11); 108 (Lake Mackay); 134 (near Lac +de Mort); 148 (near Gros Cap, Great Slave Lake, January); 171, 174, 177 +(N. of Great Slave Lake); 174 (bucks leaving woods in early June); 182 +(Lake Aylmer); 186, 199 (Back’s River, July); 201, 204 (near Lake +Beechey; females with young, late July); 209 (females and young in great +numbers, upper Back’s River); 217 (Clinton-Colden Lake, early August); +220 (thousands at Ptarmigan Lake, August); 221 (Artillery Lake); 224, +227 (Pike’s Portage).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer Groenlandicus</i> Linn.: J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128 (use in +economy of northern Indians; weight; antler shedding; pelage change; +infestation with warbles); 129 (wintering between Churchill River and +Lake Athabaska; collecting on frozen lakes); 130 (Indian hunters killing +100-400 apiece; Fond du Lac, Lake Athabaska, on a main migratory +path).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer Groenlandica</i> Linn.: Dowling, 1893: 89 (Bear Head Lake +[N. of Great Slave Lake]); 92 (near Lake Mackay, June 22); 103 +(a favorite crossing on Great Fish River near Musk-ox Lake); 107 +(Pike’s expedition living mainly on caribou; migrations; does fawning +near the sea-coast, bucks following behind; horns in velvet prized as +food by Indians).</p> + +<p>“Barren Ground caribou”: J. B. Tyrrell, 1894: 441 (<i>Alectoria +jubata</i>, a lichen, at Daly Lake, as food of caribou); 442 (immense +herd—“tens of thousands”—at Carey Lake, July 29; tormented +by black flies; animals lean and poor); 445 (Eskimo wearing deerskin +coat; Lady Marjorie Lake, lower Dubawnt River); 446 (caribou plentiful +in country traversed as far as Baker Lake; last one shot there +September 3).</p> + +<p>“Barren Ground Caribou”: Russell, 1895: 48 (a mass of caribou passing +Fort Rae for 14 days in 1877); 49 (a section of antler used by +Indian as a powder horn); 49-50 (caribou N. of North Arm of Great Slave +Lake, November); 50 (leaping high in air at start; Indian hunting +methods); 51 (Indian use of meat; albino specimen; antler growth +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page143" id = "page143">143</a></span> +and shedding; thousands near Bathurst Inlet, April; does fawning along +sea coast in June).</p> + +<p>“Deer”: J. B. Tyrrell, 1895: 440 (deer meat bartered by Chipewyans at +Brochet); 442-443 (Indians hunting deer at Ennadai Lake; large numbers +encountered there; Eskimos skinning deer on upper Kazan River); 444 +(deerskin clothing purchased from Eskimos on Kazan River); 445 (no deer +seen in rocky country along Ferguson River).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer <ins class = "correction" title = "spelling unchanged">Graenlandicus</ins></i> . . .: J. B. Tyrrell, 1896: 13 +(S. in winter to Reindeer Lake and Mudjatick and Foster Rivers); 63 +(migrating past Fond du Lac, Lake Athabaska).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Whitney, 1896: 157, 238, 241 (migrations); 161 (fat, +pemmican, and dried meat); 175 (use of dried meat by Dogribs); 176 +(tepees of caribou skin); 202-206 (vicinity of Fort Enterprise); 210 +(near Point Lake); 210, 213 (Dogrib hunting methods); 237 (importance to +Indians; weight; an albino); 238-239 (antler shedding); 239 (warble and +nostril flies; persecution by wolves); 240 (seasonal condition of flesh; +distribution; recent decrease); 242 (wasteful killing by Indians; +variation in wariness); 252, 268-269 (S. of Coronation Gulf); 262 +(shoulder-blade as Indian talisman).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer Groenlandicus</i>. . .: J. B. Tyrrell, 1897: 10, 49-50, +165 (herd of 100,000 to 200,000 at Carey Lake, Dubawnt River, late +July); 12 (plentiful near Thelon-Dubawnt junction; scarce at Baker Lake, +early September); 14 (S. of Dawson Inlet); 19, 124 (large numbers, +Ennadai Lake, mid-August); 21, 140, 142 (plentiful along Ferguson River, +September); 76 (plentiful along Dubawnt River); 122, 131-132 (hunted by +Chipewyans, Ennadai Lake and Kazan River); 126-127, 131-132 (hunted by +Eskimos, upper Kazan River); 134 (many near Yathkyed Lake); 150-151 +(near source of Owl River, Manitoba; hunted by Indians, +Wapini­hikiskow Lake); 166-167 (hunting by Chipewyans and Eskimos; +use for food, clothing, and kayaks).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer tarandus arcticus</i>. . .: Lydekker, 1898: 47-48 +(description); 48 (distribution); 48-49 (migration; food).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer tarandus</i> (Linn.): Russell, 1898: 88 (great numbers +passing Fort Rae for 14 days in 1877); 89 (N. of Fort Rae); 90 (leaping +into air at start); 91 (use of flesh by Dog Ribs; albino specimen); 111, +113, 119 (upper Coppermine River region, abundant in March); 134 +(caribou-skin clothing worn formerly by Loucheux at Fort McPherson); 139 +(on Mackenzie Delta in 1850); 168 (caribou-skin lodge at Fort Rae); +169-172 (caribou-skin clothing among Dog Ribs); 176 (caribou-skin drum +at Fort Rae; use of sinew); 178 (caribou-skin gun cases among Indians); +187-189 (caribou-skin clothing among Eskimos); 225 (antler change); 226 +(albino; food; distribution and migrations); 227 (abundant along coast +between Mackenzie River and Cape Bathurst, 1894; deer snares; spearing; +hunting); 228-229 (utilization by Eskimos and Indians; parasitic +flies).</p> + +<p>“Barren Ground Caribou,” “deer,” or “reindeer”: J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 +(1898): 77-78 (Barlow Lake; Carey Lake, thousands, late July); 79 +(weight 100-400 lb.; molt); 79-80 (antler change); 80 (relation of +prongs to age; migration; food; reproduction); 80-81 (utilization of +meat, skins, +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page144" id = "page144">144</a></span> +and sinew); 87-88 (Dubawnt Lake); 97 (lower Dubawnt River); 98 (Wharton +Lake); 123-138 (utilization by Eskimos); 139-141 (hunting by Eskimos); +174-177 (near Dawson Inlet); 206-207 (E. of Churchill River); 215 (mouth +of Nelson River [Woodland or Barren Ground species?]); 241 (importance +to natives).</p> + +<p>“Caribou” or “reindeer”: Jones, 1899: 328-332, 342-343, 353-355 (Fort +Reliance and vicinity); 329 (weight); 338, 340, 365, 394 (Artillery Lake +and vicinity); 342 (Indian corral or trap); 359 (noonday rest of +caribou); 368 (immense band, Clinton-Colden Lake, early March); 374 +(tens of thousands of does daily, Clinton-Colden Lake, moving N., +March); 374-375 (relations to wolves); 381 (abundant, near mouth of +Dubawnt River, March); 390 (near lower Dubawnt River); 411 (suffering +from insects); 429 (spearing by Indians).</p> + +<p>“Deer”: Lofthouse, 1899: 275 (mouth of Tha-anne River, early +July).</p> + +<p>“Caribou or deer”: Hanbury, 1900: 64 (Eskimos bringing venison to +Churchill and reporting deer numerous along the coast); 65 (importance +of deer in northern travel; scarce along west coast of Hudson Bay in May +and early June); 66-67 (very scarce at Baker Lake in June, plentiful in +July); 67 (flesh unpalatable in fly-time; large bands at Aberdeen Lake, +August); 69 (absent in winter on lower Thelon River; very scarce on +Hanbury River, August); 71 (plentiful, Artillery Lake to Great Slave +Lake, September).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson) (part): A. J. Stone, 1900: 50 +(distribution; migration); 51 (Richards Island); 53 (antlers; does and +fawns moving N. in May, Franklin Bay; sprawling posture of hind leg); 57 +(disastrous results of whalers’ demands for meat; Darnley Bay; Bathurst +Isthmus).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: J. M. Bell, 1901<i>a</i>: 16 (vast herds near Dismal Lake; +use by Eskimos).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: J. M. Bell, 1901<i>b</i>: 252 (furnishing food and +clothing for Hare Indians, Great Bear Lake); 255 (use by Eskimos near +Coppermine River; vast herds); 258 (plentiful, but decreasing, S. of +Great Bear Lake; wanton killing by Indian and Eskimos).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Boas, 1901: 52, 54 (Eskimo garments of caribou skin, +Cumberland Sound); 81 (Eskimos hunting caribou with harpoons); 102, 107 +(Eskimo clothing of caribou skin, w. coast of Hudson Bay); 150 (albino +caribou).—1907: 465 (Eskimos W. of Hudson Bay dependent on +caribou); 474 (caribou plentiful on Southampton Island and larger than +on mainland); 493 (caribou-hunting at Pond’s Inlet); 501 (taboo against +killing albino caribou, W. of Hudson Bay).</p> + +<p>[<i>Rangifer</i>] <i>arcticus</i> (Rich.): Elliot, 1901: 37 (“Barren +grounds of Arctic America, north of the tree limit, to the shores and +islands of the Arctic Ocean”; diagnosis).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer tarandus arcticus</i> . . . (part): Lydekker, 1901: 38-40 +(description).</p> + +<p>“Reindeer and caribou (<ins class = "correction" title = "anomalous roman (non-italic) type in original">Rangifer caribou</ins>)”: W. J. +McLean, 1901: 5 (Great Slave Lake, annual arrival on August 12; +hunting and utilization by Indians); 6 (antler growth and change; +migration; trails; swimming).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer tarandus</i> . . . (part): Beddard, 1902: 298 +(“circumpolar”).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> . . .: Elliot, 1902: 259 (“in 1856 they +migrated to latitude 47° in great numbers to Lake Huron” [???]); 260, +274-275 (migrations); +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page145" id = "page145">145</a></span> +273 (Arctic regions, W. to Coppermine and Mackenzie Rivers); 276 (food; +fat); 276-277 (utilization by Indians and Eskimos); 277-279 (native +hunting methods); 279-280 (antlers shed by old bucks in December and +January, carried by young bucks till spring, and by does till birth of +fawns); 281-282, 286-287 (description).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): Preble, 1902: 41 (50 and 25 +miles S. of Eskimo Point; pursued by wolves; attacks of insects); 42 +(flashing a white throat-patch; summation of previous records; ranging +S. to Churchill River and Reindeer Lake); 42-43 (pelage described).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: J. W. Tyrrell, 1924 (1902): 15 (Fort Reliance, Great Slave +Lake); 17 (Pike’s Portage); 18-20 (Artillery Lake); 26 (nearly all gone +farther N., only stragglers remaining along Hanbury River, early July); +27-28 (numerous tracks but few animals, middle Thelon River, early July; +hundreds killed by spring ice or Eskimos); 31 (large band moving S., +Thelon River, July 23); 33-35 (between Thelon River and Artillery Lake); +37 (great bands of caribou the chief food supply in Thelon River +region).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer <ins class = "correction" title = "spelling unchanged">articus</ins></i> . . . (part): Grant, 1903: 186 (Barren +Grounds W. of Hudson Bay, W. to Mackenzie River, S. in winter to +Churchill River and Reindeer Lake; threatened with extinction by +whalers); 189 (Salisbury Island).</p> + +<p>“Deer”: Hanbury, 1903: 185 (between Lake Pelly and Arctic coast, +May).</p> + +<p>“Caribou” or “deer”: Hanbury, 1904: 8 (Marble Island and Chesterfield +Inlet, June); 9 (Baker Lake, July); 10 (large bands migrating S., +Aberdeen Lake, early August); 14 (scarce, Hanbury River); 16 (plentiful, +Lockhart River); 30 (Pike’s Portage, late July); 31 (Artillery Lake); 32 +(Abbott Lake; scourged by warble flies); 34 (large bands migrating S., +Hanbury River, late July); 41 (hunted by Eskimos near Thelon-Dubawnt +junction); 43-44, 47 (Schultz Lake); 43 (voice; spearing by Eskimos); 48 +(scarce, Baker Lake, early September); 49 (Chesterfield Inlet); 51 +(plentiful near Marble Island, mid-September); 58 (leaving the coast, +late September); 67 (dressing of skins by Eskimos); 70, 72 (killed by +Eskimos, Baker Lake); 73 (thousands at Baker Lake; fierce combats +between old bucks in October rutting season); 75 (deerskin roof of +igloo); 82 (deerskin clothing of Eskimos); 84, 88-90 (NW. of Baker Lake, +November); 85 (unwariness); 89 (pursuit by wolves); 93 (bucks remaining +all winter on Back’s River); 95 (numerous, Chesterfield Inlet; in +December the old bucks had dropped their antlers); 100 (near Depot +Island); 104-107 (Chesterfield Inlet region); 108 (does migrating N. in +April); 111 (plentiful, Baker Lake, March); 113 (many, Schultz Lake, +March); 114-115, 123 (snow pitfalls made by Eskimos); 115, 116 +(numerous, Aberdeen Lake, March); 116 (antlers of bucks commencing to +grow); 118 (NW. of Aberdeen Lake; buck weighing 280 lb.); 119 (Buchanan +River); 120 (migration; many remaining on Barrens all winter; deer meat +essential to Eskimos on Back’s River); 121 (frequent famine among +Indians and Eskimos; caribou formerly migrating S. and W. to Forts +Simpson and Providence); 127-131 (Pelly Lake and vicinity); 131 (antics; +jumping and trotting); 133-137 (near Ogden Bay); 133 (majority of does +shedding antlers by late April); +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page146" id = "page146">146</a></span> +135 (ravens feeding on carcasses); 137 (warbles eaten by Eskimos); 139 +(caribou wintering on Kent Peninsula, at Cape Barrow, and on Victoria +Island); 143 (Arctic coast Eskimos going inland, summer and fall, to +live on deer); 149 (White Bear Point); 153-167 (mainland near Kent +Peninsula); 164-174 (Bathurst Inlet); 177, 185-197 (scarce, Cape Barrow +to Coppermine River); 194 (molting, July; suffering from mosquitoes); +200-208 (lower Coppermine River); 209, 210 (Kendall River); 215-221 +(Dismal Lake); 223, 229-233 (Dease River); 232 (rubbing trees).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> . . . (part): Hornaday, 1904: 136 (Great +Bear and Great Slave Lakes to Cape Bathurst); 137 (Carey Lake; +migration); 138 (weight; antlers).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): Stone and Cram, 1904: 52 +(description; Arctic islands to Hudson Bay and Mackenzie River; +migration; rutting in October; sexual segregation); 53 (food; Mackay +Lake; grunting). (Chiefly quoted from Pike, 1892.)</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson) (part): Elliot, 1905: 401 +(“Barren grounds of Arctic America north of the tree limit, to the +shores and islands of the Arctic Ocean”).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): MacFarlane, 1905: 680 +(Mackenzie Basin; depletion through wanton slaughter by Indians); +681-682 (Anderson River, in winter; hunting and utilization by Eskimos +and Indians); 682-683 (albino); 683 (trade in skins; wintering at Prince +of Wales Strait and Mercy Bay, Banks Island; migration between Arctic +islands and mainland); 684-685 (table of migration at Reindeer Lake); +692-693 (predation by wolves).</p> + +<p><i>R[angifer] arcticus</i>. . .: J. A. Allen, 1908<i>a</i>: 488 +(specimens from near Wager River described); 490 (migration).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arctica</i> (Richardson): J. A. Allen, 1908<i>b</i>: 584 +(type locality, Fort Enterprise).</p> + +<p>“Reindeer”: Amundsen, 1908, <b>1</b>: 76 (Boothia); 83-84 (King +William Island, September); 97 (reported formerly at Simpson Strait in +large herds in autumn); 99 (20 killed, King William Island, late +September); 102-106 (common in October, passing S. over Simpson Strait; +very shy; no wolves on King William Island); 120 (Eskimos trading +skins); 200 (King William Island, first reindeer of season seen, June); +201 (supplied by Eskimos); 224 (Simpson Strait); 235, 241-243 (King +William Island, September); 237 (Eskimos hunting in September); 247 +(large herds passing over ice of Simpson Strait); 248 (King William +Island, October 15); 326-329 (hunting and utilization by Eskimos in +Boothia; few reindeer coming N. as early as May).—1908, <b>2</b>: +110 (many killed by Eskimos, King William Island); 311-316 (several, +April); 322-325 (Royal Geographical Society Islands).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson) (part): Preble, 1908: 137 +(Barren Grounds and islands northward; Great Bear Lake to Hudson Bay; +economy; probably two or more races; E. of Fort Smith in winter; long +ago S. to Fort McMurray); 138 (in 1902-03 to Cree Lake; large numbers, +Great Slave to Great Bear lakes; lower Coppermine River); 139 +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page147" id = "page147">147</a></span> +(migration); 139-143 (summation of previous records); 214 (wolves living +largely on caribou).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): J. A. Allen, 1910: 8 (7 August +specimens from Artillery and Aylmer lakes; measurements and weight).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): Seton, 1911: 206-262, 341 +(Artillery, Ptarmigan, Clinton-Colden, and Aylmer lakes; habits); 210 +(voice); 220, 258-260 (numbers); 225-226 (relation to wolves); 259-262 +(slaughter by natives and whalers).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Cameron, 1912: 127 (place in economy +of Caribou-eater Chipewyans; migration; on Lake Athabaska in winter); +309 (Fort Rae as a “meat-post” for the Mackenzie District).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Wheeler, 1912: 199 (Fort Enterprise and Coppermine River; +1910 a very poor caribou year; females and yearlings taken in April; +females [only?] wintering between Rae and Enterprise, and largely +exterminated; usual numbers in 1911; large migration of males commenced +May 18); 200 (between Coppermine River and Bathurst Inlet; by June 10 +all caribou beyond [N. of] Coppermine River).</p> + +<p>“Barren ground caribou”: R. M. Anderson, 1913<i>a</i>: 5 (recent +great decrease); 6 (stragglers left in Mackenzie Delta region; +great diminution along Arctic coast E. to Cape Parry, since recent +advent of whaling ships; great numbers on Victoria Island in summer, +crossing to mainland for winter; Great Bear Lake and Coppermine River; +drives and spearing by Eskimos); 6, 8 (importance to Eskimos for +clothing and meat); 8 (poor sight of caribou; hunting methods).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): R. M. Anderson, in Stefánsson, +1913<i>b</i>: 502 (importance in native economy; recent enormous +decrease; few left in Eskimo Lakes region, on Cape Bathurst, and at +Langton and Darnley Bays; great number in summer on Victoria Island, +migrating to the mainland); 503 (Great Bear Lake; Coppermine River; +occurrence on Arctic coast at any season; Eskimos driving them between +lines of stone monuments into water and there spearing them); 504 +(hunting methods; senses; infestation by bot-fly); 504-505 (fawning); +505 (geographical variation; antler growth and change); 505-506 (fat); +516 (relations to wolves).</p> + +<p><ins class = "correction" title = "anomalous italics unchanged"><i>“Caribou”</i></ins>: Stefánsson, 1913<i>a</i>: 93 (ravens +in Arctic feeding on caribou left by wolves); 94 (caribou moving N., +Prince Albert Sound, Victoria Island, May 12); 95-96 (migrating across +Dolphin and Union Strait, March and May); 99 (plentiful on Dease River, +winter of 1910-11; abundant on lower Coppermine River, March; no great +numbers cross central Coronation Gulf; wintering on coast E. of +Coppermine; many moving N. across w. Coronation Gulf and Dolphin and +Union Strait, April and May, and w. Victoria Island, May); 100 +(migration across Kent Peninsula and in se. Victoria Island); 102 (E. of +Cape Bexley); 103, 106 (numbers wintering on Banks Island, but few or +none on Victoria Island); 105 (Eskimos hunting caribou in summer on s. +Victoria Island); 106 (caribou wintering from Cape Bathurst to Kent +Peninsula; migration N. across Coronation Gulf and Dolphin and Union +Strait, April 1-May 20, and S. in the fall as soon as the ice is strong +enough; tens of +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page148" id = "page148">148</a></span> +thousands on Dease River in late October; differences between Victoria +Island and mainland specimens).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Stefánsson, 1913<i>b</i>: 27 (Fort Smith a “meat post”); +29 (abundant at Fort Norman 50 years previously); 127, 128, 156, 158 +(Langton Bay); 130, 135, 137, 141, 142 (Horton River); 146 (Cape Parry); +151 (extreme scarcity of hornless caribou); 163 (Cape Lyon); 164 (Port +Pierce; human eye keener than caribou’s); 203 (summer hunting by Eskimos +S. of Dolphin and Union Strait); 203-204 (migration N. to Victoria +Island); 204 (bot-fly larvae); 205 (near Dolphin and Union Strait); 210, +212, 213 (lower Coppermine River); 212-213 (seeking protection from +mosquitoes on snow banks); 214 (Dismal Lake); 215 (summer hunting by +Eskimos on Dease River); 219 (Great Bear Lake); 221 (August skins for +Eskimo clothing); 224-225 (hundreds of thousands, Dease River, October); +228, 235 (N. of Great Bear Lake); 231, 232 (Horton River); 238, 239 +(Kendall River); 241 (lower Coppermine River); 241-244 (geographical +variation in caribou); 263-265, 269 (migrating N. across Coronation Gulf +and Dolphin and Union Strait, early May); 274, 278, 287, 289, 297, 298, +301 (Victoria Island); 276-277 (variation from mainland animals); 278 +(habitual wariness); 281 (caribou-skin tents and Eskimo hunting, +Victoria Island); 289 (Banks Island); 294 (few on Victoria Island in +winter); 324 (Cape Parry); 333 (Langton Bay; skins spoiled by warble fly +larvae, June and early July; skins thick in summer and fall); 335 +(“Endicott” [= Melville] Mountains); 337-338 (Eskimo methods of hunting +and curing meat); 348-350 (migrating NW., Horton River, October); 364 +(Langton Bay, February-March).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): Chambers, 1914: 93 (immense +herd, between Churchill and Owl River, December); 291-294 (Great Bear +and Great Slave Lakes); 294 (Mackenzie Delta region); 342-350 (summation +of records on the Barren Grounds).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Douglas, 1914: 103, 167, 168, 179, 180 (Dease River); 121, +190, 192, 196, 214 (lower Coppermine River); 137 (Great Bear Lake); 157, +158 (very scarce, Great Bear Lake, winter); 185 (Dismal Lakes); 191-192 +(larvae of warble and nostril flies).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> . . . (part): Hornaday, 1914, <b>2</b>: 97 +(importance to Indians); 100 (the great mass between Cape Bathurst and +Great Slave Lake; tens of thousands killed by natives for whalers); +101-104 (migrations); 103 (voice); 104 (tameness of large numbers; +weight); 225-226 (numbers).</p> + +<p>“Caribou” or “deer”: Stefánsson, 1914: 13 (former abundance from +Mackenzie River eastward); 26 (scarce near <b>Rae River</b>); 39 (common +the year round on Banks Island; abundant in summer, but scarce in +winter, Victoria Island); 41 (migrating S. across Coronation Gulf in +November); 48 (stomach contents and droppings eaten by Eskimos, +Coronation Gulf); 54 (crossing ice in migrating N., April and May); 56 +(chief source of Eskimo food in summer, Coronation Gulf); 57 (hunting +with spear and bow); 58 (poor eyesight); 58-59 (use as food by Eskimos); +97 (kayak used in spearing caribou); 137, 139 (former hunting in +Mackenzie Delta region); 140-141 (skin clothing in Mackenzie Delta +region); 147-148 (methods of removing and drying skins, Mackenzie +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page149" id = "page149">149</a></span> +Delta region); 150 (use of skins and sinew); 275 (status about Great +Bear Lake); 296 (droppings and warbles eaten by Eskimos, Victoria +Island); 353 (caribou taboos); 355-356 (many on Mackenzie coast).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Wheeler, 1914: 52 (Dog-rib clothing of caribou skins); 54 +(between Forts Rae and Enterprise); 56 (Fort Rae’s early trade in +caribou meat and skins); 58 (countless thousands, moving E., Great Slave +Lake; Indian use of meat); 60 (caribou scarce N. of Great Slave Lake +after burning of country); 65 (plentiful, Little Marten Lake); 67 (near +Lake Providence).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Harper, 1915: 160 (Tazin-Taltson +Basin).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer tarandus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Lydekker, 1915: 254 +(biblio­graphical references; type locality; description; Baffin +Island).</p> + +<p><i>Tarandus rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): Millais, 1915: +255-256 (considered conspecific with Woodland Caribou); 258, 263 +(supposed interbreeding with Woodland Caribou); 261 (description; in +winter ranging “west to the Rockies above Fort Vermilion”[!]).</p> + +<p>“Barren Ground Caribou”: Camsell, 1916: 21 (Tazin-Taltson Basin, +autumn and winter).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> . . . (part): Nelson, 1916: 460 (Arctic +barrens; numbers; Artillery Lake; gait); 460-461 (use as food).</p> + +<p>“Rein Deer”: Thompson, 1916: 19 (Eskimo lances pointed with +leg-bone); 99 ([Barren Ground or Woodland species?] numerous in spring +on Hayes River, where snared by Indians); 100-101 (immense herd +estimated at 3,564,000 individuals, crossing Hayes River 20 miles above +York Factory in late May, 1792).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: J. B. Tyrrell, in Thompson, 1916: 16 (Eskimos on Kazan +River subsisting chiefly on caribou, killing them with spears and using +their skins for clothing and kayaks).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> . . .: Kindle, 1917: 107-108 (tens of +thousands E. of Slave River, early winter); 108-109 (previous accounts +of great numbers).</p> + +<p>“Barren Ground Caribou”: Camsell and Malcolm, 1919: 46 (e. border of +Mackenzie Basin; migration).</p> + +<p>“Barren Ground caribou”: Malloch, 1919: 55-56 (larvae of +<i>Oedemagena tarandi</i> from skin of caribou, Dolphin and Union +Strait, Bernard Harbour, and Coronation Gulf); 56 (larvae of +<i>Cephenemyia</i> sp. from nasal passages of caribou, May 25, Bernard +Harbour).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Stefánsson, 1919: 310 (hunting in the Arctic).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Whittaker, 1919: 166 (in greater numbers than usual, E. of +Slave River, winter); 167 (1,000 does crossing Great Slave Lake in March +toward Barren Grounds).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Buchanan, 1920: 105 (S. in winter to +Reindeer Lake and Churchill River, rarely to Cumberland House); 105-108, +128-129 (migration); 105-106, 131 (food); 113-125, 134-137, 142-151 +(hunting by Indians and others); 122, 124 (traveling upwind); 125-126 +(description); 126 (antler change; gait); 130-131 (numbers); 135-136 +(snares); 136-140 (economic uses by Indians).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: R. M. Anderson, in Stefánsson, 1921: 743, 750 (Eskimos +killing caribou, Victoria Island); 749 (Hood River); 750 (Bathurst +Inlet).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> . . . (part): Hewitt, 1921: 11-12 (as a +source of meat +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page150" id = "page150">150</a></span> +and clothing); 56 (most abundant of the larger land mammals of the +world); 58, 64-66 (place in native economy; range and numbers becoming +restricted by excessive slaughter); 59-60 (distribution); 59 +(destruction by Eskimos and whalers); 60-63 (migration); 61 (food); 62 +(fawning); 67 (warble flies, black flies, and mosquitoes).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Johansen, 1921: 22-24 (larvae and +adults of <i>Oedemagena tarandi</i> and larvae of <i>Cephenemyia</i> +sp., both parasites of caribou, at Bernard Harbour); 29 (adult <i>Oe. +tarandi</i>, Dolphin and Union Strait); 35, 37 (larvae of <i>Oe. +tarandi</i>, lower Coppermine River and Victoria Island).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Stefánsson, 1921: 18 (abundant, Banks Island, winter); +227-230 (Norway Island [W. of Banks Island]); 231-234 (qualities of meat +and fat); 242-249, 255, 258, 262, 281-283, 358, 364, 397, 369, 372, 473, +475, 476 (hunting on Banks Island); 246-247 (fat); 247 (attacks by +insects); 248 (speed according to sex and age); 248-249 (pursuit by +wolves); 251 (wariness on Banks Island); 252 (back fat); 255 (perhaps +2,000-3,000 caribou on Banks Island in summer); 307 (sight); 401 +(hunting on Victoria Island, September; some migrating S. to mainland); +401-402 (stone monuments used by Eskimos for driving caribou to ambush); +475-476 (relations of caribou and wolves).</p> + +<p>“Caribou” or “deer”: Jenness, 1922: 15, 17 (migration between +mainland and Arctic islands; one route across Cape Krusenstern); 20-21 +(Coppermine River to Great Bear Lake); 22 (Cape Barrow to Bathurst +Inlet); 25-26 (Victoria Island in summer); 47 (spearing from kayaks in +Coppermine region); 48, 101, 248 (use of fat for fuel); 61 (skins as +bedding); 78-81 (skins as tent material); 97 (stomach contents eaten by +Eskimos); 100-103 (Caribou as food of Eskimos; hunting on ice of +Coronation Gulf and on Victoria Island; Coppermine River to Bathurst +Inlet); 124 (summer hunting by Eskimos about Dolphin and Union Strait); +125 (October passage from Victoria Island to mainland); 127-142 (hunting +on Victoria Island, April to October); 148-151 (Eskimo hunting methods +about Coronation Gulf and on Victoria Island; attacks on Eskimos by +Caribou); 182-189 (Eskimo superstitions concerning Caribou); 244, 249 +(scarcity and destruction at Coronation Gulf).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: R. M. Anderson, 1924: 329 (varying +estimates of numbers; Barren Grounds of central mainland); 330 +(relations to reindeer).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Miller, 1924: 491 +(nomenclature; type locality).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Blanchet, 1925: 15 (upper Coppermine); 32-34 (migration); +32-33 (sexual segregation); 33 (fawning; food; torment of flies; gait; +molt; antler growth and change); 34 (senses; utilization by Indians; +wariness; swimming; relations to wolves and foxes; Great Slave Lake to +Great Bear Lake and Back’s River).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Blanchet, 1926<i>a</i>: 73 (trails, Nonacho Lake); 96-97 +(trail and signs, Lake Eileen); 98 (caribou in economy of the +Caribou-eater Chipewyans).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Blanchet, 1926<i>b</i>: 46-48 +(migrations); 47 (fawning in early June; attacks of flies; gait; molt; +utilization of hides); 47-48 +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page151" id = "page151">151</a></span> +(antler change); 48 (senses; segregation by sex and age; numbers in +millions; Lake MacKay, Great Bear Lake, Lac de Gras, Clinton-Colden and +Aylmer lakes; wintering S. to Cree, Foster, and Reindeer lakes).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer</i> spp.: Ekblaw, 1926: 101 (s. Arctic Archipelago).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Mallet, 1926: 79 (migration; wintering about Reindeer, +Cree, Wollaston, and Nueltin lakes and Pakatawagan; predilection for +frozen lakes; predation by wolves); 80 (dependence of travelers on +Caribou for food; hunting on the ice of lakes).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Preble, 1926: 119 (Barren Grounds); +121 (depletion along Arctic coast E. to Coppermine River); 125 +(Yellowknife Preserve); 137 (Back’s River Preserve; great numbers; +migration); 138 (Arctic islands; partial migration); 139 (Banks and +Victoria islands).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Blanchet, 1927: 145 (Abitau River); 149 (sw. tributary of +Dubawnt River, July 5).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Craig, 1927: 22 (Admiralty Inlet; former abundance; +depletion by hunting).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Henderson, 1927: 40 (Clyde River, Baffin Island; annual +caribou hunt by Eskimos).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Rasmussen, 1927: 5 (Eskimos clad in caribou skin, Melville +Peninsula); 20-21 (hunting on Melville Peninsula); 23 (Eskimo stores of +caribou meat); 54 (caribou moving N., Baker Lake, May); 59-60, 103, 105 +(hunting by Eskimos, lower Kazan River); 63, 68 (Yathkyed Lake); 65 +(warble fly larvae as Eskimo delicacy); 67 (decrease in Eskimos and +caribou at Yathkyed Lake); 68 (stone cairns for deflecting caribou); +73-77 (Eskimo hunting methods); 104-106 (Eskimos starving for lack of +caribou, lower Kazan River); 145 (Eskimos hunting near Admiralty Inlet); +166-167 (caribou obtained by Eskimos, Pelly Bay); 205 (King William +Island); 214-217 (migration, September 15-21, King William Island); 245 +(Eskimos of Victoria Island living on caribou in summer and autumn); 246 +(enormous herds crossing delta of Ellice River; Kent Peninsula becoming +depopulated of Eskimos through failure of caribou).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Anthony, 1928: +530-531 (description); 532 (Barren Grounds; former abundance; +destruction).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Kindle, 1928: 72-73 (numbers estimated at more than +30,000,000; utilization by natives for clothing and meat); 74 (economic +value of reindeer).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 9, 47, 57 +(importance to Caribou Eskimos); 48 (back fat); 50 (wintering on Barren +Grounds; moving against wind; antler shedding; poor quality of winter +meat); 51 (wolves hunting caribou; does first on spring migration; +fawning in June); 52-53 (Eskimos feasting on caribou in spring); 56 +(fawning in late June and early July; great migration at Baker Lake, +late July; plagued by <i>Oedemagena tarandi</i>; most important Eskimo +hunting in late summer and early autumn); 86 (tents of caribou skin +among Caribou Eskimos); 89 (Eskimo spade made of antler); 90 (bags of +caribou skin; fat for illumination); 94 (skins for household use); 96 +(the principal diet among Caribou Eskimos); 98 (hunting by means of +fences); 100 (Yathkyed Lake); 101 (heedless slaughter by Eskimos; +migration always incalculable; fox-trapping +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page152" id = "page152">152</a></span> +replacing caribou-hunting); 102 (former use of bow in hunting); 104 +(arrowheads of caribou bones); 106 (hunting by Eskimos; wariness; keen +hearing and smell; buck attacking a man at Vansittart Island; +deer-crossings in region of Baker Lake and Kazan River); 107 (Eskimo +hunting methods); 108 (snow pitfalls); 109-110 (spearing in water; +swimming ability); 110-111 (driving between lines of cairns); 112 +(snares); 133 (gadfly larvae as Eskimo delicacy); 134-135 (seasonal +hunting); 135 (frequent starvation of Eskimos in lack of caribou); 137 +(staple food of Caribou Eskimos); 138-139 (taboos in use of meat); +140-147 (Eskimo dressing of carcasses); 141-144 (raw, cooked, and dried +meat in Eskimo diet); 171 (meat as dog food); 186 (deerskin for kayaks); +191, 196, 199-223 (Eskimo clothing of deerskin); 232, 239-251 (various +Eskimo uses of skin, bones, and antlers); 262, 263 (Eskimo laws for +hunting caribou); 268-271 (drums of deerskin).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Seton, 1929, +<b>3</b>: 95-135 (monographic); 97-99 (measurements, weight, color); 102 +(distribution); 102-103 (antlers); 104 (molt; senses); 105 +(communication; voice); 105-107 (disposition); 107 (aquatic ability); +107-108 (food); 108-109 (Wolves and other predators); 109-110 (effect of +mosquitoes); 110-111 (warble and nostril flies); 111-116 (utilization of +flesh and hide by natives and civilized man); 113-114 (fat); 117-122 +(hunting by Eskimos and Indians); 122 (Artillery Lake to Back’s River; +Arctic islands; migration); 124-125 (reproduction); 125-127 (migration); +127-128 (wintering between Great Bear, Great Slave, and Athabaska lakes +and Hudson Bay); 131 (Mackenzie River to Cape Bathurst; Langton and +Darnley Bays); 131-134 (numbers perhaps 30,000,000); 133-134 +(destruction by Indians, whalers, and Eskimos).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Blanchet, 1930: 49 (E. of Great Bear, Great Slave, and +Athabaska Lakes; fawns born in late May or June; antler growth and +shedding); 49-52 (migration; Lac de Gras, Lake MacKay, Beverly, +Aberdeen, and Baker lakes; Coppermine, Lockhart, Taltson, Dubawnt, +Kazan, and Ferguson rivers; S. to Cree and Reindeer lakes and Churchill; +only a small migration now from Victoria Island to mainland; Wager and +Repulse bays); 50-51 (importance to Indians and Eskimos; Dawson Inlet to +North Seal River; inland from Eskimo Point and Nunalla; Padlei); 52 +(food destroyed by fire; several millions); 53 (fawning area); 53-54 +(possibilities for reindeer); 54-55 (relation of wolves to caribou).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 55 +(Artillery Lake; weight; therapeutic value of meat); 58 (Thelon River, +thousands, late July); 143 (use as fox bait); 159-160 (numbers); 159-162 +(useful role of Wolf as Caribou predator); 192 (wind direction scarcely +affecting migration; Artillery Lake, mostly bucks, September to +November; bucks getting lean, October 17; antlers dropping and flesh +improving, November 7; practically all (buck) antlers dropped, November +19; Artillery Lake, several hundred does, November 4, then continuing to +pass N. during winter; bands of bucks passing S., November 26 to +December 9; young bucks with does during winter; does dropping +antlers, March 24 to mid-April; all does gone N. by April 27; bucks +moved N. of Hanbury River by June 20; main s. migration, Thelon River, +July 23; all sexes and ages, in bands +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page153" id = "page153">153</a></span> +up to 2,000—total number 10,000+); 193 (scourged and driven by +insects; voice; stage of pelage differing in sexes; delta of Dubawnt +River; possibly yearling doe with fawn; flies gone August 24, animals +putting on fat; does massing in September, hundreds slaughtered by +Eskimos at Thelon-Dubawnt mouth; last seen, Baker Lake, +September 5); 194-196 (table of Caribou movements—localities, +dates, numbers, sex, wind.)—1931: 32 (conservation); 33 (trade in +hides; Back’s River Eskimos living “solely” on Caribou).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Hoare, 1930: 13 (bucks migrating NE., June, Artillery Lake +to Ford Lake); 14 (10,000+ near Campbell Lake, going SW., late July); 16 +(bands near Smart Lake, August); 21 (Ford Lake, early December); 22 +(Artillery Lake and Pike’s Portage, numerous, December; wolf predation); +27 (small bands swimming lower Thelon River, late June); 31 (swimming +Hanbury River, July); 33 (great numbers of bucks going S. Thelon River, +July 22; relation of migrations to insects and storms); 36 (circular +migration about e. end of Great Slave Lake; ne. migration in spring down +Thelon River); 37-38 (relation of migration to mosquitoes); 52-53 +(summation by R. M. Anderson: carrying capacity of range—60 +acres per Caribou; probably total not over 3,000,000).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Kitto, 1930: 87 (food; economy; +numbers and depletion; migrations); 88 (effect of firearms; segregation +of sexes and ages); 89 (wolves; insect pests); 89-90 (conservation +measures); 110 (Keewatin, mainland and Southampton and Coats islands; +Churchill, Eskimo Point, and Baker Lake).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Mallet, 1930: 13 (Eskimo clothing of skins, Kazan River); +20-23 (great migrant herd, led by a doe, crossing Kazan River near +Yathkyed Lake); 27 (small herds migrating S., Ennadai Lake, August); 32 +(Chipewyan drum of caribou skin); 85 (Eskimos between Nueltin and Baker +lakes living on caribou); 87 (Eskimo clothing of caribou fur); 89 +(Eskimos starving for lack of caribou); 90 (500 consumed per winter by +20-odd Eskimos); 92 (caribou-skin gloves; tongues as provisions for +journey); 95 (Eskimos eating raw frozen caribou in winter and “lukewarm +meat” in summer); 102 (Eskimo tent of skins on Kazan River); 116 +(Indians eating caribou on Kasmere River); 131-140 (Eskimo band +succumbing to starvation for lack of caribou).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> Richardson: Jacobi, 1931: 78-80 +(description); 80-84 (N. to Baffin Island and other Arctic islands; E. +to Hudson Bay, Southampton Island, and Melville Peninsula; S. to +Churchill River, Reindeer Lake, and Fort McMurray; W. to Athabaska and +Mackenzie Rivers); 140 (phylogeny); 156, 157, 159 (depletion by natives, +whalers, and traders); 186-187 (habitat); 190 (occurrence in herds); +192-210 (migrations: causes, extent, routes, numbers, behavior, +segregation by sex and age, dates, winter quarters); 216 (swimming); +219, 220 (unwariness; curiosity); 223 (food); 232 (reproduction); 236 +(molt); 237 (change of antlers); 240-241 (predation by wolves); 244-245 +(parasitic flies).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Harper, 1932: 30 +(Lake Athabaska; excessive slaughter by Indians; Tazin Highlands; food; +Thainka Lake; junction of Tazin and Taltson Rivers; avoiding lower +Taltson River after +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page154" id = "page154">154</a></span> +fire); 31 (Great Slave Lake; “near Artillery Lake” [= Stark Lake?]; +Indians spearing hundreds in water; migration; havoc by wolves; +Caribou-eater Chipewyans).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Jenness, 1932: 47, 48, 58, 59 (caribou in Indian economy); +51, 58, 75, 406-408, 411, 412, 414, 415 (caribou in Eskimo economy).</p> + +<p>“Cariboo” or “deer”: Munn, 1932: 57 (Artillery Lake); 58 (great +migration of perhaps 2,000,000 between Artillery and Great Slave lakes; +relation to mosquitoes); 168 (Baffin Island); 191-192 (Eskimo +sleeping-bags and clothing of caribou skin, Baffin Island); 210, 214 +(Eskimos hunting deer, Southampton Island); 255 (trade in skins from +Melville Peninsula); 271 (depletion of Baffin Island herds); 278 +(decimation of caribou in w. Arctic due to Eskimos trapping white fox +instead of sealing in winter).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Sutton and Hamilton, +1932: 33, 35, 36, 81, 82, 84, 85 (predation by wolves, Southampton +Island); 79 (formerly abundant, but no longer); 79, 81 (migration); +80-83, 86-87 (hunting and utilization by Eskimos); 81 (scatology); 81, +84-86 (reproduction); 81-86 (antler growth and shedding); 83 (standing +on hind legs); 84 (food; foot-glands; voice); 84-86 (parasitic and other +flies); 87-88 (description); 88 (previous records on Southampton +Island).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer tarandus arcticus</i>. . .: Weyer, 1932: 38 (most +important land animal to Eskimos); 39 (utilization by Eskimos; food); 40 +(fawning period; seasonal fat; migration).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Birket-Smith, 1933: 89 (immense +numbers on Barren Grounds, but recently declining); 90 (gadflies +plaguing caribou); 91-92 (migration); 92 (thousands at Baker Lake, late +July; scourged by mosquitoes); 93 (no longer migrating from Victoria +Island to mainland); 94 (occurrence in autumn and winter at Repulse +Bay); 100 (good hunting near Whale Point, Roe’s Welcome; use of cairns +in hunting by Eskimos); 106 (not many near Eskimo Point); 112 (great +migration at Baker Lake beginning in June); 118 (deer crossings on lower +Kazan River); 121 (difficulty of reconciling reindeer culture with +presence of caribou).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Ingstad, 1933: 34 (caribou deflected on s. side of Great +Slave Lake by forest fires); 48 (buck on Barren Grounds harassed by +black flies); 85, 110 (E. of Great Slave Lake); 86 (asleep on ice of +lakes); 87 (leaping into air before running off); 88 (varying wariness); +90 (carcass as fox bait near Artillery Lake); 118, 122 (use of meat and +hides by Indians, Great Slave Lake); 134-135, 324 (spring migration +across Great Slave Lake); 135 (antler velvet eaten by Indians; larvae of +nostril and warble flies); 139 (Indian drum of caribou skin); 156-159 +(migration; followed by wolves, ravens, foxes, and wolverines); 158 +(rutting season and behavior); 159 (antler shedding); 160 (numbers); 161 +(migration influenced by grazing available; fawning on Arctic islands); +162 (separation into different herd groupings); 162-163<ins class = +"correction" title = "open ( missing"> (</ins>destruction by Eskimos +with firearms along Arctic coast); 163 (migration deflected by burning +of country); 165-166 (conservation; wolf predation); 167 (dependence of +Caribou-eater Indians on this animal); 176, 181 (Stark Lake and +vicinity); 186-187 (use of meat by Caribou-eaters); 204, 216, 218, 220, +222 (upper Thelon River region); 207 (predation +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page155" id = "page155">155</a></span> +by wolves); 225, 229-231 (Nonacho Lake area); 247, 253 (dependence of +Barren Ground Indians on caribou); 253-254 (former hunting with spears, +bows, dogteams, barriers, snares); 257-259 (Indian use of meat and +hides); 280 (migrating near e. end of Great Slave Lake); 291, 293, 296 +(thousands in winter on Barrens E. of Great Slave <ins class = +"correction" title = "close ) missing">Lake);</ins> 293, 297 +(unwariness); 302-304, 306-307 (predation by wolves on Barren Grounds); +312 (albino caribou).</p> + +<p>“Barren land caribou”: Stockwell, 1933: 45 (large herds in August, +Point, Thonokied, and MacKay lakes and Coppermine River).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Weeks, 1933: 65 (very plentiful on Maguse River after +August 4).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): R. M. Anderson, +1934<i>a</i>: 81 (utilization of skin and meat; migrations; Melville +Peninsula, Boothia Peninsula, and Baffin Island).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: R. M. Anderson, 1934<i>b</i>: 4062, +fig. 9 (map shows range of subsp. arcticus extending N. only to Arctic +coast and over Baffin Island).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Flerov, 1934: 240 (cranial +measurements).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Godsell, 1934: 273-276 (trade with Eskimos on Arctic coast +resulting in great slaughter of caribou); 276 (importation of reindeer +to Mackenzie Delta region to replace caribou).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): Hornby, 1934: 105 (food; +weight; fat; migrations influenced by natives, unfrozen large lakes, and +fires; effects of flies; rutting season and behavior; antler shedding); +106 (irregular migrations; sexual segregation; wolf predation); 106-107 +(movements, numbers, and dates in region between Great Slave and Baker +lakes); 108 (beneficial effect of wolves on caribou).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Wray, 1934: 141 (abundant, Lac de Gras, 1932); 144 (few S. +of Mackay Lake).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Degerbøl, 1935: 48-51 +(specimens from Baffin Island and Melville Peninsula, including an +albino from Rae Isthmus; descriptions).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Freuchen, 1935: 93 (abundance of rabbits supposed to +lessen wolf predation on caribou); 99 (wolverine reputed to attack +sleeping caribou); 120 (pursuit by wolves near Wager Inlet); 121 +(followed by wolves, Melville Peninsula; predation by wolves, +Southampton Island); 122 (wolves said not to follow caribou across +streams; wolf methods of hunting caribou); 128 (caribou carcasses +consumed by Arctic foxes).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Murie, 1935: 74, 75 +(type locality; skull measurements).</p> + +<p>“Barren ground caribou”: Alcock, 1936: 9 (Lake Athabaska).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Birket-Smith, 1936: 90 (importance to +Eskimos); 91 (migration; snow pitfalls, baited with urine; hunting with +spears, rows of stone cairns, snares, and bows); 110 (dependence of +Caribou Eskimos on Caribou); 111 (frequent famine and cannibalism among +them for lack of Caribou; lookout knolls for Caribou); 112 (sexual +segregation in herds); 115-116 (clothing of caribou skin).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Soper, 1936: 429 (resorting to Grinnell Glacier, Baffin +Island, to escape mosquitoes).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): R. M. Anderson, 1937: +103 (lower +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page156" id = "page156">156</a></span> +Mackenzie River to Hudson Bay; use of skin and meat; scarce on coast W. +of Bathurst Inlet; concentration between Bathurst Inlet, Great Slave +Lake, and Baker Lake; S. into Wood Buffalo Park; use of rifles by +Central Eskimos resulting in decrease; apparent inter­gradation with +<i>R. a. pearyi</i> in northern islands).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Godsell, 1937: 288 (caribou migrating between mainland and +Arctic islands exterminated by Eskimos with ammunition supplied by +traders); 289 (reindeer imported to mouth of Mackenzie to replace +vanished caribou).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Henriksen, 1937: 25 (larvae of +<i>Cephenomyia trompe</i> L. from nasal passage, Baker Lake, +May 2); 26 (larvae of <i>Oedemagena tarandi</i> collected from +caribou in May, Gore Bay, Lyon Inlet, and Melville Peninsula).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i>. . .: R. M. Anderson, 1938: 400 +(perhaps no great reduction in numbers, but some shifting of range from +human encroachments and fire; wintering S. to n. Manitoba and +Saskatchewan and ne. Alberta; estimate of 3,000,000).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: Hamilton, 1939: 109 (hoofs; function +of fat); 244-247 (migrations); 246, 352, 359 (importance to Indians and +Eskimos); 247 (influence of mosquitoes on movements; sexual +segregation); 301 (distribution determined by insect pests); 359 +(immense herd in ne. Saskatchewan).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> Richardson: Murie, 1939: 239 +(Mackenzie River to Hudson Bay and Baffin Island, including some of the +Arctic islands; diagnosis); 244 (antlers; pelage; migration; rut in +September and October); 245 (food; ankle click; voice; gait; senses; +insect pests; Wolves and other predators); 245-246 (danger from +introduction of Reindeer); 246 (adaptation to environment).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): Clarke, 1940: 5, 7 (dependence +of Indians and Eskimos on caribou); 8-9 (Rum Lake country a wintering +ground; Eskimos from Back’s River to Wager Inlet and Baker Lake +dependent on winter caribou; likewise those at Beverly, Aberdeen, and +Schultz lakes); 11 (great winter herd S. and W. of Bathurst Inlet); 65 +(fluctuations; current abundance in Hanbury-Thelon region and scarcity +at Baker Lake); 70 (parasites; diseases); 84 (economic importance); +85-86 (migrating southward in late July in Thelon Game Sanctuary and at +Tourgis Lake, in early August at Hanbury, Artillery, Clinton-Colden, and +Aylmer lakes, and from early August to late September at Taltson River +and Thekulthili and Nonacho lakes; in autumn near Lac de Gras and on +upper Back’s River; in autumn and winter at Reliance and Snowdrift); +87-90 (at least 100,000 migrating N. in early July at Hanbury and Thelon +rivers, including does with month-old fawns); 89, 90 (molt); 91 +(previous records in Thelon Sanctuary region); 92-93 (near Lake +Athabaska and Slave River and at Hill Island Lake in early August; Wood +Buffalo Park in winter; the various groups and their movements defined); +93-95 (early ideas of migrations); 95 (fallacies; sexual segregation; +antlers; influence of flies); 96-97 (details of migratory movements; +retrograde autumnal movement); 98 (extermination of bands formerly +migrating from mainland to Victoria and King William islands); 98-100 +(irregular migrations; influences—such +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page157" id = "page157">157</a></span> +as wide open waters, overgrazing, and fires—affecting migrations); +101-104 (carrying capacity of range; numbers estimated at 3,000,000; +increase and decrease); 104-106 (accidents); 106-107 (effects of fire +and overgrazing; food); 107-110 (wolves and other predators); 110 +(hunting and its effects); 112 (importance to natives).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): G. M. Allen, 1942: +297 (mainstay of Eskimos and Indians); 297-298 (description); 298-299 +(Hudson Bay to Mackenzie River, N. to Banks and Victoria Islands, +Boothia, Southampton and Baffin Islands, S. to Churchill River, Reindeer +Lake, and ne. Alberta; migratory habit; shift of range due to human +crowding and destruction of winter forage by fire); 299 (increased +slaughter in winter range; reduction on Southampton Island).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Manning, 1942: 28 (rapidly reduced on Southampton Island +after establishment of a post in 1924); 29 (insufficient skins for +Eskimo clothing); 29 (wolves, for lack of caribou, became extinct on +Southampton by 1937).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Soper, 1942: 143 (in +1932-33, E. of Fort Smith, S. to 30th base line; along N. shore of Lake +Athabaska to Fond du Lac; W. of Slave River, between Lobstick Creek and +Grand Detour and into Wood Buffalo Park; Tethul River to Tsu Lake and +Taltson River; in 1933-34, crossing Slave River from E. in vicinity of +Caribou and Stony Islands and Buffalo Landing, and feeding on goose +grass [= <i>Equisetum, fide</i> Raup, 1933: 39]).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Downes, 1943: 203 (Windy Lake, late July); 215 (1925-26 +and 1938-39 bad years for caribou on upper Kazan River; consequent +mortality among Eskimos); 221 (Red River, July 28); 224, 249, 250 +(Simons’ Lake); 226 (grunting; shaking heads on account of flies; buck +with winter pelage); 227 (butchering operation); 228 (use of antlers and +hoofs; feeding on dwarf birch; protecting carcasses from gulls); 236-237 +(antics of a buck); 253 (Red River); 255 (warble and nostril flies); 256 +(does beginning to appear; swimming ability); 256-257 (snuffing, +snorting, and coughing); 258-260 (estimates of numbers); 260 (change of +migration routes through human activities and forest fires); 261-262 +(effect of natives and wolves); pl. following p. 296 (Kasmere +River).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): Manning, 1943<i>a</i>: 47 +(recent depletion by Eskimos); 49-52 (w. Baffin Island; Koukdjuak and +Hantzsch rivers; Bowman, Taverner, Wordie, and Harbour bays; Tweedsmuir +Islands; Baird Peninsula; Lake Nettilling; Cumberland Sound; Fury and +Hecla Strait); 50 (summer and winter droppings; exterminated from most +of Foxe Peninsula); 51 (estimated population in central western Baffin +Island 10,000); 51-52 (migratory movements); 52 (sexual segregation and +herding; females bearing young at end of second year); 52-53 (antler +growth and shedding); 53 (molt; development of warble flies, and their +scarcity in fawns; accumulation of fat); 55 (annual kill by wolves on w. +Baffin Island estimated at 2,000 animals over one year of age).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Manning, 1943<i>b</i>: 103 (former migration—now +ceased—from the S. to Melville Peninsula, where the animals are +now scarce; still numerous on Baffin Island N. of Fury and Hecla Strait; +fairly numerous, Repulse Bay +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page158" id = "page158">158</a></span> +to Chesterfield Inlet; dearth of skins for Eskimo clothing; numerous +herds about Piling, Baffin Island).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i>. . .: Porsild, 1943: 383 (food); +386 (warble and nostril flies “apparently do not travel very far”; +sparsely covered grazing areas suitable for caribou but not for +reindeer); 389 (migration affected by rotational grazing and seasonal +and local abundance of mosquitoes or flies; wariness varying with size +of herd; caribou disappear before expanding reindeer culture).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Soper, 1944: 274-250 +(great reduction in southern coastal region of Baffin Island; few left +on Foxe Peninsula; Hantzsch and Soper rivers; Bowman, Amadjuak, and +Frobisher bays; Lake Harbour; Nettilling Lake; Big Island; Grinnell +Glacier; Cockburn Land); 248 (measurements); 248-249 (migrations); +248-250 (utilization by Eskimos).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: [U.S.] War Department, 1944: 40 (Canadian mainland and +Arctic islands); 77 (importance as food).</p> + +<p>“Barren ground caribou”: Wright, 1944: 185 (late summer skins for +clothing; high value of the meat; reduction in numbers); 186 (migration +routes changed by overgrazing, fires, and excessive hunting; numbers); +187 (annual consumption in Keewatin not less than 22,000; decrease on +Boothia and Melville peninsulas; locally plentiful in w. Baffin Island; +scarce on King William Island; none on Adelaide Peninsula; great +decrease on Southampton Island); 188 (small herds on Coats Island; +varying numbers on Baffin Island, where skins are imported for clothing; +a herd on Bylot Island); 189 (scarce at Arctic Bay and on Brodeur +Peninsula); 190 (migration on Baffin Island); 191 (Baffin population +estimated at 25,000); 193 (tables of numbers taken annually on Baffin +Island and in Keewatin); 195 (smaller caribou on Boothia Peninsula and +on Somerset and Prince of Wales islands).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Young, 1944: 236-238, 243 (predation by wolves in the +Barren Grounds, including Southampton Island and Artillery Lake).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Gavin, 1945: 227-228 +(recent increase at Perry River and Bathurst Inlet; partly resident on +mainland but also migratory, a few crossing to Victoria Island); +228 (many fawning on small coastal islands and Kent Peninsula; many +succumbing to mosquitoes; damage by larvae of warble fly).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): R. M. Anderson, 1947: +178 (type locality; Mackenzie and Keewatin, from Hudson Bay and Melville +Peninsula W. to lower Mackenzie Valley, and N. to s. fringe of islands +N. of the mainland Arctic coast; migrating S. to Churchill River or +beyond, Reindeer Lake, Lake Athabaska, and occasionally the Wood Buffalo +Park in ne. Alberta).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i>. . .: R. M. Anderson, 1948: 15 (decrease; +shift of range attributed to fire or overgrazing; need of protection; +killing from planes; Northwest Territories; northern Manitoba, +Saskatchewan, and Alberta).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> (Richardson): Manning, 1948: 26-28 (Eyrie, +Big Sand, Neck, Sandhill, Malaher, Boundary, Boulder, South Henik, Camp, +Carr, Alder, Victory, Ninety-seven, Twin, and Baker lakes; Tha-anne and +Kazan rivers; W. of Padlei; Christopher Island; Chesterfield Inlet; +Tavani; +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page159" id = "page159">159</a></span> +most numerous in the more southerly and westerly of these localities in +Manitoba and Keewatin; heavy grazing on lichens where the caribou had +been numerous; migration; trails).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> Richardson: Rand, 1948<i>a</i>: +211-212 (diagnosis); 212 (Northwest Territories, wandering southward in +winter as far as Fort McMurray (formerly) and Wood Buffalo Park; food; +habitat).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> Richardson: Rand, 1948<i>b</i>: 149 +(numerous at Burnt Wood River, W. of Nelson House, winter of 1944-45, +and in Herb Lake area, Manitoba, winters of 1944-45 and 1945-46; +hundreds killed by Indians).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Yule, 1948: 287 (a losing battle for survival; not half as +many as a few years previously); 288 (considerable herds between +Churchill and Gillam, but fewer to the westward; excessive kill; +consumption by dogs and wolves; disaster confronting Indians and Eskimos +through diminishing supply of caribou).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i>. . .: Banfield, 1949: 477 +(economy); 478 (Mackenzie and Keewatin; numbers less than previous +estimate of 3,000,000; S. in winter to nw. Ontario, central Manitoba, n. +Saskatchewan, ne. Alberta, Wood Buffalo Park, and Norman Wells; small +bands remaining on Boothia and Adelaide peninsulas, S. of Pelly Bay, on +Somerset, Prince of Wales, and Russell islands, and at Daly Bay; +believed extirpated on King William Island; Melville Peninsula); 481 +(near Wager Bay; fairly plentiful along Arctic coast from Back’s River +to Horton River, in Perry River district, and on Kent Peninsula, where a +few cross to Victoria Island; population on Southampton Island estimated +at 300, on Coats Island at 1,000 and on Baffin Island at 25,000; +apparently extirpated on Bylot Island in 1941; Eskimo pressure on Baffin +Island herds). (Fig. 1 suggests n. limit at s. Victoria Island and +Prince of Wales and Somerset islands.)</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i>. . .: Harper, 1949: 226 (Kazan +River; Eskimos starving for lack of caribou); 226-230, 239-240 +(migration and its pattern); 226 (wintering S. to Churchill and Nelson +rivers; Nueltin Lake); 226, 228 (habitat; trails); 226-227, 229-230 +(locomotion); 227 (daily periods of rest); 228, 229, 230 (pelage and +molt); 228 (insect pests); 228, 229 (organization of herds); 229 +(antlers); 229-230 (disposition); 230 (grunting; shaking water off; +foot-glands; food); 230-231 (utilization of hides and meat); 230-231, +239 (the wolf a beneficial predator); 231, 239 (numbers); 239 (civilized +man the chief enemy; menace of reindeer culture).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Hoffman, 1949: 12 (herds of 50,000 in Mackenzie region +spotted by aircraft; Indians and Eskimos thus directed to them; caribou +hides shipped to Eskimos along Arctic coast, who are thus giving up +seal-hunting).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus</i> agg.: Polunin, 1949: 24 (contemplated +introduction of Reindeer to replace Caribou); 72 (Frobisher Bay); 227, +230 (reported increase in NE. of Southampton Island); 230 (Eskimos on +Southampton Island learning conservation methods); 233, 238, 262, 264 +(Christopher Island, Baker Lake).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Porsild, 1950: 54 (relatively plentiful, 1949, Banks and +Victoria islands).</p> + +<p>“Barren-ground caribou”: Banfield, 1951<i>a</i>: 1 (importance in +northern economy); 3 (physical environment); 4 (former and +present distribution); +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page160" id = "page160">160</a></span> +4-5 (winter ranges); 5 (influences of fire on distribution); +6 (summer ranges; retrograde autumnal movement); 9 (estimated +mainland population 670,000); 9-12 (migration); 10 (retrograde autumnal +movement; rutting in October or November); 11 (influences of excessive +hunting and fires on migration); 12-15 (changes in range and status); 13 +(estimated population of 1,750,000 in 1900); 14-15 (destruction by +whalers and natives); 15-17 (description; pelage and molt); 15 (weight); +17-18 (antler growth and change); 18 (tooth wear with age); 19 (body +form; foot-prints; foot-click); 19-20 (food); 21 (locomotion; swimming); +22 (voice; senses; disposition); 23-24 (group behavior); 24-26 (sexual +segregation); 26 (rutting behavior); 27 (fawning behavior; warning +behavior); 27-29 (influence of food, weather, and flies on migration); +30 (vital statistics; growth); 31 (sexual maturity); 31-33 (warble +flies); 33 (nostril flies, mosquitoes, and black flies); 33-35 (internal +parasites); 35 (bacterial diseases); 35-36 (accidents); 36-37 (relations +to other animals); 37-41 (relations to wolves; annual loss from wolf +predation estimated at no more than 5 percent); 41 (wolverine only a +scavenger); 42 (few kills by barren-ground grizzlies or golden eagles); +42-43 (effect of firearms and wastage by natives); 43-44 (caches); 44-45 +(meat used as human food, dog feed, and fox bait); 46-47 (hides used for +clothing, upholstery, tents, moccasins, etc.); 47 (use of sinew, +antlers, and fat); 47-50 (human population in caribou range; annual kill +estimated at 93,000 as a minimum).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i> (Richardson): Banfield, +1951<i>b</i>: 120 (Mackenzie; wintering in forest, summering on tundra; +specimens).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Scott, 1951: 17 (Musk Ox Lake, Mackenzie); 19 (near +Beechey Lake); 37, 41, 83, 87, 88, 175, 214, 216 (Perry River, +Keewatin); 127 (use by Eskimos); 179, 180 (doe with fawn, July 21); 199 +(several thousand, July 27); 234 (Baker Lake).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Tweedsmuir, 1951: 18 (reduction on Baffin Island); 37 +(Salisbury Island); 111 (gone from Foxe Land).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Anonymous, 1952: 261 (decline in numbers from 1,750,000 in +1900 to 670,000 in 1952); 263, 265, 267 (wolves harrying herds); 264 +(annual kill estimated at 100,000; natural enemies account for 68,000 +more); 267 (summer and winter ranges mapped).</p> + +<p><i>Rangifer arcticus arcticus</i>. . .: Mochi and Carter, 1953: pl. +9, fig. 3, and accompanying text (description; distribution).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Harper, 1953: 28 (caribou bodies in Nueltin Lake region +fed upon by Rough-legged Hawks, Ravens, and Herring Gulls); 40 (lack of +Caribou leading to large consumption of Ptarmigan as dog feed); 41 +(Caribou preferred to Ptarmigan as Eskimo food); 60 (Long-tailed Jaegers +feeding on caribou bodies); 62, 63 (depredations by Herring Gulls on +caribou bodies); 64 (Ring-billed Gulls feeding on caribou bodies); 72 +(Canada Jays as substitute for dog feed when caribou are lacking; these +birds as scavengers on caribou bodies); 74 (Ravens and Canada Jays as +scavengers); 76 (Ravens feeding upon caribou bodies and following Wolves +in expectation of a caribou kill).</p> + +<p>“Caribou”: Barnett, 1954: 96 (migration; fawning; numbers); 103 +(migration); 104 (warble fly; antlers); 106 (lichens as food).</p> + +</div> + +<!-- end div biblio --> + + + + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page161" id = "page161">161</a></span> +<h2><a name = "index" id = "index">INDEX</a></h2> + + +<p>The principal items selected for inclusion in this index are: names +of animals other than Richardson’s Barren Ground Caribou (<i>Rangifer +arcticus arcticus</i>); names of plants; names of institutions; and +names of authors and other persons.</p> + +<p>The index does not cover the bibliographical references in smaller +type inserted at the end of each section, from pages 38 to 119; nor does +it cover the two large sections devoted wholly to bibliography (pp. +120-160).</p> + +<div class = "mynote"> + +<p>Links lead to the top of the page.</p> + +<p class = "center"> +<a href = "#index_A"> A </a> +<a href = "#index_B"> B </a> +<a href = "#index_C"> C </a> +<a href = "#index_D"> D </a> +<a href = "#index_E"> E </a> +<a href = "#index_F"> F </a> +<a href = "#index_G"> G </a> +<a href = "#index_H"> H </a> +<a href = "#index_I"> I </a> +<a href = "#index_J"> J </a> +<a href = "#index_K"> K </a> +<a href = "#index_L"> L </a><br> +<a href = "#index_M"> M </a> +<a href = "#index_N"> N </a> +<a href = "#index_O"> O </a> +<a href = "#index_P"> P </a> +<a href = "#index_R"> R </a> +<a href = "#index_S"> S </a> +<a href = "#index_T"> T </a> +<a href = "#index_U"> U </a> +<a href = "#index_V"> V </a> +<a href = "#index_W"> W </a></p> +</div> + +<div class = "index"> + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_A" id = "index_A"><i>Aedes</i></a>, +<a href = "#page45">45</a></p> +<p class = "inset"><i>fitchii</i>, <a href = "#page70">70</a></p> +<p class = "inset"><i>nearcticus</i>, <a href = "#page70">70</a></p> + +<p><i>Agrostis scabra</i>, <a href = "#page42">42</a></p> + +<p>Alder, <a href = "#page98">98</a></p> + +<p><i>Alectoria</i>, <a href = "#page44">44</a></p> + +<p>Allen, J. A., <a href = "#page116">116</a></p> + +<p><i>Alopex lagopus innuitus</i>, <a href = "#page63">63</a></p> + +<p>American Committee for International Wild Life Protection, reverse of +title-page</p> + +<p>American Museum of Natural History, <a href = "#page6">6</a>, +<a href = "#page117">117</a></p> + +<p>American Society of Mammalogists, <a href = "#page77">77</a></p> + +<p>Amundsen, Roald, <a href = "#page49">49</a></p> + +<p>Anderson, R. M., <a href = "#page40">40</a>, +<a href = "#page43">43</a>, +<a href = "#page75">75</a>, +<a href = "#page78">78</a>, +<a href = "#page116">116</a>, +<a href = "#page117">117</a></p> + +<p>Anonymous, <a href = "#page40">40</a>, +<a href = "#page47">47</a></p> + +<p>Anoteelik, <a href = "#page6">6</a>, +<a href = "#page26">26</a>, +<a href = "#page27">27</a>, +<a href = "#page35">35</a> (fig.), +<a href = "#page56">56</a> (fig.), +<a href = "#page60">60</a>, +<a href = "#page85">85</a>, +<a href = "#page95">95</a></p> + +<p>Arctic Institute of North America, <a href = "#page5">5</a>, inside +of back cover</p> + +<p><i>Arctostaphylos alpina</i>, <a href = "#page33">33</a> (fig.)</p> + +<p>Armstrong, Alex, <a href = "#page117">117</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_B" id = "index_B">Bailey</a>, Alfred M., and Russell W. +Hendee, <a href = "#page72">72</a></p> + +<p>Banfield, A. W. F., <a href = "#page5">5</a>, +<a href = "#page10">10</a>, +<a href = "#page40">40</a>, +<a href = "#page58">58</a>, +<a href = "#page63">63</a>, +<a href = "#page66">66</a>, +<a href = "#page71">71</a>, +<a href = "#page76">76</a>, +<a href = "#page78">78</a>, +<a href = "#page107">107</a>, +<a href = "#page117">117</a>, +<a href = "#page118">118</a></p> + +<p>Bear(s), Black, <a href = "#page42">42</a>, +<a href = "#page48">48</a>, +<a href = "#page62">62</a></p> + +<p>Bergman, Arvid M., <a href = "#page72">72</a></p> + +<p><i>Betula glandulosa</i>, <a href = "#page33b">33</a> (fig.), +<a href = "#page98">98</a></p> + +<p>Birch, dwarf, <a href = "#page16">16</a>, +<a href = "#page17">17</a>, +<a href = "#page22">22</a>, +<a href = "#page24">24</a>, +<a href = "#page41">41</a>, +<a href = "#page98">98</a>, +<a href = "#page99">99</a></p> + +<p>Birket-Smith, Kaj, <a href = "#page76">76</a>, +<a href = "#page117">117</a></p> + +<p>Bison, <a href = "#page85">85</a></p> + +<p>Blanchet, G. H., <a href = "#page49">49</a>, +<a href = "#page117">117</a></p> + +<p>Blowfly(ies), <a href = "#page29">29</a>, +<a href = "#page51">51</a>, +<a href = "#page52">52</a></p> + +<p>Boas, Franz, <a href = "#page112">112</a></p> + +<p>Bourassa, John M., <a href = "#page12">12</a></p> + +<p>Buchanan, Angus, <a href = "#page7">7</a>, +<a href = "#page68">68</a>, +<a href = "#page86">86</a></p> + +<p>Buchholz, Carl, <a href = "#page38">38</a></p> + +<p>“Bulldog” (Tabanidae), <a href = "#page45">45</a></p> + +<p><i>Buteo lagopus sancti-johannis</i>, <a href = "#page68">68</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_C" id = "index_C">Cabot</a>, William B., <a href = +"#page99">99</a></p> + +<p>Calf, bovine, <a href = "#page104">104</a></p> + +<p><i>Canis</i>,</p> +<p class = "inset"><i>lupus arctos</i>, <a href = "#page63">63</a></p> +<p class = "inset"><i>lupus bernardi</i>, <a href = "#page63">63</a></p> +<p class = "inset"><i>lupus hudsonicus</i>, <a href = "#page63">63</a>, +<a href = "#page64">64</a></p> +<p class = "inset"><i>lupus mackenzii</i>, <a href = +"#page63">63</a></p> +<p class = "inset"><i>lupus manningi</i>, <a href = "#page63">63</a></p> +<p class = "inset"><i>lupus occidentalis</i>, <a href = +"#page63">63</a></p> + +<p><i>Carex chordorrhiza</i>, <a href = "#page55">55</a> (fig.)</p> + +<p>Caribou,</p> +<p class = "inset">Grant’s, <a href = "#page74">74</a></p> +<p class = "inset">Labrador Barren Ground, <a href = +"#page118">118</a></p> +<p class = "inset">Newfoundland, <a href = "#page63">63</a>, +<a href = "#page66">66</a>, +<a href = "#page97">97</a></p> +<p class = "inset">Peary’s, <a href = "#page43">43</a></p> +<p class = "inset">(Western) Woodland, <a href = "#page7">7</a>-<a href += "#page9">9</a>, +<a href = "#page12">12</a>, +<a href = "#page45">45</a>, +<a href = "#page46">46</a>, +<a href = "#page70">70</a>, +<a href = "#page78">78</a>, +<a href = "#page112">112</a>, +<a href = "#page94">94</a> (fig.), +<a href = "#page119">119</a></p> + +<p><i>Cephenemyia</i>, <a href = "#page45">45</a>, +<a href = "#page46">46</a>, +<a href = "#page72">72</a>, +<a href = "#page73">73</a>, +<a href = "#page96">96</a></p> +<p class = "inset"><i>nasalis</i>, <a href = "#page72">72</a></p> +<p class = "inset"><i>trompe</i>, <a href = "#page72">72</a>, +<a href = "#page73">73</a></p> + +<p><i>Cervus elaphus elaphus</i>, <a href = "#page50">50</a></p> + +<p>Chambers, Joe, <a href = "#page11">11</a>, +<a href = "#page66">66</a>, +<a href = "#page85">85</a></p> + +<p>Chipewyans, Caribou-eater, <a href = "#page47">47</a>, +<a href = "#page49">49</a>, +<a href = "#page52">52</a>, +<a href = "#page58">58</a>, +<a href = "#page62">62</a>, +<a href = "#page69">69</a></p> + +<p>Christian, Edgar, <a href = "#page59">59</a></p> + +<p><i>Cladonia</i>, <a href = "#page33">33</a> (fig.), +<a href = "#page44">44</a>, +<a href = "#page98">98</a></p> + +<p>Clarke, C. H. D., <a href = "#page38">38</a>, +<a href = "#page40">40</a>, +<a href = "#page41">41</a>, +<a href = "#page47">47</a>, +<a href = "#page67">67</a>, +<a href = "#page78">78</a>, +<a href = "#page117">117</a></p> + +<p><i>Corvus corax principalis</i>, <a href = "#page68">68</a></p> + +<p>Cow, domestic, <a href = "#page113">113</a></p> + +<p>Critchell-Bullock, James C., <a href = "#page67">67</a></p> + +<p>Crowberry, <a href = "#page16">16</a>, +<a href = "#page98">98</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_D" id = "index_D">Deer</a>,</p> +<p class = "inset">European Red, <a href = "#page50">50</a></p> +<p class = "inset">“Indian,” <a href = "#page8">8</a></p> +<p class = "inset">Mule, <a href = "#page77">77</a></p> +<p class = "inset">White-tailed, <a href = "#page46">46</a>, +<a href = "#page77">77</a>, +<a href = "#page78">78</a>, +<a href = "#page83">83</a>-<a href = "#page85">85</a>, +<a href = "#page87">87</a>, +<a href = "#page100">100</a>, +<a href = "#page102">102</a>, +<a href = "#page103">103</a></p> + +<p>Degerbøl, Magnus, <a href = "#page112">112</a></p> + +<p>Dix, W. L., <a href = "#page44">44</a>, +<a href = "#page98">98</a></p> + +<p>Dobbs, Arthur, <a href = "#page8">8</a></p> + +<p>Dogs, (Husky), <a href = "#page15">15</a>, +<a href = "#page17">17</a>, +<a href = "#page19">19</a>, +<a href = "#page21">21</a>, +<a href = "#page47">47</a>-<a href = "#page52">52</a>, +<a href = "#page59">59</a>, +<a href = "#page60">60</a>, +<a href = "#page62">62</a>, +<a href = "#page85">85</a></p> + +<p>Downes, P. G., <a href = "#page18">18</a>, +<a href = "#page51">51</a>, +<a href = "#page52">52</a>, +<a href = "#page69">69</a>, +<a href = "#page106">106</a></p> + +<p>Dugmore, A. Radclyffe, <a href = "#page97">97</a>, +<a href = "#page112">112</a></p> + +<p>Dyar, Harrison G., <a href = "#page70">70</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_E" id = "index_E"><i>Eleocharis baldwinii</i></a>, +<a href = "#page42">42</a></p> + +<p>Ellis, Hazel R., <a href = "#page12">12</a></p> + +<p><i>Empetrum nigrum</i>, <a href = "#page33">33</a> (figs.), +<a href = "#page98">98</a></p> + +<p>Eskimo(s), <a href = "#page5">5</a>, +<a href = "#page6">6</a>, +<a href = "#page19">19</a>, +<a href = "#page29">29</a>, +<a href = "#page34">34</a> (figs.), +<a href = "#page35">35</a> (figs.), +<a href = "#page47">47</a>, +<a href = "#page49">49</a>-<a href = "#page52">52</a>, +<a href = "#page56">56</a> (figs.), +<a href = "#page57">57</a>-<a href = "#page60">60</a>, +<a href = "#page74">74</a>-<a href = "#page76">76</a>, +<a href = "#page79">79</a>, +<a href = "#page99">99</a>, +<a href = "#page114">114</a></p> + +<p>“Eskimo candle(s),” <a href = "#page60">60</a>, +<a href = "#page114">114</a></p> + +<p>“Eskimo Charlie,” <a href = "#page52">52</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_F" id = "index_F">Fish</a>, +<a href = "#page47">47</a>, +<a href = "#page48">48</a>, +<a href = "#page59">59</a>, +<a href = "#page60">60</a></p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page162" id = "page162">162</a></span> +<p>Fisher, Alexander, <a href = "#page103">103</a></p> + +<p>Fleas, <a href = "#page73">73</a></p> + +<p>Flerov, Constantine C., <a href = "#page110">110</a></p> + +<p>Fly(ies), <a href = "#page14">14</a>, +<a href = "#page23">23</a>, +<a href = "#page27">27</a>, +<a href = "#page41">41</a>, +<a href = "#page43">43</a>, +<a href = "#page69">69</a>, +<a href = "#page85">85</a></p> +<p class = "inset">black, <a href = "#page20">20</a>, +<a href = "#page23">23</a>-<a href = "#page28">28</a>, +<a href = "#page45">45</a>, +<a href = "#page46">46</a>, +<a href = "#page69">69</a>, +<a href = "#page70">70</a></p> +<p class = "inset">“deer,” <a href = "#page70">70</a></p> +<p class = "inset">nostril, <a href = "#page37">37</a>, +<a href = "#page45">45</a>, +<a href = "#page46">46</a>, +<a href = "#page72">72</a>, +<a href = "#page73">73</a>, +<a href = "#page96">96</a></p> +<p class = "inset">warble, <a href = "#page37">37</a>, +<a href = "#page45">45</a>, +<a href = "#page46">46</a>, +<a href = "#page52">52</a>, +<a href = "#page56b">56</a> (figs.), <a href = "#page57">57</a>, +<a href = "#page70">70</a>-<a href = "#page72">72</a>, +<a href = "#page96">96</a></p> + +<p>Fox(es), <a href = "#page47">47</a>, +<a href = "#page48">48</a>, +<a href = "#page51">51</a>, +<a href = "#page62">62</a>, +<a href = "#page66">66</a>, +<a href = "#page68">68</a></p> +<p class = "inset">Arctic, <a href = "#page48">48</a>, +<a href = "#page62">62</a>, +<a href = "#page63">63</a>, +<a href = "#page78">78</a></p> +<p class = "inset">Red, <a href = "#page63">63</a></p> + +<p>Franklin, Sir John, <a href = "#page46">46</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_G" id = "index_G">Gallagher</a>, Don, <a href = +"#page12">12</a></p> + +<p>Gavin, Angus, <a href = "#page64">64</a>, +<a href = "#page69">69</a>, +<a href = "#page117">117</a></p> + +<p>Gibson, R. A., <a href = "#page6">6</a></p> + +<p>Godsell, Philip H., <a href = "#page117">117</a></p> + +<p>Goldman, Edward A., <a href = "#page63">63</a>, +<a href = "#page64">64</a></p> + +<p>Goodwin, George G., <a href = "#page117">117</a></p> + +<p>Grant, Madison, <a href = "#page118">118</a></p> + +<p>Grass(es), <a href = "#page98">98</a>, +<a href = "#page99">99</a></p> + +<p>Gull(s),</p> +<p class = "inset">Herring, <a href = "#page51">51</a>, +<a href = "#page68">68</a></p> +<p class = "inset">Ring-billed, <a href = "#page68">68</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_H" id = "index_H">Hanbury</a>, David T., <a href = +"#page47">47</a>, +<a href = "#page49">49</a></p> + +<p>Hares, Arctic, <a href = "#page69">69</a></p> + +<p>Harper, Francis, <a href = "#page44">44</a>, +<a href = "#page51">51</a>, +<a href = "#page52">52</a>, +<a href = "#page58">58</a>, +<a href = "#page69">69</a>, +<a href = "#page74">74</a>, +<a href = "#page77">77</a></p> + +<p>Hawk(s), Rough-legged, <a href = "#page48">48</a>, +<a href = "#page51">51</a>, +<a href = "#page68">68</a></p> + +<p>Hearne, Samuel, <a href = "#page5">5</a>, +<a href = "#page7">7</a>-<a href = "#page9">9</a>, +<a href = "#page57">57</a>, +<a href = "#page102">102</a></p> + +<p>Hewitt, C. Gordon, <a href = "#page75">75</a></p> + +<p>Hoare, W. H. B., <a href = "#page47">47</a>, +<a href = "#page59">59</a></p> + +<p>Hornby, John, <a href = "#page59">59</a></p> + +<p>Horse, <a href = "#page96">96</a></p> + +<p>Hudson’s Bay Company, <a href = "#page58">58</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_I" id = "index_I">Indian(s)</a>, +<a href = "#page5">5</a>, +<a href = "#page47">47</a>, +<a href = "#page48">48</a>, +<a href = "#page50">50</a>, +<a href = "#page52">52</a>, +<a href = "#page57">57</a>, +<a href = "#page75">75</a>, +<a href = "#page114">114</a></p> +<p class = "inset">Chipewyan. <i>See</i> Chipewyans, Caribou-eater</p> +<p class = "inset">Cree, <a href = "#page58">58</a>, +<a href = "#page94">94</a> (fig.)</p> + +<p>Ingebrigtsen, John, <a href = "#page11">11</a>, +<a href = "#page79">79</a>, +<a href = "#page107">107</a></p> + +<p>Ingstad, Helge, <a href = "#page41">41</a>, +<a href = "#page49">49</a>, +<a href = "#page112">112</a></p> + +<p>Insects, <a href = "#page20">20</a>, +<a href = "#page37">37</a>, +<a href = "#page43">43</a>, +<a href = "#page45">45</a>, +<a href = "#page46">46</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_J" id = "index_J">Jackson</a>, Hartley H. T., <a href = +"#page77">77</a></p> + +<p>Jacobi, Arnold, <a href = "#page7">7</a>, +<a href = "#page69">69</a>, +<a href = "#page71">71</a>, +<a href = "#page72">72</a>, +<a href = "#page74">74</a>, +<a href = "#page98">98</a>, +<a href = "#page102">102</a>, +<a href = "#page103">103</a>, +<a href = "#page105">105</a>, +<a href = "#page107">107</a>, +<a href = "#page112">112</a>, +<a href = "#page113">113</a></p> + +<p>Jaeger, Long-tailed, <a href = "#page68">68</a></p> + +<p>Jay(s), Canada, <a href = "#page48">48</a>, +<a href = "#page51">51</a>, +<a href = "#page68">68</a></p> + +<p>Jenness, Diamond, <a href = "#page85">85</a></p> + +<p>Johansen, Frits, <a href = "#page71">71</a>, +<a href = "#page73">73</a></p> + +<p><i>Juncus tenuis</i>, <a href = "#page42">42</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_K" id = "index_K">Katello</a>, +<a href = "#page19">19</a>, +<a href = "#page49">49</a>, +<a href = "#page56">56</a> (fig.)</p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_L" id = "index_L">Lamont</a>, Arthur H., <a href = +"#page10">10</a></p> + +<p>Lantis, Margaret, <a href = "#page74">74</a></p> + +<p><i>Larus</i></p> +<p class = "inset"><i>argentatus smithsonianus</i>, <a href = +"#page68">68</a></p> +<p class = "inset"><i>delawarensis</i>, <a href = "#page68">68</a></p> + +<p><i>Ledum decumbens</i>, <a href = "#page33">33</a> (fig.)</p> + +<p>Lemmings (<i>Dicrostonyx</i>), <a href = "#page48">48</a>, +<a href = "#page69">69</a></p> + +<p><i>Lepus arcticus andersoni</i>, <a href = "#page69">69</a></p> + +<p>Lice (or louse), <a href = "#page73">73</a>, +<a href = "#page74">74</a></p> + +<p>Lichens, <a href = "#page37">37</a>, +<a href = "#page38">38</a>, +<a href = "#page44">44</a>, +<a href = "#page45">45</a>, +<a href = "#page51">51</a>, +<a href = "#page98">98</a>, +<a href = "#page99">99</a></p> +<p class = "inset">reindeer, <a href = "#page24">24</a>, +<a href = "#page44">44</a>, +<a href = "#page99">99</a></p> + +<p><i>Linognathus tarandi</i>, <a href = "#page74">74</a></p> + +<p><i>Loiseleuria procumbens</i>, <a href = "#page33">33</a> (fig.)</p> + +<p>Lyon, George F., <a href = "#page86">86</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_M" id = "index_M">MacFarlane</a>, Roderick, <a href = +"#page112">112</a></p> + +<p>MacIver, Angus, <a href = "#page38">38</a></p> + +<p>McLean, John, <a href = "#page9">9</a></p> + +<p>McLeod, Duncan A., <a href = "#page10">10</a></p> + +<p>Malaher, G. W., <a href = "#page6">6</a>, +<a href = "#page10">10</a>, +<a href = "#page12">12</a>, +<a href = "#page43">43</a>, +<a href = "#page44">44</a></p> + +<p>Mallet, Thierry, <a href = "#page41">41</a></p> + +<p>Malloch, J. R., <a href = "#page45">45</a>, +<a href = "#page46">46</a></p> + +<p>Manning, T. H., <a href = "#page58">58</a>, +<a href = "#page75">75</a></p> + +<p>Millais, J. G., <a href = "#page15">15</a>, +<a href = "#page63">63</a></p> + +<p>Mink, <a href = "#page69">69</a></p> + +<p>Mites, <a href = "#page73">73</a></p> + +<p>Moose, <a href = "#page45">45</a>, +<a href = "#page78">78</a>, +<a href = "#page85">85</a>, +<a href = "#page100">100</a>, +<a href = "#page113">113</a></p> + +<p>Morrow, William C., <a href = "#page6">6</a></p> + +<p>Mosquito(es), <a href = "#page23">23</a>, +<a href = "#page25">25</a>, +<a href = "#page45">45</a>, +<a href = "#page46">46</a>, +<a href = "#page69">69</a>, +<a href = "#page70">70</a>, +<a href = "#page99">99</a></p> + +<p>Moss(es), <a href = "#page24">24</a>, +<a href = "#page51">51</a>, +<a href = "#page60">60</a></p> + +<p>Murie, Olaus J., <a href = "#page105">105</a>-<a href = +"#page107">107</a></p> + +<p>Mushrooms, <a href = "#page99">99</a>, +<a href = "#page113">113</a></p> + +<p>Muskox, <a href = "#page85">85</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_N" id = "index_N">National Science Foundation</a>, +reverse of title-page, <a href = "#page6">6</a></p> + +<p>Natvig, L. Reinhardt, <a href = "#page72">72</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_O" id = "index_O"><i>Oedemagena</i></a>, +<a href = "#page45">45</a>, +<a href = "#page46">46</a>, +<a href = "#page96">96</a></p> +<p class = "inset"><i>tarandi</i>, <a href = "#page52">52</a>, +<a href = "#page70">70</a>, +<a href = "#page71">71</a>, +<a href = "#page73">73</a></p> + +<p>Office of Naval Research, <a href = "#page6">6</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_P" id = "index_P">Padleimiut</a>, +<a href = "#page50">50</a></p> + +<p>Palmer, Ralph S., <a href = "#page6">6</a></p> + +<p>Parkman, Francis, <a href = "#page52">52</a></p> + +<p>Parry, William Edward, <a href = "#page103">103</a></p> + +<p>Peary, R. E., <a href = "#page106">106</a></p> + +<p>Perez-Llano, George A., <a href = "#page98">98</a></p> + +<p><i>Perisoreus canadensis canadensis</i>, <a href = +"#page68">68</a></p> + +<p><i>Picea mariana</i>, <a href = "#page33b">33</a> (fig.), <a href = +"#page92b">92</a> (fig.)</p> + +<p>Pike, Warburton, <a href = "#page9">9</a>, +<a href = "#page44">44</a></p> + +<p>Planchek?, Charles, <a href = "#page52">52</a></p> + +<p>Pocock, R. I., <a href = "#page112">112</a></p> + +<p>Poole, Earl L., cover</p> + +<p>Porsild, A. E., <a href = "#page73">73</a>, +<a href = "#page76">76</a>, +<a href = "#page77">77</a></p> + +<p>Preble, Edward A., <a href = "#page7">7</a>, +<a href = "#page9">9</a>, +<a href = "#page12">12</a>, +<a href = "#page40">40</a>, +<a href = "#page96">96</a></p> + +<p>Ptarmigan, Willow, <a href = "#page44">44</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_R" id = "index_R"><i>Rangifer</i></a></p> +<p class = "inset"><i>arcticus caboti</i>, <a href = "#page99">99</a>, +<a href = "#page118">118</a></p> +<p class = "inset"><i>arcticus granti</i>, <a href = +"#page74">74</a></p> +<p class = "inset"><i>caribou sylvestris</i>, <a href = +"#page12">12</a>, +<a href = "#page94">94</a> (fig.), <a href = "#page119">119</a></p> +<p class = "inset"><i>pearyi</i>, <a href = "#page40">40</a>, +<a href = "#page43">43</a>, +<a href = "#page63">63</a>, +<a href = "#page103">103</a>, +<a href = "#page106">106</a>, +<a href = "#page118">118</a></p> +<p class = "inset"><i>tarandus</i>, <a href = "#page5">5</a></p> + +<p>Rausch, Robert, <a href = "#page77">77</a></p> + +<p>Raven(s), <a href = "#page48">48</a>, +<a href = "#page51">51</a>, +<a href = "#page68">68</a></p> + +<p>Reindeer, <a href = "#page7">7</a>, +<a href = "#page66">66</a>, +<a href = "#page69">69</a>, +<a href = "#page74">74</a>, +<a href = "#page76">76</a>-<a href = "#page78">78</a>, +<a href = "#page110">110</a></p> +<p class = "inset">Lapland, Norway, or Norwegian, <a href = +"#page5">5</a>, +<a href = "#page71">71</a>, +<a href = "#page72">72</a>, +<a href = "#page74">74</a>, +<a href = "#page75">75</a>, +<a href = "#page80">80</a>, +<a href = "#page87">87</a>, +<a href = "#page97">97</a>, +<a href = "#page103">103</a>, +<a href = "#page105">105</a>, +<a href = "#page112">112</a></p> +<p class = "inset">Siberian, <a href = "#page74">74</a>, +<a href = "#page75">75</a>, +<a href = "#page77">77</a></p> + +<span class = "pagenum"><a name = "page163" id = "page163">163</a></span> +<p>Richardson, Sir John, <a href = "#page5">5</a>, +<a href = "#page7">7</a>-<a href = "#page9">9</a>, +<a href = "#page44">44</a>, +<a href = "#page46">46</a>, +<a href = "#page69">69</a>, +<a href = "#page103">103</a></p> + +<p>Rita, <a href = "#page6">6</a>, +<a href = "#page34">34</a> (fig.), <a href = "#page35">35</a> (fig.), +<a href = "#page56b">56</a> (fig.)</p> + +<p>Ross, Bernard R., <a href = "#page46">46</a></p> + +<p>Russell, Frank, <a href = "#page112">112</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_S" id = "index_S">Sabrosky</a>, C. W., <a href = +"#page73">73</a></p> + +<p><i>Salix planifolia</i>, <a href = "#page98">98</a></p> + +<p>Schweder,</p> +<p class = "inset">Charles, <a href = "#page6">6</a>, +<a href = "#page12">12</a>, +<a href = "#page13">13</a>, +<a href = "#page17">17</a>-<a href = "#page19">19</a>, +<a href = "#page27">27</a>-<a href = "#page29">29</a>, +<a href = "#page31">31</a>, +<a href = "#page32">32</a>, +<a href = "#page37">37</a>, +<a href = "#page44">44</a>, +<a href = "#page45">45</a>, +<a href = "#page48">48</a>-<a href = "#page51">51</a>, +<a href = "#page56b">56</a> (fig.), +<a href = "#page58">58</a>, +<a href = "#page59">59</a>, +<a href = "#page62">62</a>-<a href = "#page64">64</a>, +<a href = "#page66">66</a>, +<a href = "#page68">68</a>, +<a href = "#page69">69</a>, +<a href = "#page71">71</a>, +<a href = "#page73">73</a>, +<a href = "#page79">79</a>-<a href = "#page81">81</a>, +<a href = "#page83">83</a>, +<a href = "#page85">85</a>, +<a href = "#page86">86</a>, +<a href = "#page88">88</a>, +<a href = "#page95">95</a>, +<a href = "#page97">97</a>-<a href = "#page108">108</a>, +<a href = "#page111">111</a>-<a href = "#page114">114</a></p> +<p class = "inset">Fred, Jr., <a href = "#page6">6</a>, +<a href = "#page12">12</a>, +<a href = "#page18">18</a>-<a href = "#page20">20</a>, +<a href = "#page24">24</a>-<a href = "#page27">27</a>, +<a href = "#page29">29</a>-<a href = "#page32">32</a>, +<a href = "#page34">34</a> (figs.), <a href = "#page43">43</a>, +<a href = "#page58">58</a>, +<a href = "#page64">64</a>-<a href = "#page66">66</a>, +<a href = "#page69">69</a>-<a href = "#page71">71</a>, +<a href = "#page73">73</a>, +<a href = "#page79">79</a>, +<a href = "#page80">80</a>, +<a href = "#page82">82</a>, +<a href = "#page84">84</a>, +<a href = "#page86">86</a>, +<a href = "#page100">100</a>-<a href = "#page104">104</a>, +<a href = "#page106">106</a>, +<a href = "#page107">107</a></p> +<p class = "inset">Mike, <a href = "#page6">6</a>, +<a href = "#page26">26</a>, +<a href = "#page31">31</a>, +<a href = "#page34">34</a>-<a href = "#page35">35</a> (figs.)</p> + +<p>Sedge(s), <a href = "#page17">17</a>, +<a href = "#page42">42</a>, +<a href = "#page55">55</a> (fig.), <a href = "#page98">98</a>, +<a href = "#page99">99</a></p> + +<p>Seton, Ernest Thompson, <a href = "#page5">5</a>, +<a href = "#page40">40</a>, +<a href = "#page64">64</a>, +<a href = "#page73">73</a>, +<a href = "#page75">75</a>, +<a href = "#page80">80</a>, +<a href = "#page81">81</a>, +<a href = "#page87">87</a>, +<a href = "#page88">88</a>, +<a href = "#page97">97</a>, +<a href = "#page98">98</a>, +<a href = "#page100">100</a>, +<a href = "#page101">101</a>, +<a href = "#page103">103</a>, +<a href = "#page104">104</a>, +<a href = "#page107">107</a>, +<a href = "#page111">111</a>-<a href = "#page113">113</a>, +<a href = "#page116">116</a>, +<a href = "#page118">118</a>, +<a href = "#page119">119</a></p> + +<p>Simpson, Thomas, <a href = "#page8">8</a></p> + +<p><i>Simulium</i>, <a href = "#page45">45</a></p> +<p class = "inset"><i>venustum</i>, <a href = "#page70">70</a></p> + +<p>Soper, J. Dewey, <a href = "#page58">58</a>, +<a href = "#page75">75</a></p> + +<p>Spruce, <a href = "#page24">24</a>, +<a href = "#page41">41</a>, +<a href = "#page42">42</a>, +<a href = "#page51">51</a>, +<a href = "#page60">60</a>, +<a href = "#page108">108</a></p> +<p class = "inset">black, <a href = "#page55">55</a> (fig.), <a href = +"#page92b">92</a> (fig.), <a href = "#page108">108</a></p> + +<p>Stefánsson, Vilhjálmur, <a href = "#page49">49</a>, +<a href = "#page63">63</a>, +<a href = "#page84">84</a>, +<a href = "#page86">86</a>, +<a href = "#page105">105</a>, +<a href = "#page117">117</a></p> + +<p><i>Stercorarius longicaudus</i>, <a href = "#page68">68</a></p> + +<p>Stewart, Norman H., <a href = "#page46">46</a></p> + +<p>Stone, A. J., <a href = "#page97">97</a></p> + +<p>Stone, Dr. Alan, <a href = "#page70">70</a></p> + +<p>Sutton, George M., and William J. Hamilton, Jr., <a href = +"#page107">107</a>, +<a href = "#page117">117</a>, +<a href = "#page118">118</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_T" id = "index_T"><i>Tabanus</i></a>, +<a href = "#page45">45</a></p> + +<p>Tamarack, <a href = "#page24">24</a>, +<a href = "#page41">41</a>, +<a href = "#page42">42</a>, +<a href = "#page108">108</a></p> + +<p>Thompson, David, <a href = "#page8">8</a></p> + +<p>Ticks, <a href = "#page73">73</a></p> + +<p>Turner, L. M., <a href = "#page118">118</a></p> + +<p>Tweedsmuir, Lord, <a href = "#page118">118</a></p> + +<p>Twinn, C. R., <a href = "#page45">45</a></p> + +<p>Tyrrell,</p> +<p class = "inset">James W., <a href = "#page12">12</a>, +<a href = "#page78">78</a>, +<a href = "#page81">81</a></p> +<p class = "inset">J. Burr, <a href = "#page44">44</a>, +<a href = "#page78">78</a>, +<a href = "#page81">81</a>, +<a href = "#page118">118</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_U" id = "index_U">United States Bureau of Entomology +and Plant Quarantine</a>, +<a href = "#page70">70</a>, +<a href = "#page73">73</a></p> + +<p>United States Fish and Wildlife Service, <a href = "#page6">6</a></p> + +<p>United States National Museum, <a href = "#page6">6</a>, +<a href = "#page118">118</a></p> + +<p><i>Usnea</i>, <a href = "#page44">44</a></p> + +<p><i>Ursus americanus</i>, <a href = "#page62">62</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_V" id = "index_V"><i>Vulpes fulva</i></a>, +<a href = "#page63">63</a></p> + + +<p class = "letter"> +<a name = "index_W" id = "index_W">Washburn</a>, Dr. A. L., <a href = +"#page6">6</a></p> + +<p>Weasels, <a href = "#page48">48</a>, +<a href = "#page69">69</a></p> + +<p>Weber, Neal A., <a href = "#page69">69</a>, +<a href = "#page71">71</a>, +<a href = "#page74">74</a></p> + +<p>Wherry, Dr. Edgar T., <a href = "#page42">42</a></p> + +<p>Whitney, Caspar, <a href = "#page112">112</a></p> + +<p>Wildlife Management Institute, reverse of title-page</p> + +<p>Willow, <a href = "#page41">41</a>, +<a href = "#page60">60</a>, +<a href = "#page98">98</a>, +<a href = "#page108">108</a></p> + +<p>Wirth, Dr. W. W., <a href = "#page73">73</a></p> + +<p>Wolf(ves),</p> +<p class = "inset">Keewatin Tundra, <a href = "#page11">11</a>, +<a href = "#page16">16</a>, +<a href = "#page20">20</a>, +<a href = "#page28">28</a>, +<a href = "#page37">37</a>, +<a href = "#page38">38</a>, +<a href = "#page41">41</a>, +<a href = "#page42">42</a>, +<a href = "#page48">48</a>, +<a href = "#page50">50</a>, +<a href = "#page63">63</a>-<a href = "#page68">68</a>, +<a href = "#page80">80</a>, +<a href = "#page81">81</a>, +<a href = "#page83">83</a>, +<a href = "#page84">84</a>, +<a href = "#page86">86</a>, +<a href = "#page102">102</a>, +<a href = "#page104">104</a></p> +<p class = "inset">Alaska, <a href = "#page76">76</a></p> +<p class = "inset">Newfoundland, <a href = "#page66">66</a></p> + +<p>Wolverine(s), <a href = "#page48">48</a>, +<a href = "#page69">69</a>, +<a href = "#page83">83</a></p> + +<p>Wright, J. G., <a href = "#page118">118</a></p> + +</div> +<!-- end div index --> + +</div> +<!-- end div maintext --> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Barren Ground Caribou of Keewatin, by +Francis Harper + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BARREN GROUND CARIBOU OF KEEWATIN *** + +***** This file should be named 33721-h.htm or 33721-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/7/2/33721/ + +Produced by Louise Hope, Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, some +images courtesy of The Internet Archive and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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