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<pre>

The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
Volume 4, Slice 3, by Various

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org


Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Slice 3
       "Borgia, Lucrezia" to "Bradford, John"

Author: Various

Release Date: September 10, 2010 [EBook #33698]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1

*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***




Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net






</pre>


<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
<tr>
<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
</td>
<td class="norm">
One typographical error has been corrected. It
appears in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
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display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>

<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>

<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>

<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>

<hr class="full" />
<h3>VOLUME IV SLICE III<br /><br />
Borgia, Lucrezia to Bradford, John</h3>
<hr class="full" />
<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>

<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">

<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">BORGIA, LUCREZIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">BORGLUM, SOLON HANNIBAL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">BOULTON, MATTHEW</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">BORGOGNONE, AMBROGIO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">BOUND</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">BORGO SAN DONNINO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">BOUNDS, BEATING THE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">BORGU</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">BOUNTY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">BORIC ACID</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">BOURBAKI, CHARLES DENIS SAUTER</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">BORING</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">BOURBON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">BORIS FEDOROVICH GODUNOV</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">BOURBON, CHARLES</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">BORISOGLYEBSK</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">BOURBON-LANCY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">BORKU</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">BOURBON L&rsquo;ARCHAMBAULT</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">BORKUM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">BOURBONNE-LES-BAINS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">BORLASE, WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">BOURCHIER, ARTHUR</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">BORMIO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">BOURCHIER, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">BORN, IGNAZ</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">BOURDALOUE, LOUIS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">BORNA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">BOURDON, FRANÇOIS LOUIS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">BÖRNE, KARL LUDWIG</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">BOURG-EN-BRESSE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">BORNEO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">BOURGEOIS, LÉON VICTOR AUGUSTE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">BORNHOLM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">BOURGEOIS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">BORNIER, HENRI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">BOURGES</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">BORNU</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">BOURGET, PAUL CHARLES JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">BORODIN, ALEXANDER PORFYRIEVICH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">BOURIGNON, ANTOINETTE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">BORODINO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">BOURKE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">BOROLANITE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">BOURMONT, LOUIS AUGUSTE VICTOR</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">BORON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">BOURNE, VINCENT</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">BOROUGH, STEVEN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">BOURNE</a> (town)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">BOROUGH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">BOURNE</a> (stream)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">BOROUGHBRIDGE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">BOURNEMOUTH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">BOROUGH ENGLISH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">BOURNONITE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">BORROMEAN ISLANDS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">BOURRÉE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">BORROMEO, CARLO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">BOURRIENNE, LOUIS ANTOINE FAUVELET DE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">BORROMINI, FRANCESCO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">BOURRIT, MARC THÉODORE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">BORROW, GEORGE HENRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">BOURSAULT, EDME</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">BORSIPPA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">BOURSE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">BORT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">BOURSSE, ESAIAS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">BORY DE SAINT-VINCENT, JEAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">BOUSSINGAULT, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH DIEUDONNÉ</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">BORZHOM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">BOUTERWEK, FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">BOS, LAMBERT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">BOUTHILLIER, CLAUDE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">BOSA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">BOUTS-RIMÉS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">BOSBOOM-TOUSSAINT, ANNA LOUISA GEERTRUIDA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">BOUTWELL, GEORGE SEWALL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">BOSC, LOUIS AUGUSTIN GUILLAUME</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">BOUVARDIA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">BOSCÁN ALMOGAVER, JUAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">BOUVET, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">BOSCASTLE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">BOUVIER, JOHN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">BOSCAWEN, EDWARD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">BOUVINES</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">BOSCH, JEROM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">BOVEY BEDS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">BOSCOVICH, ROGER JOSEPH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">BOVIANUM</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">BOVIDAE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">BOSPORUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">BOVILL, SIR WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">BOVILLAE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">BOSQUET, PIERRE FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">BOW</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">BOSS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">BOWDICH, THOMAS EDWARD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">BOSSI, GIUSEPPE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">BOSSU, RENÉ LE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">BOWDLER, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">BOSSUET, JAQUES BÉNIGNE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">BOWDOIN, JAMES</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">BOSTANAI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">BOWELL, SIR MACKENZIE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">BOSTON, THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">BOWEN, CHARLES SYNGE CHRISTOPHER BOWEN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">BOSTON</a> (Lincolnshire, England)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">BOWEN, FRANCIS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">BOSTON</a> (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">BOWEN, SIR GEORGE FERGUSON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">BOSTON</a> (game of cards)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">BOWER, WALTER</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">BOSTONITE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">BOWERBANK, JAMES SCOTT</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">BOSTRÖM, CHRISTOFFER JACOB</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">BOWIE, JAMES</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">BOSWELL, JAMES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">BOW-LEG</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">BOSWORTH, JOSEPH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">BOWLES, SAMUEL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">BOTANY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">BOWLES, WILLIAM LISLE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">BOTANY BAY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">BOWLINE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">BOTHA, LOUIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">BOWLING</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">BOTHNIA, GULF OF</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">BOWLING GREEN (Kentucky, U.S.A.)</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">BOWLING GREEN (Ohio, U.S.A.)</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">BOTHWELL</a> (town)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">BOWLS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">BOTOCUDOS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">BOWNESS-ON-WINDERMERE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">BOTORI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">BOWRING, SIR JOHN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">BOTOSHANI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">BOWTELL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">BO-TREE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">BOWYER, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">BOTRYTIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">BOX</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">BOTTA, CARLO GIUSEPPE GUGLIELMO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">BOXING</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">BOTTESINI, GIOVANNI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">BOXWOOD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">BOTTICELLI, SANDRO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">BOYACÁ</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">BÖTTIGER, KARL AUGUST</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">BOYAR</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">BOTTLE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">BOY-BISHOP</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">BOTTLE-BRUSH PLANTS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">BOYCE, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">BOTTLENOSE WHALE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">BOYCOTT</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">BOTTOMRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">BOTZARIS, MARCO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">BOYD, ROBERT BOYD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">BOTZEN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">BOYD, ZACHARY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">BOUCHARDON, EDME</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">BOYDELL, JOHN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">BOUCHER, FRANÇOIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">BOYER, ALEXIS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">BOUCHER, JONATHAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">BOYER, JEAN PIERRE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">BOUCHER DE CRÈVCOEUR DE PERTHES, JACQUES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">BOYLE, JOHN J.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">BOUCHES-DU-RHÔNE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">BOYLE, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">BOUCHOR, MAURICE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">BOYLE</a> (town)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">BOUCHOTTE, JEAN BAPTISTE NOËL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">BOYNE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">BOUCICAULT, DION</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">BOYS&rsquo; BRIGADE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">BOUCICAUT, JEAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">BOZDAR</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">BOUDIN, EUGÈNE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">BOZRAH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">BOUDINOT, ELIAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">BRABANT</a> (duchy)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">BOUÉ, AMI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">BRABANT</a> (Belgium)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">BOUFFLERS, LOUIS FRANÇOIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">BRABANT, NORTH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">BOUFFLERS, STANISLAS JEAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">BRACCIANO</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS ANTOINE DE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">BRACCIOLINI, FRANCESCO</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">BOUGHTON, GEORGE HENRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">BRACE, CHARLES LORING</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">BOUGIE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">BRACE, JULIA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">BOUGUER, PIERRE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">BRACE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">BOUGUEREAU, ADOLPHE WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">BRACEGIRDLE, ANNE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">BOUHOURS, DOMINIQUE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">BRACELET</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">BOUILHET, LOUIS HYACINTHE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">BRACHIOPODA</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">BOUILLÉ, FRANÇOIS CLAUDE AMOUR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">BRACHISTOCHRONE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">BOUILLON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">BRACHYCEPHALIC</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">BOUILLOTTE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">BRACKYLOGUS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">BOUILLY, JEAN NICOLAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">BRACKET</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">BOULAINVILLIERS, HENRI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">BRACKET-FUNGI</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">BOULANGER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">BRACKLESHAM BEDS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">BOULANGER, GEORGE ERNEST JEAN MARIE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">BRACKLEY, THOMAS EGERTON</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE, JOSEPH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">BRACKLEY</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">BOULDER</a> (Colorado, U.S.A.)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">BRACQUEMOND, FÉLIX</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">BOULDER</a> (large stone)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar234">BRACTON, HENRY DE</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">BOULDER CLAY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar235">BRADAWL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">BOUL&#274;</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar236">BRADDOCK, EDWARD</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">BOULEVARD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar237">BRADDOCK</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">BOULLE, ANDRÉ CHARLES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar238">BRADDON, MARY ELIZABETH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">BOULOGNE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar239">BRADFORD, JOHN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">BOULOGNE-SUR-MER</a></td>  <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>

</table>

<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>249</span></p>
<p><span class="bold">BORGIA, LUCREZIA<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1480-1519), duchess of Ferrara,
daughter of Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia, afterwards Pope Alexander VI.
(<i>q.v.</i>), by his mistress Vanozza dei Cattanei, was born at
Rome in 1480. Her early years were spent at her mother&rsquo;s house
near her father&rsquo;s splendid palace; but later she was given over
to the care of Adriana de Mila, a relation of Cardinal Borgia
and mother-in-law of Giulia Farnese, another of his mistresses.
Lucrezia was educated according to the usual curriculum of
Renaissance ladies of rank, and was taught languages, music,
embroidery, painting, &amp;c.; she was famed for her beauty and
charm, but the corrupt court of Rome in which she was brought
up was not conducive to a good moral education. Her father
at first contemplated a Spanish marriage for her, and at the age
of eleven she was betrothed to Don Cherubin de Centelles, a
Spanish nobleman. But the engagement was broken off almost
immediately, and Lucrezia was married by proxy to another
Spaniard, Don Gasparo de Procida, son of the count of Aversa.
On the death of Innocent VIII. (1492), Cardinal Borgia was
elected pope as Alexander VI., and, contemplating a yet more
ambitious marriage for his daughter, he annulled the union with
Procida; in February 1493 Lucrezia was betrothed to Giovanni
Sforza, lord of Pesaro, with whose family Alexander was now
in close alliance. The wedding was celebrated in June; but when
the pope&rsquo;s policy changed and he became friendly to the king
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>250</span>
of Naples, the enemy of the house of Sforza, he planned the
subjugation of the vassal lords of Romagna, and Giovanni, feeling
his position insecure, left Rome for Pesaro with his wife. By
Christmas 1495 they were back in Rome; the pope had all his
children around him, and celebrated the carnival with a series
of magnificent festivities. But he decided that he had done with
Sforza, and annulled the marriage on the ground of the husband&rsquo;s
impotence (March 1497). In order to cement his alliance with
Naples, he married Lucrezia to Alphonso of Aragon, duke of
Bisceglie, a handsome youth of eighteen, related to the
Neapolitan king. But he too realized the fickleness of the Borgias&rsquo;
favour when Alexander backed up Louis XII. of France in the
latter&rsquo;s schemes for the conquest of Naples. Bisceglie fled from
Rome, fearing for his life, and the pope sent Lucrezia to receive
the homage of the city of Spoleto as governor. On her return to
Rome in 1499, her husband, who really loved her, was induced
to join her once more. A year later he was murdered by the
order of her brother Cesare. After the death of Bisceglie,
Lucrezia retired to Nepi, and then returned to Rome, where
she acted for a time as regent during Alexander&rsquo;s absence.
The latter now was anxious for a union between his daughter
and Alphonso, son and heir to Ercole d&rsquo;Este, duke of Ferrara.
The negotiations were somewhat difficult, as neither Alphonso
nor his father was anxious for a connexion with the house of
Borgia, and Lucrezia&rsquo;s own reputation was not unblemished.
However, by bribes and threats the opposition was overcome,
and in September 1501 the marriage was celebrated by proxy
with great magnificence in Rome. On Lucrezia&rsquo;s arrival at
Ferrara she won over her reluctant husband by her youthful
charm (she was only twenty-two), and from that time forth
she led a peaceful life, about which there was hardly a breath
of scandal. On the death of Ercole in 1505, her husband became
duke, and she gathered many learned men, poets and artists at
her court, among whom were Ariosto, Cardinal Bembo, Aldus
Manutius the printer, and the painters Titian and Dosso Dossi.
She devoted herself to the education of her children and to
charitable works; the only tragedy connected with this period
of her life is the murder of Ercole Strozzi, who is said to have
admired her and fallen a victim to Alphonso&rsquo;s jealousy. She
died on the 24th of June 1519, leaving three sons and a daughter
by the duke of Ferrara, besides one son Rodrigo by the duke
of Bisceglie, and possibly another of doubtful paternity. She
seems to have been a woman of very mediocre talents, and only
played a part in history because she was the daughter of
Alexander VI. and the sister of Cesare Borgia. While she was
in Rome she was probably no better and no worse than the women
around her, but there is no serious evidence for the charges of
incest with her father and brothers which were brought against
her by the scandal-mongers of the time.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See the bibliographies for <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alexander VI.</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Borgia, Cesare</a></span>;
and especially F. Gregorovius&rsquo;s <i>Lucrezia Borgia</i> (Stuttgart, 1874),
the standard work on the subject; also W. Gilbert&rsquo;s <i>Lucrezia Borgia,
Duchess of Ferrara</i> (London, 1869), which, while containing much
information, is quite without historic value; and G. Campori&rsquo;s &ldquo;Una
Vittima della Storia, Lucrezia Borgia,&rdquo; in the <i>Nuova Antologia</i>
(August 31, 1866), which aims at the rehabilitation of Lucrezia.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORGLUM, SOLON HANNIBAL<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1868-&emsp;&emsp;), American
sculptor, was born in Ogden, Utah, on the 22nd of December 1868,
the son of a Danish wood-carver. He studied under Louis F.
Rebisso in the Cincinnati art school in 1895-1897, and under
Frémiet in Paris. He took as his chief subjects incidents of
western life, cowboys and Indians, with which he was familiar
from his years on the ranch; notably &ldquo;Lassoing Wild Horses,&rdquo;
&ldquo;Stampeding Wild Horses,&rdquo; &ldquo;Last Round-up,&rdquo; &ldquo;On the
Border of White Man&rsquo;s Land,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Burial on the Plains.&rdquo;
His elder brother, Gutzon Borglum (b. 1867), also showed
himself an artist of some originality.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORGOGNONE, AMBROGIO<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (fl. 1473-1524), Italian painter
of the Milanese school, whose real name was Ambrogio Stefani
da Fossano, was approximately contemporary with Leonardo da
Vinci, but represented, at least during a great part of his career,
the tendencies of Lombard art anterior to the arrival of that
master&mdash;the tendencies which he had adopted and perfected
from the hands of his predecessors Foppa and Zenale. We are
not precisely informed of the dates either of the death or the birth
of Borgognone, who was born at Fossano in Piedmont, and
whose appellation was due to his artistic affiliation to the Burgundian
school. His fame is principally associated with that of
one great building, the Certosa, or church and convent of the
Carthusians at Pavia, for which he worked much and in many
different ways. It is certain, indeed, that there is no truth in the
tradition which represents him as having designed, in 1473, the
celebrated façade of the Certosa itself. His residence there
appears to have been of eight years&rsquo; duration, from 1486, when
he furnished the designs of the figures of the virgin, saints and
apostles for the choir-stalls, executed in <i>tarsia</i> or inlaid wood
work by Bartolommeo Pola, till 1494, when he returned to Milan.
Only one known picture, an altar-piece at the church San
Eustorgio, can with probability be assigned to a period of his
career earlier than 1486. For two years after his return to
Milan he worked at the church of San Satiro in that city. From
1497 he was engaged for some time in decorating with paintings
the church of the Incoronata in the neighbouring town at Lodi.
Our notices of him thenceforth are few and far between. In
1508 he painted for a church in Bergamo; in 1512 his signature
appears in a public document of Milan; in 1524&mdash;and this is our
last authentic record&mdash;he painted a series of frescoes illustrating
the life of St Sisinius in the portico of San Simpliciano at Milan.
Without having produced any works of signal power or beauty,
Borgognone is a painter of marked individuality. He holds an
interesting place in the most interesting period of Italian art.
The National Gallery, London, has two fair examples of his work
&mdash;the separate fragments of a silk banner painted for the Certosa,
and containing the heads of two kneeling groups severally of men
and women; and a large altar-piece of the marriage of St Catherine,
painted for the chapel of Rebecchino near Pavia. But to judge
of his real powers and peculiar ideals&mdash;his system of faint and
clear colouring, whether in fresco, tempera or oil; his somewhat
slender and pallid types, not without something that reminds us
of northern art in their Teutonic sentimentality as well as their
Teutonic fidelity of portraiture; the conflict of his instinctive
love of placidity and calm with a somewhat forced and borrowed
energy in figures where energy is demanded, his conservatism in
the matter of storied and minutely diversified backgrounds&mdash;to
judge of these qualities of the master as they are, it is necessary
to study first the great series of his frescoes and altar-pieces at
the Certosa, and next those remains of later frescoes and altar-pieces
at Milan and Lodi, in which we find the influence of
Leonardo and of the new time mingling with, but not expelling,
his first predilections.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORGO SAN DONNINO,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> a town and episcopal see of Emilia,
Italy, in the province of Parma, 14 m. N.W. by rail from the
town of Parma. Pop. (1901) town, 6251; commune, 12,109. It
occupies the site of the ancient Fidentia, on the Via Aemilia; no
doubt, as its name shows, of Roman origin. Here M. Lucullus
defeated the democrats under Carbo in 82 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It was independent
under Vespasian, but seems soon to have become a village
dependent on Parma. Its present name comes from the martyrdom
of S. Domninus under Maximian in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 304. The cathedral,
erected in honour of this saint, is one of the finest and
best-preserved Lombardo-Romanesque churches of the 11th-13th
centuries in north Italy. The upper part of the façade is incomplete,
but the lower, with its three portals and sculptures, is very
fine; the interior is simple and well-proportioned, and has not
been spoilt by restorations. For the <i>bénitier</i>, a work of the early
11th century, see <i>Rassegna d&rsquo;Arte</i>, 1905, 180. Not far from the
town is the small church of S. Antonio del Viennese, a 13th-century
structure in brick (<i>ib</i>., 1906, 22). The Palazzo Comunale,
in the Gothic-Lombard style, is a work of the 14th century.
Borgo S. Donnino is an important centre for the produce and
cattle of Emilia.</p>
<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORGU,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Barba</span>, an inland country of West Africa. The
western part is included in the French colony of Dahomey (<i>q.v</i>.);
the eastern division forms the Borgu province of the British
protectorate of Nigeria. Borgu is bounded N.E. and E. by the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id="page251"></a>251</span>
Niger, S. by the Yoruba country, N.W. by Gurma. The country
consists of an elevated plain traversed by rivers draining north
or east to the Niger. The water-parting between the Niger basin
and the coast streams of Dahomey and Lagos runs north-east
and south-west near the western frontier. In about 10° N.,
below the town of Bussa, rapids block the course of the Niger,
navigable up to that point from the sea. The soil is mostly
fertile, and is fairly cultivated, producing in abundance millet,
yams, plantains and limes. The acacia tree is common, and
from it gum-arabic of good quality is obtained. From the nut
of the horse-radish tree ben oil is expressed. Cattle are numerous
and of excellent breed, and game is abundant. Borgu is inhabited
by a number of pagan negro tribes, several of whom were
dependent on the chief of Nikki, a town in the centre of the
country, the chief being spoken of as sultan of Borgu. The king
of Bussa was another more or less powerful potentate. In the
early years of the 19th century Borgu was invaded by the Fula
(<i>q.v</i>.), but the Bariba (as the people are called collectively) maintained
their independence. In 1894 Borgu became the object
of rivalry between France and England. The Royal Niger
Company, which had already concluded a treaty of protection
with the king of Bussa, sent out Captain (afterwards Sir) F.D.
Lugard to negotiate treaties with the king of Nikki and other
chiefs, and Lugard succeeded in doing so a few days before the
arrival of French expeditions from the west. Disregarding the
British treaties, French officers concluded others with various
chiefs, invaded Bussa and established themselves at various
points on the Niger. To defend British interests, the West
African Frontier Force was raised locally under Lugard&rsquo;s command,
and a period of great tension ensued, British and French
troops facing one another at several places. A conflict was, however,
averted, and by the convention of June 1898 the western
part of Borgu was declared French and the eastern British, the
French withdrawing from all places on the lower Niger.</p>

<p>The British portion of Borgu has an area of about 12,000 sq. m.
Up to the period of inclusion within the protectorate of Nigeria
little or nothing was known of the country, though there were
interesting legends of the antiquity of its history. The population
was entirely independent, and resisted with success not only the
Fula from the north but also the armies of Dahomey and Mossi
from the south and west. Travellers who attempted to penetrate
this country had never returned. Since 1898 the country has
been opened, and from being the most lawless and truculent of
people the Bariba have become singularly amenable and
law-abiding. Provincial courts are established, but there is little
crime in the province. The British garrisons have been replaced
by civil police. The assessment of taxes under British administration
was successfully carried out in 1904, and taxes are collected
without trouble. In south Borgu the people are agricultural but
not industrious or inclined for trade. In the north there are
some pastoral settlements of Fula. The Bariba themselves
remain agricultural. Cart-roads have been constructed between
the town of Kiama and the Niger. The agricultural resources of
Borgu are great, and as the population increases with the
cessation of war and by immigration the country should show
marked development. Shea trees are abundant. Elephants are
still to be found in the fifty-mile strip of forest land which
stretches between the Niger and the interior of the province.
The forest contains valuable sylvan products, and there are
great possibilities for the cultivation of rubber. There are also
extensive areas of fine land suitable for cotton, with the waterway
of the Niger close at hand. Labour might be brought from
Yorubaland close by, and a Yoruba colony has been experimentally
started. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nigeria</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bussa</a></span>.)</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORIC ACID,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Boracic Acid</span>, H<span class="su">3</span>BO<span class="su">3</span>, an acid obtained by
dissolving boron trioxide in water. It was first prepared by
Wilhelm Homberg (1652-1715) from borax, by the action of
mineral acids, and was given the name <i>sal sedativum Hombergi</i>.
The presence of boric acid or its salts has been noted in sea-water,
whilst it is also said to exist in plants and especially in almost all
fruits (A.H. Allen, <i>Analyst</i>, 1904, 301). The free acid is found
native in certain volcanic districts such as Tuscany, the Lipari
Islands and Nevada, issuing mixed with steam from fissures in
the ground; it is also found as a constituent of many minerals
(borax, boracite, boronatrocalcite and colemanite).</p>

<p>The chief source of boric acid for commercial purposes is the
Maremma of Tuscany, an extensive and desolate tract of country
over which jets of vapour and heated gases (<i>soffioni</i>) and springs
of boiling water spurt out from chasms and fissures. In some
places the fissures open directly into the air, but in other parts
of the district they are covered by small muddy lakes (<i>lagoni</i>).
The soffioni contain a small quantity of boric acid (usually less
than 0.1%), together with a certain amount of ammoniacal
vapours. In order to obtain the acid, a series of basins is constructed
over the vents, and so arranged as to permit of the
passage of water through them by gravitation. Water is led into
the highest basin and by the action of the heated gases is soon
brought into a state of ebullition; after remaining in this basin
for about a day, it is run off into the second one and is treated
there in a similar manner. The operation is carried on through
the entire series, until the liquor in the last basin contains about
2% of boric acid. It is then run into settling tanks, from which
it next passes into the evaporating pans, which are shallow lead-lined
pans heated by the gases of the soffioni. These pans are
worked on a continuous system, the liquor in the first being
concentrated and run off into a second, and so on, until it is
sufficiently concentrated to crystallize. The crystals are purified
by recrystallization from water. Artificial soffioni are sometimes
prepared by boring through the rock until the fissures are reached,
and the water so obtained is occasionally sufficiently impregnated
with boric acid to be evaporated directly. Boric acid is also
obtained from boronatrocalcite by treatment with sulphuric
acid, followed by the evaporation of the solution so obtained.
The residue is then heated in a current of superheated steam, in
which the boric acid volatilizes and distils over. It may also be
obtained by the decomposition of boracite with hot hydrochloric
acid. In small quantities, it may be prepared by the addition
of concentrated sulphuric acid to a cold saturated solution of
borax.</p>

<p class="center">Na<span class="su">2</span>B<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">7</span> + H<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span> + 5H<span class="su">2</span>O = Na<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span> + 4H<span class="su">3</span>BO<span class="su">3</span>.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Boric acid crystallizes from water in white nacreous laminae
belonging to the triclinic system; it is difficultly soluble in cold
water, but dissolves readily in hot water. It is one of the &ldquo;weak&rdquo;
acids, its dissociation constant being only 0.08169 (J. Walker, <i>Jour.
of Chem. Soc.</i>, 1900, lxxvii. 5), and consequently its salts are appreciably
hydrolysed in aqueous solution. The free acid turns blue litmus
to a claret colour. Its action upon turmeric is characteristic; a
turmeric paper moistened with a solution of boric acid turns brown,
the colour becoming much darker as the paper dries; while the
addition of sodium or potassium hydroxide turns it almost black.
Boric acid is easily soluble in alcohol, and if the vapour of the solution
be inflamed it burns with a characteristic vivid green colour. The
acid on being heated to 100° C. loses water and is converted into
<i>metaboric acid</i>, HBO<span class="su">3</span>; at 140° C., <i>pyroboric acid</i>, H<span class="su">2</span>B<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">7</span>, is produced;
at still higher temperatures, boron trioxide is formed. The salts of
the normal or orthoboric acid in all probability do not exist; metaboric
acid, however, forms several well-defined salts which are readily
converted, even by carbon dioxide, into salts of pyroboric acid.
That orthoboric acid is a tribasic acid is shown by the formation of
ethyl orthoborate on esterification, the vapour density of which
corresponds to the molecular formula B(OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">3</span>; the molecular
formula of the acid must consequently be B(OH)<span class="su">3</span> or H<span class="su">3</span>BO<span class="su">3</span>. The
metallic borates are generally obtained in the hydrated condition,
and with the exception of those of the alkali metals, are insoluble in
water. The most important of the borates is sodium pyroborate or
borax (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>

<p>Borax and boracic acid are feeble but useful antiseptics. Hence
they may be used to preserve food-substances, such as milk and
butter (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adulteration</a></span>). In medicine boracic acid is used in
solution to relieve itching, but its chief use is as a mild antiseptic
to impregnate lint or cotton-wool. Recent work has shown it is too
feeble to be relied upon alone, but where really efficient antiseptics,
such as mercuric chloride and iodide, and carbolic acid, have been
already employed, boracic acid (which, unlike these, is non-poisonous
and non-irritant) may legitimately be used to maintain the aseptic
or non-bacterial condition which they have obtained. Borax taken
internally is of some value in irritability of the bladder, but as a
urinary antiseptic it is now surpassed by several recently introduced
drugs, such as urotropine.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORING.<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> The operations of deep boring are resorted to for
ascertaining the nature, thickness and extent of the various
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page252" id="page252"></a>252</span>
geological formations underlying the surface of the earth. Among the
purposes for which boring is specifically employed are: (1) prospecting
or searching for mineral deposits; (2) sinking petroleum, natural gas,
artesian or salt wells; (3) determining the depth below the surface of
bed-rock or other firm substratum, together with the character of the
overlying materials, preparatory to mining or civil engineering
operations; (4) carrying on geological or other scientific explorations.</p>

<p>Prospecting by boring is practised most successfully in the case of
mineral deposits of large area, which are nearly horizontal, or at least
not highly inclined; <i>e.g.</i> deposits of coal, iron, lead and salt. Wide,
flat beds of such minerals may be pierced at any desired number of
points. The depth at which each hole enters the deposit and the
thickness of the mineral itself are readily ascertained, so that a map
may be constructed with some degree of accuracy. Samples of the mineral
are also secured, furnishing data as to the value of the deposit. While
boring is sometimes adopted for prospecting irregular and steeply
inclined mineral deposits of small area, the results are obviously less
trustworthy than under the conditions named above, and may be actually
misleading unless a large number of holes are bored. Incidentally,
bore-holes supply information as to the character and depth of the
valueless depositions of earth or rock overlying the mineral deposit.
Such data assist in deciding upon the appropriate method for, and in
estimating the cost of, sinking shafts or driving tunnels for the
development and exploitation of the deposit. In sinking petroleum wells,
boring serves not only for discovering the oil-bearing strata but also
for extracting the oil. This industry has become of great importance in
many parts of the United States, in southern Russia and elsewhere. Rock
salt deposits are sometimes worked through bore-holes, by introducing
water and pumping out the solution of brine for further treatment. The
sinking of artesian wells is another application of boring. They are
often hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of feet in depth. A well in St
Louis, Missouri, has a depth of 3843 ft.</p>

<p>Boring is useful in mines themselves for a variety of purposes, such as
exploring the deposit ahead of the workings, searching for neighbouring
veins, and sounding the ground on approaching dangerous inundated
workings. In the coal regions of Pennsylvania, bore-holes are often sunk
for carrying steam pipes and hoisting ropes underground at points remote
from a shaft.</p>

<p>Several of the methods of boring in soft ground are employed in
connexion with civil engineering operations; as for ascertaining the
depth below the surface to solid rock, preparatory to excavating for and
designing deep foundations for heavy structures, and for estimating the
cost of large scale excavations in earth and rock.</p>

<p>Lastly, a number of deep holes have been bored for geological
exploration or for observing the increase of temperature in depth
in the earth&rsquo;s crust; for example, at Paruschowitz, Silesia, about
6700 ft. deep; at Leipzig, Germany, 6265 ft.; near Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania, 5532 ft.; and at Wheeling, West Virginia, nearly 5000 ft. The two last mentioned were intended to obtain as complete a knowledge as possible of the bituminous coal and oil-bearing
formations.</p>

<p>There are five methods of boring, viz.: by (1) earth augers,
(2) drive pipes, (3) long, jointed rods and drop drill, (4) the rope
system, in which the rods are replaced by rope, (5) rotary drills. The
first two methods are adapted to soft or earthy soils only; the others
are for rock.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>1. <i>Earth augers</i> comprise spiral and pod augers. The ordinary
spiral auger resembles the wood auger commonly used by carpenters. It is
attached to the rod or stem by a socket joint, successive sections
of rod being added as the hole is deepened. The auger is rotated by
means of horizontal levers, clamped to the rod&mdash;by hand for holes of
small diameter (2 to 6 in.), the larger sizes (8 to 16 in.) by horse
power. Clayey, cohesive soils, containing few stones, are readily
bored; stony ground with difficulty. The operation of the auger is
intermittent. After a few revolutions it is raised and emptied, the soil
clinging between the spirals. Depths to 50 or 60 ft. are usually bored
by hand; deeper holes by horse power. For sandy, non-cohesive soils, the
auger may be encircled by a close-fitting sheet-iron cylinder to prevent
the soil from falling out.</p>

<p>Pod augers generally vary in diameter from 8 to 20 in. A common
form (fig. l) consists of two curved iron plates, one attached to the
rod rigidly, the other by hinge and key. By being turned through
a few revolutions the pod is filled, and is then raised and emptied.
For boring in sandy soils, the open sides are closed by hinged plates.
Fig. 2 shows another type of pod auger. For holes of large diameter
earth augers are handled with the
aid of a light derrick.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:226px; height:304px" src="images/img252a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.<br />
Pod Auger.</td></tr></table>

<p>2. <i>Drive pipes</i> are widely used,
both for testing the depth and
character of soft material overlying
solid rock and as a necessary preliminary
to rock boring, when some
thickness of surface soil must first
be passed through. In its simplest
form the drive pipe consists of one
or more lengths of wrought iron
pipe, open at both ends and from
½ in. to 6 in. diameter. When of
small size the pipe is driven by a
heavy hammer; for deep and large
holes, a light pile-driver becomes
necessary. The lower end of the
pipe is provided with an annular
steel shoe; the upper end has a
drivehead for receiving the blows
of the hammer. Successive lengths
are screwed on as required. For
shallow holes the pipe is cleaned
out by a &ldquo;bailer&rdquo; or &ldquo;sand-pump&rdquo;&mdash;a cylinder 4 to 6 ft. long,
with a valve in the lower end. It is lowered at intervals, filled by
being dashed up and down, and then raised and emptied. If,
after reaching some depth, the external frictional resistance prevents
the pipe from sinking farther, another pipe of small diameter may
be inserted and the driving continued. Drive pipes are often sunk
by applying weights at the surface and slowly rotating by a lever.
Two pipes are then used, one inside the other. Water is pumped
down the inner pipe, thus loosening
the soil, raising the debris and increasing
the speed of driving. The
&ldquo;driven well&rdquo; for water supply is an
adaptation of the drive pipe and put
down in the same way.</p>

<p>3. <i>Drill and Rods</i>.&mdash;This method has
long been used in Europe and elsewhere
for deep boring. In the United
States it is rarely employed for depths
greater than 200 or 300 ft. The usual
form of cutting tool or drill is shown
in fig. 3. The iron rods are from 1 to
2 in. square, in long lengths with
screw joints (fig. 4). Wooden rods are
occasionally used. For shallow holes (50 to 75 ft.) the work is
done by hand, one or two cross-bars being clamped to the rod.
The men alternately raise and drop the drill, meanwhile slowly
walking around and around to rotate the bit and so keep the hole
true. The cuttings are cleaned out by a bailer, as for drive pipes.</p>

<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:175px; height:170px" src="images/img252b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3<br />Drill Bit.</td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.<br />Rod Joint.</td></tr></table>

<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:97px; height:331px" src="images/img252c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.<br />Sliding Link.</td></tr></table>

<p>In boring by hand, the practical limit of depth is soon reached,
on account of the increasing weight of the rods. For going deeper
a &ldquo;spring-pole&rdquo; may be used. This is a tapering pole, say 30 ft.
long and 5 or 6 in. diameter at the small end. It rests
in an inclined position on a fulcrum set about 10 ft.
from the butt, the latter being firmly fixed. The rods
are suspended from the end of the pole, which extends
at a height of several feet over the mouth of the
hole. With the aid of the spring of the pole the strokes
are produced by a slight effort on the part of the
driller. Average speeds of 6 to 10 ft. per 10 hours are
easily made, to depths of 200 to 250 ft.</p>

<p>For deep boring the rod system requires a more
elaborate plant. The rods are suspended from a
heavy &ldquo;walking beam&rdquo; or lever, usually oscillated
by a steam engine. By means of a screw-feed device,
the rods, which are rotated slightly after every
stroke, are gradually fed down as the hole is deepened,
length after length being added. A tall derrick
carries the sheaves and ropes by which the rods and
tools are manipulated. The drill bit cannot be attached
rigidly to the rods as in shallow boring, because the
momentum of the heavy moving parts, transmitted
directly to the bit as the blow is struck, would cause
excessive vibration and breakage. It becomes necessary,
therefore, to introduce a sliding-link joint between
the rods and bit. One form of link is shown
in fig. 5. On striking its blow, the bit comes to rest,
while the rods continue to descend to the end of the stroke, the upper
member of the link sliding down upon the lower. Then, on the up
stroke the lower link, with the bit, is raised for delivering another blow.
For large holes the striking weight is, say, 800 to 1000 &#8468;, length of
stroke 2½ to 5 ft., and speed from 20 to 30 strokes per minute.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" id="page253"></a>253</span></p>

<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 130px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:77px; height:416px" src="images/img253a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.<br />
Kind Free-Falling Tool.</td></tr></table>

<p>By using the sliding link the cross-section and weight of the
rods may be greatly reduced, the only strain being that of tension.
To deliver a sharp, effective blow, however, the rods must drop
with a quick stroke, which brings a heavy strain upon the
operating machinery. For overcoming this difficulty, various
&ldquo;free-falling tools&rdquo; have been devised. By these the bit is allowed to fall
by gravity; the rod follows on its measured down
stroke, and picks up the bit. Free-falling tools are of
two classes: (1) those by which the bit is released
automatically; (2) those operated by a sudden twist
imparted to the rod by the drillman. One of the best
known of the first class is the Kind free-fall (fig. 6).
The shank of the bit is gripped and released by the
jaws J, J, worked through a toggle joint by movements
of the disk D. When the rod begins its downward
stroke, the resistance of the water in the hole
slightly raises D, thus opening the jaws and releasing
the bit, which falls by gravity. On reaching the end
of the stroke the jaws again catch the shank of the
bit and raise it for delivering another blow. The
Fabian free-fall may be noted as an example of the
second class (see Köhler, <i>Lehrbuch der Bergbaukunde</i>,
p. 57). Tools are sometimes used for cutting an
annular groove in the bottom of the hole, and raising
to the surface the core so formed, for observing the
character of the rock.</p>

<p>4. <i>Rope and Drop Tools.</i>&mdash;This method was long ago
used in China. Because of its extensive application
in the oil-fields it is generally designated in the
United States as the &ldquo;oil-well system.&rdquo; In its
various modifications it is often employed also in
general prospecting of mineral deposits and in sinking
artesian, natural gas and salt wells. One of its forms
is known in England as the Mather &amp; Platt system.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:132px; height:464px" src="images/img253b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.<br />Temper Screw.</td></tr></table>

<p>The chief point of difference from rod-boring is
the substitution of rope for the jointed rods. For
deep boring it possesses the advantage of saving
the large amount of time consumed in raising and lowering
the rods, as required whenever the hole is to be cleaned out, or
a dull bit replaced, since the tools are rapidly run up or down
by means of the rope with which they are operated while drilling.
The speed of rope-boring is therefore but little affected by increase
of depth, while with rod-boring it falls off rapidly. In its simplest
form the so-called &ldquo;string of tools,&rdquo; suspended from the rope, is
composed of the bit or drill, jars and rope-socket. The jars are a pair
of sliding links, similar to those used for rod-boring, but serving a
different purpose, viz. to produce a sharp shock on the upward
stroke, as the jars come together, for loosening the bit should it tend
to stick fast in the hole. A heavy bar (auger stem) is generally
inserted between the jars and bit, for increasing the force of the blow.
The weight of another bar above the jars (sinker-bar) keeps the rope
taut. The length of stroke and feed are regulated
by the &ldquo;temper-screw&rdquo; (fig. 7), a feed device
resembling that used for rod-boring. Clamped
to it is the drill rope, which is let out at intervals,
as the hole is deepened. The bits usually range
from 3 to 8 in. diameter, the speed of boring
being generally between 20 and 40 ft. per 24
hours, according to the kind of rock. A great
variety of special &ldquo;fishing tools&rdquo; are made, for
use in case of breakage of parts in the hole or other
accident.</p>

<p>5. <i>Diamond Drill.</i>&mdash;The methods described above
are capable of boring holes vertically downward
only. By the diamond drill, holes can be
bored in any direction, from vertically downward
to vertically upward. It has the further advantage
of making an annular hole from which is
obtained a core, furnishing a practically complete
cross-section of the strata penetrated; the thickness
and character of each stratum are shown,
together with its depth below the surface. Thus,
the diamond drill is peculiarly well adapted for
prospecting mineral deposits from which samples
are desired. The first practical application of
diamonds for drilling in rock was made in 1863
by Professor Rudolph Leschot, a civil engineer of
Paris.</p>

<p>The apparatus consists essentially of a line of
hollow rods, coupled by screw joints, an annular
steel bit or crown, set with diamonds, being
attached to the lower end. By means of a small
engine on the surface the rods are rapidly rotated
and fed down automatically as the hole
deepened. The speed of rotation is from 300 to 800 revolutions
per minute, depending on the character of the rock and diameter
of the bit. While boring a stream of water is forced down the
hollow rods by a pump, passing back to the surface through the
annular space between the rods and the walls of the drill hole. The
cuttings are thus carried to the surface, leaving the bottom of the hole
clean and unobstructed. For recovering the core and inspecting the
bit and diamonds, the rods are raised at every 3 to 8 ft. of depth. This
is done by a small drum and rope, operated by the driving engine.</p>

<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:490px; height:403px" src="images/img253c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.&mdash;Little<br />Champion Rock Drill.</td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;</td></tr></table>

<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:160px; height:125px" src="images/img253d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.<br />Diamond Drill Bit.</td></tr></table>

<p>Diamond drills of standard designs (fig. 8) bore holes from 1<span class="spp">9</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span> to
2¾ in. diameter, yielding cores of 1 to 1<span class="spp">15</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span> in. diameter, and are capable
of reaching depths of a few hundred to 4000 ft. or more. They require
from 8 to 30 boiler horse-power. Large machines will bore
shallower holes up to 6, 9 or even 12 in. diameter. For operating
in underground workings of mines, small and compact machines
are sometimes mounted on columns (fig. 9). They bore 1¼ to 1<span class="spp">9</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span> in.
holes to depths of 300 to 400 ft., cores being <span class="spp">7</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> to 1 in. diameter.
Hand-power drills are also built. In the South African goldfields
several diamond drill holes from 4500 to 5200 ft. deep have been
successfully bored. Rates of advance for core-drilling to moderate
depths range usually from 2 to 3 ft. per hour,
including ordinary delays, though in favourable
rock much higher speeds are often attained.
In deep holes the speeds diminish, because of
time consumed in raising and lowering the rods.
If no core is desired a &ldquo;solid bit&rdquo; is used.
The drilling then proceeds faster, as it is only
necessary to raise the rods occasionally, for
examining the condition of the bit.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:130px; height:364px" src="images/img253e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.<br />Core Lifter and Barrel</td></tr></table>

<p>The driving engine has two inclined cylinders,
coupled to a crank-shaft, by which,
through gearing, the drill-rod is rotated. The
rods are wrought iron or steel tubes, in 5 to 10 ft. lengths. For producing
the feed two devices are employed, the differential screw and
hydraulic cylinder. For the <i>differential feed</i> (fig. 9) the engine has a
hollow left-hand threaded screw-shaft, to which the rods are coupled.
This shaft is driven by a spline and bevel gearing and is supported
by a threaded feed-nut, carried in the lower bearing. Geared to the
screw-shaft is a light counter-shaft. By properly
proportioning the number of teeth in the
system of gear-wheels, the feed-nut is caused
to revolve a little faster than the screw-shaft,
so that the drill-rod is fed downward a small
fraction of an inch for each revolution. To
vary the rate of feed, as suitable for different
rocks, three pairs of gears with different ratios
of teeth are provided. The screw-shaft and
gearing are carried by a swivel-head, which
can be rotated in a vertical plane, for boring
holes at an angle.</p>

<p>The <i>hydraulic feed</i> is an improvement on
the above, in that the rate of feed is independent
of the rotative speed of the rods and
can be adjusted with the utmost nicety. There
are either one or two feed cylinders, supplied
with water from the pump. The rod, while
rotating freely, is supported by the feed
cylinder piston and caused to move slowly
downward by allowing the water to pass
from the lower to the upper part of the
cylinder. A valve regulates the passage of
the water and hence the rate of feed.</p>

<p>The bit (fig. 10 and fig. 11, B) is of soft
steel, set with six to eight or more diamonds
according to its diameter. The diamonds,
usually from 1½ to 2½ carats in size, are carefully set in the bit,
projecting but slightly from its surface. Two kinds of diamonds
are used, &ldquo;carbons&rdquo; and &ldquo;borts.&rdquo; The carbons are opaque, dark
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254"></a>254</span>
in colour, tougher than the brilliant, and have no cleavage planes.
They are therefore suitable for drilling in hard rock. Borts are
rough, imperfect brilliants, and are best used for the softer rocks.
As the bit wears, the stones must be reset from time to time. The
wear of carbons in a well-set bit is small, though extremely variable.
Above the bit are the core-lifter and core-barrel. The core-lifter
(fig. 11, A) is a device for gripping and breaking off the core and
raising it to the surface. The barrel, 3 to 10 ft. long, fits closely in
the hole and is often spirally grooved for the passage of the water
and debris. It serves partly as a guide, tending to keep the hole
straight, partly for holding and protecting the core.</p>

<p>Diamond drills do not work satisfactorily in broken, fissured rock,
as the carbons are liable to be injured, loosened or torn from their
settings. In these circumstances, and for soft rocks, the diamond
bit may be replaced by a steel toothed bit. Another apparatus for
core-drilling is the Davis Calyx drill. For hard rock it has an
annular bit, accompanied by a quantity of chilled steel shot; for
soft rock, a toothed bit is used.</p>

<p>Diamond drill holes are rarely straight, and usually deviate
considerably from the direction in which they are started. Very
deep holes have been found to vary as much as 45° and even 60°
from their true direction. This is due to the fact that the rods do
not fit closely in the hole and therefore bend. It is also likely to
occur in drilling through inclined strata, specially when of different
degrees of hardness. By using a long and closely fitting core-barrel
the liability to deviation is reduced, but cannot be wholly prevented.
Holes which are nearly horizontal always deflect upward, because the
sag of the rods tilts up the bit. Diamond drill holes should
therefore always be surveyed. This is done by lowering into the hole
instruments for observing at a number of successive points the
direction and degree of deviation.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> If accurately surveyed a
crooked hole may be quite as useful as a straight one.</p>

<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;For further information on boring see <i>Trans. Amer.
Inst. Mining Engs.</i> vol. ii. p. 241, vol. xxvii. p. 123; C.
le Neve Foster, <i>Text-book of Ore and Stone Mining</i>, chap. iii.;
<i>Glückauf</i>, 9th December 1899, 20th and 27th May 1905;
<i>Scientific American</i>, 21st August 1886;
<i>Engineering and Mining Jour.</i> vol. lviii. p. 268,
vol. lxx. p. 699, vol. lxxx. p. 920;
<i>Trans. Inst. Mining Engs.</i>, England, vol. xxiii. p. 685;
<i>School of Mines Quarterly</i>, N. Y., vol. xvi. p. 1;
<i>Zeitschr. für Berg- Hütten- und Salinenwesen</i>, vol. xxv. p. 29;
Denny, &ldquo;Diamond Drilling,&rdquo; <i>Mines and Minerals</i>, vol. xx.,
August 1899, p. 7, to January 1900, p. 241;
<i>Mining Jour.</i>, 26th January 1901;
<i>Mining and Scientific Press</i>, 28th November 1903, p. 353;
<i>Öst. Zeitschr. für Berg- und Hüttenwesen</i>, 21st May, 4th June 1904;
<i>Trans. Inst. Mining and Metallurgy</i>, vol. xii. p. 301;
<i>Engineering Magazine</i>, March 1896, p. 1075.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. P.*)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Brough, <i>Mine Surveying</i>, pp. 276-278;
Marriott, <i>Trans. Inst. Mining and Metallurgy</i>, vol. xiv. p. 255.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORIS FEDOROVICH GODUNOV,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> tsar of Muscovy (<i>c.</i> 1551-1605),
the most famous member of an ancient, now extinct,
Russian family of Tatar origin, which migrated from the Horde
to Muscovy in the 14th century. Boris&rsquo; career of service began
at the court of Ivan the Terrible. He is mentioned in 1570 as
taking part in the Serpeisk campaign as one of the archers of
the guard. In 1571 he strengthened his position at court by his
marriage with Maria, the daughter of Ivan&rsquo;s abominable favourite
Malyuta Skuratov. In 1580 the tsar chose Irene, the sister of
Boris, to be the bride of the tsarevich Theodore, on which
occasion Boris was promoted to the rank of <i>boyar</i>. On his
deathbed Ivan appointed Boris one of the guardians of his son and
successor; for Theodore, despite his seven-and-twenty years,
was of somewhat weak intellect. The reign of Theodore began
with a rebellion in favour of the infant tsarevich Demetrius, the
son of Ivan&rsquo;s fifth wife Marie Nagaya, a rebellion resulting in the
banishment of Demetrius, with his mother and her relations, to
their appanage at Uglich. On the occasion of the tsar&rsquo;s coronation
(May 31, 1584), Boris was loaded with honours and riches,
yet he held but the second place in the regency during the
lifetime of his co-guardian Nikita Romanovich, on whose death, in
August, he was left without any serious rival. A conspiracy
against him of all the other great boyars and the metropolitan
Dionysy, which sought to break Boris&rsquo; power by divorcing the
tsar from Godunov&rsquo;s childless sister, only ended in the
banishment or tonsuring of the malcontents. Henceforth Godunov
was omnipotent. The direction of affairs passed entirely into
his hands, and he corresponded with foreign princes as their
equal. His policy was generally pacific, but always most prudent.
In 1595 he recovered from Sweden the towns lost during the
former reign. Five years previously he had defeated a Tatar
raid upon Moscow, for which service he received the title of <i>sluga</i>,
an obsolete dignity even higher than that of boyar. Towards
Turkey he maintained an independent attitude, supporting an
anti-Turkish faction in the Crimea, and furnishing the emperor
with subsidies in his war against the sultan. Godunov
encouraged English merchants to trade with Russia by exempting
them from tolls. He civilized the north-eastern and
south-eastern borders of Muscovy by building numerous towns and
fortresses to keep the Tatar and Finnic tribes in order. Samara,
Saratov, and Tsaritsyn and a whole series of lesser towns derive
from him. He also re-colonized Siberia, which had been slipping
from the grasp of Muscovy, and formed scores of new settlements,
including Tobolsk and other large centres. It was during his
government that the Muscovite church received its patriarchate,
which placed it on an equality with the other Eastern churches
and emancipated it from the influence of the metropolitan
of Kiev. Boris&rsquo; most important domestic reform was the
<i>ukaz</i> (1587) forbidding the peasantry to transfer themselves
from one landowner to another, thus binding them to the soil.
The object of this ordinance was to secure revenue, but it led to
the institution of serfdom in its most grinding form. The sudden
death of the tsarevich Demetrius at Uglich (May 15, 1591)
has commonly been attributed to Boris, because it cleared his
way to the throne; but this is no clear proof that he was
personally concerned in that tragedy. The same may be said of the
many, often absurd, accusations subsequently brought against
him by jealous rivals or ignorant contemporaries who hated
Godunov&rsquo;s reforms as novelties.</p>

<p>On the death of the childless tsar Theodore (January 7, 1598),
self-preservation quite as much as ambition constrained Boris to
seize the throne. Had he not done so, lifelong seclusion in a
monastery would have been his lightest fate. His election was
proposed by the patriarch Job, who acted on the conviction that
Boris was the one man capable of coping with the extraordinary
difficulties of an unexampled situation. Boris, however, would
only accept the throne from a <i>Zemsky Sobor</i>, or national
assembly, which met on the 17th of February, and unanimously
elected him on the 21st. On the 1st of September he was solemnly
crowned tsar. During the first years of his reign he was both
popular and prosperous, and ruled the people excellently well.
Enlightened as he was, he fully recognized the intellectual
inferiority of Russia as compared with the West, and did his
utmost to bring about a better state of things. He was the first
tsar to import foreign teachers on a great scale, the first to send
young Russians abroad to be educated, the first to allow Lutheran
churches to be built in Russia. He also felt the necessity of a
Baltic seaboard, and attempted to obtain Livonia by diplomatic
means. He cultivated friendly relations with the Scandinavians,
in order to intermarry if possible with foreign royal houses, so as
to increase the dignity of his own dynasty. That Boris was one of
the greatest of the Muscovite tsars there can be no doubt. But his
great qualities were overbalanced by an incurable suspiciousness,
which made it impossible for him to act cordially with those about
him. His fear of possible pretenders induced him to go so far as
to forbid the greatest of the boyars to marry. He also encouraged
informers and persecuted suspects on their unsupported statements.
The Romanov family in especial suffered severely from
these delations. Boris died suddenly (April 13, 1605), leaving one
son, Theodore II., who succeeded him for a few months and then
was foully murdered by the enemies of the Godunovs.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Platon Vasilievich Pavlov, <i>On the Historical Significance of
the Reign of Boris Godunov</i> (Rus.) (Moscow, 1850);
Sergyei Mikhailivich Solovev, <i>History of Russia</i> (Rus.)
(2nd ed., vols. vii.-viii., St Petersburg, 1897).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORISOGLYEBSK, <a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span>a town of Russia, in the government of
Tambov, 100 m. S.S.E. of the city of that name, in 51° 22&prime; N. lat.
and 43° 4&prime; E. long. It was founded in 1646 to defend the southern
frontiers of Muscovy against the Crimean Tatars, and in 1696 was
surrounded by wooden fortifications. The principal industries
are the preparation of wool, iron-casting, soap-boiling,
tallow-melting, and brick-making; and there is an active trade in
grain, wool, cattle, and leather, and two important annual fairs.
Pop. (1867) 12,254; (1897) 22,370.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page255" id="page255"></a>255</span></p>
<p><span class="bold">BORKU,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Borgu</span>, a region of Central Africa between 17° and
19° N. and 18° and 21° E., forming part of the transitional zone
between the arid wastes of the Sahara and the fertile lands of
the central Sudan. It is bounded N. by the Tibesti Mountains,
and is in great measure occupied by lesser elevations belonging
to the same system. These hills to the south and east merge into
the plains of Wadai and Darfur. South-west, in the direction of
Lake Chad, is the Bodele basin. The drainage of the country
is to the lake, but the numerous khors with which its surface is
scored are mostly dry or contain water for brief periods only. A
considerable part of the soil is light sand drifted about by the
wind. The irrigated and fertile portions consist mainly of a
number of valleys separated from each other by low and irregular
limestone rocks. They furnish excellent dates. Barley is also
cultivated. The northern valleys are inhabited by a settled
population of Tibbu stock, known as the Daza, and by colonies
of negroes; the others are mainly visited by nomadic Berber and
Arab tribes. The inhabitants own large numbers of goats and asses.</p>

<p>A caravan route from Barca and the Kufra oasis passes through
Borku to Lake Chad. The country long remained unknown to
Europeans. Gustav Nachtigal spent some time in it in the
year 1871, and gave a valuable account of the region and its
inhabitants in his book, <i>Sahara und Sudan</i> (Berlin, 1879-1889).
In 1899 Borku, by agreement with Great Britain, was assigned
to the French sphere of influence. The country, which had
formerly been periodically raided by the Walad Sliman Arabs, was
then governed by the Senussi (<i>q.v.</i>), who had placed garrisons
in the chief centres of population. From it raids were made
on French territory. In 1907 a French column from Kanem
entered Borku, but after capturing Ain Galakka, the principal
Senussi station, retired. Borku is also called Borgu, but must
not be confounded with the Borgu (<i>q.v.</i>) west of the Niger.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>A summary of Nachtigal&rsquo;s writing on Borku will be found in section 28
of <i>Gustav Nachtigal&rsquo;s Reisen in der Sahara und im Sudan</i>
(1 vol.), arranged by Albert Fränkel (Leipzig, 1887). See also an
article (with map) by Commdt. Bordeaux in <i>La Géographie</i>, Oct. 1908.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORKUM,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> an island of Germany, in the North Sea, belonging
to the Prussian province of Hanover, the westernmost of the
East Frisian chain, lying between the east and west arms of the
estuary of the Ems, and opposite to the Dollart. Pop. about
2500. The island is 5 m. long and 2½ m. broad, is a favourite
summer resort, and is visited annually by about 20,000 persons.
There is a daily steamboat service with Emden, Leer and Hamburg
during the summer months. The island affords pasture for
cattle, and a breeding-place for sea-birds.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORLASE, WILLIAM<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1695-1772), English antiquary and
naturalist, was born at Pendeen in Cornwall, of an ancient
family, on the 2nd of February 1695. He was educated at
Exeter College, Oxford, and in 1719 was ordained. In 1722 he
was presented to the rectory of Ludgvan, and in 1732 he obtained
in addition the vicarage of St Just, his native parish. In the
parish of Ludgvan were rich copper works, abounding with
mineral and metallic fossils, of which he made a collection, and
thus was led to study somewhat minutely the natural history of
the county. In 1750 he was admitted a fellow of the Royal
Society; and in 1754 he published, at Oxford, his <i>Antiquities of
Cornwall</i> (2nd ed., London, 1769). His next publication was
<i>Observations on the Ancient and Present State of the Islands of
Scilly, and their Importance to the Trade of Great Britain</i> (Oxford,
1756). In 1758 appeared his <i>Natural History of Cornwall</i>. He
presented to the Ashmolean museum, Oxford, a variety of fossils
and antiquities, which he had described in his works, and
received the thanks of the university and the degree of LL.D.
He died on the 31st of August 1772. Borlase was well acquainted
with most of the leading literary men of the time, particularly
with Alexander Pope, with whom he kept up a long correspondence,
and for whose grotto at Twickenham he furnished the
greater part of the fossils and minerals.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Borlase&rsquo;s letters to Pope, St Aubyn and others, with answers, fill
several volumes of MS. There are also MS. notes on Cornwall, and
a complete unpublished treatise <i>Concerning the Creation and Deluge</i>.
Some account of these MSS., with extracts from them, was given
in the <i>Quarterly Review</i>, October 1875. Borlase&rsquo;s memoirs of his
own life were published in Nichol&rsquo;s <i>Literary Anecdotes</i>, vol. v.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORMIO<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Worms</i>), a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the
province of Sondrio, 41½ m. N.E. of the town of Sondrio. Pop.
(1901) 1814. It is situated in the Valtellina (the valley of the
Adda), 4020 ft. above sea-level, at the foot of the Stelvio pass,
and, owing to its position, was of some military importance in
the middle ages. It contains interesting churches and picturesque
towers. A cemetery of pre-Roman date was discovered at Bormio in 1820.</p>

<p>The baths of Bormio, 2 m. farther up the valley, are mentioned
by Pliny and Cassiodorus, the secretary of Theodoric, and are
much frequented.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORN, IGNAZ,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> <span class="sc">Edler von</span> (1742-1791), Austrian mineralogist
and metallurgist, was born of a noble family at Karlsburg,
in Transylvania, on the 26th of December 1742. Educated
in a Jesuit college in Vienna, he was for sixteen months a
member of the order, but left it and studied law at Prague.
Then he travelled extensively in Germany, Holland and France,
studying mineralogy, and on his return to Prague in 1770 entered
the department of mines and the mint. In 1776 he was appointed
by Maria Theresa to arrange the imperial museum at Vienna,
where he was nominated to the council of mines and the mint,
and continued to reside until his death on the 24th of July 1791.
He introduced a method of extracting metals by amalgamation
(<i>Über das Anquicken der Erze</i>, 1786), and other improvements in
mining and other technical processes. His publications also include
<i>Lithophylacium Bornianum</i> (1772-1775) and <i>Bergbaukunde</i>
(1789), besides several museum catalogues. Von Born
attempted satire with no great success. <i>Die Staatsperücke</i>, a
tale published without his knowledge in 1772, and an attack on
Father Hell, the Jesuit, and king&rsquo;s astronomer at Vienna, are two
of his satirical works. Part of a satire, entitled <i>Monachologia</i>,
in which the monks are described in the technical language of
natural history, is also ascribed to him. Von Born was well
acquainted with Latin and the principal modern languages of
Europe, and with many branches of science not immediately
connected with metallurgy and mineralogy. He took an active
part in the political changes in Hungary. After the death of
the emperor Joseph II., the diet of the states of Hungary
rescinded many innovations of that ruler, and conferred the rights
of denizen on several persons who had been favourable to the
cause of the Hungarians, and, amongst others, on von Born. At the
time of his death in 1791, he was employed in writing a work
entitled <i>Fasti Leopoldini</i>, probably relating to the prudent
conduct of Leopold II., the successor of Joseph, towards the Hungarians.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORNA,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> a town of Germany in the kingdom of Saxony, on the
Wyhra at its junction with the Pleisse, 17 m. S. by E. of Leipzig
by rail. Pop. (1905) 9176. The industries include peat-cutting,
iron foundries, organ, pianoforte, felt and shoe factories.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BÖRNE, KARL LUDWIG<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1786-1837), German political writer and
satirist, was born on the 6th of May 1786 at Frankfort-On-Main,
where his father, Jakob Baruch, carried on the business
of a banker. He received his early education at Giessen, but
as Jews were ineligible at that time for public appointments in
Frankfort, young Baruch was sent to study medicine at Berlin
under a physician, Markus Herz, in whose house he resided.
Young Baruch became deeply enamoured of his patron&rsquo;s wife,
the talented and beautiful Henriette Herz (1764-1847), and gave
vent to his adoration in a series of remarkable letters. Tiring of
medical science, which he had subsequently pursued at Halle,
he studied constitutional law and political science at Heidelberg
and Giessen, and in 1811 took his doctor&rsquo;s degree at the latter
university. On his return to Frankfort, now constituted as a
grand duchy under the sovereignty of the prince bishop Karl von
Dalberg, he received (1811) the appointment of police actuary in
that city. The old conditions, however, returned in 1814 and
he was obliged to resign his office. Embittered by the oppression
under which the Jews suffered in Germany, he engaged in journalism,
and edited the Frankfort liberal newspapers, <i>Staatsristretto</i>
and <i>Die Zeitschwingen</i>. In 1818 he became a convert to Lutheran
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page256" id="page256"></a>256</span>
protestantism, changing his name from Löb Baruch to Ludwig
Börne. This step was taken less out of religious conviction than,
as in the case of so many of his descent, in order to improve
his social standing. From 1818 to 1821 he edited <i>Die Wage</i>,
a paper distinguished by its lively political articles and its powerful
but sarcastic theatrical criticisms. This paper was suppressed
by the police authorities, and in 1821 Börne quitted for a while
the field of publicist writing and led a retired life in Paris, Hamburg
and Frankfort. After the July Revolution (1830), he
hurried to Paris, expecting to find the newly-constituted state of
society somewhat in accordance with his own ideas of freedom.
Although to some extent disappointed in his hopes, he was not
disposed to look any more kindly on the political condition of
Germany; this lent additional zest to the brilliant satirical
letters (<i>Briefe aus Paris</i>, 1830-1833, published Paris, 1834),
which he began to publish in his last literary venture, <i>La Balance</i>,
a revival under its French name of <i>Die Wage</i>. The <i>Briefe aus
Paris</i> was Börne&rsquo;s most important publication, and a landmark
in the history of German journalism. Its appearance led him
to be regarded as one of the leaders of the new literary party of
&ldquo;Young Germany.&rdquo; He died at Paris on the 12th of February
1837.</p>

<p>Börne&rsquo;s works are remarkable for brilliancy of style and for a
thorough French vein of satire. His best criticism is to be found
in his <i>Denkrede auf Jean Paul</i> (1826), a writer for whom he had
warm sympathy and admiration, in his <i>Dramaturgische Blätter</i>
(1829-1834), and the witty satire, <i>Menzel der Franzosenfresser</i>
(1837). He also wrote a number of short stories and sketches, of
which the best known are the <i>Monographie der deutschen Postschnecke</i>
(1829) and <i>Der Esskünstler</i> (1822).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The first edition of his <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i> appeared at Hamburg
(1829-1834) in 14 volumes, followed by 6 volumes of <i>Nachgelassene
Schriften</i> (Mannheim, 1844-1850); more complete is the edition
in 12 volumes (Hamburg, 1862-1863), reprinted in 1868 and subsequently.
The latest complete edition is that edited by A. Klaar
(8 vols., Leipzig, 1900). For further biographical matter see
K. Gutzkow, <i>Börnes Leben</i> (Hamburg, 1840), and M. Holzmann,
<i>L. Börne, sein Leben und sein Wirken</i> (Berlin, 1888). <i>Börnes Briefe
an Henriette Herz</i> (1802-1807), first published in 1861, have been
re-edited by L. Geiger (Oldenburg, 1905), who has also published
Börne&rsquo;s <i>Berliner Briefe</i> (1828) (Berlin, 1905). See also Heine&rsquo;s
witty attack on Börne (<i>Werke</i>, ed. Elster, vii.), G. Gervinus&rsquo; essay
in his <i>Historiche Schriften</i> (Darmstadt, 1838), and the chapters
in G. Brandes, <i>Hovedströmninger i det 19 de Aarhundredes Litteratur</i>
vol. vi. (Copenhagen, 1890, German trans. 1891; English trans.
1905), and in J. Proelss, <i>Das junge Deutschland</i> (Stuttgart, 1892).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORNEO,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a great island of the Malay Archipelago, extending
from 7° N. to 4° 20&prime; S., and from 108° 53&prime; to 119° 22&prime; E. It is
830 m. long from N.E. to S.W., by 600 m. in maximum breadth.
Its area according to the calculations of the Topographical
Bureau of Batavia (1894) comprises 293,496 sq. m. These figures
are admittedly approximate, and Meyer, who is generally accurate,
gives the area of Borneo at 289,860 sq. m. It is roughly, however,
five times as large as England and Wales. Politically Borneo is
divided into four portions: (1) British North Borneo, the territory
exploited and administered by the Chartered British North
Borneo Company, to which a separate section of this article
is devoted; (2) Brunei (<i>q.v.</i>), a Malayan sultanate under British
protection; (3) Sarawak (<i>q.v.</i>), the large territory ruled by
raja Brooke, and under British protection in so far as its foreign
relations are concerned; and (4) Dutch Borneo, which comprises
the remainder and by far the largest and most valuable portion
of the island.</p>

<p><i>Physical Features</i>.&mdash;The general character of the country is
mountainous, though none of the ranges attains to any great
elevation, and Kinabalu, the highest peak in the island, which is
situated near its north-western extremity, is only 13,698 ft. above
sea-level. There is no proper nucleus of mountains whence chains
ramify in different directions. The central and west central
parts of the island, however, are occupied by three mountain
chains and a plateau. These chains are: (1) the folded chain
of the upper Kapuas, which divides the western division of
Dutch Borneo from Sarawak, extends west to east, and attains
near the sources of the Kapuas river a height of 5000 to 6000 ft.;
(2) the Schwaner chain, south of the Kapuas, whose summits
range from 3000 to 7500 ft., the latter being the height of Bukit
Raja, a plateau which divides the waters of the Kapuas from the
rivers of southern Borneo; and (3) the Müller chain, between the
eastern parts of the Madi plateau (presently to be mentioned) and
the Kapuas chain, a volcanic region presenting heights, such as
Bukit Terata (4700 ft.), which were once active but are now long
extinct volcanos. The Madi plateau lies between the Kapuas and
the Schwaner chains. Its height is from 3000 to 4000 ft., and it
is clothed with tropical high fens. These mountain systems are
homologous in structure with those, not of Celebes or of Halmahera,
but of Malacca, Banka and Billiton. From the eastern
end of the Kapuas mountains there are further to be observed:
(1) A chain running north-north-east, which forms the boundary
between Sarawak and Dutch Borneo, the highest peak of which,
Gunong Tebang, approaches 10,000 ft. This chain can hardly be
said to extend continuously to the extreme north of the island,
but it carries on the line of elevation towards the mountains of
Sarawak to the west, and those of British North Borneo to the
north, of which latter Kinabalu is the most remarkable. The
mountains of North Borneo are more particularly referred to in
the portion of this article which deals with that territory. (2)
A chain which runs eastward from the central mountains and
terminates in the great promontory of the east coast, known
variously as Cape Kanior or Kaniungan. (3) A well-marked
chain running in a south-easterly direction among the congeries
of hills that extend south-eastward from the central mountains,
and attaining, near the southern part of the east coast, heights
up to and exceeding 6000 ft.</p>

<p><i>Coasts.</i>&mdash;Resting on a submarine plateau of no great depth,
the coasts of Borneo are for the most part rimmed round by low
alluvial lands, of a marshy, sandy and sometimes swampy
character. In places the sands are fringed by long lines of
<i>Casuarina</i>, trees; in others, and more especially in the neighbourhood
of some of the river mouths, there are deep banks of black
mud covered with mangroves; in others the coast presents to
the sea bold headlands, cliffs, mostly of a reddish hue, sparsely
clad with greenery, or rolling hills covered by a growth of rank
grass. The depth of the sea around the shore rarely exceeds a
maximum depth of 1 to 3 fathoms, and the coast as a whole offers
few accessible ports. The towns and seaports are to be found as a
rule at or near the mouths of those rivers which are not barricaded
too efficiently by bars formed of mud or sand. All round the
long coast-line of Dutch Borneo there are only seven ports of call,
which are habitually made use of by the ships of the Dutch
Packet Company. They are Pontianak, Banjermasin, Kota
Bharu, Pasir, Samarinda, Beru and Bulungan. The islands off
the coast are not numerous. Excluding some of alluvial formation
at the mouths of many of the rivers, and others along the
shore which owe their existence to volcanic upheaval, the
principal islands are Banguey and Balambangan at the northern
extremity, Labuan (<i>q.v.</i>), a British colony off the west coast of
the territory of North Borneo, and the Karimata Islands off the
south-west coast. On Great Karimata is situated the village of
Palembang with a population of about 500 souls employed in
fishing, mining for iron, and trading in forest produce.</p>

<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:900px; height:1076px" src="images/img257.jpg" alt="" /></div>

<p><i>Rivers</i>.&mdash;The rivers play a very important part in the economy
of Borneo, both as highways and as lines along which run the
main arteries of population. Hydrographically the island may
be divided into five principal versants. Of these the shortest
embraces the north-western slope, north of the Kapuas range,
and discharges its waters into the China Sea. The most important
of its rivers are the Sarawak, the Batang-Lupar, the Sarebas, the
Rejang (navigable for more than 100 m.), the Baram, the Limbang
or Brunei river, and the Padas. The rivers of British North
Borneo to the north of the Padas are of no importance and of
scant practical utility, owing to the fact that the mountain range
here approaches very closely to the coast with which it runs
parallel. In the south-western versant the largest river is the
Kapuas, which, rising near the centre of the island, falls into the
sea between Mampawa and Sukadana after a long and winding
course. This river, of volume varying with the tide and the
amount of rainfall, is normally navigable by small steamers and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page257" id="page257"></a>257</span>
native prahus, of a draught of 4 to 5 ft., for 300 to 400 m., that is
to say, from Pontianak up to Sintang, and thence as far as Benut.
The middle part of this river, wider and more shallow than the
lower reaches, gives rise to a region of inundation and lakes which
extend as far as the northern mountain chain. Among its
considerable tributaries may be mentioned the southern Melawi
with its affluent the Penuh. It reaches the sea through several
channels in a wide marshy delta. The Sambas, north of the
Kapuas, is navigable in its lower course for vessels drawing 25 ft.
Rivers lying to the south of the Kapuas, but of less importance in
the way of size, commerce and navigation, are the Simpang,
Pawanand Kandawangan, in the neighbourhood of whose mouths,
or upon the adjacent coast, the principal native villages are
situated in each case. The Barito, which is the principal river of
the southern versant, takes its rise in the Kuti Lama Lake, and
falls into the Java Sea in 114° 30&prime; E. Its upper reaches are
greatly impeded by rocks, rapids and waterfalls, but the lower
part of its course is wide, and traverses a rich, alluvial district,
much of which is marshy. Cross branches unite it with two
rivers of considerable size towards the west, the Kapuas Murung
or Little Dyak, and the Kahayan or Great Dyak. The Katingan
or Mendawei, the Sampit, Pembuang or Surian and the Kota
Waringin are rivers that fall into the sea farther to the west. The
rivers of the southern versant are waters of capacious drainage,
the basin of the Kahayan having, for instance, an area of 16,000
sq. m., and the Barito one of 38,000 sq. m. These rivers are
navigable for two-thirds of their course by steamers of a fair size,
but in many cases the bars at their mouths present considerable
difficulties to ships drawing anything over 8 or 9 ft. Most of the
larger affluents of the Barito are also navigable throughout the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page258" id="page258"></a>258</span>
greater part of their courses. The south-eastern like the
north-western corner of the island is watered by a considerable
number of short mountain streams. The one great river of the eastern
versant is the Kutei or Mahakan, which, rising in the central
mountains, flows east with a sinuous course and falls by numerous
mounts into the Straits of Madassar. At a great distance from its
mouth it has still a depth of three fathoms, and in all its physical
features it is comparable to the Kapuas and Barito. The Kayan
or Bulungan river is the only other in the eastern versant that
calls for mention. Most of the rivers of the northern versant
are comparatively small, as the island narrows into a kind of
promontory. Of these the Kinabatangan in the territory of British
North Borneo is the most important. Lakes are neither
numerous nor very large. In most cases they are more fittingly
described as swamps. In the flood area of the upper Kapuas, of
which mention has already been made, there occurs Lake Luar,
and there are several lake expanses of a similar character in the
basins of the Barito and Kutei rivers. The only really fine
natural harbour in the island of which any use has been made is
that of Sandakan, the principal settlement of the North Borneo
Company on the north coast.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The geology of Borneo is very imperfectly known.
The mountain range which lies between Sarawak and the Dutch
possessions, and may be looked upon as the backbone of the island,
consists chiefly of crystalline schists, together with slates, sandstones
and limestones. All these beds are much disturbed and folded. The
sedimentary deposits were formerly believed to be Palaeozoic, but
Jurassic fossils have since been found in them, and it is probable that
several different formations are represented. Somewhat similar
rocks appear to form the axis of the range in south-east Borneo, and
possibly of the Tampatung Mountains. But the Müller range, the
Madi plateau, and the Schwaner Mountains of west Borneo, consist
chiefly of almost undisturbed sedimentary and volcanic rocks of
Tertiary age. The low-lying country between the mountain ranges
is covered for the most part by Tertiary and Quaternary deposits,
but Cretaceous beds occur at several localities. Some of the older
rocks of the mountain regions have been referred to the Devonian,
but the evidence cannot be considered conclusive. <i>Vertebraria</i> and
<i>Phyllotheca</i>, plants characteristic of the Indian Gondwana series,
have been recorded in Sarawak; and marine forms, similar to those
of the lower part of the Australian Carboniferous system, are stated
to occur in the limestone of north Borneo. <i>Pseudomonotis salinaria</i>,
a Triassic form, has been noted from the schists of the west of Borneo.
In the Kapoewas district radiolarian cherts supposed to be of
Jurassic age are met with. Undoubted Jurassic fossils, belonging
to several horizons, have been described from west Borneo and
Sarawak. The Cretaceous beds, which have long been known in
west Borneo, are comparatively little disturbed. They consist
for the most part of marls with <i>Orbitolina concava</i>, and are
referred to the Cenomanian. Cretaceous beds of somewhat later date are
found in the Marpapura district in south-east Borneo. The Tertiary
system includes conglomerates, sandstones, limestones and marls,
which appear to be of Eocene, Oligocene and Miocene age. They
contain numerous seams of coal. The Tertiary beds generally lie
nearly horizontal and form the lower hills, but in the Madi plateau
and the Schwaner range they rise to a height of several thousand
feet. Volcanic rocks of Tertiary and late Cretaceous age are
extensively developed, especially in the Müller Mountains. The whole
of this consists of tuffs and lavas, andesites prevailing in the west
and rhyolites and dacites in the east.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Minerals.</i>&mdash;The mineral wealth of Borneo is great and varied.
It includes diamonds, the majority of which, however, are of a
somewhat yellow colour, gold, quicksilver, cinnabar, copper,
iron, tin, antimony, mineral oils, sulphur, rock-salt, marble and
coal. The exploitation of the mines suffers in many cases from
the difficulties and expense of transport, the high duties payable
in Dutch Borneo to the native princes, the competition among
the rival companies, and often the limited quantities of the
minerals found in the mines. The districts of Sambas and
Landak in the west, the Kahayan river, the mountain valleys of
the extreme south-east and parts of Sarawak furnish the largest
quantities of gold, which is obtained for the most part from
alluvial washings. The Borneo Company is engaged in working
gold-mines in the upper part of the Sarawak valley, and the
prospects of the enterprise, which is conducted on a fairly
extensive scale, are known to be encouraging. Diamonds are also
found widely distributed and mainly in the same regions as the
gold. The Kapuas valley has so far yielded the largest quantity,
and Pontianak is, for diamonds, the principal port of export.
Considerable progress has been made in the development of the
oil-fields in Dutch Borneo, and the <i>Nederlandsch Indische
Industrie en Handel Maatschappij</i>, the Dutch business of the
Shell Transport and Trading Company, increased its output
from 123,592 tons in 1901 to 285,720 tons in 1904, and showed
further satisfactory increase thereafter. This company owns
extensive oil-fields at Balik Papan and Sanga-Sanga. The quality
of the oil varies in a remarkable way according to the depth.
The upper stratum is struck at a depth of 600 to 700 ft., and yields
a natural liquid fuel of heavy specific gravity. The next source
is met with at about 1200 ft., yielding an oil which is much lighter
in weight and, as such, more suitable for treatment in the
refinery. The former oil is almost invariably of an asphalte basis,
whereas the latter sometimes is found to contain a considerable
percentage of paraffin wax. The average daily production is very
high, owing to a large number of the wells flowing under the
natural pressure of the gas. There is every reason to believe
that the oil-fields of Dutch Borneo have a great future. Coal
mines have, in many instances, been opened and abandoned,
failure being due to the difficulty of production. Coal of good
quality has been found in Pengaron and elsewhere in the Banjermasin
district, but most Borneo coal is considerably below this
average of excellence. It has also been found in fair quantities
at various places in the Kutei valley and in Sarawak. The coalmines
of Labuan have been worked spasmodically, but success
has never attended the venture. Sadong yields something under
130 tons a day, and the Brooketown mine, the property of the
raja of Sarawak, yields some 50 tons a day of rather indifferent
coal. The discovery that Borneo produced antimony was made
in 1825 by John Crawfurd, the orientalist, who learned in that
year that a quantity had been brought to Singapore by a native
trader as ballast. The supply is practically unlimited and widely
distributed. The principal mine is at Bidi in Sarawak.</p>

<p><i>Climate and Health</i>.&mdash;As is to be anticipated, having regard to
its insular position and to the fact that the equator passes through
the very middle of the island, the climate is at once hot and very
damp. In the hills and in the interior regions are found which
may almost be described as temperate, but on the coasts the atmosphere
is dense, humid and oppressive. Throughout the average
temperature is from 78° to 80° F., but the thermometer rarely
falls below 70°, except in the hills, and occasionally on exceptional
days mounts as high as 96° in the shade. The rainy
westerly winds (S.W. and N.W.) prevail at all the meteorological
stations, not the comparatively dry south-east wind.
Even at Banjermasin, near the south coast, the north-west
wind brings annually a rainfall of 60 in., as against 33 in. of rain
carried by the south-east wind. The difference between the
seasons is not rigidly marked. The climate is practically unchanging
all the year round, the atmosphere being uniformly
moist, and though days of continuous downpour are rare, comparatively
few days pass without a shower. Most rain falls
between November and May, and at this season the torrents are
tremendous while they last, and squalls of wind are frequent and
violent, almost invariably preceding a downpour. Over such an
extensive area there is, of course, great variety in the climatic
character of different districts, especially when viewed in relation
to health. Some places, such as Bidi in Sarawak, for instance,
are notoriously unhealthy; but from the statistics of the Dutch
government, and the records of Sarawak and British North
Borneo, it would appear that the European in Borneo has in
general not appreciably more to fear than his fellow in Java,
or in the Federated Malay States of the Malayan Peninsula.
Among the native races the prevailing diseases, apart from those
of a malarial origin, are chiefly such as arise from bad and insufficient
food, from intemperance, and from want of cleanliness.
The habit of allowing their meat to putrefy before regarding it
as fit for food, and of encouraging children of tender age to drink
to intoxication, accounts for absence of old folk and the heavy
mortality which are to be observed among the Muruts of British
North Borneo and some of the other more debased tribes of
the interior of the island. Scrofula and various forms of lupus
are common among the natives throughout the country and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>259</span>
especially in the interior; elephantiasis is frequently met with
on the coast. Smallpox, dysentery and fevers, frequently of
a bilious character, are endemic and occasionally epidemic.
Cholera breaks out from time to time and works great havoc, as
was the case in 1903 when one of the raja of Sarawak&rsquo;s punitive
expeditions was stricken while ascending the Limbang river by
boat, and lost many hundreds of its numbers before the coast
could be regained. Ophthalmia is common and sometimes will
attack whole tribes. About one sixth of the native population
of the interior, and a smaller proportion of those living on the
coast, suffer from a kind of ringworm called <i>kurap</i>, which also
prevails almost universally among the Sakai and Semang, the
aboriginal hill tribes of the Malayan Peninsula. The disease is
believed to be aggravated by chronic anaemia. Consumption is
not uncommon.</p>

<p><i>Fauna</i>.&mdash;The fauna of Borneo comprises a large variety of
species, many of which are numerically of great importance.
Among the quadrupeds the most remarkable is the orang-utan
(Malay, <i>ôrang ûtan</i>, <i>i.e.</i> jungle man), as the huge ape, called <i>mias</i>
or <i>mâyas</i> by the natives, is named by Europeans. Numerous
species of monkey are found in Borneo, including the wahwah,
a kind of gibbon, a creature far more human in appearance and
habits than the orang-utan, and several <i>Semnopitheci</i>, such as the
long-nosed ape and the golden-black or <i>chrysomelas</i>. The large-eyed
<i>Stenops tardigradus</i> also deserves mention. The larger
beasts of prey are not met with, and little check is therefore put
on the natural fecundity of the graminivorous species. A small
panther and the clouded tiger (so called)&mdash;<i>Felis macroscelis</i>&mdash;are
the largest animals of the cat kind that occur in Borneo.
The Bengal tiger is not found. The Malay or honey-bear is
very common. The rhinoceros and the elephant both occur in
the northern part of the island, though both are somewhat rare,
and in this connexion it should be noted that the distribution
of quadrupeds as between Borneo, Sumatra and the Malayan
Peninsula is somewhat peculiar and seemingly somewhat capricious.
Many quadrupeds, such as the honey-bear and the
rhinoceros, are common to all, but while the tiger is common
both in the Malayan Peninsula and in Sumatra, it does not occur
in Borneo; the elephant, so common in the peninsula, and found
in Borneo, is unknown in Sumatra; and the orang-utan, so
plentiful in parts of Borneo and parts of Sumatra, has never
been discovered in the Malay Peninsula. It has been suggested,
but with very scant measure of probability, that the existence of
elephants in Borneo, whose confinement to a single district is
remarkable and unexplained, is due to importation; and the
fact is on record that when Magellan&rsquo;s ships visited Brunei in
1522 tame elephants were in use at the court of the sultan of
Brunei. Wild oxen of the Sunda race, not to be in any way confounded
with the Malayan <i>seladang</i> or gaur, are rare, but the
whole country swarms with wild swine, and the <i>babirusa</i>, a
pig with curious horn-like tusks, is not uncommon. Alligators
are found in most of the rivers, and the gavial is less frequently
met with. Three or four species of deer are common, including
the mouse-deer, or <i>plandok</i>, an animal of remarkable grace and
beauty, about the size of a hare but considerably less heavy.
Squirrels, flying-squirrels, porcupines, civet-cats, rats, bats,
flying-foxes and lizards are found in great variety; snakes of
various kinds, from the boa-constrictor downward, are abundant,
while the forests swarm with tree-leeches, and the marshes with
horse-leeches and frogs. A remarkable flying-frog was discovered
by Professor A.R. Wallace. Birds are somewhat rare in some
quarters. The most important are eagles, kites, vultures, falcons,
owls, horn-bills, cranes, pheasants (notably the argus, fire-back
and peacock-pheasants), partridges, ravens, crows, parrots,
pigeons, woodpeckers, doves, snipe, quail and swallows. Of most
of these birds several varieties are met with. The <i>Cypselus
esculentus</i>, or edible-nest swift, is very common, and the nests,
which are built mostly in limestone caves, are esteemed the best
in the archipelago. Mosquitoes and sand-flies are the chief insect
pests, and in some districts are very troublesome. Several kinds
of parasitic jungle ticks cause much annoyance to men and to
beasts. There are also two kinds of ants, the s&#283;mut âpi (&ldquo;fire
ant&rdquo;) and the <i>s&#283;mut lâda</i> (&ldquo;pepper ant&rdquo;), whose bites are
peculiarly painful. Hornets, bees and wasps of many varieties
abound. The honey and the wax of the wild bee are collected
by the natives. Butterflies and moths are remarkable for their
number, size, variety and beauty. Beetles are no less numerously
represented, as is to be expected in a country so richly
wooded as Borneo. The swamps and rivers, as well as the surrounding
seas, swarm with fish. The <i>siawan</i> is a species of fish
found in the rivers and valued for its spawn, which is salted.
The natives are expert and ingenious fishermen. Turtles, trepang
and pearl-shell are of some commercial importance.</p>

<p>The dog, the cat, the pig, the domestic fowl (which is not
very obviously related to the bantam of the woods), the buffalo,
a smaller breed than that met with in the Malayan Peninsula,
and in some districts bullocks of the Brahmin breed and small
horses, are the principal domestic animals. The character of the
country and the nomadic habits of many of the natives of the
interior, who rarely occupy their villages for more than a few
years in succession, have not proved favourable to pastoral
modes of life. The buffaloes are used not only in agriculture,
but also as beasts of burden, as draught-animals and for the
saddle. Horses, introduced by Europeans and owned only by
the wealthier classes, are found in Banjermasin and in Sarawak.
In British North Borneo, and especially in the district of Tempasuk
on the north-west coast, Borneo ponies, bred originally,
it is supposed, from the stock which is indigenous to the Sulu
archipelago, are common.</p>

<p><i>Flora</i>.&mdash;The flora of Borneo is very rich, the greater portion
of the surface of the island being clothed in luxuriant vegetation.
The king of the forest is the <i>tapan</i>, which, rising to a great height
without fork or branch, culminates in a splendid dome of foliage.
The official seats of some of the chiefs are constructed from the
wood of this tree. Iron-wood, remarkable for the durability of
its timber, is abundant; it is used by the natives for the pillars
of their homes and forms an article of export, chiefly to Hong-Kong.
It is rivalled in hardness by the <i>kâyu t&#283;mb&#283;su</i>. In all,
about sixty kinds of timber of marketable quality are furnished
in more or less profusion, but the difficulty of extraction, even
in the regions situated in close proximity to the large waterways,
renders it improbable that the timber trade of Borneo will attain
to any very great dimensions until other and easier sources of
supply have become exhausted. Palm-trees are abundant in
great variety, including the <i>nîpah</i>, which is much used for thatching,
the cabbage, fan, sugar, coco and sago palms. The last two
furnish large supplies of food to the natives, some copra is exported,
and sago factories, mostly in the hands of Chinese,
prepare sago for the Dutch and British markets. Gutta-percha
(<i>g&#283;tah p&#283;rcha</i> in the vernacular), camphor, cinnamon, cloves,
nutmegs, gambir and betel, or areca-nuts, are all produced in
the island; most of the tropical fruits flourish, including the
much-admired but, to the uninitiated, most evil-smelling durian,
a large fruit with an exceedingly strong outer covering composed
of stout pyramidal spikes, which grows upon the branches of a
tall tree and occasionally in falling inflicts considerable injuries
upon passers-by. Yams, several kinds of sweet potatoes, melons,
pumpkins, cucumbers, pineapples, bananas and mangosteens
are cultivated, as also are a large number of other fruits. Rice
is grown in irrigated lands near the rivers and in the swamps,
and also in rude clearings in the interior; sugar-cane of superior
quality in Sambas and Montrado; cotton, sometimes exported
in small quantities, on the banks of the Negara, a tributary of the
Barito; tobacco, used very largely now in the production of
cigars, in various parts of northern Borneo; and tobacco for
native consumption, which is of small commercial importance,
is cultivated in most parts of the island. Indigo, coffee and
pepper have been cultivated since 1855 in the western division
of Dutch Borneo. Among the more beautiful of the flowering
plants are rhododendrons, orchids and pitcher-plants&mdash;the
latter reaching extraordinary development, especially in the
northern districts about Kinabalu. Epiphytous plants are very
common, many that are usually independent assuming here the
parasitic character; the <i>Vanda lowii</i>, for example, grows on the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260"></a>260</span>
lower branches of trees, and its strange pendent flower-stalks
often hang down so as almost to reach the ground. Ferns are
abundant, but not so varied as in Java.</p>

<p><i>Population</i>.&mdash;The population of Borneo is not known with any approach to accuracy, but according to the political divisions of the island it is estimated as follows:&mdash;</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcl">Dutch Borneo</td> <td class="tcr">1,130,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">British North Borneo</td> <td class="tcr">200,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Sarawak</td> <td class="tcr">500,000</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Brunei</td> <td class="tcr">20,000</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="noind">No effective census of the population has ever been taken, and
vast areas in Dutch Borneo and in British North Borneo remain
unexplored, and free from any practical authority or control.
In Sarawak, owing to the high administrative genius of the first
raja and his successor, the natives have been brought far more
completely under control, but the raja has never found occasion
to utilize the machinery of his government for the accurate
enumeration of his subjects.</p>

<p>Dutch Borneo is divided for administrative purposes into two
divisions, the western and the south and eastern respectively.
Of the two, the former is under the more complete and effective
control. The estimated population in the western division is
413,000 and in the south and eastern 717,000. Europeans
number barely 1000; Arabs about 3000, and Chinese, mainly in
the western division, over 40,000. In both divisions there is an
average density of little more than 1 to every 2 sq. m. The
sparseness of the population throughout the Dutch territory is
due to a variety of causes&mdash;to the physical character of the
country, which for the most part restricts the area of population to the
near neighbourhood of the rivers; to the low standard of civilization to
which the majority of the natives have attained and the consequent
disregard of sanitation and hygiene; to wars, piracy and head-hunting,
the last of which has not even yet been effectually checked among some
of the tribes of the interior; and to the aggression and oppressions in
earlier times of Malayan, Arab and Bugis settlers. Among the natives,
more especially of the interior, an innate restlessness which leads to a
life of spasmodic nomadism, poverty, insufficient nourishment, an
incredible improvidence which induces them to convert into intoxicating
liquor a large portion of their annual crops, feasts of a semi-religious
character which are invariably accompanied by prolonged drunken orgies,
and certain superstitions which necessitate the frequent procuration of
abortion, have contributed to check the growth of population. In Sambas,
Montrado and some parts of Pontianak, the greater density of the
population is due to the greater fertility of the soil, the opening of
mines, the navigation and trade plied on the larger rivers, and the
concentration of the population at the junctions of rivers, the mouths
of rivers and the seats of government. Of the chief place in the western
division, Pontianak has about 9000 inhabitants; Sambas about 8000;
Montrado, Mampawa and Landak between 2000 and 4000 each; and in the
south and eastern division there are Banjermasin with nearly 50,000
inhabitants; Marabahan, Amuntai, Negara, Samarinda and Tengarung with
populations of from 5000 to 10,000 inhabitants each. In Amuntai and
Martapura early Hindu colonization, of which the traces and the
influence still are manifest, the fertile soil, trade and industry aided
by navigable rivers, have co-operated towards the growth of population
to a degree which presents a marked contrast to the conditions in the
interior parts of the Upper Barito and of the more westerly rivers. Only
a very small proportion of the Europeans in Dutch Borneo live by
agriculture and industry, the great majority of them being officials.
The Arabs and Chinese are engaged in trading, mining, fishing and
agriculture. Of the natives fully 90% live by agriculture, which,
however, is for the most part of a somewhat primitive description. The
industries of the natives are confined to such crafts as spinning and
weaving and dyeing, the manufacture of iron weapons and implements,
boat- and shipbuilding, &amp;c. More particularly in the south-eastern
division, and especially in the districts of Negara, Banjermasin,
Amuntai and Martapura, shipbuilding, iron forging, gold- and
silversmith&rsquo;s work, and the polishing of
diamonds, are industries of high development in the larger
centres of population.</p>

<p><i>Races.</i>&mdash;The peoples of Borneo belong to a considerable
variety of races, of different origin and degrees of civilization.
The most important numerically are the Dyaks, the Dusuns and
Muruts of the interior, the Malays, among whom must be
counted such Malayan tribes as the Bajaus, Ilanuns, &amp;c., the
Bugis, who were originally immigrants from Celebes, and the
Chinese. The Dutch, and to a minor extent the Arabs, are of
importance on account of their political influence in Dutch
Borneo, while the British communities have a similar importance
in Sarawak and in British North Borneo. Accounts of the
Malays, Dyaks and Bugis are given under their several headings,
and some information concerning the Dusuns and Muruts will
be found in the section below, which deals with British North
Borneo. The connexion of the Chinese with Borneo calls for
notice here. They seem to have been the first civilized people
who had dealings with Borneo, if the colonization of a portion
of the south-eastern corner of the island by Hindus be excepted.
The Chinese annals speak of tribute paid to the empire by Pha-la
on the north-east coast of the island as early as the 7th century,
and later documents mention a Chinese colonization in the 15th
century. The traditions of the Malays and Dyaks seem to confirm
the statements, and many of the leading families of Brunei
in north-west Borneo claim to have Chinese blood in their
veins, while the annals of Sulu record an extensive Chinese
immigration about 1575. However this may be, it is certain
that the flourishing condition of Borneo in the 16th and 17th
centuries was largely due to the energy of Chinese settlers and
to trade with China. In the 18th century there was a considerable
Chinese population settled in Brunei, engaged for the most
part in planting and exporting pepper, but the consistent
oppression of the native rajas destroyed their industry and led
eventually to the practical extirpation of the Chinese. The
Malay chiefs of other districts encouraged immigration from
China with a view to developing the mineral resources of their
territories, and before long Chinese settlers were to be found in
considerable numbers in Sambas, Montrado, Pontianak and elsewhere.
They were at first forbidden to engage in commerce or
agriculture, to carry firearms, to possess or manufacture gunpowder.
About 1779 the Dutch acquired immediate authority
over all strangers, and thus assumed responsibility for the
control of the Chinese, who presently proved themselves somewhat
troublesome. Their numbers constantly increased and
were reinforced by new immigrants, and pushing inland in search
of fresh mineral-bearing areas, they contracted frequent intermarriages
with the Dyaks and other non-Mahommedan natives.
They brought with them from China their aptitude for the
organization of secret societies which, almost from the first,
assumed the guise of political associations. These secret societies
furnished them with a machinery whereby collective action was
rendered easy, and under astute leaders they offered a formidable
opposition to the Dutch government. Later, when driven into
the interior and eventually out of Dutch territory, they cost the
first raja of Sarawak some severe contests before they were
at last reduced to obedience. Serious disturbances among the
Chinese are now in Borneo matters of ancient history, and to-day
the Chinaman forms perhaps the most valuable element in the
civilization and development of the island, just as does his fellow
in the mining states of the Malayan Peninsula. They are industrious,
frugal and intelligent; the richer among them are
excellent men of business and are peculiarly equitable in their
dealings; the majority of all classes can read and write their own
script, and the second generation acquires an education of an
European type with great facility. The bulk of the shopkeeping,
trading and mining industries, so long as the mining
is of an alluvial character, is in Chinese hands. The greater
part of the Chinese on the west coast are originally drawn
from the boundaries of Kwang-tung and Kwang-si. They are
called Kehs by the Malays, and are of the same tribes as those
which furnish the bulk of the workers to the tin mines of the
Malay Peninsula. They are a rough and hardy people, and are
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>261</span>
apt at times to be turbulent. The shopkeeping class comes
mostly from Fuh-kien and the coast districts of Amoy. They
are known to the Borneans as Ollohs.</p>

<p><i>History</i>.&mdash;As far as is known, Borneo never formed a political
unity, and even its geographical unity as an island is a fact
unappreciated by the vast majority of its native inhabitants.
The name of Kalamantan has been given by some Europeans
(on what original authority it is not possible now to ascertain)
as the native name for the island of Borneo considered as a
whole; but it is safe to aver that among the natives of the island
itself Borneo has never borne any general designation. To this
day, among the natives of the Malayan Archipelago, men speak
of going to Pontianak, to Sambas or to Brunei, as the case may
be, but make use of no term which recognizes that these localities
are part of a single whole. The only archaeological remains are
a few Hindu temples, and it is probable that the early settlement
of the south-eastern portion of the island by Hindus dates from
some time during the first six centuries of our era. There exist,
however, no data, not even any trustworthy tradition, from
which to reconstruct the early history of Borneo. Borneo began
to be known to Europeans after the fall of Malacca in 1511, when
Alphonso d&rsquo;Albuquerque despatched Antonio d&rsquo;Abreu with three
ships in search of the Molucca or Spice Islands with instructions
to establish friendly relations with all the native states that he
might encounter on his way. D&rsquo;Abreu, sailing in a south-easterly
direction from the Straits of Malacca, skirted the southern
coast of Borneo and laid up his ships at Amboyna, a small island
near the south-western extremity of Ceram. He returned to
Malacca in 1514, leaving one of his captains, Francisco Serrano,
at Ternate, where Magellan&rsquo;s followers found him in 1521. After
Magellan&rsquo;s death, his comrades sailed from the Moluccas across
the Celebes into the Sulu Sea, and were the first white men who
are known to have visited Brunei on the north-west coast of
Borneo, where they arrived in 1522. Pigafetta gives an interesting
account of the place and of the reception of the adventurers
by the sultan. The Molucca Islands being, at that time, the
principal objective of European traders, and the route followed
by Magellan&rsquo;s ships being frequently used, Borneo was often
touched at during the remainder of the 16th century, and trade
relations with Brunei were successfully established by the
Portuguese. In 1573 the Spaniards tried somewhat unsuccessfully
to obtain a share of this commerce, but it was not until
1580, when a dethroned sultan appealed to them for assistance
and by their agency was restored to his own, that they attained
their object. Thereafter the Spaniards maintained a fitful
intercourse with Brunei, varied by not infrequent hostilities,
and in 1645 a punitive expedition on a larger scale than heretofore
was sent to chastise Brunei for persistent acts of piracy.
No attempt at annexation followed upon this action, commerce
rather than territory being at this period the prime object of
both the Spaniards and the Portuguese, whose influence upon
the natives was accordingly proportionately small. The only
effort at proselytizing of which we have record came to an
untimely end in the death of the Theatine monk, Antonio Ventimiglia,
who had been its originator. Meanwhile the Dutch and
British East India Companies had been formed, had destroyed
the monopoly so long enjoyed by the Portuguese, and to a less
extent the Spaniards, in the trade of the Malayan Archipelago,
and had gained a footing in Borneo. The establishment of
Dutch trading-posts on the west coast of Borneo dates from
1604, nine years after the first Dutch fleet, under Houtman,
sailed from the Texel to dispute with the Portuguese the possession
of the Eastern trade, and in 1608 Samuel Blommaert was
appointed Dutch resident, or head factor, in Landak and Sukedana.
The first appearance of the British in Borneo dates from
1609, and by 1698 they had an important settlement at Banjermasin,
whence they were subsequently expelled by the influence
of the Dutch, who about 1733 obtained from the sultan a trading
monopoly. The Dutch, in fact, speedily became the predominant
European race throughout the Malay Archipelago,
defeating the British by superior energy and enterprise, and the
trading-posts all along the western and southern coasts of
Borneo were presently their exclusive possessions, the sultan of
Bantam, who was the overlord of these districts, ceding his
rights to the Dutch. The British meanwhile had turned their
attention to the north of the island, over which the sultan of
Sulu exercised the rights of suzerain, and from him, in 1759,
Alexander Dalrymple obtained possession of the island of
Balambangan, and the whole of the north-eastern promontory.
A military post was established, but it was destroyed in 1775
by the natives under the <i>dâto&rsquo;</i>, or vassal chiefs, who resented
the cession of their territory. This mishap rendered a treaty,
which had been concluded in 1774 with the sultan of Brunei,
practically a dead letter, and by the end of the century British
influence in Borneo was to all intents and purposes at an end.
The Dutch also mismanaged their affairs in Borneo and suffered
from a series of misfortunes which led Marshal Daendels in 1809
to order the abandonment of all their posts. The natives of the
coasts of Borneo, assisted and stimulated by immigrants from
the neighbouring islands to the north, devoted themselves more
and more to organized piracy, and putting to sea in great fleets
manned by two and three thousand men on cruises that lasted
for two and even three years, they terrorized the neighbouring
seas and rendered the trade of civilized nations almost impossible
for a prolonged period. During the occupation of Java by the
British an embassy was despatched to Sir Stamford Raffles by
the sultan of Banjermasin asking for assistance, and in 1811
Alexander Hare was despatched thither as commissioner and
resident. He not only obtained for his government an advantageous
treaty, but secured for himself a grant of a district
which he proceeded to colonize and cultivate. About the same
time a British expedition was also sent against Sambas and a
post established at Pontianak. On the restoration of Java to the
Dutch in 1816, all these arrangements were cancelled, and the
Dutch government was left in undisputed possession of the field.
An energetic policy was soon after adopted, and about half the
kingdom of Banjermasin was surrendered to the Dutch by its
sultan in 1823, further concessions being made two years later.
Meanwhile, George Müller, while exploring the east coast,
obtained from the sultan of Kutei an acknowledgment of Dutch
authority, a concession speedily repented by its donor, since the
enterprising traveller was shortly afterwards killed. The outbreak
of war in Java caused Borneo to be more or less neglected
by the Dutch for a considerable period, and no effective check
was imposed upon the natives with a view to stopping piracy,
which was annually becoming more and more unendurable. On
the rise of Singapore direct trade had been established with
Sarawak and Brunei, and it became a matter of moment to
British merchants that this traffic should be safe. In 1838 Sir
James Brooke, an Englishman, whose attention had been turned
to the state of affairs in the Eastern Archipelago, set out for
Borneo, determined, if possible, to remedy the evil. By 1841 he
had obtained from the sultan of Brunei the grant of supreme
authority over Sarawak, in which state, on the sultan&rsquo;s behalf,
he had waged a successful war, and before many years had
elapsed he had, with the aid of the British government, succeeded
in suppressing piracy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brooke, Sir James</a></span>; and
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sarawak</a></span>). In 1847 the sultan of Brunei agreed to make no
cession of territory to any nation or individual without the
consent of Great Britain. Since then more and more territory
has been ceded by the sultans of Brunei to the raja of Sarawak
and to British North Borneo, and to-day the merest remnant
of his once extensive state is left within the jurisdiction of the
sultan. The treaty in 1847 put an end once for all to the
hopes which the Dutch had cherished of including the whole
island in their dominions, but it served also to stimulate their
efforts to consolidate their power within the sphere already
subjected to their influence. Gunong Tebur, Tanjong, and
Bulungan had made nominal submission to them in 1834, and
in 1844 the sultan of Kutei acknowledged their protectorate, a
treaty of a similar character being concluded about the same
time with Pasir. The boundaries of British and Dutch Borneo
were finally defined by a treaty concluded on the 20th of June
1891. In spite of this, however, large areas in the interior,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>262</span>
both in Dutch Borneo and in the territory owned by the British
North Borneo Company, are still only nominally under European
control, and have experienced few direct effects of European administration.</p>

<p class="center pt2 sc">British North Borneo or Sabah</p>

<p>Sabah is the name applied by the natives to certain portions
of the territory situated on the north-western coast of the island,
and originally in no way included the remainder of the country
now owned by the British North Borneo Company. It has
become customary, however, for the name to be used by
Europeans in Borneo to denote the whole of the company&rsquo;s
territory, and little by little the more educated natives are
insensibly adopting the practice.</p>

<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;As has been seen, the British connexion with
northern and north-western Borneo terminated with the 18th century,
nor was it resumed until 1838, when Raja Brooke set out for
Brunei and Sarawak. The island of Labuan (<i>q.v.</i>) was occupied
by the British as a crown colony in 1848, and this may be taken
as the starting-point of renewed British relations with that
portion of northern Borneo which is situated to the north of
Brunei. In 1872 the Labuan Trading Company was established
in Sandakan, the fine harbour on the northern coast which
was subsequently the capital of the North Borneo Company&rsquo;s
territory. In 1878, through the instrumentality of Mr (afterwards
Sir) Alfred Dent, the sultan of Sulu was induced to transfer
to a syndicate, formed by Baron Overbeck and Mr Dent, all his
rights in North Borneo, of which, as has been seen, he had
been from time immemorial the overlord. The chief promoters
of this syndicate were Sir Rutherford Alcock, Admiral the Hon.
Sir Harry Keppel, who at an earlier stage of his career had
rendered great assistance to the first raja of Sarawak in the
suppression of piracy, and Mr Richard B. Martin. Early in 1881
the British North Borneo Provisional Association, Limited, was
formed to take over the concession which had been obtained
from the sultan of Sulu, and in November of that year a petition
was addressed to Queen Victoria praying for a royal charter.
This was granted, and subsequently the British North Borneo
Company, which was formed in May 1882, took over, in spite of
some diplomatic protests on the part of the Dutch and Spanish
governments, all the sovereign and territorial rights ceded by
the original grants, and proceeded under its charter to organize
the administration of the territory. The company subsequently
acquired further sovereign and territorial rights from the sultan
of Brunei and his chiefs in addition to some which had already
been obtained at the time of the formation of the company.
The Putatan river was ceded in May 1884, the Padas district,
including the Padas and Kalias rivers, in November of the same
year, the Kawang river in February 1885, and the Mantanani
islands in April 1885. In 1888, by an agreement with the &ldquo;State
of North Borneo,&rdquo; the territory of the company was made a
British protectorate, but its administration remained entirely
in the hands of the company, the crown reserving only control
of its foreign relations, and the appointment of its governors
being required to receive the formal sanction of the secretary of
state for the colonies. In 1890 the British government placed the
colony of Labuan under the administration of the company, the
governor of the state of North Borneo thereafter holding a royal
commission as governor of Labuan in addition to his commission
from the company. This arrangement held good until 1905,
when, in answer to the frequently and strongly expressed desire
of the colonists, Labuan was removed from the jurisdiction of
the company and attached to the colony of the Straits Settlements.
In March 1898 arrangements were made whereby the sultan
of Brunei ceded to the company all his sovereign and territorial
rights to the districts situated to the north of the Padas river
which up to that time had been retained by him. This had the
effect of rounding off the company&rsquo;s territories, and had the
additional advantage of doing away with the various no-man&rsquo;s
lands which had long been used by the discontented among the
natives as so many Caves of Adullam. The company&rsquo;s acquisition
of territory was viewed with considerable dissatisfaction
by many of the natives, and this found expression in frequent acts
of violence. The most noted and the most successful of the
native leaders was a Bajau named Mat Saleh (Mahomet Saleh),
who for many years defied the company, whose policy in his
regard was marked by considerable weakness and vacillation.
In 1898 a composition was made with him, the terms of which
were unfortunately not defined with sufficient clearness, and he
retired into the Tambunan country, to the east of the range
which runs parallel with the west coast, where for a period he
lorded it unchecked over the Dusun tribes of the valley. In
1899 it was found necessary to expel him, since his acts of
aggression and defiance were no longer endurable. A short, and this
time a successful campaign followed, resulting, on the 31st of
January 1900, in the death of Mat Saleh, and the destruction of
his defences. Some of his followers who escaped raided the town
of Kudat on Marudu Bay in April of the same year, but caused
more panic than damage, and little by little during the next
years the last smouldering embers of rebellion were extinguished.
At the present time, though effective administration of the more
inaccessible districts of the interior cannot be said to have been
established even yet, the pacification of the native population
is to all intents and purposes complete. The Tambunan district,
the last stronghold of Mat Saleh, is now thoroughly settled.
It is some 500 sq. m. in extent, and carries a population of
perhaps 12,000.</p>

<p><i>Geography.</i>&mdash;The state of North Borneo may roughly be
said to form a pentagon of which three sides, the north-west,
north-east and east are washed by the sea, while the remaining two
sides, the south-west and the south, are bordered respectively
by the Malayan sultanate of Brunei, and by the territories of the
raja of Sarawak and of the Dutch government. The boundary
between the company&rsquo;s territory and the Dutch government is
defined by the treaty concluded in June 1891, of which mention
has already been made.</p>

<p>The total area of the company&rsquo;s territory is estimated at about
31,000 sq. m., with a coast-line of over 900 m. The greater
portion is exceedingly hilly and in parts mountainous, and the
interior consists almost entirely of highlands with here and there
open valleys and plateaus of 50 to 60 sq. m. in extent. On the
west coast the mountain range, as already noted, runs parallel
with the seashore at a distance from it of about 15 m. Of this
range the central feature is the mountain of Kinabalu, which is
composed of porphyritic granite and igneous rocks and attains
to a height of 13,698 ft. Mount Madalon, some 15 or 20 m. to
the north, is 5000 ft. in height, and inland across the valley of
the Pagalan river, which runs through the Tambunan country
and falls into the Padas, rises the peak of Trus Madi, estimated
to be 11,000 ft. above sea-level. The valley of the Pagalan is
itself for the most part from 1000 to 2000 ft. above the sea,
forming a string of small plateaus marking the sites of former
lakes. From the base of Trus Madi to the eastern coast the country
consists of huddled hills broken here and there by regions of a
more mountainous character. The principal plateaus are in the
Tambunan and Kaningau valleys, in the basin of the Pagalan,
and the Ranau plain to the eastward of the base of Kinabalu.
Similar plateaus of minor importance are to be found dotted
about the interior. The proximity of the mountain range to the
seashore causes the rivers of the west coast, with the single
exception of the Padas, to be rapid, boulder-obstructed, shallow
streams of little value as means of communication for a distance
of more than half a dozen miles from their mouths. The Padas
is navigable for light-draught steam-launches and native boats
for a distance of nearly 50 m. from its mouth, and smaller craft
can be punted up as far as Rayoh, some 15 m. farther, but at
this point its bed is obstructed by impassable falls and rapids,
which are of such a character that nothing can even be brought
down them. Even below Rayoh navigation is rendered difficult
and occasionally dangerous by similar obstructions. The other
principal rivers of the west coast are the Kalias, Kimanis,
Benoneh, Papar, Kinarut, Putatan, Inaman, Mengkabong, Tampasuk
and Pandasan, none of which, however, is of any great importance
as a means of communication. There is a stout breed of pony
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>263</span>
raised along the Tampasuk, which is also noted for the Kalupis
waterfall (1500 ft.), one of the highest in the world, though the
volume of water is not great. Here also are the principal
Bajau settlements. Throughout the Malayan Archipelago the
words <i>Bâjau</i> and <i>p&#283;rômpak</i> (pirate) are still used as
synonymous terms. At the northern extremity of the island Marudu Bay
receives the waters of the Marudu which rises on the western side
of Mount Madalon. On the east coast the principal rivers are the
Sugut, which rises in the hills to the east of Kinabalu and forms
its delta near Torongohok or Pura-Pura Island; the Labuk,
which has its sources 70 m. inland and debouches into Labuk Bay;
and the Kinabatangan, the largest and most important river in
the territory, which is believed to have its rise eastward of the
range of which Trus Madi is the principal feature, and is navigable
by steamer for a considerable distance and by native boats for
a distance of over 100 m. from its mouth. Some valuable
tobacco land, which, however, is somewhat liable to flood, and
some remarkable burial-caves are found in the valley of the
Kinabatangan. The remaining rivers of the east coast are the
Segamah, which rises west of Darvel Bay, the Kumpong, and the
Kalabakang, which debouches into Cowie Harbour. Taking it
as a whole, the company&rsquo;s territory is much less generously
watered than are other parts of Borneo, which again compares
unfavourably in this respect with the Malayan states of the
peninsula. Many of the rivers, especially those of the west coast,
are obstructed by bars at their mouths that render them difficult
of access. Several of the natural harbours of North Borneo, on
the other hand, are accessible, safe and commodious. Sandakan
Harbour, on the north-east coast (5° 40&prime; N., 118° 10&prime; E.), runs
inland for some 17 m. with a very irregular outline broken by
the mouths of numerous creeks and streams. The mouth, only
2 m. across, is split into two channels by the little, high,
bluff-like island of Barhala. The depth in the main entrance varies
from 10 to 17 fathoms, and vessels drawing 20 ft. can advance
half-way up the bay. The principal town in the territory, and
the seat of government (though an attempt has been unsuccessfully
made to transfer this to Jesselton on the west coast), is
Sandakan, situated just inside the mouth of the Sarwaka inlet.
At Silam, on Darvel Bay, there is good anchorage; and Kudat
in Marudu Bay, first surveyed by Commander Johnstone of
H.M.S. &ldquo;Nigeria&rdquo; in 1881, is a small but useful harbour.</p>

<p><i>Climate and Population.</i>&mdash;The climate of North Borneo is
tropical, hot, damp and enervating. The rainfall is steady and
not usually excessive. The shade temperature at Sandakan
ordinarily ranges from 72° to 94° F. The population of the
company&rsquo;s territory is not known with any approach to accuracy,
but is estimated, somewhat liberally, to amount to 175,000,
including 16,000 Chinese. Of this total about three-fourths are
found in the districts of the west coast. The seashore and the
country bordering closely on the west coast are inhabited chiefly
by Dusuns, by Kadayans, by Bajaus and Ilanuns&mdash;both Malayan
tribes&mdash;and by Brunei Malays. The east coast is very sparsely
populated and its inhabitants are mostly Bajaus and settlers
from the neighbouring Sulu archipelago. The interior is dotted
with infrequent villages inhabited by Dusuns or by Muruts,
a village ordinarily consisting of a single long hut divided up
into cubicles, one for the use of each family, opening out on to a
common verandah along which the skulls captured by the tribe
are festooned. It has been customary to speak of these tribes as
belonging to the Dyak group, but the Muruts would certainly
seem to be the representatives of the aboriginal inhabitants of
the island, and there is much reason to think that the Dusuns
also must be classed as distinct from the Dyaks. The Dusun
language, it is interesting to note, presents very curious
grammatical complications and refinements such as are not to be
found among the tongues spoken by any of the other peoples
of the Malayan Archipelago or the mainland of south-eastern
Asia. Dusuns and Muruts alike are in a very low state of
civilization, and both indulge inordinately in the use of
intoxicating liquors of their own manufacture.</p>

<p><i>Settlements and Communication.</i>&mdash;The company possesses a
number of small stations along the coast, of which Sandakan,
with a population of 9 500, is the most important. The remainder
which call for separate mention are Lahat Datu on Darvel Bay
on the east coast; Kudat on Marudu Bay and Jesselton on Gaya
Bay on the west coast. A railway of indifferent construction
runs along the west coast from Jesselton to Weston on Brunei
Bay, with a branch along the banks of the Padas to Tenom above
the rapids. It was originally intended that this should eventually
be extended across the territory to Cowie Harbour (Sabuko Bay)
on the east coast, but the extraordinary engineering difficulties
which oppose themselves to such an extension, the sparse
population of the territory, and the failure of the existing line
to justify the expectations entertained by its designers, combine
to render the prosecution of any such project highly improbable.
Sandakan is connected by telegraph with Mempakul on the west
coast whence a cable runs to Labuan and so gives telegraphic
communication with Singapore. The overland line from Mempakul
to Sandakan, however, passes through forest-clad and
very difficult country, and telegraphic communication is therefore
subject to very frequent interruption. Telegraphic communication
between Mempakul and Kudat, via Jesselton, has also been
established and is more regularly and successfully maintained.
The only roads in the territory are bridle-paths in the immediate
vicinity of the company&rsquo;s principal stations. The Sabah Steamship
Company, subsidized by the Chartered Company, runs
steamers along the coast, calling at all the company&rsquo;s stations
at which native produce is accumulated. A German firm runs
vessels at approximately bi-monthly intervals from Singapore
to Labuan and thence to Sandakan, calling in on occasion at
Jesselton and Kudat <i>en route</i>. There is also fairly frequent
communication between Sandakan and Hong-Kong, a journey
of four days&rsquo; steaming.</p>

<p><i>Products and Trade</i>.&mdash;The capabilities of the company&rsquo;s
territory are only dimly known. Coal has been found in the
neighbourhood of Cowie Harbour and elsewhere, but though its
quality is believed to be as good as that exported from Dutch
Borneo, it is not yet known whether it exists in payable
quantities. Gold has been found in alluvial deposits on the
banks of some of the rivers of the east coast, but here again the
quantity available is still in serious doubt. The territory as a
whole has been very imperfectly examined by geologists, and
no opinion can at present be hazarded as to the mineral wealth
or poverty of the company&rsquo;s property. Traces of mineral oil,
iron ores, copper, zinc and antimony have been found, but the
wealth of North Borneo still lies mainly in its jungle produce.
It possesses a great profusion of excellent timber, but the
difficulty of extraction has so far restricted the lumber industry
within somewhat modest limits. Gutta, rubber, rattans,
mangrove-bark, edible nuts, guano, edible birds&rsquo;-nests, &amp;c., are
all valuable articles of export. The principal cultivated produce
is tobacco, sago, cocoanuts, coffee, pepper, gambier and sugar-canes.
Of these the tobacco and the sago are the most important.
Between 1886 and 1900 the value of the tobacco crop increased
from £471 to £200,000.</p>

<p>As is common throughout Malayan lands, the trade of North
Borneo is largely in the hands of Chinese shopkeepers who send
their agents inland to attend the <i>Tamus</i> (Malay, <i>t&#283;mu</i>, to meet)
or fairs, which are the recognized scenes of barter between the
natives of the interior and those of the coast. At Sandakan
there is a Chinese population of over 2000.</p>

<p><i>Administration</i>.&mdash;For administrative purposes the territory
is divided into nine provinces: Alcock and Dewhurst in the
north; Keppel on the west; Martin in the centre; Myburgh,
Mayne and Elphinstone on the east coast; and Dent and
Cunliffe in the south. The boundaries of these provinces, however,
are purely arbitrary and not accurately defined. The form
of government is modelled roughly upon the system adopted
in the Malay States of the peninsula during the early days of
their administration by British residents. The government is
vested primarily in the court of directors appointed under the
company&rsquo;s charter, which may be compared to the colonial
office in its relation to a British colony, though the court of
directors interests itself far more closely than does the colonial
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a>264</span>
department in the smaller details of local administration. The
supreme authority on the spot is represented by the governor,
under whom are the residents of Kudat, Darvel Bay and Keppel,
officers who occupy much the same position as that usually
known by the title of magistrate and collector. The less important
districts are administered by district magistrates, who
also collect the taxes. The principal departments, whose chiefs
reside at the capital, are the treasury, the land and survey, the
public works, the constabulary, the medical and the judicial.
The secretariat is under the charge of a government secretary
who ranks next in precedence to the governor. Legislation is
by the proclamation of the governor, but there is a council,
meeting at irregular intervals, upon which the principal heads
of departments and one unofficial member have seats. The
public service is recruited by nomination by the court of directors.
The governor is the chief judge of the court of appeal, but a
judge who is subordinate to him takes all ordinary supreme court
cases. The laws are the Indian Penal and Civil Procedure Codes
and Evidence Acts, supplemented by a few local laws promulgated
by proclamation. There is an Imam&rsquo;s court for the
trial of cases affecting Mahommedan law of marriage, succession,
&amp;c. The native chiefs are responsible to the government for
the preservation of law and order in their districts. They have
restricted judicial powers. The constabulary numbers some
600 men and consists of a mixed force of Sikhs, Pathans, Punjabi
Mahommedans, Dyaks and Malays, officered by a few Europeans.
There is a Protestant mission which supports a church&mdash;the only
stone building in the territory&mdash;and a school at Sandakan, with
branches at Kudat, Kaningau and Tambunan. The Roman
Catholic mission maintains an orphanage, a church and school at
Sandakan, and has missions among the Dusuns at several points
on the west coast and in the Tambunan country. Its headquarters
are at Kuching in Sarawak. The Chinese have their
joss-houses and the Mahommedans a few small mosques, but
the vast majority of the native inhabitants are pagans who
have no buildings set apart for religious purposes.</p>

<p><i>Finance and Money.</i>&mdash;The principal sources of revenue are
the licences granted for the importation and retailing of opium,
wine and spirits, which are in the hands of Chinese; a customs
duty of 5% on imports; an export tax of 5% on jungle produce;
a poll-tax sanctioned by ancient native custom; and a stamp
duty. A land revenue is derived from the sale of government
lands, from quit rents and fees of transfer, &amp;c. Judicial fees
bring in a small amount, and the issue and sale of postage and
revenue stamps have proved a fruitful source of income. The
people of the country are by no means heavily taxed, a large
number of the natives of the interior escaping all payment of
dues to the company, the revenue being for the most part contributed
by the more civilized members of the community
residing in the neighbourhood of the company&rsquo;s stations. There
are bank agencies in Sandakan, and the company does banking
business when required. The state, which has adopted the
penny postage, is in the Postal Union, and money orders on
North Borneo are issued in the United Kingdom and in most
British colonies and vice versa. Notes issued by the principal
banks in Singapore were made current in North Borneo in 1900.
There is also a government note issue issued by the company for
use within the territory only. The currency is the Mexican and
British dollar, the company issuing its own copper coin&mdash;viz.
cents and half cents. It is proposed to adopt the coinage of the
Straits Settlements, and measures have been taken with a view
to the accomplishment of this. In the interior the principal
medium of exchange among the natives is the large earthenware
jars, imported originally, it is believed, from China, which form
the chief wealth both of tribes and individuals.</p>
<div class="author">(H. Cl.)</div>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Among early works may be mentioned, S. Blommaert,
<i>Discours ende ghelegentheyt van het eylandt Borneo int Jear
1609</i>; <i>Hachelyke reystogt van Jacob Jansz. de Roy na Borneo en
Atchin in het jaar 1691</i>; Beeckman, <i>Visit to Borneo</i>, 1718, in J.
Pinkerton&rsquo;s <i>General Collections</i> (1808-1814); F. Valentijn in <i>Ond
en Nieuw Oost Indiën</i> (Dordrecht, 1724-1726). See also H. Keppel,
<i>Expedition to Borneo of H.M.S. &ldquo;Dido&rdquo;</i> (London, 1846); R. Mundy,
<i>Narrative of Events in Borneo and Celebes</i> (London, 1848); F.S.
Marryat, <i>Borneo</i>, &amp;c. (1848); P.J. Veth, <i>Borneo&rsquo;s Westerafdeeling</i> (Zalt-Bommel,
1854 and 1856); S. Müller, <i>Reizen en onderzoekingen in den
Indischen Archipel</i> (Amsterdam, 1857); C. Bock, <i>Head-hunters of
Borneo</i> (London, 1881), and <i>Reis in Oost en Zuid-Borneo</i> (The Hague,
1887); J. Hatton, <i>The New Ceylon, a Sketch of British North
Borneo</i> (London, 1882); F. Hatton, <i>North Borneo</i> (London, 1885);
T. Posewitz, <i>Borneo ... Verbreitung der nutzbaren Mineralien</i>
(Berlin, 1889), Eng. trans., <i>Borneo; its Geology and Mineral Resources</i>
(London, 1892); J. Whitehead, <i>Exploration of Mount Kini Balu</i>
(London, 1893); Mrs W.B. Pryor, <i>A Decade in Borneo</i> (London,
1894); H. Ling Roth, <i>The Natives of Sarawak and North Borneo</i>
(London, 1896); G.A.F. Molengraaf, <i>Geologische Verkinningstochten
in Centraal Borneo</i> (Leiden, 1900, Eng. trans. 1902); A.W. Niewenhuis,
<i>In Centraal Borneo</i> (Leiden, 1901), and <i>Quer durch Borneo</i>
(Leiden, 1904), &amp;c.; W.H. Furness, <i>Home Life of Borneo Head-hunters</i>
(London, 1902); O. Beccari, <i>Nelle Foreste di Borneo</i> (Florence,
1902), Eng. trans., <i>Wanderings in the Great Forests of Borneo</i> (London,
1904); D. Cator, <i>Everyday Life among the Head-hunters</i> (London,
1905). For geology, besides the works of Posewitz and Molengraaf
already cited, see R.B. Newton in <i>Geol. Mag</i>., 1897, pp. 407-415,
and <i>Proc. Malac. Soc</i>., London, vol. v. (1902-1903), pp. 403-409.
A series of papers on the palaeontology of the island will be found in
the several volumes of the <i>Samml. Geol</i>. R. Mus., Leiden.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORNHOLM,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> an island in the Baltic Sea, 22 m. S.E. of the
Swedish coast, belonging to Denmark, lying on 15° E., and
between 55° and 55° 18&prime; N., and measuring 24 m. from S.E. to
N.W. and 19 (extreme) from E. to W. Pop. (1901) 40,889. The
surface is generally hilly; the scenery is fine in the north, where
the cliffs reach a height of 135 ft., and the granite hill of Helligdomsklipper
dominates the island. Besides freestone, exported
for building, limestone, blue marble, and porcelain-clay are
worked. A little coal is found and used locally, but it is not
of good quality. Oats, flax and hemp are cultivated. The
inhabitants are employed in agriculture, fishing, brewing,
distillation and the manufacture of earthenware. Weaving
and clock-making are also carried on to some extent. The
capital is Rönne (115 m. by sea from Copenhagen), and there are
five other small towns on the island&mdash;Svanike, Neksö, Hasle,
Allinge, and Sandvig. A railway connects Rönne with Neksö
(22 m. E. by S.), where a bust commemorates J.N. Madvig, the
philologist, who was born there in 1804 (d. 1886). Blanch&rsquo;s
Hotel, 10 m. N. of Rönne, is the most favoured resort on the
island, which attracts many visitors. On the north-west coast
are the ruins of the castle of Hammershus, which was built in
1158, and long served as a state prison; while another old
castle, erected by Christian V. in 1684, and important as commanding
the entrance to the Baltic, is situated on Christiansö,
one of a small group of islands 15 m. E. by N. The island of
Bornholm has had an eventful history. In early times it was
long the independent seat of marauding Vikings. In the 12th
century it became a fief of the archbishop of Lund. In 1510 it
was captured by the Hanseatic League, in 1522 it came under
Danish sway, and in 1526 it was made directly subject to the
city of Lübeck. In 1645 the Swedes took it by storm, and their
possession of it was confirmed by the peace of Roskilde in 1658;
but the sympathies of the people were with Denmark, and a
popular insurrection succeeded in expelling the Swedish forces,
the island coming finally into the possession of Denmark in 1660.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORNIER, HENRI,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> <span class="sc">Vicomte de</span> (1825-1901) French poet
and dramatist, was born at Lunel (Hérault) on the 25th of
December 1825. He came to Paris in 1845 With the object of
studying law, but in that year he published a volume of verse,
<i>Les Premières Feuilles</i>, and the Comédie Francaise accepted a
play of his entitled <i>Le Mariage de Luther</i>. He was given a post
in the library of the Arsenal, where he served for half a century,
becoming director in 1889. In 1875 was produced at the Théâtre
Français his heroic drama in verse, <i>La Fille de Roland</i>. The
action of the play turns on the love of Gérald, son of the traitor
Ganelon, for the daughter of Roland. The patriotic subject and
the nobility of the character of Gérald, who renounces Berthe
when he learns his real origin, procured for the piece a great
success. The conflict between honour and love and the grandiose
sentiment of the play inevitably provoked comparison with
Corneille. The piece would indeed be a masterpiece if, as its
critics were not slow to point out, the verse had been quite equal
to the subject. Among the numerous other works of M. de
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>265</span>
Bornier should be mentioned: <i>Dimitri</i> (1876), libretto of an
opera by M.V. de Jonciêres; and the dramas, <i>Les Noces d&rsquo;Allila</i>
(1880) and <i>Mahomet</i> (1888). The production of this last piece
was forbidden in deference to the representations of the Turkish
ambassador. Henri de Bornier was critic of the <i>Nouvelle Revue</i>
from 1879 to 1887. His <i>Poésies complètes</i> were published in 1894.
He died in January 1901.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORNU,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a country in the Central Sudan, lying W. and S. of
Lake Chad. It is bounded W. and S. by the Hausa states and
N. by the Sahara. Formerly an independent Mahommedan
sultanate it has been divided between Great Britain, Germany
and France. To France has fallen a portion of northern Bornu
and also Zinder (<i>q.v.</i>), a tributary state to the north-west, while
the south-west part is incorporated in the German colony of
Cameroon. Three-fourths of Bornu proper, some 50,000 sq. m.,
forms part of the British protectorate of Nigeria.</p>

<p>Bornu is for the most part an alluvial plain, the country sloping
gradually to Lake Chad, which formerly spread over a much
larger area than it now occupies. The Komadugu (<i>i.e.</i> river)
Waube&mdash;generally known as the Yo&mdash;and its tributaries rise
in the highlands which, beyond the western border of Bornu,
form the watershed between the Niger and Chad systems, and
flow north and east across the plains to Lake Chad, the Yo in its
last few miles marking the frontier between the French and
British possessions. In the south-west a part of Bornu drains
to the Benue. The rivers are intermittent, and water in southern
Bornu is obtained only from wells, which are sunk to a great
depth. The vast plain of Bornu is stoneless, except for rare
outcrops of ironstone, and consists of the porous fissured black
earth called &ldquo;cotton soil&rdquo; in India, alternating with, or more
probably overlaid by, sand. Throughout the flat country water
is apparently found everywhere at a depth of 54 ft., corresponding
to the level of Chad. Towards Damjiri in the north-west the
country becomes more broken, hilly and timbered. In the south
limestone is found near Gujba and also along the Gongola
tributary of the Benue. A forest of red and green barked
acacia, yielding the species of gum most valuable in the market,
extends from the Gongola to Gujba. Immense baobabs (<i>Adansonia
digitata</i>), fine tamarinds and a few trees of the genus <i>Ficus</i>
are met with in the south. North of Maifoni (latitude 12° N.)
the baobab ceases, except at Kuka, where extensive plantations
have been made, and its place is taken by the <i>Kigelia</i> and also
by a very handsome species of <i>Diospyros</i>. North of Kuka is a
dense belt of <i>Hyphaene</i> palm with fine tamarinds and figs.
Cotton and indigo grow wild, and afford the materials for the
cloths, finely dyed with blue stripes, which form the staple
fabric of the country. On the shores of Lake Chad the cotton
grown is of a peculiarly fine quality. Rice and wheat of excellent
quality are raised, but in small quantities, the staple food being
a species of millet called <i>gussub</i>, which is made into a kind of
paste and eaten with butter or honey. Ground-nuts, yams,
sweet potatoes, several sorts of beans and grains, peppers,
onions, water-melons and tomatoes are grown. Of fruit trees
the country possesses the lime and fig.</p>

<p>Wild animals, in great numbers, find both food and cover
in the extensive districts of wood and marsh. Lions, giraffes,
elephants, hyenas, crocodiles, hippopotami, antelopes, gazelles
and ostriches are found. The horse, the camel and the ox are
the chief domestic animals; all are used as beasts of burden. The
country abounds with bees, and honey forms one of the chief
Bornuese delicacies.</p>

<p>The climate, especially from March to the end of June, is
oppressively hot, rising sometimes to 105° and 107°, and even
during most of the night not falling much below 100°. In May
the wet season begins, with violent storms of thunder and
lightning. In the end of June the rivers and lakes begin to
overflow, and for several months the rains, accompanied with
sultry weather, are almost incessant. The inhabitants at this
season suffer greatly from fevers. In October the rains abate;
cool, fresh winds blow from the west and north-west; and for
several months the climate is healthy and agreeable.</p>

<p><i>Inhabitants</i>.&mdash;The inhabitants, of whom the great majority
profess Mahommedanism, are divided into Negroes and those of
mixed blood, <i>i.e.</i> Negro and Berber, Arab or other crossing.
The total population of British Bornu is estimated at 500,000.
The dominant tribe, called Bornuese, Berberi or Kanuri, a
Negro race with an infusion of Berber blood, have black skins,
large mouths, thick lips and broad noses, but good teeth and
high foreheads. The females add to their want of beauty by
extensive tattooing; they also stain their faces with indigo,
and dye their front teeth black and their canine teeth red. The
law allows polygamy, but the richest men have seldom more
than two or three wives. The marriage ceremonies last for a
whole week, the first three days being spent in feasting on the
favourite national dishes, and the others appropriated to certain
symbolical rites. A favourite amusement is the watching of
wrestling matches. A game bearing some resemblance to chess,
played with beans and holes in the sand, is also a favourite
occupation.</p>

<p>The pastoral districts of the country are occupied by the
Shuwas, who are of Arab origin, and speak a well-preserved
dialect of Arabic. Of the date of their immigration from the
East there is no record; but they were in the country as early
as the middle of the 17th century. They are divided into
numerous distinct clans. Their villages in general consist of
rudely constructed huts, of an exaggerated conical form.
Another tribe, called La Salas, inhabits a number of low fertile
islands in Lake Chad, separated from the mainland by fordable
channels.</p>

<p>The Bornuese are noted horsemen, and in times of war the
horses, as well as the riders, used to be cased in light iron mail.
The Shuwas, however, are clad only in a light shirt, and the
Kanembu spearmen go almost naked, and fight with shield and
spear. It is indispensable to a chief of rank that he should
possess a huge belly, and when high feeding cannot produce this,
padding gives the appearance of it. Notwithstanding the heat
of the climate, the body is enveloped in successive robes, the
number indicating the rank of the wearer. The head likewise
is enclosed in numerous turbans. The prevailing language in
Bornu is the Kanuri. It has no affinity, according to Heinrich
Barth, with the great Berber family. A grammar was published
in 1854 by S.W. Koelle, as well as a volume of tales and fables,
with a translation and vocabulary.</p>

<p>The towns in Bornu, which have populations varying from
10,000 to 50,000 or more, are surrounded with walls 35 or 40 ft.
in height and 20 ft. in thickness, having at each of the four
corners a triple gate, composed of strong planks of wood, with
bars of iron. The abodes of the principal inhabitants form an
enclosed square, in which are separate houses for each of the
wives; the chief&rsquo;s palace consists of turrets connected together
by terraces. These are well built of a reddish clay, highly polished,
so as to resemble stucco; the interior roof, though composed only
of branches, is tastefully constructed. Maidugari, which in 1908
became the seat of the native government, is a thriving commercial
town some 70 m. south-west of Lake Chad. The former
capital, Kuka (<i>q.v.</i>), and Ngornu (the town of &ldquo;blessing&rdquo;), are
near the shores of Lake Chad. On the Yo are still to be seen
extensive remains of Old Bornu or Birni and Gambarou or
Ghambaru, which were destroyed by the Fula about 1809.
Dikwa, the capital chosen by Rabah (see below), lies in the
German part of Bornu.</p>

<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The history of Bornu goes back to the 9th century
<span class="scs">A.D.</span>, but its early portions are very fragmentary and dubious.
The first dynasty known is that of the Sefuwa or descendants
of Sef, which came to the throne in the person of Dugu or Duku,
and had its capital at Njimiye (Jima) in Kanem on the north-east
shores of Lake Chad. The Sefuwa are of Berber origin, the
descent from Sef, the Himyaritic ruler, being mythical. From
this Berber strain comes the name Berberi or Ba-Berberche,
applied by the Hausa to the inhabitants of Bornu. Mahommedanism
was adopted towards the end of the 11th century,
and has since continued the religion of the country. From
1194 to 1220 reigned Selma II., under whom the power of the
kingdom was greatly extended; and Dunama II., his successor
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>266</span>
was also a powerful and warlike prince. In the following reigns
the prosperity of the country began to diminish, and about 1386
the dynasty was expelled from Njimiye, and forced to seek
refuge in the western part of its territory by the invasion of the
Bulala. Mai Ali (I.) Ghajideni, who founded the city of Birni,
rendered his country once more redoubtable and strong. His
successor, Idris II., completely vanquished the Bulala and subjugated
Kanem; and under Mahommed V., the next monarch, Bornu
reached its highest pitch of greatness. At this period Zinder
became a tributary state. A series of for the most part peaceful
reigns succeeded till about the middle of the 18th century, when
Ali (IV.) Omarmi entered upon a violent struggle with the
Tuareg or Imoshagh. Under his son Ahmed (about 1808) the
kingdom began to be harassed by the Fula, who had already
conquered the Hausa country. Expelled from his capital by the
invaders, Ahmed was only restored by the assistance of the fakir
Mahommed al-Amin al-Kanemi, who, pretending to a celestial
mission, hoisted the green flag of the Prophet, and undertook
the deliverance of his country. The Fula appear to have been
taken by surprise, and were in ten months driven completely out
of Bornu. The conqueror invested the nearest heir of the ancient
kings with all the appearance of sovereignty&mdash;reserving for
himself, however, under the title of sheik, all its reality. The
court of the sultan (<i>shehu</i>) was established at New Bornu,
or Birni, which was made the capital, the old city having
been destroyed during the Fula invasion; while the sheik, in
military state, took up his residence at the new city of Kuka.
Fairly established, he ruled the country with a rod of iron, and
at the same time inspired his subjects with a superstitious notion
of his sanctity. His zeal was peculiarly directed against moral or
religious offences. The most frivolous faults of women, as talking
too loud, and walking in the street unveiled, rendered the offender
liable to public indictment, while graver errors were visited with
the most ignominious punishments, and often with death itself.
Kanemi died in 1835, and was succeeded by his son, Sheik Omar,
who altogether abolished the nominal kingship of the Sefuwa.</p>

<p>During Omar&rsquo;s reign, which lasted about fifty years, Bornu
was visited by many Europeans, who reached it via Tripoli and
the Sahara. The first to enter the country were Walter Oudney,
Hugh Clapperton and Dixon Denham (1823). They were
followed in 1851-1855 by Heinrich Barth. Later travellers included
Gerhard Rohlfs (1866) and Gustav Nachtigal. All these
travellers were well received by the Kanuri, whose power from the
middle of the 19th century began to decay. This was foreseen by
Barth; and Nachtigal, who in 1870 conveyed presents sent by
King William of Prussia, in acknowledgment of the sheik&rsquo;s kindness
to many German explorers, writes thus in December 1872:</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>&ldquo;The rapid declension of Bornu is an undeniable and lamentable
fact. It is taking place with increasing rapidity, and the boundless
weakness of Sheik Omar&mdash;otherwise so worthy and brave a man&mdash;must
bear almost all the blame. His sons and ministers plunder
the provinces in an almost unheard-of manner; trade and intercourse
are almost at a standstill; good faith and confidence exist
no more. The indolence of the court avoids military expeditions,
and anarchy and a lack of security on the routes are the consequences....
Thus the sheik and the land grow poorer and poorer, and public morality sinks lower and lower.&rdquo;</p>
</div>

<p>After the visit of Nachtigal the country was visited by no
European traveller until 1892, when Colonel P.L. Monteil
resided for a time at Kuka during his great journey from the
Senegal to Tripoli. The French traveller noticed many signs of
decadence, the energy of the people being sapped by luxury,
while a virtual anarchy prevailed owing to rivalries and intrigues
among members of the royal family. The chief of Zinder had
ceased to pay tribute, and the sultan was not strong enough to
exact it by force. At the same time a danger was threatening
from the south-east, where the negro adventurer Rabah, once
a slave of Zobeir Pasha, was menacing the kingdom of Bagirmi.
After making himself master of the fortified town of Manifa,
Rabah proceeded against Bornu, defeating the army of the sultan
Ahsem in two pitched battles. In December 1893 Ahsem fled
from Kuka, which was entered by Rabah and soon afterwards
destroyed, the capital being transferred to Dikwa in the south-east
of the kingdom. These events ruined for many years the
trade between Tripoli and Kuka by the long-established route
via Bilma. Rabah had raised a large, well-drilled army, and
proved a formidable opponent to the French in their advance on
Lake Chad from the south. However in 1900 he was killed at
Kussuri near the lower Shari, by the combined forces of three
French expeditions which had been converging from the Congo,
the Sahara and the Niger.</p>

<p>By an Anglo-French agreement of 1898 the tributary state of
Zinder in the north had been included in the French sphere,
and after the defeat of Rabah French military expeditions
occupied both the German and British portions of Bornu, but
in 1902 on the appearance of British and German expeditions
the French withdrew to their own country east of the Shari.
The British placed on the throne of Bornu Shehu Garbai, a
descendant of the ancient sultans, and Kuka was again chosen as
the capital of the state. From that date British Bornu has been
under administrative control. It has been divided into East and
West Bornu, the line of division being fixed approximately at
longitude 12°, and placed under the administration of a resident.
Maifoni and Kuka were selected for British stations in the east,
and Damjiri and Gujba in the west. Garrisons are quartered at
these points. The province has been mapped, and a network of
tracks available for wheeled transport has been made through it.
Water communication with the Benue and Niger has been
opened through the Gongola river. The <i>shehu</i>, who took the
oath of allegiance to the British crown on the occasion of his
formal installation in November 1904, is maintained in all local
dignity as a native chief, and co-operates loyally with the British
administration. Peace has prevailed in Bornu since the British
occupation, and it is estimated that the population has increased
by immigration to about 50% more than it was in 1902. The
people are industrious. Extensive areas are being brought under
cultivation, and taxes are collected without difficulty. Owing
to its increasing commercial importance, the native capital was
in 1908 transferred to Maidugari (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nigeria</a></span>: <i>History;</i>
and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rabah</a></span>).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Heinrich Barth&rsquo;s <i>Travels in North and Central
Africa</i> (1857, new ed., London, 1890) contains an exact picture
of the state in the period (<i>c</i>. 1850) preceding its decay. The earlier
<i>Travels</i> of Denham and Clapperton (London, 1828) may also be
consulted, as well as Rohlfs, <i>Land und Volk in Afrika</i> (Bremen, 1870);
Nachtigal, <i>Sahara und Sudan</i>, vol. i. (Berlin, 1879); and Monteil,
<i>de St.-Louis à Tripoli par le lac Tchad</i> (Paris, 1895). For later information
consult Lady Lugard&rsquo;s <i>A Tropical Dependency</i> (London, 1905),
and the <i>Annual Reports</i>, from 1900 onward, on Northern Nigeria,
issued by the Colonial Office, London.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(F. L. L.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORODIN, ALEXANDER PORFYRIEVICH<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1834-1887),
Russian musical composer, natural son of a Russian prince, was
born in St Petersburg on the 12th of November 1834. He was
brought up to the medical profession, and in 1862 was appointed
assistant professor of chemistry at the St Petersburg academy of
medicine. He wrote several works on chemistry, and took a
leading part in advocating women&rsquo;s education, helping to found
the school of medicine for women, and lecturing there from 1872
till his death. But he is best known as a musician. His interest
in music was indeed stimulated from 1862 onwards by his friendship
with Balakirev, and from 1863 by his marriage with a lady
who was an accomplished pianist; but in his earlier years he
had been proficient both in playing the piano, violin, &rsquo;cello and
other instruments, and also in composing; and during life he
did his best to pursue his studies in both music and chemistry
with equal enthusiasm. Like other Russian composers he owed
much to the influence of Liszt at Weimar. His first symphony
was written in 1862-1867; his opera <i>Prince Igor</i>, begun in 1869,
was left unfinished at his death, and was completed by Rimsky-Korsakov
and Glazounov (1889); his symphonic sketch, &ldquo;In
the Steppes&rdquo; (1880) is, however, his best-known work. Borodin
also wrote a second symphony (1871-1877), part of a third
(orchestrated after his death by Glazounov), and a few string
quartets and some fine songs. His music is characteristically
Russian, and of an advanced modern type. He died suddenly
at St Petersburg, on the 28th of February 1887.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>267</span></p>
<p><span class="bold">BORODINO,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a village of Russia, 70 m. W. by S. of Moscow,
on the Kolotscha, an affluent of the river Moskva, famous as the
scene of a great battle between the army of Napoleon and the
Russians under Kutusov on the 7th of September 1812. Though
the battle is remembered chiefly for the terrible losses incurred
by both sides, in many respects it is an excellent example of
Napoleon&rsquo;s tactical methods. After preliminary fighting on
the 5th of September both sides prepared for battle on the 6th,
Napoleon holding back in the hope of confirming the enemy in
his resolution to fight a decisive battle. For the same reason
the French right wing, which could have manoeuvred the Russians
from their position, was designedly weakened. The Russian
right, bent back at an angle and strongly posted, was also
neglected, for Napoleon intended to make a direct frontal attack.
The enemy&rsquo;s right centre near the village of Borodino was to be
attacked by the viceroy of Italy, Eugene, who was afterwards
to roll up the Russian line towards its centre, the so-called
&ldquo;great redoubt,&rdquo; which was to be attacked directly from the
front by Ney and Junot. Farther to the French right, Davout
was to attack frontally a group of field works on which the
Russian left centre was formed; and the extreme right of the
French army was composed of the weak corps of Poniatowski.
The cavalry corps were assigned to the various leaders named,
and the Guard was held in reserve. The whole line was not more
than about 2 m. long, giving an average of over 20 men per yard.
When the Russians closed on their centre they were even more
densely massed, and their reserves were subjected to an effective
fire from the French field guns. At 6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> on the 7th of September
the French attack began. By 8 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> the Russian centre was
driven in, and though a furious counter-attack enabled Prince
Bagration&rsquo;s troops to win back their original line, fresh French
troops under Davout and Ney drove them back again. But
the Russians, though they lost ground elsewhere, still clung to
the great redoubt, and for a time the advance of the French was
suspended by Napoleon&rsquo;s order, owing to a cavalry attack by
the Russians on Eugene&rsquo;s extreme left. When this alarm was
ended the advance was resumed. Napoleon had now collected
a sufficient target for his guns. A terrific bombardment by the
artillery was followed by the decisive charge of the battle, made
by great masses of cavalry. The horsemen, followed by the
infantry, charged at speed, broke the Russian line in two, and
the French squadrons entered the gorge of the great redoubt just
as Eugene&rsquo;s infantry climbed up its faces. In a fearful <i>mêlée</i> the
Russian garrison of the redoubt was almost annihilated. The
defenders were now dislodged from their main line and the battle
was practically at an end. Napoleon has been criticized for not
using the Guard, which was intact, to complete the victory.
There is, however, no evidence that any further expenditure of
men would have had good results. Napoleon had imposed his
will on the enemy so far that they ceded possession of Moscow
without further resistance. That the defeat and losses of the
Russian field army did not end the war was due to the national
spirit of the Russians, not to military miscalculations of Napoleon.
Had it not been for this spirit, Borodino would have been
decisive of the war without&rsquo;the final blow of the Guard. As
it was, the Russians lost about 42,000 men out of 121,000;
Napoleon&rsquo;s army (of which one-half consisted of the contingents
of subject allies-Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Holland, &amp;c.)
32,000 out of 130,000 (Berndt, <i>Zahl im Kriege</i>). On the side of
the French 31 general officers were killed, wounded or taken,
and amongst the killed were General Montbrun, who fell at
the head of his cavalry corps, and Auguste Caulaincourt, who
took Montbrun&rsquo;s place and fell in the <i>mêlée</i> in the redoubt.
The Russians lost 22 generals, amongst them Prince Bagration,
who died of his wounds after the battle, and to whose
memory a monument was erected on the battle-field by the
tsar Nicholas I.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOROLANITE,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> one of the most remarkable rocks of the
British Isles, found on the shores of Loch Borolan in Sutherlandshire,
after which it has been named. In this locality there is
a considerable area of granite rich in red alkali felspar, and
passing, by diminution in the amount of its quartz, into quartz-syenites
(nordmarkites) and syenites. At the margins of the
outcrop patches of nepheline-syenite occur; usually the nepheline
is decomposed, but occasionally it is well-preserved; the other
ingredients of the rock are brown garnet (melanite) and
aegirine. The abundance of melanite is very unusual in igneous
rocks, though some syenites, leucitophyres, and aegirine-felsites
resemble borolanite in this respect. In places the nepheline-syenite
assumes the form of a dark rock with large rounded white
spots. These last consist of an intermixture of nepheline or
sodalite and alkali-felspar. From the analogy of certain leucite-syenites
which are known in Arkansas, it is very probable that
these spots represent original leucites which have been changed
into aggregates of the above-named minerals. They resemble
leucite in their shape, but have not yet been proved to have
its crystalline outlines. The &ldquo;pseudo-leucites,&rdquo; as they have
been called, measure one-quarter to three-quarters of an inch
across. The dark matrix consists of biotite, aegirine-augite
and melanite. Connected with the borolanite there are other
types of nepheline-syenite and pegmatite. In Finland, melanite-bearing
nepheline rocks have been found and described as
Ijolite, but the only other locality for melanite-leucite-syenite
is Magnet Cove in Arkansas.</p>
<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORON<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (symbol B, atomic weight 11), one of the non-metallic
elements, occurring in nature in the form of boracic (boric) acid,
and in various borates such as borax, tincal, boronatrocalcite
and boracite. It was isolated by J. Gay Lussac and L. Thénard
in 1808 by heating boron trioxide with potassium, in an iron tube.
It was also isolated at about the same time by Sir H. Davy,
from boracic acid. It may be obtained as a dark brown amorphous
powder by placing a mixture of 10 parts of the roughly
powdered oxide with 6 parts of metallic sodium in a red-hot
crucible, and covering the mixture with a layer of well-dried
common salt. After the vigorous reaction has ceased and all
the sodium has been used up, the mass is thrown into dilute
hydrochloric acid, when the soluble sodium salts go into solution,
and the insoluble boron remains as a brown powder, which may
by filtered off and dried. H. Moissan (<i>Ann. Chim. Phys.</i>, 1895, 6,
p. 296) heats three parts of the oxide with one part of magnesium
powder. The dark product obtained is washed with water,
hydrochloric acid and hydrofluoric acid, and finally calcined
again with the oxide or with borax, being protected from air
during the operation by a layer of charcoal. Pure amorphous
boron is a chestnut-coloured powder of specific gravity 2.45;
it sublimes in the electric arc, is totally unaffected by air at
ordinary temperatures, and burns on strong ignition with production
of the oxide B<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> and the nitride BN. It combines
directly with fluorine at ordinary temperature, and with chlorine,
bromine and sulphur on heating. It does not react with the
alkali metals, but combines with magnesium at a low red heat
to form a boride, and with other metals at more or less elevated
temperatures. It reduces many metallic oxides, such as lead
monoxide and cupric oxide, and decomposes water at a red heat.
Heated with sulphuric acid and with nitric acid it is oxidized
to boric acid, whilst on fusion with alkaline carbonates and
hydroxides it gives a borate of the alkali metal. Like silicon
and carbon, very varying values had been given for its specific
heat, until H.F. Weber showed that the specific heat increases
rapidly with increasing temperature. By strongly heating a
mixture of boron trioxide and aluminium, protected from the
air by a layer of charcoal, F. Wöhler and H. Sainte-Claire Deville
obtained a grey product, from which, on dissolving out the
aluminium with sodium hydroxide, they obtained a crystalline
product, which they thought to be a modification of boron,
but which was shown later to be a mixture of aluminium
borides with more or less carbon. Boron dissolves in molten aluminium,
and on cooling, transparent, almost colourless crystals
are obtained, possessing a lustre, hardness and refractivity near
that of the diamond. In 1904 K.A. Kühne (D.R.P. 147,871)
described a process in which external heating is not necessary,
a mixture of aluminium turnings, sulphur and boric acid being
ignited by a hot iron rod, the resulting aluminium sulphide,
formed as a by-product, being decomposed by water.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page268" id="page268"></a>268</span></p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Boron hydride has probably never been isolated in the pure condition;
on heating boron trioxide with magnesium filings, a magnesium
boride Mg<span class="su">3</span>B<span class="su">2</span> is obtained, and if this be decomposed with
dilute hydrochloric acid a very evil-smelling gas, consisting of a
mixture of hydrogen and boron hydride, is obtained. This mixture
burns with a green flame forming boron trioxide; whilst boron is
deposited on passing the gas mixture through a hot tube, or on
depressing a cold surface in the gas flame. By cooling it with liquid
air Sir W. Ramsay and H.S. Hatfield obtained from it a gas of
composition B3H3. The mixture probably contained also some
BH<span class="su">3</span> (W. Ramsay and H.S. Hatfield, <i>Proc. Chem. Soc</i>., 17, p. 152).
Boron fluoride BF<span class="su">3</span> was first prepared in 1808 by Gay Lussac and
L. Thénard and is best obtained by heating a mixture of the trioxide
and fluorspar with concentrated sulphuric acid. It is a colourless
pungent gas which is exceedingly soluble in water. It fumes strongly
in air, and does not attack glass. It rapidly absorbs the elements
of water wherever possible, so that a strip of paper plunged into
the gas is rapidly charred. It does not burn, neither does it support
combustion. A saturated solution of the gas, in water, is a colourless,
oily, strongly fuming liquid which after a time decomposes, with
separation of metaboric acid, leaving hydrofluoboric acid HF·BF<span class="su">3</span>
in solution. This acid cannot be isolated in the free condition, but
many of its salts are known. Boron fluoride also combines with
ammonia gas, equal volumes of the two gases giving a white crystalline
solid of composition BF<span class="su">3</span>·NH<span class="su">3</span>; with excess of ammonia gas,
colourless liquids BF<span class="su">3</span>·2NH<span class="su">3</span> and BF<span class="su">3</span>·3NH<span class="su">3</span> are produced, which on
heating lose ammonia and are converted into the solid form.</p>

<p>Boron chloride BCl<span class="su">3</span> results when amorphous boron is heated in
chlorine gas, or more readily, on passing a stream of chlorine over
a heated mixture of boron trioxide and charcoal, the volatile product
being condensed in a tube surrounded by a freezing mixture. It is
a colourless fuming liquid boiling at 17-18° C, and is readily decomposed
by water with formation of boric and hydrochloric acids. It
unites readily with ammonia gas forming a white crystalline solid
of composition 2BCl<span class="su">3</span>·3NH<span class="su">3</span>.</p>

<p>Boron bromide BBr<span class="su">3</span> can be formed by direct union of the two
elements, but is best obtained by the method used for the preparation
of the chloride. It is a colourless fuming liquid boiling at 90.5° C.
With water and with ammonia it undergoes the same reactions as
the chloride. Boron and iodine do not combine directly, but gaseous
hydriodic acid reacts with amorphous boron to form the iodide,
BI<span class="su">3</span>, which can also be obtained by passing boron chloride and
hydriodic acid through a red-hot porcelain tube. It is a white
crystalline solid of melting point 43 C.; it boils at 210° C., and it
can be distilled without decomposition. It is decomposed by water,
and with a solution of yellow phosphorus in carbon bisulphide it gives
a red powder of composition PBI<span class="su">2</span>, which sublimes <i>in vacuo</i> at
210° C. to red crystals, and when heated in a current of hydrogen
loses its iodine and leaves a residue of boron phosphide PB.</p>

<p>Boron nitride BN is formed when boron is burned either
in air or in nitrogen, but can be obtained more readily by heating
to redness in a platinum crucible a mixture of one part of anhydrous
borax with two parts of dry ammonium chloride. After fusion,
the melt is well washed with dilute hydrochloric acid and
then with water, the nitride remaining as a white powder.
It can also be prepared by heating borimide B<span class="su">2</span>(NH)<span class="su">3</span>; or by
heating boron trioxide with a metallic cyanide. It is insoluble in
water and unaffected by most reagents, but when heated in a
current of steam or boiled for some time with a caustic alkali,
slowly decomposes with evolution of ammonia and the formation
of boron trioxide or an alkaline borate; it dissolves slowly in
hydrofluoric acid.</p>

<p>Borimide B<span class="su">2</span>(NH)<span class="su">3</span> is obtained on long heating of the compound
B<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span>·6NH<span class="su">2</span> in a stream of hydrogen, or ammonia gas at 115-120° C.
It is a white solid which decomposes on heating into boron nitride
and ammonia. Long-continued heating with water also decomposes
it slowly.</p>

<p>Boron sulphide B<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span> can be obtained by the direct union of the
two elements at a white heat or from the tri-iodide and sulphur at
440° C., but is most conveniently prepared by heating a mixture of the
trioxide and carbon in a stream of carbon bisulphide vapour. It
forms slightly coloured small crystals possessing a strong disagreeable
smell, and is rapidly decomposed by water with the formation
of boric acid and sulphuretted hydrogen. A pentasulphide B<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">5</span>
is prepared, in an impure condition, by heating a solution of sulphur
in carbon bisulphide with boron iodide, and forms a white crystalline
powder which decomposes under the influence of water into sulphur,
sulphuretted hydrogen and boric acid.</p>

<p>Boron trioxide B<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> is the only known oxide of boron; and may
be prepared by heating amorphous boron in oxygen, or better, by
strongly igniting boric acid. After fusion the mass solidifies to a
transparent vitreous solid which dissolves readily in water to form
boric acid (<i>q.v</i>.); it is exceedingly hygroscopic and even on standing
in moist air becomes opaque through absorption of water and formation
of boric acid. Its specific gravity is 1.83 (J. Dumas). It is
not volatile below a white heat, and consequently, if heated with
salts of more volatile acids, it expels the acid forming oxide from
such salts; for example, if potassium sulphate be heated with boron
trioxide, sulphur trioxide is liberated and potassium borate formed.
It also possesses the power of combining with most metallic oxides
at high temperatures, forming borates, which in many cases show
characteristic colours. Many organic compounds of boron are
known; thus, from the action of the trichloride on ethyl alcohol
or on methyl alcohol, ethyl borate B(OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">3</span> and methyl borate
B(OCH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span> are obtained. These are colourless liquids boiling at
119° C. and 72° C. respectively, and both are readily decomposed by
water. By the action of zinc methyl on ethyl borate, in the requisite
proportions, boron trimethyl is obtained, thus:&mdash;2B(OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">2</span> +
6Zn(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span> = 2B(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span> + 6Zn <span class="f150">&lt;</span>
{ CH<span class="su">3</span> / OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span> } as a colourless spontaneously
inflammable gas of unbearable smell. Boron triethyl B(C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">3</span> is
obtained in the same manner, by using zinc ethyl. It is a colourless
spontaneously inflammable liquid of boiling point 95° C. By the
action of one molecule of ethyl borate on two molecules of zinc ethyl,
the compound B(C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span> diethylboron ethoxide is obtained
as a colourless liquid boiling at 102° C. By the action of water
it is converted into B(C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·OH, and this latter compound on
exposure to air takes up oxygen slowly, forming the compound
B·C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·OH, which, with water, gives B(C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)·(OH)<span class="su">2</span>. From
the condensation of two molecules of ethyl borate with one molecule
of zinc ethyl the compound B<span class="su">2</span>·C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·(OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">5</span> is obtained as a colourless
liquid of boiling point. 112° C. Boron triethyl and boron trimethyl
both combine with ammonia.</p>

<p>The atomic weight of boron has been determined by estimating
the water content of pure borax (J. Berzelius), also by conversion
of anhydrous borax into sodium chloride (W. Ramsay and E. Aston)
and from analysis of the bromide and chloride (Sainte-Claire Deville);
the values obtained ranging from 10.73 to 11.04. Boron can be
estimated by precipitation as potassium fluoborate, which is insoluble
in a mixture of potassium acetate and alcohol. For this purpose
only boric acid or its potassium salt must be present; and to ensure
this, the borate can be distilled with sulphuric acid and methyl
alcohol and the volatile ester absorbed in potash.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOROUGH<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Burrough, Burrowe, Borrows</span>], <span class="bold">STEVEN</span>
(1525-1584), English navigator, was born at Northam in Devonshire
on the 25th of September 1525. In 1553 he took part in
the expedition which was despatched from the Thames under
Sir Hugh Willoughby to look for a northern passage to Cathay
and India, serving as master of the &ldquo;Edward Bonaventure,&rdquo;
on which Richard Chancellor sailed as pilot in chief. Separated
by a storm from the &ldquo;Bona Esperanza&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Bona Confidentia,&rdquo;
the other two ships of the expedition, Borough proceeded
on his voyage alone, and sailing into the White Sea, in the words
of his epitaph, &ldquo;discouered Moscouia by the Northerne sea
passage to St Nicholas&rdquo; (Archangel). In a second expedition,
made in the &ldquo;Serchthrift&rdquo; in 1556, he discovered Kara Strait,
between Novaya Zemlya and Vaygach island. In 1560 he was
in charge of another expedition to Russia, and, probably in
1558, he also made a voyage to Spain. At the beginning of 1563
he was appointed chief pilot and one of the four masters of the
queen&rsquo;s ships in the Medway, and in this office he spent the rest
of his life. He died on the 12th of July 1584, and was buried at
Chatham. His son, Christopher Borough, wrote a description
of a trading expedition made in 1579-1581 from the White Sea
to the Caspian and back.</p>

<p>His younger brother, <span class="sc">William Borough</span>, born in 1536, also
at Northam, served as an ordinary seaman in the &ldquo;Edward
Bonaventure&rdquo; on her voyage to Russia in 1553, and subsequently
made many voyages to St Nicholas. Later he transferred
his services from the merchant adventurers to the crown. As
commander of the &ldquo;Lion&rdquo; he accompanied Sir Francis Drake
in his Cadiz expedition of 1587, but he got himself into trouble
by presuming to disagree with his chief concerning the wisdom
of the attack on Lagos. He died in 1599. He was the author of
<i>A Discourse of the Variation of the Compas, or Magneticall Needle</i>
(1581), and some of the charts he made are preserved at the
British Museum and Hatfield.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOROUGH<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (A.S. nominative <i>burh</i>, dative <i>byrig</i>, which produces
some of the place-names ending in <i>bury</i>, a sheltered or
fortified place, the camp of refuge of a tribe, the stronghold of a
chieftain; of. Ger. <i>Burg</i>, Fr. <i>bor</i>, <i>borc</i>, <i>bourg</i>), the term for a
town, considered as a unit of local government.</p>

<p><i>History of the English Borough.</i>&mdash;After the early English settlement,
when Roman fortifications ceased to shelter hostile nations,
their colonies and camps were used by the Anglo-Saxon invaders
to form tribal strongholds; nevertheless burhs on the sites of
Roman colonies show no continuity with Roman municipal
organization. The resettlement of the Roman Durovernum as
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269"></a>269</span>
the burh of the men of (East) Kent, under a changed name, the
name &ldquo;burh of the men of Kent,&rdquo; Cant-wara-byrig (Canterbury),
illustrates this point. The burh of the men of West Kent was
Hrofesceaster (Durobrivae), Rochester, and many other <i>ceasters</i>
mark the existence of a Roman camp occupied by an early
English burh. The tribal burh was protected by an earthen
wall, and a general obligation to build and maintain burhs at the
royal command was enforced by Anglo-Saxon law. Offences in
disturbance of the peace of the burh were punished by higher
fines than breaches of the peace of the &ldquo;ham&rdquo; or ordinary
dwelling. The burh was the home of the king as well as the
asylum of the tribe, and there is reason to think that the boundary
of the borough was annually sanctified by a religious ceremony,
and hence the long retention of a processional perambulation.
Possibly the &ldquo;hedge&rdquo; or &ldquo;wall&rdquo; of the borough gave it,
besides safety, a sanctity analogous to that enjoyed by the
Germanic assembly while gathered within its &ldquo;hedge,&rdquo; which
the priests solemnly set up when the assembly gathered, and
removed when it was over. While the &ldquo;peace&rdquo; of the Germanic
assembly was essentially temporary, the &ldquo;peace&rdquo; of the burh
was sacred all the year round. Its &ldquo;hedge&rdquo; was never removed.
The sanctity of the burh was enjoyed by all the dwellings of the
king, at first perhaps only during his term of residence. Neither
in the early English language nor in the contemporary Latin was
there any fixed usage differentiating the various words descriptive
of the several forms of human settlement, and the tribal refuges
cannot accordingly be clearly distinguished from villages or the
strongholds of individuals by any purely nomenclative test.
It is not till after the Danish invasions that it becomes easier to
draw a distinction between the burhs that served as military
strongholds for national defence and the royal vills which served
no such purpose. Some of the royal vills eventually entered
the class of boroughs, but by another route, and for the present
the private stronghold and the royal dwelling may be neglected.
It was the public stronghold and the administrative centre of a
dependent district which was the source of the main features
peculiar to the borough.</p>

<p>Many causes tended to create peculiar conditions in the
boroughs built for national defence. They were placed where
artificial defence was most needed, at the junction of roads, in
the plains, on the rivers, at the centres naturally marked out for
trade, seldom where hills or marshes formed a sufficient natural
defence. The burhs drew commerce by every channel; the
camp and the palace, the administrative centre, the ecclesiastical
centre (for the mother-church of the state was placed in its chief
burh), all looked to the market for their maintenance. The
burh was provided by law with a mint and royal moneyers and
exchangers, with an authorized scale for weights and measures.
Mercantile transactions in the burhs or <i>ports</i>, as they were called
when their commercial rather than their military importance
was accentuated, were placed by law under special legal privileges
in order no doubt to secure the king&rsquo;s hold upon his toll. Over
the burh or port was set a reeve, a royal officer answerable to the
king for his dues from the burh, his rents for lands and houses,
his customs on commerce, his share of the profits from judicial
fines. At least from the 10th century the burh had a &ldquo;moot&rdquo;
or court, the relation of which to the other courts is matter of
speculation. A law of Edgar, about 960, required that it should
meet three times a year, these being in all likelihood assemblies
at which attendance was compulsory on all tenants of the
burghal district, when pleas concerning life and liberty and land
were held, and men were compelled to find pledges answerable
for their good conduct. At these great meetings the borough
reeve (<i>gerefa</i>) presided, declaring the law and guiding the judgments
given by the suitors of the court. The reeve was supported
by a group of assistants, called in Devon the &ldquo;witan,&rdquo; in the
boroughs of the Danelaw by a group of (generally twelve)
&ldquo;lawmen,&rdquo; in other towns probably by a group of aldermen,
senior burgesses, with military and police authority, whose
office was in some cases hereditary. These persons assisted the
reeve at the great meetings of the full court, and sat with him as
judges at the subordinate meetings which were held to settle the
unfinished causes and minor causes. There was no compulsion
on those not specially summoned to attend these extra meetings.
At these subordinate jurisdictional assemblies, held in public,
and acting by the same authority as the annual gathering of all
the <i>burh-wara</i>, other business concerning borough administration
was decided, at least in later days, and it is to these assemblies
that the origin of the town council may in many cases be ascribed.
In the larger towns the division into wards, with a separate
police system, can be traced at an early time, appearing as a unit
of military organization, answerable for the defence of a gate of
the town. The police system of London is described in detail in a
record of 930-940. Here the free people were grouped in associations
of ten, each under the superintendence of a headman. The
bishops and reeves who belonged to the &ldquo;court of London&rdquo;
appear as the directors of the system, and in them we may see
the aldermen of the wards of a later time. The use of the word
<i>bertha</i> for ward at Canterbury, and the fact that the London
wardmoot at a later time was used for the frankpledge system
as well as for the organization of the muster, point to a connexion
between the military and the police systems in the towns. At
the end of the 9th and beginning of the 10th century there is
evidence of a systematic &ldquo;timbering&rdquo; of new burhs, with the
object of providing strongholds for the defence of Wessex against
the Danes, and it appears that the surrounding districts were
charged with their maintenance. In charters of this period a
&ldquo;haw,&rdquo; or enclosed area within a burh, was often conveyed by
charter as if it were an apanage of the lands in the neighbourhood
with which it was conveyed; the Norman settlers who succeeded
to lands in the county succeeded therewith to houses in the burhs,
for a close association existed between the &ldquo;thegns&rdquo; of the
shire and the shirestow, an association partly perhaps of duty
and also of privilege. The king granted borough &ldquo;haws&rdquo; as
places of refuge in Kent, and in London he gave them with
commercial privileges to his bishops. What has been called the
&ldquo;heterogeneous&rdquo; tenure of the shirestow, one of the most
conspicuous characteristics of that particular type of borough,
was further increased by the liberty which some burgesses
enjoyed to &ldquo;commend&rdquo; themselves to a lord of their own
choosing, promising to that lord suit and service and perhaps
rent in return for protection. Over these burgesses the lords
could claim jurisdictional rights, and these were in some cases
increased by royal grants of special rights within certain &ldquo;sokes.&rdquo;
The great boroughs were honeycombed with sokes, or areas of
seignorial jurisdiction, within which the royal reeve&rsquo;s authority
was greatly restricted while that of the lord&rsquo;s reeve took precedence.
Even the haws, being &ldquo;burhs&rdquo; or strongholds within
a stronghold, enjoyed a local &ldquo;peace&rdquo; which protected from
official intrusion. Besides heterogeneity of tenure and jurisdiction
in the borough, there was also heterogeneity of status;
there were burh-thegns and cnihts, mercatores, burgesses of
various kinds, the three groups representing perhaps military,
commercial and agricultural elements. The burh generally
shows signs of having been originally a village settlement,
surrounded by open fields, of which the borough boundary
before 1835 will suggest the outline. This area was as a rule
eventually the area of borough jurisdiction. There is some
evidence pointing to the fact that the restriction of the borough
authority to this area is not ancient, but due to the Norman
settlement. The wide districts over which the boroughs had had
authority were placed under the control of the Norman castle
which was itself built by means of the old English levy of
&ldquo;burh-work.&rdquo; The borough court was allowed to continue its work
only within its own immediate territory, and, to prevent conflict,
the castle was placed outside the borough. Losing their place in
the national scheme of defence, the burgess &ldquo;cnihts&rdquo; made
commerce their principal object under the encouragement of
the old privileges of the walled place.</p>

<p>Besides the great co-operative strongholds in which many lords
had burgesses, there were small boroughs held by a single lord.
In many cases boroughs of this &ldquo;seignorial&rdquo; type were created
upon the royal estates. Out of the king&rsquo;s vill, as a rule the
jurisdictional centre of a hundred, there was sometimes created
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id="page270"></a>270</span>
a borough. The lines of division before Domesday Book are
obscure, but it is probable that in some cases, by a royal grant
of jurisdiction, the inhabitants of a populous royal vill, where a
hundred court for the district was already held, were authorized
to establish a permanent court, for the settlement of their disputes,
distinct from the hundred court of the district. Boroughs
of this type with a uniform tenure were created not only on the
king&rsquo;s estates but also on those of his tenants-in-chief, and in
1086 they were probably already numerous. A borough was
usually, though perhaps not invariably, the companion of a
Norman castle. In some cases a French &ldquo;bourg&rdquo; was created
by the side of an English borough, and the two remained for
many generations distinct in their laws and customs: in other
cases a French &ldquo;bourg&rdquo; was settled by the side of an English
village. A large number of the followers of the Norman lords
had been almost certainly town-dwellers in their own country,
and lost none of their burghal privileges by the migration.
Every castle needed for its maintenance a group of skilled
artisans, and the lords wished to draw to the castle gates all kinds
of commodities for the castle&rsquo;s provision. The strength of the
garrison made the neighbourhood of the castle a place of danger
to men unprotected by legal privilege; and in order to invite to
its neighbourhood desirable settlers, legal privileges similar to
those enjoyed in Norman or English boroughs were guaranteed
to those who would build on the plots which were offered to
colonists. A low fixed rental, release from the renders required
of villeins, release from the jurisdiction of the castle, and the
creation of a separate borough jurisdiction, with or without the
right to choose their own officers, rules fixing the maximum of
fees and fines, or promising assessment of the fines by the
burgesses themselves, the cancelling of all the castellan&rsquo;s rights,
especially the right to take a forced levy of food for the castle
from all within the area of his jurisdiction, freedom from arbitrary
tallage, freedom of movement, the right to alienate property
and devise land, these and many other privileges named in the
early seignorial charters were what constituted the Norman
<i>liber burgus</i> of the seignorial type. Not all these privileges were
enjoyed by all boroughs; some very meagre releases of seignorial
rights accompanied the lord&rsquo;s charter which created a borough
and made burgesses out of villeins. However liberal the grant,
the lord or his reeve still remained in close personal relation with
the burgesses of such places, and this character, together with
the uniformity of their tenure, continued to hold them apart
from the boroughs of the old English type, where all varieties
of personal relationship between the lords and their groups of
tenants might subsist. The royal charters granting the right to
retain old customs prevented the systematic introduction into
the old boroughs of some of the incidents of feudalism. Rights of
the king took precedence of those of the lord, and devise with the
king&rsquo;s consent was legal. By these means the lords&rsquo; position
was weakened, and other seignorial claims were later evaded or
contested. The rights which the lords failed to keep were divided
between the king and the municipality; in London, for instance,
the king obtained all escheats, while the borough court secured
the right of wardship of burgess orphans.</p>

<p>From Norman times the yearly profit of the royal boroughs
was as a rule included in the general &ldquo;farm&rdquo; rendered for the
county by the sheriff; sometimes it was rendered by a royal
farmer apart from the county-farm. The king generally accepted
a composition for all the various items due from the borough.
The burgesses were united in their efforts to keep that composition
unchanged in amount, and to secure the provision of
the right amount at the right time for fear that it should be
increased by way of punishment. The levy of fines on rent
arrear, and the distraints for debt due, which were obtained
through the borough court, were a matter of interest to the
burgesses of the court, and first taught the burgesses co-operative
action. Money was raised, possibly by order of the borough
court, to buy a charter from the king giving the right to choose
officers who should answer directly to the exchequer and not
through the sheriff of the county. The sheriff was in many cases
also the constable of the castle, set by the Normans to overawe
the English boroughs; his powers were great and dangerous
enough to make him an officer specially obnoxious to the
boroughs. Henry I. about 1131 gave the London citizens the
right to choose their own sheriffs and a justiciar answerable for
keeping the pleas of the crown. In 1130 the Lincoln citizens
paid to hold their city in chief of the king. By the end of the
12th century many towns paid by the hand of their own reeves,
and John&rsquo;s charters began to make rules as to the freedom of
choice to be allowed in the nomination of borough officers and
as to the royal power of dismissal. In Richard I.&rsquo;s reign London
imitated the French communes in styling the chief officer a
mayor; in 1208 Winchester also had a mayor, and the title
soon became no rarity. The chartered right to choose two or
more citizens to keep the pleas of the crown gave to many
boroughs the control of their coroners, who occupied the position
of the London justiciar of earlier days, subject to those considerable
modifications which Henry II.&rsquo;s systematization of
the criminal law had introduced. Burgesses who had gone for
criminal and civil justice to their own court in disputes between
themselves, or between themselves and strangers who were in
their town, secured confirmation of this right by charter, not to
exclude the justices in eyre, but to exempt themselves from the
necessity of pleading in a distant court. The burgess, whether
plaintiff or defendant, was a privileged person, and could claim
in this respect a &ldquo;benefit&rdquo; somewhat similar to the benefit of
clergy. In permitting the boroughs to answer through their own
officers for his dues, the king handed over to the boroughs the
farming of his rents and a large number of rights which would
eventually prove to be sources of great profit.</p>

<p>No records exist showing the nature of municipal proceedings
at the time of the first purchase of charters. Certain it is that
the communities in the 12th century became alive to the possibilities
of their new position, that trade received a new impulse,
and the vague constitutional powers of the borough court
acquired a new need for definition. At first the selection of
officers who were to treat with the exchequer and to keep the
royal pleas was almost certainly restricted to a few rich persons
who could find the necessary securities. Nominated probably
in one of the smaller judicial assemblies, the choice was announced
at the great Michaelmas assembly of the whole community,
and it is not till the next century that we hear of any attempt
of the &ldquo;vulgus&rdquo; to make a different selection from that of the
magnates. The &ldquo;vulgus&rdquo; were able to take effective action by
means of the several craft organizations, and first found the
necessity to do so when taxation was heavy or when questions
of trade legislation were mooted (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gilds</a></span>). The taxation of
the boroughs in the reign of Henry II. was assessed by the
king&rsquo;s justices, who fixed the sums due <i>per capita</i>; but if the
borough made an offer of a gift, the assessment was made by the
burgesses. In the first case the taxation fell on the magnates.
In the levy <i>per communam</i> the assessment was made through
the wardmoots (in London) and the burden fell on the poorer
class. In Henry II.&rsquo;s reign London was taxed by both methods,
the <i>barones majores</i> by head, the <i>barones minores</i> through the
wardmoot. The pressure of taxation led in the 13th century to
a closer definition of the burghal constitutions; the commons
sought to get an audit of accounts, and (in London) not only to
hear but to treat of municipal affairs. By the end of the century
London had definitely established two councils, that of the
mayor and aldermen, representing the old borough court, and
a common council, representing the voice of the commonalty,
as expressed through the city wards. The choice of councillors
in the wards rested probably with the aldermen and the ward
jury summoned by them to make the presentments. In some
cases juries were summoned not to represent different areas but
different classes; thus at Lincoln there were in 1272 juries of the
rich, the middling and the poor, chosen presumably by authority
from groups divided by means of the tax roll. Elsewhere the
several groups of traders and artisans made of their gilds
all-powerful agencies for organizing joint action among classes of
commons united by a trade interest, and the history of the towns
becomes the history of the struggle between the gilds which
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page271" id="page271"></a>271</span>
captured control of the council and the gilds which were excluded
therefrom. Many municipal revolutions took place, and a large
number of constitutional experiments were tried all over the
country from the 13th century onward. Schemes which directed
a gradual co-optation, two to choose four, these six to choose
more, and so in widening circles from a centre of officialdom,
found much favour throughout the middle ages. A plan, like
the London plan, of two companies, alderman and council, was
widely favoured in the 14th century, perhaps in imitation of the
Houses of Lords and Commons. The mayor was sometimes
styled the &ldquo;sovereign&rdquo; and was given many prerogatives.
Great respect was paid to the &ldquo;ancients,&rdquo; those, namely, who had
already held municipal office. Not till the 15th century were
orderly arrangements for counting &ldquo;voices&rdquo; arrived at in a few
of the most highly developed towns, and these were used only in
the small assemblies of the governing body, not in the large
electoral assemblies of the people.</p>

<p>In <span class="correction" title="amended from Londom">London</span> in the 13th century there was a regular system for
the admission of new members to the borough &ldquo;franchise,&rdquo;
which was at first regarded not as conferring any form of suffrage
but as a means to secure a privileged position in the borough
court and in the trade of the borough. Admission could be
obtained by inheritance, by purchase or gift, in some places by
marriage, and in London, at least from 1275, by a municipal
register of apprenticeship. The new freeman in return for his
privileges was bound to share with the other burgesses all the
burdens of taxation, control, &amp;c., which fell upon burgesses.
Personal service was not always necessary, and in some towns
there were many non-resident burgesses. When in later times
admission to this freedom came to be used as means to secure
the parliamentary franchise, the freedom of the borough was
freely sold and given. The elections in which the commons of
the boroughs first took interest were those of the borough
magistrates. Where the commons succeeded for a time in
asserting their right to take part in borough elections they were
rarely able to keep it, not in all cases perhaps because their
power was feared, but sometimes because of the riotous proceedings
which ensued. These led to government interference,
which no party in the borough desired. The possibility of a
forfeiture of their enfranchised position made the burgesses on
the whole fairly submissive. In the 13th century London
repeatedly was &ldquo;taken into the king&rsquo;s hand,&rdquo; subjected to
heavy fines and put under the constable of the Tower. In the
15th century disturbances in the boroughs led to the issue of new
constitutions, some of which were the outcome of royal charters,
others the result of parliamentary legislation. The development
of the law of corporations also at this time compelled the boroughs
to seek new charters which should satisfy the now exacting
demands of the law. The charters of incorporation were issued
at a time when the state was looking more and more to the
borough authorities as part of its executive and judicial staff,
and thus the government was closely interested in the manner
of their selection. The new charters were drafted in such a way
as to narrow the popular control. The corporations were placed
under a council and in a number of cases popular control was
excluded altogether, the whole system being made one of co-optation.
The absence of popular protest may be ascribed in
part to the fact that the old popular control had been more
nominal than real, and the new charter gave as a rule two
councils of considerable size. These councils bore a heavy
burden of taxation in meeting royal loans and benevolences,
paying <i>per capita</i> like the magnates of the 12th century, and
for a time there is on the whole little evidence of friction between
the governors and the governed. Throughout, popular opinion
in the closest of corporations had a means of expression, though
none of execution, in the presentments of the leet juries and
sessions juries. By means of their &ldquo;verdicts&rdquo; they could use
threats against the governing body, express their resentment
against acts of the council which benefited the governing body
rather than the town, and call in the aid of the justices of assize
where the members of the governing body were suspected of
fraud. Elizabeth repeatedly declared her dislike of incorporations
&ldquo;because of the abuses committed by their head rulers,&rdquo;
but in her reign they were fairly easily controlled by the privy
council, which directed their choice of members of parliament and
secured supporters of the government policy to fill vacancies on
the borough bench. The practice in Tudor and Stuart charters
of specifying by name the members of the governing body and
holders of special offices opened the way to a &ldquo;purging&rdquo; of the
hostile spirits when new charters were required. There were
also rather vaguely worded clauses authorizing the dismissal
of officers for misconduct, though as a rule the appointments
were for life. When under the Stuarts and under the Commonwealth
political and religious feeling ran high in the boroughs,
use was made of these clauses both by the majority on the
council and by the central government to mould the character
of the council by a drastic &ldquo;purging.&rdquo; Another means of control
first used under the Commonwealth was afforded by the various
acts of parliament, which subjected all holders of municipal
office to the test of an oath. Under the Commonwealth there
was no improvement in the methods used by the central
government to control the boroughs. All opponents of the ruling
policy were disfranchised and disqualified for office by act of
parliament in 1652. Cases arising out of the act were to be
tried by commissioners, and the commissions of the major-generals
gave them opportunity to control the borough policy.
Few Commonwealth charters have been preserved, though several
were issued in response to the requests of the corporations.</p>

<p>In some cases the charters used words which appeared to
point to an opportunity for popular elections in boroughs where
a usage of election by the town council had been established.
In 1598 the judges gave an opinion that the town councils could
by by-law determine laws for the government of the town
regardless of the terms of the charter. In the 18th century the
judges decided to the contrary. But even where a usage of
popular election was established, there were means of controlling
the result of a parliamentary election. The close corporations,
though their right to choose a member of parliament might be
doubtful, had the sole right to admit new burgesses, and in order
to determine parliamentary elections they enfranchised
non-residents. Where conflicts arose over the choice of a member,
and two selections were made, the matter came before the House
of Commons. On various occasions the House decided in favour
of the popularly elected candidate against the nominee of the
town council, on the general principle that neither the royal
charter nor a by-law could curtail this particular franchise.
But as each case was separately determined by a body swayed
by the dominant political party, no one principle was steadily
adhered to in the trial of election petitions. The royal right to
create boroughs was freely used by Elizabeth and James I. as a
means of securing a submissive parliament. The later Stuarts
abandoned this method, and the few new boroughs made by the
Georges were not made for political reasons. The object of the
later Stuarts was to control the corporations already in existence,
not to make new ones. Charles II. from the time of his restoration
decided to exercise a strict control of the close corporations
in order to secure not only submissive parliaments, but also a
pliant executive among the borough justices, and pliant juries,
which were impanelled at the selection of the borough officers.
In 1660 it was made a rule that all future charters should reserve
expressly to the crown the first nomination of the aldermen,
recorder and town-clerk, and a proviso should be entered placing
with the common council the return of the member of parliament.
The Corporation Act of 1661 gave power to royal commissioners
to settle the composition of the town councils, and to remove
all who refused the sacraments of the Church of England or
were suspected of disaffection, even though they offered to take
the necessary oaths. Even so the difficulty of securing submissive
juries was again so great in 1682 that a general attack
on the borough franchises was begun by the crown. A London
jury having returned a verdict hostile to the crown, after various
attempts to bend the city to his will, Charles II. issued a <i>quo
warranto</i> against the mayor and commonalty in order to charge
the citizens with illegal encroachments upon their chartered
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272"></a>272</span>
rights. The want of a sound philosophical principle in the laws
which were intended to regulate the actions of organized groups
of men made it easy for the crown judges to find flaws in the
legality of the actions of the boroughs, and also made it possible
for the Londoners to argue that no execution could be taken
against the mayor, commonalty and citizens, a &ldquo;body politic
invisible&rdquo;; that the indictment lay only against every particular
member of the governing body; and that the corporation as a
corporation was incapable of suffering a forfeiture or of making
a surrender. The judges gave a judgment for the king, the
charters were forfeited and the government placed with a court
of aldermen of the king&rsquo;s own choosing. Until James II. yielded,
there was no common council in London. The novelty of the
proceedings of Charles II. and James II. lay in using the weapon
of the <i>quo warranto</i> systematically to ensure a general
revocation of charters. The new charters which were then granted
required the king&rsquo;s consent for the more important appointments,
and gave him power to remove officers without reason given. Under
James II. in 1687 six commissioners were appointed to &ldquo;regulate&rdquo;
the corporations and remove from them all persons who were
opposed to the abolition of the penal laws against Catholics.
The new appointments were made under a writ which ran, &ldquo;We
will and require you to elect&rdquo; (a named person). When James
II. sought to withdraw from his disastrous policy, he issued a
proclamation (October 17, 1688) restoring to the boroughs their
ancient charters. The governing charter thenceforth in many
boroughs, though not in all, was the charter which had established
a close corporation, and from this time on to 1835 the boroughs
made no progress in constitutional growth. The tendency for
the close corporation to treat the members of the governing
body as the only corporators, and to repudiate the idea that the
corporation was answerable to the inhabitants of the borough
if the corporate property was squandered, became more and
more manifest as the history of the past slipped into oblivion.
The corporators came to regard themselves as members of a
club, legally warranted in dividing the lands and goods of the
same among themselves whensoever such a division should seem
profitable. Even where the constitution of the corporation was
not close by charter, the franchise tended to become restricted
to an ever-dwindling electorate, as the old methods for the
extension of the municipal franchise by other means than
inheritance died out of use. At Ipswich in 1833 the &ldquo;freemen&rdquo;
numbered only one fifty-fifth of the population. If the electorate
was increased, it was increased by the wholesale admission to
the freedom of voters willing to vote as directed by the corporation
at parliamentary elections. The growth of corruption in the
boroughs continued unchecked until the era of the Reform Bill.
Several boroughs had by that time become insolvent, and some
had recourse to their member of parliament to eke out their
revenues. In Buckingham the mayor received the whole town
revenue without rendering account; sometimes, however,
heavy charges fell upon the officers. Before the Reform era
dissatisfaction with the corporations was mainly shown by the
number of local acts of parliament which placed under the
authority of special commissioners a variety of administrative
details, which if the corporation had not been suspected would
certainly have been assigned to its care. The trust offered
another convenient means of escape from difficulty, and in some
towns out of the trust was developed a system of municipal
administration where there was no recognized corporation.
Thus at Peterborough the feoffees who had succeeded to the
control of certain ancient charities constituted a form of town
council with very restricted powers. In the 17th century
Sheffield was brought under the act &ldquo;to redress the misemployment
of lands given to charitable uses,&rdquo; and the municipal
administration of what had been a borough passed into the
hands of the trustees of the Burgery or town trust.</p>

<p>The many special authorities created under act of parliament
led to much confusion, conflict and overlapping, and increased
the need for a general reform. The reform of the boroughs was
treated as part of the question of parliamentary reform. In
1832 the exclusive privileges of the corporations in parliamentary
elections having been abolished and male occupiers enfranchised,
the question of the municipal franchise was next dealt with. In
1833 a commission inquired into the administration of the
municipal corporations. The result of the inquiry was the
Municipal Corporations Act 1835, which gave the municipal
franchise to the ratepayers. In all the municipal corporations
dealt with by the act, the town council was to consist of a mayor,
aldermen and councillors, and the councils were given like
powers, being divided into those with and those without a
commission of the peace. The minutes were to be open to the
inspection of any burgess, and an audit of accounts was required.
The exclusive rights of retail trading, which in some towns were
restricted to freemen of the borough, were abolished. The
system of police, which in some places was still medieval in
character, was placed under the control of the council. The
various privileged areas within the bounds of a borough were
with few exceptions made part of the borough. The powers of
the council to alienate corporate property were closely restricted.
The operations of the act were extended by later legislation, and
the divers amendments and enactments which followed were
consolidated in the Municipal Corporations Act 1882.</p>
<div class="author">(M. Bat.)</div>

<p><i>Irish Boroughs.</i>&mdash;In Ireland the earliest traces of burghal life
are connected with the maritime settlements on the southern
and eastern coast. The invasion of Henry II. colonized these
Ostman ports with Anglo-Norman communities, who brought
with them, or afterwards obtained, municipal charters of a
favourable kind. The English settlement obviously depended
on the advantages which the burgesses possessed over the
native population outside. Quite different from these were the
new close boroughs which during the plantation of Ulster
James I. introduced from England. The conquest was by this
time completed, and by a rigorous enforcement of the Supremacy
and Uniformity Acts the existing liberties of the older boroughs
were almost entirely withdrawn. By the new rules published
(in terms of the Act of Settlement and Explanation) in 1672
resident traders were permitted to become freemen, but neither
this regulation nor the ordinary admissions through birth,
marriage and apprenticeship succeeded in giving to Ireland free
and vigorous municipalities. The corrupt admission of
non-resident freemen, in order to outvote the ancient freeholders
in parliamentary elections, and the systematic exclusion of
Roman Catholics, soon divorced the &ldquo;commonalty&rdquo; from true
local interests, and made the corporations, which elected themselves
or selected the constituency, dangerously unpopular.</p>

<p><i>Scottish Boroughs.</i>&mdash;In Scotland burghs or burrows are divided
into royal burghs, burghs of regality and burghs of barony.
The first were erected by royal charter, and every burgess held
direct of the crown. It was, therefore, impossible to subfeu the
burgh lands,&mdash;a distinction still traceable in modern conveyancing.
Where perhaps no charter ever existed, the law on proof of
immemorial possession of the privileges of a royal burgh has
presumed that a charter of erection once existed. The charter
gave power to elect provost, bailies and council, a power long
exercised under the act of 1469, which directed the new council
to be chosen annually by the retiring council, and the magistrates
by both councils. The jurisdiction of these magistrates, which
was specially reserved in the act of 1747 abolishing heritable
jurisdictions, was originally cumulative with, and as large as,
that of the sheriff. It is now confined to police offences, summary
ejections, orders for <i>interim</i> aliment (for prisoners), payment
of burgh dues and delivery of title deeds. Three head courts were
held in the year, at which all burgesses were obliged to attend,
and at which public business was done and private transactions
were ratified. There were three classes of burgesses&mdash;burgesses
<i>in sua arte</i>, members of one or other of the corporations;
burgesses who were gild brothers; and simple burgesses. The
Leges Burgorum apparently contemplate that all respectable
inhabitants should have the franchise, but a ceremony of
admission was required, at which the applicant swore fealty and
promised to watch and ward for the community, and to pay his
&ldquo;maill&rdquo; to the king. These borough maills, or rents, and the
great and small customs of burghs, formed a large part of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page273" id="page273"></a>273</span>
royal revenue, and, although frequently leased or feued out for
a fixed duty, were on the accession of James I. annexed to the
crown as an alimentary fund. Burgh customs still stand in the
peculiar position of being neither adjudgeable nor arrestable;
they are therefore bad security. The early charters contain the
usual privileges of holding a market, of exemption from toll or
tribute, and that distraint will be allowed only for the burgess&rsquo;s
own debts. There was also the usual strife between the gildry
and the craftsmen, who were generally prohibited from trading,
and of whom dyers, fleshers and shoemakers were forbidden to
enter the gildry. Deacons, wardens and visitors were appointed
by the crafts, and the rate of wages was fixed by the magistrates.
The crafts in Scotland were frequently incorporated, not by royal
charter, but, as in the case of the cordiners of Edinburgh, by
seals of cause from the corporation. The trade history of the
free burghs is very important. Thus in 1466 the privilege of
importing and exporting merchandise was confined to freemen,
burgesses and their factors. Ships were directed to trade to the
king&rsquo;s free burghs, there to pay the customs, and to receive their
<i>cocquets</i> or custom-house seals; and in 1503 persons dwelling
outside burghs were forbidden to &ldquo;use any merchandise,&rdquo; or to
sell wine or staple goods. An act of 1633, erroneously called a
<i>Ratification</i> of the privileges of burghs, extended these privileges
of buying and selling to retail as well as wholesale trade, but
restricted their enjoyment to royal burghs. Accordingly, in
1672, a general declaratory act was passed confirming to the
freemen in royal burghs the wholesale trade in wine, wax, silk,
dyeing materials, &amp;c., permitting generally to all persons the
export of native raw material, specially permitting the burgesses
of barony and regality to export their own manufactures, and
such goods as they may buy in &ldquo;markets,&rdquo; and to import against
these consignments certain materials for tillage, building, or for
use in their own manufactures, with a general permission to
retail all commodities. This extraordinary system was again
changed in 1690 by an act which declared that freemen of royal
burghs should have the sole right of importing everything by sea
or land except bestial, and also of exporting by sea everything
which was not native raw material, which might be freely
exported by land. The gentry were always allowed to import
for their personal consumption and to export an equal quantity
of commodities. The act mentions that the royal burghs as an
estate of the kingdom contributed one-sixth part of all public
impositions, and were obliged to build and maintain prison-houses.
Some of these trade privileges were not abolished till 1846.</p>

<p>In the north of Scotland there was an association of free
burghs called the Hanse or <i>Ansus</i>; and the lord chamberlain,
by his <i>Iter</i>, or circuit of visitation, maintained a common
standard of right and duties in all burghs, and examined the state of
the &ldquo;common good,&rdquo; the accounts of which in 1535 were
appointed to be laid before the auditors in exchequer. The
chamberlain latterly presided in the Curia Quatuor Burgorum
(Edinburgh, Berwick, Stirling, Roxburgh), which not only made
regulations in trade, but decided questions of private right
(<i>e.g.</i> succession), according to the varying customs of burghs.
This court frequently met at Haddington; in 1454 it was fixed
at Edinburgh. The more modern convention of royal burghs
(which appeared as a judicial <i>persona</i> in the Court of Session so
late as 1839) probably dates from the act of James III. (1487,
c. 111), which appointed the commissioners of burghs, both north
and south, to meet yearly at Inverkeithing &ldquo;to treat of the
welfare of merchandise, the good rule and statutes for the
common profit of burghs, and to provide for remeid upon the
skaith and injuries sustained within the burghs.&rdquo; Among the
more important functions of this body (on whose decrees at one
time summary diligence proceeded) were the prohibition of undue
exactions within burghs, the revisal of the &ldquo;set&rdquo; or mode of
municipal election, and the <i>pro rata</i> division among the burghs
of the parliamentary subsidy required from the third estate.
The reform of the municipalities, and the complete representation
of the mercantile interests in the united parliament, deprived
this body of any importance.</p>

<p>Burghs of regality and of barony held in vassalage of some
great lordship, lay or ecclesiastical, but were always in theory
or in practice created by crown grant. They received jurisdiction
in civil and criminal matters, generally cumulative with that of
the baron or the lord of regality, who in some cases obtained the
right of nominating magistrates. Powers to hold markets and
to levy customs were likewise given to these burghs.</p>

<p>The Scottish burghs emerged slowly into political importance.
In 1295 the procurators of six burghs ratified the agreement
for the marriage of Edward Baliol; and in 1326 they were recognized
as a third estate, granting a tenth penny on all rents
for the king&rsquo;s life, if he should apply it for the public good.
The commissioners of burghs received from the exchequer their
costages or expenses of attending parliament. The burghs were
represented in the judicial committee, and in the committee on
articles appointed during the reign of James V. After the
Reformation, in spite of the annexation of kirk lands to the crown,
and the increased burdens laid on temporal lands, the proportion
of general taxation borne by the burghs (viz. 1s. 6d.) was expressly
preserved by act 1587, c. 112. The number of commissioners,
of course, fluctuated from time to time. Cromwell
assigned ten members to the Scottish burghs in the second
parliament of Three Nations (1654). The general practice until
1619 had been, apparently, that each burgh should send two
members. In that year (by an arrangement with the convention
of burghs) certain groups of burghs returned one member,
Edinburgh returning two. Under art. 22 of the treaty of
Union the number of members for royal burghs was fixed at
fifteen, who were elected in Edinburgh by the magistrates
and town council, and in the groups of burghs by delegates
chosen ad hoc.</p>
<div class="author">(W. C. S.)</div>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See C. Gross, <i>Bibliography of British Municipal History</i> (1897),
which contains all needful references up to that date;
F.W. Maitland, <i>Township and Borough</i> (1898);
A. Ballard, <i>Domesday Boroughs</i> (1904);
M. Bateson, <i>Borough Customs</i> (1904-1906);
S. and B. Webb, <i>English Local Government</i> (3 vols., 1906-1908).
For the character of the modern Scottish burgh see Mabel Atkinson,
<i>Local Government in Scotland</i> (Edinburgh, 1904), where other
works are mentioned.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOROUGHBRIDGE,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a market town in the Ripon parliamentary
division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England; 22 m. N.W.
of York on a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901)
830. It lies in the central plain of Yorkshire, on the river Ure
near its confluence with the Swale. It is in the parish of
Aldborough, the village of that name (<i>q.v.</i>), celebrated for
its Roman remains, lying a mile south-east.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>About half a mile to the west of Boroughbridge there are three
upright stones called the Devil&rsquo;s Arrows, which are of uncertain
origin but probably of the Celtic period. The manor of Boroughbridge,
then called Burc, was held by Edward the Confessor and
passed to William the Conqueror, but suffered so much from the
ravages of his soldiers that by 1086 it had decreased in value from
£10 to 55 s. When the site of the Great North Road was altered,
towards the end of the 11th century, a bridge was built across the
Ure, about half a mile above the Roman bridge at Aldborough,
and called Burgh bridge or Ponteburgem. This caused a village
to spring up, and it afterwards increased so much as to become a
market town. In 1229 Boroughbridge, as part of the manor of
Aldborough, was granted to Hubert de Burgh, but was forfeited
a few years later by his son who fought against the king at Evesham.
It then remained a royal manor until Charles I. granted it to several
citizens of London, from whom it passed through numerous hands
to the present owner. The history of Boroughbridge during the
early 14th century centres round the war with Scotland, and
culminates with the battle fought there in 1321. When in 1317 the
Scots invaded England, they penetrated as far south as
Boroughbridge and burnt the town. Boroughbridge was evidently a
borough by prescription, and as such was called upon to return
two members to parliament in 1299. It was not represented again
until 1553, when the privilege was revived. The town was finally
disfranchised in 1832. In 1504 the bailiff and inhabitants of
Boroughbridge received a grant of two fairs, and Charles II. in 1670
created three new fairs in the borough, on the 12th of June, the
5th of August and the 12th of October, and leased them to Francis
Calvert and Thomas Wilkinson for ninety-nine years.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOROUGH ENGLISH,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> a custom prevailing in certain ancient
English boroughs, and in districts attached to them (where
the lands are held in socage), and also in certain copyhold manors
(chiefly in Surrey, Middlesex, Suffolk and Sussex), by which in
general lands descend to the youngest son, to the exclusion of all
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id="page274"></a>274</span>
the other children, of the person dying seised and intestate.
Descent to the youngest brother to the exclusion of all other
collaterals, where there is no issue, is sometimes included in the
general definition, but this is really a special custom to be
proved from the court-rolls of the manor and from local
reputation&mdash;a custom which is sometimes extended to the youngest
sister, uncle, aunt. Generally, however, Borough English, apart
from specialties, may be said to differ from gavelkind in not
including collaterals. It is often found in connexion with the
distinct custom that the widow shall take as dower the whole
and not merely one-third of her husband&rsquo;s lands.</p>

<p>The origin of the custom of Borough English has been much
disputed. Though frequently claimed to be of Saxon origin,
there is no direct evidence of such being the case. The first
mention of the custom in England occurs in Glanvil, without,
however, any explanation as to its origin. Littleton&rsquo;s explanation,
which is the more usually accepted, is that custom casts
the inheritance upon the youngest, because after the death of
his parents he is least able to support himself, and more likely
to be left destitute of any other support. Blackstone derived
Borough English from the usages of pastoral life, the elder sons
migrating and the youngest remaining to look after the household.
C.I. Elton claims it to be a survival of pre-Aryan times. It
was referred to by the Normans as &ldquo;the custom of the English
towns.&rdquo; In the Yearbook of 22 Edward IV. fol. 32b it is described
as the custom of Nottingham, which is made clear by the report
of a trial in the first year of Edward III. where it was found
that in Nottingham there were two districts, the one the <i>Burgh-Fraunçoyes</i>,
the other the <i>Burgh-Engloyes</i>, where descent was
to the youngest son, from which circumstance the custom has
derived its name. On the European continent the custom of
junior-rights is not unknown, more particularly in Germany, and
it has by some been ascribed to the <i>jus primae noctis</i> (<i>q.v.</i>).
It is also said to exist amongst the Mongols.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gavelkind</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inheritance</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Primogeniture</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tenure</a></span>;
Blackstone&rsquo;s <i>Commentaries</i>; Coke&rsquo;s <i>Institutes</i>;
Comyn&rsquo;s <i>Digest of the Law</i>;
Elton&rsquo;s <i>Origin of English History</i>;
Pollock and Maitland, <i>History of English Law</i>.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORROMEAN ISLANDS,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> a group of four islands on the W. side
of Lago Maggiore off Baveno and Stresa. The southernmost,
the Isola Bella, is famous for its château and terraced
gardens, constructed by Count Vitaliano Borromeo (d. 1690).
To the N.W. is the Isola dei Pescatori, containing a fishing
village; and to the N.E. of this the Isola Madre, the largest of
the group, with a château and garden; and to the N. again,
off Pallanza, is the little Isola S. Giovanni.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORROMEO, CARLO<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1538-1584), saint and cardinal of the
Roman Catholic Church, son of Ghiberto Borromeo, count of
Arona, and Margarita de&rsquo; Medici, was born at the castle of Arona
on Lago Maggiore on the 2nd of October 1538. When he was
about twelve years old, Giulio Cesare Borromeo resigned to him
an abbacy, the revenue of which he applied wholly in charity to
the poor. He studied the civil and canon law at Pavia. In
1554 his father died, and, although he had an elder brother,
Count Federigo, he was requested by the family to take the
management of their domestic affairs. After a time, however,
he resumed his studies, and in 1559 he took his doctor&rsquo;s degree.
In 1560 his uncle, Cardinal Angelo de&rsquo; Medici, was raised to the
pontificate as Pius IV. Borromeo was made prothonotary,
entrusted with both the public and the privy seal of the
ecclesiastical state, and created cardinal with the administration
of Romagna and the March of Ancona, and the supervision of the
Franciscans, the Carmelites and the knights of Malta. He was
thus at the age of twenty-two practically the leading statesman
of the papal court. Soon after he was raised to the archbishopric
of Milan. In compliance with the pope&rsquo;s desire, he lived in great
splendour; yet his own temperance and humility were never
brought into question. He established an academy of learned
persons, and published their memoirs as the <i>Noctes Vaticanae</i>.
About the same time he also founded and endowed a college at
Pavia, which he dedicated to Justina, virgin and martyr. On
the death of his elder brother Federigo, he was advised to quit
the church and marry, that his family might not become extinct.
He declined the proposal, however, and became henceforward
still more fervent in exercises of piety, and more zealous for the
welfare of the church. Owing to his influence over Pius IV.,
he was able to facilitate the final deliberations of the council of
Trent, and he took a large share in the drawing up of the
Tridentine catechism (<i>Catechismus Romanus</i>).</p>

<p>On the death of Pius IV. (1566), the skill and diligence of
Borromeo contributed materially to suppressing the cabals of
the conclave. Subsequently he devoted himself wholly to the
reformation of his diocese, which had fallen into a most unsatisfactory
condition owing to the prolonged absences of its
previous archbishops. He made a series of pastoral visits, and
restored decency and dignity to divine service. In conformity
with the decrees of the council of Trent, he cleared the cathedral
of its gorgeous tombs, rich ornaments, banners, arms, sparing
not even the monuments of his own relatives. He divided the
nave of the church into two compartments for the separation of
the sexes. He extended his reforms to the collegiate churches
(even to the fraternities of penitents and particularly that of St
John the Baptist), and to the monasteries. The great abuses
which had overrun the church at this time arose principally
from the ignorance of the clergy. Borromeo, therefore, established
seminaries, colleges and communities for the education
of candidates for holy orders. The most remarkable, perhaps,
of his foundations was the fraternity of the Oblates, a society
whose members were pledged to give aid to the church when and
where it might be required. He further paved the way for the
&ldquo;Golden&rdquo; or &ldquo;Borromean&rdquo; league formed in 1586 by the Swiss
Catholic cantons of Switzerland to expel heretics if necessary by
armed force.</p>

<p>In 1576, when Milan was visited by the plague, he went about
giving directions for accommodating the sick and burying the
dead, avoiding no danger and sparing no expense. He visited all
the neighbouring parishes where the contagion raged, distributing
money, providing accommodation for the sick, and punishing
those, especially the clergy, who were remiss in discharging their
duties. He met with much opposition to his reforms. The
governor of the province, and many of the senators, apprehensive
that the cardinal&rsquo;s ordinances and proceedings would encroach
upon the civil jurisdiction, addressed remonstrances and complaints
to the courts of Rome and Madrid. But Borromeo had
more formidable difficulties to struggle with, in the inveterate
opposition of several religious orders, particularly that of the
Humiliati (Brothers of Humility). Some members of that society
formed a conspiracy against his life, and a shot was fired at him
in the archiepiscopal chapel under circumstances which led to the
belief that his escape was miraculous. The number of his enemies
was increased by his successful attack on his Jesuit confessor
Ribera, who with other members of the college of Milan was
found to be guilty of unnatural offences. His manifold labours
and austerities appear to have shortened his life. He was seized
with an intermittent fever, and died at Milan on the 4th of
November 1584. He was canonized in 1610, and his feast is
celebrated on the 4th of November.</p>

<p>Besides the <i>Nodes Vaticanae</i>, to which he appears to have
contributed, the only literary relics of this intrepid and zealous
reformer are some homilies, discourses and sermons, with a
collection of letters. His sermons, which have little literary
merit, were published by J.A. Sax (5 vols., Milan, 1747-1748),
and have been translated into many languages. The record of
his episcopate is to be found in the two volumes of the <i>Acta
Ecclesiae Mediolanensis</i> (Milan, 1599). Contrary to his last
wishes a memorial was erected to him in Milan cathedral, as well
as a statue 70 ft. high on the hill above Arona, by his admirers
who regarded him as the leader of a Counter-Reformation.</p>

<p>His nephew, Federigo Borromeo (1564-1631), was archbishop
of Milan from 1595, and in 1609 founded the Ambrosian library
in that city.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See G.P. Giussano, <i>Vita di S. Carlo Borromeo</i> (1610, Eng. ed. by
H.E. Manning, London, 1884); A. Sala, <i>Documenti circa la vita e
la gesta di Borromeo</i> (4 vols., Milan, 1857-1859); Chanoine Silvain,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>275</span>
<i>Histoire de St Charles Borromée</i> (Milan, 1884); and A. Cantono,
<i>Un grande riformatore del secolo XVI</i> (Florence, 1904); article
&ldquo;Borromäus&rdquo; in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (Leipzig, 1897).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORROMINI, FRANCESCO<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1599-1667), Italian architect,
was born at Bissone in 1599. He was the chief representative of
the style known in architecture as &ldquo;baroque,&rdquo; which marked a
fearless and often reckless departure from the traditional laws
of the Renaissance, and often obtained originality only at the
cost of beauty or wisdom. One of the main opponents of this
style was Barocchio (<i>q.v.</i>). Borromini was much employed in
the middle of the 17th century at Rome. His principal works
are the church of St Agnese in Piazza Navona, the church of La
Sapienza in Rome, the church of San Carlino alle Fontane, the
church of the Collegio di Propaganda, and the restoration of
San Giovanni in Laterano. He died by his own hand at Rome in
1667. Engravings of his chief compositions are to be found in
the posthumous work, <i>Francisci Borromini opus Architectonicum</i>
(1727).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORROW, GEORGE HENRY<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1803-1881), English traveller,
linguist and author, was born at East Dereham, Norfolk, on the
5th of July 1803, of a middle-class Cornish family. His father
was a recruiting officer, and his mother a Norfolk lady of French
extraction. From 1816 to 1818 Borrow attended, with no very
great profit, the grammar school at Norwich. After leaving
school he was articled to a firm of Norwich solicitors, where he
neglected the law, but gave a great deal of desultory attention
to languages. He was encouraged in these studies by William
Taylor, the friend of Southey. On the death of his father, in
1824 he went to London to seek his fortune as a literary adventurer.
In 1826 he published a volume of <i>Romantic Ballads</i>
translated from the Danish. Engaged by Sir Richard Phillips,
the publisher, as a hack-writer at starvation wages, his
experiences in London were bitter indeed. His struggles at last
became so dire that if he would escape Chatterton&rsquo;s doom, he
must leave London and either return to Norwich and share his
mother&rsquo;s narrow income, or turn to account in some way the
magnificent physical strength with which nature had endowed
him. Determining on the latter of these courses, he left London
on tramp. As he stood considerably more than 6 ft. in height,
was a fairly trained athlete, and had a countenance of
extraordinary impressiveness, if not of commanding beauty&mdash;Greek
in type with a dash of the Hebrew&mdash;we may assume that there
had never before appeared on the English high-roads so
majestic-looking a tramp as he who, on an afternoon in May, left his
squalid lodging with bundle and stick to begin life on the roads.
Shaping his course to the south-west, he soon found himself on
Salisbury Plain. And then his extraordinary adventures began.
After a while he became a travelling hedge-smith, and it was
while pursuing this avocation that he made the acquaintance
of the splendid road-girl, born at Long Melford workhouse,
whom he has immortalized under the name of Isopel Berners.
He was now brought much into contact with the gipsies, and
this fact gave him the most important subject-matter for his
writings. For picturesque as is Borrow&rsquo;s style, it is this
subject-matter of his, the Romany world of Great Britain, which&mdash;if
his pictures of that world are true&mdash;will keep his writings alive.
Now that the better class of gipsies are migrating so rapidly to
America that scarcely any are left in England, Borrow&rsquo;s pictures
of them are challenged as being too idealistic. It is unfortunate
that no one who knew Borrow, and the gryengroes or horse-dealers
with whom he associated, and whom he depicted, has
ever written about him and them. Full of &ldquo;documents&rdquo; as is
Dr Knapp&rsquo;s painstaking biography, it cannot be said to give a
vital picture of Borrow and his surroundings during this most
interesting period of his life. It is this same peculiar class of
gipsies (the gryengroes) with whom the present writer was
brought into contact, and he can only refer, in justification of
Borrow&rsquo;s descriptions of them, to certain publications of his own,
where the whole question is discussed at length, and where he has
set out to prove that Borrow&rsquo;s pictures of the section of the English
gipsies he knew are not idealized. But there is one great blemish
in <i>all</i> Borrow&rsquo;s dramatic scenes of gipsy life, wheresoever
they may be laid. This was pointed out by the gentleman who
&ldquo;read&rdquo; <i>Zincali</i> for Mr Murray, the publisher:&mdash;</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>&ldquo;The dialogues are amongst the best parts of the book; but in
several of them the tone of the speakers, of those especially who
are in humble life, is too correct and elevated, and therefore out of
character. This takes away from their effect. I think it would be
very advisable that Mr Borrow should go over them with reference
to this point, simplifying a few of the terms of expression and
introducing a few contractions&mdash;<i>don&rsquo;ts, can&rsquo;ts</i>, &amp;c. This would
improve them greatly.&rdquo;</p>
</div>

<p>It is the same with his pictures of the English gipsies. The
reader has only to compare the dialogues between gipsies given
in that photographic study of Romany life, <i>In Gipsy Tents</i>, by
F.H. Groome, with the dialogues in <i>Lavengro</i> and <i>The Romany
Rye</i>, to see how the illusion in Borrow&rsquo;s narrative is disturbed
by the uncolloquial locutions of the speakers. It is true, no
doubt, that all Romanies, especially perhaps the English and
Hungarian, have a passion for the use of high-sounding words,
and the present writer has shown this in his remarks upon the
Czigany Czindol, who is said to have taught the Czigany language
to the archduke Joseph, often called the &ldquo;Gipsy Archduke.&rdquo; But
after all allowance is made for this racial peculiarity, Borrow&rsquo;s
presentation of it considerably weakens our belief in Mr and Mrs
Petulengro, Ursula, and the rest, to find them using complex
sentences and bookish words which, even among English people,
are rarely heard in conversation. As to the deep impression
that Borrow made upon his gipsy friends, that is partly explained
by the singular nobility of his appearance, for the gipsies of all
countries are extremely sensitive upon matters of this kind. The
silvery whiteness of the thick crop of hair which Borrow retained
to the last seemed to add in a remarkable way to the nobility of
his hairless face, but also it gave to the face a kind of strange
look &ldquo;not a bit like a Gorgio&rsquo;s,&rdquo; to use the words of one of his
gipsy friends. Moreover, the shy, defiant, stand-off way which
Borrow assumed in the company of his social equals left him
entirely when he was with the gipsies. The result of this was
that these wanderers knew him better than did his own countrymen.</p>

<p>Seven years after the events recorded in <i>Lavengro</i> and <i>The
Romany Rye</i> Borrow obtained the post of agent to the Bible
Society, in which capacity he visited St Petersburg (1833-1835)
(where he published <i>Targum</i>, a collection of translations), and
Spain, Portugal and Morocco (1835-1839). From 1837 to 1839 he
acted as correspondent to the <i>Morning Herald</i>. The result of
these travels and adventures was the publication, in 1841, of
<i>Zincali, or The Gypsies in Spain</i>, the original MS. of which,
in the hands of the present writer, shows how careful was Borrow&rsquo;s
method of work. In 1843 appeared <i>The Bible in Spain</i>, when
suddenly Borrow became famous. Every page of the book
glows with freshness, picturesqueness and vivacity. In 1840
he married Mary Clarke, the widow of a naval officer, and
permanently settled at Oulton Broad, near Lowestoft, with her
and her daughter. Here he began to write again. Very likely
Borrow would never have told the world about his vagabond life
in England as a hedge-smith had not <i>The Bible in Spain</i> made
him famous as a wanderer. <i>Lavengro</i> appeared in 1851 with a
success which, compared with that of <i>The Bible in Spain</i>, was
only partial. He was much chagrined at this, and although <i>Lavengro</i>
broke off in the midst of a scene in the Dingle, and only
broke off there because the three volumes would hold no more, it
was not until 1857 that he published the sequel, <i>The Romany
Rye</i>. In 1844 he travelled in south-eastern Europe, and in 1854
he made a tour with his step-daughter in Wales. This tour he
described in <i>Wild Wales</i>, published in 1862. In 1874 he brought
out a volume of ill-digested material upon the Romany tongue,
<i>Romano Lavo-lil, or Word-book of the Gypsy Language</i>, a book
which has been exhaustively analysed and criticized by Mr John
Sampson. In the summer of 1874 he left London, bade adieu to
Mr Murray and a few friends, and returned to Oulton. On the
26th of July 1881 he was found dead in his house at Oulton, in
his seventy-ninth year.</p>

<p>Borrow was indisputably a linguist of wide knowledge, though
he was not a scholar in the strict sense. The variety of his
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id="page276"></a>276</span>
attainments is shown by his translation of the Church of England
<i>Homilies</i> into Manchu, of the Gospel of St Luke into the Git
dialect of the Gitanos, of <i>The Sleeping Bard</i> from the
Cambrian-British, and of <i>Bluebeard</i> into Turkish. But it is not
Borrow&rsquo;s linguistic accomplishments that have kept his name fresh, and
will continue to keep it fresh for many a generation to come. It
is his character, his unique character as expressed, or partially
expressed, in his books. Among all the &ldquo;remarkable individuals&rdquo;
(to use his favourite expression) who during the middle of the 19th
century figured in the world of letters, Borrow was surely the
most eccentric, the most whimsical, and in many ways the most
extraordinary. There was scarcely a point in which he resembled
any other writer of his time. With regard to <i>Lavengro</i> and
<i>The Romany Rye</i>, there has been very much discussion as to how
much <i>Dichtung</i> is mingled with the <i>Wahrheit</i> in those
fascinating books. Had it not been for the amazingly clumsy pieces of
fiction which he threw into the narrative, few readers would have
doubted the autobiographical nature of the two books. Such
incidents as are here alluded to shed an air of unreality over
the whole. It has been said by Dr Knapp that Borrow never
created a character, and that to one who thoroughly knows the
times and Borrow&rsquo;s writings the originals are easily recognizable.
This is true, no doubt, as regards people whom he knew at
Norwich, and indeed generally as regards those he knew before
the period of his gipsy wanderings. It must not be supposed,
however, that such a character as the man who &ldquo;touched&rdquo; to
avert the evil chance is in any sense a portrait of an individual
with whom he had been brought into contact. The character
has so many of Borrow&rsquo;s own eccentricities that it might rather
be called a portrait of himself. There was nothing that Borrow
strove against with more energy than the curious impulse, which
he seems to have shared with Dr Johnson, to touch the objects
along his path in order to save himself from the evil chance. He
never conquered the superstition. In walking through Richmond
Park with the present writer he would step out of his way
constantly to touch a tree, and he was offended if the friend he
was with seemed to observe it. Many of the peculiarities of the
man who taught himself Chinese in order to distract his mind
from painful thoughts were also Borrow&rsquo;s own.</p>
<div class="author">(T. W.-D.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORSIPPA<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (<i>Barsip</i> in the Babylonian and Assyrian inscriptions;
<i>Borsif</i> in the Talmud; mod. Birs or Birs-Nimrud), the
Greek name of an ancient city about 15 m. S.W. of Babylon and
10 m. from Hillah, on the Nahr Hindieh, or Hindieh canal,
formerly known as &ldquo;the Euphrates of Borsippa,&rdquo; and even
during the Arabic period called &ldquo;the river of Birs.&rdquo; Borsippa was
the sister city of Babylon, and is often called in the inscriptions
Babylon II., also the &ldquo;city without equal.&rdquo; Its patron god
was Nebo or Nabu. Like Babylon Borsippa is not mentioned in
the oldest inscriptions, but comes into importance first after
Khammurabi had made Babylon the capital of the whole land,
somewhere before 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He built or rebuilt the temple E-Zida
at this place, dedicating it, however, to Marduk (Bel-Merodach).
But although Khammurabi himself does not seem to have
honoured Nebo (<i>q.v.</i>), subsequent kings recognized him as the
deity of E-Zida and made him the son of Marduk (<i>q.v.</i>). Each
new year his image was taken to visit his father, in Babylon, who
in his turn gave him escort homeward, and his temple was second
in wealth and importance only to E-Saggila, the temple of Marduk
in Babylon. As with Babylon, so with Borsippa, the time of
Nebuchadrezzar was the period of its greatest prosperity. In
general Borsippa shared the fate of Babylon, falling into decay
after the time of Alexander, and finally in the middle ages into
ruins. The site of the ancient city is represented by two large
ruin mounds. Of these the north-westerly, the lower of the two,
but the larger in superficial area, is called Ibrahim Khalil,
from a <i>ziara</i>, or shrine, of Abraham, the friend of God, which
stands on its highest point. According to Arabic lore, based on
Jewish legends, at this spot Nimrod sought to throw Abraham
into a fiery furnace, from which he was saved by the grace of God.
Excavations were first conducted here by the French Expédition
Scientifique en Mésopotamie in 1852, with small result. In 1879
and 1880 Hormuzd Rassam conducted more extensive, although
unsystematic, excavations in this mound, finding a considerable
quantity of inscribed tablets and the like, now in the British
Museum; but by far the greater part of this ruin still remains
unexplored. The south-westerly mound, the Birs proper, is
probably the most conspicuous and striking ruin in all Irak. On
the top of a hill over 100 ft. high rises a pointed mass of vitrified
brick split down the centre, over 40 ft. high, about which lie huge
masses of vitrified brick, some as much as 15 ft. in diameter, and
also single enamelled bricks, generally bearing an inscription of
Nebuchadrezzar, twisted, curled and broken, apparently by
great heat. Jewish and Arabic tradition makes this the Tower
of Babel, which was supposed to have been destroyed by
lightning. Excavations conducted here by Sir Henry Rawlinson in
1854 showed it to be the stage tower or <i>ziggurat</i>, called the
&ldquo;house of the seven divisions of heaven and earth,&rdquo; of E-Zida,
the temple of Nebo. On a large platform rose seven solid
terraces, each smaller than the one below it, the lowest being
272 ft. square and 26 ft. high. Each of these terraces was faced
with bricks of a different colour. The approach to this <i>ziggurat</i>
was toward the north-east, and on this side lay also the principal
rooms of the temple of which this was the tower. These rooms
were partly excavated by Hormuzd Rassam in 1879-1880. In its
final form this temple and tower were the work of Nebuchadrezzar,
but from the clay cylinders found by Sir Henry Rawlinson in
two of the corners of the tower it appears that he restored an
incomplete <i>ziggurat</i> of a former king, &ldquo;which was long since
fallen into decay.&rdquo; Some of the best authorities believe that it
was this ambitious but incomplete and ruinous <i>ziggurat</i>,
existing before the time of Nebuchadrezzar, which gave occasion to or
afforded local attachment for the Biblical story of the Tower of Babel.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;H.C. Rawlinson, <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</i> (1860);
J. Oppert, <i>Expédition scientifique en Mésopotamie</i> (Paris, 1863);
F. Delitzsch, <i>Wo lag das Paradies?</i> (Leipzig, 1881);
J.P. Peters, <i>Nippur</i> (New York and London, 1896);
H. Rassam, <i>Asshur and the Land of Nimrod</i> (London and New York, 1897);
M. Jastrow, <i>Religion of Babylonia and Assyria</i> (Boston, 1898);
see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babylon</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babel</a></span>.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(J. P. Pe.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORT,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Boart</span>, an inferior kind of diamond, unfit for
cutting but useful as an abrasive agent. The typical bort
occurs in small spherical masses, of greyish colour, rough or
drusy on the surface, and showing on fracture a radiate crystalline
structure. These masses, known in Brazil as bolas, are often
called &ldquo;shot bort&rdquo; or &ldquo;round bort.&rdquo; Much of the bort consists
of irregular aggregates of imperfect crystals. In trade, the
term bort is extended to all small and impure diamonds, and
crystalline fragments of diamond, useless as gem-stones. A
large proportion of the output of some of the South African mines
consists of such material. This bort is crushed in steel mortars to
form diamond powder, which is largely used in lapidaries&rsquo; work.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORY DE SAINT-VINCENT, JEAN BAPTISTE GEORGE MARIE<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span>
(1780-1846), French naturalist, was born at Agen in 1780.
He was sent as naturalist with Captain Nicholas Baudin&rsquo;s
expedition to Australia in 1798, but left the vessel at Mauritius,
and spent two years in exploring Réunion and other islands.
Joining the army on his return, he was present at the battles of
Ulm and Austerlitz, and in 1808 went to Spain with Marshal
Soult. His attachment to the Napoleonic dynasty and dislike
to the Bourbons were shown in various ways during 1815, and
his name was consequently placed on the list of the proscribed;
but after wandering in disguise from place to place he was
allowed quietly to return to Paris in 1820. In 1829 he was
placed at the head of a scientific expedition to the Morea, and in
1839 he had charge of the exploration of Algeria. He died on
the 23rd of December 1846. He was editor of the <i>Dictionnaire
classique d&rsquo;histoire naturelle</i>, and among his separate productions
were:&mdash;<i>Essais sur les Îles Fortunées</i> (1802);
<i>Voyage dans les Îles d&rsquo;Afrique</i> (1803);
<i>Voyage souterrain, ou description du plateau
de Saint-Pierre de Maestricht et de ses vastes cryptes</i> (1821);
<i>L&rsquo;Homme, essai zoologique sur le genre humain</i> (1827);
<i>Résumé de la géographie de la Péninsule</i> (1838).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BORZHOM,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> a watering-place of Russian Transcaucasia, in
the government of Tiflis, and 93 m. by rail W. of the city of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277"></a>277</span>
Tiflis. Pop. (1897) 5800. It is situated at an altitude of 2750 ft.
in the Borzhom gorge, a narrow rift in the Little Caucasus
mountains, and on the Kura. Its warm climate, its two hot
springs (71½°-82° Fahr.) and its beautiful parks make it a favourite
summer resort, and give it its popular name of &ldquo;the pearl of
Caucasus.&rdquo; The bottled mineral waters are very extensively exported.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOS, LAMBERT<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1670-1717), Dutch scholar and critic, was
born at Workum in Friesland, where his father was headmaster
of the school. He went to the university of Franeker (suppressed
by Napoleon in 1811), and was appointed professor of Greek there
in 1704; after an uneventful life he died at Franeker in 1717.
His most famous work, <i>Ellipses Graecae</i> (1702), was
translated into English by John Seager (1830); and his <i>Antiquitates
Graecae</i> (1714) passed through several editions. He also published
<i>Vetus Testamentum</i>, Ex Versione lxx. Interpretum (1709);
notes on Thomas Magister (1698); <i>Exercitationes Philologicae</i> (1700);
<i>Animadversiones ad Scriptores quosdam Graecos</i> (1715);
and two small treatises on Accents and Greek Syntax.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSA,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> a seaport and episcopal see on the W. coast of Sardinia,
in the province of Cagliari, 30 m. W. of Macomer by rail. Pop.
(1901) 6846. The height above the town is crowned by a castle
of the Malaspina family. The cathedral, founded in the 12th
century, restored in the 15th, and rebuilt in 1806, is fine. There
are some tanneries, and the fishing industry is important, but
the coral production of Sicily has entirely destroyed that of Bosa
since 1887. The district produces oil and wine. The present town
of Bosa was founded in 1112 by the Malaspina, 1½ m. from the site
of the ancient town (Bosa or Calmedia), where a well-preserved
church still exists. The old town is of Roman origin, but is only
mentioned by Pliny and Ptolemy, and as a station on the coast-road
in the Itineraries (<i>Corp. Inscr. Lat.</i> x. 7939 seq.).
One of the inscriptions preserved in the old cathedral records
the erection of four silver statues, of Antoninus Pius, his wife
Faustina and their two sons.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSBOOM-TOUSSAINT, ANNA LOUISA GEERTRUIDA<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1812-1886),
Dutch novelist, was born at Alkmaar in north Holland
on the 16th of September 1812. Her father, named
Toussaint, a local chemist of Huguenot descent, gave her a fair
education, and at an early period of her career she developed a
taste for historical research, fostered, perhaps, by a forced
indoor life, the result of weak health. In 1851 she married the
Dutch painter, Johannes Bosboom (1817-1891), and thereafter
was known as Mrs Bosboom-Toussaint. Her first romance,
<i>Almagro</i>, appeared in 1837, followed by the <i>Graaf van Devonshire</i>
(<i>The Earl of Devonshire</i>) in 1838; the <i>Engelschen te Rome</i> (<i>The
English at Rome</i>) in 1840, and <i>Het Huis Lauernesse</i> (<i>The House
of Lauernesse</i>) in 1841, an episode of the Reformation, translated
into many European languages. These stories, mainly founded
upon some of the most interesting epochs of Dutch history,
betrayed a remarkable grasp of facts and situations, combined
with an undoubted mastery over her mother tongue, though her
style is sometimes involved, and not always faultless. Ten
years (1840-1850) were mainly devoted to further studies, the
result of which was revealed in 1851-1854, when her <i>Leycester
in Nederland</i> (3 vols.), <i>Vrouwen van het Leycestersche Tydperk</i>
(<i>Women of Leicester&rsquo;s Epoch</i>, 3 vols.), and <i>Gideon Florensz</i> (3 vols.)
appeared, a series dealing with Robert Dudley&rsquo;s adventures
in the Low Countries. After 1870 Mrs Bosboom-Toussaint
abandoned historical romance for the modern society novel,
but her <i>Delftsche Wonderdokter</i> (<i>The Necromancer of Delft</i>, 1871,
3 vols.) and <i>Majoor Frans</i> (1875, 3 vols.) did not command the
success of her earlier works. <i>Major Frank</i> has been translated
into English (1885). She died at the Hague on the 13th of
April 1886. Her novels have been published there in a collected
edition (1885-1888, 25 vols.).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSC, LOUIS AUGUSTIN GUILLAUME<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1759-1828), French
naturalist, was born at Paris on the 29th of January 1759. He
was educated at the college of Dijon, where he showed a taste for
botany, and he followed up his studies in Paris at the Jardin des
Plantes, where he made the acquaintance of Mme M.J.P.
Roland. At the age of eighteen he obtained a government
appointment, and he rose to be one of the chief officials in the
postal department. Under the ministry of J.M. Roland in 1792
he also held the post of superintendent of prisons, but the violent
outbreaks of 1793 drove him from office, and compelled him to
take refuge in flight. For some months he lay concealed at
Sainte-Radégonde, in the forest of Montmorency, barely subsisting
on roots and vegetables. He was enabled to return to Paris
on the fall of Robespierre, and under the title <i>Appel à l&rsquo;impartiale
postérité par la citoyenne Roland</i> published a manuscript Mme
Roland had entrusted to him before her execution. Soon
afterwards he set out for America, resolving to explore the
natural riches of that country. The immense materials he
gathered were never published in a complete form, but much
went to enrich the works of B.G.E. de Lacépède, P.A. Latreille
and others. After his return, on the establishment of the
Directory, he was reinstated in his old office. Of this he was
again deprived by the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of 1799, and for a time he was
in great destitution; but by his copious contributions to scientific
literature he contrived to support himself and to lay the foundations
of a solid reputation. He was engaged on the new <i>Dictionnaire
d&rsquo;histoire naturelle</i>, and on the <i>Encyclopédie méthodique</i>, he
edited the <i>Dictionnaire raisonné et universel d&rsquo;agriculture</i>, and was
one of the editors of the <i>Annales de l&rsquo;agriculture française</i>. He
was made inspector of the gardens at Versailles, and of the public
nurseries belonging to the ministry of the interior. The last
years of his life were devoted to an elaborate work on the vine,
for which he had amassed an immense quantity of materials, but
his death at Paris on the 10th of July 1828 prevented its completion.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSCÁN ALMOGAVER, JUAN<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1490?-1542), Spanish poet,
was born about the close of the 15th century. He was a Catalan
of patrician birth, and, after some years of military service,
became tutor to the duke of Alva. His poems were published in
1543 at Barcelona by his widow. They are divided into sections
which mark the stages of Boscán&rsquo;s poetical evolution. The first
book contains poems in the old Castilian metres, written in his
youth, before 1526, in which year he became acquainted with the
Venetian ambassador, Andrea Navagiero, who urged him to adopt
Italian measures, and this advice gave a new turn to Boscán&rsquo;s
activity. The remaining books contain a number of pieces in the
Italian manner, the longest of these being <i>Hero y Leander</i>, a poem
in blank verse, based on Musaeus. Boscán&rsquo;s best effort, the
<i>Octava Rima</i>, is a skilful imitation of Petrarch and Bembo.
Boscán also published in 1534 an admirable translation of
Castiglione&rsquo;s <i>Il Cortegiano</i>. Italian measures had been introduced
into Spanish literature by Santillana and Villalpando; it is
Boscán&rsquo;s distinction to have naturalized these forms definitively,
and to have founded a poetic school.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The best edition of his poems is that issued at Madrid in 1875 by
W.J. Knapp; for his indebtedness to earlier writers, see Francesco
Flamini, <i>Studi di storia literaria italiana e straniera</i> (Livorno, 1895).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSCASTLE,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a small seaport and watering-place in the
Launceston parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 5 m.
N. of Camelford station on the London &amp; South-Western railway.
Pop. (civil parish of Forrabury, 1901) 329. The village rises
steeply above a very narrow cove on the north coast, sheltered,
but difficult of access, vessels having to be warped into it by
means of hawsers. A mound on a hill above the harbour marks
the site of a Norman castle. The parish church of St Symphorian,
Forrabury, also stands high, overlooking the Atlantic from
Willapark Point. The tower is without bells, and the tradition
that a ship bearing a peal hither was wrecked within sight of the
harbour, and that the lost bells may still be heard to toll beneath
the waves, has been made famous by a ballad of the Cornish
poet Robert Stephen Hawker, vicar of Moorwinstow. The coast
scenery near Boscastle is severely beautiful, with abrupt cliffs
fully exposed to the sea, and broken only by a few picturesque
inlets such as Crackington Cove and Pentargan Cove. Inland
are bare moors, diversified by narrow dales.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSCAWEN, EDWARD<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1711-1761), British admiral, was
born on the 19th of August 1711. He was the third son of Hugh,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>278</span>
1st Viscount Falmouth. He early entered the navy, and in 1739
distinguished himself at the taking of Porto Bello. At the siege
of Cartagena, in March 1741, at the head of a party of seamen, he
took a battery of fifteen 24-pounders, while exposed to the fire of
another fort. On his return to England in the following year he
married, and entered parliament as member for Truro. In 1744
he captured the French frigate &ldquo;Médée,&rdquo; commanded by M. de
Hocquart, the first ship taken in the war. In May 1747 he
signalized himself in the engagement off Cape Finisterre, and
was wounded in the shoulder with a musket-ball. Hocquart
again became his prisoner, and the French ships, ten in number,
were taken. On the 15th of July he was made rear-admiral and
commander-in-chief of the expedition to the East Indies. On
the 29th of July 1748 he arrived off Fort St David&rsquo;s, and soon
after laid siege to Pondicherry; but the sickness of his men and
the approach of the monsoons led to the raising of the siege.
Soon afterwards he received news of the peace, and Madras was
delivered up to him by the French. In April 1750 he arrived in
England, and was the next year made one of the lords of the
Admiralty, and chosen an elder brother of the Trinity House.
In February 1755 he was appointed vice-admiral, and in April he
intercepted the French squadron bound to North America, and
took the &ldquo;Alcide&rdquo; and &ldquo;Lys&rdquo; of sixty-four guns each. Hocquart
became his prisoner for the third time, and Boscawen
returned to Spithead with his prizes and 1500 prisoners. For
this exploit, he received the thanks of parliament. In 1758 he
was appointed admiral of the blue and commander-in-chief of
the expedition to Cape Breton, when, in conjunction with
General Amherst, he took the fortress of Louisburg, and the
island of Cape Breton&mdash;services for which he again received the
thanks of the House of Commons. In 1759, being appointed to
command in the Mediterranean, he pursued the French fleet,
commanded by M. de la Clue, and after a sharp engagement in
Lagos Bay took three large ships and burnt two, returning to
Spithead with his prizes and 2000 prisoners. The victory
defeated the proposed concentration of the French fleet in
Brest to cover an invasion of England. In December 1760 he
was appointed general of the marines, with a salary of £3000 per
annum, and was also sworn a member of the privy council. He
died at his seat near Guildford on the 10th of January 1761.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSCH<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (or Bos), <span class="bold">JEROM</span> (<i>c.</i> 1460-1518), the name generally
given, from his birthplace Hertogenbosch, to Hieronymus van
Aeken, the Dutch painter. He was probably a pupil of Albert
Ouwater, and may be called the Breughel of the 15th century,
for he devoted himself to the invention of bizarre types, <i>diableries</i>,
and scenes of the kind generally associated with Breughel, whose
art is to a great extent based on Bosch&rsquo;s. He was a satirist much
in advance of his time, and one of the most original and ingenious
artists of the 15th century. He exercised great influence on
Lucas Cranach, who frequently copied his paintings. His works
were much admired in Spain, especially by Philip II., at whose
court Bosch painted for some time. One of his chief works is the
&ldquo;Last Judgment&rdquo; at the Berlin gallery, which also owns a
little &ldquo;St Jerome in the Desert.&rdquo; &ldquo;The Fall of the Rebellious
Angels&rdquo; and the &ldquo;St Anthony&rdquo; triptych are in the Brussels
museum, and two important triptychs are at the Munich gallery.
The Lippmann collection in Berlin contains an important
&ldquo;Adoration of the Magi,&rdquo; the Antwerp museum a &ldquo;Passion,&rdquo;
and a practically unknown painting from his brush is at the
Naples museum.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSCOVICH, ROGER JOSEPH<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1711?-1787), Italian mathematician
and natural philosopher, one of the earliest of foreign
<i>savants</i> to adopt Newton&rsquo;s gravitation theory, was born at
Ragusa in Dalmatia on the 18th of May 1711, according to the
usual account, but ten years earlier according to Lalande (<i>Éloge</i>,
1792). In his fifteenth year, after passing through the usual
elementary studies, he entered the Society of Jesus. On
completing his noviciate, which was spent at Rome, he studied
mathematics and physics at the Collegium Romanum; and so
brilliant was his progress in these sciences that in 1740 he was
appointed professor of mathematics in the college. For this
post he was especially fitted by his acquaintance with recent
advances in science, and by his skill in a classical severity of
demonstration, acquired by a thorough study of the works of the
Greek geometricians. Several years before this appointment he
had made himself a name by an elegant solution of the problem
to find the sun&rsquo;s equator and determine the period of its rotation
by observation of the spots on its surface. Notwithstanding the
arduous duties of his professorship he found time for investigation
in all the fields of physical science; and he published a
very large number of dissertations, some of them of considerable
length, on a wide variety of subjects. Among these subjects
were the transit of Mercury, the Aurora Borealis, the figure of
the earth, the observation of the fixed stars, the inequalities in
terrestrial gravitation, the application of mathematics to the
theory of the telescope, the limits of certainty in astronomical
observations, the solid of greatest attraction, the cycloid, the
logistic curve, the theory of comets, the tides, the law of
continuity, the double refraction micrometer, various problems of
spherical trigonometry, &amp;c. In 1742 he was consulted, with
other men of science, by the pope, Benedict XIV., as to the
best means of securing the stability of the dome of St Peter&rsquo;s,
Rome, in which a crack had been discovered. His suggestion was
adopted. Shortly after he engaged to take part in the Portuguese
expedition for the survey of Brazil, and the measurement of a
degree of the meridian; but he yielded to the urgent request of
the pope that he would remain in Italy and undertake a similar
task there. Accordingly, in conjunction with Christopher Maire,
an English Jesuit, he measured an arc of two degrees between
Rome and Rimini. The operations were begun towards the
close of 1750, and were completed in about two years. An
account of them was published in 1755, entitled <i>De Litteraria
expeditione per pontificam ditionem ad dimetiendos duos meridiani
gradus a PP. Maire et Boscovich</i>. The value of this work was
increased by a carefully prepared map of the States of the Church.
A French translation appeared in 1770. A dispute having
arisen between the grand duke of Tuscany and the republic of
Lucca with respect to the drainage of a lake, Boscovich was sent,
in 1757, as agent of Lucca to Vienna, and succeeded in bringing
about a satisfactory arrangement of the matter. In the following
year he published at Vienna his famous work, <i>Theoria philosophiae
naturalis redacta ad unicam legem virium in natura existentium</i>,
containing his atomic theory (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Molecule</a></span>). Another occasion
for the exercise of his diplomatic ability soon after presented
itself. A suspicion having arisen on the part of the British
government that ships of war had been fitted out in the port of
Ragusa for the service of France, and that the neutrality of
Ragusa had thus been violated, Boscovich was selected to
undertake an embassy to London (1760), to vindicate the
character of his native place and satisfy the government. This
mission he discharged successfully, with credit to himself and
satisfaction to his countrymen. During his stay in England he
was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He soon after paid
this society the compliment of dedicating to it his Latin poem,
entitled <i>De Solis et Lunae Defectibus</i> (London, 1764). This
prolix composition, one of a class which at that time was much in
vogue&mdash;metrical epitomes of the facts of science&mdash;contains in
about five thousand lines, illustrated by voluminous notes, a
compendium of astronomy. It was for the most part written
on horseback, during the author&rsquo;s rides in the country while
engaged in his meridian measurements. The book is characterized
by G.B.J. Delambre as &ldquo;uninstructive to an astronomer
and unintelligible to any one else.&rdquo;</p>

<p>On leaving England Boscovich travelled in Turkey, but
ill-health compelled him soon to return to Italy. In 1764 he was
called to the chair of mathematics at the university of Pavia,
and this post he held, together with the directorship of the
observatory of Brera, for six years. He was invited by the
Royal Society of London to undertake an expedition to California
to observe the transit of Venus in 1769; but this was prevented
by the recent decree of the Spanish government for the expulsion
of the Jesuits from its dominions. The vanity, egotism and
petulance of Boscovich provoked his rivals and made him many
enemies, so that in hope of peace he was driven to frequent
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>279</span>
change of residence. About 1770 he removed to Milan, where he
continued to teach and to hold the directorship of the observatory
of Brera; but being deprived of his post by the intrigues of his
associates he was about to retire to his native place, when the
news reached him (1773) of the suppression of his order in Italy.
Uncertainty as to his future led him to accept an invitation
from the king of France to Paris, where he was naturalized
and was appointed director of optics for the marine, an office
instituted for him, with a pension of 8000 livres. He remained
there ten years, but his position became irksome, and at length
intolerable. He continued, however, to devote himself diligently
to the pursuits of science, and published many remarkable
memoirs. Among them were an elegant solution of the problem
to determine the orbit of a comet from three observations, and
memoirs on the micrometer and achromatic telescopes. In
1783 he returned to Italy, and spent two years at Bassano,
where he occupied himself with the publication of his <i>Opera
pertinentia ad opticam et astronomiam, &amp;c.</i>, which appeared in
1785 in five volumes quarto. After a visit of some months to
the convent of Vallombrosa, he went to Milan and resumed his
literary labours. But his health was failing, his reputation
was on the wane, his works did not sell, and he gradually sank
a prey to illness and disappointment. He fell into melancholy,
imbecility, and at last madness, with lucid intervals, and died
at Milan on the 15th (13th) of February 1787. In addition to the
works already mentioned Boscovich published <i>Elementa universae
matheseos</i> (1754), the substance of the course of study prepared
for his pupils; and a narrative of his travels, entitled <i>Giornale
di un viaggio da Constantinopoli in Polonia</i>, of which several
editions and a French translation appeared. His latest labour
was the editing of the Latin poems of his friend Benedict Stay
on the philosophy of Descartes, with scientific annotations and
supplements.</p>
<div class="author">(W. L. R. C.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bosnia-Herzegovina</span>,
two provinces formerly included in European Turkey, which
now, together with Dalmatia, form the southernmost territories
of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The name <i>Herzegovina</i> is
also written <i>Hertzegovina, Hertsegovina</i> or, in Croatian,
<i>Hercegovina</i>. In shape roughly resembling an equilateral
triangle, with base uppermost, Bosnia and Herzegovina cover an
area of 19,696 sq. m., in the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula.
They are bounded N. and N.W. by Croatia-Slavonia; W. and S.W. by
Dalmatia; S.E. by Montenegro and the Sanjak of Novibazar;
and N.E. by Servia. Opposite to the promontory of Sabbioncello,
and at the entrance to the Bocche di Cattaro, the frontier of
Herzegovina comes down to the Adriatic; but these two strips of
coast do not contain any good harbour, and extend only for a
total distance of 14½ m. Bosnia is altogether an inland territory.</p>

<p>1. <i>Physical Features.</i>&mdash;Along the Dalmatian border, and
through the centre of Bosnia, runs the backbone of the Dinaric
Alps, which attain their greatest altitudes (6000-7500 ft.) near
Travnik, Serajevo and Mostar. There are numerous high valleys
shut in among the mountains of this range; the most noteworthy
being the plain of Livno, which lies parallel to the Dalmatian
border, at a height of 500 ft. above the sea. The zone of
highlands throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina reaches a mean
altitude of 1500 ft., while summits of more than 4000 ft. occur
frequently. To the north-east of the Dinaric Alps extends a
region of mountain, moor and forest, with deeply sunk alluvial
basins, which finally expand into the lowlands of the Posavina,
or Vale of the Save, forming the southernmost fringe of the
Hungarian Alföld. Bosnia belongs wholly to the watershed of the
Save, and its rivers to the Danubian system, no large stream
finding a way to the Adriatic. The Save flows eastward along the
northern frontier for 237 m. It is joined by four main tributaries,
the Drina, Bosna, Vrbas and Una. The Drina is formed on the
Montenegrin frontier by the united streams of the Tara and
Piva; curving north-eastwards past Visegrad, it marches for
102 m. with Servian territory, and falls into the Save at Racha,
after a total course of 155 m. The Bosna issues from many
springs near Serajevo, and winds for 107 m. northward, through
a succession of fertile glens, reaching the Save 1 m. west of Samac.
Farther west, the Vrbas cuts a channel through the Dinaric Alps,
and, after passing Jajce and Banjaluka, meets the Save 94 m.
from its own headwaters. The Una rises on the Croatian
border, and, after skirting the Plje&#353;evica Planina, in Croatia,
turns sharply to the north-east; serving as a frontier stream
for 37 m. before entering the Save at Jasenovac. Its length is
98 m. At Novi it is joined by the Sana, a considerable affluent.</p>

<p>Herzegovina, which lies south of Bosnia, in a parallelogram
defined by Montenegro, Dalmatia, the Dinaric Alps, and an
irregular line drawn from a point 25 m. west-north-west of Mostar
to the bend of the river Narenta, differs in many respects from
the larger territory. Its mountains, which belong to the Adriatic
watershed, and form a continuation of the Montenegrin highlands,
are less rounded and more dolomitic in character. They descend
in parallel ridges of grey Karst limestone, south-westwards to
the sea; their last summits reappear in the multitude of rocky
islands along the Dalmatian littoral. As in the peaks of Orjen,
Orobac, Samotica and Veliki Kap, their height often exceeds
6000 ft. West of the Narenta, their flanks are in places covered
with forests of beech and pine, but north-east of that river they
present for the most part a scene of barren desolation. Their
monotony is varied only by the fruitful river-valleys and <i>poljes</i>,
or upland hollows, where the smaller towns and villages are
grouped; the districts or cantons thus formed are walled round
by a natural rampart of limestone. These <i>poljes</i> may be
described as oases in what is otherwise a desert expanse of mountains.
The surface of some, as notably the <i>Mostarsko Blato</i>, lying
west of Mostar, is marshy, and in spring forms a lake; others are
watered by streams which disappear in swallow-holes of the
rock, and make their way by underground channels either to
the sea or the Narenta. The most conspicuous example of these
is the Trebinjcica, which disappears in two swallow-holes in
Popovopolye, and after making its way by a subterranean
passage through a range of mountains, wells up in the mighty
source of Ombla near Ragusa, and hurries in undiminished
volume to the Adriatic. The Narenta, or Neretva, is the one
large river of Herzegovina which flows above ground throughout
its length. Rising on the Montenegrin border, under the Lebrsnik
mountains, it flows north-westwards at the foot of the Dinaric
Alps; and, near Konjica, sweeps round suddenly to the south,
and falls into the Adriatic near Metkovic, after traversing 125 m.
North of Mostar, it cleaves a passage through the celebrated
Narenta defile, a narrow gorge, 12 m. long, overshadowed by
mountains which rise on either side and culminate in Lupoglav
(6796 ft.) on the east, and Cvrstnica (7205 ft.) on the west.</p>

<p>2. <i>Geology and Minerals.</i>&mdash;Geologically, the highlands
of Bosnia and Herzegovina are to be regarded, in both their
orographic and tectonic character, as a continuation of the
South Alpine calcareous belt. Along the west frontier there
appear broad and strongly marked zones of Cretaceous limestone,
alternating with Jurassic and Triassic, joined by a strip of
Palaeozoic formations running from the north-west corner of
Bosnia. Next, proceeding from this region in an easterly
direction, are the Neogene freshwater formations, filling up
the greatest part of the north-east of Bosnia, as also a zone of
flysch intermingled with several strips of eruptive rock. In the
south-east of Bosnia the predominant formations are Triassic
and Palaeozoic strata with red sandstone and quartzite. Along
the whole northern rim of Bosnia, as also in the fluvial and Karst
valleys (<i>poljes</i>), are found diluvial and alluvial formations,
interrupted at one place by an isolated granite layer. Bosnia is
rich in minerals, including coal, iron, copper, chrome, manganese,
cinnabar, zinc and mercury, besides marble and much excellent
building stone. Among the mountains, gold and silver were
worked by the Romans, and, in the middle ages, by the
Ragusans. After 1881 the Mining Company of Bosnia began to
develop the coal and iron fields; and from 1886 its operations
were continued by the government. Valuable salt is obtained
from the pits at Dolnja Tuzla, and the southern part of Herzegovina
yields asphalt and lignite. Mineral springs also abound,
and those of Ilid&#382;e, near Serajevo, have been utilized since the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280"></a>280</span>
days of the Romans; but the majority remained unexploited at
the beginning of the 20th century.</p>

<p>3. <i>Climate.</i>&mdash;In climate Bosnia differs considerably from
Herzegovina. In both alike the <i>scirocco</i>, bringing rain from the
south-west, is a prevalent wind, as well as the <i>bora</i>, the fearful
north-north-easter of Illyria, which, sweeping down the lateral
valleys of the Dinaric Alps, overwhelms everything in its path.
The snow-fall is slight, and, except on a few of the loftier peaks,
the snow soon melts. In Bosnia the weather resembles that of
the south Austrian highlands, generally mild, though apt to be
bitterly cold in winter. In Serajevo the mean annual temperature
is 50° Fahr. Herzegovina has more affinity to the Dalmatian
mountains, oppressively hot in summer, when the mercury often
rises beyond 110° Fahr. The winter rains of the Karst region
show that it belongs to the sub-tropical climatic zone.</p>

<p>4. <i>Fauna.</i>&mdash;In 1893 the bones of a cave-bear (<i>Ursus spelaeus</i>)
were taken from a cavern of the Bjelasnica range, in Herzegovina,
a discovery without parallel in the Balkan Peninsula.
Of existing species the bear, wild-boar, badger, roe-deer and
chamois may occasionally be seen in the remotest wilds of
mountain and forest. Hares are uncommon, and the last red-deer
was shot in 1814; but wolves, otters and squirrels abound.
Snipe, woodcock, ducks and rails, in vast flocks, haunt the banks
of the Drina and Save; while the crane, pelican, wild-swan and
wild-goose are fairly plentiful. The lammergeier (<i>Gypaëtus
barbatus</i>) had almost become extinct in 1900; but several
varieties of eagle and falcon are left. Falconry was long a
pastime of the Moslem landlords. The destruction of game,
recklessly carried out under Turkish rule, is prevented by the
laws of 1880, 1883 and 1893, which enforced a close time, and
rendered shooting-licences necessary. The list of reptiles includes
the venomous <i>Vipera ammodytes</i> and <i>Pelias berus</i>, while
scorpions and lizards infest the stony wastes of the Karst. In
the museum at Serajevo there is a large entomological collection,
including the remarkable <i>Pogonus anophthalmus</i>, from the
underground Karst caves. The caves are rich in curious kinds
of fish, <i>Paraphoxinus Gethaldii</i>, which is unknown elsewhere,
<i>Chondrostoma phoximus, Phoxinellus alepidatus</i> and others,
which are caught and eaten by the peasantry. In Herzegovina,
although many of the high mountain tarns are unproductive,
the eel-fisheries of the Narenta are of considerable value.
Leech-gathering is a characteristic Bosnian industry. The streams of
both territories yield excellent trout and crayfish; salmon,
sturgeon and sterlet, from the Danube, are netted in the Save.</p>

<p>5. <i>Flora.</i>&mdash;Serajevo museum has a collection of the Bosnian
flora, representing over 3000 species; among them, the rare
<i>Veronica crinita, Pinus leucodermis, Picea omorica</i> and
<i>Daphne Blagayana</i>. About 50% of the occupied
<span class="sidenote">Forests.</span>
territory is clothed with forest. &ldquo;Bosnia begins with the forest,&rdquo;
says a native proverb, &ldquo;Herzegovina with the rock&rdquo;; and this
account is, broadly speaking, accurate, although the Bosnian Karst
is as bare as that of Herzegovina. Below the mountain crests,
where only the hardiest lichens and mosses can survive, comes
a belt of large timber, including many giant trees, 200 ft. high,
and 20 ft. in girth at the level of a man&rsquo;s shoulder. Dense
brushwood prevails on the foothills. There are three main
zones of woodland. Up to 2500 ft. among the ranges of northern
Bosnia, the sunnier slopes are overgrown by oaks, the shadier by
beeches. Farther south, in central Bosnia, the oak rarely
mounts beyond the foothills, being superseded by the beech, elm,
ash, fir and pine, up to 5000 ft. The third zone is characterized
by the predominance, up to 6000 ft., of the fir, pine and other
conifers. In all three zones occur the chestnut, aspen, willow
(especially <i>Salix laurea</i>), hornbeam, birch, alder, juniper and
yew; while the mountain ash, hazel, wild plum, wild pear and
other wild fruit trees are found at rarer intervals. Until 1878
the forests were almost neglected; afterwards, the government
was forced to levy a graduated tax on goats, owing to the damage
they inflicted upon young trees, and to curtail the popular rights
of cutting timber and fir-wood and of pasturage. These measures
were largely successful, but in 1902 the export of oak staves was
discontinued owing to a shortage of supply.</p>

<p>6. <i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;In 1895, according to the agricultural survey,
the surface of Bosnia and Herzegovina was laid out as follows:&mdash;</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents">
<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">Acres.&ensp;</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Plough-land.</td> <td class="tcr">2,355,499</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Garden-ground.</td> <td class="tcr">103,040</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Meadow.</td> <td class="tcr">739,200</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Vineyards.</td> <td class="tcr">12,598</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Pasture.</td> <td class="tcr">1,875,840</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Forest.</td> <td class="tcr">5,670,619</td></tr>
<tr><td class="tcl">Unproductive.</td> <td class="tcr">210,998</td></tr>
</table>

<p class="noind">Apart from the arid wastes of the Karst, the soil is well adapted
for the growing of cereals, especially Indian corn; olives, vines,
mulberries, figs, pomegranates, melons, oranges, lemons, rice
and tobacco flourish in Herzegovina and the more sheltered
portions of Bosnia. Near Doboj, on the Bosna, there is a state
sugar-refinery, for which beetroot is largely grown in the vicinity.
<i>Pyrethrum cinerariaefolium</i> is exported for the manufacture of
insect-powder, and sunflowers are cultivated for the oil contained
in their seeds. The plum-orchards of the Posavina furnish
prunes and a spirit called <i>&#353;livovica, shlivovitsa</i> or <i>sliwowitz</i>.
This district is the headquarters of a thriving trade in pigs.
Poultry, bees and silkworms are commonly kept. On the whole
agriculture is backward, despite the richness of the soil; for the
cultivators are a very conservative race, and prefer the methods
and implements of their ancestors. Many improvements
were, nevertheless, introduced by the government after 1878.
Machinery was lent to the farmers, and free grants of seed were
made. Model farms were established at Livno and at Ga&#269;ko, on
the Montenegrin border; a school of viticulture near Mostar;
a model poultry-farm at Prijedor, close to the Croatian boundary;
a school of agriculture and dairy farming at Ilid&#382;e; and another
school at Modric, near the mouth of the Bosna, where a certain
number of village schoolmasters are annually trained, for six
weeks, in practical husbandry. Seed is distributed, and agricultural
machinery lent, by the government. To better the breeds
of live-stock, a stud-farm was opened near Serajevo, and foreign
horses, cattle, sheep and poultry are imported.</p>

<p>7. <i>Land Tenure.</i>&mdash;The <i>zadruga</i>, or household community,
more common in Servia (<i>q.v.</i>), survives to a small extent in Bosnia
and Herzegovina; but, as a rule, the tenure of land resembles
the system called <i>métayage</i>. At the time of the Austrian occupation
(1878) it was regulated by a Turkish enactment<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of the 12th
of September 1859. Apart from gardens and house-property,
all land was, according to this enactment, owned by the state;
in practice, it was held by the Moslem <i>begs</i> or <i>beys</i> (nobles) and
<i>agas</i> (landlords), who let it to the peasantry. The landlord
received from his tenant (<i>kmet</i>) a fixed percentage, usually one
third (<i>tretina</i>), of the annual produce; and, of the remaining two
thirds, the cash equivalent of one tenth (<i>desetina</i>) went to the
state. The amount of the <i>desetina</i> was always fixed first, and
served as a basis for the assessment of the <i>tretina</i>, which,
however, was generally paid in kind. At any time the tenant could
relinquish his holding; but he could only be evicted for refusing
to pay his <i>tretina</i>, for wilful neglect of his land or for damage
done to it. The landlord was bound to keep his tenants&rsquo; dwellings
and outhouses in repair. Should he desire to sell his estates, the
right of pre-emption belonged to the tenants, or, in default, to
the neighbours. Thus foreign speculators in land were excluded,
while a class of peasant proprietors was created; its numbers
being increased by the custom that, if any man reclaimed a piece
of waste land, it became his own property after ten years. The
Turkish land-system remained in force during the entire period
of the occupation (1878-1908). It had worked, on the whole,
satisfactorily; and between 1885 and 1895 the number of peasants
farming their own land rose from 117,000 to 200,000. One
conspicuous feature of the Bosnian land-system is the Moslem
<i>Vakuf</i>, or ecclesiastical property, consisting of estates dedicated
to such charitable purposes as poor-relief, and the endowment
of mosques, schools, hospitals, cemeteries and baths. It is
administered by a central board of Moslem officials, who meet in
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281"></a>281</span>
Sarajevo, under state supervision. Its income rose to £25,000 in
1895, having quadrupled itself in ten years. The <i>Vakuf</i> tenants
were at that time extremely prosperous, for their rent had been
fixed for ten years in advance on the basis of the year&rsquo;s harvest,
and so had not risen proportionately to the value of their holdings.</p>

<p>8. <i>Industries and Commerce.</i>&mdash;Beside agriculture, which
employed over 88% of the whole population in 1895, the other
industries are insignificant. Chief among them are weaving and
leather and metal work, carried on by the workmen in their own
houses. There are also government workshops, opened with a
view to a higher technical and artistic development of the house
industry. More particularly, chased and inlaid metallic wares,
<i>bez</i> (thin cotton) and carpet-weaving receive government
support. Besides the sugar-refinery already mentioned, there
were in 1900 four tobacco factories, a national printing-press, an
annular furnace for brick-burning, an iron-foundry and several
blast-furnaces, under the management of the state. Among the
larger private establishments there existed in the same year seven
breweries, one brandy distillery, two jam, two soap and candle
factories, two building and furniture works, a factory for spinning
thread, one iron and steel works, one paper and one ammonia
and soda factory, and one mineral-oil refinery.</p>

<p>In respect of foreign trade Bosnia and Herzegovina were in 1882
included in the customs and commercial system of Austria-Hungary,
to the extinction of all intermediate imposts. Since 1898
special statistics have been drawn up respecting their trade
also with Austria and Hungary. According to these statistics
the most important articles of export are coal and turf, fruit,
minerals, soda, iron and steel, and cattle. Other articles of export
are chemicals, dyeing and tanning stuffs, tobacco, sugar-beet
and kitchen-salt. The imports consist principally of food stuffs,
building materials, drinks, sugar, machinery, glass, fats, clothes,
wooden and stone wares, and various manufactured goods.</p>

<p>There is a national bank in Serajevo, which carries on a
hypothecary credit business and manages the wholesale trade of
the tobacco factories. There are savings banks in Banjaluka,
Bjelina and Br&#269;ka.</p>

<p>9. <i>Communications.</i>&mdash;The construction of carriage-roads,
wholly neglected by the Turks, was carried out on a large scale
by the Austrians. Two railways were also built, in connexion
with the Hungarian state system. One crosses the Una at
Kostajnica, and, after skirting the right bank of that river as far
as Novi, strikes eastward to Banjaluka. The other, a narrow-gauge
line, crosses the Save at Bosna Brod, and follows the Bosna
to Serajevo, throwing out branches eastward beyond Dolnja
Tuzla, and westward to Jajce and Bugojno. It then pierces
through the mountains of northern Herzegovina, traverses the
Narenta valley, and runs almost parallel with the coast to
Trebinje, Ragusa and the Bocche di Cattaro. Up to this point
the railways of the occupied territory were complete in 1901.
A farther line, from Serajevo to the frontiers of Servia and
Novibazar, was undertaken in 1902, and by 1906 782 m. of
railway were open. Small steamers ply on the Drina, Save and
Una, but the Bosna, though broad from its very source, is, like
the Vrbas, too full of shallows to be utilized; while the Narenta
only begins to be navigable when it enters Dalmatia. All the
railway lines, like the postal, telegraphic and telephonic services,
are state property. In many of the principal towns there are
also government hotels.</p>

<p>Serajevo, with 41,543 inhabitants in 1895, is the capital of
the combined provinces, and other important places are Mostar
(17,010), the capital of Herzegovina, Banjaluka (14,812), Dolnja
Tuzla (11,034), Travnik (6626), Livno (5273), Visoko(5000), Fo&#269;a
(4217), Jajce (3929) and Trebinje (2966). All these are described
in separate articles.</p>

<p>10. <i>Population and National Characteristics.</i>&mdash;In 1895 the
population, which tends to increase slowly, with a preponderance
of males over females, numbered 1,568,092. The alien element
is small, consisting chiefly of Austro-Hungarians, gipsies,
Italians and Jews. Spanish is a comomon language of the Jews,
whose ancestors fled hither, during the 16th century, to escape
the Inquisition. The natives are officially described as Bosniaks,
but classify themselves according to religion. Thus the Roman
Catholics prefer the name of Croats, Hrvats or Latins; the
Orthodox, of Serbs; the Moslems, of Turks. All alike belong
to the Serbo-Croatian branch of the Slavonic race; and all
speak a language almost identical with Servian, though written
by the Roman Catholics in Latin instead of Cyrillic letters.
A full account of this language, and its literature, is given under
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Servia</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Croatia-Slavonia</a></span>. To avoid offending either
&ldquo;Serbs&rdquo; or &ldquo;Croats,&rdquo; it is officially designated &ldquo;Bosnisch.&rdquo;
In some parts of Herzegovina the dress, manners and physical
type of the peasantry are akin to those of Montenegro. The
Bosnians or Bosniaks resemble their Servian kinsfolk in both
appearance and character. They have the same love for poetry,
music and romance; the same intense pride in their race and
history; many of the same superstitions and customs. The
Christians retain the Servian costume, modified in detail, as
by the occasional use of the turban or fez. The &ldquo;Turkish&rdquo;
women have in some districts abandoned the veil; but in
others they even cover the eyes when they leave home. Polygamy
is almost unknown, possibly because many of the &ldquo;Turks&rdquo;
are descended from the austere Bogomils, who were, in most
cases, converted to Islam, but more probably because the
&ldquo;Turks&rdquo; are as a rule too poor to provide for more than one
wife on the scale required by Islamic law. In general, the people
of Bosnia and Herzegovina are sober and thrifty, subsisting
chiefly on Indian corn, dried meat, milk and vegetables. Their
houses are built of timber and thatch, or clay tiles, except in the
Karst region, where stone is more plentiful than wood. Family
ties are strong, and the women are not ill-treated, although
they share in all kinds of manual labour.</p>

<p>11. <i>Government.</i>&mdash;At the time of the Austrian annexation in
1908, the only remaining token of Ottoman suzerainty was that
the foreign consuls received their <i>exequatur</i> from Turkey, instead
of Austria; otherwise the government of the country was
conducted in the name of the Austrian emperor, through the
imperial minister of finance at Vienna, who controlled the civil
service for the occupied territory. Its central bureau, with
departments of the interior, religion and education, finance
and justice, was established at Serajevo; and its members were
largely recruited among the Austrian Slavs, who were better
able than the Germans to comprehend the local customs and
language. A consultative assembly, composed of the highest
ecclesiastical authorities, together with 12 popular representatives,
also met at Serajevo. For administrative purposes the country
was divided into 6 districts or prefectures (<i>kreise</i>), which were
subdivided into 49 subprefectures (<i>bezirke</i>).</p>

<p>Every large town has a mayor and deputy mayor, appointed
by the government, and a town council, of whom one third are
similarly appointed, while the citizens choose the rest; a
proportionate number of councillors representing each religious
community. To ensure economy, the decisions of this body are
supervised by a government commissioner. The commune is
preserved, somewhat as in Servia (<i>q.v.</i>), but with modified
powers. Each district has its court of law, where cases are
tried by three official judges and two assessors, selected from
the leading citizens. The assessors vote equally with the judges,
and three votes decide the verdict. Except where the litigants
and witnesses are German, the Serbo-Croatian language is used.
An appeal, on points of law alone, may be carried to the supreme
court in Serajevo, and there tried by five judges without assessors.
In cases not involving a sum greater than 300 florins (£25), no
appeal will lie; and where only 50 florins (£4 : 3 : 4) are in
question, the case is summarily decided at the <i>Bagatelle Gericht</i>,
or court for trifling cases. The number of lawyers admitted to
practice is strictly limited. As far as possible, the Turkish law
was retained during the period of occupation; all cases between
Moslems were settled in separate courts by Moslem judges,
against whom there was an appeal to the supreme court, aided
by assessors. All able-bodied males are liable, on reaching their
21st year, for 3 years&rsquo; service with the colours, and 9 years in the
reserve. The garrison numbers about 20,000 Austrian troops,
and there are 7100 native troops. The principal military
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id="page282"></a>282</span>
stations are Bjelina, Zvornik, Vi&#353;egrad, Gora&#382;da, Fo&#269;a, Bilek,
Avtovac and Trebinje, along the eastern frontier; Mostar and
Stolac in the south; Livno in the west; and Biha&#263; in the north.</p>

<p>12. <i>Religion</i>.&mdash;In 1895 43% of the population were Orthodox
Christians, 35% Moslems and 21% Roman Catholics. The
patriarch of Constantinople is the nominal head of the Orthodox
priesthood; but by an arrangement concluded in 1879, his
authority was delegated to the Austrian emperor, in exchange
for a revenue equal to the tribute previously paid by the clergy
of the provinces; and his nominations for the metropolitanate
of Serajevo, and the bishoprics of Dolnja Tuzla, Banjaluka and
Mostar require the imperial assent. Under Turkish rule the
communes chose their own parish priests, but this right is now
vested in the government. The Roman Catholics have an
archbishop in Serajevo, a bishop in Mostar and an apostolic
administrator in Banjaluka. Serajevo is also the seat of the
Jewish chief rabbi; and of the highest Moslem ecclesiastic, or
<i>reis-el-ulema</i>, who with his council is nominated and paid by the government. The inferior Moslem clergy draw their stipends
from the <i>Vakuf</i>. Considerable bitterness prevails between the
rival confessions, each aiming at political ascendancy, but the
government favours none. In order to conciliate even the
Moslems, who include the bulk of the great landholders and of the
urban population, its representatives visit the mosques in state
on festivals; grants are made for the Mecca pilgrimage; and
even the howling Dervishes in Serajevo are maintained by the
state.</p>

<p>13. <i>Education</i>.&mdash;Education for boys and girls between the
ages of seven and fifteen is free, but not compulsory. The
state supports primary schools (352 in 1905), where reading,
writing, arithmetic and history are taught; and separate
instruction is given by the Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Jewish
and Moslem clergy. There are also various private schools,
belonging to the different religious communities. These receive
a grant from the government, which nevertheless encourages
all parents to send their children to its own schools. One of the
earliest and best-known private schools is the orphanage at
Serajevo, founded in 1869 by two English ladies, Miss Irby and
Miss Mackenzie. In the Moslem schools, which, in 1905, comprised
855 <i>mektebs</i> or primary schools, and 41 <i>madrasas</i> or high
schools, instruction is usually given in Turkish or Arabic; while
in Orthodox schools the books are printed in Cyrillic characters.</p>

<p>For higher education there were in 1908 three gymnasia, a real-school
at Banjaluka, a technical college and a teachers&rsquo; training-college
at Serajevo, where, also, is the state school for Moslem
law-students, called <i>scheriatschule</i> from the <i>sheri</i> or Turkish code; and various theological, commercial and art institutes.
Promising pupils are frequently sent to Vienna University,
with scholarships, which may be forfeited if the holders engage
in political agitation.</p>

<p>14. <i>Antiquities</i>.&mdash;Up to 1900 no traces of palaeolithic man
had been discovered in Bosnia or Herzegovina; but many
later prehistoric remains are preserved in Serajevo museum.
The neolithic station of Butmir, near Ilid&#382;e, was probably a
lake-dwellers&rsquo; colony, and has yielded numerous stone and
horn implements, clay figures and pottery. Not far off, similar
relics were found at Sobunar, Zlati&#353;te and Debelobrdo; iron
and bronze ornaments, vessels and weapons, often of elaborate
design, occur in the huts and cemeteries of Glasinac, and in the
cemetery of Jezerine, where they are associated with objects in
silver, tin, amber, glass, &amp;c. Among the numerous finds made
in other districts may be mentioned the discovery, at Vrankamer,
near Bihac, of 98 African coins, the oldest of which dates from
300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Many vestiges of Roman rule survive, such as roads,
mines, ruins, tombs, coins, frescoes and inscriptions. Such
remains occur frequently near Bihac, Foca, Livno, Jajce and
Serajevo; and especially near the sources of the Drina. The
period between the downfall of Roman power, late in the 5th
century, and the growth of a Bosnian state, in the 11th, is
poorer in antiquities. The later middle ages are represented by
several monasteries, and many castles, such as those of Dervent,
Doboj, Maglaj, &#381;ep&#269;e and Vranduk, on the Bosna; Biha&#263;, on
the Una; Prijedor and Klju&#263;, on the Sana; and Stolac, Gabela,
Irebinje and Konjica, in Herzegovina. The bridge across the
Narenta, at Konjica, is said to date from the 10th century. A
group of signs carved on some rocks near Vi&#353;egrad have been
regarded as cuneiform writing, but are probably medieval
masonic symbols. In a few cases, such as the Begova D&#382;amia
at Serajevo, the Fo&#269;a mosques and the Mostar bridge, the
buildings raised by the Turks are of high architectural merit.
More remarkable are the tombstones, generally measuring 6 ft.
in length, 3 in height and 3 in breadth, which have been supposed
to mark the graves of the Bogomils. These are, as a rule, quite
unadorned, a few only being decorated with rude has-reliefs of
animals, plants, weapons, the crescent and star, or, very rarely,
the cross.</p>

<p>15. <i>History</i>.&mdash;Under Roman rule Bosnia had no separate
name or history, and until the great Slavonic immigration of
636 it remained an undifferentiated part of Illyria
(<i>q.v.</i>). Owing to the scarcity of authoritative documents,
<span class="sidenote">Formation of the Banate.</span>
it is impossible to describe in detail the events
of the next three centuries. During this period Bosnia
became the generally accepted name for the valley of the Bosna
(ancient <i>Basanius</i>); and subsequently for several outlying and
tributary principalities, notably those of Soli, afterwards Tuzla;
Usora, along the south-eastern bank of the Save; Donji Kraj,
the later Krajina, Kraina or Turkish Croatia, in the north-west;
and Rama, the modern district of Livno. The old Illyrian
population was rapidly absorbed or expelled, its Latin institutions
being replaced by the autonomous tribal divisions, or <i>&#381;upanates</i>,
of the Slavs. Pressure from Hungary and Byzantium gradually
welded these isolated social units into a single nation, whose
ruler was known as the Ban (<i>q.v.</i>). But the central power
remained weak, and the country possessed no strong natural
frontiers. It seems probable that the bans were originally
viceroys of the Croatian kings, who resumed their sovereignty
over Bosnia from 958 to 1010. Thenceforward, until 1180, the
bans continued subject to the Eastern empire or Hungary, with
brief intervals of independence. The territory now called
Herzegovina was also subject to various foreign powers. It
comprised the principalities of Tribunia or Travunja, with its
capital at Trebinje; and Hlum or Hum, the Zachlumia of
Constantine Porphyrogenitus, who gives a clear picture of this
region as it was in the 10th century.<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>

<p>The schism between Eastern and Western Christendom left
Bosnia divided between the Greek and Latin Churches. Early
in the 12th century a new religion, that of the Bogomils
(<i>q.v.</i>), was introduced, and denounced as heretical.
<span class="sidenote">Religious controversies.</span>
Its converts nevertheless included many of the Bosnian
nobles and the ban Kulin (1180-1204), whose reign
was long proverbial for its prosperity, owing to the flourishing
state of commerce and agriculture, and the extensive mining
operations carried on by the Ragusans. An unusually able
ruler, connected by marriage with the powerful Servian dynasty
of Nemanya, and by treaty with the republic of Ragusa,<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Kulin
perceived in the new doctrines a barrier between his subjects
and Hungary. He was compelled to recant, under strong
pressure from Pope Innocent III. and Béla III. of Hungary;
but, despite all efforts, Bogomilism incessantly gained ground.
In 1232 Stephen, the successor of Kulin, was dethroned by the
native magnates, who chose instead Matthew Ninoslav, a
Bogomil. This event illustrates the three dominant characteristics
of Bosnian history: the strength of the aristocracy; the
corresponding weakness of the central authority, enhanced by
the lack of any definite rule of inheritance; and the supreme
influence of religion. Threatened by Pope Gregory IX. with a
crusade, Ninoslav was baptized, only to abjure Christianity in
1233. For six years he withstood the Hungarian crusaders, led
by Kaloman, duke of Croatia; in 1241 the Tatar invasion of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>283</span>
Hungary afforded him a brief respite; and in 1244 peace was
concluded after a Bosnian campaign against Croatia. A renewal
of the crusade proving equally vain, in 1247 Pope Innocent III.
entered into friendly negotiations with the ban, whose country
was for the moment an independent and formidable state. The
importance attached to its conversion is well attested by the
correspondence of Pope Gregory IX. with Ninoslav and various
Bosnian ecclesiastics.<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>

<p>On the death of Ninoslav in 1250, vigorous efforts were made
to exterminate the Bogomil heresy; and to this end, Béla IV.,
who appeared as the champion of Roman Catholicism,
secured the election of his nominee Prijesda to the
<span class="sidenote">Period of Hungarian supremacy.</span>
banate. Direct Hungarian suzerainty lasted until
1299, the bans preserving only a shadow of their
former power. From 1299 to 1322 the country was ruled by
the Croatian princes, Paul and Mladen &#352;ubi&#263;, who, though
vassals of Hungary, reunited the provinces of Upper and Lower
Bosnia, created by the Hungarians in order to prevent the
growth of a dangerous national unity. A rising of the native
magnates in 1322 resulted in the election of the Bogomil,
Stephen Kotromani&#263;, last and greatest of the Bosnian bans.</p>

<p>At this period the Servian empire had reached its zenith;
Hungary, governed by the feeble monarch, Charles Robert of
Anjou, was striving to crush the insurgent magnates
of Croatia; Venice, whose commercial interests were
<span class="sidenote">Stephen Kotromanic.</span>
imperilled, desired to restore peace and maintain the
balance of power. Dread of Servia impelled Kotromanic
to aid Hungary. In an unsuccessful war against the
Croats (1322-26), from which Venice derived the sole advantage,
the ban appears to have learned the value of sea-power; immediately
afterwards he occupied the principality of Hlum and the
Dalmatian littoral between Spalato and the river Narenta.
Ragusa furnished him with money and a fleet, in return for
a guarantee of protection; commercial treaties with Venice
further strengthened his position; and the Vatican, which had
instigated the Croats to invade the dominions of their heretical
neighbour (1337-40), was conciliated by his conversion to
Roman Catholicism. Defeated by the Servian tsar Dushan,
and driven to ally himself with Servia and Venice against Louis I.
of Hungary, Kotromanic returned to his allegiance in 1344.
Four years later his influence brought about a truce between
Hungary and the Venetians, who had agreed with Bosnia for
mutual support against the Croats; and in 1353, the year of his
death, his daughter Elizabeth was married to King Louis.</p>

<p>Stephen Tvrtko, the nephew and successor of Kotromani&#263;, was a
minor, and for thirteen years his mother, Helena, acted as regent.
Confronted by civil war, and deprived of Hlum by
the Hungarians, she was compelled to acknowledge
<span class="sidenote">Establishment of the Bosnian kingdom.</span>
the suzerainty of Stephen Dushan, and afterwards
of Louis. But in 1366 Tvrtko overcame all opposition
at home, and forthwith embarked on a career of
conquest, recapturing Hlum and annexing part of Dalmatia.
The death of Stephen Dushan, in 1356, had left his empire
defenceless against the Hungarians, Turks and other enemies;
and to win help from Bosnia the Servian tsar Lazar ceded to
Tvrtko a large tract of territory, including the principality of
Tribunia. In 1376 Tvrtko was crowned as &ldquo;Stephen I., king of
Bosnia, Servia, and all the Sea-coast,&rdquo; although Lazar retained
his own title and a diminished authority. The death of Louis in
1392, the regency of his widow Elizabeth, and a fresh outbreak
in Croatia, enabled Tvrtko to fulfil his predecessor&rsquo;s designs by
establishing a maritime state. With Venetian aid he wrested
from Hungary the entire Adriatic littoral between Fiume and
Cattaro, except the city of Zara; thus adding Dalmatia to his
kingdom at the moment when Servia was lost through the Ottoman
victory of Kossovo (1389). At his coronation he had
proclaimed his purpose to revive the ancient Servian empire;
in 1378 he had married the daughter of the last Bulgarian tsar;
and it is probable that he dreamed of founding an empire which
should extend from the Adriatic to the Black Sea. The disaster
of Kossovo, though fatal to his ambition, did not immediately
react on Bosnia itself; and when Tvrtko died in 1391, his
kingdom was still at the summit of its prosperity.</p>

<p>Kotromani&#263; and Tvrtko had known how to crush or conciliate
their turbulent magnates, whose power reasserted itself under
Dabisa (Stephen II., 1391-1398), a brother of Tvrtko.
Sigismond of Hungary profited by the disorder that
<span class="sidenote">Decline of the Bosnian kingdom.</span>
ensued to regain Croatia and Dalmatia; and in 1398
the Turks, aided by renegade Slavs,<a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a> overran Bosnia.
Ostoja (Stephen III., 1398-1418), an illegitimate son
of Tvrtko, proved a puppet in the hands of Hrvoje Vuk&#269;i&#263;,
duke of Spalato, Sandalj Hrani&#263;,<a name="fa6b" id="fa6b" href="#ft6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a> and other leaders of the
aristocracy, who fought indifferently against the Turks, the
Hungarians, the king or one another. Some upheld a rival claimant
to the throne in Tvrtkovi&#263;, a legitimate son of Tvrtko, and all
took sides in the incessant feud between Bogomils and Roman
Catholics. During the reigns of Ostoji&#263; (Stephen IV., 1418-1421)
and Tvrtkovi&#263; (Stephen V., 1421-1444) Bosnia was thus left an
easy prey to the Turks, who exacted a yearly tribute, after
again ravaging the country, and carrying off many thousands
of slaves, with a vast store of plunder.</p>

<p>The losses inflicted on the Turks by Hunyadi János, and the
attempt to organize a defensive league among the neighbouring
Christian lands, temporarily averted the ruin of
Bosnia under Thomas Ostoji&#263; (Stephen VI., 1444-1461).
<span class="sidenote">Turkish conquest.</span>
Hoping to gain active support from the Vatican,
Ostojic renounced Bogomilism, and persecuted his former
co-religionists, until the menace of an insurrection forced him
to grant an amnesty. His position was endangered by the
growing power of his father-in-law, Stephen Vukcic, an ardent
Bogomil, who had united Tribunia and Hlum into a single
principality. Vuk&#269;i&#263;&mdash;or <i>Cosaccia</i>, as he is frequently called
by the contemporary chroniclers, from his birthplace, Cosac&mdash;was
the first and last holder of the title &ldquo;Duke of St Sava,&rdquo;
conferred on him by the emperor Frederick III. in 1448; and
from this title is derived the name <i>Herzegovina</i>, or &ldquo;the Duchy.&rdquo;
Hardly had the king become reconciled with this formidable
antagonist, when, in 1453, the death of Hunyadi, and the fall
of Constantinople, left Bosnia defenceless against the Turks.
In 1460 it was again invaded. Venice and the Papacy were
unable, and Hungary unwilling, to render assistance; while
the Croats proved actively hostile. Ostojic died in 1461, and
his successor Toma&#353;evi&#263; (Stephen VII., 1461-1463) surrendered
to the Turks and was beheaded. Herzegovina, where Vuk&#269;i&#263;
offered a desperate resistance, held out until 1483; but apart
from the heroic defence of Jajce, the efforts of the Bosnians
were feeble and inglorious, many of the Bogomils joining the
enemy. From 1463 the greater part of the country submitted
to the Turks; but the districts of Jajce and Srebrenica were
occupied by Hungarian garrisons, and organized as a separate
&ldquo;banate&rdquo; or &ldquo;kingdom of Bosnia,&rdquo; until 1526, when the
Hungarian power was broken at Mohács. In 1528 Jajce surrendered,
after repelling every attack by the Turkish armies for 65 years.</p>

<p>The fall of Jajce was the consummation of the Turkish conquest.
It was followed by the flight of large bodies of Christian refugees.
Many of the Roman Catholics withdrew into Croatia-Slavonia
and south Hungary, where they ultimately fell again under
Ottoman dominion. Others found shelter in Rome or Venice,
and a large number settled in Ragusa, where they doubtless
contributed to the remarkable literary development of the 16th
and 17th centuries in which the use of the Bosnian dialect was
a characteristic feature. Some of the most daring spirits waged
war on their conquerors from Clissa in Dalmatia, and afterwards
from Zengg in maritime Croatia, where they formed the notorious
pirate community of the Uskoks (<i>q.v.</i>). There was less inducement
for the Orthodox inhabitants to emigrate, because almost
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>284</span>
all the neighbouring lands were governed by Moslems or Roman
Catholics; and at home the peasants were permitted to retain
their creed and communal organization. Judged by its influence
on Bosnian politics, the Orthodox community was relatively
unimportant at the Turkish conquest; and its subsequent
growth is perhaps due to the official recognition of the Greek
Church, as the representative of Christianity in Turkey. The
Christian aristocracy lost its privileges, but its ancient titles of
duke (<i>vojvod</i>) and count (<i>knez</i>) did not disappear. The first was
retained by the leaders who still carried on the struggle for liberty
in Montenegro; the second was transferred to the headmen of
the communes. Many of the Franciscans refused to abandon their
work, and in 1463 they received a charter from the sultan
Mahomet II., which is still preserved in the monastery of Fojnica,
near Travnik. This toleration of religious orders, though it did
not prevent occasional outrages, remained to the last characteristic
of Turkish policy in Bosnia; and even in 1868 a colony of
Trappist monks was permitted to settle in Banjaluka.</p>

<p>The Turkish triumph was the opportunity of the Bogomils,
who thenceforth, assuming a new character, controlled the
destinies of their country for more than three centuries.
Bosnia was regarded by successive sultans as the
<span class="sidenote">Bosnia under Turkish rule.</span>
gateway into Hungary; hatred of the Hungarians
and their religion was hereditary among the Bogomils.
Thus the desire for vengeance and the prospect of a
brilliant military career impelled the Bogomil magnates to
adopt the creed of Islam, which, in its austerity, presented
some points of resemblance to their own doctrines. The nominal
governor of the country was the Turkish <i>vali</i>, who resided at
Banjaluka or Travnik, and rarely interfered in local affairs, if
the taxes were duly paid. Below him ranked the newly converted
Moslem aristocracy, who adopted the dress, titles and
etiquette of the Turkish court, without relinquishing their
language or many of their old customs. They dwelt in fortified
towns or castles, where the vali was only admitted on sufferance
for a few days; and, at the outset, they formed a separate
military caste, headed by 48 <i>kapetans</i>&mdash;landholders exercising
unfettered authority over their retainers and Christian serfs,
but bound, in return, to provide a company of mounted troops
for the service of their sovereign. Their favourite pursuits were
fighting, either against a common enemy or among themselves,
hunting, hawking and listening to the minstrels who celebrated
their exploits. Their yearly visits to Serajevo assumed in time
the character of an informal parliament, for the discussion of
national questions; and their rights tended always to increase,
and to become hereditary, in fact, though not in law. In every
important campaign of the Turkish armies, these descendants
of the Bogomils were represented; they amassed considerable
wealth from the spoils of war, and frequently rose to high
military and administrative positions. Thus, in 1570, Ali Pasha,
a native of Herzegovina, became grand vizier; and he was
succeeded by the distinguished soldier and statesman, Mahomet
Beg Sokolovi&#263;, a Bosnian. Below the feudal nobility and their
Moslem soldiers came the Christian serfs, tillers of the soil and
taxpayers, whose lives and property were at the mercy of their
lords. The hardships of their lot, and, above all, the system by
which the strongest of their sons were carried off as recruits for
the corps of janissaries (<i>q.v</i>.), frequently drove them to brigandage,
and occasionally to open revolt.</p>

<p>These conditions lasted until the 19th century, and meanwhile
the country was involved in the series of wars waged by the
Turks against Austria, Hungary and Venice. In the
Krajina and all along the Montenegrin frontier,
<span class="sidenote">External history 1528-1821.</span>
Moslems and Christians carried on a ceaseless feud,
irrespective of any treaties concluded by their rulers;
while the Turkish campaigns in Hungary provided constant
occupation for the nobles during a large part of the 16th and
17th centuries. But after the Ottoman defeat at Vienna
in 1683, the situation changed. Instead of extending the
foreign conquests of their sultan, the Bosnians were hard
pressed to defend their own borders. Zvornik fell before the
Austro-Hungarian army in 1688, and the Turkish vali, who was
still officially styled the &ldquo;vali of Hungary,&rdquo; removed his
headquarters from Banjaluka to Travnik, a more southerly, and
therefore a safer capital. Two years later, the imperial troops
reached Dolnja Tuzla, and retired with 3000 Roman Catholic
emigrants. Serajevo was burned in 1697 by Eugene of Savoy,
who similarly deported 40,000 Christians. The treaties of
Carlowitz (1699) and Passarowitz (1718) deprived the Turks of
all the Primorje, or littoral of Herzegovina, except the narrow
enclaves of Klek and Suttorina, left to sunder the Ragusan
dominions from those of Venice. At the same time a strip of
territory in northern Bosnia was ceded to Austria, which was
thus able to control both banks of the Save. This territory was
restored to Turkey in 1739, at the peace of Belgrade;<a name="fa7b" id="fa7b" href="#ft7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a> but in
1790 it was reoccupied by Austrian troops. Finally, in 1791,
the treaty of Sistova again fixed the line of the Save and Una
as the Bosnian frontier.</p>

<p>The reform of the Ottoman government contemplated by the
sultan Mahmud II. (1808-1839) was bitterly resented in
Bosnia, where Turkish prestige had already been weakened
by the establishment of Servian autonomy under
<span class="sidenote">Moslem rebellions.</span>
Karageorge. Many of the janissaries had married
and settled on the land, forming a strongly conservative
and fanatical caste, friendly to the Moslem nobles, who now
dreaded the curtailment of their own privileges. Their opportunity
came in 1820, when the Porte was striving to repress the
insurrections in Moldavia, Albania and Greece. A first Bosnian
revolt was crushed in 1821; a second, due principally to the
massacre of the janissaries, was quelled with much bloodshed
in 1827. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29, a further
attempt at reform was initiated by the sultan and his grand
vizier, Reshid Pasha. Two years later came a most formidable
outbreak; the sultan was denounced as false to Islam, and the
Bosnian nobles gathered at Banjaluka, determined to march
on Constantinople, and reconquer the Ottoman empire for the
true faith. A holy war was preached by their leader, Hussein
Aga Berberli, a brilliant soldier and orator, who called himself
<i>Zmaj Bosanski</i>, the &ldquo;Dragon of Bosnia,&rdquo; and was regarded by
his followers as a saint. The Moslems of Herzegovina, under
Ali Pasha Rizvanbegovic, remained loyal to the Porte, but in
Bosnia Hussein Aga encountered little resistance. At Kossovo
he was reinforced by 20,000 Albanians, led by the rebel Mustapha
Pasha; and within a few weeks the united armies occupied the
whole of Bulgaria, and a large part of Macedonia. Their career
was checked by Reshid Pasha, who persuaded the two victorious
commanders to intrigue against one another, secured the division
of their forces, and then fell upon each in turn. The rout of the
Albanians at Prilipe and the capture of Mustapha at Scutari
were followed by an invasion of Bosnia. After a desperate
defence, Hussein Aga fled to Esseg in Croatia-Slavonia; his
appeal for pardon was rejected, and in 1832 he was banished
for life to Tribizond. The power of the Bosnian nobles, though
shaken by their defeat, remained unbroken; and they resisted
vigorously when their kapetanates were abolished in 1837; and
again when a measure of equality before the law was conceded
to the Christians in 1839. In Herzegovina, Ali Pasha Rizvanbegovi&#263;
reaped the reward of his fidelity. He was left free to
tyrannize over his Christian subjects, a king in all but name.
In 1840 he descended from his mountain stronghold of Stolac
to wage war upon the vladika Peter II. of Montenegro, and
simultaneously to suppress a Christian rising. Peace was
arranged at Ragusa in 1842, and it was rumoured that Ali had
concluded a secret alliance with Montenegro, hoping to shake
off the suzerainty of the sultan, and to found an entirely
independent kingdom. It is impossible to verify this charge, but
during the troubled years that ensued, Ali pursued an elaborate
policy of intrigue. He sent large bribes to influential persons
at Constantinople; he aided the Turkish vali to repress the
Christians, who had again revolted; and he supported the
Bosnian nobles against reforms imposed by the vali. At last,
in 1850, a Turkish army was despatched to restore quiet. Ali
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285"></a>285</span>
Pasha openly professed himself a loyal subject, but secretly
sent reinforcements to the rebel aristocracy. The Turks proved
everywhere successful. After a cordial reception by their
commander Omer or Omar Pasha, Ali was imprisoned; he was
shortly afterwards assassinated, lest his lavish bribery of Turkish
officials should restore him to favour, and bring disgrace on his
captor (March 1851).</p>

<p>The downfall of the Moslem aristocracy resulted in an important
administrative change: Serajevo, which had long been the
commercial centre of the country, and the jealously
guarded stronghold of the nobles, superseded Travnik
<span class="sidenote">Condition of the serfs.</span>
as the official capital, and the residence of the vali.
A variety of other reforms, including the reorganization
of Moslem education, were introduced by Omer Pasha, who
governed the country until 1860. But as the administration
grew stronger, the position of the peasantry became worse.
They had now to satisfy the imperial tax-farmers and excisemen,
as well as their feudal lords. The begs and agas continued to
exact their forced labour and one-third of their produce; the
central government imposed a tithe which had become an
eighth by 1875. Three kinds of cattle-tax, the tax for exemption
from military service, levied on every newborn male, forced
labour on the roads, forced loan of horses, a heavy excise on
grapes and tobacco, and a variety of lesser taxes combined to
burden the Christian serfs; but even more galling than the
amount was the manner in which these dues were exacted&mdash;the
extortionate assessments of tax-farmers and excisemen, the
brutal licence of the soldiery who were quartered on recalcitrant
villagers. A crisis was precipitated by the example of Servian
independence, the hope of Austrian intervention, and the public
bankruptcy of Turkey.</p>

<p>Sporadic insurrections had already broken out among the
Bosnian Christians, and on the 1st of July 1875 the villagers
of Nevesinje, which gives its name to a mountain
range east of Mostar, rose against the Turks. Within
<span class="sidenote">Christian rising of 1875.</span>
a few weeks the whole country was involved. The
Herzegovinians, under their leaders Peko Pavlovi&#263;,
Socica, Ljubibrati&#263;, and others, held out for a year against all
the forces that Turkey could despatch against them.<a name="fa8b" id="fa8b" href="#ft8b"><span class="sp">8</span></a> In July
1876 Servia and Montenegro joined the struggle, and in April
1877 Russia declared war on the sultan.</p>

<p>The Austro-Hungarian occupation, authorized on the 13th of
July 1878 by the treaty of Berlin (arts. 23 and 26), was not
easily effected; and, owing to the difficulty of military
operations among the mountains, it was necessary to
<span class="sidenote">Austro-Hungarian occupation, 1878-1908.</span>
employ a force of 200,000 men. Haji Loja, the
native leader, was supported by a body of Albanians
and mutinous Turkish troops, while the whole Moslem
population bitterly resented the proposed change. The
losses on both sides were very heavy, and, besides those
who fell in battle, many of the insurgents were executed under
martial law. But after a series of stubbornly contested engagements,
the Austrian general, Philippovic, entered Serajevo on
the 19th of August, and ended the campaign on the 20th of
September, by the capture of Bihac in the north-west, and of
Klobuk in Herzegovina. The government of the country was
then handed over to the imperial ministry of finance; but the
bureaucratic methods of the finance ministers, Baron von
Hoffmann and Joseph de Szlávy, resulted only in the insurrection
of 1881-82. Order was restored in June 1882, when the
administration was entrusted to Benjamin von Kállay (<i>q.v.</i>),
as imperial minister of finance. Kállay retained this position
until his death on the 13th of July 1903, when he was succeeded
by Baron Stephan Burian de Rajecz. During this period life
and property were rendered secure, and great progress was
achieved, on the lines already indicated, in creating an efficient
civil service, harmonizing Moslem law with new enactments,
promoting commerce, carrying out important public works,
and reorganizing the fiscal and educational systems. All classes
and creeds were treated impartially; and, although the
administration has been reproached alike for undue harshness and
undue leniency, neither accusation can be sustained. Critics
have also urged that Kállay fostered the desire for material
welfare at the cost of every other national ideal; that, despite
his own popularity, he never secured the goodwill of the people
for Austria-Hungary; that he left the agrarian difficulty
unsolved, and the hostile religious factions unreconciled. These
charges are not wholly unfounded; but the chief social and
political evils in Bosnia and Herzegovina may be traced to
historical causes operative long before the Austro-Hungarian
occupation, and above all to the political ambition of the rival
churches. Justly to estimate the work done by Kállay, it is
only necessary to point to the contrast between Bosnia in 1882
and Bosnia in 1903; for in 21 years the anarchy and ruin
entailed by four centuries of misrule were transformed into
a condition of prosperity unsurpassed in south-eastern Europe.</p>

<p>It was no doubt natural that Austrian statesmen should wish
to end the anomalous situation created by the treaty of Berlin,
by incorporating Bosnia and Herzegovina into the
Dual Monarchy. The treaty had contemplated the
<span class="sidenote">Austrian annexation.</span>
evacuation of the occupied provinces after the restoration
of order and prosperity; and this had been expressly
stipulated in an agreement signed by the Austro-Hungarian
and Ottoman plenipotentiaries at Berlin, as a condition
of Turkish assent to the provisions of the treaty. But the
Turkish reform movement of 1908 seemed to promise a revival
of Ottoman power, which might in time have enabled the Turks
to demand the promised evacuation, and thus to reap all the
ultimate benefits of the Austrian administration. The reforms
in Turkey certainly encouraged the Serb and Moslem inhabitants
of the occupied territory to petition the emperor for the grant of
a constitution similar to that in force in the provinces of Austria
proper. But the Austro-Hungarian government, profiting by
the weakness of Russia after the war with Japan, and aware that
the proclamation of Bulgarian independence was imminent, had
already decided to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina, in spite of
the pledges given at Berlin, and although the proposal was
unpopular in Hungary. Its decision, after being communicated
to the sovereigns of the powers signatory to the treaty of Berlin,
in a series of autograph letters from the emperor Francis Joseph,
was made known to Bosnia and Herzegovina in an imperial
rescript published on the 7th of October 1908. The Serb and
Moslem delegates, who had started on the same day for Budapest,
to present their petition to the emperor, learned from the rescript
that the government intended to concede to their compatriots
&ldquo;a share in the legislation and administration of provincial
affairs, and equal protection for all religious beliefs, languages
and racial distinctions.&rdquo; The separate administration was,
however, to be maintained, and the rescript did not promise
that the new provincial diet would be more than a consultative
assembly, elected on a strictly limited franchise.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;G. Capus, <i>A travers la Bosnie et l&rsquo;Herzégovine</i>
(Paris, 1896) contains a detailed and fully illustrated account of the
combined provinces, their resources and population.
J. Asbóth, <i>An Official Tour through Bosnia and Herzegovina</i> (London,
1890) is valuable for details of local history, antiquities and topography:
A. Bordeaux, <i>La Bosnie populaire</i> (Paris, 1904) for social life and
mining. Much information is also contained in the works by
Lamouche, Miller, Thomson, Joanne, Cambon, Millet, Hamard and
Laveleye, cited under the heading <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Balkan Peninsula</a></span>. See also
B. Nika&#353;inovi&#263;, <i>Bosnien und die Herzegovina unter der Verwaltung der
österreich-ungarischen Monarchie</i> (Berlin, 1901, &amp;c.), and M. Oransz,
<i>Auf dem Rade durch Kroatien und Bosnien</i> (Vienna, 1903). The best
map is that of the Austrian General Staff. See also for geology,
J. Cviji&#263;, <i>Morphologische und glaciale Studien aus Bosnien</i> (Vienna,
1900); F. Katzer, <i>Geologischer Führer durch Bosnien und Herzegovina</i>
(Serajevo, 1903); P. Ballif, <i>Wasserbauten in Bosnien und Herzegovina</i>
(Vienna, 1896). Sport: &ldquo;Snaffle,&rdquo; <i>In the Land of the Bora</i>
(London, 1897). Agriculture and Commerce: annual British consular reports,
and the official <i>Ergebnisse der Viehzahlungen</i> (1879 and 1895),
and <i>Landwirtschaft in Bosnien und Herzegovina</i> (1899). The chief
official publications are in German. For antiquities, see R. Munro,
<i>Through Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia</i> (Edinburgh, 1900);
A.J. Evans, <i>Illyrian Letters</i> (London, 1878); W. Radimský,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286"></a>286</span>
<i>Die neolithische Station von Butmir</i> (Vienna 1895-1898); P. Ballif,
<i>Römische Strassen in Bosnien und Herzegovina</i> (Vienna, 1893, &amp;c.).
No adequate history of Bosnia was published up to the 20th century;
but the chief materials for such a work are contained in the following
books:&mdash;A. Theiner, <i>Vetera monumenta historica Hungariam sacram
illustrantia</i> (Rome, 1860) and <i>Vetera monumenta Slavorum
Meridionalium</i> (1. Rome, 1863; 2. Agram, 1875),&mdash;these are collections of
Latin documents from the Vatican library; V. Makushev, <i>Monumenta
historica Slavorum Meridionalium</i> (Belgrade, 1885);
Y. Shafarik, <i>Acta archivi Veneti spectantia ad historiam Serborum</i>, &amp;c.
(Belgrade, 1860-1862); F. Miklosich, <i>Monumenta Serbica</i> (Vienna, 1858).
Other important authorities are
G. Lucio, <i>De Regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae</i> (Amsterdam, 1666);
M. Orbini, <i>Regno degli Slavi</i> (Pesaro 1601);
D. Farlatus and others, <i>Illyricum Sacrum</i> (Venice, 1751-1819);
C. du Fresne du Cange, <i>Illyricum vetus et novum</i> (1746);
M. Simek, <i>Politische Geschichte des Königreiches Bosnien und Rama</i>
(Vienna, 1787). The best modern history, though valueless for the period
after 1463, is by P. Coquelle, <i>Histoire du Monténégro et de la Bosnie</i>
(Paris, 1895). See also V. Klai&#263;, <i>Geschichte Bosniens</i> (Leipzig 1884).
J. Spalaïkovitch (Spalajkovi&#263;), in <i>La Bosnie et l&rsquo;Herzégovine</i>
(Paris, 1897), give a critical account of the Austro-Hungarian
administration.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(K. G. J.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This was soon modified in detail. Arrears of debt, for instance,
were made recoverable for one year only, instead of the ten years
allowed by Turkish law.</p>

<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>De Administrando Imperio</i>, 33 and 34. The names of <i>Chulmia</i>
and <i>Chelmo</i>, applied to this region by later Latin and Italian
chroniclers, are occasionally adopted by English writers.</p>

<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> For the commercial and political relations of Ragusa and Bosnia,
see L. Villari, <i>The Republic of Ragusa</i> (London, 1904).</p>

<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Given by Theiner, <i>Vetera monumenta Hungariam ... illustrantia</i>,
173-185.</p>

<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> This is the first recorded instance of such an alliance. The Slavs
were probably Bogomils.</p>

<p><a name="ft6b" id="ft6b" href="#fa6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> These magnates played a considerable part in the politics of
south-eastern Europe; see especially their correspondence with the
Venetian Republic, given by Shafarik, <i>Acta archivi Veneti</i>, &amp;c.</p>

<p><a name="ft7b" id="ft7b" href="#fa7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> For details of these events see Umar Effendi, <i>History of the War
in Bosnia</i> (1737-1739). Translated by C. Fraser (London, 1830).</p>

<p><a name="ft8b" id="ft8b" href="#fa8b"><span class="fn">8</span></a> For the Christian rebellion and its causes, see A.J. Evans,
<i>Through Bosnia and Herzegovina on Foot</i> (London, 1876);
and W.J.  Stillman, <i>Herzegovina and the Late Uprising</i> (London, 1877).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSPORUS,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bosphorus</span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Bosporos">&#914;&#972;&#963;&#960;&#959;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span> = ox-ford, traditionally
connected with Io, daughter of Inachus, who, in the form of
a heifer, crossed the Thracian Bosporus on her wanderings).
By the ancients this name, signifying a strait, was especially
applied to the <i>Bosporus Cimmerius</i> (see below), and the <i>Bosporus
Thracius</i>; but when used without any adjective it now denotes
the latter, which unites the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmora
and forms part of the boundary between Europe and Asia. The
channel is 18 m. long, and has a maximum breadth at the
northern entrance of 2¾ m., a minimum breadth of about 800 yds.,
and a depth varying from 20 to 66 fathoms in mid-stream. In
the centre there is a rapid current from the Black Sea to the Sea
of Marmora, but a counter-current sets in the opposite direction
below the surface and along the shores. The surface current
varies in speed, but averages nearly 3 m. an hour; though at
narrow places it may run at double this pace. The strait is very
rarely frozen over, though history records a few instances; and
the Golden Horn, the inlet on either side of which Constantinople
lies, has been partially frozen over occasionally in modern times.
The shores of the Bosporus are composed in the northern portion
of different volcanic rocks, such as dolerite, granite and trachyte;
but along the remaining course of the channel the prevailing
formations are Devonian, consisting of sandstones, marls,
quartzose conglomerates, and calcareous deposits of various
kinds. The scenery on both sides is of the most varied and
beautiful description, many villages lining each well-wooded
shore, while on the European side are numerous fine residences
of the wealthy class of Constantinople. The Bosporus is under
Turkish dominion, and by treaty of 1841, confirmed by the
treaty of Berlin in 1878 and at other times, no ship of war other
than Turkish may pass through the strait (or through the
Dardanelles) without the countenance of the Porte. (See also
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Constantinople</a></span>.)</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> the ancient name for the Straits
of Kerch or Yenikale, connecting the Black Sea and the Sea of
Azov; the Cimmerii (<i>q.v.</i>) were the ancient inhabitants. The
straits are about 25 m. long and 2½ m. broad at the narrowest,
and are formed by an eastern extension of the Crimea and the
peninsula of Taman, a kind of continuation of the Caucasus.
This in ancient times seems to have formed a group of islands
intersected by arms of the Hypanis or Kuban and various
sounds now silted up. The whole district was dotted with Greek
cities; on the west side, Panticapaeum (Kerch, <i>q.v.</i>), the chief of
all, often itself called Bosporus, and Nymphaeum (Eltegen); on
the east Phanagoria (Sênnája), Cepi, Hermonassa, Portus Sindicus,
Gorgippia (Anapa). These were mostly settled by Milesians,
Panticapaeum in the 7th or early in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but
Phanagoria (<i>c.</i> 540 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) was a colony of Teos, and Nymphaeum
had some connexion with Athens&mdash;at least it appears to have
been a member of the Delian Confederacy. The towns have left
hardly any architectural or sculptural remains, but the numerous
barrows in their neighbourhood have yielded very beautiful
objects now mostly preserved in the Hermitage in St Petersburg.
They comprise especially gold work, vases exported from Athens,
textiles and specimens of carpentry and marquetry. The
numerous terra-cottas are rather rude in style.</p>

<p>According to Diodorus Siculus (xii. 31) the locality was
governed from 480 to 438 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the Archaeanactidae, probably
a ruling family, who gave place to a tyrant Spartocus (438-431
<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), apparently a Thracian. He founded a dynasty which seems
to have endured until <i>c</i>. 110 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The Spartocids have left many
inscriptions which tell us that the earlier members of the house
ruled as archons of the Greek cities and kings of various native
tribes, notably the Sindi of the island district and other branches
of the Maitae (Maeotae). The text of Diodorus, the inscriptions
and the coins do not supply sufficient material for a complete
list of them. Satyrus (431-387), the successor of Spartocus,
established his rule over the whole district, adding Nymphaeum
to his dominions and laying siege to Theodosia, which was a
serious commercial rival by reason of its ice-free port and direct
proximity to the cornfields of the eastern Crimea. It was
reserved for his son Leucon (387-347) to take this city. He
was succeeded by his two sons conjointly, Spartocus II. and
Paerisades; the former died in 342 and his brother reigned alone
until 310. Then followed a civil war in which Eumelus (310-303)
was successful. His successor was Spartocus III. (303-283) and
after him Paerisades II. Succeeding princes repeated the family
names, but we cannot assign them any certain order. We know
only that the last of them, a Paerisades, unable to make headway
against the power of the natives, called in the help of Diophantus,
general of Mithradates VI. (the Great) of Pontus, promising to
hand over his kingdom to that prince. He was slain by a
Scythian Saumacus who led a rebellion against him. The house
of Spartocus was well known as a line of enlightened and wise
princes; although Greek opinion could not deny that they were,
strictly speaking, tyrants, they are always described as dynasts.
They maintained close relations with Athens, their best customers
for the Bosporan corn export, of which Leucon I. set the staple
at Theodosia, where the Attic ships were allowed special privileges.
We have many references to this in the Attic orators. In return
the Athenians granted him Athenian citizenship and set up
decrees in honour of him and his sons. Mithradates the Great
entrusted the Bosporus Cimmerius to his son Machares, who,
however, deserted to the Romans. But even when driven out
of his own kingdom by Pompey, Mithradates was strong enough
to regain the Bosporus Cimmerius, and Machares slew himself.
Subsequently the Bosporans again rose in revolt under Pharnaces,
another of the old king&rsquo;s sons. After the death of Mithradates
(<span class="scs">B.C.</span> 63), this Pharnaces (63-47) made his submission to Pompey,
but tried to regain his dominion during the civil war. He was
defeated by Caesar at Zela, and on his return to Rome was slain
by a pretender Asander who married his daughter Dynamis, and
in spite of Roman nominees ruled as archon, and later as king,
until 16 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> After his death Dynamis was compelled to marry
an adventurer Scribonius, but the Romans under Agrippa interfered
and set Polemon (14-8) in his place. To him succeeded
Aspurgus (8 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 38?), son of Asander, who founded a line
of kings which endured with certain interruptions until <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 341.
These kings, who mostly bore the Thracian names of Cotys,
Rhescuporis, Rhoemetalces, and the native name Sauromates,
claimed descent from Mithradates the Great, and used the
Pontic era (starting from 297 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) introduced by him, regularly
placing dates upon their coins and inscriptions. Hence we know
their names and dates fairly well, though scarcely any events of
their reigns are recorded. Their kingdom covered the eastern
half of the Crimea and the Taman peninsula, and extended along
the east coast of the Sea of Azov to Tanais at the mouth of the
Don, a great mart for trade with the interior. They carried on
a perpetual war with the native tribes, and in this were supported
by their Roman suzerains, who even lent the assistance of
garrison and fleet. At times rival kings of some other race arose
and probably produced some disorganization. At one of these
periods (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 255) the Goths and Borani were enabled to seize
Bosporan shipping and raid the shores of Asia Minor. With the
last coin of the last Rhescuporis, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 341, materials for a connected
history of the Bosporus Cimmerius come to an end. The
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>287</span>
kingdom probably succumbed to the Huns established in the
neighbourhood. In later times it seems in some sort to have
been revived under Byzantine protection, and from time to time
Byzantine officers built fortresses and exercised authority at
Bosporus, which was constituted an archbishopric. They also
held Ta Matarcha on the Asiatic side of the strait, a town which
in the 10th and 11th centuries became the seat of the Russian
principality of Tmutarakan, which in its turn gave place to Tatar
domination.</p>

<p>The Bosporan kingdom is interesting as the first Hellenistic
state, the first, that is to say, in which a mixed population
adopted the Greek language and civilization. It depended for
its prosperity upon the export of wheat, fish and slaves, and this
commerce supported a class whose wealth and vulgarity are
exemplified by the contents of the numerous tombs to which
reference has been made. In later times a Jewish element was
added to the population, and under its influence were developed
in all the cities of the kingdom, especially Tanais, societies of
&ldquo;worshippers of the highest God,&rdquo; apparently professing a
monotheism which without being distinctively Jewish or Christian
was purer than any found among the inhabitants of the Empire.</p>

<p>We possess a large series of coins of Panticapaeum and other
cities from the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The gold <i>staters</i> of Panticapaeum
bearing Pan&rsquo;s head and a griffin are specially remarkable for their
weight and fine workmanship. We have also coins with the
names of the later Spartocids and a singularly complete series
of dated <i>solidi</i> issued by the later or Achaemenian dynasty; in
them may be noticed the swift degeneration of the gold <i>solidus</i>
through silver and potin to bronze (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See, for history, introduction to V.V. Latyshev, <i>Inscrr. orae
Septent. Ponti Euxini</i>, vol. ii. (St Petersburg, 1890); art. &ldquo;Bosporus&rdquo;
(2) by C.G. Brandis in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencycl.</i> vol. iii. 757
(Stuttgart, 1899); E.H. Minns, <i>Scythians and Greeks</i> (Cambridge,
1907). For inscriptions, Latyshev as above and vol. iv. (St Petersburg,
1901). Coins: B. Koehne, <i>Musée Kotschoubey</i> (St Petersburg,
1855). Religious Societies: E. Schürer in <i>Sitzber. d. k. pr. Akad. d.
Wissenschaft zu Berlin</i> (1897), i. pp. 200-227. Excavations: <i>Antiquités
du Bosphore cimmérien</i> (St Petersburg, 1854, repr. Paris,
1892) and <i>Compte rendu</i> and <i>Bulletin de la Commission Imp. Archéologique
de St. Pétersbourg</i>.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(E. H. M.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSQUET, PIERRE FRANÇOIS JOSEPH<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1810-1861), French
marshal, entered the artillery in 1833, and a year later went to
Algeria. Here he soon did good service, and made himself
remarkable not only for technical skill but the moral qualities
indispensable for high command. Becoming captain in 1839,
he greatly distinguished himself at the actions of Sidi-Lakhdar
and Oued-Melah. He was soon afterwards given the command
of a battalion of native <i>tirailleurs</i>, and in 1843 was thanked in
general orders for his brilliant work against the Flittahs. In
1845 he became lieutenant-colonel, and in 1847 colonel of a
French line regiment. In the following year he was in charge
of the Oran district, where his swift suppression of an insurrection
won him further promotion to the grade of general of brigade,
in which rank he went through the campaign of Kabulia, receiving
a severe wound. In 1853 he returned to France after nineteen
years&rsquo; absence, a general of division. Bosquet was amongst the
earliest chosen to serve in the Crimean War, and at the battle
of the Alma his division led the French attack. When the
Anglo-French troops formed the siege of Sevastopol, Bosquet&rsquo;s
corps of two divisions protected them against interruption.
His timely intervention at Inkerman (November 5, 1854)
secured the victory for the allies. During 1855 Bosquet&rsquo;s corps
occupied the right wing of the besieging armies opposite the
Mamelon and Malakov. He himself led his corps at the storming
of the Mamelon (June 7), and at the grand assault of the 8th of
September he was in command of the whole of the storming
troops. In the struggle for the Malakov he received another
serious wound. At the age of forty-five Bosquet, now one of the
foremost soldiers in Europe, became a senator and a marshal of
France, but his health was broken, and he lived only a few years
longer. He had the grand cross of the Bath, the grand cross
of the Legion of Honour, and the Medjidieh of the 1st class.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSS.<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1) (From the O. Eng. <i>boce</i>, a swelling, cf. Ital. <i>bozza</i>,
and Fr. <i>bosse</i>, possibly connected with the O. Ger. <i>b&#333;zan</i>, to beat),
a round protuberance; the projecting centre or &ldquo;umbo&rdquo; of a
buckler; in geology a projection of rock through strata of
another species; in architecture, the projecting keystone of the
ribs of a vault which masks their junction; the term is also
applied to similar projecting blocks at every intersection. The
boss was often richly carved, generally with conventional
foliage but sometimes with angels, animals or grotesque figures.
The boss was also employed in the flat timber ceilings of the
15th century, where it formed the junction of cross-ribs. (2)
(From the Dutch <i>baas</i>, a word used by the Dutch settlers in
New York for &ldquo;master,&rdquo; and so generally used by the Kaffirs in
South Africa; connected with the Ger. <i>Base</i>, cousin, meaning
a &ldquo;chief kinsman,&rdquo; the head of a household or family), a colloquial
term, first used in America, for an employer, a foreman,
and generally any one who gives orders, especially in American
political slang for the manager of a party organization.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSSI, GIUSEPPE<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1777-1816), Italian painter and writer
on art, was born at the village of Busto Arsizio, near Milan.
He was educated at the college of Monza; and his early fondness
for drawing was fostered by the director of the college, who
supplied him with prints after the works of Agostino Caracci
for copies. He then studied at the academy of Brera at Milan,
and about 1795 went to Rome, where he formed an intimate
friendship with Canova. On his return to Milan he became
assistant secretary, and then secretary, of the Academy of Fine
Arts. He rendered important service in the organization of this
new institution. In 1804, in conjunction with Oriani, he drew
up the rules of the three academies of art of Bologna, Venice
and Milan, and soon after was rewarded with the decoration of
the Iron Crown. On the occasion of the visit of Napoleon I.
to Milan in 1805, Bossi exhibited a drawing of the Last Judgment
of Michelangelo, and pictures representing Aurora and Night,
Oedipus and Creon, and the Italian Parnassus. By command
of Prince Eugene, viceroy of Italy, Bossi undertook to make a
copy of the Last Supper of Leonardo, then almost obliterated,
for the purpose of getting it rendered in mosaic. The drawing
was made from the remains of the original with the aid of copies
and the best prints. The mosaic was executed by Raffaelli,
and was placed in the imperial gallery of Vienna. Bossi made
another copy in oil, which was placed in the museum of Brera.
This museum owed to him a fine collection of casts of great
works of sculpture acquired at Paris, Rome and Florence.
Bossi devoted a large part of his life to the study of the works
of Leonardo; and his last work was a series of drawings in
monochrome representing incidents in the life of that great
master. He left unfinished a large cartoon in black chalk of the
Dead Christ in the bosom of Mary, with John and the Magdalene.
In 1810 he published a special work in large quarto, entitled
<i>Del Cenacolo di Leonardo da Vinci</i>, which had the merit of greatly
interesting Goethe. His other works are <i>Delle Opinioni di Leonardo
intorno alla simmetria de&rsquo; corpi umani</i> (1811), and <i>Del Tipo dell&rsquo; arte
della pittura</i> (1816). Bossi died at Milan on the 15th of December
1816. A monument by Canova was erected to his memory
in the Ambrosian library, and a bust was placed in the Brera.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSSU, RENÉ LE<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1631-1680), French critic, was born in
Paris on the 16th of March 1631. He studied at Nanterre, and
in 1649 became one of the regular canons of Sainte-Geneviève.
He wrote <i>Parallèle des principes de la physique d&rsquo;Aristote et de
celle de René Descartes</i> (1674), and a <i>Traité du poème épique</i>,
highly praised by Boileau, the leading doctrine of which was that
the subject should be chosen before the characters, and that the
action should be arranged without reference to the personages
who are to figure in the scene. He died on the 14th of March 1680.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSSUET, JAQUES BÉNIGNE<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1627-1704), French divine,
orator and writer, was born at Dijon on the 27th of September
1627. He came of a family of prosperous Burgundian lawyers;
his father was a judge of the parliament (a provincial high court)
at Dijon, afterwards at Metz. The boy was sent to school with
the Jesuits of Dijon till 1642, when he went up to the college of
Navarre in Paris to begin the study of theology; for a pious
mother had brought him up to look on the priesthood as his
natural vocation. At Navarre he gained a great reputation for
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288"></a>288</span>
hard work; fellow-students nicknamed him <i>Bos suetus aratro</i>&mdash;an
ox broken in to the plough. But his abilities became known
beyond the college walls. He was taken up by the Hôtel de
Rambouillet, a great centre of aristocratic culture and the original
home of the <i>Précieuses</i>. Here he became the subject of a
celebrated experiment. A dispute having arisen about extempore
preaching, the boy of sixteen was put up, late one night, to
deliver an impromptu discourse. He acquitted himself as well
as in more conventional examinations. In 1652 he took a brilliant
degree in divinity, and was ordained priest. The next seven years
he spent at Metz, where his father&rsquo;s influence had got him a
canonry at the early age of thirteen; to this was now added the
more important office of archdeacon. He was plunged at once
into the thick of controversy; for nearly half Metz was Protestant,
and Bossuet&rsquo;s first appearance in print was a refutation of the
Huguenot pastor Paul Ferry (1655). To reconcile the Protestants
with the Roman Church became the great object of his dreams;
and for this purpose he began to train himself carefully for the
pulpit, an all-important centre of influence in a land where
political assemblies were unknown, and novels and newspapers
scarcely born. Not that he reached perfection at a bound. His
youthful imagination was unbridled, and his ideas ran easily into
a kind of paradoxical subtlety, redolent of the divinity school.
But these blemishes vanished when he settled in Paris (1659),
and three years later mounted the pulpit of the Chapel Royal.</p>

<p>In Paris the congregations had no mercy on purely clerical
logic or clerical taste; if a preacher wished to catch their ear,
he must manage to address them in terms they would agree to
consider sensible and well-bred. Not that Bossuet thought too
much of their good opinion. Having very stern ideas of the
dignity of a priest, he refused to descend to the usual devices
for arousing popular interest. The narrative element in his
sermons grows shorter with each year. He never drew satirical
pictures, like his great rival Bourdaloue. He would not write
out his discourses in full, much less learn them off by heart:
of the two hundred printed in his <i>Works</i> all but a fraction are
rough drafts. No wonder ladies like Mme de Sévigné forsook
him, when Bourdaloue dawned on the Paris horizon in 1669;
though Fénelon and La Bruyère, two much sounder critics,
refused to follow their example. Bossuet possessed the full
equipment of the orator, voice, language, flexibility and strength.
He never needed to strain for effect; his genius struck out at a
single blow the thought, the feeling and the word. What he said
of Martin Luther applies peculiarly to himself: he could &ldquo;fling
his fury into theses,&rdquo; and thus unite the dry light of argument
with the fire and heat of passion. These qualities reach their
highest point in the <i>Oraisons funèbres</i>. Bossuet was always best
when at work on a large canvas; besides, here no conscientious
scruples intervened to prevent him giving much time and thought
to the artistic side of his subject. For the <i>Oraison</i>, as its name
betokened, stood midway between the sermon proper and what
would nowadays be called a biographical sketch. At least,
that was what Bossuet made it; for on this field he stood not
merely first, but alone. His three great masterpieces were
delivered at the funerals of Henrietta Maria, widow of Charles
I. (1669), her daughter, Henrietta, duchess of Orleans (1670),
and the great soldier Condé (1687).</p>

<p>Apart from these state occasions, Bossuet seldom appeared in
a Paris pulpit after 1669. In that year he was gazetted bishop
of Condom in Gascony, though he resigned the charge on being
appointed tutor to the dauphin, only child of Louis XIV., and
now a boy of nine (1670). The choice was scarcely fortunate.
Bossuet unbent as far as he could, but his genius was by no
means fitted to enter into the feelings of a child; and the
dauphin was a cross, ungainly, sullen lad, who grew up to be a
merely genealogical incident at his father&rsquo;s court. Probably
no one was happier than the tutor, when his charge&rsquo;s
sixteenth birthday came round, and he was promptly married
off to a Bavarian princess. Still the nine years at court were by
no means wasted. Hitherto Bossuet had published nothing,
except his answer to Ferry. Now he sat down to write for his
pupil&rsquo;s instruction&mdash;or rather, to fit himself to give that instruction&mdash;a
remarkable trilogy. First came the <i>Traité de la connaissance
de Dieu et de soi-même</i>, then the <i>Discours sur l&rsquo;histoire
universelle</i>, lastly the <i>Politique tirée de l&rsquo;Écriture Sainte</i>. The
three books fit into each other. The <i>Traité</i> is a general sketch
of the nature of God and the nature of man. The <i>Discours</i>
is a history of God&rsquo;s dealings with humanity in the past. The
<i>Politique</i> is a code of rights and duties drawn up in the light
thrown by those dealings. Not that Bossuet literally supposed
that the last word of political wisdom had been said by the Old
Testament. His conclusions are only &ldquo;drawn from Holy Scripture,&rdquo;
because he wished to gain the highest possible sanction
for the institutions of his country&mdash;to hallow the France
of Louis XIV. by proving its astonishing likeness to the Israel
of Solomon. Then, too, the veil of Holy Scripture enabled him
to speak out more boldly than court-etiquette would have otherwise
allowed, to remind the son of Louis XIV. that kings have
duties as well as rights. Louis had often forgotten these duties,
but Louis&rsquo; son would bear them in mind. The tutor&rsquo;s imagination
looked forward to a time when France would blossom into
Utopia, with a Christian philosopher on the throne. That is
what made him so stalwart a champion of authority in all its
forms: <i>&rdquo;le roi, Jésus-Christ et l&rsquo;Église, Dieu en ces trois noms&rdquo;</i>,
he says in a characteristic letter. And the object of his books
is to provide authority with a rational basis. For Bossuet&rsquo;s
worship of authority by no means killed his confidence in reason;
what it did was to make him doubt the honesty of those who
reasoned otherwise than himself. The whole chain of argument
seemed to him so clear and simple. Philosophy proved that
a God exists, and that He shapes and governs the course of
human affairs. History showed that this governance is, for the
most part, indirect, exercised through certain venerable corporations,
as well civil as ecclesiastical, all of which demand implicit
obedience as the immediate representatives of God. Thus all
revolt, whether civil or religious, is a direct defiance of the
Almighty. Cromwell becomes a moral monster, and the revocation
of the edict of Nantes is &ldquo;the greatest achievement of the
second Constantine.&rdquo; Not that Bossuet glorified the <i>status quo</i>
simply as a clerical bigot. The France of his youth had known
the misery of divided counsels and civil war; the France of his
manhood, brought together under an absolute sovereign, had
suddenly shot up into a splendour only comparable with ancient
Rome. Why not, then, strain every nerve to hold innovation
at bay and prolong that splendour for all time? Bossuet&rsquo;s
own <i>Discours sur l&rsquo;histoire universelle</i> might have furnished an
answer, for there the fall of many empires is detailed. But then
the <i>Discours</i> was composed under a single preoccupation. To
Bossuet the establishment of Christianity was the one point of
real importance in the whole history of the world. Over Mahomet
and the East he passed without a word; on Greece and Rome
he only touched in so far as they formed part of the <i>Praeparatio
Evangelica</i>. And yet his <i>Discours</i> is far more than a theological
pamphlet. Pascal, in utter scorn for science, might refer the
rise and fall of empires to Providence or chance&mdash;the nose of
Cleopatra, or &ldquo;a little grain of sand&rdquo; in the English lord
protector&rsquo;s veins. Bossuet held fast to his principle that God
works through secondary causes. &ldquo;It is His will that every
great change should have its roots in the ages that went before
it.&rdquo; Bossuet, accordingly, made a heroic attempt to grapple
with origins and causes, and in this way his book deserves its
place as one of the very first of philosophic histories.</p>

<p>From writing history he turned to history in the making.
In 1681 he was gazetted bishop of Meaux; but before he
could take possession of his see, he was drawn into a
violent quarrel between Louis XIV. and the pope (see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gallicanism</a></span>). Here he found himself between two fires. To
support the pope meant supporting the Jesuits; and he hated
their casuists and <i>dévotion aisée</i> almost as much as Pascal himself.
To oppose the pope was to play into the hands of Louis, who
was frankly anxious to humble the Church before the State. So
Bossuet steered a middle course. Before the general assembly of
the French clergy he preached a great sermon on the unity of the
Church, and made it a magnificent plea for compromise. As Louis
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>289</span>
insisted on his clergy making an anti-papal declaration, Bossuet
got leave to draw it up, and made it as moderate as he could.
And when the pope declared it null and void, he set to work on
a gigantic <i>Defensio Cleri Gallicani</i>, only published after his death.</p>

<p>The Gallican storm a little abated, he turned back to a project
very near his heart. Ever since the early days at Metz he had
been busy with schemes for uniting the Huguenots to the Roman
Church. In 1668 he converted Turenne; in 1670 he published
an <i>Exposition de la foi catholique</i>, so moderate in tone that
adversaries were driven to accuse him of having fraudulently
watered down the Roman dogmas to suit a Protestant taste.
Finally in 1688 appeared his great <i>Histoire des variations des
églises protestantes</i>, perhaps the most brilliant of all his works.
Few writers could have made the Justification controversy
interesting or even intelligible. His argument is simple enough.
Without rules an organized society cannot hold together, and
rules require an authorized interpreter. The Protestant churches
had thrown over this interpreter; and Bossuet had small trouble
in showing that, the longer they lived, the more they varied on
increasingly important points. For the moment the Protestants
were pulverized; but before long they began to ask whether
variation was necessarily so great an evil. Between 1691 and
1701 Bossuet corresponded with Leibnitz with a view to reunion,
but negotiations broke down precisely at this point. Individual
Roman doctrines Leibnitz thought his countrymen might accept,
but he flatly refused to guarantee that they would necessarily
believe to-morrow what they believe to-day. &ldquo;We prefer,&rdquo; he
said, &ldquo;a church eternally variable and for ever moving forwards.&rdquo;
Next, Protestant writers began to accumulate some startling
proofs of Rome&rsquo;s own variations; and here they were backed up
by Richard Simon, a priest of the Paris Oratory, and the father
of Biblical criticism in France. He accused St Augustine,
Bossuet&rsquo;s own special master, of having corrupted the primitive
doctrine of Grace. Bossuet set to work on a <i>Défense de la
tradition</i>, but Simon calmly went on to raise issues graver still.
Under a veil of politely ironical circumlocutions, such as did not
deceive the bishop of Meaux, he claimed his right to interpret
the Bible like any other book. Bossuet denounced him again
and again; Simon told his friends he would wait until &ldquo;the old
fellow&rdquo; was no more. Another Oratorian proved more dangerous
still. Simon had endangered miracles by applying to them lay
rules of evidence, but Malebranche abrogated miracles altogether.
It was blasphemous, he argued, to suppose that the Author of
nature would break through a reign of law He had Himself
established. Bossuet might scribble <i>nova, mira, falsa</i>, in the
margins of his book and urge on Fénelon to attack them;
Malebranche politely met his threats by saying that to be refuted
by such a pen would do him too much honour. These repeated
checks soured Bossuet&rsquo;s temper. In his earlier controversies he
had borne himself with great magnanimity, and the Huguenot
ministers he refuted found him a kindly advocate at court.
Even his approval of the revocation of the edict of Nantes
stopped far short of approving dragonades within his diocese of
Meaux. But now his patience was wearing out. A dissertation
by one Father Caffaro, an obscure Italian monk, became his
excuse for writing certain violent <i>Maximes sur la comédie</i> (1694)
wherein he made an outrageous attack on the memory of Molière,
dead more than twenty years. Three years later he was battling
with Fénelon over the love of God, and employing methods of
controversy at least as odious as Fénelon&rsquo;s own (1697-1699).
All that can be said in his defence is that Fénelon, four-and-twenty
years his junior, was an old pupil, who had suddenly
grown into a rival; and that on the matter of principle most
authorities thought him right.</p>

<p>Amid these gloomy occupations Bossuet&rsquo;s life came slowly to
an end. Till he was over seventy he had scarcely known what
illness was; but in 1702 he was attacked by the stone. Two
years later he was a hopeless invalid, and on the 12th of April
1704 he passed quietly away. Of his private life there is little
to record. Meaux found him an excellent and devoted bishop,
much more attentive to diocesan concerns than his more stirring
occupations would seem to allow. In general society he was
kindly and affable enough, though somewhat ill at ease. Until
he was over forty, he had lived among purely ecclesiastical
surroundings; and it was probably want of self-confidence,
more than want of moral courage, that made him shut his eyes
a little too closely to the disorders of Louis XIV.&rsquo;s private life.
After all, he was not the king&rsquo;s confessor; and to &ldquo;reform&rdquo;
Louis, before age and Mme de Maintenon had sobered him down,
would have taxed the powers of Daniel or Ezekiel. But in his
books Bossuet was anything but timid. All of them, even the
attacks on Simon, breathe an air of masculine belief in reason,
rare enough among the apologists of any age. Bossuet would
willingly have undertaken, as Malebranche actually undertook,
to make an intelligent Chinaman accept all his ideas, if only he
could be induced to lend them his attention. But his best praise
is to have brought all the powers of language to paint an undying
picture of a vanished world, where religion and letters, laws and
science, were conceived of as fixed unalterable planets, circling
for ever round one central Sun.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;The best edition of Bossuet&rsquo;s sermons is the <i>&OElig;uvres
oratoires de Bossuet</i>, edited by Abbé Lebarq, in 6 vols. (Paris, 1890-1896).
His complete works were edited by Lachat, in 31 vols. (Paris, 1862-1864).
A complete list of the innumerable works relating to
him will be found in the <i>Bossuet</i> number of the <i>Bibliothèque des
bibliographies critiques</i>, compiled by Canon Charles Urbain, and
published by the Société des Études Historiques (Paris, 1900).
The general reader will find all he requires in the respective studies of
M. Rebelliau, <i>Bossuet</i> (Paris, 1900),
and M. Gustave Lanson, <i>Bossuet</i> (Paris, 1901).
In English there is a modest <i>Bossuet</i> by Mrs Sidney Lear (London, 1874),
and two remarkable studies by Sir J. Fitz-James Stephen in the second volume
of his <i>Horae Sabbaticae</i> (London, 1892).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(St. C.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSTANAI,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> the name of the first exilarch under Mahommedan
rule, in the middle of the 7th century. The exilarchs had their
seat in Persia, and were practically the secular heads of the
Jewish community in the Orient.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSTON, THOMAS<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1676-1732), Scottish divine, was born at
Duns on the 17th of March 1676. His father, John Boston, and
his mother, Alison Trotter, were both Covenanters. He was
educated at Edinburgh, and licensed in 1697 by the presbytery
of Chirnside. In 1699 he became minister of the small parish of
Simprin, where there were in all &ldquo;not more than 90 examinable
persons.&rdquo; In 1704 he found, while visiting a member of his
flock, a book which had been brought into Scotland by a commonwealth
soldier. This was the famous <i>Marrow of Modern Divinity</i>,
by Edward Fisher, a compendium of the opinions of leading
Reformation divines on the doctrine of grace and the offer of the
Gospel. Its object was to demonstrate the unconditional freeness
of the Gospel. It cleared away such conditions as repentance,
or some degree of outward or inward reformation, and argued
that where Christ is heartily received, full repentance and a new
life follow. On Boston&rsquo;s recommendation, Hog of Carnock
reprinted <i>The Marrow</i> in 1718; and Boston also published
an edition with notes of his own. The book, being attacked
from the standpoint of high Calvinism, became the standard
of a far-reaching movement in Scottish Presbyterianism. The
&ldquo;Marrow men&rdquo; were marked by the zeal of their service and
the effect of their preaching. As they remained Calvinists they
could not preach a universal atonement; they were in fact
extreme particular redemptionists. In 1707 Boston was translated
to Ettrick. He distinguished himself by being the only
member of the assembly who entered a protest against what
he deemed the inadequate sentence passed on John Simson,
professor of divinity at Glasgow, who was accused of heterodox
teaching on the Incarnation. He died on the 20th of May 1732.
His books, <i>The Fourfold State, The Crook in the Lot</i>, and his
<i>Body of Divinity</i> and <i>Miscellanies</i>, long exercised
a powerful influence over the Scottish peasantry.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His <i>Memoirs</i> were published in 1776 (ed. G.D. Low, 1908).
An edition of his works in 12 volumes appeared in 1849.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(D. Mn.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSTON,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> a municipal and parliamentary borough and seaport
of Lincolnshire, England, on the river Witham, 4 m. from its
mouth in the Wash, 107 m. N. of London by the Great Northern
railway. Pop. (1901) 15,667. It lies in a flat agricultural
fen district, drained by numerous cuts, some of which are
navigable. The church of St Botolph is a superb Decorated
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290"></a>290</span>
building, one of the largest and finest parish churches in the
kingdom. A Decorated chapel in it, formerly desecrated, was
restored to sacred use by citizens of Boston, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., in 1857, in memory of the connexion of that city with the
English town. The western tower, commonly known as Boston
Stump, forms a landmark for 40 m. Its foundations were the
first to be laid of the present church (which is on the site of
an earlier one), but the construction was arrested until the
Perpendicular period, of the work of which it is a magnificent
example. It somewhat resembles the completed tower of
Antwerp cathedral, and is crowned by a graceful octagonal
lantern, the whole being nearly 290 ft. in height. The church of
Skirbeck, 1 m. south-east, though extensively restored, retains
good Early English details. Other buildings of interest are the
guildhall, a 15th-century structure of brick; Shodfriars Hall,
a half-timbered house adjacent to slight remains of a Dominican
priory; the free grammar school, founded in 1554, with a fine
gateway of wrought iron of the 17th century brought from St
Botolph&rsquo;s church; and the Hussey Tower of brick, part of a
mansion of the 16th century. Public institutions include a
people&rsquo;s park and large municipal buildings (1904).</p>

<p>As a port Boston was of ancient importance, but in the 18th
century the river had silted up so far as to exclude vessels
exceeding about 50 tons. In 1882-1884 a dock some 7 acres in
extent was constructed, with an entrance lock giving access to
the quay sides for vessels of 3000 tons. The bed of the river
was deepened to 27 ft. for 3 m. below the town, and a new cut
of 3 m. was made from the mouth into deep water. An iron
swing-bridge connects the dock with the Great Northern railway.
There is a repairing slipway accommodating vessels of 800 tons.
Imports, principally timber, grain, cotton and linseed, increased
owing to these improvements from £116,179 in 1881 to £816,698
in 1899; and exports (coal, machinery and manufactured goods)
from £83,000 in 1883 to £261,873 in 1899. The deep-sea and
coastal fisheries are important. Engineering, oil-cake, tobacco,
sail and rope works are the principal industries in the town.
Boston returns one member to parliament. The parliamentary
borough falls within the Holland or Spalding division of the
county. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen
and 18 councillors. Area, 2727 acres.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Boston (Icanhoe, St Botolph or Botolph&rsquo;s Town) derives its name
from St Botolph, who in 654 founded a monastery here, which was
destroyed by the Danes, 870. Although not mentioned in Domesday,
Boston was probably granted as part of Skirbeck to Alan, earl of
Brittany. The excellent commercial position of the town at the
mouth of the Witham explains its speedy rise into importance.
King John by charter of 1204 granted the bailiff of Boston sole
jurisdiction in the town. By the 13th century it was a great
commercial centre second only to London in paying £780 for two years
to the fifteenth levied in 1205, and Edward III. made it a staple
port for wool in 1369. The Hanseatic and Flemish merchants largely
increased its prosperity, but on the withdrawal of the Hanseatic
League about 1470 and the break-up of the gild system Boston&rsquo;s
prosperity began to wane, and for some centuries it remained almost
without trade. Nevertheless it was raised to the rank of a free
borough by Henry VIII.&rsquo;s charter of 1546, confirmed by Edward VI.
in 1547, by Mary in 1553, by Elizabeth (who granted a court of
admiralty) in 1558 and 1573, and by James I. in 1608. Boston sent
members to the great councils in 1337, 1352 and 1353; and from
1552 to 1885 two members were returned to each parliament. The
Redistribution Act 1885 reduced the representation to one member.
In 1257 a market was granted to the abbot of Crowland and in 1308
to John, earl of Brittany. The great annual mart was held before
1218 and attended by many German and other merchants. Two
annual fairs and two weekly markets were granted by Henry VIII.&rsquo;s
charter, and are still held. The Great Mart survives only in the
Beast Mart held on the 11th of December.</p>

<p>See Pishey Thompson, <i>History and Antiquities of Boston and the
Hundred of Skirbeck</i> (Boston, 1856);
George Jebb, <i>Guide to the Church of St Botolph, with Notes
on the History of Boston; Victoria County History: Lincolnshire</i>.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSTON,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> the capital of the state of Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
in Suffolk county; lat. 42° 21&prime; 27.6&Prime; N., long. 71° 3&prime; 30&Prime; W. Pop.
(1900) 560,892, (197,129 being foreign born); (1905, state census)
595,580; (1910), 670,585. Boston is the terminus of the Boston &amp;
Albany (New York Central), the Old Colony system of the New
York, New Haven &amp; Hartford, and the Boston &amp; Maine railway
systems, each of which controls several minor roads once independent.
The city lies on Massachusetts bay, on what was
once a pear-shaped peninsula attached to the mainland by a
narrow, marshy neck, often swept by the spray and water.
On the north is the Charles river, which widens here into a broad,
originally much broader, inner harbour or back-bay. The surface
of the peninsula was very hilly and irregular, the shore-line was
deeply indented with coves, and there were salt marshes that
fringed the neck and the river-channel and were left oozy by
the ebbing tides. Until after the War of Independence the
primitive topography remained unchanged, but it was afterwards
subjected to changes greater than those effected on the site of
any other American city. The area of the original Boston was
only 783 acres, but by the filling in of tidal flats (since 1804)
this was increased to 1829 acres; while the larger corporate
Boston of the present day&mdash;including the annexed territories of
South Boston (1804), Roxbury (1868), Charlestown, Dorchester,
Brighton and West Roxbury (1874)&mdash;comprehends almost
43 sq. m. The beautiful Public Garden and the finest residential
quarter of the city&mdash;the Back Bay, so called from that inner
harbour from whose waters it was reclaimed (1856-1886)&mdash;stand
on what was once the narrowest, but to-day is the widest and
fairest portion of the original site. Whole forests, vast quarries
of granite, and hills of gravel were used in fringing the water
margins, constructing wharves, piers and causeways, redeeming
flats, and furnishing piling and solid foundations for buildings.
At the edge of the Common, which is now well within the city,
the British troops in 1775 took their boats on the eve of the
battle of Lexington; and the post-office, now in the very heart
of the business section of the city, stands on the original
shore-line. The reclaimed territory is level and excellently drained. The
original territory still preserves to a large degree its irregularity
of surface, but its hills have been much degraded or wholly razed.
Beacon Hill, so called from its ancient use as a signal warning
station, is still the most conspicuous topographical feature of
the city, but it has been changed from a bold and picturesque
eminence into a gentle slope. After the great fire of 1872 it
became possible, in the reconstruction of the business district,
to widen and straighten its streets and create squares, and so
provide for the traffic that had long outgrown the narrow,
crooked ways of the older city. Atlantic Avenue, along the
harbour front, was created, and Washington Street, the chief
business artery, was largely remade after 1866. It is probable
that up to 1875, at least, there had been a larger outlay of labour,
material and money, in reducing, levelling and reclaiming
territory, and in straightening and widening thoroughfares<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in
Boston, than had been expended for the same purposes in all
the other chief cities of the United States together. Washington
Street, still narrow, is perhaps the most crowded and congested
thoroughfare in America. The finest residence streets are in the
Back Bay, which is laid out, in sharp contrast with the older
quarters, in a regular, rectangular arrangement. The North
End, the original city and afterwards the fashionable quarter,
is now given over to the Jews and foreign colonies.</p>

<p>The harbour islands, three of which have been ceded to the
United States for the purpose of fortification, are numerous,
and render the navigation of the shipping channels difficult
and easily guarded. Though tortuous of access, the channels
afford a clear passage of 27-35 ft. since great improvements were
undertaken by the national government in 1892, 1899, 1902 and
1907, and the harbour, when reached, is secure. It affords nearly
60 sq. m. of anchorage, but the wharf line, for lack of early
reservation, is not so large as it might and should have been.
The islands in the harbour, now bare, were for the most part
heavily wooded when first occupied. It has been found impossible
to afforest them on account of the roughness of the sea-air, and
the wash from their bluffs into the harbour has involved large
expense in the erection of sea-walls. Castle Island has been
fortified since the earliest days; Fort Independence, on this
island, and Forts Winthrop and Warren on neighbouring islands,
constitute permanent harbour defences. The broad watercourses
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291"></a>291</span>
around the peninsula are spanned by causeways and bridges,
East Boston only, that the harbours may be open to the
navy-yard at Charlestown, being reached by ferry (1870), and by
the electric subway under the harbour. At the Charlestown
navy-yard (1800) there are docks, manufactories, foundries,
machine-shops, ordnance stores, rope-walks, furnaces, casting-pits,
timber sheds, ordnance-parks, ship-houses, &amp;c. The famous
frigate &ldquo;Independence&rdquo; was launched here in 1814, the more
famous &ldquo;Constitution&rdquo; having been launched while the yard
was still private in 1797. The first bridge over the Charles,
to Charlestown, was opened in 1786. The bridge of chief artistic
merit is the Cambridge Bridge (1908), which replaced the old
West Boston Bridge, and is one feature of improvements long
projected for the beautifying of the Charles river basin.</p>

<p>Comparatively few relics of the early town have been spared by
time and the improvements of the modern city. Three cemeteries
remain intact&mdash;King&rsquo;s chapel burying ground, with the graves
of John Winthrop and John Cotton; the Old Granary burial ground
in the heart of the city, where Samuel Sewall, the parents
of Franklin, John Hancock, James Otis and Samuel Adams are
buried; and Copp&rsquo;s Hill burial ground, containing the tombs of
the Mathers. Christ church (1723) is the oldest church of the
city; in its tower the signal lanterns were displayed for Paul
Revere on the night of the 18th of April 1775. The Old South
church (1730-1782), the old state house (1748, restored 1882),
and Faneuil Hall (1762-1763, enlarged 1805, reconstructed 1898)
are rich in memorable associations of the period preceding the
War of Independence. The second was the seat of the royal
government of Massachusetts during the provincial period, and
within its walls from 1760 to 1775 the questions of colonial
dependence or independence probably first came into evident
conflict. The Old South church has many associations; it was,
for instance, the meeting-place of the people after the &ldquo;Boston
Massacre&rdquo; of 1770, when they demanded the removal of the
British troops from the city; and here, too, were held the meetings
that led up to the &ldquo;Boston Tea Party&rdquo; of 1773. Faneuil Hall
(the original hall of the name was given to the city by Peter
Faneuil, a Huguenot merchant, in 1742) is associated, like the
Old South, with the patriotic oratory of revolutionary days and
is called &ldquo;the cradle of American liberty.&rdquo; Its association with
reform movements and great public issues of later times is not
less close and interesting.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The adjoining Quincy market may
be mentioned because its construction (1826) was utilized to
open six new streets, widen a seventh, and secure flats, docks
and wharf rights&mdash;all without laying tax or debt upon the city.
The original King&rsquo;s chapel (1688, present building 1749-1754) was
the first Episcopal church of Boston, which bitterly resented
the action of the royal governor in 1687 in using the Old South
for the services of the Church of England. The new state house,
the oldest portion of which (designed by Charles Bulfinch)
was erected in 1795-1798, was enlarged in 1853-1856, and again
by a huge addition in 1889-1898 (total cost about $6,800,000 to
1900).  Architecturally, everything is subordinated to a conformity
with the style of the original portion; and its gilded dome
is a conspicuous landmark. Other buildings of local importance
are the city hall (1865); the United States government building
(1871-1878, cost about $6,000,000); the county court-house
(1887-1893, $2,250,000); the custom-house (1837-1848);
and the chamber of commerce (1892).</p>

<p>Copley Square, in the Back Bay, is finely distinguished by a
group of exceptional buildings: Trinity church, the old Museum
of Fine Arts, the public library and the new Old South church.
Trinity (1877, cost $800,000), in yellowish granite with dark
sandstone trimmings, the masterpiece of H.H. Richardson, is built
in the Romanesque style of southern France; it is a Latin cross
surmounted by a massive central tower, with smaller towers and
an adjacent chapel reached by open cloisters that distribute
the balance (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>, Plate XVI. fig. 137). It has
windows by La Farge, William Morris, Burne-Jones and others.</p>

<p>The library (1888-1895; cost $2,486,000, exclusive of the site,
given by the state) is a dignified, finely proportioned building of
pinkish-grey stone, built in the style of the Italian Renaissance,
suggesting a Florentine palace. It has an imposing exterior
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>, Plate XVI. fig. 135), a beautiful inner court,
and notable decorative features and embellishments, including
bronze doors by D.C. French, a statue of Sir Henry Vane by
Macmonnies, a fine staircase in Siena marble, some characteristic
decorative panels by Puvis de Chavannes (illustrating the
history of science and literature), and other notable decorative
paintings by John S. Sargent (on the history of religion), Edwin
A. Abbey (on the quest of the Holy Grail). The old Museum of
Fine Arts (1876) is a red brick edifice in modern Gothic style,
with trimmings of light stone and terra-cotta. The new Old
South (the successor of the Old South, which is now a museum)
is a handsome structure of Italian Gothic style, with a fine
campanile. The dignified buildings of the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology are near. In Huntington Avenue, at its
junction with Massachusetts Avenue, is another group of handsome
new buildings, including Horticultural Hall, Symphony
Hall (1900) and the New England Conservatory of Music.
In the Back Bay Fens, reclaimed swamps laid out by F.L.
Olmsted, still other groups have formed&mdash;among others those
of the marble buildings of the Harvard medical school; Fenway
Court, a building in the style, internally, of a Venetian palace,
that houses the art treasures of Mrs. J.L. Gardner, and Simmons
College. Here, too, is the new building (1908) of the Museum of
Fine Arts. Throughout the Fens excellently effective use is
being made of monumental buildings grouped in ample grounds.</p>

<p>Boston compares favourably with other American cities in
the character of its public and private architecture. The height
of buildings in the business section is limited to 125 ft., and in
some places to 90 ft.</p>

<p>One of the great public works of Boston is its subway for
electric trams, about 3 m. long, in part with four tracks and in
part with two, constructed since 1895 at a cost of about $7,500,000
up to 1905. The branch to East Boston (1900-1904) passes beneath
the harbour bed and extends from Scollay Square, Boston, to
Maverick Square, East Boston; it was the first all-cement tunnel
(diameter, 23.6 ft.) in the world. The subway was built by the
city, but leased and operated by a private company on such terms
as to repay its cost in forty years. Another tunnel has been
added to the system, under Washington Street. The narrow
streets and the traffic congestion of the business district presented
difficult problems of urban transit, but the system is of exceptional
efficiency. There is an elevated road whose trains, like the
surface cars, are accommodated in the centre of the city by the
subway. All the various roads&mdash;surface, elevated (about 7 m.,
built 1896-1901), and subway&mdash;are controlled, almost wholly,
by one company. They all connect and interchange passengers
freely; so that the ordinary American five-cent fare enables
a passenger to travel between almost any two points over an
area of 100 sq. m. The two huge steam-railway stations of the
Boston &amp; Maine and the Boston &amp; Albany systems also deserve
mention. The former (the North, or Union station, 1893) covers
9 acres and has 23 tracks; the latter (the South Terminal, 1898),
one of the largest stations in the world, covers 13 acres and has
32 tracks, and is used by the Boston &amp; Albany and by the New
York, New Haven &amp; Hartford railways.</p>

<p>A noteworthy feature of the metropolitan public water
service was begun in 1896 in the Wachusett lake reservoir
at Clinton, on the Nashua river. The basin here excavated
by ten years of labour, lying 385 ft. above high-tide level
of Boston harbour, has an area of 6.5 sq. m., an average
depth of 46 ft., and a capacity of 63,068,000,000 gallons of
water. It is the largest municipal reservoir in the world<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a>, yet
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292"></a>292</span>
it is only part of a system planned for the service of the metropolitan
area.</p>

<p>The park system is quite unique among American cities.
The Common, a park of 48 acres, in the centre of the city, has
been a public reservation since 1634, and no city park in the
world is cherished more affectionately for historical associations.
Adjoining it is the Public Garden of 24 acres (1859), part of the
made area of the city. Commonwealth Avenue, one of the Back
Bay streets running from the foot of the Public Garden, is one of
the finest residence streets of the country. It is 240 ft. wide,
with four rows of trees shading the parking of its central mall,
and is a link through the Back Bay Fens with the beautiful outer
park system. The park system consists of two concentric
rings, the inner being the city system proper, the outer the
metropolitan system undertaken by the commonwealth in
co-operation with the city. The former has been laid out since
1875, and includes upwards of 2300 acres, with more than 100 m.
of walks, drives and rides. Its central ornament is Franklin
Park (527 acres). The metropolitan system, which extends
around the city on a radius of 10 to 12 m., was begun in 1893.
It embraces over 10,000 acres, including the Blue Hill reservation
(about 5000 acres), the highest land in eastern Massachusetts,
a beautiful reservation of forest, crag and pond known as
Middlesex Fells, two large beach bath reservations on the harbour
at Revere and Hull (Nantasket), and the boating section of the
Charles river. At the end of 1907 more than $13,000,000 had
been expended on the system. Including the local parks of the
cities and towns of the metropolitan district there are over
17,000 acres of pleasure grounds within the metropolitan park
district. Boston was the pioneer municipality of the country in
the establishment of open-air gymnasiums. A great improvement,
planned for many years, was brought nearer by the completion
of the new Cambridge Bridge. This improvement was
projected to include the damming of the Charles river, and the
creation of a great freshwater basin, with drive-ways of reclaimed
land along the shores, and other adornments, somewhat after
the model of the Alster basins at Hamburg.</p>

<p><i>Art and Literature.</i>&mdash;The Museum of Fine Arts was founded
in 1870 (though there were art exhibits collected from 1826
onward) and its present building was erected in 1908. It has
one of the finest collections of casts in existence, a number of
original pieces of Greek statuary, the second-best collection in
the world of Aretine ware, the finest collection of Japanese
pottery, and probably the largest and finest of Japanese paintings
in existence. Among the memorials to men of Massachusetts
(a large part of them Bostonians) commemorated by monuments
in the Common, the Public Garden, the grounds of the state
house, the city hall, and other public places of the city, are
statues of Charles Sumner, Josiah Quincy and John A. Andrew
by Thomas Ball; of Generals Joseph Hooker and William F.
Bartlett, and of Rufus Choate by Daniel C. French; of W.L.
Garrison and Charles Devens by Olin L. Warner; of Samuel
Adams by Anne Whitney; of John Winthrop and Benjamin
Franklin by R.S. Greenough; of Edward Everett (W.W. Story),
Colonel W. Prescott (Story), Horace Mann (E. Stebbins), Daniel
Webster (H. Powers), W.E. Channing (H. Adams), N.P. Banks
(H.H. Kitson), Phillips Brooks (A. St Gaudens), and J.B.
O&rsquo;Reilly (D.C. French).</p>

<p>Among other important monuments are a group by J.Q.A.
Ward commemorating the first proof of the anaesthetic
properties of ether, made in 1846 in the Massachusetts General
Hospital by Dr W.T.G. Morton; an emancipation group of
Thomas Ball with a portrait statue of Lincoln; a fine equestrian
statue, by the same sculptor, of Washington, one of the best
works in the country (1869); an army and navy monument
in the Common by Martin Millmore, in memory of the Civil
War; another (1888) recording the death of those who fell in the
Boston Massacre of 1770; statues of Admiral D.G. Farragut
(H.H. Kitson), Leif Ericson (Anne Whitney), and Alexander
Hamilton (W. Rimmer); and a magnificent bronze bas-relief
(1897) by Augustus St Gaudens commemorating the departure
from Boston of Colonel Robert G. Shaw with the first regiment
of negro soldiers enlisted in the Civil War. There is an art
department of the city government, under unpaid commissioners,
appointed by the mayor from candidates named by local art and
literary institutions; and without their approval no work of art
can now become the property of the city.</p>

<p>The public library, containing 922,348 volumes in January
1908, is the second library of the country in size, and is the largest
free circulating library in the world (circulation 1907, 1,529,111
volumes). There was a public municipal library in Boston before
1674&mdash;probably in 1653; but it was burned in 1747 and was
apparently never replaced. The present library (antedated by
several circulating, social and professional collections) may
justly be said to have had its origin in the efforts of the Parisian,
Alexandre Vattemare (1796-1864), from 1830 on, to foster
international exchanges. From 1847 to 1851 he arranged gifts
from France to American libraries aggregating 30,655 volumes,
and a gift of 50 volumes by the city of Paris in 1843 (reciprocated
in 1849 with more than 1000 volumes contributed by private
citizens) was the nucleus of the Boston public library. Its legal
foundation dates from 1848. Among the special collections are
the George Ticknor library of Spanish and Portuguese books
(6393 vols.), very full sets of United States and British public
documents, the Bowditch mathematical library (7090 vols.),
the Galatea collection on the history of women (2193 vols.), the
Barton library, including one of the finest existing collections of
Shakespeariana (3309 vols., beside many in the general library),
the A.A. Brown library of music (9886 vols.), a very full collection
on the anthropology and ethnology of Europe, and more than
100,000 volumes on the history, biography, geography and
literature of the United States. The library is supported almost
entirely by municipal appropriations, though holding also considerable
trust funds ($388,742 in 1905). The other notable
book-collections of the city include those of the Athenaeum,
founded in 1807 (about 230,000 vols. and pamphlets), the
Massachusetts Historical Society (founded 1791; 50,300), the
Boston medical library (founded 1874; about 80,000), the New
England Historic-Genealogical Society (founded 1845; 33,750
volumes and 34,150 pamphlets), the state library (founded
1826; 140,000), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
(founded 1780; 30,000), the Boston Society of Natural History
(founded 1830; about 35,000 volumes and 27,000 pamphlets).</p>

<p>The leading educational institutions are the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, the largest purely scientific and technical
school in the country, opened to students (including
women) in 1865, four years after the granting of a charter to
Prof. W.B. Rogers, the first president; Boston University
(chartered in 1869; Methodist Episcopal; co-educational); the
New England Conservatory of Music (co-educational; private;
1867, incorporated 1880), the largest in the United States,
having 2400 students in 1905-1906; the Massachusetts College
of Pharmacy (1852); the Massachusetts Normal Art School
(1873); the School of Drawing and Painting (1876) of the
Museum of Fine Arts; Boston College (1860), Roman Catholic,
under the Society of Jesus; St John&rsquo;s Theological Seminary
(1880), Roman Catholic; Simmons College (1899) for women,
and several departments of Harvard University. The Institute
of Technology has an exceptional reputation for the wide range
of its instruction and its high standards of scholarship. It was a
pioneer in introducing as a feature of its original plans laboratory
instruction in physics, mechanics and mining. The architects
of the United States navy are sent here for instruction in their
most advanced courses. Boston University was endowed by
Isaac Rich (1801-1872), a Boston fish-merchant, Lee Claflin
(1791-1871), a shoe manufacturer and a benefactor of Wesleyan
University and of Wilbraham Seminary, and Jacob Sleeper.
It has been co-educational from the beginning. Its faculties of
theology&mdash;founded in 1841 at Newbury, Vt., as the Biblical
Institute; in 1847-1867 in Concord, N.H.; and in 1867-1871
the Boston Theological Seminary&mdash;law, music, medicine, liberal
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293"></a>293</span>
arts and agriculture (at Amherst, in association with the Massachusetts
Agricultural College), all antedate 1876. The funds for
Simmons College were left by John Simmons in 1870, who wished
to found a school to teach the professions and &ldquo;branches of art,
science and industry best calculated to enable the scholars to
acquire an independent livelihood.&rdquo; The Lowell Institute (<i>q.v.</i>),
established in 1839 (by John Lowell, Jr., who bequeathed
$237,000 for the purpose), provides yearly courses of free public
lectures, and its lecturers have included many of the leading
scholars of America and Europe. During each winter, also, a
series of public lectures on American history is delivered in the
Old South meeting house. The public schools, particularly the
secondary schools, enjoy a very high reputation. The new English
High and Latin school, founded in 1635, is the oldest school of
the country. A girls&rsquo; Latin school, with the same standards as
the boys&rsquo; school, was established in 1878 (an outcome of the
same movement that founded Radcliffe College). There are large
numbers of private schools, in art, music and academic studies.</p>

<p>In theatrical matters Boston is now one of the chief American
centres. The Federal Street theatre&mdash;the first regular theatre&mdash;was
established in 1794, the old Puritan feeling having had its
natural influence in keeping Boston behind New York and
Philadelphia in this respect. The dramatic history of the city is
largely associated with the Boston Museum, built in 1841 by
Moses Kimball on Tremont Street, and rebuilt in 1846 and
1880; here for half a century the principal theatrical performances
were given (see an interesting article in the <i>New England
Magazine</i>, June 1903), in later years under the management of
R. Montgomery Field, until in 1903 the famous Boston Museum
was swept away, as other interesting old places of entertainment
(the old Federal Street theatre, the Tremont theatre, &amp;c.) had
been, in the course of further building changes. The Boston
theatre dates from 1854, and there were seventeen theatres
altogether in 1900.</p>

<p>As a musical centre Boston rivals New York. Among musical
organizations may be mentioned the Handel and Haydn Society
(1815), the Harvard Musical Association (1837), the Philharmonic
(1880) and the Symphony Orchestra, organized in 1881 by the
generosity of Henry Lee Higginson. This orchestra has done
much for music not only in Boston but in the United States
generally. In 1908 the Boston Opera Company was incorporated,
and an opera house has been erected on the north side of
Huntington Avenue.</p>

<p>Boston was the undisputed literary centre of America until
the later decades of the 19th century, and still retains a considerable
and important colony of writers and artists. Its ascendancy
was identical with the long predominance of the New
England literary school, who lived in Boston or in the country
round about. Two Boston periodicals (one no longer so) that
still hold an exceptional position in periodical literature, the
<i>North American Review</i> (1815) and the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i> (1857),
date from this period. The great majority of names in the long
list of worthies of the commonwealth&mdash;writers, statesmen,
orators, artists, philanthropists, reformers and scholars, are
intimately connected with Boston. Among the city&rsquo;s daily
newspapers the <i>Boston Herald</i> (1846), the <i>Boston Globe</i>, the
<i>Evening Transcript</i> (1830), the <i>Advertiser</i> (1813) and the <i>Post</i>
(1831) are the most important.</p>

<p><i>Industry and Commerce</i>.&mdash;Boston is fringed with wharves.
Commercial interests are largely concentrated in East Boston.
Railway connexion with Worcester, Lowell and Providence
was opened in 1835; with Albany, N.Y., and thereby with
various lines of interior communication, in 1841 (double track,
1868); with Fitchburg, in 1845; and in 1851 connexion was
completed with the Great Lakes and Canada. In 1840 Boston
was selected as the American terminus of the Cunard Line, the
first regular line of trans-Atlantic steamers. The following
decade was the most active of the city&rsquo;s history as regards the
ocean carrying trade. Boston ships went to all parts of the globe.
The Cunard arrangement was the first of various measures
that worked for a commercial rapprochement between the New
England states and Canada, culminating in the reciprocity treaty
of 1854, and Boston&rsquo;s interests are foremost to-day in demanding
a return to relations of reciprocity. Beginning about 1855 the
commerce of the port greatly declined. The Cunard service
has not been continuous. In 1869 there was not one vessel steaming
directly for Europe; in 1900 there were 973 for foreign
ports. Great improvements of the harbour were undertaken
in 1902 by the United States government, looking to the creation
of two broad channels 35 ft. deep. Railway rates have also been
a matter of vital importance in recent years; Boston, like
New York, complaining of discriminations in favour of Philadelphia,
Baltimore, New Orleans and Galveston. Boston also
feels the competition of Montreal and Portland; the Canadian
roads being untrammelled in the matter of freight differentials.
Boston is the second import port of the United States, but its
exports in 1907 were less than those of Philadelphia, of Galveston,
or of New Orleans. The total tonnage in foreign trade entering
and leaving in 1907 was 5,148,429 tons; and in the same year
9616 coasting vessels (tonnage, 10,261,474) arrived in Boston.
The value of imports and exports for 1907 were respectively
$123,414,168 and $104,610,908. Fibres and vegetable grasses,
wool, hides and skins, cotton, sugar, iron and steel and their
manufactures, chemicals, coal, and leather and its manufactures
are the leading imports; provisions, leather and its manufactures,
cotton and its manufactures, breadstuffs, iron and steel and
their manufactures are the leading exports. In the exportation
of cattle, and of the various meat and dairy products classed as
provisions, Boston is easily second to New York. It is the largest
wool and the largest fish market of the United States, being
in each second in the world to London only.</p>

<p>Manufacturing is to-day the most distinctive industry, as
was commerce in colonial times. The value of all manufactured
products from establishments under the &ldquo;factory system&rdquo;
in 1900 was $162,764,523; in 1905 it was $184,351,163. Among
the leading and more distinctive items were printing and
publishing ($21,023,855 in 1905); sugar and molasses refining
($15,746,547 in 1900; figures not published in 1905 because
of the industry being in the hands of a single owner); men&rsquo;s
clothing (in 1900, $8,609,475, in 1905, $11,246,004); women&rsquo;s
clothing (in 1900, $3,258,483, in 1905, $5,705,470); boots and
shoes (in 1900, $3,882,655, in 1905, $5,575,927); boot and shoe
cut stock (in 1905, $5,211,445); malt liquors (in 1900, $7,518,668,
in 1905, $6,715,215); confectionery (in 1900, $4,455,184, in
1905, $6,210,023); tobacco products (in 1900, $3,504,603,
in 1905, $4,592,698); pianos and organs ($3,670,771 in 1905);
other musical instruments and materials (in 1905, $231,780);
rubber and elastic goods (in 1900, $3,139,783, in 1905, $2,887,323);
steam fittings and heating apparatus (in 1900, $2,876,327, in
1905, $3,354,020); bottling, furniture, &amp;c. Art tiles and pottery
are manufactured in Chelsea. Shipbuilding and allied industries
early became of great importance. The Waltham watch and
the Singer sewing-machine had their beginning in Boston in
1850. The making of the Chickering pianos goes back to 1823,
and of Mason &amp; Hamlin reed organs to 1854; these are to-day
very important and distinctive manufactures of the city. The
ready-made clothing industry began about 1830.</p>

<p><i>Government</i>.&mdash;Beyond a recognition of its existence in 1630,
when it was renamed, Boston can show no legal incorporation
before 1822; although the uncertain boundaries between the
powers of colony and township prompted repeated petitions
to the legislature for incorporation, beginning as early as 1650.
In 1822 Boston became a city. Thus for nearly two centuries
it preserved intact its old &ldquo;town&rdquo; government, disposing of
all its affairs in the &ldquo;town-meeting&rdquo; of its citizens. Excellent
political training such a government unquestionably offered;
but it became unworkable as disparities of social condition increased,
as the number of legal voters (above 7000 in 1822)
became greater, and as the population ceased to be homogeneous
in blood. All the citizens did not assemble; on the contrary
ordinary business seldom drew out more than a hundred voters,
and often a mere handful. From very early days executive
officers known as &ldquo;select-men,&rdquo; constables, clerks of markets,
hog reeves, packers of meat and fish, &amp;c., were chosen; and the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>294</span>
select-men, particularly, gained power as the attendance of the
freemen on meetings grew onerous. Interested cliques could
control the business of the town-meeting in ordinary times, and
boisterousness marred its democractic excellence in exciting
times. Large sums were voted loosely, and expended by executive
boards without any budgetary control. The whole system was
full of looseness, complexity and makeshifts. But the tenacity
with which it was clung to, proved that it was suited to the
community; and whether helpful or harmful to, it was not
inconsistent with, the continuance of growth and prosperity.
Various other Massachusetts townships, as they have grown
older, have been similarly compelled to abandon their old form
of government. The powers of the old township were much
more extensive than those of the present city of Boston, including
as they did the determination of the residence of strangers,
the allotment of land, the grant of citizenship, the fixing of
wages and prices, of the conditions of lawsuits and even a
voice in matters of peace and war. The city charter was revised
in 1854, and again reconstructed in important particulars by
laws of 1885 separating the executive and legislative powers,
and by subsequent acts. A complete alteration of the government
has indeed been effected since 1885. Boston proper is only
the centre of a large metropolitan area, closely settled, with
interests in large part common. This metropolitan area, within
a radius of approximately 10 m. about the state house, contained
in 1900 about 40% of the population of the state. In the last
two decades of the 19th century the question of giving to this
greater city some general government, fully consolidated or of
limited powers, was a standing question of expediency. The
commonwealth has four times recognized a community of metropolitan
interests in creating state commissions since 1882 for
the union of such interests, beginning with a metropolitan health
district in that year. The metropolitan water district (1895)
included in 1908 Boston and seventeen cities or townships in
its environs; the metropolitan sewerage district (1889) twenty
four; the park service (1893) thirty-nine. Local sentiment
was firmly against complete consolidation. The creation of
the state commissions, independent of the city&rsquo;s control, but
able to commit the city indefinitely by undertaking expensive
works and new debt, was resented. Independence is further
curtailed by other state boards semi-independent of the city&mdash;the
police commission of three members from 1885 to 1906,
and in 1906 a single police commissioner, appointed by the
governor, a licensing board of three members, appointed by the
governor; the transit commission, &amp;c. There are, further,
county offices (Suffolk county comprises only Boston, Chelsea,
Revere and Winthrop), generally independent of the city,
though the latter pays practically all the bills.</p>

<p>A new charter went into effect in 1910. It provided for
municipal elections in January; for the election of a mayor
for four years; for his recall at the end of two years if a majority
of the registered voters so vote in the state election in November
in the second year of his term; for the summary removal for cause
by the mayor of any department head or other of his appointees,
for a city council of one chamber of nine members, elected at
large each for three years; for nomination by petition; for a
permanent finance commission appointed by the governor; for
the confirmation of the mayor&rsquo;s appointments by the state civil
service commission; for the mayor&rsquo;s preparation of the annual
budget (in which items may be reduced but not increased by the
council), and for his absolute veto of appropriations except
for school use. The school committee (who serve gratuitously)
appoint the superintendent and supervisors of schools.
The number of members of the school-board was in 1905
reduced from twenty-four to five, elected by the city at large,
and serving for one, two or three years; at the same time power
was centralized in the hands of the superintendent of schools.
Civil service reform principles cover the entire municipal
administration. The city&rsquo;s work is done under an eight-hour
law.</p>

<p>An analysis of city election returns for the decade 1890-1899
showed that the interest of the citizens was greatest in the choice
of a president; then, successively, in the choice of a mayor, a
governor, the determination of liquor-license questions by
referendum, and the settlement of other referenda. On 21
referenda, 10 being questions of license, the ratio of actual to
registered voters ranged on the latter from 57.00 to 75.38%
(mean 61.15), and on other referenda from 75.63 to 33.40 (mean
61.39),&mdash;the mean for all, 64.18. But the average of two presidential
votes was 85.37%; and the maxima, minima and means
for mayors and governors were respectively 83.86, 74.99, 78.36
and 84.73, 61.78, 75.72. Of those who might, only some 50 to
65% actually register. Women vote for school committee-men
(categories as above, 95.18, 59.62, 76.49%). On a referendum
in 1895 on the expediency of granting municipal suffrage
to women only 59.08% of the women who were registered
voted, and probably less than 10% of those entitled to be
registered.</p>

<p>Hospitals, asylums, refuges and homes, pauper, reformatory
and penal institutions, flower missions, relief associations, and
other charitable or philanthropic organizations, private and
public, number several hundreds. The Associated Charities is an
incorporated organization for systematizing the various charities
of the city. The Massachusetts general hospital (1811-1821)&mdash;
with a branch for mental and nervous diseases, McLean hospital
(1816), in the township of Belmont (post-office, Waverley) about
6 m. W.N.W. of Boston; the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts
school for the blind (1832), famous for its conduct by
Samuel G. Howe, and for association with Laura Bridgman and
Helen Keller; the Massachusetts school for idiotic and feebleminded
children (1839); and the Massachusetts charitable eye
and ear infirmary (1824), all receive financial aid from the
commonwealth, which has representation in their management.
The city hospital dates from 1864. A floating hospital for women
and children in the summer months, with permanent and transient
wards, has been maintained since 1894 (incorporated 1901).
Boston was one of the first municipalities of the country to
make provision for the separate treatment of juvenile offenders;
in 1906 a juvenile court was established. A People&rsquo;s Palace
dedicated to the work of the Salvation Army, and containing
baths, gymnasium, a public hall, a library, sleeping-rooms, an
employment bureau, free medical and legal bureaus, &amp;c., was
opened in 1906. Simmons College and Harvard University maintain
the Boston school for social workers (1904). Beneficent
social work out of the more usual type is directed by the music
and bath departments of the city government. In the provision
of public gymnasiums and baths (1866) Boston was the
pioneer city of the country, and remains the most advanced.
The beach reservations of the metropolitan park system at
Revere and Nantasket, and several smaller city beaches are
a special feature of this service. Benjamin Franklin, who
was born and spent his boyhood in Boston, left £1000 to
the city in his will; it amounted in 1905 to $403,000, and
constituted a fund to be used for the good of the labouring
class of the city.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Largely owing to activity in public works Boston has long been
the most expensively governed of American cities. The average
yearly expenditure for ten years preceding 1904 was $27,354,416,
exclusive of payments on funded and floating debts. The running
expenses <i>per-capita</i> in 1900 were $35.23; more than twice the
average of 86 leading cities of the country (New York, $23.92;
Chicago, $11.62). Schools, police, charities, water, streets and
parks are the items of heaviest cost. The cost of the public schools
for the five years from 1901-1902 to 1906-1907 was $27,883,937,
of which $7,057,895.42 was for new buildings; the cost of the
police department was $11,387,314.66 for the six years 1902-1907;
and of the water department $4,941,343.37 for the six years 1902-1907;
of charities and social work a much larger sum. The remaking
of the city was enormously expensive, especially the alteration
of the streets after 1866, when the city received power to make
such alterations and assess a part of the improvements upon abutting
estates. The creation of the city water-system has also been excessively
costly, and the total cost up to the 31st of January 1908
of the works remaining to the city after the creation of the metropolitan
board in 1898 was about $17,000,000. The metropolitan
water board&mdash;of whose expenditures Boston bears only a share&mdash;expended
from 1895 to 1900 $20,693,870; and the system was planned
to consume finally probably 40 millions at least. The city park
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>295</span>
system proper had cost $16,627,033 up to 1899 inclusive; and the
metropolitan parks $13,679,456 up to 1907 inclusive. There are
no municipal lighting-plants; but the companies upon which the
city depends for its service are (with all others) subject to the control
of a state commission. In 1885 a state law placed a limit on the
contractable debt and upon the taxation rate of the city. Revenues
were not realized adequate to its lavish undertakings, and loans were
used to meet current expenses. The limits were altered subsequently,
but the net debt has continued to rise. In 1822 it was $100,000; in
1850, $6,195,144; in 1886, $24,712,820; in 1904, $58,216,725; in
1907, $70,781,969 (gross debt, $104,206,706)&mdash;this included the debt
of Suffolk county which in 1907 was $3,517,000. The chief objects
for which the city debt was created were in 1907, in millions of
dollars: highways, 24.07, parks, 16.29, drainage and sewers, 15.05,
rapid transit, 13.57 and water-works, 4.53. Boston paid in 1907
36% of all state taxes, and about 33, 62, 47 and 79% respectively
of the assessments for the metropolitan sewer, parks, boulevards and
water services. About a third of its revenue goes for such uses or
for Suffolk county expenditures over which it has but limited
control. The improvement of the Back Bay and of the South
Boston flats was in considerable measure forced upon the city by
the commonwealth. The debt per capita is as high as the cost of
current administration relatively to other cities. The average
interest rate on the city obligations in 1907 was about 3.7%. The
city&rsquo;s tax valuation in 1907 was $1,313,471,556 (in 1822, $42,140,200;
in 1850, $180,000,500), of which only $242,606,856 represented personalty;
although in the judgment of the city board of trade such
property cannot by any possibility be inferior in value to realty.</p>
</div>

<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;Up to the War of Independence the population
was not only American, but it was in its ideas and standards
essentially Puritan; modern liberalism, however, has introduced
new standards of social life. In 1900 35.1% of the inhabitants
were foreign-born, and 72.2% wholly or in part of foreign
parentage. Irish, English-Canadian, Russian, Italian, English
and German are the leading races. Of the foreign-born population
these elements constituted respectively 35.6, 24.0, 7.6, 7.0,
6.7 and 5.3%. Large foreign colonies, like adjoining but
unmixing nations, divide among themselves a large part of the
city, and give to its life a cosmopolitan colour of varied speech,
opinion, habits, traditions, social relations and religions. Most
remarkable of all, the Roman Catholic churches, in this stronghold
of exiled Puritanism where Catholics were so long under the
heavy ban of law, outnumber those of any single Protestant
denomination; Irish Catholics dominate the politics of the city,
and Protestants and Catholics have been aligned against each
other on the question of the control of the public schools.
Despite, however, its heavy foreign admixture the old Americanism
of the city remains strikingly predominant. The population
of Boston at the end of each decennial period since 1790 was as
follows:&mdash;(1790), 18,320; (1800), 24,937; (1810), 33,787; (1820),
43,298; (1830), 61,392; (1840), 93,383; (1850), 136,881;
(1860), 177,840; (1870), 250,526; (1880), 362,839; (1890),
448,477; (1900), 560,892.</p>

<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;John Smith visited Boston Harbour in 1614, and it
was explored in 1621 by a party from Plymouth. There were
various attempts to settle about its borders in the following
years before John Endecott in 1628 landed at Salem as governor
of the colony of Massachusetts bay, within which Boston was
included. In June 1630 John Winthrop&rsquo;s company reached
Charlestown. At that time a &ldquo;bookish recluse,&rdquo; William
Blaxton (Blackstone), one of the several &ldquo;old planters&rdquo; scattered
about the bay, had for several years been living on Boston
peninsula. The location seemed one suitable for commerce and
defence, and the Winthrop party chose it for their settlement.
The triple summit of Beacon Hill, of which no trace remains
to-day (or possibly a reference to the three hills of the then
peninsula, Beacon, Copp&rsquo;s and Fort) led to the adoption of the
name Trimountaine for the peninsula,&mdash;a name perpetuated
variously in present municipal nomenclature as in Tremont;
but on the 17th of September 1630, the date adopted for
anniversary celebrations, it was ordered that &ldquo;Trimountaine shall
be called Boston,&rdquo; after the borough of that name in Lincolnshire,
England, of which several of the leading settlers had formerly
been prominent citizens.<a name="fa4c" id="fa4c" href="#ft4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>

<p>For several years it was uncertain whether Cambridge,
Charlestown or Boston should be the capital of the colony, but
in 1632 the General Court agreed &ldquo;by general consent, that
Boston is the fittest place for public meetings of any place in
the Bay.&rdquo; It rapidly became the wealthiest and most populous.
Throughout the 17th century its history is so largely that of
Massachusetts generally that they are inseparable. Theological
systems were largely concerned. The chief features of this epoch
&mdash;the Antinomian dissensions, the Quaker and Baptist persecutions,
the witchcraft delusion (four witches were executed in
Boston, in 1648, 1651, 1656, 1688) &amp;c.&mdash;are referred to in the
article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Massachusetts</a></span> (<i>q.v.</i>). In 1692 the first permanent and
successful printing press was established; in 1704 the first
newspaper in America, the <i>Boston News-Letter</i>, which was
published weekly until 1776. Puritanism steadily mellowed
under many influences. By the turn of the first century bigotry
was distinctly weakened. Among the marks of the second half
of the 17th century was growing material prosperity, and there
were those who thought their fellows unduly willing to relax
church tests of fellowship when good trade was in question.
There was an unpleasant Englishman who declared in 1699
that he found &ldquo;Money Their God, and Large Possessions the only
Heaven they Covet.&rdquo; Prices were low, foreign commerce was
already large, business thriving; wealth gave social status; the
official British class lent a lustre to society; and Boston &ldquo;town&rdquo;
was drawing society from the &ldquo;country.&rdquo; Of the two-score or so
of families most prominent in the first century hardly one retained
place in the similar list for the early years of the second. Boston
was a prosperous, thrifty, English country town, one traveller
thought. Another, Daniel Neal, in 1720, found Boston conversation
&ldquo;as polite as in most of the cities and towns in England,
many of their merchants having the advantage of a free conversation
with travellers; so that a gentleman from London
would almost think himself at home at Boston, when he observes
the number of people, their houses, their furniture, their tables,
their dress and conversation, which perhaps is as splendid and
showy as that of the most considerable tradesmen in London.&rdquo;</p>

<p>The population, which was almost stationary through much
of the century, was about 20,000 in the years immediately before
the War of Independence. At this time Boston was the most
flourishing town of North America. It built ships as cheaply
as any place in the world, it carried goods for other colonies,
it traded&mdash;often evading British laws&mdash;with Europe, Guinea,
Madagascar and above all with the West Indies. The merchant
princes and social leaders of the time are painted with elaborate
show of luxury in the canvases of Copley. The great English
writers of Queen Anne&rsquo;s reign seem to have been but little known
in the colony, and the local literature, though changed somewhat
in character, showed but scant improvement. About the middle
of the century restrictions upon the press began to disappear.
At the same time questions of trade, of local politics, finally
of colonial autonomy, of imperial policy, had gradually, but
already long since, replaced theology in leading interest. In
the years 1760-1776 Boston was the most frequently recurring
and most important name in British colonial history. Sentiments
of limited independence of the British government had
been developing since the very beginning of the settlement
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Massachusetts</a></span>), and their strength in 1689 had been
strikingly exhibited in the local revolution of that year, when
the royal governor, Sir Edmund Andros, and other high officials,
were frightened into surrender and were imprisoned. This
movement, it should be noted, was a popular rising, and not the
work of a few leaders.</p>

<p>The incidents that marked the approach of the War of Independence
need barely be adverted to. Opposition to the measures
of the British government for taxing and oppressing the colonies
began in Boston. The argument of Otis on the writs of assistance
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296"></a>296</span>
was in 1760-1761. The Stamp Act, passed in 1765, was repealed
in 1766; it was opposed in Boston by a surprising show of
determined and unified public sentiment. Troops were first
quartered in the town in 1768. In 1770, on the 5th of March,
in a street brawl, a number of citizens were killed or wounded
by the soldiers, who fired into a crowd that were baiting a sentry.
This incident is known as the &ldquo;Boston Massacre.&rdquo; The Tea Act
of 1773 was defied by the emptying into the harbour of three
cargoes of tea on the 16th of December 1773, by a party of citizens
disguised as Indians, after the people in town-meeting had
exhausted every effort, through a period of weeks, to procure the
return of the tea-ships to England. To this act Great Britain
replied by various penal regulations and reconstructive acts of
government. She quartered troops in Boston; she made the
juries, sheriffs and judges of the colony dependent on the royal
officers; she ordered capital offenders to be tried in Nova Scotia
or England; she endeavoured completely to control or to
abolish town-meetings; and finally, by the so-called &ldquo;Boston
Port Bill,&rdquo; she closed the port of Boston on the 1st of June 1774.
Not even a ferry, a scow or other boat could move in the harbour.
Marblehead and Salem were made ports of entry, and Salem was
made the capital. But they would not profit by Boston&rsquo;s
misfortune. The people covenanted not to use British goods and
to suspend trade with Great Britain. From near neighbours
and from distant colonies came provisions and encouragement.
In October 1774, when General Gage refused recognition to the
Massachusetts general court at Salem, the members adjourned to
Concord as the first provincial congress. Finally came war,
with Lexington and Bunker Hill, and beleaguerment by the
colonial army; until on the 17th of March 1776 the British
were compelled by Washington to evacuate the city. With
them went about 1100 Tory refugees, many of them of the finest
families of the city and province. The evacuation closed the
heroic period of Boston&rsquo;s history. War did not again approach
the city.</p>

<p>The years from 1776 to the end of &ldquo;town&rdquo; government in
1822 were marked by slow growth and prosperity. Commerce
and manufactures alike took great impetus. Direct trade with
the East Indies began about 1785, with Russia in 1787. A
Boston vessel, the &ldquo;Columbia&rdquo; (Captain Robert Gray), opened
trade with the north-west coast of America, and was the first
American ship to circumnavigate the globe (1787-1790). In
1805 Boston began the export of ice to Jamaica, a trade which
was gradually extended to Cuba, to ports of the southern states,
and finally to Rio de Janeiro and Calcutta (1833), declining
only after the Civil War; it enabled Boston to control the
American trade of Calcutta against New York throughout the
entire period. But of course it was far less important than
various other articles of trade in the aggregate values of commerce.
It was Boston commerce that was most sorely hurt by the
embargo and non-importation policy of President Jefferson.
In manufactures the foundation was laid of the city&rsquo;s wealth.
In politics the period is characterized by Boston&rsquo;s connexion
with the fortunes of the Federalist party. The city was warmly
in favour of the adoption of the federal constitution of 1787;
even Samuel Adams was rejected for Congress because he was
backward in its support. It was the losses entailed upon her
commerce by the commercial policy of Jefferson&rsquo;s administration
that embittered Boston against the Democratic-Republican
party and put her public men in the forefront of the opposition
to its policies that culminated in lukewarmness toward the War
of 1812, and in the Hartford Convention of 1814.</p>

<p>Some mention must be made of the Unitarian movement.
Unitarian tendencies away from the Calvinism of the old
Congregational churches were plainly evident about 1750, and it
is said by Andrew P. Peabody (1811-1893) that by 1780 nearly
all the Congregational pulpits around Boston were filled by
Unitarians. Organized Unitarianism in Boston dates from 1785.
In 1782 King&rsquo;s chapel (Episcopal) became Unitarian, and in
1805 one of that faith was made professor of divinity in Harvard.
But the Unitarianism of those times, even the Unitarianism of
Channing, was very different from that of to-day. Theodore
Parker and Channing have been the greatest leaders. The
American Unitarian Association, organized in 1825, has always
retained its headquarters in Boston. The theological and
philosophical developments of the second quarter of the 19th
century were characterized by the transcendental movement
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Massachusetts</a></span>).</p>

<p>In the period from 1822 to the Civil War anti-slavery is the
most striking feature of Boston&rsquo;s annals. Garrison established
the Liberator in 1831; W.E. Channing became active in the
cause of abolition in 1835, and Wendell Phillips a little later.
In 1835 a mob, composed in part of wealthy and high-standing
citizens, attacked a city-building, and dragged Garrison through
the streets until the mayor secured his safety by putting him
in gaol. But times changed. In 1850 a reception was given
in Faneuil Hall in honour of the English anti-slavery leader,
George Thompson, whose reported intention to address Bostonians
in 1835 precipitated the riot of that year. In 1851 the Court
House was surrounded with chains to prevent the &ldquo;rescue&rdquo;
of a slave (Sims) held for rendition under the Fugitive Slave
Law; another slave (Shadrach) was released this same year,
and in 1854 there was a riot and intense excitement over the
rendition of Anthony Burns. Boston had long since taken
her place in the very front of anti-slavery ranks, and with the
rest of Massachusetts was playing somewhat the same part as
in the years before the War of Independence.</p>

<p>Later events of importance have already been indicated in
essentials. On the 9th-10th of November 1872 a terrible fire
swept the business part of the city, destroying hundreds of buildings
of brick and granite, and inflicting a loss of some $75,000,000.
Within two years the whole area, solidly rebuilt and with widened
and straightened streets, showed no traces of the ruin except an
appearance superior in all respects to that presented before the
fire. The expense of this re-creation probably duplicated, at
least, the loss from the conflagration. Since this time there has
been no set-back to the prosperity of the city. But it is not upon
material prosperity that Boston rests its claims for consideration.
It prides itself on its schools, its libraries, its literary traditions,
its splendid public works and its reputation as the chief centre
of American culture.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;See the annual <i>City Documents</i>; also Justin
Winsor (ed.) <i>The Memorial History of Boston, including Suffolk
County ... 1630-1880</i> (4 vols., Boston, 1880-1881), a work that
covers every phase of the city&rsquo;s growth, history and life;
S.A. Drake, <i>The History and Antiquities of ... Boston</i> (2 vols.,
Boston, 1854; and later editions),
and <i>Old Landmarks and Historic Personages of Boston</i> (Boston, 1873, and later editions);
Josiah Quincy, <i>A Municipal History of ... Boston ... to ... 1830</i> (Boston, 1852);
C.W. Ernst, <i>Constitutional History of Boston</i> (Boston, 1894);
H.H. Sprague, <i>City Government in Boston&mdash;its Rise and Development</i> (Boston, 1890);
E.E. Hale, <i>Historic Boston and its Neighbourhood</i> (New York, 1898),
and L. Swift, <i>Literary Landmarks of Boston</i> (Boston, 1903).
A great mass of original historical documents have been
published by the registry department of the city government since
1876 (34 v. to 1905). Boston has been described in many works of
fiction, and the reader may be referred to the novels of E.L. Bynner,
to L. Maria Childs&rsquo; <i>The Rebels</i>,
to J.F. Cooper&rsquo;s <i>Lionel Lincoln</i>,
to the early novels of W.D. Howells (also those of Arlo Bates),
to O.W. Holmes&rsquo; <i>Poet</i> and <i>Autocrat</i>,
and Hawthorne&rsquo;s <i>Scarlet Letter</i>, as pictures of Boston life
at various periods since early colonial days.</p>
</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> On the alteration of streets alone $26,691,496 were expended
from 1822 to 1880.</p>

<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Faneuil Hall is the headquarters of the Ancient and Honourable
Artillery Company of Boston, the oldest military organization of
the country, organized in 1638.</p>

<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The dam is 1250 ft. long, with a maximum height of 129 ft.,
only 750 ft. having a depth of more than 40 ft. from high water to
rock. The entire surface of the basin was scraped to bed rock,
sand or mineral earth, this alone costing $3,000,000. Connected
with the reservoir is an aqueduct, of which 2 m. are tunnel and 7 m.
covered masonry. The metropolitan system as planned in 1905 for
the near future contemplated storage for 80,000,000,000 gallons,
reservoirs holding 2,200,000,000 gallons for immediate use, aqueducts
capable of carrying 420,000,000 gallons daily, and a minimum daily
supply of 173,000,000 gallons.</p>

<p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> In 1851 the mayor of the English Boston sent over a copy of that
city&rsquo;s seals, framed in oak from St Botolph&rsquo;s church, of which John
Cotton, the famous Boston divine (he came over in 1633) had been
vicar. The seals now hang in the city hall. In 1855 a number of
Americans, including Charles Francis Adams and Edward Everett,
and also various descendants of Cotton, united to restore the south-west
chapel of St Botolph&rsquo;s church, and to erect in it a memorial
tablet to Cotton&rsquo;s memory. The total amount raised by subscription
for this purpose was £673.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSTON,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> a game of cards invented during the last quarter
of the 18th century. It is said to have originated in Boston,
Massachusetts, during the siege by the British. It seems to have
been invented by the officers of the French fleet which lay for a
time off the town of Marblehead, and the name of the two small
islands in Marblehead harbour which have, from the period of the
American Revolution, been called Great and Little Misery,
correspond with expressions used in the game. William Tudor,
in his <i>Letters on the Eastern States</i>, published in 1821,
states somewhat differently that &ldquo;A game of cards was invented in
Versailles and called in honour of the town, Boston; the points of
the game are allusive, &lsquo;great independence,&rsquo; &lsquo;little independence,&rsquo;
&rsquo;great misery,&rsquo; &lsquo;little misery,&rsquo; &amp;c. It is composed partly
of whist and partly of quadrille, though partaking mostly of the
former.&rdquo; The game enjoyed an extraordinary vogue in high
French society, where it was the fashion at that time to admire
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297"></a>297</span>
all things American. &ldquo;The ladies... filled my pockets with
bon-bons, and ... called me &lsquo;<i>le pétit Bostonien.</i>&rsquo; It was indeed
by the name of Bostonian that all Americans were known in
France then. The war having broken out in Boston and the
first great battle fought in its neighbourhood, gave to that name
universal celebrity. A game invented at that time, played with
cards, was called &lsquo;Boston,&rsquo; and is to this day (1830) exceedingly
fashionable at Paris by that appellation&rdquo; (<i>Recollections of Samuel
Breck</i>, Philadelphia, 1877). There was a tradition that Dr
Franklin was fond of the game and even that he had a hand in
its invention. At the middle of the 19th century it was still
popular in Europe, and to a less degree in America, but its favour
has steadily declined since then.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The rules of Boston recognized in English-speaking countries differ
somewhat from those in vogue in France. According to the former,
two packs of 52 cards are used, which rank as in whist, both for cutting
and dealing. Four players take part, and there are usually no
partners. Counters are used, generally of three colours and values,
and each hand is settled for as soon as finished. The entire first
pack is dealt out by fours and fives, and the second pack is cut for
the trump, the suit of the card turned being &ldquo;first preference,&rdquo; the
other suit of the same colour &ldquo;second preference&rdquo; or &ldquo;colour,&rdquo;
while the two remaining suits are &ldquo;plain suits.&rdquo; The eldest hand
then announces that he will make a certain number of tricks provided
he may name the trump, or lose a certain number without
trumps. The different bids are called by various names, but the
usual ones are as follows:&mdash;To win five tricks, &ldquo;Boston.&rdquo; (To win)
&ldquo;six tricks.&rdquo; (To win) &ldquo;seven tricks.&rdquo; To lose twelve tricks, after
discarding one card that is not shown, &ldquo;little <i>misère</i>.&rdquo; (To win)
&ldquo;eight tricks.&rdquo; (To win) &ldquo;nine tricks.&rdquo; To lose every trick,
&ldquo;grand <i>misère</i>.&rdquo; (To win) &ldquo;ten tricks.&rdquo; (To win) &ldquo;eleven tricks.&rdquo;
To lose twelve tricks, after discarding one card that is not shown,
the remaining twelve cards being exposed on the table but not liable
to be called, &ldquo;little spread.&rdquo; (To win) &ldquo;twelve tricks.&rdquo; To lose
every trick with exposed cards, &ldquo;grand spread.&rdquo; To win thirteen
tricks, &ldquo;grand slam.&rdquo; If a player does not care to bid he may pass,
and the next player bids. Succeeding players may &ldquo;overcall,&rdquo; <i>i.e</i>.
overbid, previous bidders. Players passing may thereafter bid only
&ldquo;<i>misères</i>.&rdquo; If a player bids seven but makes ten he is paid for the
three extra tricks, but on a lower scale than if he had bid ten. If
no bid should be made, a &ldquo;<i>misère partout</i>&rdquo; (general poverty) is
often played, the trump being turned down and each player striving
to take as few tricks as possible. Payments are made by each loser
according to the value of the winner&rsquo;s bid and the overtricks he has
scored. There are regular tables of payments. In America overtricks
are not usually paid for. In French Boston the knave of
diamonds arbitrarily wins over all other cards, even trumps. The
names of the different bids remind one of the period of the American
Revolution, including &ldquo;Independence,&rdquo; &ldquo;Philadelphia,&rdquo; &ldquo;Souveraine,&rdquo;
&ldquo;Concordia,&rdquo; &amp;c. Other variations of the game are <i>Boston
de Fontainebleau</i> and Russian Boston.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSTONITE,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> in petrology, a fine-grained, pale-coloured, grey
or pinkish rock, which consists essentially of alkali-felspar
(orthoclase, microperthite, &amp;c.). Some of them contain a small
amount of interstitial quartz (quartz bostonites); others have a
small percentage of lime, which occasions the presence of a
plagioclase felspar (maenite, gauteite, lime-bostonite). Other
minerals, except apatite, zircon and magnetite, are typically
absent. They have very much the same composition as the
trachytes; and many rocks of this series have been grouped
with these or with the orthophyres. Typically they occur as
dikes or as thin sills, often in association with nepheline-syenite;
and they seem to bear a complementary relationship to certain
types of lamprophyre, such as camptonite and monchiquite.
Though nowhere very common they have a wide distribution,
being known from Scotland, Wales, Massachusetts, Montreal,
Portugal, Bohemia, &amp;c. The lindoites and quartz-lindoites of
Norway are closely allied to the bostonites.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSTRÖM, CHRISTOFFER JACOB<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1797-1866), Swedish
philosopher, was born at Piteå and studied at Upsala, where
from 1840 to 1863 he was professor of practical philosophy.
His philosophy, as he himself described it, is a thoroughgoing
rational idealism founded on the principle that the only true
reality is spiritual. God is Infinite Spirit in whom all existence
is contained, and is outside the limitations of time and space.
Thus Boström protests not only against empiricism but also
against those doctrines of Christian theology which seemed to
him to picture God as something less than Pure Spirit. In ethics
the highest aim is the direction of actions by reason in harmony
with the Divine; so the state, like the individual, exists solely in
God, and in its most perfect form consists in the harmonious
obedience of all its members to a constitutional monarch; the
perfection of mankind as a whole is to be sought in a rational
orderly system of such states in obedience to Universal Reason.
This system differs from Platonism in that the &ldquo;ideas&rdquo; of God
are not archetypal abstractions but concrete personalities.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Boström&rsquo;s writings were edited by H. Edfeldt (2 vols., Upsala,
1883). For his school see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>Literature</i>; also H. Höffding,
<i>Filosofien i Sverig</i> (German trans. in <i>Philos. Monatsheften</i>, 1879), and
<i>History of Mod. Philos.</i> (Eng. trans., 1900), p. 284; R. Falckenberg,
<i>Hist. of Phil.</i> (Eng. trans., 1895); A. Nyblaeus, <i>Om den Boströmske
filosofien</i> (Lund, 1883), and <i>Karakteristik af den Boströmska
filosofien</i> (Lund, 1892).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSWELL, JAMES<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1740-1795), Scottish man of letters, the
biographer of Samuel Johnson, was born at Edinburgh on the
29th of October 1740. His grandfather was in good practice at
the Scottish bar, and his father, Alexander Boswell of Auchinleck,
was also a noted advocate, who, on his elevation to the supreme
court in 1754, took the name of his Ayrshire property as Lord
Auchinleck. A Thomas Boswell (said upon doubtful evidence to
have been a minstrel in the household of James IV.) was killed at
Flodden, and since 1513 the family had greatly improved its
position in the world by intermarriage with the first Scots
nobility. In contradiction to his father, a rigid Presbyterian
Whig, James was &ldquo;a fine boy, wore a white cockade, and prayed
for King James until his uncle Cochrane gave him a shilling to
pray for King George, which he accordingly did&rdquo; (&ldquo;Whigs of all
ages are made in the same way&rdquo; was Johnson&rsquo;s comment).
He met one or two English boys, and acquired a &ldquo;tincture of
polite letters&rdquo; at the high school in Edinburgh. Like R.L.
Stevenson, he early frequented society such as that of the actors
at the Edinburgh theatre, sternly disapproved of by his father.
At the university, where he was constrained for a season to study
civil law, he met William Johnson Temple, his future friend and
correspondent. The letters of Boswell to his &ldquo;Atticus&rdquo; were
first published by Bentley in 1857. One winter he spent at
Glasgow, where he sat under Adam Smith, who was then lecturing
on moral philosophy and rhetoric.</p>

<p>In 1760 he was first brought into contact with &ldquo;the elegance,
the refinement and the liberality&rdquo; of London society, for which
he had long sighed. The young earl of Eglintoun took him to
Newmarket and introduced him into the society of &ldquo;the great,
the gay and the ingenious.&rdquo; He wrote a poem called &ldquo;The Cub
at Newmarket,&rdquo; published by Dodsley in 1762, and had visions
of entering the Guards. Reclaimed with some difficulty by his
father from his rakish companions in the metropolis, he contrived
to alleviate the irksomeness of law study in Edinburgh by forcing
his acquaintance upon the celebrities then assembled in the
northern capital, among them Kames, Blair, Robertson, Hume
and Sir David Dalrymple (Lord Hailes), of whose sayings on the
Northern Circuit he kept a brief journal. Boswell had already
realized his vocation, the exercise of which was to give a new
word to the language. He had begun to Boswellize. He was
already on the track of bigger game&mdash;the biggest available in the
Britain of that day. In the spring of 1763 Boswell came to a
composition with his father. He consented to give up his pursuit
of a guidon in the Guards and three and sixpence a day on condition
that his father would allow him to study civil law on the
continent. He set out in April 1763 by &ldquo;the best road in Scotland&rdquo;
with a servant, on horseback like himself, in &ldquo;a cocked
hat, a brown wig, brown coat made in the court fashion, red vest,
corduroy small clothes and long military boots.&rdquo; On Monday,
the 16th of May 1763, in the back shop of Tom Davies the bookseller,
No. 8 Russell Street, Covent Garden, James Boswell first
met &ldquo;Dictionary Johnson,&rdquo; the great man of his dreams, and
was severely buffeted by him. Eight days later, on Tuesday,
the 24th of May, Boswell boldly called on Mr Johnson at his
chambers on the first floor of No. 1 Inner Temple Lane. On
this occasion Johnson pressed him to stay; on the 13th of June
he said, &ldquo;Come to me as often as you can&rdquo;; on the 25th of June
Boswell gave the great man a little sketch of his own life, and
Johnson exclaimed with warmth, &ldquo;Give me your hand; I have
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>298</span>
taken a liking to you.&rdquo; Boswell experienced a variety of
sensations, among which exultation was predominant. Some one
asked, &ldquo;Who is this Scotch cur at Johnson&rsquo;s heels?&rdquo; &ldquo;He is
not a cur,&rdquo; replied Goldsmith, &ldquo;he is only a bur. Tom Davies
flung him at Johnson in sport, and he has the faculty of
sticking.&rdquo; Johnson was fifty-four at this time and Boswell
twenty-three. After June 1763 they met on something like 270
subsequent days. These meetings formed the memorable part
of Boswell&rsquo;s life, and they are told inimitably in his famous
biography of his friend.</p>

<p>The friendship, consecrated by the most delightful of biographies,
and one of the most gorgeous feasts in the whole
banquet of letters, was not so ill-assorted as has been inconsiderately
maintained. Boswell&rsquo;s freshness at the table of
conversation gave a new zest to every maxim that Johnson
enunciated, while Boswell developed a perfect genius for interpreting
the kind of worldly philosophy at which Johnson was so
unapproachable. Both men welcomed an excuse for avoiding
the task-work of life. Johnson&rsquo;s favourite indulgence was to
talk; Boswell&rsquo;s great idea of success to elicit memorable conversation.
Boswell is almost equally admirable as a reporter
and as an interviewer, as a collector and as a researcher. He
prepared meetings for Johnson, he prepared topics for him, he
drew him out on questions of the day, he secured a copy of his
famous letter to Lord Chesterfield, he obtained an almost
verbatim report of Johnson&rsquo;s interview with the king, he frequented
the tea-table of Miss Williams, he attended the testy old
scholar on lengthy peregrinations in the Highlands and in the
midlands. &ldquo;Sir,&rdquo; said Johnson to his follower, &ldquo;you appear to
have only two subjects, yourself and me, and I am sick of both.&rdquo;
Yet thorough as the scheme was from the outset, and admirable
as was the devotedness of the biographer, Boswell was far too
volatile a man to confine himself to any one ambition in life that
was not consistent with a large amount of present fame and
notoriety. He would have liked to Boswellize the popular idol
Wilkes, or Chatham, or Voltaire, or even the great Frederick
himself. As it was, during his continental tour he managed in
the autumn of 1765 to get on terms with Pasquale di Paoli, the
leader of the Corsican insurgents in their unwise struggle against
Genoa. After a few weeks in Corsica he returned to London in
February 1766, and was received by Johnson with the utmost
cordiality. In accordance with the family compact referred to, he
was now admitted advocate at Edinburgh, and signalized his
return to the law by an enthusiastic pamphlet entitled <i>The
Essence of the Douglas Cause</i> (November 1767), in which he
vigorously repelled the charge of imposture from the youthful
claimant. In the same year he issued a little book called <i>Dorando</i>,
containing a history of the Douglas cause in the guise of a Spanish
tale, and bringing the story to a conclusion by the triumph of
Archibald Douglas in the law courts. Editors who published
extracts while the case was still <i>sub judice</i> were censured severely
by the court of session; but though his identity was notorious
the author himself escaped censure. In the spring of 1768
Boswell published through the Foulis brothers of Glasgow his
<i>Account of Corsica, Journal of a Tour to that Island, and Memoirs
of Pascal Paoli</i>. The liveliness of personal impression which he
managed to communicate to all his books gained for this one a
deserved success, and the <i>Tour</i> was promptly translated into
French, German, Italian and Dutch. Walpole and others,
jeered, but Boswell was talked about everywhere, as Paoli
Boswell or Paoli&rsquo;s Englishman, and to aid the mob in the task of
identifying him at the Shakespeare jubilee of 1769 he took the
trouble to insert a placard in his hat bearing the legend &ldquo;Corsica
Boswell.&rdquo; The amazing costume of &ldquo;a Corsican chief&rdquo; which he
wore on this occasion was described at length in the magazines.</p>

<p>On the 25th of November 1769, after a short tour in Ireland
undertaken to empty his head of Corsica (Johnson&rsquo;s emphatic
direction), Boswell married his cousin Margaret Montgomery at
Lainshaw in Ayrshire. For some years henceforth his visits to
London were brief, but on the 30th of April 1773 he was present
at his admission to the Literary Club, for which honour he had
been proposed by Johnson himself, and in the autumn of this
year in the course of his tour to the Hebrides Johnson visited the
Boswells in Ayrshire. Neither Boswell&rsquo;s father nor his wife
shared his enthusiasm for the lexicographer. Lord Auchinleck
remarked that Jamie was &ldquo;gane clean gyte ... And whose tail
do ye think he has pinned himself to now, man? A dominie,
an auld dominie, that keepit a schule and ca&rsquo;d it an academy!&rdquo;
Housewives less prim than Mrs Boswell might have objected to
Johnson&rsquo;s habit of turning lighted candles upside down when in the
parlour to make them burn better. She called the great man a
bear. Boswell&rsquo;s <i>Journal of a Tour in the Hebrides</i> was written for
the most part during the journey, but was not published until
the spring of 1786. The diary of Pepys was not then known to the
public, and Boswell&rsquo;s indiscretions as to the emotions aroused in
him by the neat ladies&rsquo; maids at Inveraray, and the extremity of
drunkenness which he exhibited at Corrichatachin, created a
literary sensation and sent the <i>Tour</i> through three editions in one
year. In the meantime his pecuniary and other difficulties at
home were great; he made hardly more than £100 a year by his
profession, and his relations with his father were chronically
strained. In 1775 he began to keep terms at the Inner Temple and
managed to see a good deal of Johnson, between whom and John
Wilkes he succeeded in bringing about a meeting at the famous
dinner at Dilly&rsquo;s on the 15th of May 1776. On the 30th of August
1782 his father died, leaving him an estate worth £1600 a year.
On the 30th of June 1784, Boswell met Johnson for the last time at
a dinner at Sir Joshua Reynolds&rsquo;s. He accompanied him back in
the coach from Leicester Square to Bolt Court. &ldquo;We bade adieu
to each other affectionately in the carriage. When he had got
down upon the foot pavement he called out &lsquo;Fare you well&rsquo;;
and without looking back, sprung away with a kind of pathetic
briskness, if I may use that expression, which seemed to indicate
a struggle to conceal uneasiness, and impressed me with a foreboding
of our long, long separation.&rdquo; Johnson died that year,
and two years later the Boswells moved to London. In 1789 Mrs
Boswell died, leaving five children. She had been an excellent
mother and a good wife, despite the infidelities and drunkenness
of her husband, and from her death Boswell relapsed into worse
excesses, grievously aggravated by hypochondria. He died of a
complication of disorders at his house in Great Poland Street
on the 19th of May 1795, and was buried a fortnight later at
Auchinleck.</p>

<p>Up to the eve of his last illness Boswell had been busy upon his
magnum opus, <i>The Life of Samuel Johnson</i>, which was in process
of crystallization to the last. The first edition was published in
two quarto volumes in an edition of 1700 copies on the 16th of May
1791. He was preparing a third edition when he died; this was
completed by his friend Edmund Malone, who brought out a fifth
edition in 1807. That of James Boswell junior (the editor of
Malone&rsquo;s <i>Variorum Shakespeare</i>, 1821) appeared in 1811.</p>

<p>The <i>Life of Johnson</i> was written on a scale practically unknown
to biographers before Boswell. It is a full-length with all the
blotches and pimples revealed (&ldquo;I will not make my tiger a cat
to please anybody,&rdquo; wrote &ldquo;Bozzy&rdquo;). It may be overmuch an
exhibition of oddities, but it is also, be it remembered, a pioneer
application of the experimental method to the determination of
human character. Its size and lack of divisions (to divide it
into chapters was an original device of Croker&rsquo;s) are a drawback,
and have prevented Boswell&rsquo;s <i>Life</i> from that assured
triumph abroad which has fallen to the lot of various English
classics such as <i>Robinson Crusoe</i> or <i>Gulliver&rsquo;s Travels</i>. But
wherever English is spoken, it has become a veritable sacred
book and has pervaded English life and thought in the same way,
that the Bible, Shakespeare and Bunyan have done. Boswell
has successfully (to use his own phrase) &ldquo;Johnsonized&rdquo; Britain,
but has not yet Johnsonized the planet. The model originally
proposed to himself by Boswell was Mason&rsquo;s <i>Life of Gray</i>, but
he far surpassed that, or indeed any other, model. The fashion
that Boswell adopted of giving the conversations not in the
neutral tints of <i>oratio obliqua</i> but in full <i>oratio recta</i> was a stroke of
genius. But he is far from being the mere mechanical transmitter
of good things. He is a dramatic and descriptive artist of
the first order. The extraordinary vitality of his figures postulates
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>299</span>
a certain admixture of fiction, and it is certain that Boswell
exaggerates the sympathy expressed in word or deed by Johnson
for some of his own tenderer foibles. But, on the whole, the
best judges are of opinion that Boswell&rsquo;s accuracy is exceptional,
as it is undoubtedly seconded by a power of observation of a
singular retentiveness and intensity. The difficulty of dramatic
description can only be realized, as Jowett well pointed out, by
those who have attempted it, and it is not until we compare
Boswell&rsquo;s reports with those of less skilful hearers that we can
appreciate the skill with which the essence of a conversation
is extracted, and the whole scene indicated by a few telling
touches. The result is that Johnson, not, it is true, in the early
days of his poverty, total idleness and the pride of literature,
but in the fulness of fame and competence of fortune from 1763
to 1784, is better known to us than any other man in history.
The old theory to explain such a marvel (originally propounded
by Gray when the <i>Tour in Corsica</i> appeared) that &ldquo;any fool may
write a valuable book by chance&rdquo; is now regarded as untenable.
If fool is a word to describe Boswell (and his folly was at times
transcendent) he wrote his great book because and not in despite
of the fact that he was one. There can be no doubt, in fact, that
he was a biographical genius, and that he arranged his opportunities
just as he prepared his transitions and introduced
those inimitable glosses by which Johnson&rsquo;s motives are explained,
his state of mind upon particular occasions indicated,
and the general feeling of his company conveyed. This remarkable
literary faculty, however, was but a fraction of the total
make-up requisite to produce such a masterpiece as the <i>Life</i>.
There is a touch of genius, too, in the naïf and imperturbable
good nature and persistency (&ldquo;Sir, I will not be baited with
&rsquo;what&rsquo; and &lsquo;why.&rsquo; &lsquo;Why is a cow&rsquo;s tail long?&rsquo; &lsquo;Why is a
fox&rsquo;s tail bushy?&rsquo;&rdquo;), and even in the abnegation of all personal
dignity, with which Boswell pursued his hero. As he himself
said of Goldsmith, &ldquo;He had sagacity enough to cultivate
assiduously the acquaintance of Johnson, and his faculties
were gradually enlarged.&rdquo; Character, the vital principle of the
individual, is the <i>ignis fatuus</i> of the mechanical biographer.
Its attainment may be secured by a variety of means&mdash;witness
Xenophon, Cellini, Aubrey, Lockhart and Froude&mdash;but it has
never been attained with such complete intensity as by Boswell
in his <i>Life of Johnson</i>. The more we study Boswell, the more
we compare him with other biographers, the greater his work
appears.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The eleventh edition of Boswell&rsquo;s <i>Johnson</i> was brought out by
John Wilson Croker in 1831; in this the original text is expanded
by numerous letters and variorum anecdotes and is already knee-deep
in annotation. Its blunders provoked the celebrated and
mutually corrective criticisms of Macaulay and Carlyle. Its value
as an unrivalled granary of Johnsoniana, stored opportunely before
the last links with a Johnsonian age had disappeared, has not been
adequately recognized. A new edition of the original text was
issued in 1874 by Percy Fitzgerald (who has also written a useful
life of James Boswell in 2 vols., London, 1891); a six-volume edition,
including the <i>Tour</i> and Johnsoniana, was published by the Rev.
Alexander Napier in 1884; the definitive edition is that by Dr
Birkbeck Hill in 6 vols., 1887, with copious annotations and a
model index. A generously illustrated edition was completed in
1907 in two large volumes by Roger Ingpen, and reprints of value
have also been edited by R. Carruthers (with woodcuts), A. Birrell,
Mowbray Morris (Globe edition) and Austin Dobson. A short
biography of Boswell was written in 1896 by W. Keith Leask.
Boswell&rsquo;s commonplace-book was published in 1876, under the title
of <i>Boswelliana</i>, with a memoir by the Rev. C. Rogers.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(T. Se.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOSWORTH, JOSEPH<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1789-1876), British Anglo-Saxon
scholar, was born in Derbyshire in 1789. Educated at Repton,
whence he proceeded to Aberdeen University, he became in 1817
vicar of Little Horwood, Buckinghamshire, and devoted his spare
time to literature and particularly to the study of Anglo-Saxon.
In 1823 appeared his <i>Elements of Anglo-Saxon Grammar</i>. In
1829 Bosworth went to Holland as chaplain, first at Amsterdam
and then at Rotterdam. He remained in Holland until 1840,
working there on his <i>Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon Language</i>
(1838), his best-known work. In 1857 he became rector of Water
Shelford, Buckinghamshire, and in the following year was
appointed Rawlinson professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford. He
gave to the university of Cambridge in 1867 £10,000 for the
establishment of a professorship of Anglo-Saxon. He died on the
27th of May 1876, leaving behind him a mass of annotations on
the Anglo-Saxon charters.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOTANY<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="botanae">&#946;&#959;&#964;&#940;&#957;&#951;</span>, plant; <span class="grk" title="boskein">&#946;&#972;&#963;&#954;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to graze), the
science which includes everything relating to the vegetable
kingdom, whether in a living or in a fossil state. It embraces a
consideration of the external forms of plants&mdash;of their anatomical
structure, however minute&mdash;of the functions which they perform&mdash;of
their arrangement and classification&mdash;of their distribution
over the globe at the present and at former epochs&mdash;and of the
uses to which they are subservient. It examines the plant in its
earliest state of development, and follows it through all its stages
of progress until it attains maturity. It takes a comprehensive
view of all the plants which cover the earth, from the minutest
organism, only visible by the aid of the microscope, to the most
gigantic productions of the tropics. It marks the relations which
subsist between all members of the plant world, including those
between existing groups and those which are known only from
their fossilized remains preserved in the rocks. We deal here
with the history and evolution of the science.</p>

<p>The plants which adorn the globe more or less in all countries
must necessarily have attracted the attention of mankind from
the earliest times. The science that treats of them dates back
to the days of Solomon, who &ldquo;spake of trees, from the cedar of
Lebanon to the hyssop on the wall.&rdquo; The Chaldaeans, Egyptians
and Greeks were the early cultivators of science, and botany was
not neglected, although the study of it was mixed up with crude
speculations as to vegetable life, and as to the change of plants
into animals. About 300 years before Christ Theophrastus
wrote a <i>History of Plants</i>, and described about 500 species used
for the treatment of diseases. Dioscorides, a Greek writer, who
appears to have flourished about the time of Nero, issued a work
on Materia Medica. The elder Pliny described about a thousand
plants, many of them famous for their medicinal virtues. Asiatic
and Arabian writers also took up this subject. Little, however,
was done in the science of botany, properly so called, until the
16th century of the Christian era, when the revival of learning
dispelled the darkness which had long hung over Europe.
Otto Brunfels, a physician of Bern, has been looked upon as the
restorer of the science in Europe. In his <i>Herbarium</i>, printed at
Strassburg (1530-1536), he gave descriptions of a large number
of plants, chiefly those of central Europe, illustrated by beautiful
woodcuts. He was followed by other writers,&mdash;Leonhard Fuchs,
whose <i>Historia Stirpium</i> (Basel, 1542) is worthy of special note
for its excellent woodcuts; Hieronymus Bock, whose <i>Kreutter
Buch</i> appeared in 1539; and William Turner, &ldquo;The Father of
English Botany,&rdquo; the first part of whose <i>New Herbal</i>, printed in
English, was issued in 1551. The descriptions in these early
works were encumbered with much medicinal detail, including
speculations as to the virtues of plants. Plants which were
strikingly alike were placed together, but there was at first little
attempt at systematic classification. A crude system, based on
the external appearance of plants and their uses to man, was
gradually evolved, and is well illustrated in the <i>Herbal</i>, issued
in 1597 by John Gerard (1545-1612), a barber-surgeon, who
had a garden in Holborn, and was a keen student of British
plants.</p>

<p>One of the earliest attempts at a methodical arrangement of
plants was made in Florence by Andreas Caesalpinus (1519-1603),
who is called by Linnaeus <i>primus verus systematicus</i>.
In his work <i>De Plantis</i>, published at Florence in 1583, he distributed
the 1520 plants then known into fifteen classes, the
distinguishing characters being taken from the fruit.</p>

<p>John Ray (1627-1705) did much to advance the science of
botany, and was also a good zoologist. He promulgated a
system which may be considered as the dawn of the &ldquo;natural
system&rdquo; of the present day (Ray, <i>Methodus Plantarum</i>, 1682).
He separated flowering from flowerless plants, and divided the
former into Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. His orders (or
&ldquo;classes&rdquo;) were founded to some extent on a correct idea of the
affinities of plants, and he far outstripped his contemporaries in
his enlightened views of arrangement.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>300</span></p>

<p>About the year 1670 Dr Robert Morison<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (1620-1683), the
first professor of botany at Oxford, published a systematic
arrangement of plants, largely on the lines previously suggested
by Caesalpinus. He divided them into eighteen classes, distinguishing
plants according as they were woody or herbaceous,
and taking into account the nature of the flowers and fruit. In
1690 Rivinus<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> promulgated a classification founded chiefly on
the forms of the flowers. J.P. de Tournefort<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> (1656-1708), who
about the same time took up the subject of vegetable taxonomy,
was long at the head of the French school of botany, and published
a systematic arrangement in 1694-1700. He described about
8000 species of plants, and distributed them into twenty-two
classes, chiefly according to the form of the corolla, distinguishing
herbs and under-shrubs on the one hand from trees and shrubs on
the other. The system of Tournefort was for a long time adopted
on the continent, but was ultimately displaced by that of Carl
von Linné, or Linnaeus (<i>q.v.</i>; 1707-1778).</p>

<p>The system of Linnaeus was founded on characters derived
from the stamens and pistils, the so-called sexual organs of the
flower, and hence it is often called the sexual system. It is an
artificial method, because it takes into account only a few marked
characters in plants, and does not propose to unite them by
natural affinities. It is an index to a department of the book of
nature, and as such is useful to the student. It does not aspire
to any higher character, and although it cannot be looked upon
as a scientific and natural arrangement, still it has a certain
facility of application which at once commended it. It does not
of itself give the student a view of the true relations of plants,
and by leading to the discovery of the name of a plant, it is only
a stepping-stone to the natural system. Linnaeus himself
claimed nothing higher for it. He says&mdash;&ldquo;Methodi Naturalis
fragmenta studiose inquirenda sunt. Primum et ultimum hoc
in botanicis desideratum est. Natura non facit saltus. Plantae
omnes utrinque affinitatem monstrant, uti territorium in mappa
geographica.&rdquo; Accordingly, besides his artificial index, he
also promulgated fragments of a natural method of arrangement.</p>

<p>The Linnean system was strongly supported by Sir James
Edward Smith (1759-1828), who adopted it in his <i>English Flora</i>,
and who also became possessor of the Linnean collection. The
system was for a long time the only one taught in the schools of
Britain, even after it had been discarded by those in France and
in other continental countries.</p>

<p>The foundation of botanic gardens during the 16th and 17th
centuries did much in the way of advancing botany. They were
at first appropriated chiefly to the cultivation of medicinal
plants. This was especially the case at universities, where
medical schools existed. The first botanic garden was established
at Padua in 1545, and was followed by that of Pisa. The garden
at Leiden dates from 1577, that at Leipzig from 1579. Gardens
also early existed at Florence and Bologna. The Montpellier
garden was founded in 1592, that of Giessen in 1605, of Strassburg
in 1620, of Altdorf in 1625, and of Jena in 1629. The Jardin
des Plantes at Paris was established in 1626, and the Upsala
garden in 1627. The botanic garden at Oxford was founded in
1632. The garden at Edinburgh was founded by Sir Andrew
Balfour and Sir Robert Sibbald in 1670, and, under the name of
the Physic Garden, was placed under the superintendence of
James Sutherland, afterwards professor of botany in the university.
The garden at Kew dates from about 1730, when
Frederick, prince of Wales, obtained a long lease of Kew House
and its gardens from the Capel family. After his death in 1751
his widow, Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, showed great
interest in their scientific development, and in 1759 engaged
William Aiton to establish a Physic Garden. The garden of the
Royal Dublin Society at Glasnevin was opened about 1796;
that of Trinity College, Dublin, in 1807; and that of Glasgow
in 1818. The Madrid garden dates from 1763, and that of
Coimbra from 1773. Jean Gesner (1709-1790), a Swiss physician
and botanist, states that at the end of the 18th century there were
1600 botanic gardens in Europe.</p>

<p>A new era dawned on botanical classification with the work of
Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (1748-1836). His uncle, Bernard de
Jussieu, had adopted the principles of Linnaeus&rsquo;s <i>Fragmenta</i> in
his arrangement of the plants in the royal garden at the Trianon.
At an early age Antoine became botanical demonstrator in the
Jardin des Plantes, and was thus led to devote his time to the
science of botany. Being called upon to arrange the plants in the
garden, he necessarily had to consider the best method of doing
so, and, following the lines already suggested by his uncle,
adopted a system founded in a certain degree on that of Ray, in
which he embraced all the discoveries in organography, adopted
the simplicity of the Linnean definitions, and displayed the
natural affinities of plants. His <i>Genera Plantarum</i>, begun in
1778, and finally published in 1789, was an important advance,
and formed the basis of all natural classifications. One of the
early supporters of this natural method was Augustin Pyramus
de Candolle (1778-1841), who in 1813 published his <i>Théorie
élémentaire de la botanique</i>, in which he showed that the affinities
of plants are to be sought by the comparative study of the form
and development of organs (morphology), not of their functions
(physiology). His <i>Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis</i>
was intended to embrace an arrangement and description
of all known plants. The work was continued after his death,
by his son Alphonse de Candolle, with the aid of other eminent
botanists, and embraces descriptions of the genera and species
of the orders of Dicotyledonous plants. The system followed by
de Candolle is a modification of that of Jussieu.</p>

<p>In arranging plants according to a natural method, we require
to have a thorough knowledge of structural and morphological
botany, and hence we find that the advances made in these
departments have materially aided the efforts of systematic
botanists.</p>

<p>Robert Brown (1773-1858) was the first British botanist to
support and advocate the natural system of classification. The
publication of his <i>Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae</i> (in 1810),
according to the natural method, led the way to the adoption
of that method in the universities and schools of Britain. In
1827 Brown announced his important discovery of the distinction
between Angiosperms and Gymnosperms, and the philosophical
character of his work led A. von Humboldt to refer to him as
&ldquo;Botanicorum facile princeps.&rdquo; In 1830 John Lindley published
the first edition of his <i>Introduction to the Natural System</i>, embodying
a slight modification of de Candolle&rsquo;s system. From the
year 1832 up to 1859 great advances were made in systematic
botany, both in Britain and on the continent of Europe. The
<i>Enchiridion</i> and <i>Genera Plantarum</i> of S.L. Endlicher (1804-1849),
the <i>Prodromus</i> of de Candolle, and the <i>Vegetable Kingdom</i>
(1846) of J. Lindley became the guides in systematic botany,
according to the natural system.</p>

<p>The least satisfactory part of all these systems was that concerned
with the lower plants or Cryptogams as contrasted with
the higher or flowering plants (Phanerogams). The development
of the compound microscope rendered possible the accurate
study of their life-histories; and the publication in 1851 of the
results of Wilhelm Hofmeister&rsquo;s researches on the comparative
embryology of the higher Cryptogamia shed a flood of light on
their relationships to each other and to the higher plants, and
supplied the basis for the distinction of the great groups Thallophyta,
Bryophyta, Pteridophyta and Phanerogamae, the last
named including Gymnospermae and Angiospermae.</p>

<p>A system of classification for the Phanerogams, or, as they are
frequently now called, Spermatophyta (seed-plants), which has
been much used in Great Britain and in America, is that of
Bentham and Hooker, whose <i>Genera Plantarum</i> (1862-1883) is
a descriptive account of all the genera of flowering plants, based
on their careful examination. The arrangement is a modification
of that adopted by the de Candolles. Another system differing
somewhat in detail is that of A.W. Eichler (Berlin, 1883), a
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>301</span>
modified form of which was elaborated by Dr Adolf Engler of
Berlin, the principal editor of <i>Die natrürliche Pflanzenfamilien</i>.</p>

<p>The study of the anatomy and physiology of plants did not
keep pace with the advance in classification. Nehemiah Grew
and his contemporary Marcello Malpighi were the earliest discoverers
in the department of plant anatomy. Both authors laid
an account of the results of their study of plant structure before
the Royal Society of London almost at the same time in 1671.
Malpighi&rsquo;s complete work, <i>Anatome Plantarum</i>, appeared in 1675
and Grew&rsquo;s <i>Anatomy of Plants</i> in 1682. For more than a hundred
years the study of internal structure was neglected. In 1802
appeared the <i>Traité d&rsquo;anatomie et de physiologie végétale</i> of C.F.B.
de Mirbel (1776-1854), which was quickly followed by other
publications by Kurt Sprengel, L.C. Treviranus (1779-1864),
and others. In 1812 J.J. P. Moldenhawer isolated cells by
maceration of tissues in water. The work of F.J.F. Meyen
and H. von Mohl in the middle of the 19th century placed the
study of plant anatomy on a more scientific basis. Reference
must also be made to M.J. Schleiden (1804-1881) and F. Unger
(1800-1870), while in K.W. von Nägeli&rsquo;s investigations on
molecular structure and the growth of the cell membrane we
recognize the origin of modern methods of the study of cell-structure
included under cytology (<i>q.v.</i>). The work of Karl
Sanio and Th. Hartig advanced knowledge on the structure and
development of tissues, while A. de Bary&rsquo;s <i>Comparative Anatomy
of the Phanerogams and Ferns</i> (1877) supplied an admirable
presentation of the facts so far known. Since then the work
has been carried on by Ph. van Tieghem and his pupils, and
others, who have sought to correlate the large mass of facts
and to find some general underlying principles (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>:
<i>Anatomy of</i>).</p>

<p>The subject of fertilization was one which early excited
attention. The idea of the existence of separate sexes in plants
was entertained in early times, long before separate male and
female organs had been demonstrated. The production of dates
in Egypt, by bringing two kinds of flowers into contact, proves
that in very remote periods some notions were entertained on
the subject. Female date-palms only were cultivated, and wild
ones were brought from the desert in order to fertilize them.
Herodotus informs us that the Babylonians knew of old that
there were male and female date-trees, and that the female
required the concurrence of the male to become fertile. This
fact was also known to the Egyptians, the Phoenicians and other
nations of Asia and Africa. The Babylonians suspended male
clusters from wild dates over the females; but they seem to have
supposed that the fertility thus produced depended on the
presence of small flies among the wild flowers, which, by entering
the female flowers, caused them to set and ripen. The process
was called palmification. Theophrastus, who succeeded Aristotle
in his school in the 114th Olympiad, frequently mentions the
sexes of plants, but he does not appear to have determined the
organs of reproduction. Pliny, who flourished under Vespasian,
speaks particularly of a male and female palm, but his statements
were not founded on any real knowledge of the organs. From
Theophrastus down to Caesalpinus, who died at Rome in 1603,
there does not appear to have been any attention paid to the
reproductive organs of plants. Caesalpinus had his attention
directed to the subject, and he speaks of a halitus or emanation
from the male plants causing fertility in the female.</p>

<p>Nehemiah Grew seems to have been the first to describe, in a
paper on the <i>Anatomy of Plants</i>, read before the Royal Society
in November 1676, the functions of the stamens and pistils. Up
to this period all was vague conjecture. Grew speaks of the
<i>attire</i>, or the stamens, as being the male parts, and refers to
conversations with Sir Thomas Millington, Sedleian professor at
Oxford, to whom the credit of the sexual theory seems really to
belong. Grew says that &ldquo;when the attire or apices break or
open, the globules or dust falls down on the seedcase or uterus,
and touches it with a prolific virtue.&rdquo; Ray adopted Grew&rsquo;s
views, and states various arguments to prove their correctness
in the preface to his work on European plants, published in 1694.
In 1694 R.J. Camerarius, professor of botany and medicine at
Tübingen, published a letter on the sexes of plants, in which he
refers to the stamens and pistils as the organs of reproduction,
and states the difficulties he had encountered in determining
the organs of Cryptogamic plants. In 1703 Samuel Morland,
in a paper read before the Royal Society, stated that the farina
(pollen) is a congeries of seminal plants, one of which must be
conveyed into every ovum or seed before it can become prolific.
In this remarkable statement he seems to anticipate in part the
discoveries afterwards made as to pollen tubes, and more particularly
the peculiar views promulgated by Schleiden. In 1711
E.F. Geoffrey, in a memoir presented to the Royal Academy at
Paris, supported the views of Grew and others as to the sexes
of plants. He states that the germ is never to be seen in the
seed till the apices (anthers) shed their dust; and that if the
stamina be cut out before the apices open, the seed will either
not ripen, or be barren if it ripens. He mentions two experiments
made by him to prove this&mdash;one by cutting off the staminal
flowers in Maize, and the other by rearing the female plant of
Mercurialis apart from the male. In these instances most of the
flowers were abortive, but a few were fertile, which he attributes
to the dust of the apices having been wafted by the wind from
other plants.</p>

<p>Linnaeus took up the subject in the inauguration of his sexual
system. He first published his views in 1736, and he thus
writes&mdash;&ldquo;Antheras et stigmata constituere sexum plantarum, a
palmicolis, Millingtono, Grewio, Rayo, Camerario, Godofredo,
Morlando, Vaillantio, Blairio, Jussievio, Bradleyo, Royeno,
Logano, &amp;c., detectum, descriptum, et pro infallibili assumptum;
nec ullum, apertis oculis considerantem cujuscunque plantae
flores, latere potest.&rdquo; He divided plants into sexual and asexual,
the former being Phanerogamous or flowering, and the latter
Cryptogamous or flowerless. In the latter division of plants he
could not detect stamens and pistils, and he did not investigate
the mode in which their germs were produced. He was no
physiologist, and did not promulgate any views as to the embryogenic
process. His followers were chiefly engaged in the
arrangement and classification of plants, and while descriptive
botany made great advances the physiological department of the
science was neglected. His views were not, however, adopted at
once by all, for we find Charles Alston stating arguments against
them in his <i>Dissertation on the Sexes of Plants</i>. Alston&rsquo;s observations
were founded on what occurred in certain unisexual plants,
such as Mercurialis, Spinach, Hemp, Hop and Bryony. The
conclusion at which he arrives is that the pollen is not in all
flowering plants necessary for impregnation, for fertile seeds can
be produced without its influence. He supports parthenogenesis
in some plants. Soon after the promulgation of Linnaeus&rsquo;s
method of classification, the attention of botanists was directed
to the study of Cryptogamic plants, and the valuable work of
Johann Hedwig (1730-1799) on the reproductive organs of mosses
made its appearance in 1782. He was one of the first to point
out the existence of certain cellular bodies in these plants which
appeared to perform the functions of reproductive organs, and
to them the names of antheridia and pistillidia were given. This
opened up a new field of research, and led the way in the study of
Cryptogamic reproduction, which has since been much advanced
by the labours of numerous botanical inquiries. The interesting
observations of Morland, already quoted, seem to have been
neglected, and no one attempted to follow in the path which he
had pointed out. Botanists were for a long time content to know
that the scattering of the pollen from the anther, and its application
to the stigma, were necessary for the production of perfect
seed, but the stages of the process of fertilization remained unexplored.
The matter seemed involved in mystery, and no one
attempted to raise the veil which hung over the subject of
embryogeny. The general view was, that the embryo originated
in the ovule, which was in some obscure manner fertilized by the
pollen.</p>

<p>In 1815 L.C. Treviranus, professor of botany in Bonn, roused
the attention of botanists to the development of the embryo, but
although he made valuable researches, he did not add much in
the way of new information. In 1823 G.B. Amici discovered the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id="page302"></a>302</span>
existence of pollen tubes, and he was followed by A.T. Brongniart
and R. Brown. The latter traced the tubes as far as the nucleus
of the ovule. These important discoveries mark a new epoch in
embryology, and may be said to be the foundation of the views
now entertained, which were materially aided by the subsequent
elucidation of the process of cytogenesis, or cell-development,
by Schleiden, Schwann, Mohl and others. The whole subject of
fertilization and development of the embryo has been more
recently investigated with great assiduity and zeal, as regards
both cryptogamous and phanerogamous plants, and details must
be sought in the various special articles. The observations of
Darwin as to the fertilization of orchids, <i>Primula, Linum</i> and
<i>Lythrum</i>, and other plants, and the part which insects take in
this function, gave an explanation of the observations of Christian
Konrad Sprengel, made at the close of the 18th century, and
opened up a new phase in the study of botany, which has been
followed by Hermann Müller, Federico Delpino and others,
and more recently by Paul Knuth.</p>

<p>One of the earliest workers at plant physiology was Stephen
Hales. In his <i>Statical Essays</i> (1727) he gave an account of
numerous experiments and observations which he had made on
the nutrition of plants and the movement of sap in them. He
showed that the gaseous constituents of the air contribute
largely to the nourishment of plants, and that the leaves are the
organs which elaborate the food; the importance of leaves in
nutrition had been previously pointed out by Malpighi in a short
account of nutrition which forms an appendix to his anatomical
work. The birth of modern chemistry in the work of J. Priestley
and Lavoisier, at the close of the 18th century, made possible
the scientific study of plant-nutrition, though Jan Ingenhousz in
1779 discovered that plants incessantly give out carbonic acid
gas, but that the green leaves and shoots only exhale oxygen
in sunlight or clear daylight, thereby indicating the distinction
between assimilation of carbonic acid gas (photosynthesis) and
respiration. N.T. de Saussure (1767-1845) gave precision to
the science of plant-nutrition by use of quantitative methods.
The subjects of plant nutrition and respiration were further
studied by R.J.H. Dutrochet towards the middle of the century,
and Liebig&rsquo;s application of chemistry to agriculture and physiology
put beyond question the parts played by the atmosphere
and the soil in the nutrition of plants.</p>

<p>The phenomena of movements of the organs of plants attracted
the attention of John Ray (1693), who ascribed the movements
of the leaf of Mimosa and others to alteration in temperature.
Linnaeus also studied the periodical movements of flowers and
leaves, and referred to the assumption of the night-position as the
sleep-movement. Early in the 19th century Andrew Knight
showed by experiment that the vertical growth of stems and
roots is due to the influence of gravitation, and made other
observations on the relation between the position assumed by
plant organs and external directive forces, and later Dutrochet,
H. von Mohl and others contributed to the advance of this phase
of plant physiology. Darwin&rsquo;s experiments in reference to the
movements of climbing and twining plants, and of leaves in
insectivorous plants, have opened up a wide field of inquiry as
to the relation between plants and the various external factors,
which has attracted numerous workers. By the work of Julius
Sachs and his pupils plant physiology was established on a
scientific basis, and became an important part of the study of
plants, for the development of which reference may be made
to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Physiology</i>. The study of form and
development has advanced under the name &ldquo;morphology,&rdquo;
with the progress of which are associated the names of K.
Goebel, E. Strasburger, A. de Bary and others, while more
recently, as cytology (<i>q.v.</i>), the intimate study of the cell and its
contents has attracted considerable attention.</p>

<p>The department of geographical botany made rapid advance
by means of the various scientific expeditions which have been
sent to all quarters of the globe, as well as by individual effort
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Distribution</i>) since the time of A. von Humboldt.
The question of the mode in which the floras of islands and of
continents have been formed gave rise to important speculations
by such eminent botanical travellers as Charles Darwin, Sir J.D.
Hooker, A.R. Wallace and others. The connexion between
climate and vegetation has also been studied. Quite recently
under the name of &ldquo;Ecology&rdquo; or &ldquo;Oecology&rdquo; the study of
plants in relation to each other and to their environment has
become the subject of systematic investigation.</p>

<p>The subject of palaeontological botany (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>)
has been advanced by the researches of both botanists and
geologists. The nature of the climate at different epochs of the
earth&rsquo;s history has also been determined from the character of
the flora. The works of A.T. Brongniart, H.R. Goeppert and
W.P. Schimper advanced this department of science. Among
others who contributed valuable papers on the subject may be
noticed Oswald Heer (1809-1883), who made observations on the
Miocene flora, especially in Arctic regions; Gaston de Saporta
(1823-1895), who examined the Tertiary flora; Sir J.W. Dawson
and Leo Lesquereux, and others who reported on the Canadian
and American fossil plants. In Great Britain also W.C. Williamson,
by his study of the structure of the plants of the coal-measures,
opened up a new line of research which has been
followed by Bertrand Renault, D.H. Scott, A.C. Seward and
others, and has led to important discoveries on the nature of
extinct groups of plants and also on the phylogeny of existing
groups.</p>

<p>Botany may be divided into the following departments:&mdash;</p>

<p>1. Structural, having reference to the form and structure of
the various parts, including (<i>a</i>) Morphology, the study of the
general form of the organs and their development&mdash;this will be
treated in a series of articles dealing with the great subdivisions
of plants (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angiosperms</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gymnosperms</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pteridophyta</a></span>,
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bryophyta</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Algae</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lichens</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fungi</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bacteriology</a></span>) and
the more important organs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stem</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leaf</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Root</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flower</a></span>,
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fruit</a></span>); (<i>b</i>) Anatomy, the study of internal structure, including
minute anatomy or histology (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Anatomy</i>).</p>

<p>2. Cytology (<i>q.v.</i>), the intimate structure and behaviour of the
cell and its contents&mdash;protoplasm, nucleus, &amp;c.</p>

<p>3. Physiology, the study of the life-functions of the entire
plant and its organs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Physiology</i>).</p>

<p>4. Systematic, the arrangement and classification of plants
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Classification</i>).</p>

<p>5. Distribution or Geographical Botany, the consideration of
the distribution of plants on the earth&rsquo;s surface (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>:
<i>Distribution</i>).</p>

<p>6. Palaeontology, the study of the fossils found in the various
strata of which the earth is composed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>).</p>

<p>7. Ecology or Oecology, the study of plants in relation to each
other and to their environment (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Ecology</i>).</p>

<p>Besides these departments which deal with Botany as a science,
there are various applications of botany, such as forestry (see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Forests and Forestry</a></span>), agriculture (<i>q.v.</i>), horticulture (<i>q.v.</i>),
and materia medica (for use in medicine; see the separate articles
on each plant).</p>
<div class="author">(A. B. R.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Morison, <i>Pradudia Botanica</i> (1672); <i>Plantarum Historia
Universalis</i> (1680).</p>

<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Rivinus (Augustus Quirinus) paterno nomine Bachmann,
<i>Introductio genetatis in Rem Herbariam</i> (Lipsiae, 1690).</p>

<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Tournefort, <i>Élémens de botanique</i> (1694); <i>Institutiones Rei
Herbariae</i> (1700).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOTANY BAY,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> an inlet on the coast of Cumberland county,
New South Wales, Australia, 5 m. south of the city of Sydney.
On its shore is the township of Botany, forming a suburb of
Sydney, with which it is connected by a tramway. It was first
visited by Captain Cook in 1770, who landed at a spot marked by
a monument, and took possession of the territory for the crown.
The bay received its name from Joseph Banks, the botanist of
the expedition, on account of the variety of its flora. When, on
the revolt of the New England colonies, the convict establishments
in America were no longer available (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deportation</a></span> and
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">New South Wales</a></span>), the attention of the British government,
then under the leadership of Pitt, was turned to Botany Bay;
and in 1787 Commodore Arthur Phillip was commissioned to form
a penal settlement there. Finding, on his arrival, however, that
the locality was ill suited for such a purpose, he removed northwards
to the site of the present city of Sydney. The name of
Botany Bay seems to have struck the popular fancy, and continued
to be used in a general way for any convict establishment
in Australia. The transportation of criminals to New South
Wales was discontinued in 1840.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>303</span></p>
<p><span class="bold">BOTHA, LOUIS<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1862-&emsp;&emsp;), Boer general and statesman, was
the son of one of the &ldquo;Voortrekkers,&rdquo; and was born on the 27th
of September 1862 at Greytown (Natal). He saw active service
in savage warfare, and in 1887 served as a field-cornet. Subsequently
he settled in the Vryheid district, which he represented
in the Volksraad of 1897. In the war of 1899 he served at first
under Lucas Meyer in northern Natal, but soon rose to higher
commands. He was in command of the Boers at the battles of
Colenso and Spion Kop, and these victories earned him so great
a reputation that on the death of P.J. Joubert, Botha was made
commander-in-chief of the Transvaal Boers. His capacity was
again demonstrated in the action of Belfast-Dalmanutha (August
23-28, 1900), and after the fall of Pretoria he reorganized the
Boer resistance with a view to prolonged guerrilla warfare. In
this task, and in the subsequent operations of the war, he was
aided by his able lieutenants de la Rey and de Wet. The
success of his measures was seen in the steady resistance offered
by the Boers to the very close of the three years&rsquo; war. He was
the chief representative of his countrymen in the peace negotiations
of 1902, after which, with de Wet and de la Rey, he visited
Europe in order to raise funds to enable the Boers to resume their
former avocations. In the period of reconstruction under British
rule, General Botha, who was still looked upon as the leader of
the Boer people, took a prominent part in politics, advocating
always measures which he considered as tending to the maintenance
of peace and good order and the re-establishment of
prosperity in the Transvaal. After the grant of self-government
to the Transvaal in 1907, General Botha was called upon by Lord
Selborne to form a government, and in the spring of the same
year he took part in the conference of colonial premiers held in
London. During his visit to England on this occasion General
Botha declared the whole-hearted adhesion of the Transvaal to
the British empire, and his intention to work for the welfare of
the country regardless of racial differences. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Transvaal</a></span>:
<i>History</i>.)</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOTHNIA, GULF OF,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> the northern part of the Baltic Sea (<i>q.v.</i>).
The name is preserved from the former territory of Bothnia, of
which the western part is now included in Sweden, the eastern in
Finland.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> <span class="sc">4th Earl of</span>, duke of
Orkney and Shetland (<i>c</i>. 1536-1578), husband of Mary, queen of
Scots, son of Patrick, 3rd earl of Bothwell, and of Agnes, daughter
of Henry, Lord Sinclair, was born about 1536. His father,
Patrick, the 3rd earl (<i>c</i>. 1512-1556), was the only son of Adam,
the 2nd earl, who was killed at Flodden, and the grandson of
Patrick (d. <i>c</i>. 1508), 3rd Lord Hailes and 1st earl of Bothwell.
It was this Patrick who laid the foundation of the family fortunes.
Having fought against King James III. at the battle of Sauchieburn
in 1488, he was rewarded by the new king, James IV., with
the earldom of Bothwell, the office of lord high admiral and other
dignities. He also received many grants of land, including the
lordship of Bothwell, which had been taken from John Ramsay,
Lord Bothwell (d. 1513), the favourite of James III.</p>

<p>James Hepburn succeeded in 1556 to his father&rsquo;s titles, lands
and hereditary offices, including that of lord high admiral of
Scotland. Though a Protestant, he supported the government of
Mary of Guise, showed himself violently anti-English, and led a
raid into England, subsequently in 1559 meeting the English
commissioners and signing articles for peace on the border.
The same year he seized £1000 secretly sent by Elizabeth to the
lords of the congregation. In retaliation Arran occupied and
stripped his castle at Crichton, whereupon Bothwell in November
sent Arran a challenge, which the latter declined. In December
he was sent by the queen dowager to secure Stirling, and in 1560
was despatched on a mission to France, visiting Denmark on
the way, where he either married or seduced Anne, daughter of
Christopher Thorssen, whom he afterwards deserted, and who
came to Scotland in 1563 to obtain redress. He joined Mary at
Paris in September, and in 1561 was sent by her as a commissioner
to summon the parliament; in February he arrived in Edinburgh
and was chosen a privy councillor on the 6th of September.
He now entered into obligations to keep the peace with his
various rivals, but was soon implicated in riots and partisan
disorders, and was ordered in December to leave the city. In
March 1562, having made up his quarrel with Arran, he was
accused of having proposed to the latter a project for seizing the
queen, and in May he was imprisoned in Edinburgh castle,
whence he succeeded in escaping on the 28th of August. On the
23rd of September he submitted to the queen. Murray&rsquo;s influence,
however, being now supreme, he embarked in December for
France, but was driven by storms on to Holy Island, where he
was detained, and was subsequently, on the 18th of January
1564, seized at Berwick and sent by Elizabeth to the Tower,
whence he was soon liberated and proceeded to France. After
these adventures he returned to Scotland in March 1565, but
withdrew once more before the superior strength of his opponents
to France. The same year, however, he was recalled by Mary to
aid in the suppression of Murray&rsquo;s rebellion, successfully eluding
the ships of Elizabeth sent to capture him. As lieutenant of the
Marches he was employed in settling disputes on the border, but
used his power to instigate thieving and disorders, and is
described by Cecil&rsquo;s correspondents as &ldquo;as naughty a man as
liveth and much given to the most detestable vices,&rdquo; &ldquo;as false as
a devil,&rdquo; &ldquo;one that the godly of this whole nation hath a cause to
curse for ever.&rdquo;<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In February 1566 Bothwell, in spite of his
previous matrimonial engagements&mdash;and he had also been united
by &ldquo;handfasting&rdquo; to Janet Betoun of Cranstoun Riddell&mdash;married
Jane, daughter of George Gordon, 4th earl of Huntly.
Notwithstanding his insulting language concerning Mary and the
fact that he was the &ldquo;stoutest&rdquo; in refusing mass, he became
one of her chief advisers, but his complete ascendancy over her
mind and affections dates from the murder of Rizzio on the
9th of March 1566. The queen required a protector, whom she
found, not in the feeble Darnley, nor in any of the leaders of the
factions, but in the strong, determined earl who had ever been a
stanch supporter of the throne against the Protestant party
and English influence. In Bothwell also, &ldquo;the glorious, rash and
hazardous young man,&rdquo; romantic, handsome, charming even in his
guilt, Mary gained what she lacked in her husband, a lover. He
now stood forth as her champion; Mary took refuge with him at
Dunbar, presented him, among other estates, with the castle
there and the chief lands of the earldom of March, and made him
the most powerful noble in the south of Scotland. Her partiality
for him increased as her contempt and hatred of Darnley
became more confirmed. On the 7th of October he was
dangerously wounded, and the queen showed her anxiety for his
safety by riding 40 miles to visit him, incurring a severe illness. In
November she visited him at Dunbar, and in December took
place the conference at Craigmillar at which both were present,
and at which the disposal of Darnley was arranged, Bothwell with
some others subsequently signing the bond to accomplish his
murder. He himself superintended all the preparations, visiting
Darnley with Mary on the night of the crime, Sunday, 9th of
February 1567, attending the queen on her return to Holyrood
for the ball, and riding back to Kirk o&rsquo; Field to carry out the
crime. After the explosion he hurried back to Holyrood and
feigned surprise at the receipt of the news half an hour later,
ascribing the catastrophe to &ldquo;the strangest accident that ever
chancit, to wit, the fouder (lightning) came out of the luft (sky)
and had burnt the king&rsquo;s house.&rdquo;<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>

<p>Bothwell&rsquo;s power was now greater, and the queen&rsquo;s affection for
him more ardent than ever. She was reported to have said that
she cared not to lose France, England and her own country for
him, and would go with him to the world&rsquo;s end in a white petticoat
ere she left him.<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> He was gratified with further rewards, and
his success was clouded by no stings of conscience or remorse.
According to Melville he had designs on the life of the young
prince. On the demand of Lennox, Darnley&rsquo;s father, Bothwell
was put upon his trial in April, but Lennox, having been forbidden
to enter the city with more than six attendants, refused
to attend, and Bothwell was declared not guilty. The queen&rsquo;s
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page304" id="page304"></a>304</span>
intention to marry Bothwell, which had been kept a strict secret
before the issue of the trial, was now made public. On the 19th of
April he obtained the consent and support of the Protestant
lords, who signed a bond in his favour. On the 24th he seized
Mary&rsquo;s willing person near Edinburgh, and carried her to his
castle at Dunbar. On the 3rd of May Bothwell&rsquo;s divorce from his
wife was decreed by the civil court, on the ground of his adultery
with a maidservant, and on the 7th by the Roman Catholic court
on the ground of consanguinity. Archbishop Hamilton, however, who
now granted the decree, had himself obtained a papal dispensation
for the marriage,<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and in consequence it is extremely
doubtful whether according to the Roman Catholic law Bothwell
and Mary were ever husband and wife. On the 12th Bothwell
was created duke of Orkney and Shetland and the marriage took
place on the 15th according to the Protestant usage, the Roman
Catholic rite being performed, according to some accounts,
afterwards in addition.<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p>

<p>Bothwell&rsquo;s triumph, however, was shortlived. The nobles,
both Protestant and Roman Catholic, now immediately united
to effect his destruction. In June Mary and Bothwell fled from
Holyrood to Borthwick Castle, whence Bothwell, on the place
being surrounded by Morton and his followers, escaped to
Dunbar, Mary subsequently joining him. Thence they marched
with a strong force towards Edinburgh, meeting the lords on the
15th of June at Carberry Hill. Bothwell invited any one of the
nobles to single combat, but Mary forbade the acceptance of the
challenge. Meanwhile, during the negotiations, the queen&rsquo;s
troops had been deserting; a surrender became inevitable, and
Bothwell returned to Dunbar, parting from Mary for ever.
Subsequently Bothwell left Dunbar for the north, visited Orkney
and Shetland, and in July placed himself at the head of a band of
pirates, and after eluding all attempts to capture him, arrived at
Karm Sound in Norway. Here he was confronted by his first
wife or victim, Anne Thorssen, whose claims he satisfied by the
gift of a ship and promises of an annuity, and on his identity
becoming known he was sent by the authorities to Copenhagen,
where he arrived on the 30th of September. He wrote <i>Les
Affaires du comte de Boduel</i>, exhibiting himself as the victim of
the malice of his enemies, and gained King Frederick II.&rsquo;s goodwill
by an offer to restore the Orkneys and Shetlands to Denmark.
In consequence the king allowed him to remain at Copenhagen,
and refused all requests for his surrender. In January 1568 he
was removed to Malmoe in Sweden. He corresponded frequently
with Mary, but there being no hopes whatever of his restoration,
and a new suitor being found in the duke of Norfolk, Mary
demanded a divorce, on pleas which recall those of Henry VIII.
in the matter of Catherine of Aragon. The divorce was finally
granted by the pope in September 1570 on the ground of her
prenuptial ravishment by Bothwell,<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> and met with no opposition
from the latter. After the downfall of Mary, Bothwell&rsquo;s good
treatment came to an end, and on the 16th of June 1573 he was
removed to the castle of Dragsholm or Adelersborg in Zealand.
Here the close and solitary confinement, and the dreary and
hopeless inactivity to which he was condemned, proved a terrible
punishment for the full-blooded, energetic and masterful Bothwell.
He sank into insanity, and died on the 14th of April 1578.
He was buried at the church of Faareveille, where a coffin,
doubtfully supposed to be his, was opened in 1858. A portrait was
taken of the head of the body found therein, now in the museum
of the Society of Antiquaries in Scotland. His so-called
death-bed confession is not genuine.</p>

<p>He left no lawful descendants; but his nephew, <span class="sc">Francis
Stewart Hepburn</span>, who, through his father, John Stewart,
prior of Coldingham, was a grandson of King James V., and was
thus related to Mary, queen of Scots, and the regent Murray,
was in 1581 created earl of Bothwell. He was lord high admiral
of Scotland, and was a person of some importance at the court of
James VI. during the time when the influence of the Protestants
was uppermost. He was anxious that Mary Stuart&rsquo;s death
should be avenged by an invasion of England, and in 1589 he
suffered a short imprisonment for his share in a rising. By this
time he had completely lost the royal favour. Again imprisoned,
this time on a charge of witchcraft, he escaped from captivity in
1591, and was deprived by parliament of his lands and titles;
as an outlaw his career was one of extraordinary lawlessness.
In 1591 he attempted to seize Holyrood palace, and in 1593 he
captured the king, forcing from him a promise of pardon. But
almost at once he reverted to his former manner of life, and,
although James failed to apprehend him, he was forced to take
refuge in France about 1595. He died at Naples before July
1614. This earl had three sons, but his titles were never restored.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;See the article in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</i> and
authorities;
<i>Les Affaires du comte de Boduel</i> (written January 1568,
publ. Bannatyne Club, 1829);
&ldquo;Memoirs of James, Earl of Bothwell,&rdquo; in G. Chalmers&rsquo;s
<i>Life of Mary, Queen of Scots</i> (1818);
<i>Life of Bothwell</i>, by F. Schiern (trans. 1880);
<i>Pièces et documents relatifs au comte de Bothwell</i>,
by Prince A. Lobanoff (1856);
<i>Appendix to the Hist. of Scotland</i>, by G. Buchanan (1721);
<i>Sir James Melville&rsquo;s Memoirs</i> (Bannatyne Club, 1827);
<i>A Lost Chapter in the Hist. of Mary, Queen of Scots</i>, by J. Stuart (1874);
J.H. Burton&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of Scotland</i> (1873);
A. Lang&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of Scotland</i>, ii. (1902);
<i>Archaeologia</i>, xxxviii. 308;
<i>Cal. of State Papers, Foreign, Scottish, Venetian</i>, vii;
<i>Exchequer Rolls of Scotland</i>, xix. and xx., <i>Domestic, Border Papers</i>;
<i>Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Marq. of Salisbury</i>, i. ii.
See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mary, Queen of Scots</a></span>.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Cal. of State Papers, Scottish, i. 679.</i></p>

<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Sir James Melville&rsquo;s Mem. 174.</i></p>

<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Cal. of State Pap., Foreign, 1566-1568</i>, p. 212.</p>

<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> Rep. ii. p. 177.</p>

<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Cal. of State Pap., Scottish</i>, ii. 333.</p>

<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Cal. of State Pap., Foreign, 1569-1571</i>, p. 372.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOTHWELL,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> a town of Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. of town
(1901) 3015; of parish (1901) 45,905. The town lies on the right
bank of the Clyde, 9 m. E.S.E. of Glasgow by the North British
and Caledonian railways. Owing to its pleasant situation it has
become a residential quarter of Glasgow. The choir of the old
Gothic church of 1398 (restored at the end of the 19th century)
forms a portion of the parish church. Joanna Baillie, the poetess,
was born in the manse, and a memorial has been erected in her
honour. The river is crossed by a suspension bridge as well as
the bridge near which, on the 22nd of June 1679, was fought the
battle of Bothwell Bridge between the Royalists, under the duke
of Monmouth, and the Covenanters, in which the latter lost 500
men and 1000 prisoners. Adjoining this bridge, on the level
north-eastern bank, is the castle that once belonged to James
Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh (fl. 1566-1580), the assassin of the
regent Murray; and near the present farmhouse the South
Calder is spanned by a Roman bridge. The picturesque ruins of
Bothwell Castle occupy a conspicuous position on the side of the
river, which here takes the bold sweep famed in Scottish song as
Bothwell bank. The fortress belonged to Sir Andrew Moray,
who fell at Stirling in 1297, and passed by marriage to the
Douglases. The lordship was bestowed in 1487 on Patrick
Hepburn, 3rd Lord Hailes, 1st earl of Bothwell, who resigned it
in 1491 in favour of Archibald Douglas, 5th earl of Angus. It
thus reverted to the Douglases and now belongs to the earl of
Home, a descendant. The castle is a fine example of Gothic,
and mainly consists of a great oblong quadrangle, flanked on the
south side by circular towers. At the east end are the remains of
the chapel. A dungeon bears the nickname of &ldquo;Wallace&rsquo;s Beef
Barrel.&rdquo; The unpretending mansion near by was built by
Archibald Douglas, 1st earl of Forfar (1653-1712). The parish
of Bothwell contains several flourishing towns and villages, all
owing their prosperity to the abundance of coal, iron and oil-shale.
The principal places, most of which have stations on the
North British or Caledonian railway or both, are Bothwell Park,
Carfin, Chapelhall, Bellshill (pop. 8786), Holytown, Mossend,
Newarthill, Uddingston (pop. 7463), Clydesdale, Hamilton Palace,
Colliery Rows and Tennochside.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOTOCUDOS<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (from Port. <i>botoque</i>, a plug, in allusion to the
wooden disks or plugs worn in their lips and ears), the foreign
name for a tribe of South American Indians of eastern Brazil,
also known as the Aimores or Aimbores. They appear to have
no collective tribal name for themselves. Some are called Nac-nanuk
or Nac-poruk, &ldquo;sons of the soil.&rdquo; The name Botocudos
cannot be traced much farther back than the writings of Prince
Maximilian von Neuwied (<i>Reise nach Bresilien</i>,
Frankfort-On-Main, 1820). When the Portuguese adventurer Vasco Fernando
Coutinho reached the east coast of Brazil in 1535, he erected a
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305"></a>305</span>
fort at the head of Espirito Santo Bay to defend himself against
&ldquo;the Aimores and other tribes.&rdquo; The original home of the tribe
comprised most of the present province of Espirito Santo, and
reached inland to the headwaters of Rio Grande (Belmonte) and
Rio Doce on the eastern slopes of the Serra do Espinhacao, but
the Botocudos are now mainly confined to the country between
Rio Pardo and Rio Doce, and seldom roam westward beyond
Serra dos Aimores into Minas Geraes. It was in the latter
district that at the close of the 18th century they came into
collision with the whites, who were attracted thither by the
diamond fields.</p>

<p>The Botocudos are nomads, wandering naked in the woods and
living on forest products. They are below the medium height,
but broad-shouldered and remarkable for the muscular development
and depth of their chests. Their arms and legs are, however,
soft and fleshy, and their feet and hands small. Their features,
which vary individually almost as much as those of Europeans,
are broad and flat, with prominent brow, high cheek-bones,
small bridgeless nose, wide nostrils and slight projection
of the jaws. They are longheaded, and their hair is coarse,
black and lank. Their colour is a light yellowish brown,
sometimes almost approaching white. The general yellow tint
emphasizes their Mongolic appearance, which all travellers have
noticed. The Botocudos were themselves greatly struck by the
Chinese coolies, whom they met in Brazilian seaports, and whom
they at once accepted as kinsmen (Henri Hollard, <i>De l&rsquo;homme et
des races humaines</i>, Paris, 1853).<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Some few Botocudos have
settled and become civilized, but the great bulk of them, numbering
between twelve and fourteen thousand, are still the wildest
of savages. During the earlier frontier wars (1790-1820) every
effort was made to extirpate them. They were regarded by the
Portuguese as no better than wild beasts. Smallpox was
deliberately spread among them; poisoned food was scattered in
the forests; by such infamous means the coast districts about
Rios Doce and Belmonte were cleared, and one Portuguese commander
boasted that he had either slain with his own hands or
ordered to be butchered many hundreds of them. Their implements
and domestic utensils are all of wood; their only weapons are
reed spears and bows and arrows. Their dwellings are rough
shelters of leaf and bast, seldom 4 ft. high. So far as the
language of the Botocudos is known, it would appear that they have
no means of expressing the numerals higher than one. Their only
musical instrument is a small bamboo nose-flute. They attribute
all the blessings of life to the &ldquo;day-fire&rdquo; (sun) and all evil to
&ldquo;night-fire&rdquo; (moon). At the graves of the dead they keep fires
burning for some days to scare away evil spirits, and during storms
and eclipses arrows are shot into the sky to drive away demons.</p>

<p>The most conspicuous feature of the Botocudos is the <i>tembeitera</i>,
or wooden plug or disk which is worn in the lower lip
and the lobe of the ear. This disk, made of the specially light
and carefully dried wood of the barriguda tree (<i>Chorisia
ventricosa</i>), is called by the natives themselves <i>emburé</i>,
whence Augustin Saint Hilaire suggests the probable derivation of
their name Aimbore (<i>Voyages dans l&rsquo;intérieur du Brésil 1816-1821</i>,
Paris, 1830). It is worn only in the under-lip, now chiefly
by women, but formerly by men also. The operation for preparing
the lip begins often as early as the eighth year, when an
initial boring is made by a hard pointed stick, and gradually
extended by the insertion of larger and larger disks or plugs,
sometimes at last as much as 3 in. in diameter. Notwithstanding
the lightness of the wood the <i>tembeitera</i> weighs down
the lip, which at first sticks out horizontally and at last becomes
a mere ring of skin around the wood. Ear-plugs are also worn,
of such size as to distend the lobe down to the shoulders.
Ear-ornaments of like nature are common in south and even central
America, at least as far north as Honduras. When Columbus
discovered this latter country during his fourth voyage (1502)
he named part of the seaboard <i>Costa de la Oreja</i>, from the
conspicuously distended ears of the natives. Early Spanish explorers
also gave the name <i>Orejones</i> or &ldquo;big-eared&rdquo; to several
Amazon tribes.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See A.R. Wallace, <i>Travels on the Amazon</i> (1853-1900);
H.H. Bancroft, <i>Hist. of Pacific States</i> (San Francisco, 1882),
vol. i. p. 211;
A.H. Keane, &ldquo;On the Botocudos&rdquo; in <i>Journ. Anthrop. Instit.</i>
vol. xiii. (1884); J.R. Peixoto,
<i>Novos Estudios Craniologicos sobre os Botocuds</i>
(Rio Janeiro, 1882); Prof. C.F. Hartt, <i>Geology and
Physical Geography of Brazil</i> (Boston, 1870), pp. 577-606.</p>
</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A parallel case is that of the Bashkir soldiers of Orenburg, who
formed part of the Russian army sent to put down the Hungarian
revolt of 1848, and who recognized their Ugrian kinsmen in the
Zeklars and other Magyars settled in the Danube basin.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOTORI,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a Japanese game played at the naval, military and
other schools, by two sides of equal number, usually about one
hundred, each of which defends a pole about 8 ft. high firmly
set in the ground, the poles being about 200 yds. distant from
each other. The object of each party is to overthrow the
adversaries&rsquo; pole while keeping their own upright. Pulling,
hauling and wrestling are allowed, but no striking or kicking.
The players resort to all kinds of massed formations to arrive
at the enemies&rsquo; pole, and frequently succeed in passing over
their heads and shoulders one or more comrades, who are thus
enabled to reach the pole and bear it down unless pulled off in
time by its defenders. A game similar in character is played
by the Sophomore and Freshman classes of Amherst College
(Massachusetts), called the &ldquo;Flag-rush.&rdquo; It was instituted at
the instance of the faculty to take the place of the traditional
&ldquo;Cane-rush,&rdquo; a general <i>mêlée</i> between the two classes for the
ultimate possession of a stout walking-stick, which became
so rough that students were frequently seriously injured. In
the &ldquo;Flag-rush&rdquo; a small flag is set upon a padded post about
6 ft. high, and is defended by one class while the other endeavours,
as at Botori, to overthrow it. If the flag is not captured or torn
down within a certain time the defending side wins.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOTOSHANI<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (<i>Boto&#351;ani</i>), the capital of the department of
Botoshani, Rumania; on a small tributary of the river Jijia,
and in one of the richest agricultural and pastoral regions of the
north Moldavian hills. Pop. (1900) 32,193. Botoshani is
commercially important as the town through which goods from
Poland and Galicia pass in transit for the south; being situated
on a branch railway between Dorohoi and on the main line from
Czernowitz to Galatz. It has extensive starch and flour mills;
and Botoshani flour is highly prized in Rumania, besides being
largely exported to Turkey and the United Kingdom. Botoshani
owes its name to a Tatar chief, Batus or Batu Khan, grandson of
Jenghiz Khan, who occupied the country in the 13th century.
There are large colonies of Armenians and Jews.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BO-TREE,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bodhi-tree</span>, the name given by the Buddhists of India
and Ceylon to the Pipul or sacred wild fig (<i>Ficus religiosa</i>).
It is regarded as sacred, and one at least is planted near each
temple. These are traditionally supposed to be derived from
the original one, the Bodhi-tree of Buddhist annals, beneath
which the Buddha is traditionally supposed to have attained
perfect knowledge. The Bo-tree at the ruined city of Anuradhapura,
80 m. north of Kandy, grown from a branch of the parent-tree
sent to Ceylon from India by King Asoka in the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
is said to have been planted in 288 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and is to this day
worshipped by throngs of pilgrims who come long distances to
pray before it. Usually a bo-tree is planted on the graves of the
Kandy priests.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOTRYTIS,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a minute fungus which appears as a brownish-grey
mould on decaying vegetation or on damaged fruits. Under
a hand-lens it is seen to consist of tiny, upright, brown stalks
which are branched at the tips, each branchlet being crowned
with a naked head of pale-coloured spores. It is a very common
fungus, growing everywhere in the open or in greenhouses, and
can be found at almost any season. It has also a bad record as
a plant disease. If it once gains entrance into one of the higher
plants, it spreads rapidly, killing the tissues and reducing them
to a rotten condition. Seedling pines, lilies and many other
cultivated plants are subject to attack by <i>Botrytis</i>, Some of
the species exist in two other growth-forms, so different in
appearance from the <i>Botrytis</i> that they have been regarded as
distinct plants:&mdash;a sclerotium, which is a hard compact mass of
fungal filaments, or mycelium, that can retain its vitality for a
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306"></a>306</span>
considerable time in a resting condition; and a stalked <i>Peziza</i>,
or cup-fungus, which grows out of the sclerotium. The latter
is the perfect form of fruit. The <i>Botrytis</i> mould is known as
the conidial form.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOTTA, CARLO GIUSEPPE GUGLIELMO<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (1766-1837), Italian
historian, was born at San Giorgio Canavese in Piedmont.
He studied medicine at the university of Turin, and obtained
his doctor&rsquo;s degree when about twenty years of age. Having
rendered himself obnoxious to the government during the
political commotions that followed the French Revolution,
he was imprisoned for over a year; and on his release in 1795
he withdrew to France, only to return to his native country
as a surgeon in the French army, whose progress he followed
as far as Venice. Here he joined the expedition to Corfu, from
which he did not return to Italy till 1798. At first he favoured
French policy in Italy, contributed to the annexation of Piedmont
by France in 1799, and was an admirer of Napoleon; but he
afterwards changed his views, realizing the necessity for the
union of all Italians and for their freedom from foreign control.
After the separation of Piedmont from France in 1814 he retired
into private life, but, fearing persecution at home, became a
French citizen. In 1817 he was appointed rector of the university
of Rouen, but in 1822 was removed owing to clerical influence.
Amid all the vicissitudes of his early manhood Botta had never
allowed his pen to be long idle, and in the political quiet that
followed 1816 he naturally devoted himself more exclusively
to literature. In 1824 he published a history of Italy from
1789 to 1814 (4 vols.), on which his fame principally rests; he
himself had been an eyewitness of many of the events described.
His continuation of Guicciardini, which he was afterwards
encouraged to undertake, is a careful and laborious work, but is
not based on original authorities and is of small value. Though
living in Paris he was in both these works the ardent exponent
of that recoil against everything French which took place
throughout Europe. A careful exclusion of all Gallicisms, as a
reaction against the French influences of the day, is one of the
marked features of his style, which is not infrequently impassioned
and eloquent, though at the same time cumbrous, involved and ornate.
Botta died at Paris in August 1837, in comparative poverty,
but in the enjoyment of an extensive and well-earned reputation.</p>

<p>His son, Paul Émile Botta (1802-1870), was a distinguished
traveller and Assyrian archaeologist, whose excavations at
Khorsabad (1843) were among the first efforts in the line of
investigation afterwards pursued by Layard.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The works of Carlo Botta are
<i>Storia naturale e medica dell&rsquo; Isola di Corfu</i> (1798);
an Italian translation of Born&rsquo;s <i>Joannis Physiophili specimen
monachologiae</i> (1801);
<i>Souvenirs d&rsquo;un voyage en Dalmatie</i> (1802);
<i>Storia della guerra dell&rsquo; Independenza d&rsquo;America</i> (1809);
<i>Camillo</i>, a poem (1815);
<i>Storia d&rsquo;Italia dal 1789 al 1814</i> (1824, new ed., Prato, 1862);
<i>Storia d&rsquo;ltalia in continuazione al Guicciardini</i> (1832,
new ed., Milan, 1878).
See C. Dionisiotti, <i>Vita di Carlo Botta</i> (Turin, 1867);
C. Pavesio, <i>Carlo Botta e le sue opere storiche</i> (Florence, 1874);
Scipione Botta, <i>Vita privata di Carlo Botta</i> (Florence, 1877);
A. d&rsquo;Ancona c O. Bacci, <i>Manuela della Letteratura Italiana</i>
(Florence, 1894), vol. v. pp. 245 seq.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOTTESINI, GIOVANNI<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (1823-1889), Italian contrabassist
and musical composer, was born at Crema in Lombardy on the
24th of December 1823. He studied music at the Milan
Conservatoire, devoting himself especially to the double-bass, an
instrument with which his name is principally associated. On
leaving Milan he spent some time in America and also occupied
the position of principal double-bass in the theatre at Havana. Here
his first opera, <i>Cristoforo Colombo</i>, was produced in 1847.
In 1849 he made his first appearance in England, playing double-bass
solos at one of the Musical Union concerts. After this he
made frequent visits to England, and his extraordinary command
of his unwieldy instrument gained him great popularity in London
and the provinces. Apart from his triumphs as an executant,
Bottesini was a conductor of European reputation, and earned
some success as a composer, though his work had not sufficient
individuality to survive the changes of taste and fashion. He
was conductor at the Théâtre des Italiens in Paris from 1855 to 1857,
where his second opera, <i>L&rsquo;Assedio di Firenze</i>, was produced
in 1856. In 1861 and 1862 he conducted at Palermo, supervising
the production of his opera <i>Marion Delorme</i> in 1862, and in
1863 at Barcelona. During these years he diversified the toils of
conducting by repeated concert tours through the principal
countries of Europe. In 1871 he conducted a season of Italian
opera at the Lyceum theatre in London, during which his opera
<i>Ali Baba</i> was produced, and at the close of the year he was
chosen by Verdi to conduct the first performance of <i>Aïda</i>,
which took place at Cairo on 27th December 1871. Bottesini wrote
three operas besides those already mentioned: <i>Il Diavolo della
Notte</i> (Milan, 1859); <i>Vinciguerra</i> (Paris, 1870); and
<i>Ero e Leandro</i> (Turin, 1880), the last named to a libretto
by Arrigo Boito, which was subsequently set by Mancinelli. He also
wrote <i>The Garden of Olivet</i>, a devotional oratorio (libretto
by Joseph Bennett), which was produced at the Norwich festival in
1887, a concerto for the double-bass, and numerous songs, and minor
instrumental pieces. Bottesini died at Parma on the 7th of July 1889.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOTTICELLI, SANDRO,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> properly <span class="sc">Alessandro di Mariano
dei Filipepi</span> (1444-1510). Florentine painter, was born at
Florence in 1444, in a house in the Via Nuova, Borg&rsquo; Ognissanti.
This was the home of his father, Mariano di Vanni dei Filipepi,
a struggling tanner. Sandro, the youngest child but one of his
parents, derived the name Botticelli, by which he was commonly
known, not, as related by Vasari, from a goldsmith to whom he was
apprenticed, but from his eldest brother Giovanni, a prosperous
broker, who seems to have taken charge of the boy, and who
for some reason bore the nickname <i>Botticello</i> or Little
Barrel. A return made in 1457 by his father describes Sandro as
aged thirteen, weak in health, and still at school (if the words
<i>sta al legare</i> are to be taken as a misspelling of <i>sta al
leggere</i>, otherwise they might perhaps mean that he was
apprenticed either to a jeweller or a bookbinder). One of his elder
brothers, Antonio, who afterwards became a bookseller, was at this
time in business as a goldsmith and gold-leaf-beater, and with him
Sandro was very probably first put to work. Having shown
an irrepressible bent towards painting, he was apprenticed in
1458-1459 to Fra Filippo Lippi, in whose workshop he remained
as an assistant apparently until 1467, when the master went to
carry out a commission for the decoration with frescoes of the
cathedral church of Spoleto. During his apprentice years
Sandro was no doubt employed with other pupils upon the great
series of frescoes in the choir of the Pieve at Prato upon which
his master was for long intermittently engaged. The later
among these frescoes in many respects anticipate, by charm of
sentiment, animation of movement and rhythmic flutter of
draperies, some of the prevailing characteristics of Sandro&rsquo;s
own style. One of Sandro&rsquo;s earliest extant pictures, the oblong
&ldquo;Adoration of the Magi&rdquo; at the National Gallery, London
(No. 592, long ascribed in error to Filippino), shows him almost
entirely under the influence of his first master. Left in Florence
on Fra Filippo&rsquo;s departure to Spoleto, he can be traced gradually
developing his individuality under various influences, among
which that of the realistic school of the Pollaiuoli is for some
time the strongest. From that school he acquired a knowledge of
bodily structure and movement, and a searching and expressive
precision of linear draughtsmanship, which he could never
have learnt from his first master. The Pollaiuolo influence
dominates, with some slight admixture of that of Verrocchio,
in the fine figure of Fortitude, now in the Uffizi, which was
painted by Botticelli for the Mercanzia about 1470; this is one
of a series of the seven Virtues, of which the other six, it seems,
were executed by Piero Pollaiuolo from the designs of his brother
Antonio. The same influence is again very manifest in the two
brilliant little pictures at the Uffizi in which the youthful
Botticelli has illustrated the story of Judith and Holofernes;
in his injured portrait of a man holding a medal of Cosimo de&rsquo;
Medici, No. 1286 at the Uffizi; and in his life-sized &ldquo;St Sebastian&rdquo;
at Berlin, which we know to have been painted for the church
of Sta Maria Maggiore in 1473. Tradition and internal evidence
seem also to point to Botticelli&rsquo;s having occasionally helped,
in his earliest or Pollaiuolo period, to furnish designs to the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>307</span>
school of engravings in Florence which had been founded by the
goldsmith Maso Finiguerra.</p>

<p>Some authorities hold that he must have attended for a while
the much-frequented workshop of Verrocchio. But the &ldquo;Fortitude&rdquo;
is the only authenticated early picture in which the Verrocchio
influence is really much apparent; the various other
pictures on which this opinion is founded, chiefly Madonnas
dispersed among the museums of Naples, Florence, Paris and
elsewhere, have been shown to be in all probability the work not
of Sandro himself, but of an anonymous artist, influenced partly
by him and partly by Verrocchio, whose individuality it has been
endeavoured to reconstruct under the provisional name of Amico
di Sandro. At the same time we know that the young Botticelli
stood in friendly relations with some of the pupils in Verrocchio&rsquo;s
workshop, particularly with Leonardo da Vinci. Among the
many &ldquo;Madonnas&rdquo; which bear Botticelli&rsquo;s name in galleries
public and private, the earliest which carries the unmistakable
stamp of his own hand and invention is that which passed from
the Chigi collection at Rome to that of Mrs Gardner at Boston.
At the beginning of 1474 he entered into an agreement to work at
Pisa, both in the Campo Santo and in the chapel of the Incoronata
in the Duomo, but after spending some months in that city
abandoned the task, we know not why. Next in the order of his
preserved works comes probably the much-injured round of the
&ldquo;Adoration of the Magi&rdquo; in the National Gallery (No. 1033), long
ascribed in error, like the earlier oblong panel of the same subject,
to Filippino Lippi. (To about this date is assigned by some the
well-known &ldquo;Assumption of the Virgin surrounded with the
heavenly hierarchies,&rdquo; formerly at Hamilton Palace and now in
the National Gallery [No. 1126]; but recent criticism has proved
that the tradition is mistaken which since Vasari&rsquo;s time has
ascribed this picture to Botticelli, and that it is in reality the
work of a subordinate painter somewhat similarly named, Francesco
Botticini.)</p>

<p>A more mature and more celebrated &ldquo;Adoration of the Magi&rdquo;
than either of those in the National Gallery is that now in the
Uffizi, which Botticelli painted for Giovanni Lami, probably in
1477, and which was originally placed over an altar against the
front wall of the church of Sta Maria Novella to the right inside
the main entrance. The scene is here less crowded than in some
other of the master&rsquo;s representations of the subject, the
conception entirely sane and masculine, with none of those elements
of bizarre fantasy and over-strained sentiment to which he was
sometimes addicted and which his imitators so much exaggerated;
the execution vigorous and masterly. The picture has, moreover,
special interest as containing lifelike portraits of some of the
chief members of the Medici family. Like other leading artists of
his time in Florence, Botticelli had already begun to profit by the
patronage of this family. For the house of Lorenzo Il Magnifico
in the Via Larga he painted a decorative piece of Pallas with
lance and shield (not to be confounded with the banner painted
with a similar allegoric device of Pallas by Verrocchio, to be
carried by Giuliano de&rsquo; Medici in the famous tournament in 1475
in which he wore the favour of La Bella Simonetta, the wife of his
friend Marco Vespucci). This Pallas by Botticelli is now lost, as
are several other decorative works in fresco and panel recorded
to have been done by him for Lorenzo Il Magnifico between 1475
and Lorenzo&rsquo;s death in 1492. But Sandro&rsquo;s more especial patron,
for whom were executed several of his most important still extant
works, was another Lorenzo, the son of Pierfrancesco de&rsquo; Medici,
grandson of a natural brother of Cosimo <i>Pater Patriae</i>, and
inheritor of a vast share of the family estates and interests. For
the villa of this younger Lorenzo at Castello Botticelli painted
about 1477-1478 the famous picture of &ldquo;Primavera&rdquo; or Spring
now in the Academy at Florence. The design, inspired by
Poliziano&rsquo;s poem the &ldquo;Giostra,&rdquo; with reminiscences of Lucretius
and of Horace (perhaps also, as has lately been suggested, of the
late Latin &ldquo;Mythologikon&rdquo; of Fulgentius) thrown in, is of an
enchanting fantasy, and breathes the finest and most essential
spirit of the early Renaissance at Florence. Venus fancifully
draped, with Cupid hovering above her, stands in a grove of
orange and myrtle and welcomes the approach of Spring, who
enters heralded by Mercury, with Flora and Zephyrus gently
urging her on. In pictures like this and in the later &ldquo;Birth of
Venus,&rdquo; the Florentine genius, brooding with passion on the
little that it really yet knew of the antique, and using frankly
and freshly the much that it was daily learning of the truths of
bodily structure and action, creates a style wholly new, in which
something of the strained and pining mysticism of the middle ages
is intimately and exquisitely blended with the newly awakened
spirit of naturalism and the revived pagan delight in bodily form
and movement and richness of linear rhythm. In connexion with
this and other classic and allegoric pictures by the master, much
romantic speculation has been idly spent on the supposition that
the chief personages were figured in the likeness of Giuliano de&rsquo;
Medici and Simonetta Vespucci. Simonetta in point of fact died
in 1476, Giuliano was murdered in 1478; the web of romance
which has been spun about their names in modern days is quite
unsubstantial; and there is no reason whatever why Botticelli
should have introduced the likenesses of these two supposed
lovers (for it is not even certain that they were lovers at all) in
pictures all of which were demonstrably painted after the death
of one and most of them after the death of both.</p>

<p>The tragedy of Giuliano&rsquo;s assassination by the Pazzi
conspirators in 1478 was a public event which certainly brought
employment to Botticelli. After the capture and execution of
the criminals he was commissioned to paint their effigies hanging
by the neck on the walls of the Palazzo del Podestà, above the
entrance of what was formerly the Dogana. In the course of
Florentine history public buildings had on several previous
occasions received a similar grim decoration: the last had been
when Andrea del Castagno painted in 1434 the effigies, hanging
by the heels, of the chief citizens outlawed and expelled on the
return of Cosimo de&rsquo; Medici. Perhaps from the time of this Pazzi
commission may be dated the evidences which are found in some
of Botticelli&rsquo;s work of a closer study than heretofore of the
virile methods and energetic types of Castagno. His frescoes of the
hanged conspirators held their place for sixteen years only, and
were destroyed in 1494 in consequence of another revolution in
the city&rsquo;s politics. Two years later (1480) he painted in rivalry
with Ghirlandaio a grand figure of St Augustine on the choir
screen of the Ognissanti; now removed to another part of the
church. About the same time we find clear evidence of his
contributing designs to the workshops of the &ldquo;fine-manner&rdquo;
engravers in the shape of a beautiful print of the triumph of
Bacchus and Ariadne adapted from an antique sarcophagus (the
only example known is in the British Museum), as well as in
nineteen small cuts executed for the edition of Dante with the
commentary of Landino printed at Florence in 1481 by Lorenzo
della Magna. This series of prints was discontinued after
canto xix., perhaps because of the material difficulties involved
by the use of line engravings for the decoration of a printed page,
perhaps because the artist was at this time called away to Rome
to undertake the most important commission of his life. Due
possibly to the same call is the unfinished condition of a
much-damaged, crowded &ldquo;Adoration of the Magi&rdquo; by Botticelli
preserved in the Uffizi, the design of which seems to have
influenced Leonardo da Vinci in his own Adoration (which in
like manner remains unfinished) of nearly the same date, also
at the Uffizi.</p>

<p>The task with which Botticelli was charged at Rome was to
take part with other leading artists of the time (Ghirlandaio,
Cosimo Rosselli, Perugino and Pinturicchio) in the decoration
of Sixtus IV.&rsquo;s chapel at the Vatican, the ceiling of which was
afterwards destined to be the field of Michelangelo&rsquo;s noblest
labours. Internal evidence shows that Sandro and his assistants
bore a chief share in the series of papal portraits which decorate
the niches between the windows. His share in the decoration of the
walls with subjects from the Old and the New Testament consists
of three frescoes, one illustrating the history of Moses (several
episodes of his early life arranged in a single composition);
another the destruction of Korah, Dathan and Abiram; a third the
temptation of Christ by Satan (in this case the main theme is
relegated to the background, while the foreground is filled with an
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>308</span>
animated scene representing the ritual for the purification of a
leper). On these three frescoes Botticelli laboured for about a
year and a half at the height of his powers, and they may be taken
as the central and most important productions of his career,
though they are far from being the best-known, and from their
situation on the dimmed and stained walls of the chapel are by no
means easy of inspection. Skill in the interlinking of complicated
groups; in the principal actors energy of dramatic action and
expression not yet overstrained, as it came to be in the artist&rsquo;s
later work; an incisive vigour of portraiture in the personages
of the male bystanders; in the faces and figures of the women
an equally vital grasp of the model, combined with that peculiar
strain of haunting and melancholy grace which is this artist&rsquo;s
own; the most expressive care and skill in linear draughtsmanship,
the richest and most inventive charm in fanciful costume
and decorative colouring, all combine to distinguish them.
During this time of his stay in Rome (1481-1482) Botticelli is
recorded also to have painted another &ldquo;Adoration of the Magi,&rdquo;
his fifth or sixth embodiment of the same subject; this has been
identified, no doubt rightly, with a picture now in the Hermitage
gallery at St Petersburg.</p>

<p>Returning to Florence towards the end of 1482, Botticelli
worked there for the next ten years, until the death of Lorenzo Il
Magnifico in 1492, with but slight variations in manner and sentiment,
in the now formed manner of his middle life. Some of the
recorded works of this time have perished; but a good many
have been preserved, and except in the few cases where the dates
of commission and payment can be established by existing
records, their sequence can only be conjectured from internal
evidence. A scheme of work which he was to have undertaken
with other artists in the Sala dei Gigli in the Palazzo Pubblico
came to nothing (1483); a set of important mythologic frescoes
carried out by him in the vestibule of a villa of Lorenzo Il
Magnifico at Spedaletto near Volterra in 1484 has been destroyed
by the effects first of damp and then of fire. To 1482-1483
belongs the fine altar-piece of San Barnabo (a Madonna and Child
with six saints and four angels), now in the academy at Florence.
Very nearly of the same time must be the most popular and
most often copied, though very far from the best-preserved, of
his works, the round picture of the Madonna with singing angels
in the Uffizi, known, from the text written in the open choir-book,
as the &ldquo;Magnificat.&rdquo; Somewhere near this must be placed
the beautiful and highly finished drawing of &ldquo;Abundance,&rdquo;
which has passed through the Rogers, Morris Moore and Malcolm
collections into the British Museum, as well as a small Madonna
in the Poldi-Pezzoli collection at Milan, and the fine full-faced
portrait of a young man, probably some pupil or apprentice in
the studio, at the National Gallery (No. 626). For the marriage
of Antonio Pucci to Lucrezia Dini in 1483 Botticelli designed,
and his pupils or assistants carried out, the interesting and
dramatic set of four panels illustrating Boccaccio&rsquo;s tale of
Nastagio degl&rsquo;Onesti, which were formerly in the collection of
Mr Barker and are now dispersed. His magnificent and perfectly
preserved altar-piece of the Madonna between the two saints John,
now in the Berlin gallery, was painted for the Bardi chapel in
the church of San Spirito in 1486. In the same year he helped
to celebrate the marriage of Lorenzo Tornabuoni with Giovanna
degli Albizzi by an exquisite pair of symbolical frescoes, the
remains of which, after they had been brought to light from
under a coat of whitewash on the walls of the Villa Lemmi, were
removed in 1882 to the Louvre. Within a few years of the same
date (1485-1488) should apparently be placed that second
masterpiece of fanciful classicism done for Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco&rsquo;s
villa at Castello, the &ldquo;Birth of Venus,&rdquo; now in the
Uffizi, the design of which seems to have been chiefly inspired by
the &ldquo;Stanze&rdquo; of Poliziano, perhaps also by the <i>Pervigilium
Veneris</i>; together with the scarcely less admirable &ldquo;Mars and
Venus&rdquo; of the National Gallery, conceived in the master&rsquo;s
peculiar vein of virile sanity mingled with exquisite caprice;
and the most beautiful and characteristic of all his Madonnas,
the round of the &ldquo;Virgin with the Pomegranate&rdquo; (Uffizi). The
fine picture of &ldquo;Pallas and the Centaur,&rdquo; rediscovered after an
occultation of many years in the private apartments of the Pitti
Palace, would seem to belong to about 1488, and to celebrate
the security of Florentine affairs and the quelling of the spirit of
tumult in the last years of the power of the great Lorenzo
(1488-1490). &ldquo;The Annunciation&rdquo; from the convent of Cestello, now
in the Uffizi, shows a design adapted from Donatello, and
expressive, in its bending movements and vehement gestures, of
that agitation of spirit the signs of which become increasingly
perceptible in Botticelli&rsquo;s work from about this time until the
end. The great altar-piece at San Marco with its <i>predelle</i>,
commissioned by the Arte della Seta in 1488 and finished in 1490,
with the incomparable ring of dancing and quiring angels
encircling the crowned Virgin in the upper sky, is the last of
Botticelli&rsquo;s altar-pieces on a great scale. To nearly the same date
probably belongs his deeply felt and beautifully preserved small
painting of the &ldquo;Last Communion of St Jerome&rdquo; belonging to
the Marchese Farinola.</p>

<p>In 1490 Botticelli was called to take part with other artists in a
consultation as to the completion of the façade of the Duomo,
and to bear a share with Alessio Baldovinetti and others in the
mosaic decorations of the chapel of San Zenobio in the same
church. The death of Lorenzo Il Magnifico in 1492, and the
accession to chief power of his worthless son Piero, soon plunged
Florence into political troubles, to which were by and by added
the profound spiritual agitation consequent upon the preaching
and influence of Savonarola. Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de&rsquo; Medici,
who with his brother Giovanni was in a position of political
rivalry against their cousin Piero, continued his patronage
of Botticelli; and it was for him, apparently chiefly between
the years 1492 and 1495, that the master undertook to execute
a set of drawings in illustration of Dante on a far more elaborate
and ambitious plan than the little designs for the engraver
which had been interrupted in 1481. Eighty-five of these drawings
are in the famous manuscript acquired for the Berlin museum
at the sale of the Hamilton Palace collection in 1882, and eleven
more in the Vatican library at Rome. The series is one of the
most interesting that has been preserved by any ancient master;
revealing an intimate knowledge of and profound sympathy with
the text; full of Botticelli&rsquo;s characteristic poetic yearning and
vehemence of expression, his half-childish intensity of vision;
exquisite in lightness of touch and in swaying, rhythmical grace of
linear composition and design. These gifts were less suited on the
whole to the illustration of the Hell than of the later parts of the
poem, and in the fiercer episodes there is often some puerility and
inadequacy of invention. Throughout the Hell and Purgatory
Botticelli maintains a careful adherence to the text, illustrating
the several progressive incidents of each canto on a single page
in the old-fashioned way. In the Paradise he gives a freer rein
to his invention, and his designs become less a literal illustration
of the text than an imaginative commentary on it. Almost all
interest is centred on the persons of Dante and Beatrice, who are
shown us again and again in various phases of ascending progress
and rapt contemplation, often with little more than a bare
symbolical suggestion of the beatific visions presented to them.
Most of the drawings remain in pen outline only over a light
preliminary sketch with the lead stylus; all were probably
intended to be finished in colour, as a few actually are. To the
period of these drawings (1492-1497) would seem to belong the
fine and finely preserved small round of the &ldquo;Virgin and Child
with Angels&rdquo; at the Ambrosiana, Milan, and the famous
&ldquo;Calumny of Apelles&rdquo; at the Uffizi, inspired no doubt by some
contemporary translation of the text by Lucian, and equally
remarkable by a certain feverish energy in its sentiment and
composition, and by its exquisite finish and richness of execution
and detail. Probably the small &ldquo;St Augustine&rdquo; in the Uffizi,
the injured &ldquo;Judith with the head of Holofernes&rdquo; in the Kaufmann
collection at Berlin, and the &ldquo;Virgin and Child with St John,&rdquo;
belonging to Mr Heseltine in London, are works of the same period.</p>

<p>Simone di Mariano, a brother of Botticelli long resident at
Naples, returned to Florence in 1493 and shared Sandro&rsquo;s
home in the Via Nuova. He soon became a devoted follower of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>309</span>
Savonarola, and has left a manuscript chronicle which is one of
the best sources for the history of the friar and of his movement.
Sandro himself seems to have remained aloof from the movement
almost until the date of the execution of Savonarola and his two
followers in 1498. At least there is clear evidence of his being
in the confidence and employ of Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco so
late as 1496 and 1497, which he could not possibly have been
had he then been an avowed member of the party of the Piagnoni.
It was probably the enforced departure of Lorenzo from Florence
in 1497 that brought to a premature end the master&rsquo;s great
undertaking on the illustration of Dante. After Lorenzo&rsquo;s
return, following on the overthrow and death of Savonarola
in 1498, we find no trace of any further relations between him
and Botticelli, who by that time would seem to have become
a declared devotee of the friar&rsquo;s memory and an adherent,
like his brother, of the defeated side. During these years of
swift political and spiritual revolution in Florence, documents
give some glimpses of him: in 1497 as painting in the monastery
of Monticelli a fresco of St Francis which has perished; in the
winter of the same year as bound over to keep the peace with, a
neighbour living next to the small suburban villa which Sandro
held jointly with his brother Simone in the parish of San Sepolcro;
in 1499 as paying belated matriculation fees to the gild of doctors
and druggists (of which the painters were a branch); and again
in 1499 as carrying out some decorative paintings for a member
of the Vespucci family. It has been suggested, probably with
reason, that portions of these decorations are to be recognized in
two panels of dramatic scenes from Roman history, one illustrating
the story of Virginia, which has passed with the collection
of Senatore Morelli into the gallery at Bergamo, the other a
history of Lucretia formerly belonging to Lord Ashburnham,
which passed into Mrs Gardner&rsquo;s collection at Boston. These
and the few works still remaining to be mentioned are all strongly
marked by the strained vehemence of design and feeling characteristic
of the master&rsquo;s later years, when he dramatizes his
own high-strung emotions in figures flung forward and swaying
out of all balance in the vehemence of action, with looks cast
agonizingly earthward or heavenward, and gestures of wild
yearning or appeal. These characters prevail still more in a small
Pietà at the Poldi-Pezzoli gallery, probably a contemporary
copy of one which the master is recorded to have painted for the
Panciatichi chapel in the church of Sta Maria Maggiore; they
are present to a degree even of caricature in the larger and
coarser painting of the same subject which bears the master&rsquo;s
name in the Munich gallery, but is probably only a work of his
school. The mystic vein of religious and political speculation
into which Botticelli had by this time fallen has its finest illustration
in the beautiful symbolic &ldquo;Nativity&rdquo; which passed in
succession from the Aldobrandini, the Ottley, and the Fuller
Maitland collections into the National Gallery in 1882, with
the apocalyptic inscription in Greek which the master has added
to make his meaning clear (No. 1034). In a kindred vein is
a much-injured symbolic &ldquo;Magdalene at the foot of the Cross&rdquo;
in private possession at Lyons. Among extant pictures those
which from internal evidence we must put latest in the master&rsquo;s
career are three panels illustrating the story of St Zenobius,
of which one is at Dresden and the other two in the collection
of Dr Mond in London. The documentary notices of him after
1500 are few. In 1502 he is mentioned in the correspondence
of Isabella d&rsquo;Este, marchioness of Gonzaga, and in a poem by
Ugolino Verino. In 1503-1504 he served on the committee of
artists appointed to decide where the colossal David of Michelangelo
should be placed. In these and the following years we
find him paying fees to the company of St Luke, and the next
thing recorded of him is his death, followed by his burial in the
Ortaccio or garden burial-ground of the Ognissanti, in May
1510.</p>

<p>The strong vein of poetical fantasy and mystical imagination
in Botticelli, to which many of his paintings testify, and the
capacity for religious conviction and emotional conversion
which made of him an ardent, if belated, disciple of Savonarola,
coexisted in him, according to all records, with a strong vein
of the laughing humour and love of rough practical and verbal
jesting which belonged to the Florentine character in his age.
His studio in the Via Nuova is said to have been the resort,
not only of pupils and assistants, of whom a number seem to
have been at all times working for him, but of a company of
more or less idle gossips with brains full of rumour and tongues
always wagging. Vasari&rsquo;s account of the straits into which
he was led by his absorption in the study of Dante and his adhesion
to the sect of Savonarola are evidently much exaggerated,
since there is proof that he lived and died, not rich indeed, but
possessed of property enough to keep him from any real pinch
of distress. The story of his work and life, after having been
the subject in recent years of much half-informed study and
speculation, has at length been fully elucidated in the work
of Mr H.P. Horne cited below,&mdash;a masterpiece of documentary
research and critical exposition.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Vasari, <i>Le Opere</i> (ed. Milanesi), vol. iii.; Crowe-Cavalcaselle,
<i>Hist. of Painting in Italy</i>, vol. ii.; Fr. Lippmann,
<i>Botticellis Zeichnungen zu Dantes Göttlicher Komödie</i>; Dr Karl
Woermann, &ldquo;Sandro Botticelli&rdquo; (in Dohme, <i>Kunst u. Künstler</i>); Dr
Hermann Ulmann, <i>Sandro Botticelli</i>; Dr E. Steinmann, <i>Sandro
Botticelli</i> (in Knackfuss series, valuable for the author&rsquo;s elucidation
of the Sixtine frescoes); I.B. Supino, <i>Sandro Botticelli</i>; Bernhard
Berenson, <i>The Drawings of Florentine Painters; The Florentine
Painters of the Renaissance</i> (2nd ed.); <i>The Study and Criticism of
Italian Art</i>; papers in the <i>Burlington Magazine</i>, the <i>Gazette des
Beaux-Arts</i> (to this critic is due the first systematic attempt to discriminate
between the original work of Botticelli and that of his
various pupils); J. Mesnil, <i>Miscellanea d&rsquo;Arte</i> and papers in the
<i>Rivista d&rsquo;Arte</i>, &amp;c.; W. Warburg, <i>Sandro Botticelli&rsquo;s &ldquo;Geburt der
Venus&rdquo; and &ldquo;Frühling&rdquo;</i>; Julia Cartwright (Mrs Ady), <i>The Life
and Art of Sandro Botticelli</i> (1904); F. Wickhoff in the <i>Jahrbuch
der k. Preussischen Kunstsammlungen</i> (1906); Herbert P. Horne,
<i>Alessandro Filipepi commonly called Sandro Botticelli</i> (1908); this
last authority practically supersedes all others.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(S. C.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BÖTTIGER, KARL AUGUST<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1760-1835), German archaeologist,
was born at Reichenbach on the 8th of June 1760. He
was educated at the school of Pforta, and the university of
Leipzig. After holding minor educational posts, he obtained
in 1791, through the influence of Herder, the appointment of
rector of the gymnasium at Weimar, where he entered into a circle
of literary men, including Wieland, Schiller, and Goethe. He
published in 1803 a learned work, <i>Sabina, oder Morgenszenen
im Putzzimmer einer reichen Römerin</i>, a description of a wealthy
Roman lady&rsquo;s toilette, and a work on ancient art, <i>Griechische
Vasengemälde</i>. At the same time he assisted in editing the
<i>Journal des Luxus und der Moden</i>, the <i>Deutsche Merkur</i>, and the
<i>London and Paris</i>. In 1804 he was called to Dresden as superintendent
of the studies of the court pages, and received the rank
of privy councillor. In 1814 he was made director of studies
at the court academy, and inspector of the Museum of Antiquities.
He died at Dresden on the 17th of November 1835. His chief
works are:&mdash;<i>Ideen zur Archäologie der Malerei</i>, i. (1811) (no more
published); <i>Kunstmythologie</i> (1811); <i>Vorlesungen und Aufsätze
zur Alterthumskunde</i> (1817); <i>Amalthea</i> (1821-1825); <i>Ideen zur
Kunstmythologie</i> (1826-1836). The <i>Opuscula et Carmina Latina</i>
were published separately in 1837; with a collection of his
smaller pieces, <i>Kleine Schriften</i> (1837-1838), including a complete
list of his works (56 pages). His biography was written by his
son Karl Wilhelm Böttiger (1790-1862), for some time professor
of history at Erlangen, and author of several valuable histories
(<i>History of Germany</i>, <i>History of Saxony</i>, <i>History of Bavaria</i>,
<i>Universal History of Biographies</i>).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:300px; height:253px" src="images/img310.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1">Roman Skin Bottles, from specimens
at Pompeii and Herculaneum.</td></tr></table>

<p><span class="bold">BOTTLE<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (Fr. bouteille, from a diminutive of the Lat. <i>butta</i>,
a flask; cf. Eng. &ldquo;butt&rdquo;), a vessel for containing liquids, generally
as opposed to one for drinking from (though this probably is
not excluded), and with a narrow neck to facilitate closing and
pouring. The first bottles were probably made of the skins of
animals. In the <i>Iliad</i> (iii. 247) the attendants are represented
as bearing wine for use in a bottle made of goat&rsquo;s skin. The
ancient Egyptians used skins for this purpose, and from the
language employed by Herodotus (ii. 121), it appears that a bottle
was formed by sewing up the skin and leaving the projection
of the leg and foot to serve as a vent, which was hence termed
<span class="grk" title="podeon">&#960;&#959;&#948;&#949;&#974;&#957;</span>. The aperture was closed with a plug or a string. Skin
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>310</span>
bottles of various forms occur on Egyptian monuments. The
Greeks and Romans also were accustomed to use bottles made of
skins; and in the southern parts Europe they are still used
for the transport of wine. The first of explicit reference to bottles
of skin in Scripture occurs in Joshua (ix. 4), where it is said that
the Gibeonites took &ldquo;old
sacks upon their asses,
and wine-bottles <i>old and
rent and bound up</i>.&rdquo; The
objection to putting &ldquo;new
wine into old bottles&rdquo;
(Matt. ix. 17) is that the
skin, already stretched
and weakened by use, is
liable to burst under the
pressure of the gas from
new wine. Skins are still
most extensively used
throughout western Asia
for the conveyance and
storage of water. It is
an error to represent the bottles of the ancient Hebrews as
being made exclusively of skins. In Jer. xix. 1 the prophet
speaks of &ldquo;a potter&rsquo;s earthen vessel.&rdquo; The Egyptians (see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>Art and Archaeology</i>) possessed vases and bottles
of hard stone, alabaster, glass, ivory, bone, porcelain, bronze,
silver and gold, and also of glazed pottery or common
earthenware. In modern times bottles are usually made of glass
(<i>q.v</i>.), or occasionally of earthenware. The glass bottle industry
has attained enormous dimensions, whether for wine, beer,
&amp;c., or mineral waters; and labour-saving machinery for filling
the bottles has been introduced, as well as for corking or stoppering,
for labelling and for washing them.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOTTLE-BRUSH PLANTS,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a genus of Australian plants,
known botanically as <i>Callistemon</i>, and belongiug to the myrtle
family (Myrtaceae). They take their name from the resemblance
of the head of flowers to a bottle-brush. They are well known in
cultivation as greenhouse shrubs; the flower owes its beauty to
the numerous long thread-like stamens which far exceed the
small petals. <i>Callistemon salignus</i> is a valuable hard wood.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOTTLENOSE WHALE<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (<i>Hyperoödon rostratus</i>), a member of
the sperm-whale family, which is an inhabitant of the North
Atlantic, passing the summer in the Spitzbergen seas and going
farther south in winter. It resembles the sperm-whale in
possessing a large store of oil in the upper part of the head,
which yields spermaceti when refined; on this account, and also
for the sake of the blubber, which supplies an oil almost indistinguishable
from sperm-oil, this whale became the object of a
regular chase in the latter half of the 19th century. In length
these whales vary between 20 ft. and 30 ft.; and in colour from
black on the upper surface in the young to light brown in old
animals, the under-parts being greyish white. There is no notch
between the flukes, as in other whales, but the hinder part of the
tail is rounded. Bottlenoses feed on cuttle-fishes and squills,
and are practically toothless; the only teeth which exist in the
adult being a small pair at the front of the lower jaw, concealed
beneath the gum during life. Examples have frequently been
recorded on the British coasts. In November 1904 a female,
24 ft. long, and a calf 15 ft. long were driven ashore at Whitstable.
(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cetacea</a></span>.)</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOTTOMRY,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a maritime contract by which a ship (or bottom)
is hypothecated in security for money borrowed for expenses
incurred in the course of her voyage, under the condition that if
she arrive at her destination the ship shall be liable for repayment
of the loan, together with such premium thereon as may have
been agreed for; but that if the ship be lost, the lender shall have
no claim against the borrower either for the sum advanced or for
the premium. The freight may be pledged as well as the ship,
and, if necessary, the cargo also. In some cases the personal
obligation of the shipmaster is also included. When money is
borrowed on the security of the cargo alone, it is said to be taken
up at <i>respondentia</i>; but it is now only in rare and exceptional
cases that it could be competent to the shipmaster to pledge the
cargo, except under a general bottomry obligation, along with
the ship and freight. In consideration of the risks assumed by
the lender, the bottomry premium (sometimes termed <i>maritime
interest</i>) is usually high, varying of course with the nature of the
risk and the difficulty of procuring funds.</p>

<p>A bottomry contract may be written out in any form which
sufficiently shows the conditions agreed on between the parties;
but it is usually drawn up in the form of a <i>bond</i> which confers a
maritime lien (<i>q.v.</i>). The document must show, either by express
terms or from its general tenor, that the risk of loss is assumed
by the lender,&mdash;this being the consideration for which the high
premium is conceded. The lender may transfer the bond by
indorsation, in the same manner as a bill of exchange or bill of
lading, and the right to recover its value becomes vested in the
indorsees. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bond</a></span>.)</p>

<p>According to the law of England, a bottomry contract remains
in force so long as the ship exists <i>in the form of a ship</i>, whatever
amount of damage she may have sustained. Consequently, the
&ldquo;constructive total loss&rdquo; which is recognized in marine insurance,
when the ship is damaged to such an extent that she is not worth
repairing, is not recognized in reference to bottomry, and will not
absolve the borrower from his obligation. But if the ship go to
pieces, the borrower is freed from all liability under the bottomry
contract; and the lender is not entitled to receive any share of
the proceeds of such of the ship&rsquo;s stores or materials as may have
been saved from the wreck. Money advanced on bottomry is not
liable in England for general average losses. If the ship should
<i>deviate</i> from the voyage for which the funds were advanced, her
subsequent loss will not discharge the obligation of the borrower
under the bottomry contract. If she should not proceed at all
on her intended voyage, the lender is not entitled to recover
the bottomry premium in addition to his advance, but only
the ordinary rate of interest for the temporary loan. As the
bottomry premium is presumed, in every case, to cover the
risks incurred by the lender, he is not entitled to charge the
borrower with the premium which he may pay for <i>insurance</i>
of the sum advanced, in addition to that stipulated in the
bond.</p>

<p>The contract of bottomry seems to have arisen from the
custom of permitting the master of a ship, when in a foreign
country, to pledge the ship in order to raise money for repairs,
or other extraordinary expenditures rendered necessary in the
course of the voyage. Circumstances often arise, in which,
without the exercise of this power on the part of the master, it
would be impossible to provide means for accomplishing the
voyage; and it is better that the master should have authority
to burden the ship, and, if necessary, the freight and cargo also,
in security for the money which has become requisite, than that
the adventure should be defeated by inability to proceed. But
the right of the master to pledge the ship or goods must always
be created by necessity; if exercised without necessity the
contract will be void. Accordingly, the master of a British ship
has no power to grant a bottomry bond at a British port, or at
any foreign port where he might raise funds on the personal
credit of the shipowners. Neither has he any power to pledge
the ship or goods for private debts of his own, but only for such
supplies as are indispensable for the purposes of the voyage.
And in all cases he ought, if possible, to communicate with the
owners of the ship, and with the proprietor of the cargo before
pledging their property (&ldquo;The Bonaparte,&rdquo; 1853, 8 Moo. P.C.
473; &ldquo;The Staffordshire,&rdquo; 1872, L.R. 4 P.C. 194). Increased
facility of communication, by telegraph and otherwise, has given
additional stringency to this rule, and caused a decline in the
practice of giving bottomry bonds.</p>

<p>The bottomry lender must use reasonable diligence to ascertain
that a real necessity exists for the loan; but he is not bound to
see to the application of the money advanced. If the lender has
originally advanced the funds on the personal credit of the owner
he is not entitled to require a bottomry obligation. A bond
procured from the shipmaster by improper compulsion would be
void.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>311</span></p>

<p>The power of the master to pledge the cargo depends upon
there being some reasonable prospect of benefit to it by his so
doing. He has no such power except in virtue of circumstances
which may oblige him to assume the character of <i>agent for the
cargo</i>, in the absence of any other party authorized to act on its
behalf. Under ordinary circumstances he is not at liberty to
pledge the cargo for repairs to the ship. If indeed the goods be
of a perishable nature, and if it be impossible to get the ship
repaired in sufficient time to obviate serious loss on them by
delay, without including them under the bottomry contract, he
has power to do so, because it may fairly be assumed, in the case
supposed, that the cargo will be benefited by this procedure.
The general principle is, that the master must act for the cargo,
with a reasonable view to the interests of its proprietors, under
the whole circumstances of the case. When he does this his
proceedings will be sustained; but should he manifestly prejudice
the interests of the cargo by including it under bottomry
for the mere purpose of relieving the ship, or of earning the
freight, the owners of the cargo will not be bound by the bottomry
contract. Any bottomry or respondentia bond may be good in
part or bad in part, according as the master may have acted
<i>within</i> or <i>beyond</i> the scope of his legitimate authority in granting
it. If two or more bottomry bonds have been granted at different
stages of the voyage, and the value of the property be insufficient
to discharge them all, the last-dated bond has the priority of
payment, as having furnished the means of preserving the ship,
and thereby preventing the total loss of the security for the
previous bonds.</p>

<p>When the sum due under a bottomry bond over ship, freight
and cargo is not paid at the stipulated time, proceedings may be
taken by the bondholder for recovery of the freight and for the
sale of the ship; and should the proceeds of these be insufficient
to discharge the claim, a judicial sale of the cargo may be resorted
to. As a general rule the value of the ship and freight
must be exhausted before recourse can be taken against the
cargo. A bottomry bond gives no remedy to the lenders against
the owners of the ship or cargo personally. The whole liability
under it may be met by the surrender of the property pledged,
whether the value so surrendered covers the amount of the bond
or not. But the owners of the ship, though not liable to the
bondholder for more than the value of the ship and freight, may
be further liable to the proprietors of the cargo for any sum in
excess of the cargo&rsquo;s proper share of the expenses, taken by the
bondholder out of the proceeds of the cargo to satisfy the bond
after the ship and freight have been exhausted.</p>

<p>The bottomry premium must be ultimately paid by the parties
for whose benefit the advances were obtained, as ascertained on
the final adjustment of the average expenditures at the port of
destination.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The practice of pledging property subject to maritime risks was
common among the ancient Greeks, being known as <span class="grk" title="ekdosis">&#7956;&#954;&#948;&#959;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span> or <span class="grk" title="daneion">&#948;&#940;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>
(see Demosthenes&rsquo; speeches <i>Pro Phormione, Contra Lacritum</i> and
<i>In Dionysodorum</i>); it passed into Roman law as <i>foenus nauticum</i>
or <i>usura maritima</i>.</p>

<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lien</a></span>: <i>Maritime</i>; and generally Abbott on <i>Shipping</i>
(14th ed., 1901).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOTZARIS<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Bozzaris</span>], <span class="bold">MARCO</span> (<i>c.</i> 1788-1823), leader in the
War of Greek Independence, born at Suli in Albania, was the
second son of Kitzo Botzaris, murdered at Arta in 1809 by
order of Ali of Iannina. In 1803, after the capture of Suli by
Ali Pasha, Marco, with the remnant of the Suliots, crossed over
to the Ionian Islands, where he ultimately took service in an
Albanian regiment in French pay. In 1814 he joined the Greek
patriotic society known as the <i>Hetairia Philike</i>, and in 1820,
with other Suliots, made common cause with Ali of Iannina
against the Ottomans. On the outbreak of the Greek revolt, he
distinguished himself by his courage, tenacity and skill as a
partisan leader in the fighting in western Hellas, and was conspicuous
in the defence of Missolonghi during the first siege
(1822-1823). On the night of the 21st of August 1823 he led the
celebrated attack at Karpenisi of 350 Suliots on 4000 Albanians
who formed the vanguard of the army with which Mustai Pasha
was advancing to reinforce the besiegers. The rout of the Turks
was complete; but Botzaris himself fell. His memory is still
celebrated in popular ballads in Greece. Marco Botzaris&rsquo;s
brother Kosta (Constantine), who fought at Karpenisi and
completed the victory, lived to become a general and senator in
the Greek kingdom. He died at Athens on the 13th of November
1853. Marco&rsquo;s son, Dimitri Botzaris, born in 1813, was three
times minister of war under the kings Otho and George. He
died at Athens on the 17th of August 1870.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOTZEN,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bozen</span> (Ital. <i>Bolzano</i>), a town in the Austrian
province of Tirol, situated at the confluence of the Talfer with
the Eisak, and a short way above the junction of the latter with
the Adige or Etsch. It is built at a height of 869 ft., and is a
station on the Brenner railway, being 58 m. S. of that pass
and 35 m. N. of Trent. In 1900 it had a population of 13,632,
Romanist and mainly German-speaking, though the Italian element
is said to be increasing. Botzen is a Teutonic town amid
Italian surroundings. It is well built, and boasts of a fine old
Gothic parish church, dating from the 14th and 15th centuries,
opposite which a statue was erected in 1889 to the memory of
the famous <i>Minnesänger</i>, Walther von der Vogelweide, who,
according to some accounts, was born (<i>c</i>. 1170) at a farm above
Waidbruck, to the north of Botzen. Botzen is the busiest
commercial town in the German-speaking portion of Tirol,
being admirably situated at the junction of the Brenner route
from Germany to Italy with that from Switzerland down the
Upper Adige valley or the Vintschgau. Hence the transit trade has
always been very considerable (it has four large fairs annually),
while the local wine is mentioned as early as the 7th century.
Lately its prosperity has been increased by the rise into favour
as a winter resort of the village of Gries, on the other bank of the
Talfer, and now practically a suburb of Botzen.</p>

<p>The <i>pons Drusi</i> (probably over the Adige, just below Botzen)
is mentioned in the 4th century by the <i>Peutinger Table</i>. In the
7th to 8th centuries Botzen was held by a dynasty of Bavarian
counts. But in 1027, with the rest of the diocese of Trent, it
was given by the emperor Conrad II. to the bishop of Trent.
From 1028 onwards it was ruled by local counts, the vassals of the
bishops, but after Tirol fell into the hands of the Habsburgers
(1363) their power grew at the expense of that of the bishops.
In 1381 Leopold granted to the citizens the privilege of having a
town council, while in 1462 the bishops resigned all rights of
jurisdiction over the town to the Habsburgers, so that its later
history is merged in that of Tirol.</p>
<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUCHARDON, EDME<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1698-1762), French sculptor, was
esteemed in his day the greatest sculptor of his time. Born at
Chaumont, he became the pupil of Guillaume Coustou and gained
the <i>prix de Rome</i> in 1722. Resisting the tendency of the day
he was classic in his taste, pure and chaste, always correct,
charming and distinguished, a great stickler for all the finish
that sand-paper could give. During the ten years he remained
at Rome, Bouchardon made a striking bust of Pope Benedict
XIII. (1730). In 1746 he produced his first acclaimed masterpiece,
&ldquo;Cupid fashioning a Bow out of the Club of Hercules,&rdquo;
perfect in its grace, but cold in the purity of its classic design.
His two other leading <i>chefs-d&rsquo;&oelig;uvre</i> are the fountain in the rue
de Grenelle, Paris, the first portions of which had been finished
and exhibited in 1740, and the equestrian statue of Louis XV.,
a commission from the city of Paris. This superb work, which,
when the model was produced, was declared the finest work of
its kind ever produced in France, Bouchardon did not live to
finish, but left its completion to Pigalle. It was destroyed during
the Revolution.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Among the chief books on the sculptor and his art are <i>Vie d&rsquo;Edme
Bouchardon</i>, by le comte de Caylus (Paris, 1762); <i>Notice sur
Edme Bouchardon, sculpteur</i>, by E. Jolibois (Versailles, 1837);
<i>Notice historique sur Edme Bouchardon</i>, by J. Carnandet (Paris,
1855); and <i>French Architects and Sculptors of the 18th Century</i>,
by Lady Dilke (London, 1900).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUCHER, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1703-1770), French painter, was born
in Paris, and at first was employed by Jean François Cars (1670-1739),
the engraver, father of the engraver Laurent Cars (1699-1771),
to make designs and illustrations for books. In 1727,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>312</span>
however, he went to Italy, and at Rome became well known as
a painter. He returned to Paris in 1731 and soon became a
favourite in society. His picture &ldquo;Rinaldo and Armida&rdquo; (1734)
is now in the Louvre. He was made inspector of the Gobelins
factory in 1755 and court painter in 1765, and was employed by
Madame de Pompadour both to paint her portrait and to execute
various decorative works. He died in 1770. His Watteau-like
style and graceful voluptuousness gave him the title of the
Anacreon of painting, but his repute declined until recent years.
The Wallace collection, at Hertford House, has some of his
finest pictures, outside the Louvre. His etchings were also
numerous and masterly.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Antoine Bret&rsquo;s notice in the <i>Nécrologe des hommes célèbres</i> for
1771, and the monographs by the brothers de Goncourt and Paul
Mantz.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUCHER, JONATHAN<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1738-1804), English divine and
philologist, was born in the hamlet of Blencogo, near Wigton,
Cumberland, on the 12th of March 1738. He was educated at
the Wigton grammar school, and about 1754 went to Virginia,
where he became a private tutor in the families of Virginia
planters. Among his charges was John Parke Custis, the step-son
of George Washington, with whom he began a long and intimate
friendship. Returning to England, he was ordained by the bishop
of London in March 1762, and at once sailed again for America,
where he remained until 1775 as rector of various Virginia and
Maryland parishes, including Hanover, King George&rsquo;s county,
Virginia, and St Anne&rsquo;s at Annapolis, Maryland. He was widely
known as an eloquent preacher, and his scholarly attainments
won for him the friendship and esteem of some of the ablest
scholars in the colonies. During his residence in Maryland he
vigorously opposed the &ldquo;vestry act,&rdquo; by which the powers and
emoluments of the Maryland pastors were greatly diminished.
When the struggle between the colonies and the mother country
began, although he felt much sympathy for the former, his
opposition to any form of obstruction to the Stamp Act and other
measures, and his denunciation of a resort to force created a
breach between him and his parish, and in a fiery farewell
discourse preached after the opening of hostilities he declared
that no power on earth should prevent him from praying and
shouting &ldquo;God save the King.&rdquo; In the succeeding autumn he
returned to England, where his loyalism was rewarded by a
government pension. In 1784 he became vicar of Epsom in
Surrey, where he continued until his death on the 27th of April
1804, becoming known as one of the most eloquent preachers of
his day. He was an accomplished writer and scholar, contributed
largely to William Hutchinson&rsquo;s <i>History of the County of Cumberland</i>
(2 vols., 1704 seq.), and published <i>A View of the Causes
and Consequences of the American Revolution</i> (1797), dedicated
to George Washington, and consisting of thirteen discourses
delivered in America between 1763 and 1775. His philological
studies, to which the last fourteen years of his life were devoted,
resulted in the compilation of &ldquo;A Glossary of Provincial and
Archaic Words,&rdquo; intended as a supplement to Dr Johnson&rsquo;s
<i>Dictionary</i>, but never published except in part, which finally in
1831 passed into the hands of the English compilers of Webster&rsquo;s
<i>Dictionary</i>, by whom it was utilized.</p>

<p>His son, <span class="sc">Barton Boucher</span> (1794-1865), rector of Fonthill
Bishops, Wiltshire, in 1856, was well known as the author of
religious tracts, hymns and novels.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUCHER DE CRÈVCOEUR DE PERTHES, JACQUES<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span>
(1788-1868), French geologist and antiquary, was born on the
10th of September 1788 at Rethel, Ardennes, France. He was
the eldest son of Jules Armand Guillaume Boucher de Crèvec&oelig;ur,
botanist and customs officer, and of Étienne-Jeanne-Marie de
Perthes (whose surname he was authorized by royal decree in
1818 to assume in addition to his father&rsquo;s). In 1802 he entered
government employ as an officer of customs. His duties kept him
for six years in Italy, whence returning (in 1811) he found rapid
promotion at home, and finally was appointed (March 1825)
to succeed his father as director of the <i>douane</i> at Abbeville,
where he remained for the rest of his life, being superannuated
in January 1853, and dying on the 5th of August 1868. His
leisure was chiefly devoted to the study of what was afterwards
called the Stone Age, &ldquo;antediluvian man,&rdquo; as he expressed it.
About the year 1830 he had found, in the gravels of the Somme
valley, flints which in his opinion bore evidence of human
handiwork; but not until many years afterwards did he make
public the important discovery of a worked flint implement
with remains of elephant, rhinoceros, &amp;c., in the gravels of
Menchecourt. This was in 1846. A few years later he commenced
the issue of his monumental work, <i>Antiquités celtiques
et an édiluviennes</i> (1847, 1857, 1864; 3 vols.), a work in which
he was the first to establish the existence of man in the Pleistocene
or early Quaternary period. His views met with little approval,
partly because he had previously propounded theories regarding
the antiquity of man without facts to support them, partly
because the figures in his book were badly executed and they
included drawings of flints which showed no clear sign of workmanship.
In 1855 Dr Jean Paul Rigollot (1810-1873), of Amiens,
strongly advocated the authenticity of the flint implements; but
it was not until 1858 that Hugh Falconer (<i>q.v</i>.) saw the collection
at Abbeville and induced Prestwich (<i>q.v</i>.) in the following year
to visit the locality. Prestwich then definitely agreed that the
flint implements were the work of man, and that they occurred
in undisturbed ground in association with remains of extinct
mammalia. In 1863 his discovery of a human jaw, together
with worked flints, in a gravel-pit at Moulin-Quignon near
Abbeville seemed to vindicate Boucher de Perthes entirely;
but doubt was thrown on the antiquity of the human remains
(owing to the possibility of interment), though not on the good
faith of the discoverer, who was the same year made an officer
of the Legion of Honour together with Quatrefages his
champion. Boucher de Perthes displayed activity in many
other directions. For more than thirty years he filled the
presidential chair of the Société d&rsquo;Émulation at Abbeville,
to the publications of which he contributed articles on a wide
range of subjects. He was the author of several tragedies,
two books of fiction, several works of travel, and a number of
books on economic and philanthropic questions. To his scientific
books may be added <i>De l&rsquo;homme antédilumen et de ses &oelig;uvres</i>
(Paris, 1860).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Alcius Ledien, <i>Boucher de Perthes; sa vie, ses &oelig;uvres, sa
correspondence</i> (Abbeville, 1885); Lady Prestwich, &ldquo;Recollections
of M. Boucher de Perthes&rdquo; (with portrait) in <i>Essays Descriptive and
Biographical</i> (1901).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUCHES-DU-RHÔNE,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> a maritime department of south-eastern
France situated at the mouth of the Rhone. Area, 2026
sq. m. Pop. (1906) 765,918. Formed in 1790 from western
Provence, it is bounded N. by Vaucluse, from which it is separated
by the Durance, E. by Var, W. by Card, and S. by the Mediterranean,
along which its seaboard stretches for about 120 m.
The western portion consists of the Camargue (<i>q.v</i>.), a low and
marshy plain enclosed between the Rhone and the Petit-Rhône,
and comprising the Rhone delta. A large portion of its surface is
covered by lagoons and pools (étangs), the largest of which is the
Étang de Vaccarès; to the east of the Camargue is situated the
remarkable stretch of country called the Crau, which is strewn
with pebbles like the sea-beach; and farther east and north
there are various ranges of mountains of moderate elevation belonging
to the Alpine system. The Étang de Berre, a lagoon
covering an area of nearly 60 sq. m., is situated near the sea
to the south-east of the Crau. A few small tributaries of the
Rhone and the Durance, a number of streams, such as the Arc
and the Touloubre, which flow into the Étang de Berre, and the
Huveaune, which finds its way directly to the sea, are the only
rivers that properly belong to the department.</p>

<p>Bouches-du-Rhône enjoys the beautiful climate of the Mediterranean
coast, the chief drawback being the mistral, the icy
north-west wind blowing from the central plateau of France.
The proportion of arable land is small, though the quantity has
been considerably increased by artificial irrigation and by the
draining of marshland. Cereals, of which wheat and oats are
the commonest, are grown in the Camargue and the plain of
Aries, but they are of less importance than the olive-tree, which
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>313</span>
is grown largely in the east of the department and supplies the
oil-works of Marseilles. The vine is also cultivated, the method
of submersion being used as a safeguard against phylloxera.
In the cantons of the north-west large quantities of early
vegetables are produced. Of live-stock, sheep alone are raised to
any extent. Almonds, figs, capers, mulberry trees and silkworms
are sources of considerable profit. Iron is worked, but
the most important mines are those of lignite, in which between
2000 and 3000 workmen are employed; the department also produces
bauxite, building-stone, lime, cement, gypsum, clay, sand
and gravel and marble. The salt marshes employ many workmen,
and the amount of sea-salt obtained exceeds in quantity the produce
of any other department in France. Marseilles, the capital,
is by far the most important industrial town. In its oil-works,
soap-works, metallurgical works, shipbuilding works, distilleries,
flour-mills, chemical works, tanneries, engineering and machinery
works, brick and tile works, manufactories of preserved foods
and biscuits, and other industrial establishments, is concentrated
most of the manufacturing activity of the department. To these
must be added the potteries of the industrial town of Aubagne,
the silk-works in the north-west cantons, and various paper and
cardboard manufactories, while several of the industries of
Marseilles, such as the distilling of oil, metal-founding, shipbuilding
and soap-making, are common to the whole of Bouches-du-Rhône.
Fishing is also an important industry. Cereals, flour,
silk, woollen and cotton goods, wine, brandy, oils, soap, sugar
and coffee are chief exports; cereals, oil-seeds, wine and brandy,
raw sugar, cattle, timber, silk, wool, cotton, coal, &amp;c., are
imported.  The foreign commerce of the department, which is
principally carried on in the Mediterranean basin, is for the most
part concentrated in the capital; the minor ports are Martigues,
Cassis and La Ciotat. Internal trade is facilitated by the canal
from Aries to Port-de-Bouc and two smaller canals, in all about
35 m. in length. The Rhone and the Petit-Rhône are both
navigable within the department.</p>

<p>Bouches-du-Rhône is divided into the three arrondissements
of Marseilles, Aix and Arles (33 cantons, 111 communes). It
belongs to the archiepiscopal province of Aix, to the region of
the XV. army corps, the headquarters of which are at Marseilles,
and to the <i>académie</i> (educational division) of Aix. Its court of
appeal is at Aix. Marseilles, Aix, Arles, La Ciotat, Martigues,
Salon, Les Saintes-Maries, St Rémy, Les Baux and Tarascon,
the principal places, are separately noticed. Objects of interest
elsewhere may be mentioned. Near Saint-Chamas there is a
remarkable Roman bridge over the Touloubre, which probably
dates from the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and is thus the oldest in
France. It is supported on one semicircular span and has
triumphal arches at either end. At Vernègues there are
remains of a Roman temple known as the &ldquo;Maison-Basse.&rdquo; The
famous abbey of Montmajour, of which the oldest parts are
the Romanesque church and cloister, is 2½ m. from Arles. At
Orgon there are the ruins of a château of the 15th century, and
near La Roque d&rsquo;Anthéron the church and other buildings of
the Cistercian abbey of Silvacane, founded in the 12th century.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUCHOR, MAURICE<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1855-&emsp;&emsp;), French poet, was born on
the 15th of December 1855 in Paris. He published in succession
<i>Chansons joyeuses</i> (1874), <i>Poèmes de l&rsquo;amour et de la mer</i> (1875),
<i>Le Faust moderne</i> (1878) in prose and verse, and <i>Les Contes
parisiens</i> (1880) in verse. His <i>Aurore</i> (1883) showed a tendency
to religious mysticism, which reached its fullest expression in
<i>Les Symboles</i> (1888; new series, 1895), the most interesting of his
works. Bouchor (whose brother, Joseph Félix Bouchor, b. 1853,
became well known as an artist) was a sculptor as well as a poet,
and he designed and worked the figures used in his charming
pieces as marionettes, the words being recited or chanted by
himself or his friends behind the scenes. These miniature dramas
on religious subjects, <i>Tobie</i> (1889), <i>Noël</i> (1890) and <i>Sainte
Cécile</i> (1892), were produced in Paris at the Théâtre des
Marionnettes. A one-act verse drama by Bouchor, Conte de Noël, was
played at the Théâtre Français in 1895, but <i>Dieu le veut</i>
(1888) was not produced. In conjunction with the musician
Julien Tiersot (b. 1857), he made efforts for the preservation of
the French folk-songs, and published <i>Chants populaires pour les
écoles</i> (1897).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUCHOTTE, JEAN BAPTISTE NOËL<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1754-1840), French
minister, was born at Metz on the 25th of December 1754. At
the outbreak of the Revolution he was a captain of cavalry, and
his zeal led to his being made colonel and given the command at
Cambrai. When Dumouriez delivered up to the Austrians the
minister of war, the marquis de Beurnonville, in April 1793,
Bouchotte, who had bravely defended Cambrai, was called by
the Convention to be minister of war, where he remained until the
31st of March 1794. The predominant rôle of the Committee of
Public Safety during that period did not leave much scope for the
new minister, yet he rendered some services in the organization
of the republican armies, and chose his officers with insight,
among them Kléber, Masséna, Moreau and Bonaparte. During
the Thermidorian reaction, in spite of his incontestable honesty,
he was accused by the anti-revolutionists. He was tried by the
tribunal of the Eure-et-Loire and acquitted. Then he withdrew
from politics, and lived in retirement until his death on the 8th
of June 1840.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUCICAULT, DION<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1822-1890), Irish actor and playwright,
was born in Dublin on the 26th of December 1822, the son of a
French refugee and an Irish mother. Before he was twenty he was
fortunate enough to make an immediate success as a dramatist
with <i>London Assurance</i>, produced at Covent Garden on the
4th of March 1841, with a cast that included Charles Matthews,
William Farren, Mrs Nesbitt and Madame Vestris. He rapidly
followed this with a number of other plays, among the most
successful of the early ones being <i>Old Heads and Young Hearts</i>,
<i>Louis XI</i>., and <i>The Corsican Brothers</i>. In June 1852 he made his
first appearance as an actor in a melodrama of his own entitled
<i>The Vampire</i> at the Princess&rsquo;s theatre. From 1853 to 1869 he
was in the United States, where he was always a popular favourite.
On his return to England he produced at the Adelphi a dramatic
adaptation of Gerald Griffin&rsquo;s novel, <i>The Collegians</i>, entitled <i>The
Colleen Bawn</i>. This play, one of the most successful of modern
times, was performed in almost every city of the United Kingdom
and the United States, and made its author a handsome fortune,
which he lost in the management of various London theatres. It
was followed by <i>The Octoroon</i> (1861), the popularity of which was
almost as great. Boucicault&rsquo;s next marked success was at the
Princess&rsquo;s theatre in 1865 with <i>Arrah-na-Pogue</i>, in which he
played the part of a Wicklow carman. This, and his admirable
creation of Con in his play <i>The Shaughraun</i> (first produced at
Drury Lane in 1875), won him the reputation of being the best
stage Irishman of his time. In 1875 he returned to New York
City and finally made his home there, but he paid occasional
visits to London, where his last appearance was made in his play,
<i>The Jilt</i>, in 1886. <i>The Streets of London</i> and <i>After Dark</i> were two
of his late successes as a dramatist. He died in New York on the
18th of September 1890. Boucicault was twice married, his first
wife being Agnes Robertson, the adopted daughter of Charles
Kean, and herself an actress of unusual ability. Three children,
Dion (b. 1859), Aubrey (b. 1868) and Nina, also became distinguished
in the profession.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUCICAUT, JEAN<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Jean le Meingre</span>, called <span class="sc">Boucicaut</span>]
(<i>c.</i> 1366-1421), marshal of France, was the son of another Jean
le Meingre, also known as Boucicaut, marshal of France, who
died on the 15th of March 1368 (N.S.). At a very early age he
became a soldier; he fought in Normandy, in Flanders and in
Prussia, distinguishing himself at the battle of Roosebeke in
1382; and then after a campaign in Spain he journeyed to the
Holy Land. Boucicaut&rsquo;s great desire appears to have been to
fight the Turk, and in 1396 he was one of the French soldiers
who marched to the defence of Hungary and shared in the
Christian defeat at Nicopolis, where he narrowly escaped death.
After remaining for some months a captive in the hands of the
sultan, he obtained his ransom and returned to France; then
in 1399 he was sent at the head of an army to aid the Eastern
emperor, Manuel II., who was harassed by the Turks. Boucicaut
drove the enemy from his position before Constantinople and
returned to France for fresh troops, but instead of proceeding
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>314</span>
again to eastern Europe, he was despatched in 1401 to Genoa,
who in 1396 had placed herself under the dominion of France.
Here he was successful in restoring order and in making the
French occupation effective, and he was soon able to turn his
attention to the defence of the Genoese possessions in the
Mediterranean. The energy which he showed in this direction involved
him not only in a quarrel with Janus, king of Cyprus, but led
also to a short war with Venice, whose fleet he encountered off
Modon in the Archipelago in October 1403. This battle has been
claimed by both sides as a victory. Peace was soon made with
the republic, and then in 1409, while the marshal was absent on
a campaign in northern Italy, Genoa threw off the French yoke,
and Boucicaut, unable to reduce her again to submission, retired
to Languedoc. He fought at Agincourt, where he was taken
prisoner, and died in England. Boucicaut, who was very skilful
in the tournament, founded the order of the <i>Dame blanche à
l&rsquo;écu vert</i>, a society the object of which was to defend the
wives and daughters of absent knights.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>There is in existence an anonymous account of Boucicaut&rsquo;s life
and adventures, entitled <i>Livre des faits du bon messire Jean le
Meingre dit Boucicaut</i>, which was published in Paris by T. Godefroy
in 1620. See J. Delaville le Roulx, <i>La France en Orient: expéditions
du maréchal Boucicaut</i> (Paris, 1886).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUDIN, EUGÈNE<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1824-1898), French painter of the <i>paysage
de mer</i>, was the son of a pilot. Born at Honfleur he was cabin-boy
for a while on board the rickety steamer that plied between
Havre and Honfleur across the estuary of the Seine. But before
old age came on him, Boudin&rsquo;s father abandoned seafaring,
and the son gave it up too, having of course no real vocation
for it, though he preserved to his last days much of a sailor&rsquo;s
character,&mdash;frankness, accessibility, open-heartedness. Boudin
the elder now established himself as stationer and frame-maker;
this time in the greater seaport town of Havre; and Eugène
helped in the little business, and, in stolen hours, produced
certain drawings. That was a time at which the romantic outlines
of the Norman coast engaged Isabey, and the green wide
valleys of the inland country engaged Troyon; and Troyon and
Isabey, and Millet too, came to the shop at Havre. Young Boudin
found his desire to be a painter stimulated by their influence;
his work made a certain progress, and the interest taken in the
young man resulted in his being granted for a short term of
years by the town of his adoption a pension, that he might study
painting. He studied partly in Paris; but whatever individuality
he possessed in those years was hidden and covered, rather than
disclosed. An instance of tiresome, elaborate labour&mdash;good
enough, no doubt, as groundwork, and not out of keeping with
what at least was the popular taste of that day&mdash;is his &ldquo;Pardon
of Sainte Anne de la Palud,&rdquo; a Breton scene, of 1858, in which
he introduced the young Breton woman who was immediately
to become his wife. This conscientious and unmoving picture
hangs in the museum of Havre, along with a hundred later,
fresher, thoroughly individual studies and sketches, the gift
of Boudin&rsquo;s brother, Louis Boudin, after the painter&rsquo;s death.
Re-established at Honfleur, Boudin was married and poor.
But his work gained character and added, to merely academic
correctness, character and charm. He was beginning to be
himself by 1864 or 1865&mdash;that was the first of such periods
of his as may be accounted good&mdash;and, though not at that time
so fully a master of transient effects of weather as he became
later, he began then to paint with a success genuinely artistic
the scenes of the harbour and the estuary, which no longer
lost vivacity by deliberate and too obvious completeness.
The war of 1870-71 found Boudin impecunious but great, for
then there had well begun the series of freshly and vigorously
conceived canvases and panels, which record the impressions
of a precursor of the Impressionists in presence of the Channel
waters, and of those autumn skies, or skies of summer, now
radiant, now uncertain, which hung over the small ports and
the rocky or chalk-cliff coasts, over the watering-places, Trouville,
Dieppe, and over those larger harbours, with <i>port</i> and
<i>avant-port</i> and <i>bassin</i>, of Dunkirk, of Havre.  In the war
time, Boudin was in Brittany and then in the Low Countries. About 1875-1876
he was at Rotterdam and Bordeaux. That great bird&rsquo;s-eye
vision of Bordeaux which is in the Luxembourg dates from
these years, and in these years he was at Rotterdam, the companion
of Jongkind, with whom he had so much in common,
but whose work, like his, free and fearless and unconventional,
can never be said with accuracy to have seriously influenced
his own. Doing excellent things continually through all the
&rsquo;seventies, when he was in late middle age&mdash;gaining scope in
colour, having now so many notes&mdash;faithful no longer wholly
to his amazing range of subtle greys, now blithe and silvery,
now nobly deep&mdash;sending to the Salon great canvases, and to
the few enlightened people who would buy them of him the
<i>toile</i> or panel of most moderate size on which he best of all expressed
himself&mdash;Boudin was yet not acceptable to the public
or to the fashionable dealer. The late &rsquo;eighties had to come
and Boudin to be elderly before there was a sale for his work
at any prices that were in the least substantial. Broadly speaking
his work in those very &rsquo;eighties was not so good as the labour,
essentially delicate and fresh and just, of some years earlier,
nor had it always the attractiveness of the impulsive deliverances
of some years later, when the inspired sketch was the thing
that he generally stopped at. Old age found him strong and
receptive. Only in the very last year of his life was there perceptible
a positive deterioration. Not very long before it,
Boudin, in a visit to Venice, had produced impressions of Venice
for which much more was to be said than that they were not
Ziem&rsquo;s. And the deep colouring of the South, on days when the
sunshine blazes least, had been caught by him and presented nobly
at Antibes and Villefranche. At last, resorting to the south again
as a refuge from ill-health, and recognizing soon that the relief
it could give him was almost spent, he resolved that it should
not be for him, in the words of Maurice Barrès, a &ldquo;<i>tombe fleurie</i>,&rdquo;
and he returned, hastily, weak and sinking, to his home at
Deauville, that he might at least die within sight of Channel
waters and under Channel skies. As a &ldquo;marine painter&rdquo;&mdash;more
properly as a painter of subjects in which water must have
some part, and as curiously expert in the rendering of all that
goes upon the sea, and as the painter too of the green banks
of tidal rivers and of the long-stretched beach, with crinolined
Parisienne noted as ably as the sailor-folk&mdash;Boudin stands alone.
Beside him others are apt to seem rather theatrical&mdash;or if they
do not romance they appear, perhaps, to chronicle dully. The
pastels of Boudin&mdash;summary and economic even in the &rsquo;sixties,
at a time when his painted work was less free&mdash;obtained the
splendid eulogy of Baudelaire, and it was no other than Corot
who, before his pictures, said to him: &ldquo;You are the master
of the sky.&rdquo;</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See also Gustave Cahen, <i>Eugène Boudin</i> (Paris, 1899); Arsène
Alexandre, <i>Essais</i>; Frederick Wedmore, <i>Whistler and Others</i> (1906).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(F. We.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUDINOT, ELIAS<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (1740-1821), American revolutionary
leader, was born at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, of Huguenot
descent, on the 2nd of May 1740. He studied law at Princeton,
New Jersey, in the office of Richard Stockton, whose sister
Hannah he married in 1762, and in November 1760 he was
licensed as a counsellor and attorney-at-law, afterwards practising
at Elizabethtown, New Jersey. On the approach of the War of
Independence he allied himself with the conservative Whigs.
He was a deputy to the provincial congress of New Jersey from
May to August 1775, and from May 1777 until July 1778 was the
commissary-general of prisoners, with the rank of colonel, in
the continental army. He was one of the New Jersey members
of the continental congress in 1778 and again from 1781 until
1783, and from November 1782 until October 1783 was president
of that body, acting also for a short time, after the resignation
of Robert R. Livingston, as secretary for foreign affairs. From
1789 to 1795 he sat as a member of the national House of Representatives,
and from 1795 until 1805 he was the director of the
United States mint at Philadelphia. He took an active part
in the founding of the American Bible Society in 1816, of which
he became the first president. He was a trustee and a benefactor
of the college of New Jersey (afterwards Princeton University).
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>315</span>
In reply to Thomas Paine&rsquo;s <i>Age of Reason</i>, he published the
<i>Age of Revelation</i> (1790); he also published a volume entitled
<i>A Star in the West, or a Humble Attempt to Discover the Long Lost
Ten Tribes of Israel</i> (1816), in which he endeavours to prove
that the American Indians may be the ten lost tribes. Boudinot
died at Burlington, New Jersey, on the 24th of October 1821.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>The Life, Public Services, Addresses and Letters of Elias
Boudinot</i>, edited by J.J. Boudinot (Boston and New York, 1896).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUÉ, AMI<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1794-1881), Austrian geologist, was born at
Hamburg on the 16th of March 1794, and received his early
education there and in Geneva and Paris. Proceeding to Edinburgh
to study medicine at the university, he came under
the influence of Robert Jameson, whose teachings in geology
and mineralogy inspired his future career. Boué was thus led
to make geological expeditions to various parts of Scotland and
the Hebrides, and after taking his degree of M.D. in 1817 he
settled for some years in Paris. In 1820 he issued his <i>Essai
géologique sur l&rsquo;Écosse</i>, in which the eruptive rocks in particular
were carefully described. He travelled much in Germany,
Austria and southern Europe, studying various geological formations,
and becoming one of the pioneers in geological research;
he was one of the founders of the Société Géologique de France
in 1830, and was its president in 1835. In 1841 he settled in
Vienna, and became naturalized as an Austrian. He died on the
21st of November 1881. To the Imperial Academy of Sciences
at Vienna he communicated important papers on the geology
of the Balkan States (1859-1870), and he also published <i>Mémoires
géologiques et paléontologiques</i> (Paris, 1832) and <i>La Turquie
d&rsquo;Europe; observations sur la géographie, la géologie, l&rsquo;histoire
naturelle, &amp;c.</i> (Paris, 1840).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUFFLERS, LOUIS FRANÇOIS,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duc de</span>, comte de Cagny
(1644-1711), marshal of France, was born on the 10th of January
1644. He entered the army and saw service in 1663 at the siege
of Marsal, becoming in 1669 colonel of dragoons. In the conquest
of Lorraine (1670) he served under Marshal de Créqui. In Holland
he served under Turenne, frequently distinguishing himself
by his skill and bravery; and when Turenne was killed by a
cannon-shot in 1675 he commanded the rear-guard during the
retreat of the French army. He was already a brigadier, and
in 1677 he became <i>maréchal de camp</i>. He served throughout the
campaigns of the time with increasing distinction, and in 1681
became lieutenant-general. He commanded the French army
on the Moselle, which opened the War of the League of Augsburg
with a series of victories; then he led a corps to the Sambre,
and reinforced Luxemburg on the eve of the battle of Fleurus.
In 1691 he acted as lieutenant-general under the king in person;
and during the investment of Mons he was wounded in an attack
on the town. He was present with the king at the siege of
Namur in 1692, and took part in the victory of Steinkirk. For
his services he was raised in 1692 to the rank of marshal of
France, and in 1694 was made a duke. In 1694 he was appointed
governor of French Flanders and of the town of Lille. By a
skilful manoeuvre he threw himself into Namur in 1695, and
only surrendered to his besiegers after he had lost 8000 of his
13,000 men. In the conferences which terminated in the peace
of Ryswick he had a principal share. During the following war,
when Lille was threatened with a siege by Marlborough and
Eugene, Boufflers was appointed to the command, and made a
most gallant resistance of three months. He was rewarded and
honoured by the king for his defence of Lille, as if he had been
victorious. It was indeed a species of triumph; his enemy,
appreciating his merits, allowed him to dictate his own terms of
capitulation. In 1708 he was made a peer of France. In 1709,
when the affairs of France were threatened with the most urgent
danger, Boufflers offered to serve under his junior, Villars, and
was with him at the battle of Malplaquet. Here he displayed
the highest skill, and after Villars was wounded he conducted
the retreat of the French army without losing either cannon or
prisoners. He died at Fontainebleau on the 22nd of August
1711.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See F...., <i>Vie du Mal. de Boufflers</i> (Lille, 1852), and Père
Delarue&rsquo;s and Père Poisson&rsquo;s <i>Oraisons funèbres du Mal. B.</i> (1712).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUFFLERS, STANISLAS JEAN,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> <span class="sc">Chevalier de</span> (1737-1815),
French statesman and man of letters, was born near Nancy
on the 31st of May 1738. He was the son of Louis François,
marquis de Boufflers. His mother, Marie Catherine de Beauveau
Craon, was the mistress of Stanislas Leszczynski, and the boy
was brought up at the court of Lunéville. He spent six months
in study for the priesthood at Saint Sulpice, Paris, and during his
residence there he put in circulation a story which became extremely
popular, <i>Aline, reine de Golconde</i>. Boufflers did not,
however, take the vows, as his ambitions were military. He
entered the order of the Knights of Malta, so that he might be
able to follow the career of arms without sacrificing the revenues
of a benefice he had received in Lorraine from King Stanislas.
After serving in various campaigns he reached the grade of
<i>maréchal de camp</i> in 1784, and in the next year was sent to West
Africa as governor of Senegal. He proved an excellent administrator,
and did what he could to mitigate the horrors of
the slave trade; and he interested himself in opening up the
material resources of the colony, so that his departure in 1787
was regarded as a real calamity by both colonists and negroes.
The <i>Mémoires secrets</i> of Bachaumont give the current opinion
that Boufflers was sent to Senegal because he was in disgrace at
court; but the real reason appears to have been a desire to pay
his debts before his marriage with Mme de Sabran, which took
place soon after his return to France. Boufflers was admitted
to the Academy in 1788, and subsequently became a member of
the states-general. During the Revolution he found an asylum
with Prince Henry of Prussia at Rheinsberg. At the Restoration
he was made joint-librarian of the Bibliothèque Mazarine. His
wit and his skill in light verse had won him a great reputation,
and he was one of the idols of the Parisian salons. His paradoxical
character was described in an epigram attributed to Antoine
de Rivarol, &ldquo;<i>abbé libertin, militaire philosophe, diplomate chansonnier,
émigré patriote, républicain courtisan</i>.&rdquo; He died in Paris
on the 18th of January 1815.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His <i>&OElig;uvres complètes</i> were published under his own supervision
in 1803. A selection of his stories in prose and verse was edited by
Eugène Asse in 1878; his <i>Poésies</i> by O. Uzanne in 1886; and the
<i>Correspondance inédite de la comtesse de Sabran et du chevalier de
Boufflers</i> (1778-1788), by E. de Magnieu and Henri Prat in 1875.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS ANTOINE DE<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1729-1811), French
navigator, was born at Paris on the 11th of November 1729.
He was the son of a notary, and in early life studied law, but
soon abandoned the profession, and in 1753 entered the army
in the corps of musketeers. At the age of twenty-five he published
a treatise on the integral calculus, as a supplement to
De l&rsquo;Hôpital&rsquo;s treatise, <i>Des infiniment petits</i>. In 1755 he was sent
to London as secretary to the French embassy, and was made
a member of the Royal Society. In 1756 he went to Canada as
captain of dragoons and aide-de-camp to the marquis de Montcalm;
and having distinguished himself in the war against
England, was rewarded with the rank of colonel and the cross
of St Louis. He afterwards served in the Seven Years&rsquo; War
from 1761 to 1763. After the peace, when the French government
conceived the project of colonizing the Falkland Islands,
Bougainville undertook the task at his own expense. But the
settlement having excited the jealousy of the Spaniards, the
French government gave it up to them, on condition of their
indemnifying Bougainville. He was then appointed to the
command of the frigate &ldquo;La Boudeuse&rdquo; and the transport
&ldquo;L&rsquo;Etoile,&rdquo; and set sail in December 1766 on a voyage of
discovery round the world. Having executed his commission
of delivering up the Falkland Islands to the Spanish, Bougainville
proceeded on his expedition, and touched at Buenos Aires.
Passing through the Straits of Magellan, he visited the Tuamotu
archipelago, and Tahiti, where the English navigator Wallis
had touched eight months before. He proceeded across the
Pacific Ocean by way of the Samoan group, which he named
the Navigators Islands, the New Hebrides and the Solomon
Islands. His men now suffering from scurvy, and his vessels
requiring refitting, he anchored at Buru, one of the Moluccas,
where the governor of the Dutch settlement supplied his wants.
It was the beginning of September, and the expedition took
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id="page316"></a>316</span>
advantage of the easterly monsoon, which carried them to
Batavia. In March 1769 the expedition arrived at St Malo, with
the loss of only seven out of upwards of 200 men. Bougainville&rsquo;s
account of the voyage (Paris, 1771) is written with simplicity
and some humour. After an interval of several years, he again
accepted a naval command and saw much active service between
1779 and 1782. In the memorable engagement of the 12th of April
1782, in which Rodney defeated the comte de Grasse, near
Martinique, Bougainville, who commanded the &ldquo;Auguste,&rdquo; succeeded
in rallying eight ships of his own division, and bringing them
safely into St Eustace. He was created <i>chef d&rsquo;escadre</i>, and on
re-entering the army, was given the rank of <i>maréchal de camp</i>.
After the peace he returned to Paris, and obtained the place of
associate of the Academy. He projected a voyage of discovery
towards the north pole, but this did not meet with support from
the French government. Bougainville obtained the rank of
vice-admiral in 1791; and in 1792, having escaped almost
miraculously from the massacres of Paris, he retired to his estate
in Normandy. He was chosen a member of the Institute at its
formation, and returning to Paris became a member of the Board
of Longitude. In his old age Napoleon I. made him a senator,
count of the empire, and member of the Legion of Honour. He
died at Paris on the 31st of August 1811. He was married and
had three sons, who served in the French army.</p>

<p>Bougainville&rsquo;s name is given to the largest member of the
Solomon Islands, which belongs to Germany; and to the strait
which divides it from the British island of Choiseul. It is also
applied to the strait between Mallicollo and Espiritu Santo
Islands of the New Hebrides group, and the South American
climbing plant <i>Bougainvillea</i>, often cultivated in greenhouses,
is named after him.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUGHTON, GEORGE HENRY<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1834-1905), Anglo-American
painter, was born in England, but his parents went to the
United States in 1839, and he was brought up at Albany, N.Y.
He studied art in Paris in 1861-62, and subsequently
lived mainly in London; he was much influenced by Frederick
Walker, and the delicacy and grace of his pictures soon made
his reputation. He was elected an A.R.A. in 1879, and R.A.
in 1896, and a member of the National Academy of Design in
New York in 1871. His pictures of Dutch life and scenery were
especially characteristic; and his subject-pictures, such as the
&ldquo;Return of the Mayflower&rdquo; and &ldquo;The Scarlet Letter,&rdquo; were
very popular in America.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUGIE,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> a seaport of Algeria, chief town of an arrondissement
in the department of Constantine, 120 m. E. of Algiers. The
town, which is defended by a wall built since the French occupation,
and by detached forts, is beautifully situated on the slope
of Mount Guraya. Behind it are the heights of Mounts Babor
and Tababort, rising some 6400 ft. and crowned with forests of
pinsapo fir and cedar. The most interesting buildings in the
town are the ancient forts, Borj-el-Ahmer and Abd-el-Kader,
and the kasbah or citadel, rectangular in form, flanked by
bastions and towers, and bearing inscriptions stating that it was
built by the Spaniards in 1545. Parts of the Roman wall exist,
and considerable portions of that built by the Hammadites in
the 11th century. The streets are very steep, and many are
ascended by stairs. The harbour, sheltered from the east by a
breakwater, was enlarged in 1897-1902. It covers 63 acres and
has a depth of water of 23 to 30 ft. Bougie is the natural port
of Kabylia, and under the French rule its commerce&mdash;chiefly
in oils, wools, hides and minerals&mdash;has greatly developed; a
branch railway runs to Beni Mansur on the main line from
Constantine to Oran. Pop. (1906) of the town, 10,419; of the
commune, 17,540; of the arrondissement, which includes eight
communes, 37,711.</p>

<p>Bougie, if it be correctly identified with the Saldae of the
Romans, is a town of great antiquity, and probably owes its
origin to the Carthaginians. Early in the 5th century Genseric
the Vandal surrounded it with walls and for some time made it
his capital. En-Nasr (1062-1088), the most powerful of the
Berber dynasty of Hammad, made Bougie the seat of his government,
and it became the greatest commercial centre of the North
African coast, attaining a high degree of civilization. From an
old MS. it appears that as early as 1068 the heliograph was in
common use, special towers, with mirrors properly arranged,
being built for the purpose of signalling. The Italian merchants
of the 12th and 13th centuries owned numerous buildings in the
city, such as warehouses, baths and churches. At the end of
the 13th century Bougie passed under the dominion of the
Hafsides, and in the 15th century it became one of the strongholds
of the Barbary pirates. It enjoyed partial independence
under amirs of Hafside origin, but in January 1510 was captured
by the Spaniards under Pedro Navarro. The Spaniards strongly
fortified the place and held it against two attacks by the corsairs
Barbarossa. In 1555, however, Bougie was taken by Salah
Rais, the pasha of Algiers. Leo Africanus, in his <i>Africae
descriptio</i>, speaks of the &ldquo;magnificence&rdquo; of the temples, palaces
and other buildings of the city in his day (<i>c.</i> 1525), but it appears
to have fallen into decay not long afterwards. When the French
took the town from the Algerians in 1833 it consisted of little
more than a few fortifications and ruins. It is said that the
French word for a candle is derived from the name of the town,
candles being first made of wax imported from Bougie.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUGUER, PIERRE<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1698-1758), French mathematician,
was born on the 16th of February 1698. His father, John
Bouguer, one of the best hydrographers of his time, was regius
professor of hydrography at Croisic in lower Brittany, and
author of a treatise on navigation. In 1713 he was appointed
to succeed his father as professor of hydrography. In 1727 he
gained the prize given by the Académie des Sciences for his
paper &ldquo;On the best manner of forming and distributing the
masts of ships&rdquo;; and two other prizes, one for his dissertation
&ldquo;On the best method of observing the altitude of stars at sea,&rdquo;
the other for his paper &ldquo;On the best method of observing the
variation of the compass at sea.&rdquo; These were published in the
<i>Prix de l&rsquo;Académie des Sciences</i>. In 1729 he published <i>Essai
d&rsquo;optique sur la gradation de la lumière</i>, the object of which is to
define the quantity of light lost by passing through a given
extent of the atmosphere. He found the light of the sun to be
300 times more intense than that of the moon, and thus made
some of the earliest measurements in photometry. In 1730 he
was made professor of hydrography at Havre, and succeeded
P.L.M. de Maupertuis as associate geometer of the Académie
des Sciences. He also invented a heliometer, afterwards
perfected by Fraunhofer. He was afterwards promoted in the
Academy to the place of Maupertuis, and went to reside in Paris.
In 1735 Bouguer sailed with C.M. de la Condamine for Peru, in
order to measure a degree of the meridian near the equator.
Ten years were spent in this operation, a full account of which
was published by Bouguer in 1749, <i>Figure de la terre déterminée</i>.
His later writings were nearly all upon the theory of navigation.
He died on the 15th of August 1758.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The following is a list of his principal works:&mdash;<i>Traité d&rsquo;optique
sur la gradation de la lumière</i> (1729 and 1760);
<i>Entretiens sur la cause d&rsquo;inclinaison des orbites des planètes</i> (1734);
<i>Traité de navire, &amp;c.</i> (1746, 4to);
<i>La Figure de la terre déterminée, &amp;c.</i> (1749), 4to;
<i>Nouveau traité de navigation, contenant la théorie et la pratique du pilotage</i> (1753);
<i>Solution des principaux problèmes sur la manoeuvre des vaisseaux</i> (1757);
<i>Opérations faites pour la vérification du degré du méridien entre
Paris et Amiens</i>, par Mess. Bouguer, Camus, Cassini et Pingré(1757).</p>

<p>See J.E. Montucla, <i>Histoire des mathématiques</i> (1802).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUGUEREAU, ADOLPHE WILLIAM<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1825-1905), French
painter, was born at La Rochelle on the 30th of November 1825.
From 1843 till 1850 he went through the course of training at
the École des Beaux-Arts, and in 1850 divided the Grand Prix
de Rome scholarship with Baudry, the subject set being &ldquo;Zenobia
on the banks of the Araxes.&rdquo; On his return from Rome in 1855
he was employed in decorating several aristocratic residences,
deriving inspiration from the frescoes which he had seen at
Pompeii and Herculaneum, and which had already suggested his
&ldquo;Idyll&rdquo; (1853). He also began in 1847 to exhibit regularly at
the Salon. &ldquo;The Martyr&rsquo;s Triumph,&rdquo; the body of St Cecilia
borne to the catacombs, was placed in the Luxembourg after
being exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1855; and in the same
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>317</span>
year he exhibited &ldquo;Fraternal Love,&rdquo; a &ldquo;Portrait&rdquo; and a
&ldquo;Study.&rdquo; The state subsequently commissioned him to paint
the emperor&rsquo;s visit to the sufferers by the inundations at
Tarascon. In 1857 Bouguereau received a first prize medal.
Nine of his panels executed in wax-painting for the mansion of
M. Bartholomy were much discussed&mdash;&ldquo;Love,&rdquo; &ldquo;Friendship,&rdquo;
&ldquo;Fortune,&rdquo; &ldquo;Spring,&rdquo; &ldquo;Summer,&rdquo; &ldquo;Dancing,&rdquo; &ldquo;Arion on a
Sea-horse,&rdquo; a &ldquo;Bacchante&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Four Divisions of the
Day.&rdquo; He also exhibited at the Salon &ldquo;The Return of Tobit&rdquo;
(now in the Dijon gallery). While in antique subjects he showed
much grace of design, in his &ldquo;Napoleon,&rdquo; a work of evident
labour, he betrayed a lack of ease in the treatment of modern
costume. Bouguereau subsequently exhibited &ldquo;Love Wounded&rdquo;
(1859), &ldquo;The Day of the Dead&rdquo; (at Bordeaux), &ldquo;The First
Discord&rdquo; (1861, in the Club at Limoges), &ldquo;The Return from the
Fields&rdquo; (a picture in which Théophile Gautier recognized &ldquo;a
pure feeling for the antique&rdquo;), &ldquo;A Fawn and Bacchante&rdquo; and
&ldquo;Peace&rdquo;; in 1863 a &ldquo;Holy Family,&rdquo; &ldquo;Remorse,&rdquo; &ldquo;A Bacchante
teasing a Goat&rdquo; (in the Bordeaux gallery); in 1864 &ldquo;A
Bather&rdquo; (at Ghent), and &ldquo;Sleep&rdquo;; in 1865 &ldquo;An Indigent
Family,&rdquo; and a portrait of Mme Bartholomy; in 1866 &ldquo;A
First Cause,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Covetousness,&rdquo; with &ldquo;Philomela and
Procne&rdquo;; and some decorative work for M. Montlun at La
Rochelle, for M. Emile Péreire in Paris, and for the churches of
St Clotilde and St Augustin; and in 1866 the large painting of
&ldquo;Apollo and the Muses on Olympus,&rdquo; in the Great Theatre at
Bordeaux. Among other works by this artist may be mentioned
&ldquo;Between Love and Riches&rdquo; (1869), &ldquo;A Girl Bathing&rdquo; (1870),
&ldquo;In Harvest Time&rdquo; (1872), &ldquo;Nymphs and Satyrs&rdquo; (1873),
&ldquo;Charity&rdquo; and &ldquo;Homer and his Guide&rdquo; (1874), &ldquo;Virgin and
Child,&rdquo; &ldquo;Jesus and John the Baptist,&rdquo; &ldquo;Return of Spring&rdquo;
(which was purchased by an American collector, and was destroyed
by a fanatic who objected to the nudity), a &ldquo;Pietà&rdquo;
(1876), &ldquo;A Girl defending herself from Love&rdquo; (1880), &ldquo;Night&rdquo;
(1883), &ldquo;The Youth of Bacchus&rdquo; (1884), &ldquo;Biblis&rdquo; (1885),
&ldquo;Love Disarmed&rdquo; (1886), &ldquo;Love Victorious&rdquo; (1887), &ldquo;The
Holy Women at the Sepulchre&rdquo; and &ldquo;The Little Beggar Girls&rdquo;
(1890), &ldquo;Love in a Shower&rdquo; and &ldquo;First Jewels&rdquo; (1891). To
the Exhibition of 1900 were contributed some of Bouguereau&rsquo;s
best-known pictures. Most of his works, especially &ldquo;The Triumph
of Venus&rdquo; (1856) and &ldquo;Charity,&rdquo; are popularly known through
engravings. &ldquo;Prayer,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Invocation&rdquo; and &ldquo;Sappho&rdquo;
have been engraved by M. Thirion, &ldquo;The Golden Age&rdquo; by M.
Annetombe. Bouguereau&rsquo;s pictures, highly appreciated by the
general public, have been severely criticized by the partisans of
a freer and fresher style of art, who have reproached him with
being too content to revive the formulas and subjects of the
antique. At the Paris Exhibition of 1867 Bouguereau took a
third-class medal, in 1878 a medal of honour, and the same again
in the Salon of 1885. He was chosen by the Society of French
Artists to be their vice-president, a post he filled with much
energy. He was made a member of the Legion of Honour in 1856,
an officer of the Order 26th of July 1876, and commander 12th of
July 1885. He succeeded Isidore Pils as member of the Institute,
8th of January 1876. He died on the 20th of August 1905.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Ch. Vendryes, <i>Catalogue illustré des &oelig;uvres de Bouguereau</i>
(Paris, 1885); Jules Claretie, <i>Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains</i>
(Paris, 1874); P.G. Hamerton, <i>French Painters; Artistes modernes:
dictionnaire illustré des beaux-arts</i> (1885); &ldquo;W. Bouguereau,&rdquo; <i>Portfolio</i>
(1875); Émile Bayard, &ldquo;William Bouguereau,&rdquo; <i>Monde
moderne</i> (1897).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUHOURS, DOMINIQUE<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1628-1702), French critic, was
born in Paris in 1628. He entered the Society of Jesus at the
age of sixteen, and was appointed to read lectures on literature
in the college of Clermont at Paris, and on rhetoric at Tours.
He afterwards became private tutor to the two sons of the duke
of Longueville. He was sent to Dunkirk to the Romanist
refugees from England, and in the midst of his missionary
occupations published several books. In 1665 or 1666 he
returned to Paris, and published in 1671 <i>Les Entretiens d&rsquo;Ariste
et d&rsquo;Eugène</i>, a critical work on the French language, printed
five times at Paris, twice at Grenoble, and afterwards at Lyons,
Brussels, Amsterdam, Leiden, &amp;c. The chief of his other works
are <i>La Manière de bien penser sur les ouvrages d&rsquo;esprit</i> (1687),
<i>Doutes sur la langue française</i> (1674), <i>Vie de Saint Ignace de Loyola</i>
(1679), <i>Vie de Saint François Xavier</i> (1682), and a translation of
the New Testament into French (1697). His practice of publishing
secular books and works of devotion alternately led to the
<i>mot</i>, <i>&rdquo;qu&rsquo;il servait le monde et le ciel par semestre.&rdquo;</i> Bouhours
died at Paris on the 27th of May 1702.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Georges Doucieux, <i>Un Jésuite homme de lettres au dix-septième
siècle: Le père Bouhours</i> (1886). For a list of Bouhours&rsquo; works see
Backer and Sommervogel, <i>Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jésus</i>, i.
pp. 1886 et seq.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUILHET, LOUIS HYACINTHE<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1822-1869), French poet
and dramatist, was born at Cany, Seine Inférieure, on the 27th
of May 1822. He was a schoolfellow of Gustave Flaubert, to
whom he dedicated his first work, <i>Méloenis</i> (1851), a narrative
poem in five cantos, dealing with Roman manners under the
emperor Commodus. His volume of poems entitled <i>Fossiles</i>
attracted considerable attention, on account of the attempt
therein to use science as a subject for poetry. These poems were
included also in <i>Festons et astragales</i> (1859). As a dramatist
he secured a success with his first play, <i>Madame de Montarcy</i>
(1856), which ran for seventy-eight nights at the Odéon; and
<i>Hélène Peyron</i> (1858) and <i>L&rsquo;Oncle Million</i> (1860) were also
favourably received. But of his other plays, some of them
of real merit, only the <i>Conjuration d&rsquo;Amboise</i> (1866) met with
any great success. Bouilhet died on the 18th of July 1869, at
Rouen. Flaubert published his posthumous poems with a notice
of the author, in 1872.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See also Maxime du Camp, <i>Souvenirs littéraires</i> (1882); and
H. de la Ville de Mirmont, <i>Le Poète Louis Bouilhet</i> (1888).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUILLÉ, FRANÇOIS CLAUDE AMOUR,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1739-1800),
French general. He served in the Seven Years&rsquo; War,
and as governor in the Antilles conducted operations against
the English in the War of American Independence. On his
return to France he was named governor of the Three Bishoprics,
of Alsace and of Franche-Comté. Hostile to the Revolution,
he had continual quarrels with the municipality of Metz, and
brutally suppressed the military insurrections at Metz and Nancy,
which had been provoked by the harsh conduct of certain noble
officers. Then he proposed to Louis XVI. to take refuge in a
frontier town where an appeal could be made to other nations
against the revolutionists. When this project failed as a result
of Louis XVI.&rsquo;s arrest at Varennes, Bouillé went to Russia to
induce Catherine II. to intervene in favour of the king, and then
to England, where he died in 1800, after serving in various
royalist attempts on France. He left <i>Mémoires sur la Révolution
française depuis son origine jusqu&rsquo;à la retraite du duc de
Brunswick</i> (Paris, 1801).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUILLON,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> formerly the seat of a dukedom in the Ardennes,
now a small town in the Belgian province of Luxemburg. Pop.
(1904) 2721. It is most picturesquely situated in the valley
under the rocky ridge on which are still the very well preserved
remains of the castle of Godfrey of Bouillon (<i>q.v.</i>), the leader
of the first crusade. The town, 690 ft. above the sea, but lying
in a basin, skirts both banks of the river Semois which is crossed
by two bridges. The stream forms a loop round and almost
encircles the castle, from which there are beautiful views of the
sinuous valley and the opposite well-wooded heights. The
whole effect of the grim castle, the silvery stream and the verdant
woods makes one of the most striking scenes in Belgium. In
the 8th and 9th centuries Bouillon was one of the castles of the
counts of Ardenne and Bouillon. In the 10th and 11th centuries
the family took the higher titles of dukes of Lower Lorraine
and Bouillon. These dukes all bore the name of Godfrey (Godefroy)
and the fifth of them was the great crusader. He was the
son of Eustace, count of Boulogne, which has led many commentators
into the error of saying that Godfrey of Bouillon was
born at the French port, whereas he was really born in the castle
of Baisy near Genappe and Waterloo. His mother was Ida
d&rsquo;Ardenne, sister of the fourth Godfrey (&ldquo;the Hunchback&rdquo;),
and the successful defence of the castle when a mere youth
of seventeen on her behalf was the first feat of arms of the future
conqueror of Jerusalem. This medieval fortress, strong by
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page318" id="page318"></a>318</span>
art as well as position before the invention of modern artillery,
has since undergone numerous sieges. In order to undertake
the crusade Godfrey sold the castle of Bouillon to the prince
bishop of Liége, and the title of duke of Bouillon remained the
appendage of the bishopric till 1678, or for 580 years. The
bishops appointed &ldquo;châtelains,&rdquo; one of whom was the celebrated
&ldquo;Wild Boar of the Ardennes,&rdquo; William de la Marck. His
descendants made themselves quasi-independent and called
themselves princes of Sedan and dukes of Bouillon, and they
were even recognized by the king of France. The possession
of Bouillon thenceforward became a constant cause of strife
until in 1678 Louis XIV. garrisoned it under the treaty of
Nijmwegen. From 1594 to 1641 the duchy remained vested
in the French family of La Tour d&rsquo;Auvergne, one of whom
(Henry, viscount of Turenne and marshal of France) had
married in 1591 Charlotte de la Marck, the last of her race.
In 1676 the duke of Créquy seized it in the name of Louis XIV.,
who in 1678 gave it to Godefroy Marie de La Tour d&rsquo;Auvergne,
whose descendants continued in possession till 1795. Bouillon
remained French till 1814, and Vauban called it &ldquo;the key
of the Ardennes.&rdquo; In 1760 the elder Rousseau established
here the famous press of the Encyclopaedists. In 1814-1815,
before the decrees of the Vienna Congress were known, an extraordinary
attempt was made by Philippe d&rsquo;Auvergne of the
British navy, the cousin and adopted son of the last duke, to
revive the ancient duchy of Bouillon. The people of Bouillon
freely recognized him, and Louis XVIII. was well pleased with
the arrangement, but the congress assigned Bouillon to the
Netherlands. Napoleon III. on his way to Germany after Sedan
slept one night in the little town, which is a convenient centre
for visiting that battlefield.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUILLOTTE,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> a French game of cards, very popular during
the Revolution, and again for some years from 1830. Five, four
or three persons may play; a piquet pack is used, from which,
in case five play, the sevens, when four the knaves, and when
three the queens also, are omitted. Counters or chips, as in
poker, are used. Before the deal each player &ldquo;antes&rdquo; one
counter, after which each, the &ldquo;age&rdquo; passing, may &ldquo;raise&rdquo;
the pot; those not &ldquo;seeing the raise&rdquo; being obliged to drop
out. Three cards are dealt to each player, and a thirteenth,
called the <i>retourne</i>, when four play, turned up. Each player
must then bet, call, raise or drop out. When a call is made
the hands are shown and the best hand wins. The hands rank
as follows: <i>brélan carré</i>, four of a kind, one being the <i>retourne</i>;
<i>simple brélan</i>, three of a kind, ace being high; <i>brélan favori</i>,
three of a kind, one being the <i>retourne</i>. When no player holds
a <i>brélan</i> the hand holding the greatest number of pips wins,
ace counting 11, and court cards 10.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUILLY, JEAN NICOLAS<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (1763-1842), French author,
was born near Tours on the 24th of January 1763. At the
outbreak of the Revolution he held office under the new government,
and had a considerable share in the organization of
primary education. In 1799 he retired from public life to devote
himself to literature. His numerous works include the musical
comedy, <i>Pierre le Grand</i> (1790), for Grétry&rsquo;s music, and the
opera, <i>Les Deux Journées</i> (1800), music by Cherubini; also
<i>L&rsquo;Abbé de l&rsquo;épée</i> (1800), and some other plays; and <i>Causeries
d&rsquo;un vieillard</i> (1807), <i>Contes à ma fille</i> (1809), and <i>Les Adieux du
vieux conteur</i> (1835). His <i>Léonore</i> (1798) formed the basis of
the libretto of the <i>Fidelio</i> of Beethoven. Bouilly died in Paris
on the 14th of April 1842.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Bouilly, <i>Mes récapitulations</i> (3 vols., 1836-1837); E. Legouvé,
<i>Soixante ans de souvenir</i> (lère partie, 1886).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOULAINVILLIERS, HENRI,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1658-1722), French
political writer, was born at St Saire in Normandy in 1658. He
was educated at the college of Juilly, and served in the army
until 1697. He wrote a number of historical works (published
after his death), of which the most important were the following:
<i>Histoire de l&rsquo;ancien gouvernement de la France</i> (La Haye, 1727);
<i>État de la France, avec des mémoires sur l&rsquo;ancien gouvernement</i>
(London, 1727); <i>Histoire de la pairie de France</i> (London, 1753);
<i>Histoire des Arabes</i> (1731). His writings are characterized by
an extravagant admiration of the feudal system. He was an
aristocrat of the most pronounced type, attacking absolute
monarchy on the one hand and popular government on the
other. He was at great pains to prove the pretensions of his
own family to ancient nobility, and maintained that the government
should be entrusted solely to men of his class. He died
in Paris on the 23rd of January 1722.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOULANGER,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> the name of several French artists:&mdash;<span class="sc">Jean</span>
(1606-1660), a pupil of Guido Reni at Bologna, who had an
academy at Modena; his cousin <span class="sc">Jean</span> (1607-1680), a celebrated
line-engraver; the latter&rsquo;s son <span class="sc">Matthieu</span>, another engraver;
<span class="sc">Louis</span> (1806-1867), a subject-painter, the friend of Victor Hugo,
and director of the imperial school of art at Dijon; the best-known,
<span class="sc">Gustave Rodolphe Clarence</span> (1824-1888), a pupil
of Paul Delaroche, a notable painter of Oriental and Greek and
Roman subjects, and a member of the Institute (1882); and
<span class="sc">Clément</span> (1805-1842), a pupil of Ingres.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOULANGER, GEORGE ERNEST JEAN MARIE<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1837-1891),
French general, was born at Rennes on the 29th of April 1837.
He entered the army in 1856, and served in Algeria, Italy,
Cochin-China and the Franco-German War, earning the reputation
of being a smart soldier. He was made a brigadier-general
in 1880, on the recommendation of the duc d&rsquo;Aumale, then
commanding the VII. army corps, and Boulanger&rsquo;s expressions
of gratitude and devotion on this occasion were remembered
against him afterwards when, as war minister in M. Freycinet&rsquo;s
cabinet, he erased the name of the due d&rsquo;Aumale from the army
list, as part of the republican campaign against the Orleanist
and Bonapartist princes. In 1882 his appointment as director of
infantry at the war office enabled him to make himself conspicuous
as a military reformer; and in 1884 he was appointed
to command the army occupying Tunis, but was recalled owing
to his differences of opinion with M. Cambon, the political
resident. He returned to Paris, and began to take part in
politics under the aegis of M. Clémenceau and the Radical party;
and in January 1886, when M. Freycinet was brought into power
by the support of the Radical leader, Boulanger was given the
post of war minister.</p>

<p>By introducing genuine reforms for the benefit of officers and
common soldiers alike, and by laying himself out for popularity
in the most pronounced fashion&mdash;notably by his fire-eating
attitude towards Germany in April 1887 in connexion with the
Schnaebele frontier incident&mdash;Boulanger came to be accepted by
the mob as the man destined to give France her revenge for the
disasters of 1870, and to be used simultaneously as a tool by all
the anti-Republican intriguers. His action with regard to the
royal princes has already been referred to, but it should be added
that Boulanger was taunted in the Senate with his ingratitude to
the duc d&rsquo;Aumale, and denied that he had ever used the words
alleged. His letters containing them were, however, published,
and the charge was proved. Boulanger fought a bloodless duel
with the baron de Lareinty over this affair, but it had no effect at
the moment in dimming his popularity, and on M. Freycinet&rsquo;s
defeat in December 1886 he was retained by M. Goblet at the
war office. M. Clémenceau, however, had by this time abandoned
his patronage of Boulanger, who was becoming so inconveniently
prominent that, in May 1887, M. Goblet was not sorry to get rid
of him by resigning. The mob clamoured for their &ldquo;brav&rsquo;
général,&rdquo; but M. Rouvier, who next formed a cabinet, declined
to take him as a colleague, and Boulanger was sent to Clermont-Ferrand
to command an army corps. A Boulangist &ldquo;movement&rdquo;
was now in full swing. The Bonapartists had attached themselves
to the general, and even the comte de Paris encouraged
his followers to support him, to the dismay of those old-fashioned
Royalists who resented Boulanger&rsquo;s treatment of the duc
d&rsquo;Aumale. His name was the theme of the popular song of the
moment&mdash;&ldquo;C&rsquo;est Boulanger qu&rsquo;il nous faut&rdquo;; the general and
his black horse became the idol of the Parisian populace; and
he was urged to play the part of a plebiscitary candidate for the
presidency.</p>

<p>The general&rsquo;s vanity lent itself to what was asked of it; after
various symptoms of insubordination had shown themselves, he
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319"></a>319</span>
was deprived of his command in 1888 for twice coming to Paris
without leave, and finally on the recommendation of a council of
inquiry composed of five generals, his name was removed from
the army list. He was, however, almost at once elected to the
chamber for the Nord, his political programme being a demand
for a revision of the constitution. In the chamber he was in a
minority, since genuine Republicans of all varieties began to see
what his success would mean, and his actions were accordingly
directed to keeping the public gaze upon himself. A popular
hero survives many deficiencies, and neither his failure as an
orator nor the humiliation of a discomfiture in a duel with
M. Floquet, then an elderly civilian, sufficed to check the
enthusiasm of his following. During 1888 his personality was
the dominating feature of French politics, and, when he resigned
his seat as a protest against the reception given by the chamber
to his revisionist proposals, constituencies vied with one another
in selecting him as their representative. At last, in January
1889, he was returned for Paris by an overwhelming majority.
He had now become an open menace to the parliamentary
Republic. Had Boulanger immediately placed himself at the
head of a revolt he might at this moment have effected the
<i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> which the intriguers had worked for, and might
not improbably have made himself master of France; but
the favourable opportunity passed. The government, with M.
Constans as minister of the interior, had been quietly taking its
measures for bringing a prosecution against him, and within two
months a warrant was signed for his arrest. To the astonishment
of his friends, on the 1st of April he fled from Paris before it
could be executed, going first to Brussels and then to London.
It was the end of the political danger, though Boulangist echoes
continued for a little while to reverberate at the polls during
1889 and 1890. Boulanger himself, having been tried and condemned
<i>in absentia</i> for treason, in October 1889 went to live
in Jersey, but nobody now paid much attention to his doings.
The world was startled, however, on the 30th of September
1891 by hearing that he had committed suicide in a cemetery at
Brussels by blowing out his brains on the grave of his mistress,
Madame de Bonnemains (<i>née</i> Marguerite Crouzet), who had died
in the preceding July.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: History; and Verly, <i>Le Général
Boulanger et la conspiration monarchique</i> (Paris, 1893).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE, ANTOINE JACQUES CLAUDE JOSEPH,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span>
<span class="sc">Comte</span> (1761-1840), French politician and magistrate,
son of an agricultural labourer, was born at Chamousey (Vosges)
on the 19th of February 1761. Called to the bar at Nancy in
1783, he presently went to Paris, where he rapidly acquired a
reputation as a lawyer and a speaker. He supported the revolutionary
cause in Lorraine, and fought at Valmy (1792) and
Wissembourg (1793) in the republican army. But his moderate
principles brought suspicion on him, and during the Terror he
had to go into hiding. He represented La Meurthe in the Council
of Five Hundred, of which he was twice president, but his views
developed steadily in the conservative direction. Fearing a
possible renewal of the Terror, he became an active member of
the plot for the overthrow of the Directory in November 1799.
He was rewarded by the presidency of the legislative commission
formed by Napoleon to draw up the new constitution; and as
president of the legislative section of the council of state he
examined and revised the draft of the civil code. In eight years
of hard work as director of a special land commission he settled
the titles of land acquired by the French nation at the Revolution,
and placed on an unassailable basis the rights of the proprietors
who had bought this land from the government. He received
the grand cross of the Legion of Honour and the title of count,
was a member of Napoleon&rsquo;s privy council, but was never in high
favour at court. After Waterloo he tried to obtain the recognition
of Napoleon II. He was placed under surveillance at
Nancy, and later at Halberstadt and Frankfort-on-Main. He
was allowed to return to France in 1819, but took no further
active part in politics, although he presented himself unsuccessfully
for parliamentary election in 1824 and 1827. He died in
Paris on the 4th of February 1840. He published two books on
English history&mdash;<i>Essai sur les causes qui, en 1649, amenèrent en
Angleterre l&rsquo;établissement de la république</i> (Paris, 1799), and
<i>Tableau politique des regnes de Charles II et Jacques II, derniers
rois de la maison de Stuart</i> (The Hague, 1818)&mdash;which contained
much indirect criticism of the Directory and the Restoration
governments. He devoted the last years of his life to writing
his memoirs, which, with the exception of a fragment on the
<i>Théorie constitutionnelle de Sieyès</i> (1836), remained unpublished.</p>

<p>His elder son, Comte <span class="sc">Henri Georges Boulay de la Meurthe</span>
(1797-1858), was a constant Bonapartist, and after the election of
Louis Napoleon to the presidency, was named (January 1849)
vice-president of the republic. He zealously promoted popular
education, and became in 1842 president of the society for
elementary instruction.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOULDER,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Boulder county,
Colorado, U.S.A., about 30 m. N.W. of Denver. Pop. (1890)
3330; (1900) 6150 (693 foreign-born); (1910) 9539. It is served
by the Union Pacific, the Colorado &amp; Southern, and the Denver,
Boulder &amp; Western railways; the last connects with the neighbouring
mining camps, and affords fine views of mountain scenery.
Boulder lies about 5300 ft. above the sea on Middle Boulder
Creek, a branch of the St Vrain river about 30 m. from its
confluence with the Platte, and has a beautiful situation in the
valley at the foot of the mountains. The state university of Colorado,
established at Boulder by an act of 1861, was opened in
1877; it includes a college of liberal arts, school of medicine
(1883), school of law (1892), college of engineering (1893),
graduate school, college of commerce (1906), college of education
(1908), and a summer school (1904), and has a library of about
42,000 volumes. There are a fine park of 2840 acres, the property
of the city, and three beautiful cañons near Boulder. At the
southern limits, in a beautiful situation 400 ft. above the city,
are the grounds of an annual summer school, the Colorado
Chautauqua. The climate is beneficial for those afflicted with
bronchial and pulmonary troubles; the average mean annual
temperature for eleven years ending with 1907 was 51° F.
There are medicinal springs in the vicinity. The water-works
are owned and operated by the city, the water being obtained
from lakes at the foot of the Arapahoe Peak glacier in the Snowy
Range, 20 m. from the city. The surrounding country is irrigated,
and successfully combines agriculture and mining. There
are ore sampling works and brick-making establishments. Oil
and natural gas abound in the vicinity; there are oil refineries
in the city; and in Boulder county, especially at Nederland,
18 m. south-west, and at Eldora, about 22 m. south-west of the
city, has been obtained since 1900 most of the tungsten mined
in the United States; the output in 1907 was valued at about
$520,000. The first settlement near the site of Boulder was made
in the autumn of 1858. Placer gold was discovered on an
affluent of Boulder Creek in January 1859. The town was laid
out and organized in February 1859, and a city charter was
secured in 1871 and another in 1882.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOULDER<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (short for &ldquo;boulder-stone,&rdquo; of uncertain origin;
cf. Swed. <i>bullersten</i>, a large stone which causes a noise of
rippling water in a stream, from <i>bullra</i>, to make a loud noise),
a large stone, weathered or water-worn; especially a geological
term for a large mass of rock transported to a distance from the
formation to which it belongs. Similarly, in mining, a mass of
ore found at a distance from the lode.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOULDER CLAY,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> in geology, a deposit of clay, often full of
boulders, which is formed in and beneath glaciers and ice-sheets
wherever they are found, but is in a special sense the typical
deposit of the Glacial Period in northern Europe and America.
Boulder clay is variously known as &ldquo;till&rdquo; or &ldquo;ground moraine&rdquo;
(Ger. <i>Blocklehme</i>, <i>Geschiebsmergel</i> or <i>Grundmoräne</i>; Fr. <i>argile à
blocaux</i>, <i>moraine profonde</i>; Swed. <i>Krosstenslera</i>). It is usually a
stiff, tough clay devoid of stratification; though some varieties
are distinctly laminated. Occasionally, within the boulder clay,
there are irregular lenticular masses of more or less stratified
sand, gravel or loam. As the boulder clay is the result of the
abrasion (direct or indirect) of the older rocks over which the
ice has travelled, it takes its colour from them; thus, in Britain,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page320" id="page320"></a>320</span>
over Triassic and Old Red Sandstone areas the clay is red, over
Carboniferous rocks it is often black, over Silurian rock it may
be buff or grey, and where the ice has passed over chalk the clay
may be quite white and chalky (chalky boulder clay). Much
boulder clay is of a bluish-grey colour where unexposed, but it
becomes brown upon being weathered.</p>

<p>The boulders are held within the clay in an irregular manner,
and they vary in size from mere pellets up to masses many tons
in weight. Usually they are somewhat oblong, and often they
possess a flat side or &ldquo;sole&rdquo;; they may be angular, sub-angular,
or well rounded, and, if they are hard rocks, they frequently
bear grooves and scratches caused by contact with other rocks
while held firmly in the moving ice. Like the clay in which they
are borne, the boulders belong to districts over which the ice
has travelled; in some regions they are mainly limestones or
sandstones; in others they are granite, basalts, gneisses, &amp;c.;
indeed, they may consist of any hard rock. By the nature of the
contained boulders it is often possible to trace the path along
which a vanished ice-sheet moved; thus in the Glacial drift of
the east coast of England many Scandinavian rocks can be
recognized.</p>

<p>With the exception of foraminifera which have been found in
the boulder clay of widely separated regions, fossils are practically
unknown; but in some maritime districts marine shells
have been incorporated with the clay. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glacial Period</a></span>;
and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glacier</a></span>.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUL&#274;<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="boulae">&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#942;</span>, literally &ldquo;will,&rdquo; &ldquo;advice&rdquo;; hence a
&ldquo;council&rdquo;), the general term in ancient Greece for an advisory
council. In the loose Homeric state, as in all primitive societies,
there was a council of this kind, probably composed of the heads
of families, <i>i.e.</i> of the leading princes or nobles, who met usually
on the summons of the king for the purpose of consultation.
Sometimes, however, it met on its own initiative, and laid suggestions
before the king. It formed a means of communication
between the king and the freemen assembled in the Agora. In
Dorian states this aristocratic form of government was retained
(for the Spartan Council of Elders see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gerousia</a></span>). In Athens
the ancient council was called the Boule until the institution of
a democratic council, or committee of the Ecclesia, when, for
purposes of distinction, it was described as &ldquo;the Boul&#275; on the
Areopagus,&rdquo; or, more shortly, &ldquo;the Areopagus&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>). It must
be clearly understood that the second, or Solonian Boule, was
entirely different from the Areopagus which represented the
Homeric Council of the King throughout Athenian history, even
after the &ldquo;mutilation&rdquo; carried out by Ephialtes. Further, it
is, as will appear below, a profound mistake to call the second
Boule a &ldquo;senate.&rdquo; There is no real analogy between the Roman
senate and the Athenian council of Five Hundred.</p>

<p>Before describing the Athenian Boule, the only one of its kind
of which we have even fairly detailed information, it is necessary
to mention that councils existed in other Greek states also, both
oligarchic and democratic. A Boul&#275; was in the first place a
necessary part of a Greek oligarchy; the transition from
monarchy to oligarchy was nominally begun by the gradual
transference of the powers of the monarch to the Boule of nobles.
Further, in the Greek democracy, the larger democratic Boule
was equally essential. The general assembly of the people was
utterly unsuited to the proper management of state affairs in all
their minutiae. We therefore find councils of both kinds in
almost all the states of Greece. (1) At Corinth we learn that
there was an oligarchic council of unknown numbers presided
over by eight leaders (Nicol. Damasc. <i>Frag</i>. 60). It was probably
like the old Homeric council, except that its constitution did not
depend on a birth qualification, but on a high census. This was
natural in Corinth where, according to Herodotus (ii. 167),
mercantile pursuits bore no stigma. (2) From an inscription we
learn that the Athenians, in imposing a constitution on Erythrae
(about 450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), included a council analogous to their own.
(3) In Elis (Thuc. v. 47) there was an aristocratic council of
ninety, which was superseded by a popular council of six hundred
(471). (4) Similarly in Argos there were an aristocratic council
of eighty and later a popular council of much larger size (Thuc.
v. 47). Councils are also found at (5) Rhodes, (6) Megalopolis
(democratic), (7) Corcyra (democratic), (Thuc. iii. 70). Of these
seven the most instructive is that of Erythrae, which proves
that in the 5th century the Council of Five Hundred was so
efficient in Athens that a similar body was imposed at Erythrae
(and probably in the other tributary cities).</p>

<p><i>The Boul&#275; at Athens. History.</i>&mdash;The origin of the second
Boul&#275;, or Council of Four Hundred, at Athens is involved in
obscurity. In the Aristotelian <i>Constitution of Athens</i> (<i>c.</i> 4),
it is stated that Draco established a council of 401, and that he
transferred to it some of the functions of the Council of Areopagus
(<i>q.v.</i>). It is, however, generally held (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Draco</a></span>) that this
statement is untrue, and that it was Solon who first established
the council as a part of the constitution. Thirdly, it has been
held that the council was not invented either by Draco or by
Solon, but was of older and unknown origin. Fourthly, it has
also been maintained by some recent writers that no Boul&#275;
existed before Cleisthenes. The principal evidence for this view
is the omission of any reference to the Boul&#275; in one of the earliest
Athenian inscriptions, that relating to Salamis (Hicks and Hill,
No. 4), where in place of the customary formula of a later age,
<span class="grk" title="hedoxe tae boulae kai to daemo">&#7956;&#948;&#959;&#958;&#949; &#964;&#8135; &#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#8135; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#964;&#8183; &#948;&#942;&#956;&#8179;</span>, we have the formula <span class="grk" title="edochsen to
daemo">&#7956;&#948;&#959;&#967;&#963;&#949;&#957; &#964;&#8183; &#948;&#942;&#956;&#8179;</span>. This argument is far from conclusive, and it is clear
from the <i>Constitution</i> (<i>c.</i> 20) that the resistance of the Boul&#275; to
Cleomenes and Isagoras was anterior to the legislation of Cleisthenes
(<i>i.e.</i> that the Boul&#275; in question was the Solonian and not
the Cleisthenian). On the whole it is reasonable to conclude
that it was Solon who invented the Boul&#275; to act as a semi-democratic
check upon the democracy, whose power he was increasing
at the expense of the oligarchs by giving new powers to the
people in the Ecclesia and the Dicasteries. Practically nothing
is known of the operations of this council until the struggle
between Isagoras and Cleisthenes (Herod, v. 72). Solon&rsquo;s
council had been based on the four Ionic tribes. When Cleisthenes
created the new ten tribes in order to destroy the local
influence of dominant families and to give the country demes
a share in government, he changed the Solonian council into a
body of 500 members, 50 from each tribe. This new body (see
below) was the keystone of the Cleisthenean democracy, and
may be said in a sense to have embodied the principle of local
representation. After Cleisthenes, the council remained unaltered
till 306 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when, on the addition of two new tribes
named after Antigonus and his son, Demetrius Poliorcetes, its
numbers were increased to 600. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 126-127 the old number
of 500 was restored. A council of 750 members is mentioned
in an inscription of the early 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, and about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400
the number of councillors had fallen to 300.</p>

<p><i>Constitution and Functions.</i>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) Under Solon the council
consisted of 400 members, 100 from each of the four Ionic tribes.
It is certain that all classes were eligible except the
Th&#275;tes, but the method of appointment is not known.
<span class="sidenote">Solon&rsquo;s council.</span>
Three suggestions have been made, (1) that each tribe
chose its representatives, (2) that they were chosen by lot
from qualified citizens in rotation, (3) that the combined method
of selection by lot from a larger number of elected candidates
was employed. According to the passage in Plutarch&rsquo;s <i>Solon</i>
the functions of this body were from the first <i>probouleutic</i> (<i>i.e.</i>
it prepared the business for the Ecclesia). Others hold that
this function was not assigned to it until the Cleisthenean
reforms. When we consider, however, the double danger of
leaving the Ecclesia in full power, and yet under the presidency
of the aristocratic archons, it seems probable that the probouleutic
functions were devised by Solon as a method of maintaining
the balance. On this hypothesis the Solonian Boul&#275; was
from the first what it certainly was later, a <i>committee</i> of the
Ecclesia, <i>i.e.</i> not a &ldquo;senate.&rdquo; It may be regarded as certain
<span class="sidenote">Cleisthenes&rsquo; council.</span>
that the system of Prytaneis was the invention of
Cleisthenes, not of Solon. (<i>b</i>) Under Cleisthenes the
council reached its full development as a democratic
representative body. Its actual organization is still
uncertain, but it may be inferred that it became gradually a
more strictly self-existent body than the Solonian council. Every
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page321" id="page321"></a>321</span>
full citizen of thirty years of age was eligible, and, unlike other
civil offices, it was permissible to serve twice, but not more than
twice (<i>Ath. Pol.</i> c. 62). It may be regarded as certain, although
our evidence is derived from inscriptions which date from the
3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, that from the first the Bouleutae were appointed
by the demes, in numbers proportionate to the size of the deme,
and that from the first also the method of sortition was employed.
For each councillor chosen by lot, a substitute was chosen in
case of death or disgrace. After nomination each had to pass
before the old council an examination in which the whole of his
private life was scrutinized. After this, the councillors had to
take an oath that they (1) would act according to the laws, (2)
would give the best advice in their power, and (3) would carry
out the examination of their successors in an impartial spirit.
As symbols of office they wore wreaths; they received payment
originally at the rate of one drachma a day,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> at the end of the
4th century of five obols a day. At the end of the year of office
each councillor had to render an account of his work, and if the
council had done well the people voted crowns of honour. Within
its own sphere the council exercised disciplinary control over
its members by the device known as <i>Ecphyllophoria</i>; it could
provisionally suspend a member, pending a formal trial before
the whole council assembled <i>ad hoc</i>. The council had further a
complete system of scribes or secretaries (<i>grammateis</i>), private
treasury officials, and a paid herald who summoned the Boule
and the Ecclesia. The meetings took place generally in the
council hall (<i>Bouleuterion</i>), but on special occasions in the
theatre, the stadium, the dockyards, the Acropolis or the
Theseum. They were normally public, the audience being
separated by a barrier, but on occasions of peculiar importance
the public was excluded.</p>

<p>The Ecclesia, owing to its size and constitution, was unable
to meet more than three or four times a month; the council, on
the other hand, was in continuous session, except on
feast days. It was impossible that the Five Hundred
<span class="sidenote">Prytaneis.</span>
should all sit every day, and, therefore, to facilitate the despatch
of business, the system of Prytaneis was introduced, probably
by Cleisthenes. By this system the year was divided into ten
equal periods. During each of these periods the council was
represented by the fifty councillors of one of the ten tribes, who
acted as a committee for carrying on business for a tenth of the
year. Each of these committees was led by a president (<i>Epistates</i>),
who acted as chairman of the Boule and the Ecclesia also,
and a third of its numbers lived permanently during their period
of office in the Tholos (Dome) or Skias, a round building where
they (with certain other officials and honoured citizens) dined
at the public expense. In 378-377 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (or perhaps in the
archonship of Eucleides, 403) the presidency of the Ecclesia was
transferred to the <i>Epistates of the Proedri</i>, the <i>Proedri</i> being a
body of nine chosen by lot by the Epistates of the Prytaneis
from the remaining nine tribes. It was the duty of the Boule
(<i>i.e.</i> the Prytany which was for the time in session) to prepare
all business for the consideration of the Ecclesia. Their recommendation
(<span class="grk" title="probouleuma">&#960;&#961;&#959;&#946;&#959;&#973;&#955;&#949;&#965;&#956;&#945;</span>) was presented to the popular assembly
(for procedure, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesia</a></span>), which either passed it as it stood
or made amendments subject to certain conditions. It must
be clearly understood that the recommendation of the council
had no intrinsic force until by the votes of the Ecclesia it passed
into law as a psephism. But in addition to this function, the
Council of the Five Hundred had large administrative and
judicial control. (1) It was before the council that the Poletae
arranged the farming of public revenues, the receipt of tenders
for public works and the sale of confiscated property; further,
it dealt with defaulting collectors (<span class="grk" title="eklogeis">&#7953;&#954;&#955;&#972;&#947;&#949;&#953;&#962;</span>), exacted the debts
of private persons to the state, and probably drew up annual
estimates. (2) It supervised the treasury payments of the
Apodectae (&ldquo;Receivers&rdquo;) and the &ldquo;Treasurers of the God.&rdquo;
(3) From Demosthenes (<i>In Androt</i>.) it is clear that it had to
arrange for the provision of so many triremes per annum and
the award of the trierarchic crown. (4) It arranged for the
maintenance of the cavalry and the special levies from the
demes. (5) It heard certain cases of <i>eisangelia</i> (impeachment)
and had the right to fine up to 500 drachmas, or hand the case
over to the Heliaea. The cases which it tried were mainly
prosecutions for crimes against the state (<i>e.g.</i> treason, conspiracy,
bribery). In later times it acted mainly as a court of first
instance. Subsequently (<i>Ath. Pol.</i> c. 45) its powers were limited
and an appeal was allowed to the popular courts. (6) The
council presided over the <i>dokimasia</i> (consideration of fitness)
of the magistrates; this examination, which was originally
concerned with a candidate&rsquo;s moral and physical fitness, degenerated
into a mere inquiry into his politics. (7) In foreign
affairs the council as the only body in permanent session naturally
received foreign envoys and introduced them to the Ecclesia.
Further, the Boul&#275;;, with the Strategi (&ldquo;Generals&rdquo;), took treaty
oaths, after the Ecclesia had decided on the terms. The Xenophontic
<i>Politeia</i> states that the council of the 5th century was
&ldquo;concerned with war,&rdquo; but in the 4th century it chiefly supervised
the docks and the fleet. On two occasions at least the
council was specially endowed with full powers; Demosthenes
(<i>De Fals. Leg.</i> p. 389) states that the people gave it full powers
to send ambassadors to Philip, and Andocides (<i>De Myst.</i> 14 foil.)
states that it had full power to investigate the affair of the mutilation
of the Hermae on the night before the sailing of the Sicilian
Expedition.</p>

<p>It will be seen that this democratic council was absolutely
essential to the working of the Athenian state. Without having
any final legislative authority, it was a necessary part of the
legislative machinery, and it may be regarded as certain that a
large proportion of its recommendations were passed without
alteration or even discussion by the Ecclesia. The Boul&#275; was,
therefore, in the strict sense a committee of the Ecclesia, and
was immediately connected with a system of sub-committees
which exercised executive functions.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;With this article compare <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesia</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strategus</a></span>,
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archon</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Draco</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solon</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cleisthenes</a></span>, where collateral information
is given. Besides the chief histories of Greece (Grote, ed. 1907, Meyer
&amp;c.), see Gilbert, <i>Constitutional Antiquities</i> (Eng. trans. by E.J.
Brooks and T. Nicklin, 1895); J.B. Bury, <i>History of Greece</i> (1900);
A.H.J. Greenidge <i>Handbook of Greek Constitutional History</i> (1896);
J.E. Sandys&rsquo; edition of the <i>Constitution of Athens</i>; Boeckh, <i>Die
Staatshaushaltung der Athener</i> (1886); Schumann, <i>Griechische
Altertümer</i> (1897-1902); Busolt, <i>Die griechischen Staats- und
Rechtsaltertümer</i> (1902). See also H. Swoboda, <i>Die griechischen
Volksbeschlüsse</i> (1890); Szanto, <i>Das griechische Bürgerrecht</i> (1892);
Perrot, <i>Essai sur le droit public d&rsquo;Athènes</i> (1869). It should be
observed that all works published before 1891 are so far useless
that they are without the information contained in the <i>Constitution
of Athens</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Law</a></span>.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(J. M. M.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The institution of pay for the councillors may safely be ascribed
to Pericles although we have no direct evidence of it before 411 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
(Thuc. viii. 69; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pericles</a></span>).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOULEVARD<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (a Fr. word, earlier <i>boulevart</i>, from Dutch or
Ger. <i>Bollwerk</i>, cf. Eng. &ldquo;bulwark&rdquo;), originally, in fortification,
an earthwork with a broad platform for artillery. It came into
use owing to the width of the gangways in medieval walls being
insufficient for the mounting of artillery thereon. The boulevard
or bulwark was usually an earthen outwork mounting artillery,
and so placed in advance as to prevent the guns of a besieger
from battering the foot of the main walls. It was as a rule
circular. Semicircular <i>demi-boulevards</i> were often constructed
round the bases of the old masonry towers with the same object.
In modern times the word is most frequently used to denote a
promenade laid out on the site of a former fortification, and, by
analogy, a broad avenue in a town planted with rows of trees.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOULLE, ANDRÉ CHARLES<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1642-1732), French cabinet-maker,
who gave his name to a fashion of inlaying known as
Boulle or Buhl work. The son of Jean Boulle, a member of a
family of <i>ébénistes</i> who had already achieved distinction&mdash;Pierre
Boulle, who died <i>c.</i> 1636, was for many years <i>tourneur et menuisier
du roy des cabinets d&rsquo;ébène</i>,&mdash;he became the most famous of his
name and was, indeed, the second cabinet-maker&mdash;the first was
Jean Macé&mdash;who has acquired individual renown. That must
have begun at a comparatively early age, for at thirty he had
already been granted one of those lodgings in the galleries of the
Louvre which had been set apart by Henry IV. for the use of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page322" id="page322"></a>322</span>
most talented of the artists employed by the crown. To be
admitted to these galleries was not only to receive a signal mark
of royal favour, but to enjoy the important privilege of freedom
from the trammels of the trade gilds. Boulle was given the
deceased Jean Macé&rsquo;s own lodging in 1672 by Louis XIV. upon
the recommendation, of Colbert, who described him as &ldquo;<i>le plus
habile ébéniste de Paris</i>,&rdquo; but in the patent conferring this privilege
he is described also as &ldquo;chaser, gilder and maker of marqueterie.&rdquo;
Boulle appears to have been originally a painter, since the first
payment to him by the crown of which there is any record (1669)
specifies &ldquo;ouvrages de peinture.&rdquo; He was employed for many years
at Versailles, where the mirrored walls, the floors of &ldquo;wood
mosaic,&rdquo; the inlaid panelling and the pieces in marqueterie in
the Cabinet du Dauphin were regarded as his most remarkable
work. These rooms were long since dismantled and their
contents dispersed, but Boulle&rsquo;s drawings for the work are in the
Musée des Arts Décoratifs. His royal commissions were, indeed,
innumerable, as we learn both from the <i>Comptes des bâtiments</i>
and from the correspondence of Louvois. Not only the most
magnificent of French monarchs, but foreign princes and the
great nobles and financiers of his own country crowded him with
commissions, and the <i>mot</i> of the abbé de Marolles, &ldquo;<i>Boulle y
tourne en ovale</i>,&rdquo; has become a stock quotation in the literature of
French cabinet-making. Yet despite his distinction, the facility
with which he worked, the high prices he obtained, and his
workshops full of clever craftsmen, Boulle appears to have been
constantly short of money. He did not always pay his workmen,
clients who had made considerable advances failed to obtain the
fine things they had ordered, more than one application was
made for permission to arrest him for debt under orders of the
courts within the asylum of the Louvre, and in 1704 we find the
king giving him six months&rsquo; protection from his creditors on
condition that he used the time to regulate his affairs or &ldquo;ce scra
la derniére grâce que sa majesté lui fera là-dessus.&rdquo; Twenty
years later one of his sons was arrested at Fontainebleau and
kept in prison for debt until the king had him released. In 1720
his finances were still further embarrassed by a fire which,
beginning in another atelier, extended to his twenty workshops
and destroyed most of the seasoned materials, appliances,
models and finished work of which they were full. The salvage
was sold and a petition for pecuniary help was sent to the regent,
the result of which does not appear. It would seem that Boulle
was never a good man of business, but, according to his friend
Mariette, many of his pecuniary difficulties were caused by his
passion for collecting pictures, engravings and other objects of
art&mdash;the inventory of his losses in the fire, which exceeded
£40,000 in amount, enumerates many old masters, including
forty-eight drawings by Raphael and the manuscript journal
kept by Rubens in Italy. He attended every sale of drawings
and engravings, borrowed at high interest to pay for his purchases,
and when the next sale took place, fresh expedients were
devised for obtaining more money. Collecting was to Boulle a
mania of which, says his friend, it was impossible to cure him.
Thus he died in 1732, full of fame, years and debts. He left four
sons who followed in his footsteps in more senses than one&mdash;Jean
Philippe (born before 1690, dead before 1745), Pierre
Benoit (d. 1741), Charles André (1685-1749) and Charles Joseph
(1688-1754). Their affairs were embarrassed throughout their
lives, and the three last are known to have died in debt.</p>

<p>All greatness is the product of its opportunities, and the elder
Boulle was made by the happy circumstances of his time. He
was born into a France which was just entering upon the most
brilliant period of sumptuary magnificence which any nation has
known in modern times. Louis XIV., so avid of the delights of
the eye, by the reckless extravagance of his example turned the
thoughts of his courtiers to domestic splendours which had
hitherto been rare. The spacious palaces which arose in his
time needed rich embellishment, and Boulle, who had not only
inherited the rather flamboyant Italian traditions of the late
Renaissance, but had <i>ébénisterie</i> in his blood, arose, as some such
man invariably does arise, to gratify tastes in which personal
pride and love of art were not unequally intermingled. He was
by no means the first Frenchman to practise the delightful art
of marqueterie, nor was he quite the inventor of the peculiar
type of inlay which is chiefly associated with his name; but no
artist, before or since, has used these motives with such astonishing
skill, courage and surety. He produced pieces of monumental
solidity blazing with harmonious colour, or gleaming with the
sober and dignified reticence of ebony, ivory and white metal.
The Renaissance artists chiefly employed wood in making
furniture, ornamenting it with gilding and painting, and inlaying
it with agate, cornelian, lapis-lazuli, marble of various tints,
ivory, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl and various woods.
Boulle improved upon this by inlaying brass devices into wood
or tortoise-shell, which last he greatly used according to the
design he had immediately in view, whether flowers, scenes,
scrolls, &amp;c.; to these he sometimes added enamelled metal.
Indeed the use of tortoise-shell became so characteristic that any
furniture, however cheap and common, which has a reddish <i>fond</i>
that might by the ignorant be mistaken for inlay, is now described
as &ldquo;Buhl&rdquo;&mdash;the name is the invention of the British auctioneer
and furniture-maker. In this process the brass is thin, and, like
the ornamental wood or tortoise-shell, forms a veneer. In the
first instance the production of his work was costly, owing to the
quantity of valuable material that was cut away and wasted,
and, in addition, the labour lost in separately cutting for each
article or copy of a pattern. By a subsequent improvement
Boulle effected an economy by gluing together various sheets of
material and sawing through the whole, so that an equal number
of figures and matrices were produced at one operation. Boulle
adopted from time to time various plans for the improvement of
his designs. He placed gold-leaf or other suitable material under
the tortoise-shell to produce such effect as he required; he chased
the brass-work with a graver for a like purpose, and, when the
metal required to be fastened down with brass pins or nails,
these were hammered flat and disguised by ornamental chasing.
He also adopted, in relief or in the round, brass feet, brackets,
edgings, and other ornaments of appropriate design, partly to
protect the corners and edges of his work, and partly for decoration.
He subsequently used other brass mountings, such as
claw-feet to pedestals, or figures in high or low relief, according
to the effect he desired to produce. These mounts in the pieces
that undoubtedly come from Boulle&rsquo;s <i>atelier</i> are nearly always
of the greatest excellence. They were cast in the
rough&mdash;the tools of the chaser gave them their sharpness, their minute
finish, their jewel-like smoothness.</p>

<p>Unhappily it is by no means easy, even for the expert, to
declare the authenticity of a commode, a bureau, or a table in
the manner of Boulle and to all appearance from his workshops.
His sons unquestionably carried on the traditions for some years
after his death, and his imitators were many and capable. A
few of the more magnificent pedigree-pieces are among the world&rsquo;s
mobiliary treasures. There are, for instance, the two famous
<i>armoires</i>, which fetched £12,075 at the Hamilton Palace sale;
the marqueterie commodes, enriched with bronze mounts, in the
Bibliotheque Mazarine; various cabinets and commodes and
tables in the Louvre, the Musée Cluny and the Mobilier National;
the marriage coffers of the dauphin which were in the San Donato
collection. There are several fine authenticated pieces in the
Wallace collection at Hertford House, together with others
consummately imitated, probably in the Louis Seize period.
On the rare occasions when a pedigree example comes into the
auction-room, it invariably commands a high price; but there
can be little doubt that the most splendid and sumptuous
specimens of Boulle are diminishing in number, while the
second and third classes of his work are perhaps becoming more
numerous. The truth is that this wonderful work, with its
engraved or inlaid designs of Bérain, its myriads of tiny pieces
of ivory and copper, ebony and tortoise-shell, all kept together
with glue and tiny chased nails, and applied very often to a
rather soft, white wood, is not meet to withstand the ravages
of time and the variations of the atmosphere. Alternate heat
and humidity are even greater enemies of inlaid furniture than
time and wear&mdash;such delicate things are rarely much used, and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id="page323"></a>323</span>
are protected from ordinary chances of deterioration. There is
consequently reason to rejoice when a piece of real artistry in
furniture finds its final home in a museum, where a degree of
warmth is maintained which, however distressing it may be to
the visitor, at least preserves the contents from one of the worst
enemies of the collector.</p>
<div class="author">(J. P.-B.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOULOGNE,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Boullongne</span>, the name of a family of French
painters. Louis (1609-1674), who was one of the original
members of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture (1648),
became celebrated under Louis XIV. His traditions were continued
by his children: <span class="sc">Genevieve</span> (1645-1708), who married
the sculptor Jacques Clerion; <span class="sc">Madeleine</span> (1646-1710), whose
work survives in the <i>Trophies d&rsquo;armes</i> at Versailles; <span class="sc">Bon</span> (1649-1717),
a successful teacher and decorative artist; and <span class="sc">Louis</span> the
younger (1654-1733), who copied Raphael&rsquo;s cartoons for the
Gobelins tapestry, and besides taking a high place as a painter
was also a designer of medals.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOULOGNE-SUR-MER,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> a fortified seaport of northern France
and chief town of an arrondissement in Pas-de-Calais, situated
on the shore of the English Channel at the mouth of the river
Liane, 157 m. N.N.W. of Paris on the Northern railway, and
28 m. by sea S.E. of Folkestone, Kent. Pop. (1906) 49,636.
Boulogne occupies the summit and slopes of a ridge of hills
skirting the right bank of the Liane; the industrial quarter of
Capécure extends along the opposite bank, and is reached by two
bridges, while the river is also crossed by a double railway
viaduct. The town consists of two parts, the Haute Ville and
the Basse Ville. The former, situated on the top of the hill, is
of comparatively small extent, and forms almost a parallelogram,
surrounded by ramparts of the 13th century, and, outside them,
by boulevards, and entered by ancient gateways. In this part
are the law court, the château and the hotel de ville (built in the
18th century), and a belfry tower of the 13th and 17th centuries
is in the immediate neighbourhood. In the château (13th century)
now used as barracks, the emperor Napoleon III was
confined after the abortive insurrection of 1840. At some distance
north-west stands the church of Notre-Dame, a well-known
place of pilgrimage, erected (1827-1866) on the site of an old
building destroyed in the Revolution, of which the extensive
crypt still remains. The modern town stretches from the foot
of the hill to the harbour, along which it extends, terminating
in an expanse of sandy beach frequented by bathers, and provided
with a bathing establishment and casino. It contains
several good streets, some of which are, however, very steep.
A main street, named successively rue de la Lampe, St Nicolas
and Grande rue, extends from the bridge across the Liane to the
promenade by the side of the ramparts. This is intersected first
by the Quai Gambetta, and farther back by the rue Victor Hugo
and the rue Nationale, which contain the principal shops. The
public buildings include several modern churches, two hospitals
and a museum with collections of antiquities, natural history,
porcelain, &amp;c. Connected with the museum is a public library
with 75,000 volumes and a number of valuable manuscripts,
many of them richly illuminated. There are English churches in
the town, and numerous boarding-schools intended for English
pupils. Boulogne is the seat of a sub-prefect, and has tribunals
of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators,
a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France.
There are also communal colleges, a national school of music,
and schools of hydrography, commerce and industry. Boulogne
has for a long time been one of the most anglicized of French
cities; and in the tourist season a continuous stream of English
travellers reach the continent at this point.</p>

<p>The harbour is formed by the mouth of the Liane. Two jetties
enclose a channel leading into the river, which forms a tidal
basin with a depth at neap-tides of 24 ft. Alongside this is an
extensive dock, and behind it an inner port. There is also a
tidal basin opening off the entrance channel. The depth of
water in the river-harbour is 33 ft. at spring-tide and 24 ft. at
neap-tide; in the sluice of the dock the numbers are 29½ and 23½
respectively. The commerce of Boulogne consists chiefly in the
importation of jute, wool, woven goods of silk and wool skins,
threads, coal, timber, and iron and steel, and the exportation of
wine, woven goods, table fruit, potatoes and other vegetables,
skins, motor-cars, forage and cement. The average annual value
of the exports in the five years 1901-1905 was £10,953,000
(£11,704,000 in the years 1896-1900), and of the imports
£6,064,000 (£7,003,000 in the years 1896-1900). From 1901 to
1905 the annual average of vessels entered, exclusive of fishing-smacks, was 2735, tonnage 1,747,699; and cleared 2750, tonnage
1,748,297. The total number of passengers between Folkestone
and Boulogne in 1906 was 295,000 or 49% above the average
for the years 1901-1905. These travelled by the steamers of the
South-Eastern &amp; Chatham railway company. The liners of
the Dutch-American, Hamburg-American and other companies
also call at the port. In the extent and value of its fisheries
Boulogne is exceeded by no seaport in France. The most
important branch is the herring-fishery; next in value is the
mackerel. Large quantities of fresh fish are transmitted to
Paris by railway, but an abundant supply is reserved to the town
itself. The fishermen live for the most part in a separate quarter
called La Beurrière, situated in the upper part of the town.
In 1905 the fisheries of Boulogne and the neighbouring village
of Étaples employed over 400 boats and 4500 men, the value
of the fish taken being estimated at £1,025,000. Among the
numerous industrial establishments in Boulogne and its environs
may be mentioned foundries, cement-factories, important steel-pen
manufactories, oil-works, dye-works, fish-curing works,
flax-mills, saw-mills, and manufactories of cloth, fireproof ware,
chocolate, boots and shoes, and soap. Shipbuilding is also
carried on.</p>

<p>Among the objects of interest in the neighbourhood the
most remarkable is the Colonne de la Grande Armée, erected
on the high ground above the town, in honour of Napoleon I.,
on occasion of the projected invasion of England, for which
he here made great preparations. The pillar, which is
of the Doric order, 166 ft. high, is surmounted by a statue
of the emperor by A.S. Bosio. Though begun in 1804, the
monument was not completed till 1841. On the edge of the
cliff to the east of the port are some rude brick remains of an
old building called Tour d&rsquo;Ordre, said to be the ruins of a
tower built by Caligula at the time of his intended invasion of
Britain.</p>

<p>Boulogne is identified with the <i>Gessoriacum</i> of the Romans,
under whom it was an important harbour. It is suggested that
it was the <i>Portus Itius</i> where Julius Caesar assembled his fleet
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Itius Portus</a></span>). At an early period it began to be known as
<i>Bononia</i>, a name which has been gradually modified into the
present form. The town was destroyed by the Normans in
882, but restored about 912. During the Carolingian period
Boulogne was the chief town of a countship that was for long the
subject of dispute between Flanders and Ponthieu. From the
year 965 it belonged to the house of Ponthieu, of which Godfrey
of Bouillon, the first king of Jerusalem, was a scion. Stephen of
Blois, who became king of England in 1135, had married Mahaut,
daughter and heiress of Eustace, count of Boulogne. Their
daughter Mary married Matthew of Alsace (d. 1173), and her
daughter Ida (d. 1216) married Renaud of Dammartin. Of this
last marriage was issue Mahaut, countess of Boulogne, wife of
Philip Hurepel (d. 1234), a son of King Philip Augustus. To her
succeeded the house of Brabant, issue of Mahaut of Boulogne,
sister of Ida, and wife of Henry I. of Brabant; and then the
house of Auvergne, issue of Alice, daughter of Henry I. of
Brabant, inherited the Boulonnais. It remained in the possession
of descendants of these families until Philip the Good, duke
of Burgundy, seized upon it in 1419. In 147 7 Louis XI. of France
reconquered it, and reunited it to the French crown, giving
Lauraguais as compensation to Bertrand IV. de la Tour, count of
Auvergne, heir of the house of Auvergne. To avoid doing homage
to Mary of Burgundy, suzerain of the Boulonnais and countess
of Artois, Louis XI declared the countship of Boulogne to be
held in fee of Our Lady of Boulogne. In 1544 Henry VIII.&mdash;
more successful in this than Henry III. had been in 1347&mdash;took
the town by siege; but it was restored to France in 1550.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id="page324"></a>324</span>
From 1566 to the end of the 18th century it was the seat
of a bishopric.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> a town of northern France, in the
department of Seine, on the right bank of the Seine, S.W. of
Paris and immediately outside the fortifications. Pop. (1906)
49,412. The town has a Gothic church of the 14th and 15th
centuries (restored in 1863) founded in honour of Notre-Dame of
Boulogne-sur-Mer. To this fact is due the name of the place,
which was previously called Menus-lès-St Cloud. Laundrying is
extensively carried on as well as the manufacture of metal boxes,
soap, oil and furniture, and there are numerous handsome
residences. For the neighbouring Bois de Boulogne see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paris</a></span>.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOULTON, MATTHEW<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1728-1809), English manufacturer
and engineer, was born on the 3rd of September 1728, at Birmingham,
where his father, Matthew Boulton the elder, was
a manufacturer of metal articles of various kinds. To this
business he succeeded on his father&rsquo;s death in 1759, and in
consequence of its growth removed his works in 1762 from
Snowhill to what was then a tract of barren heath at Soho, 2 mi.
north of Birmingham. Here he undertook the manufacture of
artistic objects in metal, as well as the reproduction of oil paintings
by a mechanical process in which he was associated with
Francis Eginton (1737-1805), who subsequently achieved a
reputation as a worker in stained or enamelled glass. About
1767, Boulton, who was finding the need of improving the motive
power for his machinery, made the acquaintance of James Watt,
who on his side appreciated the advantages offered by the Soho
works for the development of his steam-engine. In 1772 Watt&rsquo;s
partner, Dr John Roebuck, got into financial difficulties, and
Boulton, to whom he owed £1200, accepted the two-thirds share
in Watt&rsquo;s patent held by him in satisfaction of the debt. Three
years later Boulton and Watt formally entered into partnership,
and it was mainly through the energy and self-sacrifice of the
former, who devoted all the capital he possessed or could borrow
to the enterprise, that the steam-engine was at length made a
commercial success. It was also owing to Boulton that in 1775 an
act of parliament was obtained extending the term of Watt&rsquo;s
1769 patent to 1799. In 1800 the two partners retired from
the business, which they handed over to their sons, Matthew
Robinson Boulton and James Watt junior. In 1788 Boulton
turned his attention to coining machinery, and erected at Soho a
complete plant with which he struck coins for the Sierra Leone
and East India companies and for Russia, and in 1797 produced
a new copper coinage for Great Britain. In 1797 he took out a
patent in connexion with raising water on the principle of the
hydraulic ram. He died at Birmingham on the 18th of August
1809.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUND,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Boundary</span> (from O. Fr. <i>bonde</i>, Med. Lat. <i>bodena</i> or
<i>butina</i>, a frontier line), that which serves to indicate the limit or
extent of land. It is usually defined by a certain mark, such as a
post, ditch, hedge, dyke, wall of stones, &amp;c., though on the other
hand it may have to be ascertained by reference to a plan or by
measurement. In law, the exact boundary of land is always a
matter of evidence; where no evidence is available, the court
acts on presumption. For example, the boundary of land on
opposite sides of a road, whether public or private, is presumed to
be the middle line of the road. Where two fields are separated by
a hedge and ditch the boundary line will run between the hedge
and the ditch. Boundaries of parishes, at common law, depended
upon ancient and immemorial custom, and in many parishes
great care was taken to perpetuate the boundaries of the parish
by perambulations from time to time. The confusion of local
boundaries in England was the subject of several commissions
and committees in the 19th century, and much information will
be found in their reports (1868, 1870, 1873, 1888). The Local
Government Act 1888, ss. 50-63, contains provisions for the
alteration of local areas.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUNDS, BEATING THE,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> an ancient custom still observed in
many English parishes. In former times when maps were rare
it was usual to make a formal perambulation of the parish
boundaries on Ascension day or during Rogation week. The
latter is in the north of England still called &ldquo;Gang Week&rdquo;
or &ldquo;Ganging Days&rdquo; from this &ldquo;ganging&rdquo; or procession. The
priest of the parish with the churchwardens and the parochial
officials headed a crowd of boys who, armed with green boughs,
beat with them the parish border-stones. Sometimes the boys
were themselves whipped or even violently bumped on the
boundary-stones to make them remember. The object of taking
boys was obviously to ensure that witnesses to the boundaries
should survive as long as possible. In England the custom is as
old as Anglo-Saxon days, as it is mentioned in laws of Alfred and
Aethelstan. It is thought that it may have been derived from
the Roman Terminalia, a festival celebrated on the 22nd of
February in honour of Terminus, the god of landmarks, to whom
cakes and wine were offered, sports and dancing taking place at
the boundaries. In England a parish-ale or feast was always
held after the perambulation, which assured its popularity, and in
Henry VIII.&rsquo;s reign the occasion had become an excuse for so
much revelry that it attracted the condemnation of a preacher
who declared &ldquo;these solemne and accustomable processions and
supplications be nowe growen into a right foule and detestable
abuse.&rdquo; Beating the bounds had a religious side in the practice
which originated the term Rogation, the accompanying clergy
being supposed to beseech (<i>rogare</i>) the divine blessing upon the
parish lands for the ensuing harvest. This feature originated in
the 5th century, when Mamercus, bishop of Vienne, instituted
special prayers and fasting and processions on these days. This
clerical side of the parish bounds-beating was one of the
religious functions prohibited by the Injunctions of Queen
Elizabeth; but it was then ordered that the perambulation
should continue to be performed as a quasi-secular function,
so that evidence of the boundaries of parishes, &amp;c. might be
preserved (Gibson, <i>Codex juris Ecclesiastici Anglicani</i> (1761)
pp. 213-214). Bequests were sometimes made in connexion with
bounds-beating. Thus at Leighton Buzzard on Rogation Monday,
in accordance with the will of one Edward Wilkes, a London
merchant who died in 1646, the trustees of his almshouses
accompanied the boys. The will was read and beer and plum
rolls distributed. A remarkable feature of the bequest was that
while the will is read one of the boys has to stand on his head.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUNTY<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (through O. Fr. <i>bontet</i>, from Lat. <i>bonitas</i>, goodness),
a gift or gratuity; more usually, a premium paid by a government
to encourage some branch of production or industry, as in
England in the case of the bounty on corn, first granted in 1688
and abolished in 1814, the herring-fishery bounties, the bounties
on sail-cloth, linen and other goods. It is admitted that the
giving of bounties is generally impolitic, though they may sometimes
be justified as a measure of state. The most striking
modern example of a bounty was that on sugar (<i>q.v.</i>). Somewhat
akin to bounties are the subsidies granted to shipping (<i>q.v.</i>)
by many countries. Bounties or, as they may equally well be
termed, grants are often given, more especially in new countries,
for the destruction of beasts of prey; in the United States and
some other countries, bounties have been given for tree-planting;
France has given bounties to encourage the Newfoundland
fisheries.</p>

<p>Bounty was also the name given to the money paid to induce
men to enlist in the army or navy, and, in the United Kingdom,
to the sum given on entering the militia reserve. During the
American Civil War, many recruits joined solely for the sake of
the bounty offered, and afterwards deserted; they were called
&ldquo;bounty-jumpers.&rdquo; The term bounty was also applied in the
English navy to signify money payable to the officers and crew
of a ship in respect of services on particular occasions.</p>

<p>Queen Anne&rsquo;s Bounty (<i>q.v.</i>) is a fund applied for the augmentation
of poor livings in the established church.</p>

<p>King&rsquo;s Bounty is a grant made by the sovereign of his royal
bounty to those of his subjects whose wives are delivered of
three or more children at a birth.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURBAKI, CHARLES DENIS SAUTER<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (1816-1897), French
general, was born at Pau on the 22nd of April 1816, the son of a
Greek colonel who died in the War of Independence in 1827.
He entered St Cyr, and in 1836 joined the Zouaves, becoming
lieutenant of the Foreign Legion in 1838, and aide-de-camp to
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page325" id="page325"></a>325</span>
King Louis Philippe. It was in the African expedition that he
first came to the front. In 1842 he was captain in the Zouaves;
1847, colonel of the Turcos; in 1850, lieutenant-colonel of the 1st
Zouaves; 1851, colonel; 1854, brigadier-general. In the
Crimean War he commanded a portion of the Algerian troops;
and at the Alma, Inkerman and Sevastopol Bourbaki&rsquo;s name
became famous. In 1857 he was made general of division,
commanding in 1859 at Lyons. His success in the war with Italy
was only second to that of MacMahon, and in 1862 he was proposed
as a candidate for the vacant Greek throne, but declined
the proffered honour. In 1870 the emperor entrusted him with
the command of the Imperial Guard, and he played an important
part in the fighting round Metz.</p>

<p>A curious incident of the siege of Metz is connected with
Bourbaki&rsquo;s name. A man who called himself Regnier,<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> about
the 21st of September, appeared at Hastings, to seek an interview
with the refugee empress Eugénie, and failing to obtain this he
managed to get from the young prince imperial a signed photograph
with a message to the emperor Napoleon. This he used,
by means of a safe-conduct from Bismarck, as credentials to
Marshal Bazaine, to whom he presented himself at Metz, telling
him on the empress&rsquo;s alleged authority that peace was about to
be signed and that either Marshal Canrobert or General Bourbaki
was to go to Hastings for the purpose. Bourbaki at once went
to England, with Prussian connivance, as though he had a
recognized mission, only to discover from the empress at Hastings
that a trick had been played on him; and as soon as he could
manage he returned to France. He offered his services to
Gambetta and received the command of the Northern Army,
but was recalled on the 19th of November and transferred to the
Army of the Loire. In command of the hastily-trained and
ill-equipped Army of the East, Bourbaki made the attempt to
raise the siege of Belfort, which, after the victory of Villersexel,
ended in the repulse of the French in the three days&rsquo; battle of the
Lisaine. Other German forces under Manteuffel now closed upon
Bourbaki, and he was eventually driven over the Swiss frontier
with the remnant of his forces (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franco-German War</a></span>). His
troops were in the most desperate condition, owing to lack of
food; and out of 150,000 men under him when he started, only
84,000 escaped from the Germans into Swiss territory. Bourbaki
himself, rather than submit to the humiliation of a probable
surrender, on the 26th of January 1871 delegated his functions
to General Clinchant, and in the night fired a pistol at his own
head, but the bullet, owing to a deviation of the weapon, was
flattened against his skull and his life was saved. General
Clinchant carried Bourbaki into Switzerland, and he recovered
sufficiently to return to France. In July 1871 he again took the
command at Lyons, and subsequently became military governor.
In 1881, owing to his political opinions, he was placed on the
retired list. In 1885 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the
senate. He died on the 27th of September 1897. A patriotic
Frenchman and a brilliant soldier and leader, Bourbaki, like
some other French generals of the Second Empire whose training
had been obtained in Africa, was found wanting in the higher
elements of command when the European conditions of 1870
were concerned.</p>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The whole Regnier affair remained a mystery; the man himself&mdash;
who on following Bourbaki to England made the impression on
Lord Granville (see the <i>Life of Lord Granville</i>, by Lord Fitzmaurice,
ii. 61) of being a &ldquo;swindler&rdquo; but honestly wishing to serve the
empress&mdash;was afterwards mixed up in the Humbert frauds of
1902-1903; he published his own version of the affair in 1870 in
a pamphlet, <i>Quel est votre nom?</i> It has been suspected that on the
part either of Bazaine or of the German authorities some undisclosed
intrigue was on foot.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURBON.<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> The noble family of Bourbon, from which so
many European kings have sprung, took its name from Bourbon
l&rsquo;Archambault, chief town of a lordship which in the 10th century
was one of the largest baronies of the kingdom of France. The
limits of the lordship, which was called the Bourbonnais, were
approximately those of the modern department of Allier, being
on the N. the Nivernais and Berry, on the E. Burgundy and
Lyonnais, on the S. Auvergne and Marche and on the W. Berry.
The first of the long line of Bourbons known in history was
Adhémar or Aimar, who was invested with the barony towards
the close of the 9th century. Matilda, heiress of the first house
of Bourbon, brought this lordship to the family of Dampierre
by her marriage, in 1196, with Guy of Dampierre, marshal of
Champagne (d. 1215). In 1272 Beatrix, daughter of Agnes
of Bourbon-Dampierre, and her husband John of Burgundy,
married Robert, count of Clermont, sixth son of Louis IX. (St
Louis) of France. The elder branches of the family had become
extinct, and their son Louis became duke of Bourbon in 1327.
In 1488 the line of his descendants ended with Jean II., who
died in that year. The whole estates passed to Jean&rsquo;s brother
Pierre, lord of Beaujeu, who was married to Anne, daughter of
Louis XI. Pierre died in 1503, leaving only a daughter, Suzanne,
who, in 1505, married Charles de Montpensier, heir of the
Montpensier branch of the Bourbon family. Charles, afterwards
constable of France, who took the title of duke of Bourbon on
his marriage, was born in 1489, and at an early age was looked
upon as one of the finest soldiers and gentlemen in France.
With the constable ended the direct line from Pierre I., duke of
Bourbon (d. 1356). But the fourth in descent from Pierre&rsquo;s
brother, Jacques, count of La Marche, Louis, count of Vendôme
and Chartres (d. 1446), became the ancestor of the royal house
of Bourbon and of the noble families of Condé, Conti and
Montpensier. The fourth in direct descent from Louis of Vendôme
was Antoine de Bourbon, who in 1548 married Jeanne d&rsquo;Albret,
heiress of Navarre, and became king of Navarre in 1554. Their
son became king of France as Henry IV. Henry was succeeded
by his son, Louis XIII., who left two sons, Louis XIV., and
Philip, duke of Orleans, head of the Orleans branch. Louis XIV.&rsquo;s
son, the dauphin, died before his father, and left three sons,
one of whom died without issue. Of the others the elder, Louis
of Burgundy, died in 1712, and his only surviving son became
Louis XV. The younger, Philip, duke of Anjou, became king
of Spain, and founded the Spanish branch of the Bourbon
family. Louis XV. was succeeded by his grandson, Louis XVI.,
who perished on the scaffold. At the restoration the throne of
France was occupied by Louis XVIII., brother of Louis XVI.,
who in turn was succeeded by his brother Charles X. The second
son of Charles X., the duc de Berry, left a son, Henri Charles
Ferdinand Marie Dieudonné d&rsquo;Artois, duc de Bordeaux, and
comte de Chambord (<i>q.v.</i>). From Louis XIV.&rsquo;s brother, Philip,
descended another claimant of the throne. Philip&rsquo;s son was
the regent Orleans, whose great-grandson, &ldquo;Philippe Égalité,&rdquo;
perished on the scaffold in 1793. Égalité&rsquo;s son, Louis Philippe,
was king of the French from 1830 to 1848; his grandson, Louis
Philippe, comte de Paris (1838-1894), inherited on the death
of the comte de Chambord the rights of that prince to the throne
of France, and was called by the royalists Philip VII. He had
a son, Louis Philippe Robert, duc d&rsquo;Orléans, called by his
adherents Philip VIII.</p>

<p><i>Spanish Branch.</i>&mdash;Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis
XIV., became king of Spain as Philip V., in 1700. He was
succeeded in 1746 by his son Ferdinand VI., who died in 1759
without family, and was followed by his brother Charles III.
Charles III.&rsquo;s eldest son became Charles IV. of Spain in 1788,
while his second son, Ferdinand, was made king of Naples in
1759. Charles IV. was deposed by Napoleon, but in 1814 his
son, Ferdinand VII., again obtained his throne. Ferdinand
was succeeded by his daughter Isabella, who in 1870 abdicated
in favour of her son, Alphonso XII. (d. 1885). Alphonso&rsquo;s
posthumous son became king of Spain as Alphonso XIII.
Ferdinand&rsquo;s brother, Don Carlos (d. 1855), claimed the throne
in 1833 on the ground of the Salic law, and a fierce war raged
for some years in the north of Spain. His son Don Carlos,
count de Montemolin (1818-1861), revived the claim, but was
defeated and compelled to sign a renunciation. The nephew of
the latter, Don Carlos Maria Juan Isidor, duke of Madrid, for
some years carried on war in Spain with the object of attaining
the rights contended for by the Carlist party.</p>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326"></a>326</span></p>

<p class="center pt2">GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF BOURBON</p>

<p class="center bold">I. <i>The French Bourbons.</i></p>

<div class="center"><img style="width:1000px; height:638px" src="images/img326.jpg" alt="" /></div>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page327" id="page327"></a>327</span></p>

<p class="center pt2 bold">II. <i>The Spanish and Italian Bourbons.</i></p>

<div class="center"><img style="width:1000px; height:706px" src="images/img327.jpg" alt="" /></div>

<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page328" id="page328"></a>328</span></p>

<p class="pt2"><i>Neapolitan Branch.</i>&mdash;The first Bourbon who wore the crown
of Naples was Charles III. of Spain, who on his succession to
the Spanish throne in 1759, resigned his kingdom of Naples
to his son Ferdinand. Ferdinand was deposed by Napoleon,
but afterwards regained his throne, and took the title of
Ferdinand I., king of the Two Sicilies. In 1825 he was succeeded
by his son Francis, who in turn was succeeded in 1830 by his son
Ferdinand II. Ferdinand II. died in 1859, and in the following
year his successor Francis II. was deprived of his kingdom,
which was incorporated into the gradually-uniting Italy.</p>

<p><i>Duchies of Lucca and Parma.</i>&mdash;In 1748 the duchy of Parma
was conferred on Philip, youngest son of Philip V. of Spain.
He was succeeded by his son Ferdinand in 1765. Parma was
ceded to France in 1801, Ferdinand&rsquo;s son Louis being made king
of Etruria, but the French only took possession of the duchy
after Ferdinand&rsquo;s death in 1802. Louis&rsquo;s son Charles Louis
was forced to surrender Etruria to France in 1807, and he was
given the duchy of Lucca by the congress of Vienna in 1815.
In 1847, on the death of Marie Louise, widow of Napoleon,
who had received Parma and Piacenza in accordance with the
terms of the treaty of Paris of 1814, Charles Louis succeeded
to the duchies as Charles II., at the same time surrendering
Lucca to Tuscany. In 1849 he abdicated in favour of his son,
Charles III., who married a daughter of the duke of Berry, and
was assassinated in 1854, being succeeded by his son Robert.
In 1860 the duchies were annexed by Victor Emmanuel to the
new kingdom of Italy.</p>

<p><i>Bastard Branches.</i>&mdash;There are numerous bastard branches
of the family of Bourbon, the most famous being the Vendôme
branch, descended from Caesar, natural son of Henry IV., and
the Maine and Toulouse branches, descended from the two
natural sons of Louis XIV. and Madame de Montespan.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Coiffier de Moret, <i>Histoire du Bourbonnais et des Bourbons</i> (2 vols., 1824);
Berand, <i>Histoire des sires et ducs de Bourbon</i> (1835);
Désormeaux, <i>Histoire de la maison de Bourbon</i> (5 vols., 1782-1788);
Achaintre, <i>Histoire généalogique et chronologique de la maison royale de Bourbon</i>
(2 vols., 1825-1826); and Dussieux, <i>Généalogie de la maison de Bourbon</i> (1872).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURBON, CHARLES,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duke of</span> (1490-1527), constable of
France, second son of Gilbert, count of Montpensier and dauphin
of Auvergne, was born on the 17th of February 1490, his mother
being a Gonzaga. In 1505 he married Suzanne, heiress of Peter II.,
duke of Bourbon, by Anne of France, daughter of King Louis XI.,
and assumed the title of duke of Bourbon. The addition
of this duchy to the numerous duchies, countships and other
fiefs which he had inherited on the death of his elder brother
Louis in 1501, made him at the age of fifteen the wealthiest
noble in Europe. He gained his first military experience in
the Italian campaigns of Louis XII., taking part in the suppression
of the Genoese revolt (1507) and contributing to the victory
over the Venetians at Agnadello (May 14, 1509). Shortly after
the accession of Francis I. Bourbon received the office of constable
of France, and for his brilliant services at the battle of Marignano
(September 1515) he was made governor of the Milanese, which
he succeeded in defending against an attack of the emperor
Maximilian. But dissensions arose between Francis and the
constable. Grave, haughty and taciturn, Bourbon was but ill
suited to the levities of the court, and his vast wealth and
influence kindled in the king a feeling of resentment, if not
of fear. The duke was recalled from the government of the
Milanese; his official salary and the sums he had borrowed
for war expenses remained unpaid; and in the campaign in
the Netherlands against the emperor Charles V. the command
of the vanguard, one of the most cherished prerogatives of the
constables, was taken from him. The death of his wife without
surviving issue, on the 28th of April 1521, afforded the mother
of the king, Louise of Savoy, a means to gratify her greed, and
at the same time to revenge herself on Bourbon, who had slighted
her love. A suit was instituted at her instance against the duke
in the parlement of Paris, in which Louise, as grand-daughter
of Charles, duke of Bourbon (d. 1456), claimed the female and
some of the male fiefs of the duchy of Bourbon, while the king
claimed those fiefs which were originally appanages, as escheating
to the crown, and other claims were put forward. Before the
parlement was able to arrive at a decision, Francis handed over
to his mother a part of the Bourbon estates, and ordered the
remainder to be sequestrated.</p>

<p>Smarting under these injuries, Bourbon, who for some time
had been coquetting with the enemies of France, renewed his
negotiations with the emperor and Henry VIII. of England.
It was agreed that the constable should raise in his own dominions
an armed force to assist the emperor in an invasion of France, and
should receive in return the hand of Eleonora, queen dowager
of Portugal, or of another of the emperor&rsquo;s sisters, and an
independent kingdom comprising his own lands together with
Dauphiné and Provence. He was required, too, to swear fidelity
to Henry VIII. as king of France. But Bourbon&rsquo;s plans were
hampered by the presence of the French troops assembling for
the invasion of Italy, and for this reason he was unable to effect
a junction with the emperor&rsquo;s German troops from the east.
News of the conspiracy soon reached the ears of Francis, who
was on his way to take command of the Italian expedition. In
an interview with Bourbon at Moulins the king endeavoured
to persuade him to accompany the French army into Italy, but
without success. Bourbon remained at Moulins for a few days,
and after many vicissitudes escaped into Italy. The joint
invasion of France by the emperor and his ally of England had
failed signally, mainly through lack of money and defects of
combination. In the spring of 1524, however, Bourbon at the
head of the imperialists in Lombardy forced the French across
the Sesia (where the chevalier Bayard was mortally wounded)
and drove them out of Italy. In August 1524 he invested
Marseilles, but being unable to prevent the introduction of
supplies by Andrea Doria, the Genoese admiral in the service of
Francis, he was forced to raise the siege and retreat to the
Milanese. He took part in the battle of Pavia (1525), where
Francis was defeated and taken prisoner. But Bourbon&rsquo;s
troops were clamouring for pay, and the duke was driven to
extreme measures to satisfy their demands. Cheated of his
kingdom and his bride after the treaty of Madrid (1526), Bourbon
had been offered the duchy of Milan by way of compensation.
He now levied contributions from the townsmen, and demanded
20,000 ducats for the liberation of the chancellor Girolamo
Morone (d. 1529), who had been imprisoned for an attempt to
realize his dream of an Italy purged of the foreigner. But the
sums thus raised were wholly inadequate. In February 1527
Bourbon&rsquo;s army was joined by a body of German mercenaries,
mostly Protestants, and the combined forces advanced towards
the papal states. Refusing to recognize the truce which the
viceroy of Naples had concluded with Pope Clement VII.,
Bourbon hastened to put into execution the emperor&rsquo;s plan of
attaching Clement to his side by a display of force. But the
troops, starving and without pay, were in open mutiny, and
Spaniards and Lutherans alike were eager for plunder. On the
5th of May 1527 the imperial army appeared before the walls
of Rome. On the following morning Bourbon attacked the
Leonine City, and while mounting a scaling ladder fell mortally
wounded by a shot, which Benvenuto Cellini in his <i>Life</i> claims
to have fired. After Bourbon&rsquo;s death his troops took and sacked Rome.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See E. Armstrong, <i>Charles V.</i> (London, 1902); <i>Cambridge Mod.
Hist.</i> vol. ii., bibliography to chaps. i. ii. and iii.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURBON-LANCY,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a watering-place of east-central France
in the department of Saône-et-Loire, on a hill about 2 m. from
the right bank of the Loire and on the Borne, 52 m. S.S.E. of
Nevers by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 1896; commune, 4266. The
town possesses thermal springs, resorted to in the Roman period,
and ancient baths and other remains have been found. The
waters, which are saline and ferruginous, are used for drinking
and bathing, in cases of rheumatism, &amp;c. Their temperature
varies from 117° to 132° F. Cardinal Richelieu, Madame de
Sévigné, James II. of England, and other celebrated persons
visited the springs in the 17th and 18th centuries. The town
has a well-equipped bathing establishment, a large hospital, and
a church of the 11th and 12th centuries (used as an archaeological
museum), and there are ruins of an old stronghold on a
hill overlooking the town. A belfry pierced by a gateway of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page329" id="page329"></a>329</span>
the 15th century and houses of the 15th and 16th centuries also
remain. The industries of the town include the manufacture of
farm implements.</p>

<p>In the middle ages Bourbon-Lancy was an important stronghold
and a fief of the Bourbon family, from the name of a member
of which the suffix to its name is derived.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURBON L&rsquo;ARCHAMBAULT,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a town of central France in
the department of Allier, on the Burge, 16 m. W. of Moulins by
rail. Pop. (1906) 2306. The town has thermal springs known
in Roman times, which are used in cases of scrofula and
rheumatism. The bathing-establishment is owned by the state.
A church dating from the 12th century, and ruins of a castle
of the dukes of Bourbon (13th and 15th centuries), including a
cylindrical keep, are of interest. There are a military and a
civil hospital in the town. Stone is quarried in the vicinity.
Bourbon (<i>Aquae Borvonis</i> or <i>Bormonis</i>) was anciently the
capital of the Bourbonnais and gave its name to the great Bourbon
family. The affix Archambault is the name of one of its early lords.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURBONNE-LES-BAINS,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a town of eastern France, in the
department of Haute-Marne, 35½ m. by rail E.N.E. of Langres.
Pop. (1906) 3738. It is much frequented on account of its hot
saline springs, which were known to the Romans under the name
<i>Aquae Borvonis</i>. The heat of these springs varies from 110° to
156° F. The waters are used in cases of lymphatic affections,
scrofula, rheumatism, wounds, &amp;c. The principal buildings are
a church of the 12th century, the state bathing-establishment
and the military hospital; there are also the remains of a castle.
Timber-sawing and plaster manufacture are carried on in the
town. In the neighbourhood are the buildings of the celebrated
Cistercian abbey of Morimond.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURCHIER, ARTHUR<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1864-&emsp;&emsp;), English actor, was born
in Berkshire in 1864, and educated at Eton and Christ Church,
Oxford. At the university he became prominent as an amateur
actor in connexion with the O.U.A.D.C., which he founded, and
in 1889 he joined Mrs Langtry as a professional. He also acted
with Charles Wyndham at the Criterion, and was for a while in
Daly&rsquo;s company in America. In 1894 he married the actress
Violet Vanbrugh, elder sister of the no less well-known actress
Irene Vanbrugh, and he and his wife subsequently took the leading
parts under his management of the Garrick theatre. Both
as tragedian and comedian Mr Bourchier took high rank on the
London stage, and his career as actor-manager was remarkable
for the production of a number of successful modern plays, by
Mr Sutro and others.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURCHIER, THOMAS<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1404-1486), English archbishop,
lord chancellor and cardinal, was a younger son of William
Bourchier, count of Eu (d. 1420), and through his mother, Anne,
a daughter of Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, was a
descendant of Edward III. One of his brothers was Henry,
earl of Essex (d. 1483), and his grand-nephew was John, Lord
Berners, the translator of Froissart. Educated at Oxford and
then entering the church, he obtained rapid promotion, and
after holding some minor appointments he became bishop of
Worcester in 1434. In the same year he was chancellor of the
university of Oxford, and in 1443 he was appointed bishop of
Ely; then in April 1454 he was made archbishop of Canterbury,
becoming lord chancellor of England in the following March.
Bourchier&rsquo;s short term of office as chancellor coincided with the
opening of the Wars of the Roses, and at first he was not a strong
partisan, although he lost his position as chancellor when
Richard, duke of York, was deprived of power in October 1456.
Afterwards, in 1458, he helped to reconcile the contending
parties, but when the war was renewed in 1459 he appears as a
decided Yorkist; he crowned Edward IV. in June 1461, and four
years later he performed a similar service for the queen, Elizabeth
Woodville. In 1457 Bourchier took the chief part in the trial
of Reginald Pecock, bishop of Chichester, for heresy; in 1467 he
was created a cardinal; and in 1475 he was one of the four
arbitrators appointed to arrange the details of the treaty of
Picquigny between England and France. After the death of
Edward IV. in 1483 Bourchier persuaded the queen to allow
her younger son, Richard, duke of York, to share his brother&rsquo;s
residence in the Tower of London; and although he had sworn
to be faithful to Edward V. before his father&rsquo;s death, he crowned
Richard III. in July 1483. He was, however, in no way
implicated in the murder of the young princes, and he was
probably a participant in the conspiracies against Richard.
The third English king crowned by Bourchier was Henry VII.,
whom he also married to Elizabeth of York in January 1486.
The archbishop died on the 30th of March 1486 at his residence,
Knole, near Sevenoaks, and was buried in Canterbury cathedral.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See W.F. Hook, <i>Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury</i> (1860-1884).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURDALOUE, LOUIS<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (1632-1704), French Jesuit and
preacher, was born at Bourges on the 20th of August 1632. At
the age of sixteen he entered the Society of Jesus, and was
appointed successively professor of rhetoric, philosophy and
moral theology, in various colleges of the Order. His success as
a preacher in the provinces determined his superiors to call him
to Paris in 1669 to occupy for a year the pulpit of the church of
St Louis. Owing to his eloquence he was speedily ranked in
popular estimation with Corneille, Racine, and the other leading
figures of the most brilliant period of Louis XIV.&rsquo;s reign. He
preached at the court of Versailles during the Advent of 1670
and the Lent of 1672, and was subsequently called again to
deliver the Lenten course of sermons in 1674, 1675, 1680 and
1682, and the Advent sermons of 1684, 1689 and 1693. This
was all the more noteworthy as it was the custom never to call
the same preacher more than three times to court. On the
revocation of the Edict of Nantes he was sent to Languedoc to
confirm the new converts in the Catholic faith, and he had
extraordinary success in this delicate mission. Catholics and
Protestants were unanimous in praising his fiery eloquence in
the Lent sermons which he preached at Montpellier in 1686.
Towards the close of his life he confined his ministry to charitable
institutions, hospitals and prisons, where his sympathetic
discourses and conciliatory manners were always effective. He
died in Paris on the 13th of May 1704. His peculiar strength lay
in his power of adapting himself to audiences of every kind, and
throughout his public career he was highly appreciated by all
classes of society. His influence was due as much to his saintly
character and to the gentleness of his manners as to the force of
his reasoning. Voltaire said that his sermons surpassed those of
Bossuet (whose retirement in 1669, however, practically coincided
with Bourdaloue&rsquo;s early pulpit utterances); and there is little
doubt that their simplicity and coherence, and the direct appeal
which they made to hearers of all classes, gave them a superiority
over the more profound sermons of Bossuet. Bourdaloue may
be with justice regarded as one of the greatest French orators,
and many of his sermons have been adopted as text-books in schools.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;The only authoritative source for the Sermons
is the edition of Père Bretonneau (14 vols., Paris, 1707-1721, followed
by the <i>Pensées</i>, 2 vols., 1734). There has been much controversy
both as to the authenticity of some of the sermons in this edition
and as to the text in general. It is, however, generally agreed that
the changes confessedly made by Bretonneau were merely formal.
Other editions not based on Bretonneau are inferior; some, indeed,
are altogether spurious (<i>e.g.</i> that of Abbé Sicard, 1810). Among
critical works are: Anatole Feugère, <i>Bourdaloue, sa prédication et son temps</i> (Paris, 1874);
Adrien Lézat, <i>Bourdaloue, théologien et orateur</i> (Paris, 1874);
P.M. Lauras, <i>Bourdaloue, sa vie et ses &oelig;uvres</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1881);
Abbé Blampignon, <i>Étude sur Bourdaloue</i> (Paris, 1886);
Henri Chérot, <i>Bourdaloue inconnu</i> (Paris, 1898), and
<i>Bourdaloue, sa correspondance et ses correspondans</i> (Paris, 1898-1904);
L. Pauthe, <i>Bourdaloue</i> (<i>les maîtres de la chaire au XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>) (Paris, 1900);
E. Griselle, <i>Bourdaloue, histoire critique de sa prédication</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1901),
<i>Sermons inédits; bibliographie, &amp;c.</i> (Paris, 1901),
<i>Deux sermons inédits sur le royaume de Dieu</i> (Lille and Paris, 1904);
Ferdinand Castets, <i>Bourdaloue, la vie et la prédication d&rsquo;un religieux au XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>,
and <i>La Revue Bourdaloue</i> (Paris, 1902-1904);
C.H. Brooke, <i>Great French Preachers</i> (sermons of Bourdaloue and Bossuet, London, 1904);
F. Brunetière, &ldquo;L&rsquo;Éloquence de Bourdaloue,&rdquo; in <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> (August 1904),
a general inquiry into the authenticity of the sermons and their general characteristics.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURDON, FRANÇOIS LOUIS<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (d. 1797), known as <span class="sc">Bourdon
de l&rsquo;Oise</span>, French revolutionist, was <i>procureur</i> at the parlement
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page330" id="page330"></a>330</span>
of Paris. He ardently embraced the revolutionary doctrines
and took an active part in the insurrection of the 10th of August
1792. Representing the department of the Oise in the Convention,
he voted for the immediate death of the king. He accused
the Girondists of relations with the court, then turned against
Robespierre, who had him expelled from the Jacobin club for
his conduct as commissioner of the Convention with the army of
La Rochelle. On the 9th Thermidor he was one of the deputies
delegated to aid Barras to repress the insurrection made by the
commune of Paris in favour of Robespierre. Bourbon then became
a violent reactionary, attacking the former members of the
Mountain and supporting rigorous measures against the rioters
of the 12th Germinal and the 1st Prairial of the year III. In
the council of Five Hundred, Bourdon belonged to the party of
&ldquo;Clichyens,&rdquo; composed of disguised royalists, against whom
the directors made the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of the 18th Fructidor.
Bourdon was arrested and deported to French Guiana, where he
died soon after his arrival.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURG-EN-BRESSE,<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> a town of eastern France, capital of
the department of Ain, and formerly capital of the province
of Bresse, 36 m. N.N.E. of Lyons by the Paris-Lyon railway.
Pop. (1906) town, 13,916; commune, 20,045. Bourg is situated
at the western base of the Jura, on the left bank of the Reyssouze,
a tributary of the Saône. The chief of the older buildings
is the church of Notre-Dame (16th century), of which the façade
belongs to the Renaissance; other parts of the church are Gothic.
In the interior there are stalls of the 16th century. The other
public buildings, including a handsome prefecture, are modern.
The hôtel de ville contains a library and the Lorin museum
with a collection of pictures, while another museum has a collection
of the old costumes and ornaments characteristic of Bresse.
Among the statues in the town there is one of Edgar Quinet
(1803-1875), a native of Bourg. Bourg is the seat of a prefect
and of a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first instance, a
tribunal and a chamber of commerce, and a branch of the Bank
of France. Its educational establishments include lycées for
boys and girls, and training colleges. The manufactures consist
of iron goods, mineral waters, tallow, soap and earthenware,
and there are flour mills and breweries; and there is considerable
trade in grain, cattle and poultry. The church of Brou, a
suburb of Bourg, is of great artistic interest. Marguerite of
Bourbon, wife of Philibert II. of Savoy, had intended to found a
monastery on the spot, but died before her intention could be
carried into effect. The church was actually built early in the 16th
century by her daughter-in-law Marguerite of Austria, wife of
Philibert le Beau of Savoy, in memory of her husband. The
exterior, especially the façade, is richly ornamented, but the
chief interest lies in the works of art in the interior, which date
from 1532. The most important are the three mausoleums with
the marble effigies of Marguerite of Bourbon, Philibert le Beau,
and Marguerite of Austria. All three are remarkable for perfection
of sculpture and richness of ornamentation. The rood loft,
the oak stalls, and the reredos in the chapel of the Virgin are
masterpieces in a similar style.</p>

<p>Roman remains have been discovered at Bourg, but little is
known of its early history. Raised to the rank of a free town
in 1250, it was at the beginning of the 15th century chosen by
the dukes of Savoy as the chief city of the province of Bresse.
In 1535 it passed to France, but was restored to Duke Philibert
Emmanuel, who later built a strong citadel, which afterwards
withstood a six months&rsquo; siege by the soldiers of Henry IV.
The town was finally ceded to France in 1601. In 1814 the inhabitants,
in spite of the defenceless condition of their town,
offered resistance to the Austrians, who put the place to
pillage.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURGEOIS, LÉON VICTOR AUGUSTE<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1851-&emsp;&emsp;), French
statesman, was born at Paris on the 21st of May 1851, and was
educated for the law. After holding a subordinate office (1876)
in the department of public works, he became successively
prefect of the Tarn (1882) and the Haute-Garonne (1885), and
then returned to Paris to enter the ministry of the interior.
He became prefect of police in November 1887, at the critical
moment of President Grévy&rsquo;s resignation. In the following
year he entered the chamber, being elected deputy for the Marne,
in opposition to General Boulanger, and joined the radical left.
He was under-secretary for home affairs in the Floquet ministry
of 1888, and resigned with it in 1889, being then returned to the
chamber for Reims. In the Tirard ministry, which succeeded,
he was minister of the interior, and subsequently, on the 18th
of March 1890, minister of public instruction in the cabinet
of M. de Freycinet, a post for which he had qualified himself
by the attention he had given to educational matters. In this
capacity he was responsible in 1890 for some important reforms
in secondary education. He retained his office in M. Loubet&rsquo;s
cabinet in 1892, and was minister of justice under M. Ribot at
the end of that year, when the Panama scandals were making the
office one of peculiar difficulty. He energetically pressed the
Panama prosecution, so much so that he was accused of having
put wrongful pressure on the wife of one of the defendants in
order to procure evidence. To meet the charge he resigned in
March 1893, but again took office, and only retired with the rest
of the Freycinet ministry. In November 1895 he himself formed
a cabinet of a pronouncedly radical type, the main interest of
which was attached to its fall, as the result of a constitutional
crisis arising from the persistent refusal of the senate to vote
supply. The Bourgeois ministry appeared to consider that
popular opinion would enable them to override what they claimed
to be an unconstitutional action on the part of the upper house;
but the public was indifferent and the senate triumphed. The
blow was undoubtedly damaging to M. Bourgeois&rsquo;s career as an
<i>homme de gouvernement</i>. As minister of public instruction in the
Brisson cabinet of 1898 he organized courses for adults in primary
education. After this short ministry he represented his country
with dignity and effect at the Hague peace congress, and in 1903
was nominated a member of the permanent court of arbitration.
He held somewhat aloof from the political struggles of the
Waldeck-Rousseau and Combes ministries, travelling considerably
in foreign countries. In 1902 and 1903 he was elected
president of the chamber. In 1905 he replaced the due
d&rsquo;Audiffret-Pasquier as senator for the department of Marne,
and in May 1906 became minister of foreign affairs in the
Sarrien cabinet. He was responsible for the direction of French
diplomacy in the conference at Algeciras.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURGEOIS,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> a French word, properly meaning a freeman of a
<i>bourg</i> or borough in France; later the term came to have the
wider significance of the whole class lying between the <i>ouvriers</i>
or workmen and the nobility, and is now used generally of the
trading middle-class of any country. In printing, the word
(pronounced burjoice&prime;) is used of a type coming in size between
longprimer and brevier; the derivation is supposed to be from
the name of a French printer, otherwise unknown.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURGES,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> a city of central France, chief town of the department
of Cher, 144 m. S. of Paris on the Orléans railway between
Vierzon and Nevers. Pop. (1906) town, 34,581; commune,
44,133. Bourges is built amidst flat and marshy country on an
eminence limited on three sides by the waters of the Canal Of
Berry, the Yèvre, the Auron, and other smaller streams with
which they unite at this point. The older part of the town with
its narrow streets and old houses forms a centre, to the south and
east of which lie important engineering suburbs. Flourishing
nurseries and market-gardens are situated in the marshy ground
to the north and north-east. Bourges preserves portions of the
Roman ramparts of the 4th century, which are for the most part
built into the houses of the old quarter. They measure considerably
less in circumference than the fortifications of the 13th
century, remains of which in the shape of ruined walls and towers
are still to be seen. The summit of the rise on which the city is
built is crowned by the cathedral of St Étienne, one of the most
important in France. Begun at the end of the 12th century,
it was not completed till the 16th century, to which period
belong the northernmost of the two unfinished towers flanking
the façade and two of its five elaborately sculptured portals.
The interior, which has double aisles, the inner aisles of remarkable
height, and no transepts, contains, among many other
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page331" id="page331"></a>331</span>
works of art, magnificent stained glass of the 13th century.
Beneath the choir there is a crypt of Romanesque construction,
where traces of the Roman fosses are to be found; the two
lateral portals are also survivals of a Romanesque church. The
Jardin de l&rsquo;Archevêché, a pleasant terrace-garden, adjoins the
choir of the cathedral. Bourges has many fine old houses. The
hôtel Lallemant and the hôtel Cujas (now occupied by the
museum) are of the Renaissance period. The hôtel de Jacques
C&oelig;ur, named after the treasurer of Charles VII. and now used
as the law-court, is of still greater interest, though it has been
doubted whether Jacques C&oelig;ur himself inhabited it. The mansion
is in the Renaissance style, but two towers of the Roman
fortifications were utilized in the construction of the south-western
façade (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">House</a></span>, Plate II. figs. 7 and 8). Its wings
surround a courtyard into which three staircase turrets project;
one of these leads to a chapel, the ceiling of which is decorated by
fine frescoes.</p>

<p>Bourges is the seat of an archbishopric, a court of appeal, a
court of assizes and a prefect; and is the headquarters of the
VIII. army corps. It has tribunals of first instance and of
commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, and a chamber of
commerce, and a branch of the Bank of France. Its educational
institutions include an ecclesiastical seminary, a lycée for boys,
and a college for girls, training colleges, and a school of industrial
art. The industrial activity of Bourges depends primarily on
its gunpowder and ammunition factories, its cannon-foundry
and gun-carriage works. These all belong to the government,
and, together with huge magazines, a school of pyrotechnics,
and an artillery school, lie in the east of the town. The suburb
of Mazières has large iron and engineering works, and there are
manufactories of anvils, edge-tools, biscuits, woollen goods,
oil-cloth, boots and shoes, fertilizers, brick and tile works,
breweries, distilleries, tanneries, saw-mills and dye-works. The
town has a port on the canal of Berry, and does a considerable
trade in grain, wine, vegetables, hemp and fruit.</p>

<p>Bourges occupies the site of the Gallic town of <i>Avaricum</i>,
capital of the Bituriges, mentioned by Caesar as one of the most
important of all Gaul. In 52 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, during the war with Vercingetorix,
it was completely destroyed by the Roman conqueror,
but under Augustus it rose again into importance, and was made
the capital of Aquitania Prima. About <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 250 it became the
seat of a bishop, the first occupant of the see being Ursinus.
Captured by the Visigoths about 475, it continued in their possession
till about 507. In the middle ages it was the capital of
Berry. During the English occupation of France in the 15th
century it became the residence of Charles VII., who thus
acquired the popular title of &ldquo;king of Bourges.&rdquo; In 1463 a
university was founded in the city by Louis XI., which continued
for centuries to be one of the most famous in France, especially
in the department of jurisprudence. On many occasions Bourges
was the seat of ecclesiastical councils&mdash;the most important being
the council of 1438, in which the Pragmatic Sanction of the
Gallican church was established, and that of 1528, in which the
Lutheran doctrines were condemned.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURGET, PAUL CHARLES JOSEPH<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1852-&emsp;&emsp;), French
novelist and critic, was born at Amiens on the 2nd of September
1852. His father, a professor of mathematics, was afterwards
appointed to a post in the college at Clermont-Ferrand. Here
Bourget received his early education. He afterwards studied
at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand and at the École des Hautes Études.
In 1872-1873 he produced a volume of verse, <i>Au bord de la mer</i>,
which was followed by others, the last, <i>Les Aveux</i>, appearing in
1882. Meanwhile he was making a name in literary journalism,
and in 1883 he published <i>Essais de psychologic contemporaine</i>,
studies of eminent writers first printed in the <i>Nouvelle Revue</i>,
and now brought together. In 1884 Bourget paid a long visit
to England, and there wrote his first published story (<i>L&rsquo;Irréparable</i>).
<i>Cruelle Énigme</i> followed in 1885; and <i>André Cornelis</i>
(1886) and <i>Mensonges</i> (1887) were received with much favour.
<i>Le Disciple</i> (1889) showed the novelist in a graver attitude; while
in 1891 <i>Sensations d&rsquo;Italie</i>, notes of a tour in that country,
revealed a fresh phase of his powers. In the same year appeared
the novel <i>C&oelig;ur de femme</i>, and <i>Nouveaux Pastels</i>, types of the
characters of men, the sequel to a similar gallery of female types
(<i>Pastels</i>, 1890). His later novels include <i>La Terre promise</i> (1892);
<i>Cosmopolis</i> (1892), a psychological novel, with Rome as a background;
<i>Une Idylle tragique</i> (1896); <i>La Duchesse bleue</i> (1897);
<i>Le Fantôme</i> (1901); <i>Les Deux S&oelig;urs</i> (1905); and some volumes of
shorter stories&mdash;<i>Complications sentimentales</i> (1896), the powerful
<i>Drames de famille</i> (1898), <i>Un Homme fort</i> (1900), <i>L&rsquo;Étape</i> (1902),
a study of the inability of a family raised too rapidly from the
peasant class to adapt itself to new conditions. This powerful
study of contemporary manners was followed by <i>Un Divorce</i> (1904),
a defence of the Roman Catholic position that divorce is
a violation of natural laws, any breach of which inevitably
entails disaster. <i>Études et portraits</i>, first published in 1888,
contains impressions of Bourget&rsquo;s stay in England and Ireland,
especially reminiscences of the months which he spent at Oxford;
and <i>Outre-Mer</i> (1895), a book in two volumes, is his critical
journal of a visit to the United States in 1893. He was admitted
to the Academy in 1894, and in 1895 was promoted to be an
officer of the Legion of Honour, having received the decoration
of the order ten years before.</p>

<p>As a writer of verse Bourget was merely trying his wings, and
his poems, which were collected in two volumes(1885-1887), are
chiefly interesting for the light which they throw upon his
mature method and the later products of his art. It was in
criticism that his genius first found its true bent. The habit of
close scientific analysis which he derived from his father, the
sense of style produced by a fine ear and moulded by a classical
education, the innate appreciation of art in all its forms, the
taste for seeing men and cities, the keen interest in the oldest not
less than the newest civilizations, and the large tolerance not to
be learned on the <i>boulevard</i>&mdash;all these combined to provide him
with a most uncommon equipment for the critic&rsquo;s task. It is not
surprising that the <i>Sensations d&rsquo;ltalie</i> (1891), and the various
psychological studies, are in their different ways scarcely surpassed
throughout the whole range of literature. Bourget&rsquo;s reputation
as a novelist has long been assured. Deeply impressed
by the singular art of Henry Beyle (Stendhal), he struck out
on a new course at a moment when the realist school reigned
without challenge in French fiction. His idealism, moreover,
had a character of its own. It was constructed on a scientific
basis, and aimed at an exactness, different from, yet comparable
to, that of the writers who were depicting with an astonishing
faithfulness the environment and the actions of a person or a
society. With Bourget observation was mainly directed to the
secret springs of human character. At first his purpose seemed
to be purely artistic, but when <i>Le Disciple</i> appeared, in 1889, the
preface to that remarkable story revealed in him an unsuspected
fund of moral enthusiasm. Since then he has varied between his
earlier and his later manner, but his work in general has been
more seriously conceived. From first to last he has painted with
a most delicate brush the intricate emotions of women, whether
wronged, erring or actually vicious; and he has described not
less happily the ideas, the passions and the failures of those
young men of France to whom he makes special appeal.</p>

<p>Bourget has been charged with pessimism, and with undue
delineation of one social class. The first charge can hardly be
sustained. The lights in his books are usually low; there is a
certain lack of gaiety, and the characters move in a world of
disenchantment. But there is no despair in his own outlook
upon human destiny as a whole. As regards the other indictment,
the early stories sometimes dwell to excess on the mere framework
of opulence; but the pathology of moral irresolution, of complicated
affairs of the heart, of the ironies of friendship, in which
the writer revels, can be more appropriately studied in a cultured
and leisured society than amid the simpler surroundings of
humbler men and women. The style of all Bourget&rsquo;s writings is
singularly graceful. His knowledge of the literature of other
lands gives it a greater flexibility and a finer allusiveness than
most of his contemporaries can achieve. The precision by which
it is not less distinguished, though responsible for a certain
over-refinement, and for some dull pages of the novels, is an
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page332" id="page332"></a>332</span>
almost unmixed merit in the critical essays. As a critic, indeed,
either of art or letters, Bourget leaves little to be desired. If he is
not in the very first rank of novelists, if his books display more
ease of finished craftsmanship than joy in spontaneous creation,
it must be remembered that the supreme writers of fiction have
rarely succeeded as he has in a different field.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See also C. Lecigne, <i>L&rsquo;Évolution morale et religieuse de M. Paul
Bourget</i> (1903); Sargeret, <i>Les Grands Convertis</i> (1906). His <i>Oeuvres
complètes</i> began to appear in a uniform edition in 1899.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURIGNON, ANTOINETTE<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1616-1680), Flemish mystic,
was born at Lille on the 13th of January 1616. From an early
age she was under the influence of religion, which took in course
of time a mystical turn. Undertaking the work of a reformer,
she visited France, Holland, England and Scotland. Her religious
enthusiasm, peculiarity of views and disregard of all sects
raised both zealous persecutors and warm adherents. On her
death at Franeker, Friesland, on the 30th of October 1680, she
left a large number of followers, who, however, dwindled rapidly
away; but in the early 18th century her influence revived in
Scotland sufficiently to call forth several denunciations of her
doctrines in the various Presbyterian general assemblies of 1701,
1709 and 1710. So far as appears from her writings and contemporary
records, she was a visionary of the ordinary type,
distinguished only by the audacity and persistency of her
pretensions.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Her writings, containing an account of her life and of her visions
and opinions, were collected by her disciple, Pierre Poiret (19 vols.,
Amsterdam, 1679-1686), who also published her life (2 vols., 1679).
For a critical account see Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (Leipzig, 1897),
and <i>Étude sur Antoinette Bourignon</i>, by M. E. S. (Paris, 1876). Three
of her works at least have been translated into English:&mdash;
<i>An Abridgment of the Light of the World</i> (London, 1786); <i>A
Treatise of Solid Virtue</i> (1699); <i>The Restoration of the Gospel Spirit</i>
(1707)</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURKE,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> a town of Cowper county, New South Wales,
Australia, 503 m. by rail N.W. from Sydney. Pop. (1901) 2614.
It is situated on the south bank, and at the head of the ordinary
winter navigation, of the Darling river. Very rich copper ore
exists in the district in great abundance. Bourke is the centre
of a large sheep-farming area, and the annual agricultural show
is one of the best in the colony. On the west side of the Darling,
3 m. distant, is the small town of North Bourke, and at Pera,
10 m. distant, is an important irrigation settlement.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURMONT, LOUIS AUGUSTE VICTOR,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de Ghaisne
de</span> (1773-1846), marshal of France, entered the <i>Gardes Françaises</i>
of the royal army shortly before the Revolution, emigrated in
1789, and served with Condé and the army of the <i>émigrés</i> in the
campaigns of 1792 and 1793, subsequently serving as chief of
staff to Scépeaux, the royalist leader, in the civil war in lower
Anjou (1794-1796). Bourmont, excepted from the amnesty of
April 1796, fled into Switzerland, but soon afterwards, having
been made by Louis XVIII. a <i>maréchal de camp</i> and a knight of
St Louis, he headed a fresh insurrection, which after some preliminary
successes collapsed (1799-1800). He then made his
submission to the First Consul, married, and lived in Paris; but
his thinly veiled royalism caused his arrest a few months later,
and he remained a prisoner for more than three years, finally
escaping to Portugal in 1804. Three years later the French army
under General Junot invaded Portugal, and Bourmont offered
his services to Junot, who made him chief of staff of a division.
He returned to France with Junot after the convention of
Cintra, and was promptly re-arrested. He was soon released,
however, on Junot&rsquo;s demand, and was commissioned as an officer
in the imperial army. He served in Italy for a time, then went
on the staff of the viceroy Eugène (Beauharnais), whom he
accompanied in the Moscow campaign. He was taken prisoner
in the retreat, but escaped after a time and rejoined the French
army. His conspicuous courage at the battle of Lützen in 1813
led Napoleon to promote him general of brigade, and in 1814 his
splendid defence of Nogent (February 13) earned him the rank
of general of division. At the first Restoration Bourmont was
naturally employed by the Bourbons, to whose service he had
devoted his life, but he rejoined Napoleon on his return from
Elba. On the eve of the campaign of 1815, and at the urgent
request of Count Gérard, he was given a divisional command in
the army of the north. On the first day of the Waterloo campaign
Bourmont went over to the enemy. It is not probable that he
gave information of French movements to the allies, but the best
that can be said in exculpation of his treachery is that his old
friends and comrades, the royalists of Anjou, were again in
insurrection, and that he felt that he must lead them. He made
no attempt to defend his conduct, and acted as the accuser of
Marshal Ney. A year later he was given command of a division
of the royal guard; and in 1823 he held an important position
in the army which, under the command of the duc d&rsquo;Angoulême,
invaded Spain. He commanded the whole army in Spain for a
time in 1824, became minister of war in 1829, and in 1830 was
placed in command of the Algiers expedition. The landing of
the French and the capture of Algiers were directed by him with
complete success, and he was rewarded with the <i>bâton</i> of marshal.
But the revolution of 1830 put an end to his command, and,
refusing to take the oath to Louis Philippe, he was forced to
resign. In 1832 Marshal Bourmont took part in the rising of
the duchesse de Berri, and on its failure retired to Portugal.
Here, as always, on the side of absolutism, he commanded the
army of Dom Miguel during the civil war of 1833-1834, and after
the victory of the constitutional party he retired to Rome.
At the amnesty of 1840 he returned to France. He died at the
château of Bourmont on the 27th of October 1846.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Charles de Bourmont, a son of the marshal, wrote several pamphlets
in vindication of his father&rsquo;s career.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURNE, VINCENT<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1695-1747), English classical scholar,
familiarly known as &ldquo;Vinny&rdquo; Bourne, was born at Westminster
in 1695. In 1710 he became a scholar at Westminster school,
and in 1714 entered Trinity College, Cambridge. He graduated
in 1717, and obtained a fellowship three years later. Of his afterlife
exceedingly little is known. It is certain that he passed the
greater portion of it as usher in Westminster school. He died on;
the 2nd of December 1747. During his lifetime he published
three editions of his Latin poems, and in 1772 there appeared a
very handsome quarto volume containing all Bourne&rsquo;s pieces, but
also some that did not belong to him. The Latin poems are
remarkable not only for perfect mastery of all linguistic niceties,
but for graceful expression and genuine poetic feeling. A number
of them are translations of English poems, and it is not too much
to say that the Latin versions almost invariably surpass the
originals. Cowper, an old pupil of Bourne&rsquo;s, Beattie and Lamb
have combined in praise of his wonderful power of Latin
versification.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See an edition (1840) of his <i>Poemata</i>, with a memoir by John
Mitford.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURNE,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bourn</span>, a market town in the S. Kesteven or
Stamford parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England;
lying in a fenny district 95 m. N. by W. from London. Pop. of
urban district (1901) 4361. The Stamford-Sleaford branch of the
Great Northern railway here crosses the Saxby-Lynn joint line
of the Great Northern and Midland companies. The church of
St Peter and St Paul is Norman and Early English with later
insertions; it is part of a monastic church belonging to a foundation
of Augustinian canons of 1138, of which the other buildings
have almost wholly disappeared. Trade is principally agricultural.
Bourne is famous through its connexion with the
ardent opponent of William the Conqueror, Hereward the Wake.
Of his castle very slight traces remain. Bourne was also the
birthplace of the Elizabethan statesman Cecil, Lord Burghley.
The Red Hall, which now forms part of the railway station
buildings, belonged to the family of Digby, of whom Sir
Everard Digby was executed in 1606 for his connexion with
the Gunpowder Plot.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURNE<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (southern form of burn, Teutonic <i>born, brun, burna</i>),
an intermittent stream frequent in chalk and limestone country
where the rock becomes saturated with winter rain, that slowly
drains away until the rock becomes dry, when the stream ceases.
A heavy rainfall will cause streams to run in winter from the
saturated soil. These are the winter bournes that have given
name to several settlements upon Salisbury Plain, such as
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page333" id="page333"></a>333</span>
Winterbourne Gunning. The &ldquo;bourne&rdquo; may also be a permanent
&ldquo;burn,&rdquo; but the word is usually applied to an intermittent
stream. (2) (From the Fr. <i>borne</i>), a boundary; the first use of
the word in English is in Lord Ferrers&rsquo; translation of Forrest,
1523; the figurative meaning of limit, end or final destination
comes from Shakespeare&rsquo;s Hamlet, &ldquo;the undiscovered country,
from whose bourne no traveller returns.&rdquo;</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURNEMOUTH,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> a municipal and county borough and
watering-place of Hampshire, England, in the parliamentary
borough of Christchurch, 107½ m. S.W. by W. from London
by the London &amp; South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 59,762.
It is beautifully situated on Poole Bay. Considerable sandstone
cliffs rise from the sandy beach, and are scored with deep picturesque
dells or chines. The town itself lies in and about the valley
of the Bourne stream. Its sheltered situation and desirable
winter climate began to attract notice about 1840; in 1855 a
national sanatorium for consumptive patients was erected by
subscription; a pier was opened in 1861, and in 1870 railway
communication was afforded. The climate is remarkably
equable, being relatively warm in winter and cool in summer;
the average temperature in July is 61.7° F., and in January 40.3°.
The town contains numerous handsome buildings, including
municipal buildings, churches, various places of entertainment,
sanatoria and hospitals, a public library and a science and art
school. Its suburbs have greatly extended along the sea front,
and the beautiful chines of Boscombe, Alum and Branksome
have attracted a large number of wealthy residents. There are
piers at the town itself and at Boscombe, and the bathing is
excellent. The parks, gardens and drives are extensive and
pleasant. A service of electric tramways is maintained, notable
as being the first system installed in England with a combination
of the trolley and conduit principles of supplying current. There
are golf links in Meyrick and Queen&rsquo;s parks, both laid out by the
corporation, which has in other ways studied the entertainment
of visitors. The two railway stations are the Central and West,
and through communications with the north are maintained by
the Somerset &amp; Dorset and Midland, and the Great Western and
Great Central railways. The town, which is of wholly modern
and remarkably rapid growth (for in the middle of the 19th
century the population was less than 1000), was incorporated in
1890, and became a county borough in 1900. The corporation
consists of a mayor, 11 aldermen and 33 councillors. Area,
5769 acres.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURNONITE,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> a mineral species, a sulphantimonite of lead
and copper with the formula PbCuSbS<span class="su">3</span>. It is of some interest
on account of the twinning and the beautiful development of its
crystals. It was first mentioned by Philip Rashleigh in 1797 as
&ldquo;an ore of antimony,&rdquo; and was more completely described by the
comte de Bournon in 1804, after whom it was named: the name
given by Bournon himself (in 1813) was endellione, since used in
the form endellionite, after the locality in Cornwall where the
mineral was first found. The crystals are orthorhombic, and are
generally tabular in habit owing to the predominance of the
basal pinacoid (<i>c</i>); numerous smooth bright faces are often
developed on the edges and corners of the crystals. An un-twinned
crystal is represented in fig. 1. Usually, however, the
crystals are twinned, the twin-plane being a face of the prism (<i>m</i>);
the angle between the faces of this prism being nearly a right
angle (86° 20&prime;), the twinning gives rise to cruciform groups (fig. 2),
and when it is often repeated the group has the appearance of a
cog-wheel, hence the name <i>Rädelerz</i> (wheel-ore) of the Kapnik
miners. The repeated twinning gives rise to twin-lamellae,
which may be detected on the fractured surfaces, even of the
massive material. The mineral is opaque, and has a brilliant
metallic lustre with a lead-grey colour. The hardness is 2½, and
the specific gravity 5.8.</p>

<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:466px; height:198px" src="images/img333.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Crystal of Bournonite.</td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Twinned Crystal<br />of Bournonite.</td></tr></table>

<p>At the original locality, Wheal Boys in the parish of Endellion
in Cornwall, it was found associated with jamesonite, blende and
chalybite. Later, still better crystals were found in another
Cornish mine, namely, Herodsfoot mine near Liskeard, which
was worked for argentiferous galena. Fine crystals of large size
have been found with quartz and chalybite in the mines at
Neudorf in the Harz, and with blende and tetrahedrite at
Kapnik-Bánya near Nagy-Bánya in Hungary. A few other
localities are known for this mineral.</p>
<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURRÉE,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a French name for a dance common in Auvergne
and in Biscay in Spain; also a term for a musical composition
or a dance-movement in a suite, somewhat akin to the gavotte, in
quick time with two beats to the bar.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURRIENNE, LOUIS ANTOINE FAUVELET DE<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1769-1834),
French diplomatist, was born at Sens on the 9th of July
1769. He was educated at the military school of Brienne in
Champagne along with Napoleon Bonaparte; and although the
solitary habits of the latter made intimacy difficult, the two
youths seem to have been on friendly terms. It must, however,
be added that the stories of their very close friendship, as told in
Bourrienne&rsquo;s memoirs, are open to suspicion. Leaving Brienne in
1787, and conceiving a distaste for the army, Bourrienne proceeded
to Vienna. He was pursuing legal and diplomatic
studies there and afterwards at Leipzig, when the French
Revolution broke out and went through its first phases. Not
until the spring of 1792 did Bourrienne return to France; at
Paris he renewed his acquaintance with Bonaparte. They led a
Bohemian life together, and among other incidents of that exciting
time, they witnessed the mobbing of the royal family in the
Tuileries (June 20) and the overthrow of the Swiss Guards
at the same spot (August 10). Bourrienne next obtained a
diplomatic appointment at Stuttgart, and soon his name was
placed on the list of political <i>émigrés</i>, from which it was not
removed until November 1797. Nevertheless, after the affair of
13th Vendémiaire (October 5, 1795) he returned to Paris and
renewed his acquaintance with Bonaparte, who was then second
in command of the Army of the Interior and soon received the
command of the Army of Italy. Bourrienne did not proceed
with him into Italy, but was called thither by the victorious
general at the time of the long negotiations with Austria
(May-October 1797), when his knowledge of law and diplomacy
was of some service in the drafting of the terms of the treaty of
Campo Formio (October 17). In the following year he accompanied
Bonaparte to Egypt as his private secretary, and left a
vivid, if not very trustworthy, account of the expedition in his
memoirs. He also accompanied him on the adventurous return
voyage to Fréjus (September-October 1799), and was of some
help in the affairs which led up to the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of Brumaire
(November) 1799. He remained by the side of the First Consul
in his former capacity, but in the autumn of 1802 incurred his
displeasure owing to his very questionable financial dealings.
In the spring of 1805 he was sent as French envoy to the free city
of Hamburg. There it was his duty to carry out the measures of
commercial war against England, known as the Continental
System; but it is known that he not only viewed those tyrannical
measures with disgust, but secretly relaxed them in favour
of those merchants who plied him with <i>douceurs</i>. In the early
spring of 1807, when directed by Napoleon to order a large
number of military cloaks for the army, then in East Prussia,
he found that the only means of procuring them expeditiously
was to order them from England. After gaining a large fortune
while at Hamburg, he was recalled to France in disgrace at
the close of 1810. In 1814 he embraced the royal cause, and
during the Hundred Days (1815) accompanied Louis XVIII. to
Ghent. The rest of his life was uneventful; he died at Caen on
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id="page334"></a>334</span>
the 7th of February 1834, after suffering from a mental malady
for two years.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The fame of Bourrienne rests, not upon his achievements or his
original works, which are insignificant, but upon his <i>Mémoires</i>,
edited by C.M. de Villemarest (10 vols., Paris, 1829-1831), which
have been frequently republished and translated. The best English
edition is that edited by Colonel R.W. Phipps (4 vols., London,
1893); a new French edition has been edited by D. Lacroix (5 vols.,
Paris, 1899-1900). See <i>Bourrienne et ses erreurs, volontaires et involontaires</i>
(Paris, 1830), by Generals Belliard, Gourgaud, &amp;c., for
a discussion of the genuineness of his Memoirs; also <i>Napoléon et ses
détracteurs</i>, by Prince Napoleon (Paris, 1887; Eng. trans., London,
1888).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(J. Hl. R.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURRIT, MARC THÉODORE<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1739-1819), Swiss traveller
and writer, came of a family which was of French origin but had
taken refuge at Geneva for reasons connected with religion.
His father was a watchmaker there, and he himself was educated
in his native city. He was a good artist and etcher, and also a
pastor, so that by reason of his fine voice and love of music he was
made (1768) precentor of the church of St Peter (the former
cathedral) at Geneva. This post enabled him to devote himself
to the exploration of the Alps, for which he had conceived a
great passion ever since an ascent (1761) of the Voirons, near
Geneva. In 1775 he made the first ascent of the Buet (10,201 ft.)
by the now usual route from the Pierre à Bérard, on which the
great flat rock known as the <i>Table au Chantre</i> still preserves his
memory. In 1784-1785 he was the first traveller to attempt the
ascent of Mont Blanc (not conquered till 1786), but neither then
nor later (1788) did he succeed in reaching its summit. On the
other hand he reopened (1787) the route over the Col du Géant
(11,060 ft.), which had fallen into oblivion, and travelled also
among the mountains of the Valais, of the Bernese Oberland, &amp;c.
He received a pension from Louis XVI., and was named the
<i>historiographe des Alpes</i> by the emperor Joseph II., who visited
him at Geneva. His last visit to Chamonix was in 1812. His
writings are composed in a naïve, sentimental and rather
pompous style, but breathe throughout a most passionate love
for the Alps, as wonders of nature, and not as objects of scientific
study. His chief works are the <i>Description des glacières de
Savoye</i>, 1773 (English translation, Norwich, 1775-1776), the
<i>Description des Alpes pennines et rhétiennes</i> (2 vols., 1781)
(reprinted in 1783 under the title of <i>Nouvelle Description des
vallées de glace</i>, and in 1785, with additions, in 3 vols., under the
name of <i>Nouvelle Description des glacières</i>), and the <i>Descriptions
des cols ou passages des Alpes</i>, (2 vols., 1803), while his <i>Itinéraire
de Genève, Lausanne et Chamouni</i>, first published in 1791, went
through several editions in his lifetime.</p>
<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURSAULT, EDME<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (1638-1701), French dramatist and
miscellaneous writer, was born at Mussy l&rsquo;Évêque, now Mussy-sur-Seine
(Aube), in October 1638. On his first arrival in Paris
in 1651 his language was limited to a Burgundian patois, but
within a year he produced his first comedy, <i>Le Mort vivant</i>.
This and some other pieces of small merit secured for him
distinguished patronage in the society ridiculed by Molière
in the <i>École des femmes</i>. Boursault was persuaded that the
&ldquo;Lysidas&rdquo; of that play was a caricature of himself, and attacked
Molière in <i>Le Portrait du peintre ou la contre-critique de l&rsquo;École
des femmes</i> (1663). Molière retaliated in <i>L&rsquo;Impromptu de
Versailles</i>, and Boileau attacked Boursault in Satires 7 and 9.
Boursault replied to Boileau in his <i>Satire des satires</i> (1669),
but was afterwards reconciled with him, when Boileau on his
side erased his name from his satires. Boursault obtained
a considerable pension as editor of a rhyming gazette, which
was, however, suppressed for ridiculing a Capuchin friar, and
the editor was only saved from the Bastille by the interposition
of Condé. In 1671 he produced a work of edification in <i>Ad usum
Delphini: la véritable étude des souverains</i>, which so pleased
the court that its author was about to be made assistant tutor
to the dauphin when it was found that he was ignorant of
Greek and Latin, and the post was given to Pierre Huet. Perhaps
in compensation Boursault was made collector of taxes at Mont-luçon
about 1672, an appointment that he retained until 1688.
Among his best-known plays are <i>Le Mercure galant</i>, the title
of which was changed to <i>La Comédie sans titre</i> (1683); <i>La Princesse
de Clèves</i> (1676), an unsuccessful play which, when refurbished
with fresh names by its author, succeeded as <i>Germanicus;
Ésope à la ville</i> (1690); and <i>Ésope à la cour</i> (1701). His lack of
dramatic instinct could hardly be better indicated than by the
scheme of his <i>Ésope</i>, which allows the fabulist to come on the
stage in each scene and recite a fable. Boursault died in Paris
on the 15th of September 1701.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The <i>Oeuvres choisies</i> of Boursault were published in 1811, and
a sketch of him is to be found in M. Saint-René Taillandier&rsquo;s <i>Études
littéraires</i> (1881).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURSE<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (from the Med. Lat. <i>bursa</i>, a purse), the French
equivalent of the Stock Exchange, and so used of the Paris
Exchange, or of any foreign money-market. The English form
&ldquo;burse,&rdquo; as in Sir Thomas Gresham&rsquo;s building, which was known
as &ldquo;Britain&rsquo;s Burse,&rdquo; went out of use in the 18th century.
The origin of the name is doubtful; it is not derived from any
connexion between purse and money, but rather from the use of
a purse as a sign. At Bruges a house belonging to the family
de Bursa is said to have been first used as an Exchange, and to
have had three purses as a sign on the front.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOURSSE, ESAIAS<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1630-1673), Dutch painter, was born
in Amsterdam. He was a follower of Pieter de Hooch, in whose
manner he worked for many years in his native town; then he
took service with the Dutch East India Company, and died
on a sea voyage. His paintings are exceedingly rare, perhaps
because, in spite of their greater freedom and breadth, many of
them pass under the names of Vermeer of Delft and Pieter de
Hooch. Two of the paintings ascribed to the latter (one bears
the false signature) at the Ryks museum in Amsterdam, are now
recognized as being the work of Boursse. His subjects are
interiors with figures, painted with great precision and with
exquisite quality of colour. The Wallace collection has his
masterpiece, an interior with a woman and a child in a cradle,
almost as brilliant as on the day it was painted, and reflecting
something of the feeling of Rembrandt, by whom he was influenced.
Other important examples are at the Ryks museum
and at Aix-la-Chapelle. Boursse&rsquo;s &ldquo;Boy blowing Soap Bubbles,&rdquo;
in the Berlin museum, was until lately attributed to Vermeer
of Delft. More than one picture bearing the false signature
of Boursse have been publicly shown of late years.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUSSINGAULT, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH DIEUDONNÉ<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span>
(1802-1887), French chemist, was born in Paris on the 2nd of
February 1802. After studying at the school of mines at Saint-Étienne
he went, when little more than twenty years old, to
South America as a mining engineer on behalf of an English
company. During the insurrection of the Spanish colonies he
was attached to the staff of General Bolivar, and travelled
widely in the northern parts of the continent. Returning to
France he became professor of chemistry at Lyons, and in
1839 was appointed to the chair of agricultural and analytical
chemistry at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers in Paris.
In 1848 he was elected to the National Assembly, where he sat
as a Moderate republican. Three years later he was dismissed
from his professorship on account of his political opinions, but
so much resentment at this action was shown by scientific men
in general, and especially by his colleagues, who threatened
to resign in a body, that he was reinstated. He died in Paris
on the 11th of May 1887.  His first papers were concerned with
mining topics, and his sojourn in South America yielded a number
of miscellaneous memoirs, on the cause of goitre in the Cordilleras,
the gasses of volcanoes, earthquakes, tropical rain, &amp;c., which won
the commendation of A. von Humboldt. From 1836 he devoted
himself mainly to agricultural chemistry and animal and
vegetable physiology, with occasional excursions into mineral
chemistry. His work included papers on the quantity of nitrogen
in different foods, the amount of gluten in different wheats,
investigations on the question whether plants can assimilate free
nitrogen from the atmosphere (which he answered in the negative),
the respiration of plants, the function of their leaves, the action
and value of manures, and other similar subjects. Through
his wife he had a share in an estate at Bechebronn in Alsace,
where he carried out many agricultural experiments. He
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page335" id="page335"></a>335</span>
collaborated with J.B.A. Dumas in writing an <i>Essai de statique
chimique des ètres organisés</i> (1841), and was the author of <i>Traité
d&rsquo;économic rurale</i> (1844), which was remodelled as <i>Agronomie,
chimie agricole, et physiologie</i> (5 vols., 1860-1874; 2nd ed.,
1884), and of <i>Études sur la transformation du fer en acier</i>
(1875).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUTERWEK, FRIEDRICH<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1766-1828), German philosopher
and critic, was born at Oker, near Goslar in Lower Saxony, and
studied law at Göttingen. From 1790, however, he became
a disciple of Kant, published <i>Aphorismen nach Kants Lehre
vorgelegt</i> (1793), and became professor of philosophy at Göttingen
(1802), where he died on the 9th of August 1828. As a
philosopher, he is interesting for his criticism of the theory of
the &ldquo;thing-in-itself&rdquo; (<i>Ding-an-sich</i>). For the pure reason, as
described in the <i>Kritik</i>, the &ldquo;thing-in-itself&rdquo; can be only an
inconceivable &ldquo;something-in-general&rdquo;; any statement about
it involves the predication of Reality, Unity and Plurality,
which belong not to the absolute thing but to phenomena.
On the other hand, the subject is known by the fact of will,
and the object by that of resistance; the cognizance of willing
is the assertion of absolute reality in the domain of relative
knowledge. This doctrine has since been described as absolute
Virtualism. Following this train of thought, Bouterwek left
the Kantian position through his opposition to its formalism.
In later life he inclined to the views of F.H. Jacobi, whose letters
to him (published at Göttingen, 1868) shed much light on the
development of his thought. His chief philosophical works are
<i>Ideen zu einer allgemeinen Apodiktik</i> (Göttingen and Halle, 1799);
<i>Aesthetik</i> (Leipzig, 1806; Göttingen, 1815 and 1824); <i>Lehrbuch
der philos. Vorkenntnisse</i> (Göttingen, 1810 and 1820); <i>Lehrbuch
der philos. Wissenschaften</i> (Göttingen, 1813 and 1820). In these
works he dissociated himself from the Kantian school. His
chief critical work was the <i>Geschichte der neuern Poesie und
Beredsamkeit</i> (Göttingen, 12 vols., 1801-1819), of which the
history of Spanish literature has been published separately
in French, Spanish and English. The <i>Geschichte</i> is a work of
wide learning and generally sound criticism, but it is not of
equal merit throughout. He also wrote three novels, <i>Paulus
Septimus</i> (Halle, 1795), <i>Graf Donamar</i> (Göttingen, 1791) and
<i>Ramiro</i> (Leipzig, 1804), and published a collection of poems
(Göttingen, 1802).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUTHILLIER, CLAUDE,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> <span class="sc">Sieur de Fouilletourte</span> (1581-1652),
French statesman, began life as an advocate. In 1613 he
was councillor in the parlement of Paris, and in 1619 became
councillor of state and a secretary to the queen-mother, Marie
de&rsquo; Medici. The connexion of his father, Denis Bouthillier
(d. 1622), with Cardinal Richelieu secured for him the title of
secretary of state in 1628, and he was able to remain on good
terms with both Marie de&rsquo; Medici and Richelieu, in spite of their
rivalry. In 1632 he became superintendent of finances. But
his great role was in diplomacy. Richelieu employed him on
many diplomatic missions, and the success of his foreign policy
was due in no small degree to Bouthillier&rsquo;s ability and devotion.
In 1630 he had taken part at Regensburg in arranging the
abortive treaty between the emperor and France. From 1633
to 1640 he was continually busied with secret missions in
Germany, sometimes alone, sometimes with Father Joseph.
Following Richelieu&rsquo;s instructions, he negotiated the alliances
which brought France into the Thirty Years&rsquo; War. Meanwhile,
at home, his tact and amiable disposition, as well as his reputation
for straightforwardness, had secured for him a unique position
of influence in a court torn by jealousies and intrigues. Trusted
by the king, the confidant of Richelieu, the friend of Marie de&rsquo;
Medici, and through his son, Léon Bouthillier, who was appointed
in 1635 chancellor to Gaston d&rsquo;Orléans, able to bring his influence
to bear on that prince, he was an invaluable mediator; and the
personal influence thus exercised, combined with the fact that
he was at the head of both the finances and the foreign policy
of France, made him, next to the cardinal, the most powerful
man in the kingdom. Richelieu made him executor of his will,
and Louis XIII. named him a member of the council of regency
which he intended should govern the kingdom after his death.
But the king&rsquo;s last plans were not carried out, and Bouthillier
was obliged to retire into private life, giving up his office of
superintendent of finances in June 1643. He died in Paris on
the 13th of March 1652.</p>

<p>His son, <span class="sc">Léon Bouthillier</span> (1608-1652), comte de Chavigny,
was early associated with his father, who took him with him
from 1629 to 1632 to all the great courts of Europe, instructing
him in diplomacy. In 1632 he was named secretary of state
and seconded his father&rsquo;s work, so that it is not easy always to
distinguish their respective parts. After the death of Louis XIII.
he had to give up his office; but was sent as plenipotentiary to
the negotiations at Munster. He showed himself incapable,
however, giving himself up to pleasure and fêtes, and returned
to France to intrigue against Mazarin. Arrested twice during
the Fronde, and then for a short time in power during Mazarin&rsquo;s
exile (April 1651), he busied himself with small intrigues which
came to nothing.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUTS-RIMÉS,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> literally (from the French) &ldquo;rhymed ends,&rdquo;
the name given in all literatures to a kind of verses of which
no better definition can be found than was made by Addison, in
the Spectator, when he described them as &ldquo;lists of words that
rhyme to one another, drawn up by another hand, and given to
a poet, who was to make a poem to the rhymes in the same
order that they were placed upon the list.&rdquo; The more odd and
perplexing the rhymes are, the more ingenuity is required to
give a semblance of common-sense to the production. For
instance, the rhymes <i>breeze, elephant, squeeze, pant, scant,
please, hope, pope</i> are submitted, and the following stanza is
the result:&mdash;</p>

<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr f90">
<p>Escaping from the Indian <i>breeze</i>,</p>
<p>The vast, sententious <i>elephant</i></p>
<p>Through groves of sandal loves to <i>squeeze</i></p>
<p>And in their fragrant shade to <i>pant</i>;</p>
<p>Although the shelter there be <i>scant</i>,</p>
<p>The vivid odours soothe and <i>please</i>,</p>
<p>And while he yields to dreams of <i>hope</i>,</p>
<p>Adoring beasts surround their <i>Pope</i>.</p>
</div> </td></tr></table>

<p>The invention of bouts-rimés is attributed to a minor French
poet of the 17th century, Dulot, of whom little else is remembered.
According to the <i>Menagiana</i>, about the year 1648, Dulot was
complaining one day that he had been robbed of a number of
valuable papers, and, in particular, of three hundred sonnets.
Surprise being expressed at his having written so many, Dulot
explained that they were all &ldquo;blank sonnets,&rdquo; that is to say, that
he had put down the rhymes and nothing else. The idea struck
every one as amusing, and what Dulot had done seriously was
taken up as a jest. Bouts-rimés became the fashion, and in 1654
no less a person than Sarrasin composed a satire against them,
entitled <i>La Défaite des bouts-rimés</i>, which enjoyed a great success.
Nevertheless, they continued to be abundantly composed in
France throughout the 17th century and a great part of the 18th
century. In 1701 Etienne Mallemans (d. 1716) published a
collection of serious sonnets, all written to rhymes selected for
him by the duchess of Maine. Neither Piron, nor Marmontel,
nor La Motte disdained this ingenious exercise, and early in the
19th century the fashion was revived. The most curious incident,
however, in the history of bouts-rimés is the fact that the elder
Alexandre Dumas, in 1864, took them under his protection.
He issued an invitation to all the poets of France to display their
skill by composing to sets of rhymes selected for the purpose
by the poet, Joseph Méry (1798-1866). No fewer than 350
writers responded to the appeal, and Dumas published the
result, as a volume, in 1865.</p>

<p>W.M. Rossetti, in the memoir of his brother prefixed to D.G.
Rossetti&rsquo;s <i>Collected Works</i> (1886), mentions that, especially in
1848 and 1849, he and Dante Gabriel Rossetti constantly
practised their pens in writing sonnets to <i>bouts-rimés</i>, each giving
the other the rhymes for a sonnet, and Dante Gabriel writing off
these exercises in verse-making at the rate of a sonnet in five or
eight minutes. Most of W.M. Rossetti&rsquo;s poems in <i>The Germ</i>
were <i>bouts-rimés</i> experiments. Many of Dante Gabriel&rsquo;s, a little
touched up, remained in his brother&rsquo;s possession, but were not
included in the <i>Collected Works</i>.</p>
<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336"></a>336</span></p>
<p><span class="bold">BOUTWELL, GEORGE SEWALL<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1818-1905), American
statesman, was born in Brookline, Massachusetts, on the 28th
of January 1818. He was reared on a farm, and at an early age
began a mercantile career at Groton, Mass. There he studied
law and in 1836 was admitted to the bar, but did not begin
practice for many years. In 1842-1844 and again in 1847-1850
he served in the state house of representatives, and became
the recognized leader on the Democratic side; he was thrice
defeated for Congress, and was twice an unsuccessful candidate
for governor. In 1851, however, by means of &ldquo;Free-Soil&rdquo;
votes, he was chosen governor, and was re-elected by the
same coalition in 1852. In the following year he took an active
part in the state constitutional convention. He became a
member of the Massachusetts Board of Education in 1853,
and as its secretary in 1855-1861 prepared valuable reports and
rendered much service to the state&rsquo;s school system. The passage
of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill in 1854 had finally alienated him
from the Democratic party, and he became one of the founders
of the new Republican party in the state. He played an influential
part in the Republican national convention in 1860,
and in 1862 after the passage of the war tax measures he was
appointed by President Lincoln the first commissioner of internal
revenue, which department he organized. From 1863 to 1869
he was a representative in Congress, taking an influential part
in debate, and acting as one of the managers of President
Johnson&rsquo;s impeachment. From 1869 to 1873 he was secretary
of the treasury in President Grant&rsquo;s cabinet, and from 1873 until
1877 was a United States senator from Massachusetts. Under
an appointment by President Hayes, he prepared the second
edition of the <i>United States Revised Statutes</i> (1878). In 1880 he
represented the United States before the commission appointed
in accordance with the treaty of that year, between France and
the United States, to decide the claims brought by French
citizens against the United States for acts of the American
authorities during the Civil War, and the claims of American
citizens against France for acts of French authorities during the
war between France and Mexico, the Franco-German War and
the Commune. He opposed the acquisition by the United States
of the Philippine Islands, became president of the Anti-Imperialistic
League, and was a presidential elector on the Bryan (Democratic)
ticket in 1900. He died at Groton, Massachusetts, on
the 28th of February 1905. He published various volumes,
including <i>The Constitution of the United States at the End of the
First Century</i> (1895), and <i>Reminiscences of Sixty Years in Public
Affairs</i> (2 vols., New York, 1902).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUVARDIA,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> a genus of handsome evergreen greenhouse
shrubs, belonging to the natural order Rubiaceae, and a native of
tropical America. The flowers are in terminal generally many-flowered
clusters; the corolla has a large tube and a spreading
four-rayed limb. The cultivated forms include a number of
hybrids. The plants are best increased by cuttings taken off in
April, and placed in a brisk heat in a propagating frame with a
close atmosphere. When rooted they should be potted singly
into 3-in. pots in fibrous peat and loam, mixed with one-fourth
leaf-mould and a good sprinkling of sand, and kept in a temperature
of 70° by night and 80° during the day; shade when required;
syringe overhead in the afternoon and close the house
with sun-heat. The plants should be topped to ensure a bushy
habit, and as they grow must be shifted into 6-in. or 7-in. pots.
After midsummer move to a cool pit, where they may remain till
the middle of September, receiving plenty of air and space.
They should then be removed to a house, and some of the plants
put at once in a temperature of about 70° at night, with a few
degrees higher in the daytime, to bring them into flower. Others
are moved into heat to supply flowers in succession through the
winter and spring.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUVET, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (1753-1832), French admiral,
son of a captain in the service of the French East India Company,
was born on the 23rd of April 1753. He went to sea at the age of
twelve with his father. Bouvet served in the East Indies in the
famous campaign of 1781-83 under the command of Suffren,
but only in a subordinate rank. On the outbreak of the French
Revolution he very naturally took the anti-royalist side. Murder
and exile had removed the great majority of the officers of the
monarchy, and the services of a man of Bouvet&rsquo;s experience were
valuable. He was promoted captain and received the command
of the &ldquo;Audacieux&rdquo; (80) in the first great fleet collected by the republic.
In the same year (1793) he was advanced to rear-admiral,
and he commanded a division in the fleet which fought the battle
of the 1st of June 1794 against Lord Howe. Until the close of
1796 he continued in command of a squadron in the French
Channel fleet. In the December of that year he was entrusted
with the van division of the fleet which was sent from Brest to
attempt to land General Hoche with an expeditionary force in
the south of Ireland. The stormy weather which scattered the
French as soon as they left Brest gave Bouvet a prominence
which he had not been designed to enjoy. Bouvet, who found
himself at daybreak on the 17th of December separated with
nine sail of the line from the rest of the fleet, opened his secret
orders, and found that he was to make his way to Mizen Head.
He took a wide course to avoid meeting British cruisers, and on
the 19th had the good luck to fall in with a considerable part of
the rest of the fleet and some of the transports. On the 21st of
December he arrived off Dursey Island at the entry to Bantry
Bay. On the 24th he anchored near Bear Island with part of his
fleet. The continued storms which blew down Bantry Bay, and
the awkwardness of the French crews, made it impossible to land
the troops he had with him. On the evening of the 25th the storm
increased to such a pitch of violence that the frigate in which
Bouvet had hoisted his flag was blown out to sea. The wind
moderated by the 29th, but Bouvet, being convinced that none of
the ships of his squadron could have remained at the anchorage,
steered for Brest, where he arrived on the 1st of January 1797.
His fortune had been very much that of his colleagues in this
storm-tossed expedition, and on the whole he had shown more
energy than most of them. He was wrong, however, in thinking
that all his squadron had failed to keep their anchorage in Bantry
Bay. The government, displeased by his precipitate return to
Brest, dismissed him from command soon afterwards. He was
compelled to open a school to support himself. Napoleon
restored him to the service, and he commanded the squadron
sent to occupy Guadaloupe during the peace of Amiens, but he
had no further service, and lived in obscurity till his death on
the 21st of July 1832.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Tronde, <i>Batailles navales de la France</i>, vols. ii. and iii., and James,
<i>Naval History</i>, vols. i. and ii., give accounts of the 1st of June and the
expedition to Ireland. There is a vigorous account of the expedition
in Tronde&rsquo;s <i>English in Ireland</i>, and it is dealt with in Admiral
Colomb&rsquo;s <i>Naval Warfare</i>.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(D. H.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUVIER, JOHN<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (1787-1851), American jurist, was born in
Codogno, France, in 1787. In 1802 his family, who were Quakers
(his mother was a member of the well-known Benezet family),
emigrated to America and settled in Philadelphia, and after
varied experiences as proprietor of a book shop and as a country
editor he was admitted to the bar in 1818, having become a
citizen of the United States in 1812. He attained high standing
in his profession, was recorder of Philadelphia in 1836, and from
1838 until his death was an associate justice of the court of
criminal sessions in that city. He is best known for his able
legal writings. His <i>Law Dictionary Adapted to the Constitution
and Laws of the United States of America and of the Several States of
the American Union</i> (1839, revised and brought up to date by Francis
Rawle, under the title of <i>Bouvier&rsquo;s Law Dictionary</i>, 2 vols., 1897)
has always been a standard. He published also an edition of <i>Bacon&rsquo;s
Abridgement of the Law</i> (10 vols., 1842-1846), and a compendium of
American law entitled <i>The Institutes of American Law</i> (4 vols., 1851;
new ed. 2 vols., 1876).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOUVINES,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> a village on the French-Belgian frontier between
Lille and Tournay, the scene of one of the greatest battles of the
middle ages, fought on the 27th of July 1214, between the forces
of Philip Augustus, king of France, and those of the coalition
formed against him, of which the principal members were the
emperor and King John of England. The plan of campaign
seems to have been designed by King John, who was the soul of
the alliance; his general idea was to draw the French king to
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id="page337"></a>337</span>
the southward against himself, while the emperor Otto IV., the
princes of the Netherlands and the main army of the allies should
at the right moment march upon Paris from the north. John&rsquo;s
part in the general strategy was perfectly executed; the allies in
the north moved slowly. While John, after two inroads, turned
back to his Guienne possessions on the 3rd of July, it was not
until three weeks later that the emperor concentrated his forces at
Valenciennes, and in the interval Philip Augustus had countermarched
northward and concentrated an army at Péronne.
Philip now took the offensive himself, and in manoeuvring to
get a good cavalry ground upon which to fight he offered battle
(July 27), on the plain east of Bouvines and the river Marque&mdash;
the same plain on which in 1794 the brilliant cavalry action of
Willems was fought. The imperial army accepted the challenge
and drew up facing south-westward towards Bouvines, the heavy
cavalry on the wings, the infantry in one great mass in the centre,
supported by the cavalry corps under the emperor himself. The
total force is estimated at 6500 heavy cavalry and 40,000 foot.
The French army (about 7000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry) took
ground exactly opposite to the enemy and in a similar formation,
cavalry on the wings, infantry, including the <i>milice des communes</i>,
in the centre, Philip with the cavalry reserve and the Oriflamme
in rear of the foot. The battle opened with a confused cavalry
fight on the French right, in which individual feats of knightly
gallantry were more noticeable than any attempt at combined
action. The fighting was more serious between the two centres;
the infantry of the Low Countries, who were at this time almost
the best in existence, drove in the French; Philip led the cavalry
reserve of nobles and knights to retrieve the day, and after a long
and doubtful fight, in which he himself was unhorsed and
narrowly escaped death, began to drive back the Flemings.
In the meanwhile the French feudatories on the left wing had
thoroughly defeated the imperialists opposed to them, and
William Longsword, earl of Salisbury, the leader of this corps,
was unhorsed and taken prisoner by the warlike bishop of
Beauvais. Victory declared itself also on the other wing, where
the French at last routed the Flemish cavalry and captured Count
Ferdinand of Flanders, one of the leaders of the coalition. In the
centre the battle was now between the two mounted reserves led
respectively by the king and the emperor in person. Here too
the imperial forces suffered defeat, Otto himself being saved
only by the devotion of a handful of Saxon knights. The day
was already decided in favour of the French when their wings
began to close inwards to cut off the retreat of the imperial centre.
The battle closed with the celebrated stand of Reginald of
Boulogne, a revolted vassal of King Philip, who formed a ring of
seven hundred Brabançon pikemen, and not only defied every
attack of the French cavalry, but himself made repeated charges
or sorties with his small force of knights. Eventually, and long
after the imperial army had begun its retreat, the gallant schiltron
was ridden down and annihilated by a charge of three thousand
men-at-arms. Reginald was taken prisoner in the <i>mêlée</i>; and the
prisoners also included two other counts, Ferdinand and William
Longsword, twenty-five barons and over a hundred knights.
The killed amounted to about 170 knights of the defeated party,
and many thousands of foot on either side, of whom no accurate
account can be given.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Oman, <i>History of the Art of War</i>, vii. pp. 457-480; also
Köhler, <i>Kriegsgeschichte, &amp;c</i>., i. 140, and Delpech, <i>Tactique au
XIII siècle</i>, 127.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOVEY BEDS,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> in geology, a deposit of sands, clays and
lignite, 200-300 ft. thick, which lies in a basin extending from
Bovey Tracey to Newton Abbot in Devonshire, England.
The deposit is evidently the result of the degradation of the
neighbouring Dartmoor granite; and it was no doubt laid down
in a lake. O. Heer, who examined the numerous plant remains
from these beds, concluded that they belonged to the same
geological horizon as the Molasse or Oligocene of Switzerland.
Starkie Gardiner, however, who subsequently examined the
flora, showed that it bore a close resemblance to that of the
Bournemouth Beds or Lower Bagshot; in this view he is supported
by C. Reid. Large excavations have been made for the
extraction of the clays, which are very valuable for pottery and
similar purposes. The lignite or &ldquo;Bovey Coal&rdquo; has at times
been burned in the local kilns, and in the engines and workmen&rsquo;s
cottages, but it is not economical.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See S. Gardiner, <i>Q. J. G. S.</i> London, xxxv., 1879; W. Pengelly and
O. Heer, <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1862; C. Reid, <i>Q. J. G. S.</i> lii., 1896, p. 490,
and <i>loc. cit.</i> liv., 1898, p. 234. An interesting general account is given
by A.W. Clayden, <i>The History of Devonshire Scenery</i> (London, 1906),
pp. 159-168.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOVIANUM,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> the name of two ancient Italian towns, (1)
<span class="sc">Undecimanorum</span> [<i>Boiano</i>], the chief city of the Pentri Samnites,
9 m. N.W. of Saepinum and 18 m. S.E. of Aesernia, on the
important road from Beneventum to Corfinium, which connected
the Via Appia and the Via Valeria. The original city occupied
the height (Civita) above the modern town, where remains of
Cyclopean walls still exist, while the Roman town (probably
founded after the Social War, in which Bovianum was the seat
of the Samnite assembly) lay in the plain. It acquired the
name <i>Undecimanorum</i> when Vespasian settled the veterans
of the Legio XI. Claudia there. Its remains have been covered
by over 30 ft. of earth washed down from the mountains. Comparatively
few inscriptions have been discovered. (2) <span class="sc">Vetus</span>
(near Pietrabbondante, 5 m. S. of Agnone and 19 m. N.W. of
Campobasso), according to Th. Mommsen (<i>Corpus Inscrip.
Lat.</i> ix. Berlin, 1883, p. 257) the chief town of the Caraceni.
It lay in a remote situation among the mountains, and where
Bovianum is mentioned the reference is generally to Bovianum
Undecimanorum. Remains of fortifications and lower down of
a temple and a theatre (cf. <i>Römische Mitteilungen</i>, 1903, 154)&mdash;
the latter remarkable for the fine preservation of the stone seats
of the three lowest rows of the auditorium&mdash;are to be seen. No
less than eight Oscan inscriptions have been found.</p>
<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOVIDAE,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> the name of the family of hollow-horned ruminant
mammals typified by the common ox (<i>Bos taurus</i>), and specially
characterized by the presence on the skulls of the males or of
both sexes of a pair of bony projections, or cores, covered in life
with hollow sheaths of horn, which are never branched, and at all
events after a very early stage of existence are permanently
retained. From this, which is alone sufficient for diagnostic
purposes, the group is often called the Cavicornia. For other
characteristics see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pecora</a></span>. The <i>Bovidae</i> comprise a great
number of genera and species, and include the oxen, sheep,
goats, antelopes and certain other kinds which come under
neither of these designations. In stature they range from the
size of a hare to that of a rhinoceros; and their horns vary
in size and shape from the small and simple spikes of the oribi
and duiker antlers to the enormous and variously shaped structures
borne respectively by buffaloes, wild sheep and kudu
and other large antelopes. In geographical distribution the
<i>Bovidae</i> present a remarkable contrast to the deer tribe, or
<i>Cervidae</i>. Both of these families are distributed over the whole
of the northern hemisphere, but whereas the Cervidae are absent
from Africa south of the Sahara and well represented in South
America, the Bovidae are unknown in the latter area, but are
extraordinarily abundant in Africa. Neither group is represented
in Australasia; Celebes being the eastern limit of the <i>Bovidae</i>.
The present family doubtless originated in the northern half of
the Old World, whence it effected an entrance by way of the
Bering Strait route into North America, where it has always been
but poorly represented in the matter of genera and species.</p>

<p>The <i>Bovidae</i> are divided into a number of sections, or subfamilies,
each of which is briefly noticed in the present article,
while fuller mention of some of the more important representatives
of these is made in other articles.</p>

<p>The first section is that of the <i>Bovinae</i>, which includes buffaloes,
bison and oxen. The majority of these are large and heavily-built
ruminants, with horns present in both sexes, the muzzle
broad, moist and naked, the nostrils lateral, no face-glands,
and a large dewlap often developed in the males; while the tail
is long and generally tufted, although in one instance longhaired
throughout. The horns are of nearly equal size in both
sexes, are placed on or near the vertex of the skull, and may
be either rounded or angulated, while their direction is more or
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page338" id="page338"></a>338</span>
less outwards, with an upward direction near the tips, and conspicuous
knobs or ridges are never developed on their surface.
The tall upper molars have inner columns. The group is represented
throughout the Old World as far east as Celebes, and has
one living North American representative. All the species may
be included in the genus <i>Bos</i>, with several subgeneric divisions
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anoa</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aurochs</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bantin</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bison</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Buffalo</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gaur</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gayal</a></span>,
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ox</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Yak</a></span>).</p>

<p>The second group, or <i>Caprinae</i>, includes the sheep and goats,
which are smaller animals than most of the <i>Bovidae</i>, generally
with horns in both sexes, but those of the females small. In
the males the horns are usually compressed and triangular,
with transverse ridges or knobs, and either curving backwards
or spiral. The muzzle is narrow and hairy; and when face-glands
are present these are small and insignificant; while
the tail is short and flattened. Unlike the <i>Bovinae</i>, there are
frequently glands in the feet; and the upper molar teeth differ
from those of that group in their narrower crowns, which lack
a distinct inner column. When a face-pit is present in the skull
it is small. The genera are <i>Ovis</i> (sheep), <i>Capra</i> (goats) and
<i>Hemitragus</i> (tahr). Sheep and goats are very nearly related,
but the former never have a beard on the chin of the males,
which are devoid of a strong odour; and their horns are typically
of a different type. There are, however, several more or less
transitional forms. Tahr are short-horned goats. The group
is unknown in America, and in Africa is only represented in
the mountains of the north, extending, however, some distance
south into the Sudan and Abyssinia. All the species are mountain-dwellers.
(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Udad</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Argali</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Goat</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ibex</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mouflon</a></span>,
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sheep</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tahr</a></span>.)</p>

<p>The musk-ox (<i>Ovibos moschatus</i>) alone represents the family
<i>Ovibovinae</i>, which is probably most nearly related to the next
group (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Musk-ox</a></span>).</p>

<p>Next come the <i>Rupicaprinae</i>, which include several genera
of mountain-dwelling ruminants, typified by the European
chamois (<i>Rupicapra</i>); the other genera being the Asiatic serow,
goral and takin, and the North American Rocky Mountain
goat. These ruminants are best described as goat-like antelopes.
(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antelope</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chamois</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Goral</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rocky Mountain Goat</a></span>,
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Serow</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Takin</a></span>.)</p>

<p>Under the indefinable term &ldquo;antelope&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>) may be included
the seven remaining sections, namely <i>Tragelaphinae</i> (kudu and
eland), <i>Hippotraginae</i> (sable antelope and oryx), <i>Antilopinae</i>
(black-buck, gazelles, &amp;c.), <i>Cervicaprinae</i> (reedbuck and waterbuck),
<i>Neotraginae</i> (klipspringer and steinbok), <i>Cephalophinae</i>
(duikers and four-horned antelopes) and <i>Bubalinae</i> (hartebeests
and gnus).</p>
<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOVILL, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1814-1873), English judge, a
younger son of Benjamin Bovill, of Wimbledon, was born at
All-hallows, Barking, on the 26th of May 1814. On leaving
school he was articled to a firm of solicitors, but entering the
Middle Temple he practised for a short time as a special pleader
below the bar. He was called in 1841 and joined the home circuit.
His special training in a solicitor&rsquo;s office, and its resulting connexion,
combined with a thorough knowledge of the details of
engineering, acquired through his interest in a manufacturing
firm in the east end of London, soon brought him a very extensive
patent and commercial practice. He became Q.C. in 1855, and in
1857 was elected M.P. for Guildford. In the House of Commons
he was very zealous for legal reform, and the Partnership Law
Amendment Act 1865, which he helped to pass, is always referred
to as Bovill&rsquo;s Act. In 1866 he was appointed solicitor-general,
an office which he vacated on becoming chief justice of the
common pleas in succession to Sir W. Erie in November of the
same year. He died at Kingston, Surrey, on the 1st of November
1873. As a barrister he was unsurpassed for his remarkable
knowledge of commercial law; and when promoted to the
bench his painstaking labour and unswerving uprightness, as
well as his great patience and courtesy, gained for him the
respect and affection of the profession.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOVILLAE,<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> an ancient town of Latium, a station on the Via
Appia (which in 293 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> was already paved up to this point),
11 m. S.E. of Rome. It was a colony of Alba Longa, and appears
as one of the thirty cities of the Latin league; after the destruction
of Alba Longa the <i>sacra</i> were, it was held, transferred to
Bovillae, including the cult of Vesta (in inscriptions <i>virgines
Vestales Albanae</i> are mentioned, and the inhabitants of Bovillae
are always spoken of as <i>Albani Longani Bovillenses</i>) and that of
the <i>gens Iulia</i>. The existence of this hereditary worship led to an
increase in its importance when the Julian house rose to the
highest power in the state. The knights met Augustus&rsquo;s dead
body at Bovillae on its way to Rome, and in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 16 the shrine of
the family worship was dedicated anew,<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and yearly games in the
circus instituted, probably under the charge of the <i>sodales
Augustales</i>, whose official calendar has been found here. In
history Bovillae appears as the scene of the quarrel between
Milo and Clodius, in which the latter, whose villa lay above the
town on the left of the Via Appia, was killed. The site is not
naturally strong, and remains of early fortifications cannot be
traced. It may be that Bovillae took the place of Alba Longa as
a local centre after the destruction of the latter by Rome, which
would explain the deliberate choice of a strategically weak
position. Remains of buildings of the imperial period&mdash;the
circus, a small theatre, and edifices probably connected with the
post-station&mdash;may still be seen on the south-west edge of the
Via Appia.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See L. Canina, <i>Via Appia</i> (Rome, 1853), i. 202 seq.; T. Ashby
in <i>Mélanges de l&rsquo;école française de Rome</i> (1903), p. 395.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It is not likely that any remains of it now exist.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOW <a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span>(pronounced &ldquo;b&#333;&rdquo;), a common Teutonic word for
anything bent<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (O. Eng. <i>bo&#442;a</i>; cf. O. Sax. and O.H.G. <i>bogo</i>,
M.H.G. <i>boge</i>, Mod. Ger. <i>bogen</i>; from O. Teut. stem <i>bug</i>- of
<i>beugan</i>, Mod. Ger. <i>biegen</i>, to bend). Thus it is found in English
compound words, <i>e.g.</i> &ldquo;elbow,&rdquo; &ldquo;rainbow,&rdquo; &ldquo;bow-net,&rdquo; &ldquo;bow-window,&rdquo;
&ldquo;bow-knot,&rdquo; &ldquo;saddle-bow,&rdquo; and by itself as the
designation of a great variety of objects. The Old English use
of &ldquo;bow,&rdquo; or stone-bow, for &ldquo;arch,&rdquo; now obsolete, survives in
certain names of churches and places, <i>e.g.</i> Bow church (St
Mary-in-Arcubus) in Cheapside, and Stratford-le-Bow (the
&ldquo;Stratford-atte-Bowe&rdquo; of Chaucer). &ldquo;Bow,&rdquo; however, is still
the designation of objects so various as an appliance for shooting
arrows (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archery</a></span>), a necktie in the form of a bow-knot (<i>i.e.</i> a
double-looped knot), a ring or hoop forming a handle (<i>e.g.</i> the bow
of a watch), certain instruments or tools consisting of a bent
piece of wood with the ends drawn together by a string, used for
drilling, turning, &amp;c., in various crafts, and the stick strung
with horsehair by means of which the strings of instruments of
the violin family are set in vibration. It is with this last that
the present article is solely concerned.</p>

<p><i>Bow in Music</i>.&mdash;The modern bow (Fr. <i>archet</i>; Ger. <i>Bogen</i>;
Ital. <i>arco</i>) consists of five parts, <i>i.e.</i> the &ldquo;stick,&rdquo; the screw or
&ldquo;ferrule,&rdquo; the &ldquo;nut,&rdquo; the &ldquo;hair&rdquo; and the &ldquo;head.&rdquo; The stick,
in high-grade bows, is made of Pernambuco wood (<i>Caesalpinia
brasiliensis</i>), which alone combines the requisite lightness, elasticity
and power of resistance; for the cheaper bows American
oak is used, and for the double-bass bow beech. A billet rich
in colouring matter and straight in the grain is selected, and
the stick is usually cut from a templet so as to obtain the
accurate taper, which begins about 4¼ in. from the nut, decreasing
according to regular proportions from <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. at the screw to <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span> at
the back of the head. The stick is cut absolutely straight and
parallel along its whole length with the fibre of the wood; it
is then bent by heat until it is slightly convex to the hair and
has assumed the elegant <i>cambrure</i> first given to it by François
Tourte (1747-1835). This process requires the greatest care, for
if the fibres be not heated right through, they offer a continual
resistance to the curve, and return after a time to the rigid
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page339" id="page339"></a>339</span>
straight line, a defect often observed in cheap bows. The sticks
are now of either cylindrical or octagonal section, and are lapped
or covered with gold thread or leather for some inches beyond the
nut in order to afford a firm grip. The length of the stick was
definitely and finally fixed by François Tourte at 29.34 to
29.528 in.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The centre of gravity in a well-balanced violin bow should be at
19 cm. (7½ to 7¾ in.) from the nut;<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> in the violoncello bow the hair
measures from 60 to 62 cm. (24 to 25 in.), and the centre of gravity
is at from 175 to 180 mm. (7 to 7¼ in.) from the nut. In consequence
of the flexure given to the stick, Tourte found it necessary to readjust
the proportions and relative height of head and nut, in order
to keep the hair at a satisfactory distance from the stick, and at the
necessary angle in attacking the strings so as to avoid contact
between stick and strings in bowing. In order to counterbalance
the consequent increased weight of the head and to keep the centre
of gravity nearer the hand, Tourte loaded the nut with metal inlays
or ornamental designs.</p>

<p>The screw or ferrule, at the cylindrical end of the stick held by the
hand, provides the means of tightening or loosening the tension of
the hair. This screw, about 3¼ in. long, hidden within the stick, runs
through the eye of another little screw at right angles to it, which is
firmly embedded in the nut.</p>

<p>The nut is a wooden block at the screw end of the stick, the original
purpose of which was to keep the hair at a proper distance from the
stick and to provide a secure attachment for the hair. The whole
nut slides up and down the stick in a groove in answer to the screw,
thus tightening or relaxing the tension of the hair. In the nut is a
little cavity or chamber, into which the knotted end of the hair is
firmly fixed by means of a little wedge, the hair being then brought
out and flattened over the front of the nut like a ribbon by the
pressure of a flat ferrule. The mother-of-pearl slide which runs along
a mortised groove further protects the hair on the outside of the nut.
Bows having these attachments of ferrule and slide, added by Tourte
at the instigation of the violinist Giovanni Battista Viotti, were
known as <i>archets à recouvrements</i>.</p>

<p>The hair is chosen from the best white horsehair, and each of the
150 to 200 hairs which compose the half-inch wide ribbon of the
bow must be perfectly cylindrical and smooth. It is bought by the
pound, and must be very carefully sorted, for not more than one
hair in ten is perfectly cylindrical and fit for use on a high-grade
bow. Experience determines the right number of hairs, for if the
ribbon be too thick it hinders the vibration of the strings; if too thin
the friction is not strong enough to produce a good tone. Fétis
gives 175 to 250 as the number used in the modern bow,<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and Julius
Rühlmann 110 to 120.<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Tourte attached the greatest importance
to the hairing of the bow, and bestowed quite as much attention
upon it as upon the stick. He subjected the hair to the following
process of cleansing: first it was thoroughly scoured with soap and
water to remove all grease, then steeped in bran-water, freed from
all heterogeneous matter still adhering to it, and finally rinsed in
pure water slightly blued. When passed between the fingers in
the direction from root to tip, the hair glides smoothly and offers
no resistance, but passed in the opposite direction it feels rough,
suggesting a regular succession of minute projections. The outer
epithelium or sheath of the hair is composed of minute scales which
produce a succession of infinitesimal shocks when the hair is drawn
across the strings; the force and uniformity of these shocks, which
produce series of vibrations of equal persistency, is considerably
heightened by the application of rosin to the hair. The particles
of rosin cling to the scales of the epithelium, thus accentuating the
projections and the energy of the attack or &ldquo;bite&rdquo; upon the strings.
With use, the scales of the epithelium wear off, and then no matter
how much rosin is applied, the bow fails to elicit musical sounds&mdash;
it is then &ldquo;played out&rdquo; and must be re-haired. The organic construction
of horsehair makes it necessary, in hairing the bow, to lay
the hairs in opposite directions, so that the up and down strokes may
be equal and a pure and even tone obtained. Waxed silk is wound
round both ends of the hair to form a strong knot, which is afterwards
covered with melted rosin and hardens with the hair into a solid mass.</p>

<p>The head, 1 in. long and <span class="spp">7</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span> in. wide at the plate, is cut in one piece
with the stick, an operation which requires delicate workmanship;
otherwise the head is liable to snap at this point during a <i>sforzando</i>
passage. The head has a chamber and wedge contrivance similar
to that of the nut, in which the other end of the hair is immovably
fixed. The hair on the face of the head is protected by a metal or
ivory plate.</p>

<p>The model bow here described, elaborated by François Tourte as
long ago as between 1775 and 1780 according to Fétis,<a name="fa5k" id="fa5k" href="#ft5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a> or between
1785 and 1790 according to Vidal,<a name="fa6k" id="fa6k" href="#ft6k"><span class="sp">6</span></a> has not since been surpassed.</p>
</div>

<p>That the violin and the bow form one inseparable whole
becomes evident when we consider the history of the forerunners
of the viol family: without the bow the ancestor of the violin
would have remained a guitar; the bow would not have reached
its present state of perfection had it been required only for instruments
of the <i>rebec</i> and <i>vielle</i> type. As soon as the possibilities
of the violin were realized, as a solo instrument capable, through the
agency of the bow, of expressing the emotions of the performer,
the perfecting of the bow was prosecuted in earnest until it was
capable of responding to every shade of delicate thought and
feeling. This accounts in a measure for the protracted development
of the bow, which, although used long before the violin had
been evolved, did not reach a state of perfection at the hands of
Tourte until more than a century and a half after the Cremona
master had given us the violin.</p>

<p>The question of the origin of the bow still remains a matter of
conjecture. Its appearance in western Europe seems to have
coincided with the conquest of Spain by the Moors in the 8th
century, and the consequent impetus their superior culture gave
to arts and sciences in the south-west of Europe. We have,
however, no well-authenticated representation of the bow before
the 9th century in Europe; the earliest is the bow illustrated
along with the Lyra Teutonica by Martin Gerbert<a name="fa7k" id="fa7k" href="#ft7k"><span class="sp">7</span></a>, the
representation being taken from a MS. at the monastery of St Blaise,
dating in his opinion from the 9th century. On the other hand,
Byzantine art of the 9th and 11th centuries<a name="fa8k" id="fa8k" href="#ft8k"><span class="sp">8</span></a> reveals acquaintance
with a bow far in advance of most of the crude contemporary
specimens of western Europe. The bow undoubtedly came from
the East, and was obviously borrowed by the Greeks of Asia
Minor and the Arabs from a common source&mdash;probably India, by
way of Persia. The earliest representation of a bow yet
discovered is to be found among the fine frescoes in one of the
chapels of the monastery of Bawit<a name="fa9k" id="fa9k" href="#ft9k"><span class="sp">9</span></a> in Egypt. The mural
paintings in question were the work of many artists, covering
a considerable period of time. The only non-religious subject
depicted is a picture of a youthful Orpheus, assigned by Jean
Clédat to some date not later than the 8th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, but more
probably the work of a 6th-century artist. Orpheus is holding an
instrument, which appears to be a rebab, against his chin, in the
act of bowing and stopping the strings. The bow is similar in
shape to one shown in the Psalter of Labeo Notker, Leipzig,
10th century, mentioned farther on. On Indian sculptures of
the first centuries of our era, such as the Buddhist <i>stupas</i> of
Amaravati, the risers of the topes of Jamal-Garhi, in the Yusafzai
district of Afghanistan (both in the British Museum), on which
stringed instruments abound, there is no bow. The bow has
remained a primitive instrument in India to this day; a Hindu
tradition assigns its invention to Ravanon, a king of Ceylon,
and the instrument for which it was invented was called <i>ravanastron</i>;
a primitive instrument of that name is still in use in
Hindustan<a name="fa10k" id="fa10k" href="#ft10k"><span class="sp">10</span></a>. F.J. Fétis<a name="fa11k" id="fa11k" href="#ft11k"><span class="sp">11</span></a>, Antoine Vidal<a name="fa12k" id="fa12k" href="#ft12k"><span class="sp">12</span></a>, Edward
Heron-Allen<a name="fa13k" id="fa13k" href="#ft13k"><span class="sp">13</span></a>, and others have given the question some consideration,
and readers who wish to pursue the matter farther are referred
to their works.</p>

<p>There is thus no absolute proof of the existence of the bow
in primitive times. The earliest bow known in Europe was
associated with the rebab (<i>q.v.</i>), the most widely used bowed
instrument until the 12th century. The development of this
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page340" id="page340"></a>340</span>
instrument can be traced with some degree of certainty, but it is
quite impossible to decide at what date or in what place the use
of the bow was introduced. The bow developed very slowly in
Europe and remained a crude instrument as long as it was applied
to the rebab and its hybrids. Its progress became marked only
from the time when it was applied to the almost perfect guitar
(<i>q.v.</i>), which then became the guitar fiddle (<i>q.v.</i>), the immediate
forerunner of the viols.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:216px; height:498px" src="images/img340a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">Drawn from the ivory cover of the <i>Lothair Psalter</i>,
by permission of Sir Thomas Brooke.</span><br /><br />
<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Earliest Bow of the Crémaillère Type (<i>c.</i> 11th century).</td></tr></table>

<p>The first improvement on the primitive arched bow was to
provide some sort of handle in a straight line with the hair or
string of the bow, such as is shown in
the MS. translation of the Psalms by
Labeo Notker, late 10th century, in
the University library, Leipzig.<a name="fa14k" id="fa14k" href="#ft14k"><span class="sp">14</span></a> The
length of the handle was often greatly
exaggerated, perhaps by the fancy of
the artist. Another handle (see Bodleian
Library MS., N.E.D. 2, 12th century)
was in the form of a hilt
with a knob, possibly a screw-nut, in
which the arched stick and the hair
were both fixed. The first development
of importance influencing the
technique of stringed instruments
was the attempt to find some device
for controlling the tension of the
hair. The contrivance known as
<i>crémaillère</i>, which was the first step
in this direction, seems to have been
foreshadowed in the bows drawn in
a quaint MS. of the 14th century
in the British Museum (Sloane 3983,
fol. 43 and 13) on astronomy. Forming
an obtuse angle with the handle
of the bow is a contrivance shaped
like a spear-head which presumably
served some useful purpose; if it
had notches (which would be too
small to show in the drawing), and
the hair of the bow was finished with
a loop, then we have here an early
example of a device for controlling the tension. Another bow in
the same MS. has two round knobs on the stick which may be
assumed to have served the same purpose.</p>

<p>A very early example of the <i>crémaillère</i> bow (fig. 1) occurs on
a carved ivory plate ornamenting the binding of the fine Carolingian
MS. Psalter of Lothair (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 825), for some time known
as the Ellis and White Psalter, but now in the library of Sir
Thomas Brooke at Armitage Bridge House. The carved figure
of King David, assigned from its characteristic pose and the
treatment of the drapery to the 11th century, holds a stringed
instrument, a rotta of peculiar shape, which occurs twice in other
Carolingian MSS.<a name="fa15k" id="fa15k" href="#ft15k"><span class="sp">15</span></a> of the 9th century, but copied here without
understanding, as though it were a lyre with many strings.
The artist has added a bow with <i>crémaillère</i> attachment, which
is startling if the carving be accurately placed in the 11th century.
The earliest representation of a <i>crémaillère</i> bow, with this
exception, dates from the 15th century, according to Viollet-le-Duc,
who merely states that it was copied from a painting.<a name="fa16k" id="fa16k" href="#ft16k"><span class="sp">16</span></a> Fétis
(op. cit. p. 117) figures a <i>crémaillère</i> bow which he styles
&ldquo;Bassani, 1680.&rdquo; Sebastian Virdung draws a bow for a <i>tromba marina</i>,
with the hair and stick bound together with waxed cord. The
hair appears to be kept more or less tense by means of a wedge
of wood or other material forced in between stick and hair, the
latter bulging slightly at this point like the string of an archery
bow when the arrow is in position; this contrivance may be
due to the fancy of the artist.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:920px; height:168px" src="images/img340b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">Drawn from bows the property of William E. Hill &amp; Sons.</span><br /><br />
<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;A, B, Tartini Bows; C, Tourte Bow.</td></tr></table>

<p>The invention of a movable nut propelled by a screw is ascribed
to the elder Tourte (fig. 2); had we not this information on the
best authority (Vuillaume and Fétis), it might be imagined
that some of the bows figured by Mersenne,<a name="fa17k" id="fa17k" href="#ft17k"><span class="sp">17</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> the bass viol
bow KL (p. 184), and another KLM (p. 192), had a movable
nut and screw; the nut is clearly drawn astride the stick as in
the modern bow. Mersenne explains (p. 178) the construction of the bow,
which consists of three parts: the <i>bois, bâton</i> or <i>brin</i>,
the <i>soye</i>, and the <i>demi-roüe</i> or <i>hausse</i>. The term
&ldquo;half-wheel&rdquo; clearly indicates that the base of the nut was cut round
so as to fit round the stick. In the absence of any allusion to such
ingenious mechanism as that of screw and nut, we must infer
that the drawing is misleading and that the very decided button
was only meant for an ornamental finish to the stick. We are
informed further that <i>la soye</i> was in reality hairs from the horse
or some other animal, of which from 80 to 100 were used for each
bow. The up-stroke of the bow was used on the weak beats, 2, 4,
6, 8, and the down-stroke on the strong beats, 1, 3, 5, 7 (p. 185).
The same practice prevailed in England in 1667, when Christopher
Simpson wrote the <i>Division Viol</i>. He gives information
concerning the construction of the bow in these words: &ldquo;the
viol-bow for division should be stiff but not heavy. The length
(betwixt the two places where the hairs are fastened at each
end) about seven-and-twenty inches. The nut should be short,
the height of it about a finger&rsquo;s breadth or a little more&rdquo; (p. 2).</p>

<p>As soon as Corelli (1653-1713) formulated the principles of
the technique of the violin, marked modifications in the
construction of the bow became noticeable. Tartini, who began
during the second decade of the 18th century to gauge the
capabilities of the bow, introduced further improvements,
such as a lighter wood for the stick, a straight contour, and a
shorter head, in order to give better equilibrium. The Tourtes,
father and son, accomplished the rest.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>After Francois Tourte, the following makers are the most esteemed:
J.B. Vuillaume, who was directly inspired by Tourte and rendered
an inestimable service to violinists by working out on a scientific
basis the empirical taper of the Tourte stick, which was found in all
his bows to conform to strict ratio;<a name="fa18k" id="fa18k" href="#ft18k"><span class="sp">18</span></a> Dominique Peccate,
apprenticed to J.B. Vuillaume; Henry, 1812-1870, who signs his
name and &ldquo;Paris&rdquo; on the stick near the nut; Jacques Lefleur,
1760-1832; François Lupot, 1774-1837, the first to line the angular
cutting of the nut, where it slides along the stick, with a plate of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page341" id="page341"></a>341</span>
metal; Simon, born 1808, who also signs his bows on the stick near
the nut; John Dodd of Richmond, the greatest English bow-maker,
who was especially renowned for his violoncello bows, though his
violin bows had the defect of being rather short.</p>

<p>The violoncello bow is a little shorter than those used for violin
and viola, and the head and nut are deeper.</p>

<p>The principal models of double-bass bows in vogue at the beginning
of the 19th century were the <i>Dragonetti</i>, maintaining the arch
of the medieval bows, and the <i>Bottesini</i>, shaped and held like the
violin bow; the former was held over-hand with the hair inclining
towards the bridge, and was adopted by the Paris Conservatoire
under Habeneck about 1830; the great artist himself sent over
the model from London. Illustrations of both bows are given by
Vidal (<i>op. cit.</i> pl. xviii.).</p>

<p>Messrs W.E. Hill &amp; Sons probably possess the finest and most
representative collection of bows in the world.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a>  &ldquo;Bow,&rdquo; the forepart or head of a ship, must be distinguished from
this word. It is the same word, and pronounced in the same way,
as &ldquo;bough,&rdquo; an arm or limb of a tree, and represents a common
Teutonic word, seen in O. Eng. <i>bog</i>, Ger. <i>Bug</i>, shoulder, and is
cognate with Gr. <span class="grk" title="paechus">&#960;&#8134;&#967;&#965;&#962;</span>, forearm. The sense of &ldquo;shoulder&rdquo; of
a ship is not found in O. Eng. <i>bog</i>. but was probably borrowed
from Dutch or Danish. &ldquo;Bow,&rdquo; an inclination of the head or body,
though pronounced as &ldquo;bough,&rdquo; is of the same origin as &ldquo;bow,&rdquo; to
bend.</p>

<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See F.J. Fétis, <i>Antoine Stradivari</i>, pp. 120-121 (Paris, 1856).</p>

<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Fétis, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 123.</p>

<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> J. Rühlmann, <i>Die Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente</i> (Brunswick,
1882), p. 143.</p>

<p><a name="ft5k" id="ft5k" href="#fa5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Fétis, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 119.</p>

<p><a name="ft6k" id="ft6k" href="#fa6k"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Antoine Vidal, <i>Les Instruments à archet</i> (Paris, 1876-1878),
tome i. p. 269</p>

<p><a name="ft7k" id="ft7k" href="#fa7k"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>De Cantu et Musica Sacra</i> (1774), tome ii. pl. xxxii. No. 18; the
MS. has since perished by fire.</p>

<p><a name="ft8k" id="ft8k" href="#fa8k"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See, for an illustration of the bowed instrument on one of the
sides of a Byzantine ivory casket, 9th century, in the Carrand
Collection, Florence, A. Venturi, <i>Gallerie Nazionali Italiane</i>, iii.
(Rome, 1897), plate, p. 263; and <i>Add. MS. 19,352, British Museum</i>,
Greek Psalter, dated 1066.</p>

<p><a name="ft9k" id="ft9k" href="#fa9k"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See Jean Clédat, &ldquo;Le Monastère et la nécropole de Baouît,&rdquo;
in <i>Mém. de l&rsquo;Inst. franç. d&rsquo;archéol. orient. du Caire</i>, vol. xii.
(1904), chap. xviii. pl. lxiv. (2); also Fernand Cabrol,
<i>Dict. d&rsquo;archéol. chrétienne, s.v.</i> &ldquo;Baouît.&rdquo;</p>

<p><a name="ft10k" id="ft10k" href="#fa10k"><span class="fn">10</span></a> For an illustration, see Sonnerat, <i>Voyage aux Indes orientales</i>
(Paris, 1806), vol. i. p. 182.</p>

<p><a name="ft11k" id="ft11k" href="#fa11k"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> pp. 4-10.</p>

<p><a name="ft12k" id="ft12k" href="#fa12k"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> vol. i. p. 3 and pl. ii.</p>

<p><a name="ft13k" id="ft13k" href="#fa13k"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Edward Heron-Allen, <i>Violin-making as it was and is</i> (London, 1884),
pp. 37-42, figs. 5-10.</p>

<p><a name="ft14k" id="ft14k" href="#fa14k"><span class="fn">14</span></a> MS. 774, fol. 30. For an illustration of it see Hyacinth Abele,
<i>Die Violine, ihre Geschichte und ihr Bau</i> (Neuburg-a-D., 1874),
pl. 5, No. 7.</p>

<p><a name="ft15k" id="ft15k" href="#fa15k"><span class="fn">15</span></a> See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crowd</a></span> for fig. from the Bible of Charles le Chauve; and
also King David in the Bible of St Paul <i>extra muros</i>, Rome
(photographic facsimile by J.O. Westwood, Oxford, 1876).</p>

<p><a name="ft16k" id="ft16k" href="#fa16k"><span class="fn">16</span></a> See <i>Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français</i> (Paris, 1871),
vol. ii. part iv. pp. 265 D. and 266 note.</p>

<p><a name="ft17k" id="ft17k" href="#fa17k"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Marin Mersenne, <i>L&rsquo;Harmonie universelle</i> (Paris, 1636-1637),
pp. 184 and 192.</p>

<p><a name="ft18k" id="ft18k" href="#fa18k"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Vuillaume&rsquo;s diagram and explanation are reproduced by Fétis,
op. cit. pp. 125-128.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWDICH, THOMAS EDWARD<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (1790-1824), English
traveller and author, was born at Bristol in 1790. In 1814,
through his uncle, J. Hope-Smith, governor of the British Gold
Coast Settlements, he obtained a writership in the service of
the African Company of Merchants and was sent to Cape Coast.
In 1817 he was sent, with two companions, to Kumasi on a
mission to the king of Ashanti, and chiefly through his skilful
diplomacy the mission succeeded in its object of securing
British control over the coast natives (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ashanti</a></span>: <i>History</i>).
In 1818 Bowdich returned to England, and in 1819 published
an account of his mission and of the study he had made of the
barbaric court of Kumasi, entitled <i>Mission from Cape Coast
Castle to Ashantee, &amp;c.</i> (London, 1819). His African collections
he presented to the British Museum. Bowdich publicly attacked
the management of the African committee, and his strictures
were instrumental in leading the British government to assume
direct control over the Gold Coast. From 1820 to 1822 Bowdich
lived in Paris, studying mathematics and the natural sciences,
and was on intimate terms with Cuvier, Humboldt and other
savants. During his stay in France he edited several works
on Africa, and also wrote scientific works. In 1822, accompanied
by his wife, he went to Lisbon, where, from a study of historic
MSS., he published <i>An Account of the Discoveries of the Portuguese
in ... Angola and Mozambique</i> (London, 1824). In 1823 Bowdich
and his wife, after some months spent in Madeira and Cape
Verde Islands, arrived at Bathurst at the mouth of the Gambia,
intending to go to Sierra Leone and thence explore the interior.
But at Bathurst Bowdich died on the 10th of January 1824.
His widow published an account of his last journey, entitled
<i>Excursions in Madeira and Porto Santo ... to which is added.... A
Narrative of the Continuance of the Voyage to its Completion,
&amp;c.</i> (London, 1825). Bowdich&rsquo;s daughter, Mrs Hutchinson Hale,
republished in 1873, with an introductory preface, her father&rsquo;s
<i>Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee</i>.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1773-1838), American mathematician,
was born at Salem, Massachusetts. He was bred to
his father&rsquo;s business as a cooper, and afterwards apprenticed
to a ship-chandler. His taste for mathematics early developed
itself; and he acquired Latin that he might study Newton&rsquo;s
<i>Principia</i>. As clerk (1795) and then as supercargo (1796, 1798,
1799) he made four long voyages; and, being an excellent
navigator, he afterwards (1802) commanded a vessel, instructing
his crews in lunar and other observations. He edited two
editions of Hamilton Moore&rsquo;s <i>Navigation</i>, and in 1802 published
a valuable work, <i>New American Practical Navigator</i>, founded on
the earlier treatise by Moore. In 1804 he became president of a
Salem insurance company. In the midst of his active career he
undertook a translation of the <i>Mécanique céleste</i> of P.S. Laplace,
with valuable annotations (vol. i., 1829). He was offered, but
declined, the professorship of mathematics and astronomy at
Harvard. Subsequently he became president of the Mechanics&rsquo;
Institute in Boston, and also of the American Academy of Arts
and Sciences. He died at Boston on the 16th of March 1838.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>A life of Bowditch was written by his son Nathaniel Ingersoll
Bowditch (1805-1861), and was prefixed to the fourth volume (1839)
of the translation of Laplace. In 1865 this was elaborated into a
separate biography by another son, Henry Ingersoll Bowditch
(1808-1892), a famous Boston physician.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWDLER, THOMAS<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1754-1825), editor of the &ldquo;family&rdquo;
Shakespeare, younger son of Thomas Bowdler, a gentleman of
independent fortune, was born at Ashley, near Bath, on the
11th of July 1754. He studied medicine at the universities
of St Andrews and Edinburgh, graduating M.D. in 1776. After
four years spent in foreign travel, he settled in London, where
he became intimate with Mrs Montague and other learned
ladies. In 1800 he left London to live in the Isle of Wight, and
later on he removed to South Wales. He was an energetic
philanthropist, and carried on John Howard&rsquo;s work in the
prisons and penitentiaries. In 1818 he published <i>The Family
Shakespeare</i> &ldquo;in ten volumes, in which nothing is added to
the original text; but those words and expressions are omitted
which cannot with propriety be read aloud in a family.&rdquo; Criticisms
of this edition appeared in the <i>British Critic</i> of April 1822.
Bowdler also expurgated Edward Gibbon&rsquo;s <i>History of the Decline
and Fall of the Roman Empire</i> (published posthumously, 1826);
and he issued a selection from the Old Testament for the use of
children. He died at Rhyddings, near Swansea, on the 24th of
February 1825.</p>

<p>From Bowdler&rsquo;s name we have the word to &ldquo;bowdlerize,&rdquo;
first known to occur in General Perronet Thompson&rsquo;s <i>Letters
of a Representative to his Constituents during the Session of 1836</i>,
printed in Thompson&rsquo;s <i>Exercises</i>, iv. 126. The official interpretation
is &ldquo;to expurgate (a book or writing) by omitting or modifying
words or passages considered indelicate or offensive.&rdquo; Both the
word and its derivatives, however, are associated with false
squeamishness. In the ridicule poured on the name of Bowdler
it is worth noting that Swinburne in &ldquo;Social Verse&rdquo; (<i>Studies
in Prose and Poetry</i>, 1894, p. 98) said of him that &ldquo;no man ever
did better service to Shakespeare than the man who made it
possible to put him into the hands of intelligent and imaginative
children,&rdquo; and stigmatized the talk about his expurgations as
&ldquo;nauseous and foolish cant.&rdquo;</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWDOIN, JAMES<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1726-1790), American political leader,
was born of French Huguenot descent, in Boston, Massachusetts,
on the 7th of August 1726. He graduated at Harvard in 1745,
and was a member of the lower house of the general court of
Massachusetts in 1753-1756, and from 1757 to 1774 of the Massachusetts
council, in which, according to Governor Thomas
Hutchinson, he &ldquo;was without a rival,&rdquo; and, on the approach
of the War of Independence, was &ldquo;the principal supporter
of the opposition to the government.&rdquo; From August 1775
until the summer of 1777 he was the president of the council,
which had then become to a greater extent than formerly an
executive as well as a legislative body. In 1779-1780 he was
president of the constitutional convention of Massachusetts,
also serving as chairman of the committee by which the draft
of the constitution was prepared. Immediately afterward he was
a member of a commission appointed &ldquo;to revise the laws in force
in the state; to select, abridge, alter and digest them, so as to
be accommodated to the present government.&rdquo; From 1785 to
1787 he was governor of Massachusetts, suppressing with much
vigour Shays&rsquo; Rebellion, and failing to be re-elected largely
because it was believed that he would punish the insurrectionists
with more severity than would his competitor, John Hancock.
Bowdoin was a member of the state convention which in
February 1788 ratified for Massachusetts the Federal Constitution,
his son being also a member. He died in Boston on the 6th
of November 1790. He took much interest in natural philosophy,
and presented various papers before the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences, of which he was one of the founders and, from
1780 to 1790, the first president. Bowdoin College was named in
his honour.</p>

<p>His son, <span class="sc">James Bowdoin</span> (1752-1811), was born in Boston
on the 22nd of September 1752, graduated at Harvard in 1771,
and served, at various times, as a representative, senator and
councillor of the state. From 1805 until 1808 he was the minister
plenipotentiary of the United States in Spain. He died on
Naushon Island, Dukes county, Massachusetts, on the 11th of
October 1811. To Bowdoin College he gave land, money and
apparatus; and he made the college his residuary legatee,
bequeathing to it his collection of paintings and drawings,
then considered the finest in the country.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page342" id="page342"></a>342</span></p>
<p><span class="bold">BOWELL, SIR MACKENZIE<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (1823-&emsp;&emsp;), Canadian politician,
son of John Bowell, carpenter and builder, was born at Ricking-hall,
England, on the 27th of December 1823. In 1833 he moved
with his family to Belleville, Canada, where he finally became
editor and proprietor of the <i>Intelligencer</i>. He was elected grand
master of the Orange Association of British America, and was
long the exponent in the Canadian parliament of the claims
of that order. From 1867 till 1892 he represented North Hastings
in the House, after which he retired to the senate. From 1878
till 1891 he was minister of customs in the cabinet of Sir John
Macdonald; then minister of militia; and under the premiership
of Sir John Thompson, minister of trade and commerce. From
December 1894 till April 1896 he was premier of Canada, and
endeavoured to enforce remedial legislation in the question
of the Manitoba schools. But his policy was unsuccessful, and
he retired from the government. From 1896 till 1906 he led
the Conservative party in the senate. In 1894 he presided
over the colonial conference held in Ottawa, and in 1895 was
created K.C.M.G.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWEN, CHARLES SYNGE CHRISTOPHER BOWEN,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span>
(1835-1894), English judge, was born on the 1st of January 1835,
at Woolaston in Gloucestershire, his father, the Rev. Christopher
Bowen of Hollymount, Co. Mayo, being then curate of the
parish. He was educated at Lille, Blackheath and Rugby
schools, leaving the latter with a Balliol scholarship in 1853.
At Oxford he made good the promise of his earlier youth, winning
the principal classical scholarships and prizes of his time. He was
made a fellow of Balliol in 1858. From Oxford Bowen went to
London, where he was called to the bar at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn in 1861,
and while studying law he wrote regularly for the <i>Saturday
Renew</i>, and also later for the <i>Spectator</i>. For a time he had little
success at the bar, and came near to exchanging it for the career
of a college tutor, but he was induced by his friends, who recognized
his talents, to persevere. Soon after he had begun to make
his mark he was briefed against the claimant in the famous
&ldquo;Tichborne Case.&rdquo; Bowen&rsquo;s services to his leader, Sir John
Coleridge, helped to procure for him the appointment of junior
counsel to the treasury when Sir John had passed, as he did
while the trial proceeded, from the office of solicitor-general
to that of attorney-general; and from this time his practice
became a very large one. The strain, however, of the Tichborne
trials had been great, so that his physical health became unequal
to the tasks which his zeal for work imposed upon it, and in 1879
his acceptance of a judgeship in the queen&rsquo;s bench division, on
the retirement of Mr Justice Mellor, gave him the opportunity
of comparative rest. The character of Charles Bowen&rsquo;s intellect
hardly qualified him for some of the duties of a puisne judge;
but it was otherwise when, in 1882, in succession to Lord Justice
Holker, he was raised to the court of appeal. As a lord justice
of appeal he was conspicuous for his learning, his industry and
his courtesy to all who appeared before him; and in spite of
failing health he was able to sit more or less regularly until
August 1893, when, on the retirement of Lord Hannen, he was
made a lord of appeal in ordinary, and a baron for life, with
the title of Baron Bowen of Colwood. By this time, however,
his health had finally broken down; he never sat as a law lord
to hear appeals, and he gave but one vote as a peer, while his
last public service consisted in presiding over the commission
which sat in October 1893 to inquire into the Featherstone riots.
He died on the 10th of April 1894.</p>

<p>Lord Bowen was regarded with great affection by all who
knew him either professionally or privately. He had a polished
and graceful wit, of which many instances might be given,
although such anecdotes lose force in print. For example, when
it was suggested on the occasion of an address to Queen Victoria,
to be presented by her judges, that a passage in it, &ldquo;conscious as
we are of our shortcomings,&rdquo; suggested too great humility, he
proposed the emendation &ldquo;conscious as we are of one another&rsquo;s
shortcomings&rdquo;; and on another occasion he defined a jurist
as &ldquo;a person who knows a little about the laws of every country
except his own.&rdquo; Lord Bowen&rsquo;s judicial reputation will rest
upon the series of judgments delivered by him in the court of
appeal, which are remarkable for their lucid interpretation
of legal principles as applied to the facts and business of life.
Among good examples of his judgment may be cited that given
in advising the House of Lords in <i>Angus</i> v. <i>Dalton</i> (6 App. Cas.
740), and those delivered in <i>Abrath</i> v. <i>North Eastern Railway</i>
(11 Q.B.D. 440); <i>Thomas</i> v. <i>Quartermaine</i> (18 Q.B.D. 685);
<i>Vagliano</i> v. <i>Bank of England</i> (23 Q.B.D. 243) (in which he prepared
the majority judgment of the court, which was held to be
wrong in its conclusion by the majority of the House of Lords);
and the <i>Mogul Steamship Company</i> v. <i>M&rsquo;Gregor</i> (23 Q.B.D. 598).
Of Lord Bowen&rsquo;s literary works besides those already indicated
may be mentioned his translation of Virgil&rsquo;s <i>Eclogues</i>, and
<i>Aeneid</i>, books i.-vi., and his pamphlet, <i>The Alabama Claim and
Arbitration considered from a Legal Point of View.</i> Lord Bowen
married in 1862 Emily Frances, eldest daughter of James
Meadows Rendel, F.R.S., by whom he had two sons and a
daughter.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>Lord Bowen</i>, by Sir Henry Stewart Cunningham.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWEN, FRANCIS<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (1811-1890), American philosophical
writer and educationalist, was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts,
on the 8th of September 1811. He graduated at
Harvard in 1833, taught for two years at Phillips Exeter
Academy, and then from 1835 to 1839 was a tutor and instructor
at Harvard. After several years of study in Europe, he settled
in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and was editor and proprietor
of the <i>North American Review</i> from 1843 to 1854. In 1850
he was appointed professor of history at Harvard; but his
appointment was disapproved by the board of overseers on
account of reactionary political opinions he had expressed in a
controversy with Robert Carter (1819-1879) concerning the
Hungarian revolution. In 1853 his appointment as Alford
professor of natural religion, moral philosophy and civil polity
was approved, and he occupied the chair until 1889. In 1876 he
was a member of the Federal commission appointed to consider
currency reform, and wrote (1877) the minority report, in which
he opposed the restoration of the double standard and the remonetization
of silver. He died in Boston, Massachusetts, on the
22nd of January 1890. His writings include lives of Sir William
Phipps, Baron von Steuben, James Otis and Benjamin Lincoln
in Jared Sparks&rsquo; &ldquo;Library of American Biography&rdquo;; <i>Critical
Essays on the History and Present Condition of Speculative
Philosophy</i> (1842); <i>Lowell Lectures on the Application of Metaphysical
and Ethical Science to the Evidences of Religion</i> (1849);
<i>The Principles of Political Economy applied to the Condition,
Resources and Institutions of the American People</i> (1856); <i>A
Treatise on Logic</i> (1864); <i>American Political Economy</i> (1870);
<i>Modern Philosophy from Descartes to Schopenhauer and Hartmann</i>
(1877); and <i>Gleanings from a Literary Life, 1838-1880</i> (1880).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWEN, SIR GEORGE FERGUSON<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (1821-1899), British
colonial governor, eldest son of the Rev. Edward Bowen, afterwards
rector of Taughboyne, Co. Donegal, was born on the 2nd of
November 1821. Educated at Charterhouse school and Trinity
College, Oxford, he took a first class in classics in 1844, and was
elected a fellow of Brasenose. In 1847 he was chosen president
of the university of Corfu. Having served as secretary of government
in the Ionian Islands, he was appointed in 1859 the first
governor of Queensland, which colony had just been separated
from New South Wales. He was interested in the exploration of
Queensland and in the establishment of a volunteer force, but
incurred some unpopularity by refusing to sanction the issue of
inconvertible paper money during the financial crisis of 1866.
In 1867 he was made governor of New Zealand, in which position
he was successful in reconciling the Maoris to the English rule,
and saw the end of the struggle between the colonists and the
natives. Transferred to Victoria in 1872, Bowen endeavoured
to reduce the expenses of the colony, and in 1879 became
governor of Mauritius. His last official position was that of
governor of Hong-Kong, which he held from 1882 to 1887. He
was made a K.C.M.G. in 1856, a privy councillor in 1886, and
received honorary degrees from both Oxford and Cambridge. In
December 1887 he was appointed chief of the royal commission
which was sent to Malta with regard to the new constitution for
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page343" id="page343"></a>343</span>
the island, and all the recommendations made by him were
adopted. He died at Brighton on the 21st of February 1899,
having been married twice, and having had a family of one son
and four daughters. Bowen wrote <i>Ithaca in 1850</i> (London,
1854), translated into Greek in 1859; and <i>Mount Athos,
Thessaly and Epirus</i> (London, 1852); and he was the author
of Murray&rsquo;s <i>Handbook for Greece</i> (London, 1854).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>A selection of his letters and despatches, <i>Thirty Years of Colonial
Government</i> (London, 1889), was edited by S. Lane-Poole.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWER, WALTER<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (1385-1449), Scottish chronicler, was born
about 1385 at Haddington. He was abbot of Inchcolm (in the
Firth of Forth) from 1418, was one of the commissioners for the
collection of the ransom of James I., king of Scots, in 1423 and
1424, and in 1433 one of the embassy to Paris on the business of
the marriage of the king&rsquo;s daughter to the dauphin. He played
an important part at the council of Perth (1432) in the defence of
Scottish rights. During his closing years he was engaged on his
work the <i>Scotichronicon</i>, on which his reputation now chiefly rests.
This work, undertaken in 1440 by desire of a neighbour, Sir
David Stewart of Rosyth, was a continuation of the <i>Chronica
Gentis Scotorum</i> of Fordun. The completed work, in its original
form, consisted of sixteen books, of which the first five and a
portion of the sixth (to 1163) are Fordun&rsquo;s&mdash;or mainly his, for
Bower added to them at places. In the later books, down to the
reign of Robert I. (1371), he was aided by Fordun&rsquo;s <i>Gesta Annalia</i>,
but from that point to the close the work is original and of
contemporary importance, especially for James I., with whose
death it ends. The task was finished in 1447. In the two remaining
years of his life he was engaged on a reduction or &ldquo;abridgment&rdquo;
of this work, which is known as the <i>Book of Cupar</i>, and is
preserved in the Advocates&rsquo; library, Edinburgh (MS. 35. 1. 7).
Other abridgments, not by Bower, were made about the same
time, one about 1450 (perhaps by Patrick Russell, a Carthusian of
Perth) preserved in the Advocates&rsquo; library (MS. 35. 6. 7) and
another in 1461 by an unknown writer, also preserved in the
same collection (MS. 35. 5. 2). Copies of the full text of the
<i>Scotichronicon</i>, by different scribes, are extant. There are two in
the British Museum, in <i>The Black Book of Paisley</i>, and in Harl.
MS. 712; one in the Advocates&rsquo; library, from which Walter
Goodall printed his edition (Edin., 1759), and one in the library
of Corpus Christi, Cambridge.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Goodall&rsquo;s is the only complete modern edition of Bower&rsquo;s text.
See also W.F. Skene&rsquo;s edition of Fordun in the series of <i>Historians
of Scotland</i> (1871). Personal references are to be found in the
<i>Exchequer Rolls of Scotland</i>, iii. and iv. The best recent account is
that by T.A. Archer in the <i>Dict, of Nat. Biog.</i></p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWERBANK, JAMES SCOTT<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (1797-1877), English naturalist
and palaeontologist, was born in Bishopsgate, London, on the
14th of July 1797, and succeeded in conjunction with his brother
to his father&rsquo;s distillery, in which he was actively engaged until
1847. In early years astronomy and natural history, especially
botany, engaged much of his attention; he became an enthusiastic
worker at the microscope, studying the structure of shells,
corals, moss-agates, flints, &amp;c., and he also formed an extensive
collection of fossils. The organic remains of the London Clay
attracted particular attention, and about the year 1836 he and six
other workers founded &ldquo;The London Clay Club&rdquo;&mdash;the members
comprising Dr Bowerbank, Frederick E. Edwards (1799-1875),
author of <i>The Eocene Mollusca</i> (Palaeontograph. Soc.), Searles V.
Wood, John Morris, Alfred White (zoologist), N.T. Wetherell,
surgeon of Highgate (1800-1875), and James de Carle Sowerby. In
1840 Bowerbank published <i>A History of the Fossil Fruits and Seeds
of the London Clay</i>, and two years later he was elected F.R.S. In
1847 he suggested the establishment of a society for the publication
of undescribed British Fossils, and thus originated the
Palaeontographical Society. From 1844 until 1864 he did much
to encourage a love of natural science by being &ldquo;at home&rdquo; every
Monday evening at his residence in Park Street, Islington, and
afterwards in Highbury Grove, where the treasures of his
museum, his microscopes, and his personal assistance were at
the service of every earnest student. In the study of sponges he
became specially interested, and he was author of <i>A Monograph
of the British Spongiadae</i> in 4 vols., published by the Ray Society,
1864-1882. He retired in 1864 to St Leonards, where he died on
the 8th of March 1877.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWIE, JAMES<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1796-1836), American pioneer, was born in
Logan county, Kentucky. He was taken to Louisiana about
1802, and in 1818-1820 was engaged with his brothers, John J.
and Rezin P., in smuggling negro slaves into the United States
from the headquarters of the pirates led by Jean Lafitte on
Galveston Island. Bowie removed to Texas in 1828 and took a
prominent part in the revolt against Mexico, being present at the
battles of Nacogdoches (1832), Concepcion (1835) and the Grass
Fight (1835). He was one of the defenders of the Alamo (see
<span class="sc">San Antonio</span>), but was ill of pneumonia at the time of the final
assault on the 6th of March 1836, and was among the last to be
butchered. Bowie&rsquo;s name is now perpetuated by a county in
north-eastern Texas, and by its association with that of the
famous hunting-knife, which he used, but probably did not
invent.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOW-LEG<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (<i>Genu Varum</i>), a deformity characterized by separation
of the knees when the ankles are in contact. Usually there
is an outward curvature of both femur and tibia, with at times
an interior bend of the latter bone. At birth all children are
more or less bandy-legged. The child lies on its nurse&rsquo;s knee
with the soles of the feet facing one another; the tibiae and
femora are curved outwards; and, if the limbs are extended,
although the ankles are in contact, there is a distinct space
between the knee-joints. During the first year of life a gradual
change takes place. The knee-joints approach one another;
the femora slope downwards and inwards towards the knee-joints;
the tibiae become straight; and the sole of the foot
faces almost directly downwards. While these changes are
occurring, the bones, which at first consist principally of cartilage,
are gradually becoming ossified, and in a normal child by the
time it begins to walk the lower limbs are prepared, both by their
general direction and by the rigidity of the bones which form
them, to support the weight of the body. If, however, the child
attempts either as the result of imitation or from encouragement
to walk before the normal bandy condition had passed off, the
result will necessarily be either an arrest in the development
of the limbs or an increase of the bandy condition. If the child
is weakly, either rachitic or suffering from any ailment which
prevents the due ossification of the bones, or is improperly fed,
the bandy condition may remain persistent. Thus the chief
cause of this deformity is rickets (<i>q.v.</i>). The remaining causes
are occupation, especially that of a jockey, and traumatism,
the condition being very likely to supervene after accidents
involving the condyles of the femur. In the rickety form the
most important thing is to treat the constitutional disease, at
the same time instructing the mother never to place the child
on its feet. In many cases this is quite sufficient in itself to effect
a cure, but matters can be hastened somewhat by applying
splints. When in older patients the deformity arises either
from traumatism or occupation, the only treatment is that of
operation.</p>

<p>A far commoner deformity than the preceding is that known
as <i>knock-knee</i> (or <i>Genu Valgum</i>). In this condition there is close
approximation of the knees with more or less separation of the
feet, the patient being unable to bring the feet together when
standing. Occasionally only one limb may be affected, but the
double form is the more common. There are two varieties of
this deformity: (i.) that due to rickets and occurring in young
children (the rachitic form), and (ii.) that met with in adolescents
and known as the static form. In young children it is practically
always due to rickets, and the constitutional disease must be
most rigorously dealt with. It is, however, especially in these
cases that cod-liver oil is to be avoided, since it increases the body
weight and so may do harm rather than good. The child if
quite young must be kept in bed, and the limbs manipulated
several times a day. Where the child is a little older and it is more
difficult to keep him off his feet, long splints should be applied
from the axilla or waist to a point several inches below the level
of the foot. It is only by making the splints sufficiently long
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>344</span>
that a naturally active child can be kept at rest. The little
patient should live in the open air as much as possible.</p>

<p>The static form of Genu Valgum usually occurs in young
adolescents, especially in anaemic nurse-girls, young bricklayers,
and young people who have outgrown their strength, yet have
to carry heavy weights. Normally in the erect posture the weight
of the body is passed through the outer condyle of the femur
rather than the inner, and this latter is lengthened to keep the
plane of the knee-joint horizontal. This throws considerable
strain on the internal lateral ligament of the knee-joint, and
after standing of long duration or with undue weight the muscles
of the inner side of the limb also become over-fatigued. Thus
the ligament gradually becomes stretched, giving the knee undue
mobility from side to side. If the condition be not attended to,
the outer condyle becomes gradually atrophied, owing to the
increased weight transmitted through it, and the inner condyle
becomes lengthened. These changes are the direct outcome
of a general law, namely, that diminished pressure results in
increased growth, increased pressure in diminished growth.
The best example of the former principle is the rapid growth
that takes place in the child that is confined to bed during
a prolonged illness. The distorted, stunted, shortened and
fashionable foot of the Chinese lady is an example of the latter.
Flat-foot (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Club-Foot</a></span>) and lateral curvature of the spine,
scoliosis, are often associated with this form of Genu Valgum,
the former being due to relaxation of ligaments, the latter being
compensatory where the deformity only affects one leg, though
often found merely in association with the more common bilateral
variety. In the early stages of the static form attention to general
health, massage and change of air, will often effect a cure. But
in the more aggravated forms an apparatus is needed. This
usually consists of an outside iron rod, jointed at the knee,
attached above to a pelvic band and below to the heel of the
boot. By the gradual tightening of padded straps passing round
the limbs the bones can be drawn by degrees into a more
natural position. But if the patient has reached such an age
that the deformity is fixed, then the only remedy is that of
operation.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWLES, SAMUEL<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (1826-1878), American journalist, was
born in Springfield, Massachusetts, on the 9th of February 1826.
He was the son of Samuel Bowles (1779-1851) of the same city,
who had established the weekly <i>Springfield Republican</i> in 1824.
The daily issue was begun in 1844, as an evening newspaper,
afterwards becoming a morning journal. To its service Samuel
Bowles, junior, devoted his life (with the exception of a brief
period during which he was in charge of a daily in Boston),
and he gave the paper a national reputation by the vigour,
incisiveness and independence of its editorial utterances, and
the concise and convenient arrangement of its local and general
news-matter. During the controversies affecting slavery and
resulting in the Civil War, Bowles supported, in general, the Whig
and Republican parties, but in the period of Reconstruction
under President Grant his paper represented anti-administration
or &ldquo;Liberal Republican&rdquo; opinions, while in the disputed election
of 1876 it favoured the claims of Tilden, and subsequently
became independent in politics. Bowles died at Springfield
on the 16th of January 1878. During his lifetime, and subsequently,
the <i>Republican</i> office was a sort of school for young
journalists, especially in the matter of pungency and conciseness
of style, one of his maxims being &ldquo;put it all in the first paragraph.&rdquo;
Bowles published two books of travel, <i>Across the
Continent</i> (1865) and <i>The Switzerland of America</i> (1869), which
were combined into one volume under the title <i>Our New West</i>
(1869). He was succeeded as publisher and editor-in-chief of
the <i>Republican</i> by his son Samuel Bowles (b. 1851).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>A eulogistic <i>Life and Times of Samuel Bowles</i> (2 vols., New York,
1885), by George S. Merriam, is virtually a history of American
political movements after the compromise of 1850.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWLES, WILLIAM LISLE<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (1762-1850), English poet and
critic, was born at King&rsquo;s Sutton, Northamptonshire, of which
his father was vicar, on the 24th of September 1762. At the age
of fourteen he entered Winchester school, the head-master at
the time being Dr Joseph Warton. In 1781 he left as captain
of the school, and proceeded to Trinity College, Oxford, where
he had gained a scholarship. Two years later he won the chancellor&rsquo;s
prize for Latin verse. In 1789 he published, in a small
quarto volume, <i>Fourteen Sonnets</i>, which met with considerable
favour at the time, and were hailed with delight by Coleridge and
his young contemporaries. The <i>Sonnets</i> even in form were a
revival, a return to the older and purer poetic style, and by their
grace of expression, melodious versification, tender tone of feeling
and vivid appreciation of the life and beauty of nature, stood
out in strong contrast to the elaborated commonplaces which
at that time formed the bulk of English poetry. After taking
his degree at Oxford he entered the Church, and was appointed
in 1792 to the vicarage of Chicklade in Wiltshire. In 1797 he
received the vicarage of Dumbleton in Gloucestershire, and
in 1804 was presented to the vicarage of Bremhill in Wiltshire.
In the same year he was collated by Bishop Douglas to a prebendal
stall in the cathedral of Salisbury. In 1818 he was made
chaplain to the prince regent, and in 1828 he was elected
residentiary canon of Salisbury. He died at Salisbury on the
7th of April 1850, aged 88.</p>

<p>The longer poems published by Bowles are not of a very high
standard, though all are distinguished by purity of imagination,
cultured and graceful diction, and great tenderness of feeling.
The most extensive were <i>The Spirit of Discovery</i> (1804), which was
mercilessly ridiculed by Byron; <i>The Missionary of the Andes</i>
(1815); <i>The Grave of the Last Saxon</i> (1822); and <i>St John in
Patmos</i> (1833). Bowles is perhaps more celebrated as a critic
of poetry than as a poet. In 1806 he published an edition of
Pope&rsquo;s works with notes and an essay on the poetical character
of Pope. In this essay he laid down certain canons as to poetic
imagery which, subject to some modification, have been since
recognized as true and valuable, but which were received at the
time with strong opposition by all admirers of Pope and his
style. The &ldquo;Pope and Bowles&rdquo; controversy brought into
sharp contrast the opposing views of poetry, which may be
roughly described as the natural and the artificial. Bowles
maintained that images drawn from nature are poetically finer
than those drawn from art; and that in the highest kinds of
poetry the themes or passions handled should be of the general
or elemental kind, and not the transient manners of any society.
These positions were vigorously assailed by Byron, Campbell,
Roscoe and others of less note, while for a time Bowles was
almost solitary. Hazlitt and the <i>Blackwood</i> critics, however,
came to his assistance, and on the whole Bowles had reason
to congratulate himself on having established certain principles
which might serve as the basis of a true method of poetical
criticism, and of having inaugurated, both by precept and by
example, a new era in English poetry. Among other prose
works from his prolific pen was a <i>Life of Bishop Ken</i> (2 vols.,
1830-1831).</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His <i>Poetical Works</i> were collected in 1855, with a memoir by
G. Gilfillan.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWLINE<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (a word found in most Teutonic languages,
probably connected with the &ldquo;bow&rdquo; of a ship), a nautical
term for a rope leading from the edge of a sail to the bows,
for the purpose of steadying the sail when sailing close to the
wind&mdash;&ldquo;on a bowline.&rdquo;</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWLING<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (Lat. <i>bulla</i>, a globe, through O. Fr. <i>boule</i>, ball),
an indoor game played upon an alley with wooden balls and nine
or ten wooden pins. It has been played for centuries in Germany
and the Low Countries, where it is still in high favour, but attains
its greatest popularity in the United States, whence it was
introduced in colonial times from Holland. The Dutch inhabitants
of New Amsterdam, now New York, were much addicted
to it, and up to the year 1840 it was played on the green, the
principal resort of the bowlers being the square just north of
the Battery still called Bowling Green. The first covered alleys
were made of hardened clay or of slate, but those in vogue at
present are built up of alternate strips of pine and maple wood,
about 1 × 3 in. in size, set on edge, and fastened together and
to the bed of the alley with the nicest art of the cabinet-maker.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page345" id="page345"></a>345</span>
The width of the alley is 4l½ in., and its whole length about
80 ft. From the head, or apex, pin to the foul-line, over which
the player may not step in delivering the ball, the distance is
60 ft. On each side of the alley is a 9-in. &ldquo;gutter&rdquo; to catch
any balls that are bowled wide. Originally nine pins, set up in the
diamond form, were used, but during the first part of the 19th
century the game of &ldquo;nine-pins&rdquo; was prohibited by law, on
account of the excessive betting connected with it. This ordinance,
however, was soon evaded by the addition of a tenth
pin, resulting in the game of &ldquo;ten-pins,&rdquo; the pastime in vogue
to-day. The ten pins are set up at the end of the alley in the
form of a right-angled triangle in four rows, four pins at the back,
then three, then two and one as head pin. The back row is
placed 3 in. from the alley&rsquo;s edge, back of which is the pin-pit,
10 in. deep and about 3 ft. wide. The back wall is heavily padded
(often with a heavy, swinging cushion), and there are safety
corners for the pin-boys, who set up the pins, call the scores
and place the balls in the sloping &ldquo;railway&rdquo; which returns
them to the players&rsquo; end of the alley. The pins are made of hard
maple and are 15 in. high, 2¼ in. in diameter at their base and
15 in. in circumference at the thickest point. The balls, which
are made of some very hard wood, usually lignum vitae, may be
of any size not exceeding 27 in. in circumference and 16½ &#8468; in
weight. They are provided with holes for the thumb and middle
finger. As many may play on a side as please, five being the
number for championship teams, though this sometimes varies.
Each player rolls three balls, called a <i>frame</i>, and ten frames
constitute a game, unless otherwise agreed upon. In first-class
matches two balls only are rolled. If all ten pins are knocked
down by the first ball the player makes a <i>strike</i>, which counts
him 10 plus whatever he may make with the first two balls of
his next frame. If, however, he should then make another
strike, 10 more are added to his score, making 20, to which are
added the pins he may knock down with his first ball of the third
frame. This may also score a strike, making 30 as the score
of the first frame, and, should the player keep up this high
average, he will score the maximum, 300, in his ten frames.
If all the pins are knocked down with two balls it is called a
<i>spare</i>, and the player may add the pins made by the first ball
of his second frame. This seemingly complicated mode of scoring
is comparatively simple when properly lined score-boards are
used. Of course, if all three balls are used no strike or spare is
scored, but the number of pins overturned is recorded. The tens
of thousands of bowling clubs in the United States and Canada
are under the jurisdiction of the American Bowling Congress,
which meets once a year to revise the rules and hold contests
for the national championships.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Several minor varieties of bowling are popular in America, the
most in vogue being &ldquo;Cocked Hat,&rdquo; which is played with three pins,
one in the head-pin position and the others on either corner of the
back row. The pins are usually a little larger than those used in the
regular game, and smaller balls are used. The maximum score is
90, and all balls, even those going into the gutter, are in play.
&ldquo;Cocked hat and Feather&rdquo; is similar, except that a fourth pin is added,
placed in the centre. Other variations of bowling are &ldquo;Quintet,&rdquo;
in which five pins, set up like an arrow pointed towards the bowler,
are used; the &ldquo;Battle Game,&rdquo; in which 12 can be scored by
knocking down all but the centre, or king, pin; &ldquo;Head Pin and
Four Back,&rdquo; in which five pins are used, one in the head-pin position
and the rest on the back line; &ldquo;Four Back&rdquo;; &ldquo;Five Back&rdquo;;
&ldquo;Duck Pin&rdquo;; &ldquo;Head Pin,&rdquo; with nine pins set up in the old-fashioned
way, and &ldquo;Candle Pin,&rdquo; in which thin pins tapering
towards the top and bottom are used, the other rules being similar
to those of the regular game.</p>

<p>The American bowling game is played to a slight extent in Great
Britain and Germany. In the latter country, however, the old-fashioned
game of nine-pins (<i>Kegelspiel</i>) with solid balls and the pins
set up diamond-fashion, obtains universally. The alleys are made
with less care than the American, being of cement, asphalt, slate or
marble.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWLING GREEN,<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Warren
county, Kentucky, U.S.A., on the Barren river, 113 m. S. by
W. of Louisville. Pop. (1890) 7803; (1900) 8226, of whom
2593 were negroes; (1910) 9173. The city is served by the
Louisville &amp; Nashville railway (which maintains car shops
here), and by steamboats navigating the river. Macadamized
or gravel roads also radiate from it to all parts of the
surrounding country, a rich agricultural and live-stock raising
region, in which there are deposits of coal, iron ore, oil, natural
gas, asphalt and building stone. The city is the seat of Potter
College (for girls; non-sectarian, opened 1889); of Ogden
College (non-sectarian, 1877), a secondary school, endowed by
the bequest of Major Robert W. Ogden (1796-1873); of the
West Kentucky State Normal School, opened (as the Southern
Normal School and Business College) at Glasgow in 1875 and
removed to Bowling Green in 1884; and of the Bowling Green
Business University, formerly a part of the Southern Normal
School and Business College. Bowling Green has two parks,
a large horse and mule market, and a trade in other live-stock,
tobacco and lumber; among its manufactures are flour, lumber,
tobacco and furniture. The municipality owns and operates
the water-works and the electric lighting plant. Bowling Green
was incorporated in 1812. During the early part of the Civil War
Bowling Green was on the right flank of the first line of Confederate
defence in the West, and was for some time the headquarters
of General Albert Sidney Johnston. It was abandoned,
however, after the capture by the Federals of Forts Henry
and Donelson.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWLING GREEN,<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Wood
county, Ohio, U.S.A., 20 m. S. by W. of Toledo, of which it is a
residential suburb. Pop. (1890) 3467; (1900) 5067 (264 foreign-born);
(1910) 5222. Bowling Green is served by the Cincinnati,
Hamilton &amp; Dayton and the Toledo &amp; Ohio Central railways, and
by the Toledo Urban &amp; Interurban and the Lake Erie, Bowling
Green &amp; Napoleon electric lines, the former extending from
Toledo to Dayton. It is situated in a rich agricultural region
which abounds in oil and natural gas. Many of the residences
and business places of Bowling Green are heated by a privately
owned central hot-water heating plant. Among the manufactures
are cut glass, stoves and ranges, kitchen furniture, guns,
thread-cutting machines, brooms and agricultural implements.
Bowling Green was first settled in 1832, was incorporated as a
town in 1855, and became a city in 1904.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWLS,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> the oldest British outdoor pastime, next to archery,
still in vogue. It has been traced certainly to the 13th, and
conjecturally to the 12th century. William Fitzstephen
(d. about 1190), in his biography of Thomas Becket,
<span class="sidenote">History.</span>
gives a graphic sketch of the London of his day and, writing
of the summer amusements of the young men, says that on
holidays they were &ldquo;exercised in Leaping, Shooting. Wrestling,
Casting of Stones [<i>in jactu lapidum</i>], and Throwing of Javelins
fitted with Loops for the Purpose, which they strive to fling
before the Mark; they also use Bucklers, like fighting Men.&rdquo;
It is commonly supposed that by <i>jactus lapidum</i> Fitzstephen
meant the game of bowls, but though it is possible that round
stones may sometimes have been employed in an early variety
of the game-and there is a record of iron bowls being used,
though at a much later date, on festive occasions at Nairn,&mdash;nevertheless
the inference seems unwarranted. The <i>jactus
lapidum</i> of which he speaks was probably more akin to the modern
&ldquo;putting the weight,&rdquo; once even called &ldquo;putting the stone.&rdquo;
It is beyond dispute, however, that the game, at any rate in a
rudimentary form, was played in the 13th century. A MS.
of that period in the royal library, Windsor (No. 20, E iv.),
contains a drawing representing two players aiming at a small
cone instead of an earthenware ball or jack. Another MS. of
the same century has a picture&mdash;crude, but spirited&mdash;which
brings us into close touch with the existing game. Three figures
are introduced and a jack. The first player&rsquo;s bowl has come
to rest just in front of the jack; the second has delivered his
bowl and is following after it with one of those eccentric
contortions still not unusual on modern greens, the first
player meanwhile making a repressive gesture with his hand,
as if to urge the bowl to stop short of his own; the third player
is depicted as in the act of delivering his bowl. A 14th-century
MS. <i>Book of Prayers</i> in the Francis Douce collection in the
Bodleian library at Oxford contains a drawing in which two
persons are shown, but they bowl to no mark. Strutt (<i>Sports
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page346" id="page346"></a>346</span>
and Pastimes</i>) suggests that the first player&rsquo;s bowl may have
been regarded by the second player as a species of jack; but in
that case it is not clear what was the first player&rsquo;s target. In
these three earliest illustrations of the pastime it is worth noting
that each player has one bowl only, and that the attitude in
delivering it was as various five or six hundred years ago as it
is to-day. In the third he stands almost upright; in the first
he kneels; in the second he stoops, halfway between the
upright and the kneeling position.</p>

<p>As the game grew in popularity it came under the ban of king
and parliament, both fearing it might jeopardize the practice of
archery, then so important in battle; and statutes forbidding it
and other sports were enacted in the reigns of Edward III.,
Richard II. and other monarchs. Even when, on the invention of
gunpowder and firearms, the bow had fallen into disuse as a
weapon of war, the prohibition was continued. The discredit
attaching to bowling alleys, first established in London in 1455,
probably encouraged subsequent repressive legislation, for many
of the alleys were connected with taverns frequented by the
dissolute and gamesters. The word &ldquo;bowls&rdquo; occurs for the first
time in the statute of 1511 in which Henry VIII. confirmed
previous enactments against unlawful games. By a further
act of 1541&mdash;which was not repealed until 1845&mdash;artificers,
labourers, apprentices, servants and the like were forbidden to
play bowls at any time save Christmas, and then only in their
master&rsquo;s house and presence. It was further enjoined that any
one playing bowls outside of his own garden or orchard was liable
to a penalty of 6s. 8d., while those possessed of lands of the yearly
value of £100 might obtain licences to play on their own private
greens. But though the same statute absolutely prohibited
bowling alleys, Henry VIII. had them constructed for his own
pleasure at Whitehall Palace, and was wont to back himself when
he played. In Mary&rsquo;s reign (1555) the licences were withdrawn,
the queen or her advisers deeming the game an excuse for
&ldquo;unlawful assemblies, conventicles, seditions and conspiracies.&rdquo;
The scandals of the bowling alleys grew rampant in Elizabethan
London, and Stephen Gosson in his <i>School of Abuse</i> (1579) says,
&ldquo;Common bowling alleys are privy moths that eat up the credit
of many idle citizens; whose gains at home are not able to weigh
down their losses abroad; whose shops are so far from maintaining
their play, that their wives and children cry out for bread,
and go to bed supperless often in the year.&rdquo;</p>

<p>Biased bowls were introduced in the 16th century. &ldquo;A little
altering of the one side,&rdquo; says Robert Recorde, the mathematician,
in his <i>Castle of Knowledge</i> (1556), &ldquo;maketh the bowl
to run biasse waies.&rdquo; And Shakespeare (<i>Richard II</i>., Act. III.
Sc. 4) causes the queen to remonstrate, in reply to her lady&rsquo;s
suggestion of a game at bowls to relieve her ennui, &ldquo;&rsquo;Twill make
me think the world is full of rubs, and that my fortune runs
against the bias.&rdquo; This passage is interesting also as showing
that women were accustomed to play the game in those days.
It is pleasant to think that there is foundation for the familiar
story of Sir Francis Drake playing bowls on Plymouth Hoe as the
Armada was beating up Channel, and finishing his game before
tackling the Spaniards. Bowls, at that date, was looked upon as
a legitimate amusement for Sundays,&mdash;as, indeed, were many
other sports. When John Knox visited Calvin at Geneva one
Sunday, it is said that he discovered him engaged in a game;
and John Aylmer (1521-1594), though bishop of London, enjoyed
a game of a Sunday afternoon, but used such language
&ldquo;as justly exposed his character to reproach.&rdquo; The pastime
found favour with the Stuarts. In the <i>Book of Sports</i> (1618),
James I. recommended a moderate indulgence to his son, Prince
Henry, and Charles I. was an enthusiastic bowler, unfortunately
encouraging by example wagering and playing for high stakes,
habits that ultimately brought the green into as general disrepute
as the alley. It is recorded that the king occasionally visited
Richard Shute, a Turkey merchant who owned a beautiful green
at Barking Hall, and that after one bout his losses were £1000.
He was permitted to play his favourite game to beguile the tedium
of his captivity. The signboard of a wayside inn near Goring
Heath in Oxfordshire long bore a portrait of the king with
couplets reciting how his majesty &ldquo;drank from the bowl, and
bowl&rsquo;d for what he drank.&rdquo; During his stay at the Northamptonshire
village of Holdenby or Holmby&mdash;where Sir Thomas
Herbert complains the green was not well kept&mdash;Charles frequently
rode over to Lord Vaux&rsquo;s place at Harrowden, or to
Lord Spencer&rsquo;s at Althorp, for a game, and, according to one
account, was actually playing on the latter green when Cornet
Joyce came to Holmby to remove him to other quarters. During
this period gambling had become a mania. John Aubrey, the
antiquary, chronicles that the sisters of Sir John Suckling, the
courtier-poet, once went to the bowling-green in Piccadilly,
crying, &ldquo;for fear he should lose all their portions.&rdquo; If the
Puritans regarded bowls with no friendly eye, as Lord Macaulay
asserts, one can hardly wonder at it. But even the Puritans
could not suppress betting. So eminently respectable a person
as John Evelyn thought no harm in bowling for stakes, and once
played at the Durdans, near Epsom, for £10, winning match and
money, as he triumphantly notes in his <i>Diary</i> for the 14th of
August 1657. Samuel Pepys repeatedly mentions finding great
people &ldquo;at bowles.&rdquo; But in time the excesses attending the
game rendered it unfashionable, and after the Revolution it
became practically a pothouse recreation, nearly all the greens,
like the alleys, having been constructed in the grounds and
gardens attached to taverns.</p>

<p>After a long interval salvation came from Scotland, somewhat
unexpectedly, because although, along with its winter analogue
of curling, bowls may now be considered, much more than golf,
the Scottish national game, it was not until well into the 19th
century that the pastime acquired popularity in that country.
It had been known in Scotland since the close of the 16th century
(the Glasgow kirk session fulminated an edict against Sunday
bowls in 1595), but greens were few and far between. There is
record of a club in Haddington in 1709, of Tom Bicket&rsquo;s green
in Kilmarnock in 1740, of greens in Candleriggs and Gallowgate,
Glasgow, and of one in Lanark in 1750, of greens in the grounds
of Heriot&rsquo;s hospital, Edinburgh, prior to 1768, and of one in
Peebles in 1775. These are, of course, mere infants compared
with the Southampton Town Bowling Club, founded in 1299,
which still uses the green on which it has played for centuries
and possesses the quaint custom of describing its master, or
president, as &ldquo;sir,&rdquo; and are younger even than the Newcastle-on-Tyne
club established in 1657. But the earlier clubs did nothing
towards organizing the game. In 1848 and 1849, however, when
many clubs had come into existence in the west and south of
Scotland (the Willowbank, dating from 1816, is the oldest club in
Glasgow), meetings were held in Glasgow for the purpose of promoting
a national association. This was regarded, by many, as
impracticable, but a decision of final importance was reached
when a consultative committee was appointed to draft a uniform
code of laws to govern the game. This body delegated its
functions to its secretary, W.W. Mitchell (1803-1884), who
prepared a code that was immediately adopted in Scotland as the
standard laws. It was in this sense that Scottish bowlers saved
the game. They were, besides, pioneers in laying down level
greens of superlative excellence. Not satisfied with seed-sown
grass or meadow turf, they experimented with seaside turf and
found it answer admirably. The 13th earl of Eglinton also set
an example of active interest which many magnates emulated.
Himself a keen bowler, he offered for competition, in 1854, a
silver bowl and, in 1857, a gold bowl and the Eglinton Cup, all
to be played for annually. These trophies excited healthy
rivalry in Ayrshire and Lanarkshire, and the enthusiasm as well
as the skill with which the game was conducted in Scotland at
length proved contagious. Clubs in England began to consider
the question of legislation, and to improve their greens. Moreover,
Scottish emigrants introduced the game wherever they
went, and colonists in Australia and New Zealand established
many clubs which, in the main, adopted Mitchell&rsquo;s laws; while
clubs were also started in Canada and in the United States, in
South Africa, India (Calcutta, Karachi), Japan (Kobe, Yokohama,
Kumamoto) and Hong-Kong. In Ireland the game took
root very gradually, but in Ulster, owing doubtless to constant
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page347" id="page347"></a>347</span>
intercourse with Scotland, such clubs as have been founded are
strong in numbers and play.</p>

<p>On the European continent the game can scarcely be said to be
played on scientific principles. It has existed in France since
the 17th century. When John Evelyn was in Paris in 1644
he saw it played in the gardens of the Luxembourg Palace.
In the south of France it is rather popular with artisans, who,
however, are content to pursue it on any flat surface and use
round instead of biased bowls, the bowler, moreover, indulging
in a preliminary run before delivering the bowl, after the fashion
of a bowler in cricket. A rude variety of the game occurs in
Italy, and, as we have seen, John Calvin played it in Geneva,
where John Evelyn also noticed it in 1646. There is evidence of
its vogue in Holland in the 17th century, for the painting by
David Teniers (1610-1690), in the Scottish National Gallery at
Edinburgh, is wrongly described as &ldquo;Peasants playing at Skittles.&rdquo;
In this picture three men are represented as having played a
bowl, while the fourth is in the act of delivering his bowl. The
game is obviously bowls, the sole difference being that an upright
peg, about 4 in. high, is employed instead of a jack,&mdash;recalling, in
this respect, the old English form of the game already mentioned.</p>

<p>Serious efforts to organize the game were made in the last
quarter of the 19th century, but this time the lead came from
Australia. The Bowling Associations of Victoria and New
South Wales were established in 1880, and it was not until 1892
that the Scottish Bowling Association was founded. Then in
rapid succession came several independent bodies&mdash;the Midland
Counties (1895), the London and Southern Counties (1896),
the Imperial (1899), the English (1903) and the Irish and Welsh
(1904). These institutions were concerned with the task of
regularizing the game within the territories indicated by their
titles, but it soon appeared that the multiplicity of associations
was likely to prove a hindrance rather than a help, and with
a view, therefore, to reducing the number of clashing jurisdictions
and bringing about the establishment of a single legislative
authority, the Imperial amalgamated with the English B.A. in
1905. The visits to the United Kingdom of properly organized
teams of bowlers from Australia and New Zealand in 1901 and
from Canada in 1904 demonstrated that the game had gained
enormously in popularity. The former visit was commemorated
by the institution of the Australia Cup, presented to the Imperial
Bowling Association (and now the property of the English B.A.)
by Mr Charles Wood, president of the Victorian Bowling Association.
An accredited team of bowlers from the mother country
visited Canada in 1906, and was accorded a royal welcome.
Perhaps the most interesting proof that bowls is a true <i>Volksspiel</i>
is to be found in the fact that it has become municipalized.
In Edinburgh, Glasgow, and elsewhere in Scotland, and in
London (through the county council), Newcastle and other
English towns, the corporations have laid down greens in public
parks and open spaces. In Scotland the public greens are
self-supporting, from a charge, which includes the use of bowls, of
one penny an hour for each player; in London the upkeep of the
greens falls on the rates, but players must provide their own bowls.</p>

<p>There are two kinds of bowling green, the level and the crown.
The crown has a fall which may amount to as much as 18 in.
all round from the centre to the sides. This type of
green is confined almost wholly to certain of the northern
<span class="sidenote">The game.</span>
and midland counties of England, where it is popular for
single-handed, gate-money contests. But although the crown-green
game is of a sporting character, it necessitates the use of bowls
of narrow bias and affords but limited scope for the display of
skill and science. It is the game on the perfectly level green
that constitutes the historical game of bowls. Subject to the
rule as to the shortest distance to which the jack must be thrown
(25 yds.), there is no prescribed size for the lawn; but 42 yds.
square forms an ideal green. The Queen&rsquo;s Park and Titwood
clubs in Glasgow have each three greens, and as they can quite
comfortably play six rinks on each, it is not uncommon to see
144 players making their game simultaneously. An undersized
lawn is really a poor pitch, because it involves playing
from corner to corner instead of up and down&mdash;the orthodox
direction. For the scientific construction of a green, the whole
ground must be excavated to a depth of 18 in. or so, and
thoroughly drained, and layers of different materials (gravel,
cinders, moulds, silver-sand) laid down before the final covering
of turf, 2½ or 3 in. thick. Seaside turf is the best. It wears
longest and keeps its &ldquo;spring&rdquo; to the last. Surrounding the
green is a space called a ditch, which is nearly but not quite
on a level with the green and slopes gently away from it, the side
next the turf being lined with boarding, the ditch itself bottomed
with wooden spars resting on the foundation. Beyond the ditch
are banks generally laid with turf. A green is divided into
spaces usually from 18 to 21 ft. in width, commonly styled
&ldquo;rinks&rdquo;&mdash;a word which also designates each set of players&mdash;and
these are numbered in sequence on a plate fixed in the bank
at each end opposite the centre of the space. The end ditch
within the limits of the space is, according to Scottish laws,
regarded as part of the green, a regulation which prejudices
the general acceptance of those laws. In match play each space
is further marked off from its neighbour by thin string securely
fastened flush with the turf.</p>

<p>Every player uses four <i>lignum vitae</i> bowls in single-handed
games and (as a rule) in friendly games, but only two in matches.
Every bowl must have a certain amount of bias, which was
formerly obtained by loading one side with lead, but is now
imparted by the turner making one side more convex than the
other, the bulge showing the side of the bias. No bowl must
have less than No. 3 bias&mdash;that is, it should draw about 6 ft. to
a 30 yd. jack on a first-rate green: it follows that on an inferior
green the bowler, though using the same bowl, would have to
allow for a narrower draw. It is also a rule that the diameter
of the bowl shall not be less than 4½ in. nor more than 5¼ in.,
and that its weight must not exceed 3½ &#8468; The jack or kitty,
as the white earthenware ball to which the bowler bowls is called,
is round and 2½ to 2¾ in. in diameter. On crown-greens it is
customary to use a small biased wooden jack to give the bowler
some clue to the run of the green. The bowler delivers his bowl
with one foot on a mat or footer, made of india-rubber or cocoa-nut
fibre, the size of which is also prescribed by rule as 24 by 16
in., though, with a view to protecting the green, Australasian
clubs employ a much larger size, and require the bowler to keep
both feet on the mat in the act of delivery.</p>

<p>In theory the game of bowls is very simple, the aim of the
player being to roll his bowl so as to cause it to rest nearer to
the jack than his opponent&rsquo;s, or to protect a well-placed bowl,
or to dislodge a better bowl than his own. But in practice there
is every opportunity for skill. On all good greens the game is
played in rinks of four a side, there being, however, on the part
of many English clubs still an adherence to the old-fashioned
method of two and three a side rinks. Ordinarily a match team
consists of four rinks of four players each, or sixteen men in
all. The four players in a rink are known as the leader, second
player, third player and skip (or driver, captain or director),
and their positions, at least in matches, are unchangeable.
Great responsibility is thus thrown on the skip in the choice
of his players, who are selected for well-defined reasons. The
leader has to place the mat, to throw the jack, to count the game,
and to call the result of each end or head to the skip who is at
the other end of the green. He is picked for his skill in playing
to the jack. It is, therefore, his business to &ldquo;be up.&rdquo; There is
no excuse for short play on his part, and his bowls would be better
off the green than obstructing the path of subsequent bowls.
So he will endeavour to be &ldquo;on the jack,&rdquo; the ideal position
being a bowl at rest immediately in front of or behind it. The
skip plays last, and directs his men from the end that is being
played to. The weakest player in the four is invariably played
in the second place (the &ldquo;soft second&rdquo;). Most frequently he
will be required either to protect a good bowl or to rectify a
possible error of the leader. His official duty is to mark the game
on the scoring card when the leader announces the result. He
keeps a record of the play of both sides. The third player, who
does any measuring that may be necessary to determine which
bowl or bowls may be nearest the jack, holds almost as responsible
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id="page348"></a>348</span>
a position as the captain, whose place, in fact, he takes whenever
the skip is temporarily absent. The duties of the skip will
already be understood by inference. Before he leaves the jack
to play, he must observe the situation of the bowls of both sides.
It may be that he has to draw a shot with the utmost nicety
to save the end, or even the match, or to lay a cunningly contrived
block, or to &ldquo;fire&rdquo;&mdash;that is, to deliver his bowl almost
dead straight at the object, with enough force to kill the bias
for the moment. The score having been counted, the leader
then places the mat, usually within a yard of the spot where
the jack lay at the conclusion of the head, and throws the jack
in the opposite direction for a fresh end. On small greens play,
for obvious reasons, generally takes place from each ditch. The
players play in couples&mdash;the first on both sides, then the second
and so on. The leader having played his first bowl, the opposing
leader will play his first and so on. As a rule, a match consists
of 21 points, or 21 ends (or a few more, by agreement).</p>

<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:920px; height:366px" src="images/img348.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Drawing.&emsp;&emsp;</td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Guarding.</td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Figs.</span> 3.&mdash;Trailing.&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;</td>
<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs.</span> 4.&mdash;Driving.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="4">(In every case F is the Footer, B the Bowl, J the Jack.)</td></tr></table>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Certain points in the play call for notice. In throwing the jack,
the leader is bound to throw (<i>i.e.</i> roll) a legal jack. A legal jack
must travel at least 25 yds. from the footer and not come to rest
within 2 yds. of either side boundary; but it may be thrown as far
beyond this as the leader chooses, provided that it does not run
within 2 yds. of the end ditch or either side boundary. In English
practice the leader is entitled to a second throw if he fail to roll a
legal jack at his first attempt; should he fail again, the right to
throw passes to his opponent, but not the right of playing first.
On Scottish greens the leader has only a single throw. A legal jack
should not be interfered with except by the course of play. Should
the jack be driven towards the side boundary, it is legitimate for a
player to cause his bowl to draw outside of the dividing string,
provided that when it has ceased running it shall have come to rest
entirely within his own space. If it stop on the string, or outside
of it, the bowl is &ldquo;dead&rdquo; and must be removed to the bank. A
&ldquo;toucher&rdquo; bowl is a characteristic of the Scottish game to which
great exception is taken by many English clubs. Should a bowl running
jackwards touch the jack, however slightly, it is called a toucher
and must be marked by the skip with a chalk cross as soon as it
is at rest. Such a bowl is alive until the end is finished wherever it
may lie, within the limits of the space. Even if it run into the ditch
or be driven in by another bowl, it will yet count as alive. A bowl,
however, that is forced on to the jack by another is not a toucher.
The feat of hitting the jack is so common that it really calls for
no special reward. Difference of opinion prevails as to the condition
of the jack after it has been driven into the ditch. According to
Scottish rules, unless it has been forced clean out of bounds, such
a jack is still alive. On most English greens it is a &ldquo;dead&rdquo; jack and
the end void. Every bowler should learn both forehand and backhand
play. In forehand play the bowl as it courses to the jack
describes its segment of a circle on the right, in backhand play
on the left. In both styles the biased side must always be the inner.</p>

<p>In the United Kingdom the regular bowling season extends from May
day till the end of September or the middle of October. At its close
the green must be carefully examined, weeds uprooted, worn patches
re-turfed, and the whole laid under a winter blanket of silver-sand.</p>

<p>On Scottish greens the game of points is frequently played, but
it is rarely seen on English greens. Its main object is to perfect
the proficiency of players in certain departments of bowls proper.
There are four sections in the game, namely, drawing, guarding,
trailing and driving. In <i>drawing</i> (fig. 1), the object is to draw as near
as possible to the jack, the player&rsquo;s bowl passing outside of two other
bowls placed 5 ft. apart in a horizontal line 15 ft. from the jack,
without touching either of them. Three points are scored if the bowl
come to rest within 1 ft. of the jack, two points if within 2 ft., and one
point if within 3 ft. Circles of these radii are usually marked around
the jack for convenience sake. In <i>guarding</i> (fig. 2), two jacks are
laid at the far end of the green 12 ft. apart in a vertical line. A
thread is then pinned down between them, and on each side of this
thread three others are pinned down parallel with it and 6 in. apart
from each other. A bowl that comes to rest on the central line, or
within 6 in. of it, counts three points, a bowl 12 in. away two points,
and a bowl 18 in. off one point. In <i>trailing</i> (fig. 3), two bowls are laid
on the turf 3 ft. apart, and straight lines are chalked from bowl to
bowl across their back and front faces, and a jack is then deposited
equidistant from each bowl and immediately before the front line.
A semicircle is then drawn behind the bowls with a radius of 9 ft.
from the jack. Three points are given to the bowl that trails the
jack over both lines into the semicircle and goes over them itself.
If a bowl trail the jack over both lines, but only itself cross the first;
or if it pass both lines, but the jack cross only the first, two points are
awarded. A bowl passing between the jack and either of the stationary
bowls, and passing over the back line; or touching the jack, yet
not trailing it past the first line, but itself crossing the back line;
or trailing the jack over the front line without crossing it itself,
receives one point. In no case must the stationary bowls be touched,
or the semicircle crossed by the trailed jack or played bowls. In
<i>driving</i> (fig. 4), two bowls are laid down 2 ft. apart, and then a jack
is placed in front of them, 15 in. apart from each, and occupying the
position of the apex of an inverted pyramid. The player who drives
the jack into the ditch between the two bowls scores three. If he
moves the jack, but does not carry it through to the ditch, he scores
two. If he pass between the jack and either bowl he scores one,
although it is not easy to see what driving he has done. The played
bowl must itself run into the ditch without touching either of the
stationary bowls. It is obvious that the points game demands an
ideally perfect green.</p>

<p>See W.W. Mitchell, <i>Manual of Bowl-playing</i> (Glasgow, 1880);
<i>Laws of the Game issued by the Scottish B.A.</i> (1893, et sqq.); H.J.
Dingley, <i>Touchers and Rubs</i> (Glasgow, 1893); Sam Aylwin, <i>The
Gentle Art of Bowling</i>, with 26 diagrams (London, 1904); James A.
Manson, <i>The Bowler&rsquo;s Handbook</i> (London, 1906).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(J. A. M.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWNESS-ON-WINDERMERE,<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> an urban district in the
Appleby parliamentary division of Westmorland, England, on the
east shore of Windermere, 1¼ m. S.W. of Windermere station on
the London &amp; North-Western railway. Together with the town
of Windermere it forms an urban district (pop. 5061 in 1901), but
the two towns were separate until 1905. Its situation is fine,
the lake-shore here rising sharply, while at this point the lake
narrows and is studded with islands. The low surrounding hills
are richly wooded, and a number of country seats stand upon
them. Bowness lies at the head of a small bay, is served by
the lake-steamers of the Furness Railway Company, and is a
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page349" id="page349"></a>349</span>
favourite yachting, boating, fishing and tourist centre. The
church of St Martin is ancient, and contains stained glass from
Cartmel priory in Furness. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Windermere</a></span>.)</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWRING, SIR JOHN<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (1792-1872), English linguist, political
economist and miscellaneous writer, was born at Exeter, on the
17th of October 1792, of an old Puritan family. In early life he
came under the influence of Jeremy Bentham. He did not,
however, share his master&rsquo;s contempt for <i>belles-lettres</i>, but was a
diligent student of literature and foreign languages, especially
those of eastern Europe. As a linguist he ranked with Mezzofanti
and von Gabelentz among the greatest of the world. The
first-fruits of his study of foreign literature appeared in <i>Specimens
of the Russian Poets</i> (1821-1823). These were speedily followed
by <i>Batavian Anthology</i> (1824), <i>Ancient Poetry and Romances of
Spain</i> (1824), <i>Specimens of the Polish Poets</i>, and <i>Servian Popular
Poetry</i>, both in 1827. During this period he began to contribute
to the newly founded <i>Westminster Review</i>, of which he was
appointed editor in 1825. By his contributions to the <i>Review</i>
he obtained considerable reputation as political economist and
parliamentary reformer. He advocated in its pages the cause
of free trade long before it was popularized by Richard Cobden
and John Bright. He pleaded earnestly in behalf of parliamentary
reform, Catholic emancipation and popular education.
In 1828 he visited Holland, where the university of Groningen
conferred on him the degree of doctor of laws. In the following
year he was in Denmark, preparing for the publication of a collection
of Scandinavian poetry. Bowring, who had been the trusted
friend of Bentham during his life, was appointed his literary
executor, and was charged with the task of preparing a collected
edition of his works. This appeared in eleven volumes in 1843.
Meanwhile Bowring had entered parliament in 1835 as member
for Kilmarnock; and in the following year he was appointed
head of a government commission to be sent to France to inquire
into the actual state of commerce between the two countries.
He was engaged in similar investigations in Switzerland, Italy,
Syria and some of the German states. The results of these
missions appeared in a series of reports laid before the House of
Commons. After a retirement of four years he sat in parliament
from 1841 till 1849 as member for Bolton. During this busy
period he found leisure for literature, and published in 1843 a
translation of the <i>Manuscript of the Queen&rsquo;s Court</i>, a collection of
old Bohemian lyrics, &amp;c. In 1849 he was appointed British
consul at Canton, and superintendent of trade in China, a post
which he held for four years. After his return he distinguished
himself as an advocate of the decimal system, and published
a work entitled <i>The Decimal System in Numbers, Coins and
Accounts</i> (1854). The introduction of the florin as a preparatory
step was chiefly due to his efforts. Knighted in 1854, he was
again sent the same year to Hong-Kong as governor, invested
with the supreme military and naval power. It was during his
governorship that a dispute broke out with the Chinese; and the
irritation caused by his &ldquo;spirited&rdquo; or high-handed policy led
to the second war with China. In 1855 he visited Siam, and
negotiated with the king a treaty of commerce. After the usual
five years of service he retired and received a pension. His last
employment by the English government was as a commissioner
to Italy in 1861, to report on British commercial relations with
the new kingdom. Sir John Bowring subsequently accepted
the appointment of minister plenipotentiary and envoy extraordinary
from the Hawaiian government to the courts of Europe,
and in this capacity negotiated treaties with Belgium, Holland,
Italy, Spain and Switzerland. In addition to the works already
named he published&mdash;<i>Poetry of the Magyars</i> (1830);
<i>Cheskian Anthology</i> (1832); <i>The Kingdom and People of Siam</i> (1857);
a translation of <i>Peter Schlemihl</i> (1824);
translations from the Hungarian poet, Alexander Petöfi (1866); and various pamphlets.
He was elected F.R.S. and F.R.G.S., and received the decorations
of several foreign orders of knighthood. He died at Claremont,
near Exeter, on the 23rd of November 1872. His valuable
collection of coleoptera was presented to the British Museum by
his second son, Lewin Bowring, a well-known Anglo-Indian
administrator; and his third son, E.A. Bowring, member of
parliament for Exeter from 1868 to 1874, became known in the
literary world as an able translator.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>Sir John Bowring&rsquo;s <i>Recollections</i> were edited by Lewin Bowring
(d. 1910) in 1877.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWTELL,<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> a medieval term in architecture for a round or
corniced moulding; the word is a variant of &ldquo;boltel,&rdquo; which is
probably the diminutive of &ldquo;bolt,&rdquo; the shaft of an arrow or
javelin. A &ldquo;roving&rdquo; bowtell is one which passes up the side of a
bench end and round a finial, the term &ldquo;roving&rdquo; being applied to
that which follows the line of a curve.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOWYER, WILLIAM<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (1663-1737), English printer, was born
in 1663, apprenticed to a printer in 1679, made a liveryman of the
Stationers&rsquo; Company in 1700, and nominated as one of the
twenty printers allowed by the Star Chamber. He was burned
out in the great fire of 1712, but his loss was partly made good by
the subscription of friends and fellow craftsmen, as recorded on a
tablet in Stationers&rsquo; Hall, and in 1713 he returned to his Whitefriars
shop and became the leading printer of his day. He died on
the 27th of December 1737.</p>

<p>His son, <span class="sc">William Bowyer</span> (1699-1777), was born in London
on the 19th of December 1699. He was educated at St John&rsquo;s
College, Cambridge, and in 1722 became a partner in his father&rsquo;s
business. In 1729 he was appointed printer of the votes of the
House of Commons, and in 1736 printer to the Society of Antiquaries,
of which he was elected a fellow in 1737. In 1737 he
took as apprentice John Nichols, who was to be his successor
and biographer. In 1761 Bowyer became printer to the Royal
Society, and in 1767 printer of the rolls of the House of Lords and
the journals of the House of Commons. He died on the 13th of
November 1777, leaving unfinished a number of large works and
among them the reprint of Domesday Book. He wrote a great
many tracts and pamphlets, edited, arranged and published a
host of books, but perhaps his principal work was an edition of
the New Testament in Greek, with notes. His generous bequests
in favour of his own profession are administered by the Stationers&rsquo;
Company, of which he became a liveryman in 1738, and in whose
hall is his portrait bust and a painting of his father. He was
known as &ldquo;the learned printer.&rdquo;</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOX<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="puxos">&#960;&#973;&#958;&#959;&#962;</span>, Lat. <i>buxus</i>, box-wood; cf. <span class="grk" title="puxis">&#960;&#973;&#958;&#953;&#962;</span>, a pyx),
the most varied of all receptacles. A box may be square, oblong,
round or oval, or of an even less normal shape; it usually opens
by raising, sliding or removing the lid, which may be fastened
by a catch, hasp or lock. Whatever its shape or purpose or the
material of which it is fashioned, it is the direct descendant
of the chest, one of the most ancient articles of domestic furniture.
Its uses are infinite, and the name, preceded by a qualifying
adjective, has been given to many objects of artistic or antiquarian
interest.</p>

<p>Of the boxes which possess some attraction beyond their
immediate purpose the feminine work-box is the commonest.
It is usually fitted with a tray divided into many small compartments,
for needles, reels of silk and cotton and other
necessaries of stitchery. The date of its introduction is in considerable
doubt, but 17th-century examples have come down
to us, with covers of silk, stitched with beads and adorned with
embroidery. In the 18th century no lady was without her
work-box, and, especially in the second half of that period,
much taste and elaborate pains were expended upon the case,
which was often exceedingly dainty and elegant. These boxes
are ordinarily portable, but sometimes form the top of a table.</p>

<p>But it is as a receptacle for snuff that the box has taken its
most distinguished and artistic form. The snuff-box, which is
now little more than a charming relic of a disagreeable practice,
was throughout the larger part of the 18th century the indispensable
companion of every man of birth and breeding. It
long survived his sword, and was in frequent use until nearly
the middle of the 19th century. The jeweller, the enameller
and the artist bestowed infinite pains upon what was quite as
often a delicate bijou as a piece of utility; fops and great
personages possessed numbers of snuff-boxes, rich and more
ordinary, their selection being regulated by their dress and by
the relative splendour of the occasion. From the cheapest wood
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page350" id="page350"></a>350</span>
that was suitable&mdash;at one time potato-pulp was extensively
used&mdash;to a frame of gold encased with diamonds, a great variety
of materials was employed. Tortoise-shell was a favourite,
and owing to its limpid lustre it was exceedingly effective.
Mother-of-pearl was also used, together with silver, in its natural
state or gilded. Costly gold boxes were often enriched with
enamels or set with diamonds or other precious stones, and sometimes
the lid was adorned with a portrait, a classical vignette,
or a tiny miniature, often some choice work by an old master.
After snuff-taking had ceased to be general it lingered for some
time among diplomatists, either because&mdash;as Talleyrand explained&mdash;they
found a ceremonious pinch to be a useful aid to
reflection in a business interview, or because monarchs retained
the habit of bestowing snuff-boxes upon ambassadors and other
intermediaries, who could not well be honoured in any other
way. It is, indeed, to the cessation of the habit of snuff-taking
that we may trace much of modern lavishness in the distribution
of decorations. To be invited to take a pinch from a monarch&rsquo;s
snuff-box was a distinction almost equivalent to having one&rsquo;s
ear pulled by Napoleon. At the coronation of George IV. of
England, Messrs Rundell &amp; Bridge, the court jewellers, were paid
£8205 for snuff-boxes for foreign ministers. Now that the snuff-box
is no longer used it is collected by wealthy amateurs or deposited
in museums, and especially artistic examples command
large sums. George, duke of Cambridge (1819-1904), possessed
an important collection; a Louis XV. gold box was sold by
auction after his death for £2000.</p>

<p>A jewel-box is a receptacle for trinkets. It may take a very
modest form, covered in leather and lined with satin, or it may
reach the monumental proportions of the jewel cabinets which
were made for Marie Antoinette, one of which is at Windsor,
and another at Versailles, the work of Schwerdfeger as cabinet-maker,
Degault as miniature-painter, and Thomire as chaser.</p>

<p>A strong-box is a receptacle for money, deeds and securities.
Its place has been taken in modern life by the safe. Some of those
which have survived, such as that of Sir Thomas Bodley in the
Bodleian library, possess locks with an extremely elaborate
mechanism contrived in the under-side of the lid.</p>

<p>The knife-box is one of the most charming of the minor pieces
of furniture which we owe to the artistic taste and mechanical
ingenuity of the English cabinet-makers of the last quarter of
the 18th century. Some of the most elegant were the work of
Adam, Hepplewhite and Sheraton. Occasionally flat-topped
boxes, they were most frequently either vase-shaped, or tall and
narrow with a sloping lid necessitated by a series of raised stages
for exhibiting the handles of knives and the bowls of spoons.
Mahogany and satinwood were the woods most frequently employed,
and they were occasionally inlaid with marqueterie
or edged with boxwood. These graceful receptacles still exist
in large numbers; they are often converted into stationery
cabinets.</p>

<p>The Bible-box, usually of the 17th century, but now and again
more ancient, probably obtained its name from the fact that it
was of a size to hold a large Bible. It often has a carved or
incised lid.</p>

<p>The powder-box and the patch-box were respectively receptacles
for the powder and the patches of the 18th century;
the former was the direct ancestor of the puff-box of the modern
dressing-table.</p>

<p>The <i>étui</i> is a cylindrical box or case of very various materials,
often of pleasing shape or adornment, for holding sewing materials
or small articles of feminine use. It was worn on the châtelaine.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOXING<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (M.E. <i>box</i>, a blow, probably from Dan. <i>bask</i>, a buffet),
the art of attack and defence with the fists protected by padded
gloves, as distinguished from pugilism, in which the bare fists,
or some kind of light gloves affording little moderation of the
blow, are employed. The ancient Greeks used a sort of glove
in practice, but, although far less formidable than the terrible
caestus worn in serious encounters, it was by no means so mild
an implement as the modern boxing-glove, the invention of which
is traditionally ascribed to Jack Broughton (1705-1789), &ldquo;the
father of British pugilism.&rdquo; In any case gloves were first used
in his time, though only in practice, all prize-fights being decided
with bare fists. Broughton, who was for years champion
of England, also drew up the rules by which prize-fights were
for many years regulated, and no doubt, with the help of the
newly invented gloves, imparted instruction in boxing to the
young aristocrats of his day. The most popular teacher of the
art was, however, John Jackson (1769-1845), called &ldquo;Gentleman
Jackson,&rdquo; who was champion from 1795 to 1800, and who is
credited with imparting to boxing its scientific principles, such
as countering, accurate judging of distance in hitting, and
agility on the feet. Tom Moore, the poet, in his <i>Memoirs</i>,
asserted that Jackson &ldquo;made more than a thousand a year
by teaching sparring.&rdquo; Among his pupils was Lord Byron, who,
when chided for keeping company with a pugilist, insisted that
Jackson&rsquo;s manners were &ldquo;infinitely superior to those of the
fellows of the college whom I meet at the high table,&rdquo; and
referred to him in the following lines in <i>Hints from Horace</i>:&mdash;</p>

<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
<p>&ldquo;And men unpractised in exchanging knocks</p>
<p class="i05">Must go to Jackson ere they dare to box.&rdquo;</p>
</div> </td></tr></table>

<p class="noind">His rooms in Bond Street were crowded with men of birth and
distinction, and when the allied monarchs visited London he
was entrusted with the management of a boxing carnival with
which they were vastly pleased. In 1814 the Pugilistic Club,
the meeting-place of the aristocratic sporting element, was
formed, but the high-water mark of the popularity of boxing
had been reached, and it declined rapidly, although throughout
the country considerable interest continued to be manifested
in prize-fighting.</p>

<p>The sport of modern boxing, as distinguished from pugilism,
may be said to date from the year 1866, when the public had
become disgusted with the brutality and unfair practices of the
professional &ldquo;bruisers,&rdquo; and the laws against prize-fighting
began to be more rigidly enforced. In that year the &ldquo;Amateur
Athletic Club&rdquo; was founded, principally through the efforts
of John G. Chambers (1843-1883), who, in conjunction with the
8th marquess of Queensberry, drew up a code of laws (known
as the Queensberry Rules) which govern all glove contests in
Great Britain, and were also authoritative in America until
the adoption of the boxing rules of the Amateur Athletic Union
of America. In 1867 Lord Queensberry presented cups for the
British amateur championships at the recognized weights.</p>

<p>For the history of pugilism in classic antiquity and an account
of modern prize-fighting see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pugilism</a></span>. At present two kinds
of boxing contests are in vogue, that for a limited number of
rounds (as in the amateur championships) and that for endurance,
in which the one who cannot continue the fight loses. Endurance
contests, which contain the essential element of the old prize-fights,
are now indulged in only by professionals. Among
amateurs boxing is far less popular than it once was, owing to
the importance placed upon brute strength, and the prevailing
ambition of the modern boxer to &ldquo;knock out&rdquo; his opponent,
<i>i.e.</i> reduce him to a state of insensibility. Even in 3-round
matches between gentlemen, in which points win, and there is
therefore no need to knock an opponent senseless, it is nevertheless
a common practice to strike a dazed and reeling adversary
a heavy blow with a view to ending the battle at once. During
the annual boxing competitions between Oxford and Cambridge
more than half the bouts have been known to end in this manner.
Undoubtedly the prettiest boxing is seen when two men proficient
in the art indulge in a practice bout&mdash;or &ldquo;sparring.&rdquo;</p>

<p>Boxing is the art of hitting without getting hit. The boxers
face each other just out of reach and balanced equally on both
feet, the left from 10 to 20 in. in advance of the right. The left
foot is planted flat on the floor, while the right heel is raised
slightly from it. The left side of the body is turned a little
towards the opponent and the right shoulder slightly depressed.
When the hands are clenched inside the gloves the thumb is
doubled over the second and third fingers to avoid a sprain when
hitting. The general position of the guard is a matter of individual
taste. In the &ldquo;crouch,&rdquo; affected by many American
professionals, the right hip is thrust forward and the body bent
over towards the right, while the left arm is kept well stretched
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id="page351"></a>351</span>
out to keep the opponent at a distance. No good master, however,
teaches a beginner any other than the upright position.
Some boxers stand with the right foot forward, a practice
common in the 18th century, which gives freer play with the
right hand but is rather unstable. A boxer should stand lightly
on his feet, ready to advance or retreat on the instant, using short
steps, advancing with the left foot first and retreating with the
right. Attacks are either simple or secondary. Simple attacks
consist in straight leads, <i>i.e.</i> blows aimed with or without preliminary
feints, at some part of the opponent&rsquo;s body or head.
All other attacks are either &ldquo;counters&rdquo; or returns after a guard
or &ldquo;block.&rdquo; A counter is a lead carried out just as one is
attacked, the object being to block (parry) the blow and land on
the opponent at the same time. Counters are often carried out
in connexion with a side-step, a slip or a crouch. In hitting, a
boxer seeks to exert the greatest force at the instant of impact.
Blows may be either straight, with or without the weight of the
body behind them (&ldquo;straight from the shouder&rdquo; hits); jabs,
short blows (usually with the left hand when at close quarters);
hooks, or side-blows with bent arm; upper cuts (short swinging
blows from beneath to the adversary&rsquo;s chin); chops (short blows
from above); punches (usually at close quarters, with the
right hand); or swings (round-arm blows, usually delivered
with a partial twist of the body to augment the force of the
blow). Of the dangerous blows, which often result in a knockout,
or in seriously weakening an adversary, the following may
be mentioned:&mdash;on the pit of the stomach, called the solar
plexus, from the sensitive network of nerves situated there; a
blow on the point of the chin, having a tendency slightly to
paralyse the brain; a blow under the ear, painful and often
resulting in partial helplessness; and one directly over the heart,
kidney or liver. As a boxer is allowed ten seconds after being
knocked down in which to rise, an experienced ring-fighter will
drop on one knee when partially stunned, remaining in that
position in order to recover until the referee has counted nine.</p>

<p>Guarding is done with the arm or hand, either open or shut.
If a blow is caught or stopped short it is called <i>blocking</i>, but
a blow may also be shoved aside, or avoided altogether by
<i>slipping, i.e.</i> moving the head quickly to one side, or by ducking
and allowing the adversary&rsquo;s swing to pass harmlessly over
the head. Still another method of avoiding a blow without
guarding is to bend back the head or body so as narrowly to
escape the opponent&rsquo;s glove.</p>

<p>The rules of the Amateur Boxing Association (founded 1884)
contain the following provisions. &ldquo;An amateur is one who has
never competed for a money prize or staked bet with or against a
professional for any prize, except with the express sanction of the
A.B.A., and who has never taught, pursued or assisted in the
practice of athletic exercises as a means of obtaining a livelihood.&rdquo;
The ring shall be roped and between 12 and 24 ft. square.
No spikes shall be worn on shoes. Boxers are divided into the
following classes by weight:&mdash;Bantam, not exceeding 8 st. 4 lb
(116 lb); Feather, not exceeding 9 st. (126 lb); Light, not
exceeding 10 st. (140 lb); Middle, not exceeding 11 st. 4 &#8468; (158
lb); and Heavy, any weight above. There shall be two judges,
a referee and a timekeeper. The votes of the judges decide the
winner of a bout, unless they disagree, in which case the referee
has the deciding vote. In case of doubt he may order an extra
round of two minutes&rsquo; duration. Each match is for three rounds,
the first two lasting three minutes and the third four, with one
minute rest between the rounds. A competitor failing to come
up at the call of time loses the match. When a competitor draws
a bye he must box for a specified time with an opponent chosen
by the judges. A competitor is allowed one assistant (second)
only, and no advice or coaching during the progress of a round is
permitted. Unless one competitor is unable to respond to the
call of time, or is obliged to stop before the match is over, the
judges decide the winner by <i>points</i>, which are for attack, comprising
successful hits cleanly delivered, and defence, comprising
guarding, slipping, ducking, counter-hitting and getting away in
time to avoid a return. When the points are equal the decision
is given in favour of the boxer who has done the most leading, <i>i.e.</i>
has been the more aggressive. Fouls are hitting below the
belt, kicking, hitting with the open hand, the side of the hand,
the wrist, elbow or shoulder, wrestling or &ldquo;roughing&rdquo; on the
ropes, <i>i.e.</i> unnecessary shouldering and jostling.</p>

<p>The boxing rules of the American Amateur Athletic Association
differ slightly from the British. The ring is roped but must
be from 16 to 24 ft. square. Gloves must not be worn more than
8 oz. in weight. The recognized classes by weight are: Bantam,
105 &#8468; and under; Feather, 115 &#8468; and under; Light, 135 lb
and under; Welter, 145 &#8468; and under; Middle, 158 &#8468; and under;
and Heavy, over 158 &#8468; The rules for officials and rounds are
identical with the British, except that only in final bouts does the
last round last four minutes. Two &ldquo;seconds&rdquo; are allowed. The
rules for points and fouls coincide with the British. The amateur
rules are very strict, and any one who competes in a boxing
contest of more than four rounds is suspended from membership
in the Athletic Association.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><i>Glossary</i> of terms not mentioned above:&mdash;<i>Break away</i>, to get away
from the adversary, usually a command from the referee when the
men clinch. <i>Break ground</i>, retire diagonally to right or left. <i>Catch-weight</i>,
any weight. <i>Corners</i>, the opposite angles of the square
&ldquo;ring,&rdquo; in which the boxers rest between the rounds. <i>Cross-counter</i>,
a blow in which the right or left arm crosses that of the adversary
as he leads off; the arm is slightly curved to get round that of the
opponent but is straightened at the moment of impact. <i>Clinching</i>,
grappling after an exchange of blows; when breaking from a clinch
one tries to pin the adversary&rsquo;s hands in order to prevent his hitting
at close quarters. <i>Drawing</i> an opponent, enticing him by leaving
an apparent opening into making an attack for which a counter is
prepared. <i>Fiddling</i>, forward and back movements of the arms at
the beginning of a round, a part of sparring for an opening. <i>Footwork</i>,
the manner in which a boxer uses his feet. <i>In-fighting</i>, boxing
at very close quarters. <i>Mark</i>, the pit of the stomach. <i>Side-step</i>,
springing quickly to one side to avoid a blow, the movement being
usually followed up by a counter attack. <i>Timing</i>, a blow delivered
on the enemy&rsquo;s preparation of an attack of his own, but more quickly.</p>

<p>See <i>Boxing</i>, by R. Allanson Winn (Isthmian Library, London, 1897);
<i>Boxing</i>, by Wm. Elder (Spalding&rsquo;s Athletic Library, New York, 1902)
(these two books are excellent for the technicalities of boxing).
The article &ldquo;Boxing,&rdquo; by B. Jno. Angle and G.W. Barroll, in the
<i>Encyclopaedia of Sport</i>; <i>Boxing</i>, by J.C. Trotter (Oval Series,
London, 1896); <i>Fencing, Boxing and Wrestling</i>, in the Badminton
Library (London, 1892).</p>
</div>

<p><span class="sc">French Boxing</span> (<i>la boxe française</i>) dates from about 1830.
It is more like the ancient Greek <i>pankration</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pugilism</a></span>) than is
British boxing, as not only striking with the fists, but also kicking
with the feet, butting with the head and wrestling are allowed.
It is a development of the old sport of <i>savate</i>, in which the feet,
and not the hands, were used in attack. Lessons in savate,
which was practised especially by roughs, were usually given in
some low resort, and there were no respectable teachers. While
Paris was restricted to savate, another sport, called <i>chausson</i> or
<i>jeu marseillais</i>, was practised in the south of France, especially
among the soldiers, in which blows of the fist as well as kicks were
exchanged, and the kicks were given higher than in savate, in
the stomach or even the face. It was an excellent exercise, but
could hardly be reckoned a serious means of defence, for the
high kicks usually fell short, and the upward blows of the fist
could not be compared with the terrible sledge-hammer blows
of the English boxers. Alexandre Dumas <i>père</i> says that Charles
Lecour first conceived the idea of combining English boxing with
savate. For this purpose he went to England, and took lessons
of Adams and Smith, the London boxers. He then returned
to Paris, about 1852, and opened a school to teach the sport
since called <i>la boxe française</i>. Around him, and two provincial
instructors who came to Paris about this time with similar ideas,
there grew up a large number of sportsmen, who between 1845
and 1855 brought French boxing to its highest development.
Among others who gave public exhibitions was Lecour&rsquo;s brother
Hubert, who although rather undersized, was quick as lightning,
and had an English blow and a French kick that were truly
terrible. Charles Ducros was another whose style of boxing,
more in the English fashion, but with low kicks about
his opponent&rsquo;s shins, made a name for himself. Later came
Vigneron, a &ldquo;strong man,&rdquo; whose style, though slow, was
severe in its punishment. About 1856 the police interfered in
these fights, and Lecour and Vigneron had to cease giving public
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page352" id="page352"></a>352</span>
exhibitions and devote themselves to teaching. Towards 1862
a new boxer, J. Charlemont, was not only very clever with his
fists and feet, but an excellent teacher, and the author of a
treatise on the art. Lecour, Vigneron and Charlemont may be
said to have created <i>la boxe française</i>, which, for defence <i>at
equal weights</i>, the French claim to be better than the English.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>L&rsquo;Art de la boxe française et de la canne</i>, by J. Charlemont
(Paris, 1899); <i>The French Method of the Noble Art of Self Defence</i>,
by Georges d&rsquo;Amoric (London, 1898).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOXWOOD,<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> the wood obtained from the genus <i>Buxus</i>, the
principal species being the well-known tree or shrub, <i>B. sempervirens</i>,
the common box, in general use for borders of garden
walks, ornamental parterres, &amp;c. The other source of the
ordinary boxwood of commerce is <i>B. balearica</i>, which yields the
variety known as Turkey boxwood. The common box is grown
throughout Great Britain (perhaps native in the chalk-hills of
the south of England), in the southern part of the European
continent generally, and extends through Persia into India,
where it is found growing on the slopes of the western Himalayas.
There has been much discussion as to whether it is a true native
of Britain. Writing more than 200 years ago, John Ray, the
author of the important <i>Historia Plantarum</i>, says, &ldquo;The Box
grows wild on Boxhill, hence the name; also at Boxwell, on the
Cotteswold Hills in Gloucestershire, and at Boxley in Kent....
It grows plentifully on the chalk hills near Dunstable.&rdquo; On the
other hand the box is not wild in the Channel Islands, and in the
north of France, Holland and Belgium is found mainly in hedgerows
and near cultivation, and it may have been one of the many
introductions owed to the Romans. Only a very small proportion
of the wood suitable for industrial uses is now obtained in Great
Britain. The box is a very slow-growing plant, adding not more
than 1½ or 2 in. to its diameter in twenty years, and on an average
attaining only a height of 16 ft., with a mean diameter of 10½ in.
The leaves of this species are small, oval, leathery in texture and
of a deep glossy green colour. <i>B. balearica</i> is a tree of considerable
size, attaining to a height of 80 ft., with leaves three times
larger than those of the common box. It is a native of the islands
of the Mediterranean, and grows in Turkey, Asia Minor, and
around the shores of the Black Sea, and is supposed to be the
chief source of the boxwood which comes into European commerce
by way of Constantinople. The wood of both species possesses
a delicate yellow colour; it is very dense in structure and
has a fine uniform grain, which has given it unique value for the
purposes of the wood-engraver. A large amount is used in the
manufacture of measuring rules, various mathematical instruments,
flutes and other musical instruments, as well as for turning
into many minor articles, and for inlaying, and it is a favourite
wood for small carvings. The use of boxwood for turnery and
musical instruments is mentioned by Pliny, Virgil and Ovid.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOYACÁ,<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bojacá</span>, an inland department of Colombia,
bounded by the departments of Santander and Cundinamarca
on the N., W. and S., and the republic of Venezuela on the E.,
and having an area of 33,321 sq. m., including the Casanare
territory. Pop. (1899, estimate) 508,940. The department is
very mountainous, heavily forested and rich in minerals. The
famous Muso emerald mines are located in the western part of
Boyacá. The capital, Tunja (pop. 1902, 10,000), is situated in
the Eastern Cordilleras, 9054 ft. above sea-level, and has a cool,
temperate climate, though only 5½° N. of the equator. It was
an important place in colonial times, and occupies the site of one
of the Indian towns of this region (Hunsa), which had acquired
a considerable degree of civilization before the discovery of
America. Other towns of note in the department are Chiquinquira
(20,000), Moniquira (18,000), Sogamoso (10,787), and
Boyacá (7000), where on the 7th of August 1819 Bolivar defeated
the Spanish army and secured the independence of New Granada.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOYAR<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (Russ. <i>boyarin</i>, plur. <i>boyare</i>), a dignity of Old Russia
conterminous with the history of the country. Originally the
boyars were the intimate friends and confidential advisers of
the Russian prince, the superior members of his <i>druzhina</i> or
bodyguard, his comrades and champions. They were divided
into classes according to rank, most generally determined by
personal merit and service. Thus we hear of the &ldquo;oldest,&rdquo;
&ldquo;elder&rdquo; and the &ldquo;younger&rdquo; boyars. At first the dignity
seems to have been occasionally, but by no means invariably,
hereditary. At a later day the boyars were the chief members
of the prince&rsquo;s <i>duma</i>, or council, like the <i>senatores</i> of Poland
and Lithuania. Their further designation of <i>luchshie lyudi</i> or
&ldquo;the best people&rdquo; proves that they were generally richer than
their fellow subjects. So long as the princes, in their interminable
struggles with the barbarians of the Steppe, needed the assistance
of the towns, &ldquo;the best people&rdquo; of the cities and of the <i>druzhina</i>
proper mingled freely together both in war and commerce; but
after Yaroslav&rsquo;s crushing victory over the Petchenegs in 1036
beneath the walls of Kiev, the two classes began to draw apart,
and a political and economical difference between the members
of the princely <i>druzhina</i> and the aristocracy of the towns becomes
discernible. The townsmen devote themselves henceforth more
exclusively to commerce, while the <i>druzhina</i> asserts the privileges
of an exclusively military caste with a primary claim upon the
land. Still later, when the courts of the northern grand dukes
were established, the boyars appear as the first grade of a fullblown
court aristocracy with the exclusive privilege of possessing
land and serfs. Hence their title of <i>dvoryane</i> (courtiers), first used
in the 12th century. On the other hand there was no distinction,
as in Germany, between the <i>Dienst Adel</i> (nobility of service)
and the simple <i>Adel</i>. The Russian boyardom had no corporate
or class privileges, (1) because their importance was purely local
(the dignity of the principality determining the degree of dignity
of the boyars), (2) because of their inalienable right of transmigration
from one prince to another at will, which prevented the
formation of a settled aristocracy, and (3) because birth did not
determine but only facilitated the attainment of high rank, <i>e.g.</i>
the son of a boyar was not a boyar born, but could more easily attain
to boyardom, if of superior personal merit. It was reserved
for Peter the Great to transform the <i>boyarstvo</i> or boyardom into
something more nearly resembling the aristocracy of the West.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Alexander Markevich, <i>The History of Rank-priority in the
Realm of Muscovy in the 15th-18th Centuries</i> (Russ.) (Odessa, 1888);
V. Klyuchevsky, <i>The Boyar Duma of Ancient Russia</i> (Russ.) (Moscow,
1888).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOY-BISHOP,<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> the name given to the &ldquo;bishop of the boys&rdquo;
(<i>episcopus puerorum</i> or <i>innocentium</i>, sometimes <i>episcopus
scholariorum</i> or <i>chorestarum</i>), who, according to a custom very
wide-spread in the middle ages, was chosen in connexion with
the festival of Holy Innocents. For the origin of the curious
authority of the boy-bishop and of the rites over which he
presided, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fools, Feast of</a></span>. In England the boy-bishop
was elected on December 6, the feast of St Nicholas, the patron
of children, and his authority lasted till Holy Innocents&rsquo; day
(December 28). The election made, the lad was dressed in full
bishop&rsquo;s robes with mitre and crozier and, attended by comrades
dressed as priests, made a circuit of the town blessing the people.
At Salisbury the boy-bishop seems to have actually had ecclesiastical
patronage during his episcopate, and could make valid
appointments. The boy and his colleagues took possession of
the cathedral and performed all the ceremonies and offices
except mass. Originally, it seems, confined to the cathedrals,
the custom spread to nearly all the parishes. Several ecclesiastical
councils had attempted to abolish or to restrain the
abuses of the custom, before it was prohibited by the council
of Basel in 1431. It was, however, too popular to be easily
suppressed. In England it was abolished by Henry VIII. in
1542, revived by Mary in 1552 and finally abolished by Elizabeth.
On the continent it survived longest in Germany, in the so-called
<i>Gregoriusfest</i>, said to have been founded by Gregory IV. in 828
in honour of St Gregory, the patron of schools. A school-boy
was elected bishop, duly vested, and, attended by two boy-deacons
and the town clergy, proceeded to the parish church,
where, after a hymn in honour of St Gregory had been sung, he
preached. At Meiningen this custom survived till 1799.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Brand, <i>Pop. Antiquities of Great Britain</i> (1905); Gasquet,
<i>Parish Life in Medieval England</i> (1906); Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>
(London, 1884), <i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Episcopus puerorum.&rdquo;</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page353" id="page353"></a>353</span></p>
<p><span class="bold">BOYCE, WILLIAM<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> (1710-1779), English musical composer,
the son of a cabinet-maker, was born in London on the 7th of
February 1710. As a chorister in St Paul&rsquo;s he received his early
musical education from Charles King and Dr Maurice Greene,
and he afterwards studied the theory of music under Dr Pepusch.
In 1734, having become organist of Oxford chapel, Vere Street,
Cavendish Square, he set Lord Lansdowne&rsquo;s masque of <i>Peleus
and Thetis</i> to music. In 1736 he left Oxford chapel and was
appointed organist of St Michael&rsquo;s church, Cornhill, and in the
same year he became composer to the chapel royal, and wrote
the music for John Lockman&rsquo;s oratorio <i>David&rsquo;s Lamentation
over Saul and Jonathan</i>. In 1737 he was appointed to conduct
the meetings of the three choirs of Gloucester, Worcester and
Hereford. In 1743 was written the serenata <i>Solomon</i>, in which
occurs the favourite song &ldquo;Softly rise, O southern breeze.&rdquo;
In 1749 he received the degree of doctor of music from the
university of Cambridge, as an acknowledgment of the merit
of his setting of the ode performed at the installation of Henry
Pelham, duke of Newcastle, as chancellor; and in this year he
became organist of All-hallows the Great and Less, Thames Street.
A musical setting to <i>The Chaplet</i>, an entertainment by Moses
Mendez, was Boyce&rsquo;s most successful achievement in this
year. In 1750 he wrote songs for Dryden&rsquo;s <i>Secular Masque</i>
and in 1751 set another piece (<i>The Shepherd&rsquo;s Lottery</i>) by
Mendez. He became master of the king&rsquo;s band in succession
to Greene in 1757, and in 1758 he was appointed principal
organist to the chapel royal. As an ecclesiastical composer
Boyce ranks among the best representatives of the English
school. His two church services and his anthems, of which the
best specimens are <i>By the Waters of Babylon</i> and <i>O, Where shall
Wisdom be found</i>, are frequently performed. It should also
be remembered that he wrote additional accompaniments and
choruses for Purcell&rsquo;s <i>Te Deum</i> and <i>Jubilate</i>, which the earlier
musician had composed for the St Cecilia&rsquo;s day of 1694.
Boyce did this in his capacity of conductor at the annual
festivals of the Sons of the Clergy at St Paul&rsquo;s cathedral, an
office which he had taken in succession to Greene. His twelve
trios for two violins and a bass were long popular. One of
his most valuable services to musical art was his publication
in three volumes quarto of a work on <i>Cathedral Music</i>.
The collection had been begun by Greene, but it was mainly
the work of Boyce. The first volume appeared in 1760 and
the last in 1778. On the 7th of February 1779 Boyce died
from an attack of gout. He was buried under the dome of St
Paul&rsquo;s cathedral.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOYCOTT,<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> the refusal and incitement to refusal to have
commercial or social dealings with any one on whom it is wished
to bring pressure. As merely a form of &ldquo;sending to Coventry&rdquo;
or (in W.E. Gladstone&rsquo;s phrase) &ldquo;exclusive dealing,&rdquo; boycotting
may be, from a legal point of view, unassailable, and as such
has frequently been justified by its original political inventors.
But in practice it has usually taken the form of what is undoubtedly
an illegal conspiracy to injure the person, property
or business of another by unwarrantably putting pressure on all
and sundry to withdraw from him their social or business intercourse.
The word was first used in Ireland, and was derived
from the name of Captain Charles Cunningham Boycott (1832-1897),
agent for the estates of the earl of Erne in Co. Mayo.
For refusing in 1880 to receive rents at figures fixed by the tenants,
Captain Boycott had his life threatened, his servants compelled
to leave him, his fences torn down, his letters intercepted and his
food supplies interfered with. It took a force of 900 soldiers
to protect the Ulster Orangemen (&ldquo;Emergency Men&rdquo;) who
succeeded finally in getting in his crops. He was hooted and
mobbed in the streets, and hanged and burnt in effigy. The
system of boycotting was an essential part of the Irish Nationalist
&ldquo;Plan of Campaign,&rdquo; and was dealt with under the Crimes
Act of 1887. The term soon came into common English use,
and was speedily adopted by the French, Germans, Dutch and
Russians. In the United States this method of &ldquo;persuasion&rdquo;
was taken up by the trade unions about 1886, an employer who
refused their demands being brought to terms by a combination
to refuse to buy his product or do his work, or to deal with any
who did. Various cases have occurred in America in which
labour organizations have pronounced such a boycott against a
firm; and its illegal nature has been established in the law-courts,
notably in the case of the Bucks Stove Company <i>v</i>. The American
Federation of Labor (1907) in the Supreme Court of the district
of Columbia, and in a suit against the Hatters&rsquo; Union (February
1908) in the U.S. Supreme Court. A boycott has also been held
by the U.S. Supreme Court to be a violation of the Sherman
Anti-Trust law.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (1825-1899),
Scottish author and divine, was born at Auchinleck manse in
Ayrshire on the 3rd of November 1825. He studied at King&rsquo;s
College, London, and at the Middle Temple, with the idea of
practising at the English bar. Returning to Scotland, however,
he entered Glasgow University and there qualified for the
Scottish ministry, being licensed as a preacher by the presbytery
of Ayr. He served in succession the parishes of Newton-on-Ayr,
Kirkpatrick-Irongray near Dumfries, St Bernard&rsquo;s, Edinburgh,
and finally, in 1865, became minister of the first charge at St
Andrews. Here he advocated an improved ritual in the Scottish
church, his action resulting in the appointment by the general
assembly of a committee, with Boyd as convener, to prepare
a new hymnal. In 1890 he was appointed moderator of the
general assembly, and fulfilled the duties of the position with
admirable dignity and tact. He died at Bournemouth on the
1st of March 1899. Dr Boyd was a very famous preacher and
talker, and his desultory essays have very much of the charm of
his conversation. Among his numerous publications may be
specially mentioned the two works (each in three series), <i>Recreations
of a Country Parson</i> (1859, 1861 and 1878), and <i>Graver
Thoughts of a Country Parson</i> (1862-1865 and 1875); he also
wrote <i>Twenty-five Years at St Andrews</i> (1892), and <i>St Andrews
and Elsewhere</i> (1894). He was familiarly known to the public
as a writer by his initials &ldquo;A.K.H.B.&rdquo;</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOYD, ROBERT BOYD,<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> <span class="sc">Lord</span> (d.c. 1470), Scottish statesman,
was a son of Sir Thomas Boyd (d. 1439), and belonged to an old
and distinguished family, one member of which, Sir Robert Boyd,
had fought with Wallace and Robert Bruce. Boyd, who was
created a peer about 1454, was one of the regents of Scotland
during the minority of James III., but, in 1466, with some
associates he secured the person of the young king and was
appointed his sole governor. As ruler of Scotland he was instrumental
in reforming some religious foundations; he arranged
the marriage between James III. and Margaret, daughter of
Christian I., king of Denmark and Norway, and secured the
cession of the Orkney Islands by Norway. However, when in
1467 he obtained the offices of chamberlain and justiciary for
himself, and the hand of the king&rsquo;s sister Mary, with the title
of earl of Arran for his eldest son Thomas, his enemies became
too strong for him, and he was found guilty of treason and
sentenced to death. He escaped to England, and the date of
his death is unknown. His brother and assistant, Sir Alexander
Boyd, was beheaded on the 22nd of November 1469.</p>

<p>Boyd&rsquo;s son Thomas, earl of Arran, was in Denmark when his
father was overthrown. However, he fulfilled his mission, that
of bringing the king&rsquo;s bride, Margaret, to Scotland, and then,
warned by his wife, escaped to the continent of Europe. He is
mentioned very eulogistically in one of the Paston Letters,
but practically nothing is known of his subsequent history.</p>

<p>Lord Boyd&rsquo;s grandson Robert (d. <i>c</i>. 1550), a son of Alexander
Boyd, was confirmed in the possession of the estates and honours
of his grandfather in 1549, and is generally regarded as the
3rd Lord Boyd. His son Robert, 4th Lord Boyd (d. 1590),
took a prominent part in Scottish politics during the troubled
time which followed the death of James V. in 1542. At first
he favoured the reformed religion, but afterwards his views
changed and he became one of the most trusted advisers of Mary,
queen of Scots, whom he accompanied to the battle of Langside
in 1568. During the queen&rsquo;s captivity he was often employed
on diplomatic errands; he tried to stir up insurrections in her
favour, and he was suspected of participation in the murder
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354"></a>354</span>
of the regent Murray. He enjoyed a high and influential position
under the regent James Douglas, earl of Morton, but was banished
in 1583 for his share in the seizure of King James VI., a plot
known as the Raid of Ruthven. He retired to France, but
was soon allowed to return to Scotland. He died on the 3rd
of January 1590.</p>

<p>William, 8th or 9th Lord Boyd (d. 1692), was created earl of
Kilmarnock in 1661, and this nobleman&rsquo;s grandson William,
the 3rd earl (d. 1717), was a partisan of the Hanoverian kings and
fought for George I. during the rising of 1715. His son William,
the 4th earl (1704-1746), was educated in the same principles,
but in 1745, owing either to a personal affront or to the influence
of his wife or to his straitened circumstances he deserted George II.
and joined Charles Edward, the Young Pretender. The 4th earl
fought at Falkirk and Culloden, where he was made prisoner, and
was beheaded on the 18th of August 1746. The title of earl of
Kilmarnock is now merged in that of earl of Erroll.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOYD, ZACHARY<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (1585?-1653), Scottish divine, was educated
at the universities of Glasgow and St Andrews. He was for
many years a teacher in the Protestant college of Saumur in
France, but returned to Scotland in 1621, to escape the Huguenot
persecution. In 1623 he was appointed minister of the Barony
church in Glasgow, and he was rector of the university in 1634,
1635 and 1645. He bequeathed to the university the half of his
fortune, a sum amounting to £20,000 Scots, besides his library
and twelve volumes of MSS. His poetical compositions, though
often eccentric, have some merit. The common statement that
he made the printing of his metrical version of the Gospels and
other Biblical narratives a condition of the reception of his grant
to the university is a mistake. In later years he was a staunch
Covenanter, and though for a time opposed to Oliver Cromwell,
afterwards became friendly with him. His best-known works
are <i>The Battel of the Soul in Death</i> (1629), of which a new edition,
with a biography by G. Neil, was published in Glasgow in 1831;
<i>Zion&rsquo;s Flowers</i>&mdash;often called &ldquo;Boyd&rsquo;s Bible&rdquo; (1644); <i>Four
Letters of Comfort</i> (1640, reprinted, Edinburgh, 1878).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOYDELL, JOHN<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (1719-1804), English alderman and publisher,
was born at Dorrington, and at the age of twenty-one
came to London and was apprenticed for seven years to an
engraver. In 1746 he published a volume of views in England
and Wales, and started in business as a print-seller. By his good
taste and liberality he managed to secure the services of the best
artists, and his engravings were executed with such skill that his
business became extensive and lucrative. He succeeded in his
plan of a Shakespeare gallery, and obtained the assistance of the
most eminent painters of the day, whose contributions were
exhibited publicly for many years. The engravings from these
paintings form a splendid companion volume to his large illustrated
edition of Shakespeare&rsquo;s works. Towards the close of his
life Boydell sustained severe losses through the French Revolution,
and was compelled to dispose of his Shakespeare gallery
by lottery. Boydell had previously become an alderman, and
rose to be lord mayor of London.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOYER, ALEXIS<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> (1757-1833), French surgeon, was born on
the 1st of March 1757 at Uzerches (Corrèze). The son of a
tailor, he obtained his first medical knowledge in the shop of a
barber-surgeon. Removing to Paris he had the good fortune to
attract the notice of Antoine Louis (1723-1792) and P.J.
Desault (1744-1795); and his perseverance, anatomical skill
and dexterity as an operator, became so conspicuous, that at
the age of thirty-seven he obtained the appointment of second
surgeon to the Hôtel Dieu of Paris. On the establishment of the
École de Santé he gained the chair of operative surgery, but soon
exchanged it for the chair of clinical surgery. In 1805 Napoleon
nominated him imperial family surgeon, and, after the brilliant
campaigns of 1806-7, conferred on him the legion of honour,
with the title of baron of the empire and a salary of 25,000 francs.
On the fall of Napoleon the merits of Boyer secured him the
favour of the succeeding sovereigns of France, and he was consulting
surgeon to Louis XVIII., Charles X., and Louis Philippe.
In 1825 he succeeded J.F.L. Deschamps (1740-1824) as surgeon-in-chief
to the Hôpital de la Charité, and was chosen a member of
the Institute. He died in Paris on the 23rd of November 1833.
Perhaps no French surgeon of his time thought or wrote with
greater clearness and good sense than Boyer; and while his
natural modesty made him distrustful of innovation, and
somewhat tenacious of established modes of treatment, he was as
judicious in his diagnosis and as cool and skilful in manipulating,
as he was cautious in forming his judgment on individual cases.
His two great works are:&mdash;<i>Traité complet de l&rsquo;anatomie</i> (in 4 vols.,
1797-1799), of which a fourth edition appeared in 1815, and
<i>Traité des maladies chirurgicales et des opérations qui leur conviennent</i>
(in 11 vols., 1814-1826), of which a new edition in 7 vols.
was published in 1844-1853, with additions by his son, Philippe
Boyer (1801-1858).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOYER, JEAN PIERRE<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (1776-1850), president of the republic
of Haiti, a mulatto, was born at Port-au-Prince on the
28th of February 1776. He received a good education in France,
and, returning to St Domingo, joined the army in 1792. In 1794
he was already in command of a battalion, and fought with
distinction under General Rigaud against the English. The
negro insurrection under Toussaint l&rsquo;Ouverture, which was directed
against the mulattoes as well as the whites, ultimately forced him
to take refuge in France. He was well received by Napoleon,
and in 1802 obtained a commission in Leclerc&rsquo;s expedition.
Being opposed to the reinstitution of slavery, he turned against
the French and succeeded in producing an alliance between
the negroes and mulattoes by which they were driven from
the island. Dessalines, a negro, was proclaimed king, but his
cruelty and despotism were such that Boyer combined with
A.A.S. Pétion and General Christophe to overthrow him (1806).
Christophe now seized the supreme power, but Pétion set up an
independent republic in the southern part of the island, with
Boyer as commander-in-chief. Christophe&rsquo;s efforts to crush this
state were defeated by Boyer&rsquo;s gallant defence of Port-au-Prince,
and a series of brilliant victories, which, on Pétion&rsquo;s death
in 1818, led to Boyer&rsquo;s election as president. Two years later
the death of Christophe removed his only rival, and he gained
almost undisputed possession of the whole island. During his
presidency Boyer did much to set the finances and the administration
in order, and to encourage the arts and sciences,
and in 1825 obtained French recognition of the independence of
Haiti, in return for a payment of 150,000 francs. The weight
of this debt excited the greatest discontent in Haiti. Boyer
was able to carry on his government for some years longer,
but in March 1843 a violent insurrection overthrew his
power and compelled him to take refuge in Jamaica. He
resided there till 1848, when he removed to Paris, where he
died in 1850.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Wallez, <i>Précis historique des négociations entre la France et
Saint-Domingue, avec une notice biographique sur le général Boyer</i>
(Paris, 1826).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOYLE, JOHN J.<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> (1851-&emsp;&emsp;), American sculptor, was born
in New York City. He studied in the Pennsylvania Academy
of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and in the École des Beaux Arts,
Paris. He is particularly successful in the portrayal of Indians.
Among his principal works are: &ldquo;Stone Age,&rdquo; Fairmount Park,
Philadelphia; &ldquo;The Alarm,&rdquo; Lincoln Park, Chicago; and, a
third study in primitive culture, the two groups, &ldquo;The Savage
Age&rdquo; at the Pan-American Exposition of 1901. His work also
includes the seated &ldquo;Franklin,&rdquo; in Philadelphia; and &ldquo;Bacon&rdquo;
and &ldquo;Plato&rdquo; in the Congressional library, Washington, D.C.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOYLE, ROBERT<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> (1627-1691), English natural philosopher,
seventh son and fourteenth child of Richard Boyle, the great
earl of Cork, was born at Lismore Castle, in the province of
Munster, Ireland, on the 25th of January 1627. While still
a child he learned to speak Latin and French, and he was only
eight years old when he was sent to Eton, of which his father&rsquo;s
friend, Sir Henry Wotton, was then provost. After spending over
three years at the college, he went to travel abroad with a French
tutor. Nearly two years were passed in Geneva; visiting Italy
in 1641, he remained during the winter of that year in Florence,
studying the &ldquo;paradoxes of the great star-gazer&rdquo; Galileo, who
died within a league of the city early in 1642. Returning to
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id="page355"></a>355</span>
England in 1644 he found that his father was dead and had left
him the manor of Stalbridge in Dorsetshire, together with estates
in Ireland. From that time he gave up his life to study and
scientific research, and soon took a prominent place in the band
of inquirers, known as the &ldquo;Invisible College,&rdquo; who devoted
themselves to the cultivation of the &ldquo;new philosophy.&rdquo; They
met frequently in London, often at Gresham College; some of
the members also had meetings at Oxford, and in that city Boyle
went to reside in 1654. Reading in 1657 of Otto von Guericke&rsquo;s
air-pump, he set himself with the assistance of Robert Hooke
to devise improvements in its construction, and with the result,
the &ldquo;machina Boyleana&rdquo; or &ldquo;Pneumatical Engine,&rdquo; finished
in 1659, he began a series of experiments on the properties of
air. An account of the work he did with this instrument was
published in 1660 under the title <i>New Experiments Physico-Mechanical
touching the spring of air and its effects</i>. Among the
critics of the views put forward in this book was a Jesuit, Franciscus
Linus (1595-1675), and it was while answering his objections
that Boyle enunciated the law that the volume of a gas
varies inversely as the pressure, which among English-speaking
peoples is usually called after his name, though on the continent
of Europe it is attributed to E. Mariotte, who did not publish
it till 1676. In 1663 the &ldquo;Invisible College&rdquo; became the
&ldquo;Royal Society of London for improving natural knowledge,&rdquo;
and the charter of incorporation granted by Charles II. named
Boyle a member of the council. In 1680 he was elected president
of the society, but declined the honour from a scruple about
oaths. In 1668 he left Oxford for London where he resided
at the house of his sister, Lady Ranelagh, in Pall Mall. About
1689 his health, never very strong, began to fail seriously and
he gradually withdrew from his public engagements, ceasing
his communications to the Royal Society, and advertising his
desire to be excused from receiving guests, &ldquo;unless upon occasions
very extraordinary,&rdquo; on Tuesday and Friday forenoon, and
Wednesday and Saturday afternoon. In the leisure thus gained
he wished to &ldquo;recruit his spirits, range his papers,&rdquo; and prepare
some important chemical investigations which he proposed to
leave &ldquo;as a kind of Hermetic legacy to the studious disciples
of that art,&rdquo; but of which he did not make known the nature.
His health became still worse in 1691, and his death occurred
on the 30th of December of that year, just a week after that of
the sister with whom he had lived for more than twenty years.
He was buried in the churchyard of St Martin&rsquo;s in the Fields,
his funeral sermon being preached by his friend Bishop Burnet.</p>

<p>Boyle&rsquo;s great merit as a scientific investigator is that he carried
out the principles which Bacon preached in the <i>Novum Organum</i>.
Yet he would not avow himself a follower of Bacon or indeed of
any other teacher: on several occasions he mentions that in
order to keep his judgment as unprepossessed as might be with
any of the modern theories of philosophy, till he was &ldquo;provided of
experiments&rdquo; to help him judge of them, he refrained from any
study of the Atomical and the Cartesian systems, and even of
the <i>Novum Organum</i> itself, though he admits to &ldquo;transiently
consulting&rdquo; them about a few particulars. Nothing was more
alien to his mental temperament than the spinning of hypotheses.
He regarded the acquisition of knowledge as an end in itself,
and in consequence he gained a wider outlook on the aims of
scientific inquiry than had been enjoyed by his predecessors
for many centuries. This, however, did not mean that he paid
no attention to the practical application of science nor that he
despised knowledge which tended to use. He himself was an
alchemist; and believing the transmutation of metals to be a
possibility, he carried out experiments in the hope of effecting
it; and he was instrumental in obtaining the repeal, in 1689,
of the statute of Henry IV. against multiplying gold and silver.
With all the important work he accomplished in physics&mdash;the
enunciation of Boyle&rsquo;s law, the discovery of the part taken by
air in the propagation of sound, and investigations on the expansive
force of freezing water, on specific gravities and refractive
powers, on crystals, on electricity, on colour, on hydrostatics,
&amp;c.&mdash;chemistry was his peculiar and favourite study. His first
book on the subject was <i>The Sceptical Chemist</i>, published in 1661,
in which he criticized the &ldquo;experiments whereby vulgar Spagyrists
are wont to endeavour to evince their Salt, Sulphur and
Mercury to be the true Principles of Things.&rdquo; For him chemistry
was the science of the composition of substances, not merely an
adjunct to the arts of the alchemist or the physician. He
advanced towards the modern view of elements as the undecomposable
constituents of material bodies; and understanding
the distinction between mixtures and compounds, he made
considerable progress in the technique of detecting their ingredients,
a process which he designated by the term &ldquo;analysis.&rdquo;
He further supposed that the elements were ultimately composed
of particles of various sorts and sizes, into which, however,
they were not to be resolved in any known way. Applied
chemistry had to thank him for improved methods and for an
extended knowledge of individual substances. He also studied
the chemistry of combustion and of respiration, and made
experiments in physiology, where, however, he was hampered
by the &ldquo;tenderness of his nature&rdquo; which kept him from anatomical
dissections, especially of living animals, though he knew
them to be &ldquo;most instructing.&rdquo;</p>

<p>Besides being a busy natural philosopher, Boyle devoted
much time to theology, showing a very decided leaning to the
practical side and an indifference to controversial polemics.
At the Restoration he was favourably received at court, and
in 1665 would have received the provostship of Eton, if he would
have taken orders; but this he refused to do, on the ground
that his writings on religious subjects would have greater weight
coming from a layman than a paid minister of the Church. He
spent large sums in promoting the spread of Christianity, contributing
liberally to missionary societies, and to the expenses
of translating the Bible or portions of it into various languages.
By his will he founded the Boyle lectures, for proving the Christian
religion against &ldquo;notorious infidels, viz. atheists, theists, pagans,
Jews and Mahommedans,&rdquo; with the proviso that controversies
between Christians were not to be mentioned.</p>

<p>In person Boyle was tall, slender and of a pale countenance.
His constitution was far from robust, and throughout his life he
suffered from feeble health and low spirits. While his scientific
work procured him an extraordinary reputation among his
contemporaries, his private character and virtues, the charm
of his social manners, his wit and powers of conversation, endeared
him to a large circle of personal friends. He was never
married. His writings are exceedingly voluminous, and his
style is clear and straightforward, though undeniably prolix.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The following are the more important of his works in addition to
the two already mentioned:&mdash;<i>Considerations touching the Usefulness
of Experimental Natural Philosophy</i> (1663), followed by a second
part in 1671; <i>Experiments and Considerations upon Colours, with
Observations on a Diamond that Shines in the Dark</i> (1663); <i>New
Experiments and Observations upon Cold</i> (1665); <i>Hydrostatical
Paradoxes</i> (1666); <i>Origin of Forms and Qualities according to the
Corpuscular Philosophy</i> (1666); a continuation of his work on the
spring of air (1669); tracts about the <i>Cosmical Qualities of Things</i>,
the <i>Temperature of the Subterraneal and Submarine Regions</i>, the
<i>Bottom of the Sea</i>, &amp;c. with an <i>Introduction to the History of Particular
Qualities</i> (1670); <i>Origin and Virtues of Gems</i> (1672); <i>Essays of the
strange Subtilty, great Efficacy, determinate Nature of Effluviums</i>
(1673); two volumes of tracts on the <i>Saltness of the Sea</i>, the <i>Hidden
Qualities of the Air, Cold, Celestial Magnets, Animadversions on
Hobbes&rsquo;s</i> Problemata de Vacuo (1674); <i>Experiments and Notes
about the Mechanical Origin or Production of Particular Qualities</i>,
including some notes on electricity and magnetism (1676); <i>Observations
upon an artificial Substance that Shines without any Preceding
Illustration</i> (1678); the <i>Aerial Noctiluca</i> (1680); <i>New Experiments
and Observations upon the Icy Noctiluca</i> (1682); a further continuation
of his work on the air; <i>Memoirs for the Natural History of the
Human Blood</i> (1684); <i>Short Memoirs for the Natural Experimental
History of Mineral Waters</i> (1685); <i>Medicina Hydrostatica</i> (1690);
and <i>Experimenta et Observiationes Physicae</i> (1691). Among his
religious and philosophical writings were:&mdash;<i>Seraphic Love</i>, written
in 1648, but not published till 1660; an <i>Essay upon the Style of
the Holy Scriptures</i> (1663); <i>Occasional Reflections upon Several
Subjects</i> (1665), which was ridiculed by Swift in <i>A Pious Meditation
upon a Broomstick</i>, and by Butler in <i>An Occasional Reflection on
Dr Charlton&rsquo;s Feeling a Dog&rsquo;s Pulse at Cresham College</i>; <i>Excellence
of Theology compared with Natural Philosophy</i> (1664); <i>Some Considerations
about the Reconcileableness of Reason and Religion</i>, with a
<i>Discourse about the Possibility of the Resurrection</i> (1675); <i>Discourse
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page356" id="page356"></a>356</span>
of Things above Reason</i> (1681); <i>High Veneration Man owes to God</i>
(1685); <i>A Free Inquiry into the vulgarly received Notion of Nature</i>
(1686); and the <i>Christian Virtuoso</i> (1690). Several other works
appeared after his death, among them <i>The General History of the
Air designed and begun</i> (1692); a &ldquo;collection of choice remedies,&rdquo;
<i>Medicinal Experiments</i> (1692-1698); and <i>A Free Discourse against
Customary Swearing</i> (1695). An incomplete and unauthorized
edition of Boyle&rsquo;s works was published at Geneva in 1677, but the
first complete edition was that of Thomas Birch, with a life, published
in 1744, in five folio volumes, a second edition appearing in
1772 in six volumes, 4to. Boyle bequeathed his natural history
collections to the Royal Society, which also possesses a portrait of
him by the German painter, Friedrich Kerseboom (1632-1690).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOYLE,<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> a market town of Co. Roscommon, Ireland, in the
north parliamentary division, on the Sligo line of the Midland
Great Western railway, 106¼ m. N.W. by W. from Dublin and
28 m. S. by E. from Sligo. Pop. (1901) 2477. It is beautifully
situated on both banks of the river Boyle, an affluent of the
Shannon, between Loughs Gara and Key. Three bridges connect
the two parts of the town. There is considerable trade in agricultural
produce. To the north of the town stand the extensive
ruins of a Cistercian abbey founded in 1161, including remains
of a cruciform church, with a fine west front, and Norman
and Transitional arcades with carving of very beautiful detail.
The offices of the monastery are well preserved, and an interesting
feature is seen in the names carved on the door of the lodge,
attributed in Cromwell&rsquo;s soldier, who occupied the buildings.
Neighbouring antiquities are Asselyn church near Lough Key,
and a large cromlech by the road towards Lough Gara. Boyle
was incorporated by James I., and returned two members to
the Irish parliament.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOYNE,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> a river of Ireland, which, rising in the Bog of Allen,
near Carbery in Co. Kildare, and flowing in a north-easterly
direction, passes Trim, Navan and Drogheda, and enters the
Irish Sea, 4 m. below the town last named. It is navigable for
barges to Navan, 19 m. from its mouth. Much of the scenery on
its banks is beautiful, though never grand. About 2 m. west of
Drogheda, an obelisk, 150 ft. in height, marks the spot where the
forces of William III. gained a celebrated victory over those of
James II., on the 1st of July<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> 1690, known as the battle of the
Boyne.</p>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This was the &ldquo;old style&rdquo; date, which in the new style (see
<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calendar</a></span>) would be July 11th (not 12th, as Lecky says, <i>Hist, of
Ireland</i>, iii. p. 427). The 12th of July is annually celebrated by the
Orangemen in the north of Ireland as the anniversary, but this
is a confusion between the supposed new style for July 1st and the
old style date of the battle of Aughrim, July 12th; the intention
being to commemorate both.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOYS&rsquo; BRIGADE,<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> an organization founded in Glasgow by
Mr (afterwards Sir) W.A. Smith in 1883 to develop Christian
manliness by the use of a semi-military discipline and order,
gymnastics, summer camps and religious services and classes.
There are about 2200 companies connected with different
churches throughout the United Kingdom, the British empire
and the United States, with 10,000 officers and 100,000 boys. A
similar organization, confined to the Anglican communion, is the
Church Lads&rsquo; Brigade. Boys&rsquo; and girls&rsquo; life brigades are a more
recent movement; they teach young people how to save life from
fire and from water, and hold classes in hygiene, ambulance and
elementary nursing.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOZDAR,<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> a Baluch tribe of Rind (Arab) extraction, usually
associated with the mountain districts of the frontier near Dera
Ghazi Khan. They are also to be found in Zhob, Thal-Chotiali
and Las Bela, whilst the majority of the population are said to
live in the Punjab. They are usually graziers, and the name
Bozdar is probably derived from Buz, the Persian name for goat.
Within the limits of their mountain home on the outer spurs of the
Suliman hills they have always been a turbulent race, mustering
about 2700 fighting men, and they were formerly constantly at
feud with the neighbouring Ustarana and Sherani tribes. In
1857 their raids into the Punjab drew upon them an expedition
under Brigadier-General Sir N.B. Chamberlain. The
Sangarh pass was captured and the Bozdars submitted. Since
Baluchistan has been taken over they have given but little
trouble.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BOZRAH.<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> (1) A capital of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 33; Amos i. 12;
Is. xxxiv. 6, lxiii. 1), doubtfully identified with <i>el-Buseireh</i>, S.E. of
the Dead Sea, in the broken country N. of Petra; the ruins here
are comparatively unimportant. It is the centre of a pastoral
district, and its inhabitants, who number between 100 and 200,
are all shepherds. (2) A city in the <i>Mishor</i> or plain country of
Moab, denounced by Jeremiah (xlviii. 24). It has been identified
(also questionably) with a very extensive collection of ruins of
various ages, now called Bosr&#257; (the Roman <i>Bostra</i>), situated in
the Hauran, about 80 m. south of Damascus. The area within the
walls is about 1¼ m. in length, and nearly 1 m. in breadth, while
extensive suburbs lie to the east, north and west. The principal
buildings which can still be distinguished are a temple, an
aqueduct, a large theatre (enclosed by a castle of much more
recent workmanship), several baths, a triumphal and other
arches, three mosques, and what are known as the church and
convent of the monk Boheira. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 106 the city was beautified
and perhaps restored from ruin by Trajan, who made it the capital
of the new province of Arabia. In the reign of Alexander
Severus it was made a colony, and in 244, a native of the place,
Philippus, ascended the imperial throne. By the time of Constantine
the Great it seems to have been Christianized, and not
long after it was the seat of an extensive bishopric. It was one of
the first cities of Syria to be subjected to the Mahommedans, and
it successfully resisted all the attempts of the Crusaders to wrest
it from their hands. As late as the 14th century it was a populous
city, after which it gradually fell into decay. It is now inhabited
by thirty or forty families only. Another suggested identification
is with Kus&#363;r el-Besheir, equidistant (2 m.) from Dibon and
Aroer. This is perhaps the same as the Bezer mentioned in
Deuteronomy and Joshua as a levitical city and a city of refuge.</p>

<p>In 1 Macc. v. 26 there is mention of Bosor and of Bosora.
The latter is probably to be identified with Bosra, the former
perhaps with the present Busr el-Hariri in the south-east corner
of the Lej&#257;.</p>
<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRABANT,<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> a duchy which existed from 1190 to 1430, when it
was united with the duchy of Burgundy, the name being derived
from Brabo, a semi-mythical Frankish chief.</p>

<p>The history of Brabant is connected with that of the duchy of
Lower Lorraine (<i>q.v.</i>), which became in the course of the 11th
century split up into a number of small feudal states. The counts
of Hainaut, Namur, Luxemburg and Limburg asserted their
independence, and the territory of Liége passed to the bishops
of that city. The remnant of the duchy, united since 1100 with
the margraviate of Antwerp, was conferred in 1106 by the
emperor Henry V., with the title of duke of Lower Lorraine, upon
Godfrey (Godefroid) I., &ldquo;the Bearded,&rdquo; count of Louvain and
Brussels. His title was disputed by Count Henry of Limburg,
and for three generations the representatives of the rival houses
contested the possession of the ducal dignity in Lower Lorraine.
The issue was decided in favour of the house of Louvain by Duke
Godfrey III. in 1159. His son, Henry I., &ldquo;the Warrior&rdquo; (1183-1235),
abandoned the title of duke of Lower Lorraine and assumed
in 1190 that of duke of Brabant. His successors were Henry II.,
&ldquo;the Magnanimous&rdquo; (1235-1248), Henry III., &ldquo;le Debonnair&rdquo;
(1248-1261), and John I., &ldquo;the Victorious&rdquo; (1261-1294).
These were all able rulers. Their usual place of residence was
Louvain. John I., in 1283 bought the duchy of Limburg
from Adolf of Berg, and secured his acquisition by defeating
and slaying his competitor, Henry of Luxemburg, at the
battle of Woeringen (June 5, 1288). His own son, John II.,
&ldquo;the Pacific&rdquo; (1294-1312), bestowed liberties upon his subjects
by the charter of Cortenberg. This charter laid the foundation
of Brabantine freedom. By it the imposition of grants (<i>beden</i>)
and taxes was strictly limited and regulated, and its execution
was entrusted to a council appointed by the duke for life (four
nobles, ten burghers) whose duty it was to consider all complaints
and to see that the conditions laid down by the charter
concerning the administration of justice and finance were not
infringed. He was succeeded by his son, John III., &ldquo;the
Triumphant&rdquo; (1312-1355), who succeeded in maintaining his
position in spite of formidable risings in Louvain and Brussels,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page357" id="page357"></a>357</span>
and a league formed against him by his princely neighbours, but
he had a hard struggle to face, and many ups and downs of
fortune. He it was to whom Brabant owed the great charter of
its liberties, called <i>La joyeuse entrée</i>, because it was granted on the
occasion of the marriage of his daughter Johanna (Jeanne) with
Wenzel (Wenceslaus) of Luxemburg, and was proclaimed on
their state entry into Brussels (1356).</p>

<p>Henry, the only legitimate son of John III., having died in
1349, the ducal dignity passed to his daughter and heiress, the
above-named Johanna (d. 1406). She had married in first wedlock
William IV., count of Holland (d. 1345). Wenzel of Luxemburg,
her second husband, assumed in right of his wife, and by
the sanction of the charter <i>La joyeuse entrée</i>, the style of duke of
Brabant. Johanna&rsquo;s title was, however, disputed by Louis II.,
count of Flanders (d. 1384), who had married her sister Margaret.
The question had been compromised by the cession to Margaret in
1347 of the margraviate of Antwerp by John III., but a war broke
out in 1356 between Wenzel supported by the gilds, and Louis,
who upheld the burgher-patrician party in the Brabant cities.
The democratic leaders were Everhard Tserclaes at Brussels
and Peter Coutercel at Louvain. In the course of a stormy reign
Wenzel was taken prisoner in 1371 by the duke of Gelderland,
and had to be ransomed by his subjects. After his death (1383)
his widow continued to rule over the two duchies for eighteen
years, but was obliged to rely on the support of the house of
Burgundy in her contests with the turbulent city gilds and with
her neighbours, the dukes of Jülich and Gelderland. In 1390
she revoked the deed which secured the succession to Brabant to
the house of Luxemburg, and appointed her niece, Margaret of
Flanders (d. 1405), daughter of Louis II. and Margaret of Brabant
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flanders</a></span>), and her husband, Philip the Bold of Burgundy,
her heirs. Margaret of Flanders had married (1) Philip I. de
Rouvre of Burgundy (d. 1361) and (2) Philip II., the Bold,
(d. 1404), son of John II., king of France (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Burgundy</a></span>). Of
her three sons by her second marriage John succeeded to
Burgundy, and Anthony to Brabant on the death of Johanna in
1406. Anthony was killed at the battle of Agincourt in 1415 and
was succeeded by his eldest son by Jeanne of Luxemburg St Pol,
John IV. (d. 1427). He is chiefly memorable for the excitement
caused by his divorce from his wife Jacoba (<i>q.v.</i>), countess of
Holland. John IV. left no issue, and the succession passed to his
brother Philip I., who also died without issue in 1430.</p>

<p>On the extinction of the line of Anthony the duchy of Brabant
became the inheritance of the elder branch of the house of
Burgundy, in the person of Philip III., &ldquo;the Good,&rdquo; of Burgundy,
II. of Brabant, son of John. His grand-daughter Mary (d. 1482),
daughter and heiress of Charles I., &ldquo;the Bold,&rdquo; (d. 1477) married
the archduke Maximilian of Austria (afterwards emperor) and
so brought Brabant with the other Burgundian possessions to
the house of Habsburg. The chief city of Brabant, Brussels,
became under the Habsburg régime the residence of the court
and the capital of the Netherlands. In the person of the emperor
Charles V. the destinies of Brabant and the other Netherland
states were linked with those of the Spanish monarchy. The
attempt of Philip II. of Spain to impose despotic rule upon the
Netherlands led to the outbreak of the Netherland revolt, 1568
(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Netherlands</a></span>).</p>

<p>In the course of the eighty years&rsquo; war of independence the
province of Brabant became separated into two portions. In
the southern and larger part Spanish rule was maintained,
and Brussels continued to be the seat of government. The
northern (smaller) part was conquered by the Dutch under
Maurice and Frederick Henry of Orange. The latter captured
&rsquo;s Hertogenbosch (1629), Maastricht (1632) and Breda (1637).
At the peace of Münster this portion, which now forms the Dutch
province of North Brabant, was ceded by Philip IV. to the United
Provinces and was known as Generality Land, and placed under
the direct government of the states-general. The southern
portion, now divided into the provinces of Antwerp and South
Brabant, remained under the rule of the Spanish Habsburgs
until the death of Charles II., the last of his race in 1700. After
the War of the Spanish Succession the southern Netherlands
passed by the treaty of Utrecht (1713) to the Austrian branch
of the Habsburgs. During the whole period of Austrian rule
the province of Brabant succeeded in maintaining, to a very
large extent unimpaired, the immunities and privileges to which
it was entitled under the provisions of its ancient charter of
liberty, the Joyous Entry. An ill-judged attempt by the
emperor Joseph II., in his zeal for reform, to infringe these
inherited rights stirred up the people under the leadership of
Henry van der Noot to armed resistance in the Brabançon revolt
of 1789-1790.</p>

<p>Since the French conquest of 1794 the history of Brabant
is merged in that of Belgium (<i>q.v</i>.). The revolt against Dutch
rule in 1830 broke out at Brussels and was in its initial stages
largely a Brabançon movement. The important part played
by Brabant at this crisis of the history of the southern Netherlands
was marked in 1831 by the adoption of the ancient
Brabançon colours to form the national flag, and of the lion of
Brabant as the armorial bearings of Belgium. The title of duke
of Brabant has been revived as the style of the eldest son of the
king of the Belgians.</p>
<div class="author">(G. E.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRABANT,<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> the central and metropolitan province of Belgium,
is formed out of part of the ancient duchy. From 1815 to 1830,
that is to say, during the existence of the kingdom of the Netherlands,
Belgian Brabant was distinguished from Dutch by the
employment of the geographical terms South and North. The
surface of Brabant is undulating, and the highest points, some
400 ft. in altitude, are to be found at and near Mont St Jean.
The province is well cultivated, and the people are well known
for their industry. There are valuable stone quarries, and many
manufactures flourish in the smaller towns, such as Ottignies,
as well as in the larger cities of Brussels and Louvain. Brabant
contains 820,740 acres or 1268 sq. m. Its principal towns are
Brussels, Louvain, Nivelles, Hal, Ottignies, and its three administrative
divisions are named after the first three of those towns.
They are subdivided into 50 cantons and 344 communes. In
1904 the population of the province was 1,366,389 or a proportion
of 1077 per sq. m.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRABANT, NORTH,<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> the largest province in Holland, bounded
S. by Belgium, W. and N.W. by the Scheldt, the Eendracht,
the Volkerak and the Hollandsch Diep, which separate it from
Zealand and South Holland, N. and N. E. by the Merwede and
Maas, which separate it from South Holland and Gelderland,
and E. by the province of Limburg. It has an area of 231 sq. m.
and a pop. (1900) of 553,842. The surface of the province is a
gentle slope from the south-east (where it ranges between 80 and
160 ft. in height) towards the north and north-west, and the soil
is composed of diluvial sand, here and there mixed with gravel,
but giving place to sea-clay along the western boundary and
river-clay along the banks of the Maas and smaller rivers.
The watershed is formed by the north-eastern edge of the
Belgian plateau of Campine, and follows a curved line drawn
through Bergen-op-Zoom, Turnhout and Maastricht. The landscape
consists for the most part of waste stretches of heath,
occasionally slightly overlaid with high fen. Between the valleys
of the Aa and the Maas lies the long stretch of heavy high-fen
called the Peel (&ldquo;marshy land&rdquo;). Deurne, a few miles east of
Helmond, the site of a prehistoric burial-ground, was an early
fen colony. The work of reclamation was removed farther
eastwards to Helenaveen in the second half of the 19th century.
Agriculture (potatoes, buckwheat, rye) is the main industry,
generally combined with cattle-raising. On the clay lands
wheat and barley are the principal products, and in the western
corner of the province beetroot is largely cultivated for the
beet sugar industry, factories being found at Bergen-op-Zoom,
Steenbergen and Oudenbosch. There is a special cultivation of
hops in the district north-west of &rsquo;s Hertogenbosch. The large
majority of the population is Roman Catholic. The earliest development
of towns and villages took place along the river Maas
and its tributaries, and the fortified Roman camps which were the
origin of many such afterwards developed in the hands of feudal
lords. The chief town of the province, &rsquo;s Hertogenbosch, may be
cited as an interesting historical example. Geertruidenberg,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page358" id="page358"></a>358</span>
Heusden, Ravestein and Grave are all similarly situated. Breda
is the next town in importance to the capital. Bergen-op-Zoom
had originally a more maritime importance. Rozendaal,
Eindhoven and Bokstel (or Boxtel) are important railway
junctions. Bokstel was formerly the seat of an independent
barony which came into the possession of Philip the Good in 1439.
The castle was restored in modern times. The precarious
position of the province on the borders of the country doubtless
militated against an earlier industrial development, but since
the separation from Belgium and the construction of roads,
railways and canals there has been a general improvement,
Tilburg, Eindhoven and Helmond all having risen into prominence
in modern times as industrial centres. Leather-tanning
and shoe-making are especially associated with the district
called Langstraat, which is situated between Geertruidenberg
and &rsquo;s Hertogenbosch, and consists of a series of
industrial villages along the course of the Old Maas.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRACCIANO,<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> a town in the province of Rome, Italy, 25 m.
N.W. of Rome by rail, situated on the S.W. shore of the Lake
of Bracciano, 915 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 3987. It is
chiefly remarkable for its fine castle (built by the Orsini in 1460,
and since 1696 the property of the Odescalchi) which has preserved
its medieval character. The beautiful lake is the ancient
<i>Lacus Sabatinus</i>, supposed to derive its name from an Etruscan
city of the name of Sabate, which is wrongly thought to be
mentioned in the Itineraries; the reference is really to the lake
itself, which bore this name and gave it to one of the Roman tribes,
the <i>tribus Sabatina</i>, founded in 387 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (O. Cuntz in
<i>Jahreshefte des Österr. Arch. Instituts</i>, ii., 1899, 85). It is 22 sq. m.
in area, 538 ft. above sea-level, and 530 ft. deep; it is almost
circular, but is held to be, not an extinct crater, but the result
of a volcanic subsidence. The tufa deposits which radiate from
it extend as far as Rome; various small craters surround it,
while the existence of warm springs in the district (especially
those of Vicarello, probably the ancient <i>Aquae Apollinares</i>)
may also be noted. Many remains of ancient villas may be seen
round the lake: above its west bank is the station of Forum
Clodii, and on its north shore the village of Trevignano, which
retains traces of the fortifications of an ancient town of unknown
name. About half-a-mile east of it was a post station called
Ad Novas. The site of Anguillara, on the south shore, was
occupied by a Roman villa. The water of the lake partly
supplies the Acqua Paola, a restoration by Paul V. of the Aqua
Traiana.</p>
<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRACCIOLINI, FRANCESCO<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> (1566-1645), Italian poet, was
born at Pistoia, of a noble family, in 1566. On his removing to
Florence he was admitted into the academy there, and devoted
himself to literature. At Rome he entered the service of Cardinal
Maffeo Barberini, with whom he afterwards went to France.
After the death of Clement VIII. he returned to his own country;
and when his patron Barberini was elected pope, under the name
of Urban VIII., Bracciolini repaired to Rome, and was made
secretary to the pope&rsquo;s brother, Cardinal Antonio. He had also
the honour conferred on him of taking a surname from the arms
of the Barberini family, which were bees; whence he was afterwards
known by the name of <i>Bracciolini dell&rsquo; Api</i>. During
Urban&rsquo;s pontificate the poet lived at Rome in considerable
reputation, though at the same time he was censured for his
sordid avarice. On the death of the pontiff he returned to
Pistoia, where he died in 1645. There is scarcely any species of
poetry, epic, dramatic, pastoral, lyric or burlesque, which
Bracciolini did not attempt; but he is principally noted for his
mock-heroic poem <i>Lo Scherno degli Dei</i>, published in 1618,
similar but confessedly inferior to the contemporary work of
Tassoni, <i>Secchia Rapita</i>. Of his serious heroic poems the most
celebrated is <i>La Croce Racquistata</i>.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>For the Italian humanist Poggio Bracciolini see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poggio</a></span>.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRACE, CHARLES LORING<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> (1826-1890), American philanthropist,
was born on the 19th of June 1826 in Litchfield, Connecticut.
He graduated at Yale in 1846, studied theology there
in 1847-1848, and graduated from Union Theological Seminary
in 1849. From this time he practically devoted his life to social
work among the poor of New York, and to Christian propaganda
among the criminal classes; and he became well known as a
social reformer, at home and abroad. He started in 1852 to hold
&ldquo;boys&rsquo; meetings,&rdquo; and in 1853 helped to found the Children&rsquo;s
Aid Society, establishing workshops, industrial schools and
lodging-houses for newsboys. In 1872 he was a delegate to the
international prison congress which met in London. He died at
Campfer, in Tirol, on the 11th of August 1890. He published
from time to time several volumes embodying his views on
practical Christianity and its application to the improvement of
social conditions.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See <i>The Life and Letters of Charles Loring Brace</i> (New York,
1894), edited by his daughter, Emma Brace.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRACE, JULIA<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> (1806-1884), American blind deaf-mute, was
born at Newington, Connecticut, on the 13th of June 1806. In
her fifth year she became blind and deaf, and lost the power of
speech. At the age of eighteen she entered the asylum for the
deaf and dumb at Hartford. The study of blind deaf-mutes and
their scientific training was then in its infancy; but she learnt
to sew well, was neat in her dress, and had a good memory. Dr
S.G. Howe&rsquo;s experiments with her were interesting as leading to
his success with Laura Bridgman. She died at Bloomington,
Conn., on the 12th of August 1884.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRACE<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> (through the Fr. from the plural of the Lat. <i>bracchium</i>,
the arm), a measure of length, being the distance between the
extended arms. From the original meaning of &ldquo;the two arms&rdquo;
comes that of something which secures, connects, tightens or
strengthens, found in numerous uses of the word, as a carpenter&rsquo;s
tool with a crank handle and socket to hold a bit for boring;
a beam of wood or metal used to strengthen any building or
machine; the straps passing over the shoulders to support the
trousers; the leathern thong which slides up and down the cord
of a drum, and regulates the tension and the tone; a writing and
printing sign ({) for uniting two or more lines of letterpress or
music; a nautical term for a rope fastened to the yard for trimming
the sails (cf. the corresponding French term <i>bras de vergue</i>).
As meaning &ldquo;a couple&rdquo; or &ldquo;pair&rdquo; the term was first applied
to dogs, probably from the leash by which they were coupled in
coursing. In architecture &ldquo;brace mould&rdquo; is the term for two
ressaunts or ogees united together like a brace in printing,
sometimes with a small bead between them.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRACEGIRDLE, ANNE<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1674-1748), English actress, is
said to have been placed under the care of Thomas Betterton
and his wife, and to have first appeared on the stage as the
page in <i>The Orphan</i> at its first performance at Dorset Garden
in 1680. She was Lucia in Shadwell&rsquo;s <i>Squire of Alsatia</i> at the
Theatre Royal in 1688, and played similar parts until, in 1693,
as Araminta in <i>The Old Bachelor</i>, she made her first appearance
in a comedy by Congreve, with whose works and life her name
is most closely connected. In 1695 she went with Betterton
and the other seceders to Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn Fields, where, on its
opening with Congreve&rsquo;s <i>Love for Love</i>, she played Angelica.
This part, and those of Belinda in Vanbrugh&rsquo;s <i>Provoked Wife</i>,
and Almira in Congreve&rsquo;s <i>Mourning Bride</i>, were among her best
impersonations, but she also played the heroines of some of
Nicholas Rowe&rsquo;s tragedies, and acted in the contemporary
versions of Shakespeare&rsquo;s plays. In 1705 she followed Betterton
to the Haymarket, where she found a serious competitor in
Mrs Oldfield, then first coming into public favour. The story
runs that it was left for the audience to determine which was the
better comedy actress, the test being the part of Mrs Brittle
in Betterton&rsquo;s <i>Amorous Widow</i>, which was played alternately
by the two rivals on successive nights. When the popular vote
was given in favour of Mrs Oldfield, Mrs Bracegirdle quitted
the stage, making only one reappearance at Betterton&rsquo;s benefit
in 1709. Her private life was the subject of much discussion.
Colley Cibber remarks that she had the merit of &ldquo;not being
unguarded in her private character,&rdquo; while Macaulay does not
hesitate to call her &ldquo;a cold, vain and interested coquette, who
perfectly understood how much the influence of her charms
was increased by the fame of a severity which cost her nothing.&rdquo;
She was certainly the object of the adoration of many men,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359"></a>359</span>
and she was the innocent cause of the killing of the actor William
Mountfort (<i>q.v.</i>), whom Captain Hill and Lord Mohun regarded
as a rival for her affections. During her lifetime she was suspected
of being secretly married to Congreve, whose mistress
she is also said to have been. He was at least always her intimate
friend, and left her a legacy. Rightly or wrongly, her reputation
for virtue was remarkably high, and Lord Halifax headed a
subscription list of 800 guineas, presented to her as a tribute to
her virtue. Her charity to the poor in Clare Market and around
Drury Lane was conspicuous, &ldquo;insomuch that she would not
pass that neighbourhood without the thankful acclamations
of people of all degrees.&rdquo; She died in 1748, and was buried in
the cloisters of Westminster Abbey.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See Genest, <i>History of the Stage</i>; Colley Gibber, <i>Apology</i> (edited
by Bellchambers); Egerton, <i>Life of Anne Oldfield</i>; Downes, <i>Roscius
Anglicanus.</i></p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRACELET,<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Armlet</span>, a personal ornament for the arm or
wrist, made of different materials, according to the fashion of
the age and the rank of the wearer. The word is the French <i>bracelet</i>,
a diminutive of <i>bracel</i>, from <i>brac(c)hiale</i>, formed from
the Latin <i>bracchium</i>, the arm, on which it was usually worn.
By the Romans it was called <i>armilla, brachiale, occabus</i>; and
in the middle ages <i>bauga, armispatha</i>.</p>

<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:454px; height:276px" src="images/img359a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From <i>La Grande Encyclopédie.</i></span><br /><br />
<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Egyptian Bracelet, Louvre.</td></tr></table>

<p>In the Bible there are three different words which the
authorized version renders by &ldquo;bracelet.&rdquo; These are&mdash;(1) &#1492;&#1512;&#1506;&#1510;&#1488;
<i>&rsquo;e&#351;&lsquo;adah</i>, which occurs in Num. xxxi. 50, 2 Sam. i. 10, and which
being used with reference to men only, may be taken to be the <i>armlet</i>;
(2) &#1491;&#1497;&#1502;&#1510; <i>&#351;am&#299;d</i>, which is found in Gen. xxiv. 22, Num. xxxi.
50, Ezek. xvi. 11;&mdash;where these two words occur together (as in
Num. xxxi. 50) the first is rendered by &ldquo;chain,&rdquo; and the second by
&ldquo;bracelet&rdquo;; (3) &#1514;&#1493;&#1512;&#1513; <i>sheroth</i>, which occurs only in Isa. iii. 19.
The first probably meant armlets worn by men; the second,
bracelets worn by women and sometimes by men; and the
third a peculiar bracelet of chain-work worn only by women.
In 2 Sam. i. 10 the first word denotes the royal ornament which
the Amalekite took from the arm of the dead Saul, and brought
with the other regalia to David. There is little question that
this was such a distinguishing band of jewelled metal as we
still find worn as a mark of royalty from the Tigris to the
Ganges. The Egyptian kings are represented with armlets,
which were also worn by the Egyptian women. These,
however, are not jewelled, but of plain or enamelled metal,
as was in all likelihood the case among the Hebrews.</p>

<p>In modern times the most celebrated
armlets are those which form part of the
regalia of the Persian kings and formerly
belonged to the Mogul emperors of India,
being part of the spoil carried to Persia
from Delhi by Nadir Shah in 1739. These ornaments are
of dazzling splendour, and the jewels in them are of such
large size and immense value that the pair have been
reckoned to be worth a million sterling. The principal stone
of the right armlet is famous in the East under the name of the
<i>Darya-i-nur</i>, &ldquo;sea (or river) of light.&rdquo; It weighs 186 carats,
and is considered the diamond of finest lustre in the world.
The principal jewel of the left armlet, although of somewhat
inferior size (146 carats) and value, is renowned as the <i>T&#257;j-e-mah</i>,
&ldquo;crown of the moon.&rdquo; The imperial armlets, generally set
with jewels, may also be observed in most of the portraits of
the Indian emperors.</p>

<p>Bracelets have at all times been much in use among barbaric
nations, and the women frequently wear several on the same
arm. The finer kinds are of mother-of-pearl, fine gold or silver;
others of less value are made of plated steel, horn, brass, copper,
beads, &amp;c. Chinese bracelets are sometimes cut out of single
pieces of jade.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:353px; height:354px" src="images/img359b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">From <i>La Grande Encyclopédie</i>.</span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Greek Bracelet, Hermitage.</td></tr></table>

<p>This species of personal ornament has been exceedingly common
in Europe from prehistoric times onward. The bracelets of the
Bronze Age were of either gold or bronze, silver being then
unknown. In shape they were oval and penannular with
expanding or trumpet-shaped ends, having an opening between
them of about half an inch to enable them to be easily slipped
over the wrist. Those of gold were generally plain, hammered
rods, bent to the requisite shape, but those of bronze were often
chased with decorative designs. Some forms of spiral armlets
of bronze, peculiar to Germany and Scandinavia, covered the
whole fore-arm, and were doubtless intended as much for defence
against a sword-stroke as for ornament. Among the nations
of classical antiquity, bracelets were worn by both sexes of
the Etruscans; by women only among the Greeks, except in
orientalized communities. Among the Romans they were worn
by women only as a rule, but they are also recorded to have been
used during the empire by <i>nouveaux riches</i>, and by some of the
emperors. It should also be mentioned that bracelets were
conferred as a military decoration in the field.</p>

<p>The bracelets of the Greeks are of two leading types,
both of which were also familiar to the Assyrians. The one
class were in the
form of coiled
spirals, usually in
the form of snakes,
a term which Pollux
gives as a synonym
for bracelet.
The other class
were stiff penannular
hoops,
capable of being
slightly opened. In
such examples the
terminals are finely
finished as rams&rsquo;
heads, lions&rsquo; heads,
or (as in the accompanying
figure
from a bracelet
found at Kuloba)
as enamelled
sphinxes. In late Etruscan art the bracelet may be formed of
consecutive panels, as often in modern jewelry.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:699px; height:81px" src="images/img359c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From La Grande Encydopédie.</span><br /><br />
<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;Etruscan Bracelet, Louvre.</td></tr></table>

<p>The spiral forms were common in the Iron Age of northern
Europe, while silver bracelets of great elegance, formed of plaited
and intertwisted strands of silver wire, and plain penannular
hoops, round or lozenge-shaped in section and tapering to the extremities,
became common towards the close of the pagan period.
The late Celtic period in Britain was characterized by serpent-shaped
bracelets and massive armlets, with projecting ornaments
of solid bronze and perforations filled with enamel. In the
middle ages bracelets were much less commonly used in Europe,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360"></a>360</span>
but the custom has continued, to prevail among Eastern nations
to the present time, and many of the types that were common
in Europe in prehistoric times are still worn in central Asia.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>A treatise, <i>De Armillis Veterum</i>, by Thomas Bartholinus, was
published at Amsterdam in 1676.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRACHIOPODA,<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> an important and well-defined but extremely
isolated class of invertebrates. The group may be defined as
follows: Sessile solitary <i>Coelomata</i> with bivalved shells usually
of unequal size and arranged dorso-ventrally. The head is
produced into ciliated arms bearing tentacles. They reproduce
sexually, and with doubtful exceptions are of separate sexes.</p>

<p>The name Brachiopod (<span class="grk" title="brachion">&#946;&#961;&#945;&#967;&#943;&#969;&#957;</span>, an arm, and <span class="grk" title="pous, podos">&#960;&#959;&#973;&#962;, &#960;&#959;&#948;&#972;&#962;</span>, a
foot) was proposed for the class by F. Cuvier in 1805, and by
A.M.C. Dumeril in 1809, and has since been very extensively
adopted. The division of the group into <i>Ecardines</i> (<i>Inarticulata</i>),
with no hinge to the shell and with an alimentary canal open at
both ends, and <i>Testicardines</i> (<i>Articulata</i>), with a hinge between
the dorsal and ventral valves and with no anus, was proposed
by Owen and has been adopted by nearly all authors. In a
later scheme based on our increased knowledge of fossil forms,
the Brachiopoda are divided into four primary groups (orders).
This is given at the end of the article, but it must not be forgotten
that the existing forms with an anus (Ecardines) differ markedly
from the aproctous members of the group (Testicardines).</p>

<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:447px; height:605px" src="images/img360.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Figs</span>. 1-11.&mdash;Various forms of Brachiopoda.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>1. <i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>]
<i>cranium</i>. A, ventral, B,
dorsal valve.</p>
<p>2. <i>Rhynchonella (Hemithyris)
psittacea</i>.</p>
<p>3. and 4. <i>Thecidea</i>.</p>
<p>5. <i>Spirifer</i>. Dorsal valve,
showing calcareous spiral
coils.</p>
<p>6. <i>Orthis calligramma</i>.</p></td>

<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>7. <i>Leptaena transversalis</i>. A,
ventral, B, dorsal valve.</p>
<p>8. <i>Productus horridus</i>.</p>
<p>9. <i>Lingula pyramidata</i> (after
Morse).</p>
<p>10. <i>Discinisca lamellosa</i>.</p>
<p>11. <i>Crania anomala</i> Interior of
dorsal valve, showing muscular
impressions and labial
appendages.</p></td></tr></table>

<p class="pt2">The soft body of the Brachiopod is in all cases protected by a
shell composed of two distinct valves; these valves are always,
except in cases of malformation, equal-sided, but not equivalved.
The valves are, consequently, essentially symmetrical, which is
not the case with the Lamellibranchiata,&mdash;so much so, that
certain Brachiopod shells were named <i>Lampades</i>, or lamp shells,
by some early naturalists; but while such may bear a kind of
resemblance to an antique Etruscan lamp, by far the larger
number in no way resemble one. The shell is likewise most
beautiful in its endless shapes and variations. In some species
it is thin, semi-transparent and glassy, in others massive. Generally
the shell is from a quarter of an inch to about 4 in. in size,
but in certain species it attains nearly a foot in breadth by something
less in length, as is the case with <i>Productus giganteus</i>.
The valves are also in some species very unequal in their respective
thickness, as may be seen in <i>Productus</i> (<i>Daviesiella</i>)<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <i>llangollensis</i>,
<i>Davidsonia verneuilii</i>, &amp;c., and while the space allotted to the
animal is very great in many species, as in <i>Terebratula sphaeroidalis</i>,
it is very small in others belonging to <i>Strophomena</i>, <i>Leptaena</i>,
<i>Chonetes</i>, &amp;c. The ventral valve is usually the thickest, and in
some forms is six or seven times as great as the opposite one.
The outer surface of many of the species presents likewise the
most exquisite sculpture, heightened by brilliant shades, or spots
of green, red, yellow and bluish black. Traces of the original
colour have also been preserved in some of the fossil forms;
radiating bands of a reddish tint have been often seen in well-preserved
examples of <i>Terebratula</i> (<i>Dielasma</i>) <i>hastata</i>, <i>T</i>. (<i>Dielasma</i>)
<i>sacculus</i>, <i>T. communis</i>, <i>T. biplicata</i>, and of several others.
Some specimens of <i>T. carnea</i> are of a beautiful pale pink colour
when first removed from their matrix, and E. Deslongchamps
has described the tint of several Jurassic species.</p>

<p>The valves are distinguished as <i>dorsal</i> and <i>ventral</i>. The ventral
valve is usually the larger, and in many genera, such as <i>Terebratula</i>
and <i>Rhynchonella</i>, has a prominent beak or umbo,
with a circular or otherwise shaped foramen at or near its
extremity, partly bounded by one or two plates, termed a
deltidium. Through the foramen passes a peduncle, by which
the animal is in many species attached to submarine objects
during at least a portion of its existence. Other forms show no
indication of ever having been attached, while some that had
been moored by means of a peduncle during the early portion of
their existence have become detached at a more advanced stage
of life, the opening becoming gradually cicatrized, as is so often
seen in <i>Leptaena rhomboidalis</i>, <i>Orthisina anomala</i>, &amp;c. Lastly,
some species adhere to submarine objects by a larger or smaller
portion of their ventral valve, as is the case with many forms of
<i>Crania</i>, <i>Thecidium</i>, <i>Davidsonia</i>, &amp;c. Some <i>Cranias</i> are always
attached by the whole surface of their lower or ventral valve,
which models itself and fills up all the projections or depressions
existing on either the rock, shell or coral to which it adhered.
These irregularities are likewise, at times, reproduced on the
upper or dorsal valve. Some species of <i>Strophalosia</i> and <i>Productus</i>
seem also to have been moored during life to the sandy
or muddy bottoms on which they lived, by the means of
tubular spines often of considerable length. The interior of
the shell varies very much according to families and genera.
On the inner surface of both valves several well-defined muscular,
vascular and ovarian impressions are observable; they form
either indentations of greater or less size and depth, or occur as
variously shaped projections. In the <i>Trimerellidae</i>, for example,
some of the muscles are attached to a massive or vaulted platform
situated in the medio-longitudinal region of the posterior half
or umbonal portion of both valves. In addition to these, there
exists in the interior of the <i>dorsal</i> valve of some genera a variously
modified, thin, calcified, ribbon-shaped skeleton for the support
of the ciliated arms, and the form of this ribbon serves as one of
the chief generic characters of both recent and extinct forms.
This brachial skeleton is more developed in some genera than
in others. In certain forms, as in <i>Terebratula</i> and <i>Terebratulina</i>,
it is short and simple, and attached to a small divided hinge-plate,
the two riband-shaped lamina being bent upwards in the
middle (fig. 15). The cardinal process is prominent, and on each
side of the hinge-plate are situated the dental sockets; the loop
in <i>Terebratulina</i> becomes annular in the adult by the union of
its crural processes (fig. 16). In <i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] it
is elongated and reflected; the hinge-plate large, with four
depressions, under which originates a median septum, which
extends more or less into the interior of the shell (figs. 13 and 14).
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page361" id="page361"></a>361</span>
In <i>Terebratella</i> the loop is attached to the hinge-plate and to the
septum (fig. 17). In <i>Megerlia</i> it is three times attached, first to
the hinge-plate, and then to the septum by processes from the
diverging and reflected positions of the loop. In <i>Magas</i> the
brachial skeleton is composed of an elevated longitudinal septum
reaching from one valve to the other, to which are affixed
two pairs of calcareous lamellae, the lower ones riband-shaped;
attached first to the hinge-plate, they afterwards proceed by a
gentle curve near to the anterior portion of the septum, to the
sides of which they are affixed; the second pair originate on both
sides of the upper edge of the septum, extending in the form of
two triangular anchor-shaped lamellae (fig. 18). In <i>Bouchardia</i>
the septum only is furnished with two short anchor-shaped
lamellae. Many more modifications are observable in different
groups of which the great family <i>Terebratulidae</i> is composed.
In <i>Thecidium</i> (figs. 3,4) the interior of the dorsal valve is variously
furrowed to receive the lophophore folded in two or more lobes.
In the family <i>Spiriferidae</i> there are two conical spires directed
outwards, and nearly filling the cavity of the shell (fig. 5);
while in <i>Atrypa</i> the broad spirally coiled lamellae are vertical,
and directed toward the centre of the dorsal valve. In the
<i>Rhynchonellidae</i> there are two short slender curved laminae,
while in many genera and even families, such as the <i>Productidae,
Strophomenidae, Lingulidae, Discinidae</i>, &amp;c., there exists no
calcified support for the labial appendages. The ventral valve
in many of the genera is provided with two curved hinge-teeth,
which fit into corresponding sockets in the opposite valve, so
that the valves cannot be separated without breaking one of the teeth.</p>

<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:459px; height:627px" src="images/img361a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs.</span> 12-18.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="f90" style="vertical-align: top;">
<p>12. <i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] <i>flavescens</i>. Interior of ventral valve.
<i>f</i>, foramen; <i>d</i>, deltidium; <i>t</i>, teeth; <i>a</i>, adductor impressions
(=occlusors, <i>Hancock</i>); <i>c</i>, divaricator (=cardinal muscles,
<i>King</i>, = muscles diducteurs principaux, <i>Gratiolet</i>); <i>c&rsquo;</i>, accessory
divaricators (muscles diducteurs accessoires, <i>Gratiolet</i>); <i>b</i>,
ventral adjuster (= ventral peduncular muscles, or muscles du
pedoncule paire supérieure, <i>Gratiolet</i>); <i>b&rsquo;</i>, peduncular muscle.</p>
<p>13. <i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] <i>flavescens</i>. Interior of dorsal valve.
<i>c, c&rsquo;</i>, cardinal process; <i>b&rsquo;, b&rsquo;</i>, hinge-plate; <i>s</i>, dental sockets;
<i>l</i>, loop; <i>q</i>, crura; <i>a, a&rsquo;</i>, adductor impressions; <i>c</i>, accessory
divaricator; <i>b</i>, peduncle muscles; <i>ss</i>, septum.</p>
<p>14. <i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] <i>flavescens</i>. Longitudinal section of
valves. A, ventral, B, dorsal valves; <i>l</i>, loop; <i>q</i>, crura; <i>ss</i>,
septum; <i>c</i>, cardinal process.</p>
<p>15. <i>Terebratula (Liothyris) vitrea</i>. Interior of dorsal valve. <i>l</i>, loop;
<i>b</i>, hinge-plate; <i>c</i>, cardinal process.</p>
<p>16. Loop of <i>Terebratulina caput serpentis</i>.</p>
<p>17. Longitudinal section of <i>Terebratella dorsata</i>. (References as in
fig. 14.)</p>
<p>18. Longitudinal section of <i>Magas pumilus</i>.</p></td></tr></table>

<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:311px; height:326px" src="images/img361b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.&mdash;<i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] <i>flavescens</i>.
Interior of dorsal valve, to show the position
of the labial appendages. <i>v</i>, Mouth.
(A portion of the fringe of cirri is removed to show
the brachial membrane and a portion of the
spiral extremities of the arms.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:266px; height:387px" src="images/img361c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.&mdash;<i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] <i>flavescens</i>.
Logitudinal section with a portion of the animal.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>d</i>, <i>h</i>, Brachial appendages.</p>
<p><i>a</i>, Adductor.</p>
<p><i>c</i>, c&rsquo;, Divaricator muscles.</p>
<p><i>s</i>, Septum.</p>
<p><i>v</i>, Mouth.</p>
<p><i>z</i>, Exremity of alimentary tube.</p></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1">The penduncular muscules have
been purposely omitted.</td></tr>

<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:652px" src="images/img362a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 21.&mdash;A diagram of the left half
of an <i>Argiope</i> (<i>Megathyris</i>), which has
been bisected in the median plane.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1">
<p>&ensp;1. The ventral valve.</p>
<p>&ensp;2. The dorsal valve.</p>
<p>&ensp;3. The pedicle.</p>
<p>&ensp;4. The mouth.</p>
<p>&ensp;5. Lip which overhangs the mouth and runs all round the lophophore.</p>
<p>&ensp;6. Tentacles.</p>
<p>&ensp;7. Ovary in dorsal valve.</p>
<p>&ensp;8. Liver diverticula.</p>
<p>&ensp;9. Occlusor muscle&mdash;its double origin is shown.</p>
<p>10. Internal opening of left nephridium.</p>
<p>11. External opening of the same.</p>
<p>12. Ventral adjustor.</p>
<p>13. Divaricator muscle.</p>
<p>14. Sub-oesophageal nerve ganglion.</p>
<p>15. The heart.</p>
<p>16. Dorsal adjustor muscle.</p></td></tr>

<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:286px; height:516px" src="images/img362b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 22.&mdash;Diagrammatic section
through an arm of the lophophore of
<i>Crania</i>. Magnified; after Blochmann.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1">
<p>&ensp;1. The lip.</p>
<p>&ensp;2. The base of a tentacle bisected in the middle line.</p>
<p>&ensp;3. Great arm-sinus.</p>
<p>&ensp;4. Small arm-sinus, containing muscle-fibres.</p>
<p>&ensp;5. Tentacular canal.</p>
<p>&ensp;6. External tentacular muscle.</p>
<p>&ensp;7. Tentacular blood-vessel arising from the cut arm-vessel in the small arm-sinus.</p>
<p>&ensp;8. Chief arm-nerve.</p>
<p>&ensp;9. Secondary arm-nerve.</p>
<p>10. Under arm-nerve.</p></td></tr></table>

<p class="pt2">Each valve of the shell is lined by a mantle which contains
prolongations of the body cavity. The outer surfaces of the mantle
secrete the shell, which is of the nature of a cuticle impregnated
by calcareous salts. These often have the form of prisms of calcite
surrounded by a cuticular
mesh work; the
whole is nourished and
kept alive by processes,
which in <i>Crania</i> are
branched; these perforate
the shell and
permit the access of the
coelomic fluid throughout
its substance. These
canals are closed externally
and are absent
in <i>Rhynchonella</i>, where
the amount of calcareous
deposit is small.
In <i>Lingula</i> the shell is
composed of alternate
layers of chitin and of
phosphate of lime. The
free edges of the mantle
often bear chitinous
bristles or setae which
project beyond the shell.
As in the case of the Lamellibranchiata, the shell of the
adult is not a direct derivative of the youngest shell of
the larva. The young Brachiopod in all its species is
protected by an embryonic shell called the &ldquo;protegulum,&rdquo;
which sometimes persists in
the umbones of the adult
shells but is more usually
worn off. In all species it
has the same shape, a shape
which has been retained in
the adult by the Lower
Cambrian genus <i>Iphidea</i>.</p>

<p>The body of the Brachiopod
usually occupies about the
posterior half of the space
within the shell. The anterior
half of this space is
lined by the inner wall of
the mantle and is called the
mantle cavity. This cavity
lodges the arms, which are
curved and coiled in different
ways in different genera.
The water which bears the
oxygen for respiration and
the minute organisms upon
which the Brachiopod feeds is
swept into the mantle cavity
by the action of the cilia
which cover the arms, and
the eggs and excreta pass out
into the same cavity. The
mouth lies in the centre of
the anterior wall of the
body. Its two lips fusing
together at the corners of the mouth are prolonged into the so-called
arms. These arms, which together form the lophophore,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page362" id="page362"></a>362</span>
may be, as in <i>Cistella</i>, applied flat to the inner surface of the
dorsal mantle fold, but more usually they are raised free from
the body like a pair of moustaches, and as they are usually far
too long to lie straight in the mantle cavity, they are folded or
coiled up. The brachial skeleton which in many cases supports
the arms has been mentioned above.</p>

<p>A transverse section through the arm (fig. 22) shows that it
consists of a stout base, composed of a very hyaline connective
tissue not uncommon in the tissues of the Brachiopoda, which
is traversed by certain canals whose nature is considered below
under the section (<i>The Body Cavity</i>) devoted to the coelom.
Anteriorly this base supports a gurrie or gutter, the pre-oral
rim of which is formed by a simple lip, but the post-oral rim is
composed of a closely set row of tentacles. These may number
some thousands, and they
are usually bent over and
tend to form a closed
cylinder of the gutter.
Each of these tentacles
(fig. 22) is hollow, and it
contains a diverticulum
from the coelom, a branch
of the vascular system,
a nerve and some muscle-fibres.
Externally on two
sides and on the inner
surface the tentacles are
ciliated, and the cilia
are continued across the
gutter to the lip and even
on the outer surface of
the latter. These cilia
pass on any diatoms and
other minute organism
which come within their
range of action to the
capacious oval mouth,
which appears as a mere
deepening of the gutter
in the middle line. In
<i>Terebratulina,
Rhynchonella, Lingula</i>, and
possibly other genera,
the arms can be unrolled
and protruded from the
opened shell; in this case
the tentacles also
straighten themselves and
wave about in the water.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p><i>The Body Cavity.</i>&mdash;The
various internal organs of
the brachiopod body, the
alimentary canal and liver,
the excretory organs, the
heart, numerous muscles
and the reproductive
organs, are enclosed in a
cavity called the body
cavity, and since this cavity
(i.) is derived from the
archicoel and is from the
first surrounded by meroblast,
(ii.) communicates
with the exterior through
the nephridia or excretory
organs, and (iii.) gives rise
by the proliferation of the
cells which line it to the
ova and spermatoza, it is of
the nature of a true coelom. The coelom then is a spacious chamber
surrounding the alimentary canal, and is continued dorsally and ventrally
into the sinuses of the mantle (fig. 21). Some of the endothelial
cells lining the coelom are ciliated, the cilia keeping the corpusculated
fluid contents in movement. Others of the endothelial cells show a
great tendency to form muscle fibres. Besides this main coelomic
cavity there are certain other spaces which F. Blochmann regards
as coelomic, but it must be remembered that his interpretation rests
largely on histological grounds, and at present embryological confirmation
is wanting. These spaces are as follows:&mdash;(i.) the great
arm-sinus; (ii.) the small arm-sinus together with the central sinus
and the peri-oesophageal sinus, and in <i>Discinisca</i> and <i>Lingula</i>, and,
to a less extent, in <i>Crania</i>, the lip-sinus; (iii.) certain portions of the
general body cavity which in <i>Crania</i> are separated off and contain
muscles, &amp;c.; (iv.) the cavity of the stalk when such exists. The
great arm-sinus of each side of the lophophore lies beneath the fold
or lip which together with the tentacles forms the ciliated groove
in which the mouth opens. These sinuses are completely shut off
from all other cavities, they do not open into the main coelomic
space nor into the small arm-sinus, nor does the right sinus communicate
with the left. The small arm-sinus runs along the arms
of the lophophore at the base of the tentacles, and gives off a blind
diverticulum into each of these. This diverticulum contains the
blood-vessel and muscle-fibres (fig. 22). In the region of the mouth
where the two halves of the small arm-sinus approach one another
they open into a central sinus lying beneath the oesophagus and
partly walled in by the two halves of the ventral mesentery. This
sinus is continued round the oesophagus as the peri-oesophageal
sinus, and thus the whole complex of the small arm-sinus has the
relations of the so-called vascular system of a Sipunculid. In <i>Crania</i>
it is completely shut off from the main coelom, but in <i>Lingula</i> it
communicates freely with this cavity. In <i>Discinisca</i> and <i>Lingula</i>
there is further a lip-sinus or hollow system of channels which traverses
the supporting tissue
of the edge of the mantle
and contains muscle-fibres.
It opens into the peri-oesophageal
sinus. It is
better developed and more
spacious in <i>Lingula</i> than
in <i>Discinisca.</i> In <i>Crania</i>,
where only indications of the
lip-sinus occur, there are two
other closed spaces. The
posterior occlusor muscles
lie in a special closed
space which Blochmann also
regards as coelomic. The
posterior end of the intestine
is similarly surrounded by
a closed coelomic space
known as the peri-anal sinus
in which the rectum lies
freely, unsupported by
mesenteries. All these
spaces contain a similar
coagulable fluid with sparse
corpuscles, and all are lined
by ciliated cells. There is
further a great tendency for
the endothelial cells to form
muscles, and this is especially
pronounced in the small
arm-sinus, where a conspicuous
muscle is built up.
The mantle-sinuses which
form the chief spaces in the
mantle are diverticula of the
main coelomic cavity. In
<i>Discinisca</i> they are provided
with a muscular valve placed
at their point of origin. They
contain the same fluid as the
general coelom. The stalk
is an extension of the ventral
body-wall, and contains
a portion of the coelom
which, in <i>Discinisca</i> and
<i>Lingula</i>, remains in communication
with the general
body cavity.</p>

<p><i>The Alimentary Canal</i>.&mdash;
The mouth, which is quite
devoid of armature, leads
imperceptibly into a short and dorsally directed oesophagus.
The latter enlarges into a spherical stomach into which open the
broad ducts of the so-called liver. The stomach then passes
into an intestine, which in the Testicardines (Articulata) is short,
finger-shaped and closed, and in the Ecardines (Inarticulata) is
longer, turned back upon its first course, and ends in an anus. In
<i>Lingula</i> and <i>Discina</i> the anus lies to the right in the mantle-cavity,
but in <i>Crania</i> it opens medianly into a posterior extension of the
same. Apart from the asymmetry of the intestine caused by the
lateral position of the anus in the two genera just named, Brachiopods
are bilaterally symmetrical animals.</p>

<p>The liver consists of a right and left half, each opening by a broad
duct into the stomach. Each half consists of many lobes which
may branch, and the whole takes up a considerable proportion of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page363" id="page363"></a>363</span>
the space in the body cavity. The food passes into these lobes,
which may be found crowded with diatoms, and without doubt a
large part of the digestion is carried on inside the liver. The stomach,
oesophagus and intestine are ciliated on their inner surface. The
intestine is slung by a median dorsal and ventral mesentery which
divides the body cavity into two symmetrically shaped halves;
it is &ldquo;stayed&rdquo; by two transverse septa, the anterior or gastroparietal
band running from the stomach to the body wall and the
posterior or ileoparietal band running from the intestine to the body
wall. None of these septa is complete, and the various parts of
the central body cavity freely communicate with one another. In
<i>Rhynchonella</i>, where there are two pairs of kidneys, the internal
opening of the anterior pair is supported by the gastroparietal band
and that of the posterior pair by the ileoparietal band. The latter
pair alone persists in all other genera.</p>

<p>The kidneys or nephridia open internally by wide funnel-shaped
nephridiostomes and externally by small pores on each side of the
mouth near the base of the arms. Each is short, gently curved and
devoid of convolutions. They are lined by cells charged with a yellow
or brown pigment, and besides their excretory functions they act
as ducts through which the reproductive cells leave the body.</p>

<p><i>Circulatory System.</i>&mdash;The structures formerly regarded as pseudohearts
have been shown by Huxley to be nephridia; the true heart
was described and figured by A. Hancock, but has in many cases
escaped the observation of later zoologists. F. Blochmann in 1884,
however, observed this organ in the living animal in species of the
following genera:&mdash;<i>Terebratulina, Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>], <i>Rhynchonella,
Megathyris</i> (<i>Argiope</i>), <i>Lingula</i>, and <i>Crania</i> (fig. 21). It
consists of a definite contractile sac or sacs lying on the dorsal side
of the alimentary canal near the oesophagus, and in preparations
of <i>Terebratulina</i> made by quickly removing the viscera and examining
them in sea-water under a microscope, he was able to count the pulsations,
which followed one another at intervals of 30-40 seconds.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:280px; height:238px" src="images/img363a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 23.&mdash;<i>Rhynchonella</i> (<i>Hemithyris</i>)
<i>psittacea.</i> Interior of dorsal
valve, <i>s</i>, Sockets; <i>b</i>, dental plates;
<i>V</i>, mouth; <i>de</i>, labial appendage in
its natural position; <i>d</i>, appendage
extended or unrolled.</td></tr></table>

<p>A vessel&mdash;the dorsal vessel&mdash;runs forward from the heart
along the dorsal surface of the oesophagus. This vessel
is nothing but a split between the right and left folds of the
mesentery, and its cavity is thus a remnant of the blastocoel.
A similar primitive arrangement is thought by F. Blochmann to obtain in the
genital arteries. Anteriorly the dorsal vessel splits into a right
and a left half, which enter the small arm-sinus and, running
along it, give off a blind branch to each tentacle (fig. 21). The
right and left halves are connected ventrally to the oesophagus
by a short vessel which supplies these tentacles in the immediate
neighbourhood of the mouth. There is thus a vascular ring around
the oesophagus. The heart gives off posteriorly a second
median vessel which divides almost at once
into a right and a left half, each of which again divides into two
vessels which run to the dorsal and ventral mantles respectively.
The dorsal branch sends a blind twig into each of the diverticula
of the dorsal mantle-sinus, the ventral branch supplies the nephridia
and neighbouring parts before reaching the ventral lobe of the mantle.
Both dorsal and ventral branches supply the generative organs.</p>

<p>The blood is a coagulable fluid. Whether it contains corpuscles
is not yet determined, but if so they must be few in number. It is
a remarkable fact that in <i>Discinisca</i>, although the vessels to the
lophophore are arranged as in other Brachiopods, no trace of a heart
or of the posterior vessels has as yet been discovered.</p>

<p><i>Muscles.</i>&mdash;The number and position of the muscles differ materially
in the two great divisions into which the Brachiopoda have been
grouped, and to some extent also in the different genera of which
each division is composed. Unfortunately almost every anatomist
who has written on the muscles of the Brachiopoda has proposed
different names for each muscle, and the confusion thence arising
is much to be regretted. In the Testicardines, of which the genus
<i>Terebratula</i> may be taken as an example, five or six pairs of muscles
are stated by A. Hancock, Gratiolet and others to be connected
with the opening and closing of the valves, or with their attachment
to or movements upon the peduncle. First of all, the adductors
or occlusors consist of two muscles, which, bifurcating near the
centre of the shell cavity, produce a large quadruple impression
on the internal surface of the small valve (fig. 13, <i>a</i>, <i>a&rsquo;</i>), and a single
divided one towards the centre of the large or ventral valve (fig. 12,
<i>a</i>). The function of this pair of muscles is the closing of the valves.
Two other pairs have been termed <i>divaricators</i> by Hancock, or
<i>cardinal muscles</i> (&ldquo;muscles diducteurs&rdquo; of Gratiolet), and have
for function the opening of the valves. The divaricators proper are
stated by Hancock to arise from the ventral valve, one on each
side, a little in advance of and close to the adductors, and after
rapidly diminishing in size become attached to the cardinal process,
a space or prominence between the sockets in the dorsal valve.
The <i>accessory divaricators</i> are, according to the same authority, a
pair of small muscles which have their ends attached to the ventral
valve, one on each side of the median line, a little behind the united
basis of the adductors, and again to the extreme point of the cardinal
process. Two pairs of muscles, apparently connected with the
peduncle and its limited movements, have been minutely described
by Hancock as having one of their extremities attached to this organ.
The <i>dorsal adjusters</i> are fixed to the ventral surface of the peduncle,
and are again inserted into the hinge-plate in the smaller valve.
The <i>ventral adjusters</i> are considered to pass from the inner extremity
of the peduncle, and to become attached by one pair of their extremities
to the ventral valve, one on each side and a little behind
the expanded base of the divaricators. The function of these muscles,
according to the same authority, is not only that of erecting the shell;
they serve also to attach the peduncle to the shell, and thus effect
the steadying of it upon the peduncle. By alternate contracting
they can cause a slight rotation of the animal in its stalk.</p>

<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:444px; height:291px" src="images/img363b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 24.&mdash;<i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] <i>flavescens</i>. Diagram showing
the muscular system. (After Hancock.)</td></tr>

<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>M, Ventral,</p>
<p>N, Dorsal valve,</p>
<p><i>l</i>, Loop.</p>
<p>V, Mouth.</p></td>

<td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>Z, Extremity of intestine,</p>
<p><i>c</i>, Divaricators.</p>
<p><i>c&prime;</i>, Accessory divaricators.</p>
<p><i>a</i>, Adductor.</p></td>

<td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;">
<p><i>b</i>, Ventral adjusters.</p>
<p><i>b&prime;</i>, Peduncular muscles.</p>
<p><i>b&Prime;</i>, Dorsal adjusters.</p>
<p>P, Peduncle.</p></td></tr></table>

<p class="pt2">Such is the general arrangement of the shell muscles in the division
composing the articulated Brachiopoda, making allowance for
certain unimportant modifications observable in the animals composing
the different families and genera thereof. Owing to the strong
and tight interlocking of the valves by the means of curved teeth
and sockets, many species of Brachiopoda could open their valves
but slightly. In some species, such as <i>Thecidea</i>, the animal could
raise its dorsal valve at right angles to the plane of the ventral one
(fig. 4).</p>

<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:509px; height:378px" src="images/img363c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Figs.</span> 25, 26. <i>Lingula anatina.</i></td></tr>

<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>25, Interior of ventral valve.</p>
<p>26, Interior of dorsal valve.</p>
<p><i>g</i>, Umbonal muscular impressions (open valves).</p>
<p><i>h</i>, Central muscles (close valves).</p>
<p><i>i</i>, Transmedial or sliding muscles.</p></td>

<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p><i>b</i>, Parietal band.</p>
<p><i>j, k, l</i>, Lateral muscles (<i>j</i>, anteriors; <i>k</i>, middles; <i>l</i>,
outsiders), enabling the valves to move forward and backward on each other.</p>
<p><br />(After King.)</p></td></tr></table>

<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:255px; height:579px" src="images/img364a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 27.&mdash;<i>Lingula anatina</i>.
Diagram showing the muscular system. (After Hancock.) The
letters indicate the muscles as in figs. 25 and 26.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><p>A, Dorsal,</p>
<p>B, Ventral valve.</p>
<p><i>p</i>, Peduncle.</p>
<p><i>e</i>, Heart.</p>
<p><i>a</i>, Alimentary tube.</p>
<p><i>z</i>, Anal aperture.</p></td></tr></table>

<p class="pt2">In the Ecardines, of which <i>Lingula</i> and <i>Discina</i> may be quoted
as examples, the myology is much more complicated. Of the shell
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page364" id="page364"></a>364</span>
or valvular muscles W. King makes out five pairs and an odd one,
and individualizes their respective functions as follows:&mdash;Three pairs
are <i>lateral</i>, having their members limited to the sides of the shell;
one pair are <i>transmedians</i>, each member passing across the middle
of the reverse side of the shell, while the odd muscle occupies the
umbonal cavity. The <i>central</i> and <i>umbonal</i> muscles effect the direct
opening and closing of the shell, the <i>laterals</i> enable the valves to
move forward and backward on each other, and the <i>transmedians</i>
allow the similar extremities (the rostral) of the valves to turn from
each other to the right or the left on an axis subcentrically situated,
that is, the medio-transverse region of the dorsal valve. It was long
a matter in discussion whether the animal could displace its valves
sideways when about to open its shell, but this has been actually
observed by Professors K. Semper and E.S. Morse, who saw the
animal perform the operation. They mention that it is never done
suddenly or by jerks, as the valves are at first always pushed to one
side several times and back again on each other, at the same time
opening gradually in the transverse direction till they rest opposite
to one another and widely apart. Those who have not seen the
animal in life, or who did not believe in the possibility of the valves
crossing each other with a slight obliquity, would not consent to
appropriating any of its muscles
to that purpose, and consequently
attributed to all the lateral muscles
the simple function of keeping
the valves in an opposite position,
or holding them adjusted.
We have not only the observations
of Semper and Morse, but
the anatomical investigations of
King, to confirm the sliding
action or lateral divarication of
the valves of <i>Lingula</i>.</p>

<p>In the Testicardines, where no
such sliding action of the valves
was necessary or possible, no
muscles for such an object were
required, consequently none took
rise from the lateral portions of
the valves as in <i>Lingula</i>; but
in an extinct group, the <i>Trimerellidae</i>,
which seems to be somewhat
intermediate in character
between the Ecardines and Testicardines,
have been found certain
scars, which appear to
have been produced by rudimentary
lateral muscles, but it is
doubtful (considering the shells
are furnished with teeth, though
but rudely developed) whether
such muscles enabled the valves,
as in <i>Lingula</i>, to move forward
and backward upon each other.
<i>Crania</i> in life opens its valves
by moving upon the straight
hinge, without sliding the valve.</p>

<p>The <i>nervous system</i> of Brachiopods
has, as a rule, maintained
its primitive connexion with the
external epithelium. In a few
places it has sunk into the connective-tissue
supporting layer
beneath the ectoderm, but the
chief centres still remain in the
ectoderm, and the fibrils forming
the nerves are for the most
part at the base of the ectodermal cells. Above the oesophagus
is a thin commissure which passes laterally into the chief arm-nerve.
This latter includes in its course numerous ganglion cells,
and forms, according to F. Blochmann, the immensely long drawn out
supra-oesophageal ganglion. The chief arm-nerve traverses the lophophore,
being situated between the great arm-sinus and the base of the
lip (figs. 22 and 28); it gives off a branch to each tentacle, and these
all anastomose at the base of the tentacles with the second nerve
of the arm, the so-called secondary arm-nerve. Like the chief arm-nerve,
this strand runs through the lophophore, parallel indeed
with the former except near the middle line, where it passes ventrally
to the oesophagus. The lophophore is supplied by yet a third nerve,
the under arm-nerve, which is less clearly defined than the others,
and resembles a moderate aggregation of the nerve fibrils, which seem
everywhere to underlie the ectoderm, and which in a few cases are
gathered up into nerves. The under arm-nerve, which lies between
the small arm-sinus and the surface, supplies nerves to the muscles of
both arm-sinuses (figs. 22 and 28). Medianly, it has its origin in the
sub-oesophageal ganglion, which, like the supra-oesophageal, is
drawn out laterally, though not to the same extent. In the middle
line the sub-oespphageal nerve mass is small; the ganglion is in
fact drawn out into two halves placed on either side of the body.
From each of these sub-oesophageal ganglia numerous nerves arise.
Passing from the middle line outwards they are&mdash;(i.) the median
pallial nerve to the middle of the dorsal mantle; (ii.) numerous
small nerves&mdash;the circum-oesophageal commissures&mdash;which pass
round the oesophagus to the chief arm-nerve or supra-oesophageal
ganglion; (iii.) the under arm-nerve to the lophophore and its
muscles; (iv.) the lateral pallial nerve to the sides of the dorsal
mantle. Laterally, the sub-oesophageal ganglia give off (v.) nerves
to the ventral mantle, and finally they supply (vi.) branches to the
various muscles. There is a special marginal nerve running round
the edge of the mantle, but the connexion of this with the rest of
the nervous system is not clear; probably it is merely another
concentration of the diffused sub-ectodermal nervous fibrils.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:299px; height:364px" src="images/img364b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 28.&mdash;Diagram of nervous
system of <i>Crania</i>; from the dorsal
side.  The nerves running to the
dorsal parts are white, with black
edges; those running to the ventral
parts are solid black. Magnified. (After
Blochmann.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><p>&ensp;1. Oesophagus.</p>
<p>&ensp;2. Supra-oesophageal commisure.</p>
<p>&ensp;3. Circum-oesophageal commisure.</p>
<p>&ensp;4. Under arm-nerve.</p>
<p>&ensp;5. Great arm-sinus.</p>
<p>&ensp;6. Small arm-sinus.</p>
<p>&ensp;7. Tentacle.</p>
<p>&ensp;8. Lip of lophophore.</p>
<p>&ensp;9. Infra-oesophageal commisure.</p>
<p>10. Chief arm-nerve.</p>
<p>11. Secondary arm-nerve.</p>
<p>12. Nerves to tentacles.</p>
<p>13. Sub-oesophageal ganglion.</p>
<p>14. Dorsal lateral nerve.</p>
<p>15. Sub-oesophageal portion of the secondary arm-nerve.</p>
<p>16. Median pallial nerve of dorsal lobe of mantle.</p>
<p>17. Anterior occlusor muscle.</p>
<p>18. Posterior occlusor muscle.</p>
<p>19. Obliquus superior muscle.</p>
<p>20. Levator brachii muscle.</p></td></tr></table>

<p>The above account applies more particularly to <i>Crania</i>, but in the
main it is applicable to the other Inarticulata which have been investigated.
In <i>Discinisca</i> and <i>Lingula</i>, however, the sub-oesophageal
ganglion is not drawn out, but lies medianly; it gives off two
posteriorly directed nerves to the stalk, which in <i>Lingula</i> unite and
form a substantial nerve. Sense organs are unknown in the adult.
The larval forms are provided with eye-spots, but no very specialized
sense organs are found in the adult.</p>

<p>The <i>histology</i> of Brachiopods presents some peculiar and many
primitive features. As a rule the cells are minute, and this has
especially stood in the way of embryological research. The plexus
of nerve-fibrils which underlie the ectoderm and are in places
gathered up into nerves, and the great development of connective
tissue, are worthy of notice. Much of the latter takes the form of
hyaline supporting tissue,
embedded in which are
scattered cells and fibres.
The lophophore and stalk
are largely composed of this
tissue. The ectodermal cells
are large, ciliated, and
amongst the ciliated cells
glandular cells are scattered.
The chitinous chaetae have
their origin in special ectodermal
pits, at the base of
which is one large cell which
is thought to secrete the
chaeta, as in Chaetopods.
These pits are not isolated,
but are connected by an
ectodermal ridge, which
grows in at the margin of
the mantle and forms a continuous
band somewhat resembling
the ectodermal
primordium of vertebrate
teeth.</p>

<p>The ovary and testes are
heaped-up masses of red or
yellow cells due to a proliferation
of the cells lining
the coelom. There are four
of such masses, two dorsal
and two ventral, and as a
rule they extend between
the outer and inner layer of
the mantle lining the shells.
The ova and the spermatozoa
dehisce into the body cavity
and pass to the exterior
through the nephridia. Fertilization
takes place outside
the body, and in
some species the early stages
of development take place
in a brood-pouch which is
essentially a more or less
deep depression of the body-wall
median in <i>Thecidea</i>,
while in <i>Cistella</i> (? <i>Argiope</i>)
there is one such pouch on
each side, just below the
base of the arms, and into
these the nephridia open.
The developing ova are
attached by little stalks to
the walls of these pouches.
In spite of some assertions to the contrary, all the Brachiopods
which have been carefully investigated have been found to be male
or female. Hermaphrodite forms are unknown.</p>

<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:605px; height:267px" src="images/img365a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 29.&mdash;Three larvae stages of <i>Megathyris</i> (<i>Argiope</i>). A, Larva which has
just left brood-pouch; B, longitudinal section through a somewhat later stage;
C, the fully formed embryo just before fixing&mdash;the neo-embryo of Beecher.
Highly magnified.<br /><br /></td></tr>

<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>1. Anterior segment.</p>
<p>2. Second or mantle-forming segment.</p>
<p>3. Third or stalk-forming segment.</p>
<p>4. Eye-spots.</p></td>

<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
<p>5. Setae.</p>
<p>6. Nerve mass (?).</p>
<p>7. Alimentary canal.</p>
<p>8. Muscles.</p></td></tr></table>

<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:305px; height:218px" src="images/img365b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 30.&mdash;Stages in the fixing and
metamorphosis of <i>Terebratulina</i>. Highly
magnified. (From Morse.)</td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1">
<p>A, Larva (neo-embryo) just come to
rest.</p>
<p>B, C, D, Stages showing the turning
forward of the second or mantle segment.</p>
<p>E, Completion of this.</p>
<p>F, Young Brachiopod.</p>
<p>1, 2, 3, The first, second and third
segments.</p></td></tr></table>

<p class="pt2"><i>Embryology.</i>&mdash;With the exception of Yatsu&rsquo;s article on the development
of <i>Lingula</i> (<i>J. Coll. Sci., Japan</i>, xvii., 1901-1903) and E.G.
Conklin&rsquo;s on &ldquo;Terebratulina septentrionalis&rdquo; (<i>P. Amer. Phil. Soc.</i>
xli., 1902), little real advance has been made in our knowledge of
the embryology of the Brachiopoda within recent years. Kovalevsky&rsquo;s
researches (Izv. Obshch. Moskov, xiv., 1874) on <i>Megathyris</i>
(<i>Argiope</i>) and Yatsu&rsquo;s just mentioned are the most complete as
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page365" id="page365"></a>365</span>
regards the earlier stages. Segmentation is complete, a gastrula
is formed, the blastopore closes, the archenteron gives off two
coelomic sacs which, as far as is known, are unaffected by the superficial
segmentation of the body that divides the larva into three
segments. The walls of these sacs give rise at an early stage to
muscles which enable the parts of the larva to move actively on one
another (fig. 29, B). About this stage the larvae leave the brood-pouch,
which is a lateral or median cavity in the body of the female,
and lead a free swimming life in the ocean. The anterior segment
broadens and becomes umbrella-shaped; it has a powerful row of
cilia round the rim and smaller cilia on the general surface. By the
aid of these cilia the larva swims actively, but owing to its minute
size it covers very little distance, and this probably accounts for the
fact that where brachiopods occur there are, as a rule, a good many
in one spot. The head bears four eye-spots, and it is continually
testing the ground (fig. 29, A, C). The second segment grows downwards
like a skirt surrounding the third segment, which is destined
to form the stalk. It bears at its rim four bundles of very pronounced
chaetae. After a certain time the larva fixes itself by its stalk to
some stone or rock, and the skirt-like second segment turns forward
over the head and forms the mantle. What goes on within the
mantle is unknown, but presumably the head is absorbed. The
chaetae drop off, and the lophophore is believed to arise from
thickenings which appear in the dorsal mantle lobe. The Plankton
Expedition brought back, and H. Simroth (<i>Ergeb. Plankton Expedition</i>,
ii., 1897) has described, a few larval brachiopods of undetermined
genera, two of which at least were pelagic, or at any rate taken
far from the coast. These
larvae, which resemble
those described by Fritz
Müller (<i>Arch. Naturg.</i>,
1861-1862), have their
mantle turned over their
head and the larval shell
well developed. No stalk
has been seen by Simroth
or Fritz Müller, but in
other respects the larva
resembles the stages in the
development of <i>Megathyris</i>
and <i>Terebratulina</i> which
immediately precede fixation.
The cirri or tentacles,
of which three or four
pairs are present, are capable
of being protruded,
and the minute larva
swims by means of the
ciliary action they produce.
It can retract the tentacles,
shut its shell, and sink to
the bottom.</p>

<p>C.E.E. Beecher (<i>Amer.
Jour. Sci.</i> ser. 3, xli. and
xliv.) has classified with
appropriate names the various stages through which Brachiopod
larvae pass. The last stage, that in which the folds of the
second segment are already reflected over the first, he calls the
Typembryo. Either before or just after turning, the mantle develops
a larval shell termed the protegulum, and when this is completed
the larva is termed the Phylembryo. By this time the eyes have
disappeared, the four bundles of chaetae have dropped off, and the
lophophore has begun to appear as an outgrowth of the dorsal
mantle lobe. The protegulum has been found in members of almost
all the families of Brachiopod, and it is thought to occur throughout
the group. It resembles the shell of the Cambrian
genus <i>Iphidea</i> [<i>Paterina</i>], and the Phylembryo is
frequently referred to as the <i>Paterina</i> stage. In some
orders the Phylembryo is succeeded by an <i>Obolella</i>
stage with a nearly circular outline, but this is not
universal. The larva now assumes specific characters
and is practically adult.</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:315px; height:293px" src="images/img365c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 31.&mdash;Shell of larval Brachiopod.
Phylembryo stage. (From Simroth.)<br />
1, Protegulum; 2, permanent shell.</td></tr></table>

<p><i>Classification</i>.&mdash;Beecher&rsquo;s division of the Brachiopoda
into four orders is based largely on the character of
the aperture through which the stalk or pedicle leaves
the shell. To appreciate his diagnoses it is necessary
to understand certain terms, which unfortunately are
not used in the same sense by all authors. The triangular
pedicle-opening seen in <i>Orthis</i>, &amp;c., has been
named by James Hall and J.M. Clarke the delthyrium.
In some less primitive genera, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Terebratula</i>, that
type of opening is found in the young stages only; later
it becomes partly closed by two plates which grow out
from the sides of the delthyrium. These plates are
secreted by the ventral lobe of the mantle, and were
named by von Buch in 1834 the &ldquo;deltidium.&rdquo; The
form of the deltidium varies in different genera. The
two plates may meet in the middle line, and leave only
a small oval opening near the centre for the pedicle,
as in <i>Rhynchonella</i>; or they may meet only near the
base of the delthyrium forming the lower boundary of
the circular pedicle-opening, as in <i>Terebratula</i>; or the
right plate may remain quite distinct from the left
plate, as in <i>Terebratella</i>. The pro-deltidium, a term introduced
by Hall and Clarke, signifies a small embryonic plate originating
on the dorsal side of the body. It subsequently becomes attached
to the ventral valve, and
develops into the pseudo-deltidium,
in the Neotremata
and the Protremata.
The pseudo-deltidium (so
named by Bronn in 1862)
is a single plate which
grows from the apex of
the delthyrium downwards,
and may completely
close the
aperture. The pseudo-deltidium
is sometimes
reabsorbed in the adult.
In the Telotremata
neither pro-deltidium nor
pseudo-deltidium is
known. In the Atremata
the pro-deltidium does
not become fixed to the
ventral valve, and does
not develop into a pseudo-deltidium.
The American
use of the term deltidium for the structure which Europeans call
the pseudo-deltidium makes for confusion. The development
of the brachial supports has been studied by Friele, Fischer and
Oehlert. A summary of the results is given by Beecher (<i>Trans.
Connect. Acad.</i> ix., 1893; reprinted in <i>Studies in Evolution</i>, 1901).</p>

<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:216px; height:190px" src="images/img365d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 32.&mdash;Diagram of the
pedicle-opening of <i>Rhynchonella</i>.
Magnified.</td></tr>
<tr><td class="caption1">
<p>1. Umbo of ventral valve.</p>
<p>2. Deltidium.</p>
<p>3. Margin of delthyrium.</p>
<p>4. Pedicle-opening.</p>
<p>5. Dorsal valve.</p></td></tr></table>

<p>The orders Atremata and Neotremata are frequently grouped
together, as the sub-class Inarticulata or Ecardines&mdash;the Tretenterata
of Davidson&mdash;and the orders Protremata and Telotremata,
as the Articulata or Testicardines&mdash;
the Clistenterata of Davidson. The
following scheme of classification is
based on Beecher&rsquo;s and Schubert&rsquo;s.
Recent families are printed in italic
type.</p>

<p class="center pt2">Class I. <span class="sc">Ecardines (Inarticulata)</span></p>

<p><span class="bold">ORDER I. Atremata</span> (Beecher).&mdash;Inarticulate
Brachiopoda, with the
pedicle passing out between the umbones,
the opening being shared by
both valves. Pro-deltidium attached
to dorsal valves. FAMILIES.&mdash;<span class="sc">Paterinidae,
Obolidae, Trimerellidae,
Lingulellidae, <i>Lingulidae</i>,
Ligulasmatidae.</span></p>

<p><span class="bold">ORDER II. Neotremata</span> (Beecher).&mdash;More
or less circular, cone-shaped,
inarticulate Brachiopoda. The pedicle
passes out at right angles to the plane
of junction of the valves of the shell;
the opening is confined to the ventral valve, and may take the form
of a slit, or may be closed by the development of a special plate
called the listrium, or by a pseudo-deltidium. Pro-deltidium attached
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page366" id="page366"></a>366</span>
to ventral valve. FAMILIES.&mdash;<span class="sc">Acrotretidae, Siphonotretidae,
Trematidae, <i>Discinidae, Craniidae</i>.</span></p>

<p class="pt2 center">Class II. <span class="sc">Testicardines (Articulata)</span></p>

<p><span class="bold">ORDER III. Protremata</span> (Beecher).&mdash;Articulate Brachiopoda,
with pedicle-opening restricted to ventral valve, and either open
at the hinge line or more or less completely closed by a pseudo-deltidium,
which may disappear in adult. The pro-deltidium originating
on the dorsal surface later becomes anchylosed with the ventral
valve. FAMILIES.&mdash;<span class="sc">Kutorginidae, Eichwaldiidae, Billingsellidae,
Strophomenidae, <i>Thecidiidae</i>, Productidae, Richthofenidae,
Orthidae, Clitambonitidae, Syntrophiidae, Porambonitidae, Pentameridae.</span></p>

<p><span class="bold">ORDER IV. Telotremata</span> (Beecher).&mdash;Articulate Brachiopoda,
with the pedicle-opening, confined in later life to the ventral valve,
and placed at the umbo or beneath it. Deltidium present, but no
pro-deltidium.  Lophophore supported by calcareous loops, &amp;c.
FAMILIES.&mdash;<span class="sc">Protorhynchidae, <i>Rhynchonellidae</i>, Centronellidae,
<i>Terebratulidae</i>, Stringocephalidae, Megalanteridae,
<i>Terebratellidae</i>, Atrypidae, Spiriferidae, Athyridae.</span></p>

<p><i>Affinities</i>.&mdash;Little light has been thrown on the affinities of the
Brachiopoda by recent research, though speculation has not been
wanting.  Brachiopods have been at various times placed with the
Mollusca, the Chaetopoda, the Chaetognatha, the Phoronidea, the
Polyzoa, the Hemichordata, and the Urochordata.  None of these
alliances has borne close scrutiny.  The suggestion to place Brachiopods
with the Polyzoa, <i>Phoronis, Rhabdopleura</i> and <i>Cephalodiscus</i>,
in the Phylum Podaxonia made in <i>Ency. Brit.</i>  (vol.  xix, ninth edition,
pp. 440-441) has not met with acceptance, and until we have a fuller
account of the embryology of some one form, preferably an
Inarticulate, it is wiser to regard the group as a very isolated one.
It may, however, be pointed out that Brachiopods seem to belong
to that class of animal which commences life as a larva with three
segments, and that tri-segmented larvae have been found now in several
of the larger groups.</p>

<p><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Brachiopods first appear in the Lower Cambrian,
and reached their highest development in the Silurian, from which
upwards of 2000 species are known, and were nearly as numerous
in the Devonian period; at present they are represented by some
140 recent species.  The following have been found in the British
area, as defined by A.M. Norman, <i>Terebratulina caput-serpentis</i> L.,
<i>Terebratula</i> (<i>Gwynia</i>) <i>capsula</i> Jeff.,
<i>Magellania</i> (<i>Macandrevia</i>) <i>cranium</i> Müll.,
<i>M. septigera</i> Lovén,
<i>Terebratella spitzbergenensis</i> Dav.,
<i>Megathyris decollata</i> Chemn.,
<i>Cistella cistellula</i> S. Wood,
<i>Cryptopora gnomon</i> Jeff.,
<i>Rhynchonella</i> (<i>Hemithyris</i>) <i>psittacea</i> Gmel.,
<i>Crania anomala</i> Müll.,
and <i>Discinisca atlantica</i> King. About one-half
the 120 existing species are found above the 100-fathoms line.  Below
150 fathoms they are rare, but a few such as <i>Terebratulina wyvillei</i> are
found down to 2000 fathoms.  <i>Lingula</i> is essentially a very shallow
water form.  As a rule the genera of the northern hemisphere differ
from those of the southern.  A large number of specimens of a
species are usually found together, since their only mode of spreading
is during the ciliated larval stage, which although it swims vigorously
can only cover a few millimetres an hour; still it may be carried
some little distance by currents.</p>

<p>Undue stress is often laid on the fact that <i>Lingula</i> has come down to
us apparently unchanged since Cambrian times, whilst <i>Crania</i>, and forms
very closely resembling <i>Discina</i> and <i>Rhynchonella</i>, are
found from the Ordovician strata onwards.  The former statement
is, however, true of animals from other classes at least as highly
organized as Brachiopods, <i>e.g.</i>  the Gasteropod <i>Capulus</i>, whilst most
of the invertebrate classes were represented in the Ordovician by
forms which do not differ from their existing representatives in any
important respect.</p>

<p>A full bibliography of Brachiopoda (recent and fossil) is to be
found in Davidson&rsquo;s Monograph of British Fossil Brachiopods,
<i>Pal. Soc.  Mon.</i>  vi., 1886.  The Monograph on Recent Brachiopoda,
by the same author, <i>Tr. Linn. Soc. London</i>, Zool. ser. ii. vol. iv.,
1886-1888, must on no account be omitted.</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(A. E. S.)</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Subgenera are indicated by round, synonyms by square brackets.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRACHISTOCHRONE<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="brachistos">&#946;&#961;&#940;&#967;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>, shortest, and
<span class="grk" title="chronos">&#967;&#961;&#972;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>, time), a term invented by John Bernoulli in 1694
to denote the curve along which a body passes from one fixed
point to another in the shortest time.  When the directive force
is constant, the curve is a cycloid (<i>q.v.</i>); under other conditions,
spirals and other curves are described (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mechanics</a></span>).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRACHYCEPHALIC<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (Gr.  for short-headed), a term invented
by Andreas Retzius to denote those skulls of which the width
from side to side was little less than the length from front to
back, their ratio being as 80 to 100, as in those of the Mongolian
type.  Thus taking the length as 100, if the width exceeds 80,
the skull is to be classed as brachycephalic.  The prevailing form
of the head of civilized races is brachycephalic.  It is supposed
that a brachycephalic race inhabited Europe before the Celts.
Among those peoples whose heads show marked brachycephaly
are the Indo-Chinese, the Savoyards, Croatians, Bavarians,
Lapps, Burmese, Armenians and Peruvians. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Craniometry</a></span>.)</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRACKYLOGUS<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="brachys">&#946;&#961;&#945;&#967;&#973;&#962;</span>, short, and <span class="grk" title="logos">&#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>, word),
title applied in the middle of the 16th century to a work containing
a systematic exposition of the Roman law, which some
writers have assigned to the reign of the emperor Justinian,
and others have treated as an apocryphal work of the 16th
century. The earliest extant edition of this work was published
at Lyons in 1549, under the title of <i>Corpus Legum per modum
Institutionum</i>; and the title <i>Brachylogus totius Juris Civilis</i>
appears for the first time in an edition published at Lyons in
1553. The origin of the work may be referred with great
probability to the 12th century. There is internal evidence
that it was composed subsequently to the reign of Louis le
Débonnaire (778-840), as it contains a Lombard law of that
king&rsquo;s, which forbids the testimony of a clerk to be received
against a layman. On the other hand its style and reasoning
is far superior to that of the law writers of the 10th and 11th
centuries; while the circumstance that the method of its author
has not been in the slightest degree influenced by the school of
the Gloss-writers (Glossatores) leads fairly to the conclusion
that he wrote before that school became dominant at Bologna.
Savigny, who traced the history of the <i>Brachylogus</i> with great
care, is disposed to think that it is the work of Irnerius himself
(<i>Geschichte des röm. Rechts im Mittelalter</i>). Its value is chiefly
historical, as it furnishes evidence that a knowledge of Justinian&rsquo;s
legislation was always maintained in northern Italy. The author
of the work has adopted the <i>Institutes</i> of Justinian as the basis
of it, and draws largely on the <i>Digest</i>, the <i>Code</i> and the
<i>Novels</i>; while certain passages, evidently taken from the
<i>Sententiae Receptae</i> of Julius Paulus, imply that the author
was also acquainted with the Visigothic code of Roman law compiled
by order of Alaric II.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>An edition by E. Bocking was published at Berlin in 1829, under
the title of <i>Corpus Legum sive Brachylogus Juris Civilis</i>. See also
H. Fitting, <i>Über die Heimath und das Alter des sogenannten
Brachylogus</i> (Berlin, 1880).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRACKET,<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> in architecture and carpentering, a projecting
feature either in wood or metal for holding things together or
supporting a shelf. The same feature in stone is called a &ldquo;console&rdquo;
(<i>q.v.</i>). In furniture it is a small ornamental shelf for a
wall or a corner, to bear knick-knacks, china or other bric-à-brac.
The word has been referred to &ldquo;brace,&rdquo; clamp, Lat. <i>bracchium</i>,
arm, but the earliest form &ldquo;bragget&rdquo; (1580) points to the true
derivation from the Fr. <i>braguette</i>, or Span. <i>bragueta</i>
(Lat. <i>bracae</i>, breeches), used both of the front part of a pair
of breeches and of the architectural feature. The sense development is
not clear, but it has no doubt been influenced by the supposed
connexion with &ldquo;brace.&rdquo;</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRACKET-FUNGI.<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span> The term &ldquo;bracket&rdquo; has been given
to those hard, woody fungi that grow on trees or timber in
the form of semicircular brackets. They belong to the order
<i>Polyporeae</i>, distinguished by the layer of tubes or pores on
the under surface within which the spores are borne. The
mycelium, or vegetable part of the fungus, burrows in the tissues
of the tree, and often destroys it; the &ldquo;bracket&rdquo; represents
the fruiting stage, and produces innumerable spores which gain
entrance to other trees by some wound or cut surface; hence
the need of careful forestry. Many of these woody fungi persist
for several years, and a new layer of pores is superposed on
the previous season&rsquo;s growth.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRACKLESHAM BEDS,<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> in geology, a series of clays and
marls, with sandy and lignitic beds, in the Middle Eocene of
the Hampshire Basin, England. They are well developed in
the Isle of Wight and on the mainland opposite; and receive
their name from their occurrence at Bracklesham in Sussex.
The thickness of the deposit is from 100 to 400 ft. Fossil mollusca
are abundant, and fossil fish are to be found, as well as the
<i>Palaeophis</i>, a sea-snake. Nummulites and other foraminifera
also occur. The Bracklesham Beds lie between the Barton Clay
above and the Bournemouth Beds, Lower Bagshot, below.
In the London Basin these beds are represented only by thin
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page367" id="page367"></a>367</span>
sandy clays In the Middle Bagshot group. In the Paris Basin
the &ldquo;Calcaire grossier&rdquo; lies upon the same geological horizon.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>See F. Dixon, <i>Geology of Sussex</i> (new ed., 1878); F.E. Edwards
and S.V. Wood, &ldquo;Monograph of Eocene Mollusca,&rdquo; <i>Palaeontographical Soc.</i>
vol. i. (1847-1877); &ldquo;Geology of the Isle of Wight,&rdquo; <i>Mem. Geol. Survey</i>
(2nd ed., 1889); C. Reid, &ldquo;The Geology of the Country around Southampton,&rdquo;
<i>Mem. Geol. Survey</i> (1902).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRACKLEY, THOMAS EGERTON,<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span> <span class="sc">Viscount</span> (<i>c.</i> 1540-1617),
English lord chancellor, was a natural son of Sir Richard Egerton
of Ridley, Cheshire. The exact date of his birth is unrecorded,
but, according to Wood,<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> when he became a commoner at Brasenose
College, Oxford, in 1556, he was about seventeen. He entered
Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn in 1559, and was called to the bar in 1572, being
chosen a governor of the society in 1580, Lent reader in 1582,
and treasurer in 1588. He early obtained legal renown and a large
practice, and tradition relates that his skilful conduct of a case
against the crown gained the notice of Elizabeth, who is reported
to have declared: &ldquo;In my troth he shall never plead against me
again.&rdquo; Accordingly, on the 26th of June 1581, he was made
solicitor-general. He represented Cheshire in the parliaments
of 1585 and 1586, but in his official capacity he often attended
in the House of Lords. On the 3rd of March 1589 the Commons
desired that he should return to their house, the Lords refusing
on the ground that he was called by the queen&rsquo;s writ to attend in
the Lords before his election by the House of Commons.<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> He took
part in the trial of Mary, queen of Scots, in 1586, and advised that
in her indictment she should only be styled &ldquo;commonly called
queen of Scots,&rdquo; to avoid scruples about judging a sovereign.
He conducted several other state prosecutions. On the 2nd of
June 1592 he was appointed attorney-general, and was knighted
and made chamberlain of Chester in 1593. On the 10th of April
1594 he became master of the rolls, and on the 6th of May 1596
lord keeper of the great seal and a privy councillor, remaining,
however, a commoner as Sir Thomas Egerton, and presiding in
the Lords as such during the whole reign of Elizabeth. He kept
in addition the mastership of the rolls, the whole work of the
chancery during this period falling on his shoulders and sometimes
causing inconvenience to suitors<a name="fa3n" id="fa3n" href="#ft3n"><span class="sp">3</span></a>. His promotion was welcomed
from all quarters. &ldquo;I think no man,&rdquo; wrote a contemporary to
Essex, &ldquo;ever came to this dignity with more applause than this
worthy gentleman.&rdquo;<a name="fa4n" id="fa4n" href="#ft4n"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>

<p>Egerton became one of the queen&rsquo;s most trusted advisers and
one of the greatest and most striking figures at her court. He was
a leading member of the numerous special commissions, including
the ecclesiastical commission, and was the queen&rsquo;s interpreter
in her communications to parliament. In 1598 he was employed
as a commissioner for negotiating with the Dutch, obtaining
great credit by the treaty then effected, and in 1600 in the same
capacity with Denmark. In 1597, in consequence of his unlawful
marriage with his second wife, in a private house without banns,
the lord keeper incurred a sentence of excommunication, and
was obliged to obtain absolution from the bishop of London.<a name="fa5n" id="fa5n" href="#ft5n"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
He was a firm friend of the noble but erratic and unfortunate
Essex. He sought to moderate his violence and rashness, and
after the scene in the council in July 1598, when the queen struck
Essex and bade him go and be hanged, he endeavoured to reconcile
him to the queen in an admirable letter which has often been
printed.<a name="fa6n" id="fa6n" href="#ft6n"><span class="sp">6</span></a> On the arrival of Essex in London without leave from
Ireland, and his consequent disgrace, he supported the queen&rsquo;s
just authority, avoiding at the same time any undue severity to
the offender. Essex was committed to his custody in York House
from the 1st of October 1599 till the 5th of July 1600, when the
lord keeper used his influence to recover for him the queen&rsquo;s
favour and gave him kindly warnings concerning the necessity
for caution in his conduct. On the 5th of June 1600 he presided
over the court held at his house, which deprived Essex of his
offices except that of master of the horse, treating him with
leniency, not pressing the charge of treason but only that of
disobedience, and interrupting him with kind intentions when he
attempted to justify himself. After the trial he tried in vain to
bring Essex to a sense of duty. On the 8th of February 1601,
the day fixed for the rebellion, the lord keeper with other officers
of state visited Essex at Essex House to demand the reason of
the tumultuous assemblage. His efforts to persuade Essex to
speak with him privately and explain his &ldquo;griefs,&rdquo; and to refrain
from violence, and his appeal to the company to depart peacefully
on their allegiance, were ineffectual, and he was imprisoned by
Essex for six hours, the mob calling out to kill him and to throw
the great seal out of the window. Subsequently he abandoned
all hope of saving Essex, and took an active part in his trial.
On the 13th of February he made a speech in the Star Chamber,
exposing the wickedness of the rebellion, and of the plot of
Thomas Lea to surprise Elizabeth at her chamber door.<a name="fa7n" id="fa7n" href="#ft7n"><span class="sp">7</span></a> In
July 1602, a few months before her death, Elizabeth visited the
lord keeper at his house at Harefield in Middlesex, and he was
one of those present during her last hours who received her
faltering intimation as to her successor.</p>

<p>On the accession of James I., Sir Thomas Egerton was reappointed
lord keeper, resigning the mastership of the rolls in
May 1603, and the chamberlainship of Chester in August. On
the 21st of July he was created Baron Ellesmere, and on the
24th lord chancellor. His support of the king&rsquo;s prerogative was
too faithful and undiscriminating. He approved of the harsh
penalty inflicted upon Oliver St John in 1615 for denying the
legality of benevolences, and desired that his sentencing of the
prisoner &ldquo;might be his last work to conclude his services.&rdquo;<a name="fa8n" id="fa8n" href="#ft8n"><span class="sp">8</span></a>
In May 1613 he caused the committal of Whitelocke to the Fleet
for questioning the authority of the earl marshal&rsquo;s court. In
1604 he came into collision with the House of Commons. Sir
Francis Goodwin, an outlaw, having been elected for Buckinghamshire
contrary to the king&rsquo;s proclamation, the chancellor
cancelled the return when made according to custom into
chancery, and issued writs for a new election. The Commons,
however, considering their privileges violated, restored Goodwin
to his seat, and though the matter was in the present instance
compromised by the choice of a third party, they secured for
the future the right of judging in their own elections. He was
at one with James in desiring to effect the union between
England and Scotland, and served on the commission in 1604;
and the English merchants who opposed the union and community
of trade with the Scots were &ldquo;roundly shaken by him.&rdquo;
In 1608, in the great case of the Post Nati, he decided, with the
assistance of the fourteen judges, that those born after the
accession of James I. to the throne of England were English
subjects and capable of holding lands in England; and he
compared the two dissentient judges to the apostle Thomas,
whose doubts only confirmed the faith of the rest. He did not,
however, always show obedience to the king&rsquo;s wishes. He opposed
the latter&rsquo;s Spanish policy, and in July 1615, in spite of
James&rsquo;s most peremptory commands and threats, refused to put
the great seal to the pardon of Somerset. In May 1616 he officiated
as high steward in the trial of the latter and his countess
for the murder of Overbury. He was a rigid churchman, hostile
to both the Puritans and the Roman Catholics. He fully approved
of the king&rsquo;s unfriendly attitude towards the former,
adopted at the Hampton Court conference in 1604, and declared,
in admiration of James&rsquo;s theological reasoning on this occasion,
that he had never understood before the meaning of the legal
maxim, <i>Rex est mixta persona cum sacerdote</i>. In 1605 he opposed
the petition for the restitution of deprived Puritan ministers,
and obtained an opinion from the judges that the petition was
illegal. He supported the party of Abbot against Laud at
Oxford, and represented to the king the unfitness of the latter
to be president of St John&rsquo;s College. In 1605 he directed the
judges to enforce the penal laws against the Roman Catholics.</p>

<p>His vigorous and active public career closed with a great
victory gained over the common law and his formidable
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368"></a>368</span>
antagonist, Sir Edward Coke. The chancellor&rsquo;s court of equity
had originated in the necessity for a tribunal to decide cases not
served by the common law, and to relax and correct the rigidity
and insufficiency of the latter&rsquo;s procedure. The two jurisdictions
had remained bitter rivals, the common-law bar complaining
of the arbitrary and unrestricted powers of the chancellor, and
the equity lawyers censuring and ridiculing the failures of
justice in the courts of common law. The disputes between the
courts, concerning which the king had already in 1615 remonstrated
with the chancellor and Sir Edward Coke,<a name="fa9n" id="fa9n" href="#ft9n"><span class="sp">9</span></a> the lord chief justice,
came to a crisis in 1616, when the court of chancery granted relief
against judgments at common law in the cases of <i>Heath v. Rydley</i>
and <i>Courtney v. Granvil</i>. This relief was declared
by Coke and other judges sitting with him to be illegal, and a
counter-attack was made by a praemunire, brought against the
parties concerned in the suit in chancery. The grand jury,
however, refused to bring in a true bill against them, in spite
of Coke&rsquo;s threats and assurances that the chancellor was dead,
and the dispute was referred to the king himself, who after
consulting his counsel and on Bacon&rsquo;s advice decided in favour
of equity. The chancellor&rsquo;s triumph was a great one, and from
this time the equitable jurisdiction of the court of chancery was
unquestioned. In June 1616 he supported the king in his
dispute with and dismissal of Coke in the case of the <i>commendams</i>,
agreeing with Bacon that it was the judge&rsquo;s duty to communicate
with the king, before giving judgments in which his interests
were concerned, and in November warned the new lord chief
justice against imitating the errors of his predecessor and
especially his love of &ldquo;popularity.&rdquo;<a name="fa10n" id="fa10n" href="#ft10n"><span class="sp">10</span></a> Writing in 1609 to
Salisbury, the chancellor had described Coke (who had long
been a thorn in his flesh) as a &ldquo;frantic, turbulent and idle
broken brayned fellow,&rdquo; apologizing for so often troubling
Salisbury on this subject, &ldquo;no fit exercise for a chancellor and a
treasurer.&rdquo;<a name="fa11n" id="fa11n" href="#ft11n"><span class="sp">11</span></a> He now summoned Coke before him and communicated
to him the king&rsquo;s dissatisfaction with his <i>Reports</i>,
desiring, however, to be spared further service in his disgracing.
After several petitions for leave to retire through failing health,
he at last, on the 3rd of March 1617, delivered up to James the
great seal, which he had held continuously for the unprecedented
term of nearly twenty-one years. On the 7th of November 1616
he had been created Viscount Brackley, and his death took
place on the 15th of March 1617. Half an hour before his
decease James sent Bacon, then his successor as lord keeper,
with the gift of an earldom, and the presidentship of the council
with a pension of £3000 a year, which the dying man declined
as earthly vanities with which he had no more concern. He was
buried at Dodleston in Cheshire.</p>

<p>As Lord Chancellor Ellesmere he is a striking figure in the
long line of illustrious English judges. No instance of excessive
or improper use of his jurisdiction is recorded, and the famous
case which precipitated the contest between the courts was a
clear travesty of justice, undoubtedly fit for the chancellor&rsquo;s
intervention. He refused to answer any communications from
suitors in his court,<a name="fa12n" id="fa12n" href="#ft12n"><span class="sp">12</span></a> and it was doubtless to Ellesmere (as
weeding out the &ldquo;enormous sin&rdquo; of judicial corruption)<a name="fa13n" id="fa13n" href="#ft13n"><span class="sp">13</span></a> that
John Donne, who was his secretary, addressed his fifth satire.
He gained Camden&rsquo;s admiration, who records an anagram on his
name, &ldquo;Gestat Honorem.&rdquo; Bacon, whose merit he had early
recognized, and whose claims to the office of solicitor-general
he had unavailingly supported both in 1594 and 1606, calls him
&ldquo;a true sage, a salvia in the garden of the state,&rdquo; and speaks
with gratitude of his &ldquo;fatherly kindness.&rdquo; Ben Jonson, among
the poets, extolled in an epigram his &ldquo;wing&rsquo;d judgements,&rdquo;
&ldquo;purest hands,&rdquo; and constancy. Though endowed with considerable
oratorical gifts he followed the true judicial tradition
and affected to despise eloquence as &ldquo;not decorum for judges,
that ought to respect the Matter and not the Humours of the
Hearers.&rdquo;<a name="fa14n" id="fa14n" href="#ft14n"><span class="sp">14</span></a> Like others of his day he hoped to see a codification
of the laws,<a name="fa15n" id="fa15n" href="#ft15n"><span class="sp">15</span></a> and appears to have had greater faith in judge-made
law than in statutes of the realm, advising the parliament
(October 27, 1601) &ldquo;that laws in force might be revised and
explained and no new laws made,&rdquo; and describing the Statute
of Wills passed in Henry VIII.&rsquo;s reign as the &ldquo;ruin of ancient
families&rdquo; and &ldquo;the nurse of forgeries.&rdquo; In the thirty-eighth
year of Elizabeth he drew up rules for procedure in the Star
Chamber,<a name="fa16n" id="fa16n" href="#ft16n"><span class="sp">16</span></a> restricting the fees, and in the eighth of James I.
ordinances for remedying abuses in the court of chancery. In
1609 he published his judgment in the case of the Post Nati,
which appears to be the only certain work of his authorship.
The following have been ascribed to him:&mdash;<i>The Privileges and
Prerogatives of the High Court of Chancery</i> (1641);
<i>Certain Observations concerning the Office of the Lord Chancellor</i>
(1651)&mdash;denied by Lord Chancellor Hardwicke in
<i>A Discourse of the Judicial Authority of the Master of the Rolls</i>
(1728) to be Lord Ellesmere&rsquo;s work;
<i>Observations on Lord Coke&rsquo;s Reports</i>, ed. by G. Paul (about 1710),
the only evidence of his authorship being apparently that the MS.
was in his handwriting; four MSS., bequeathed to his chaplain, Bishop Williams, viz. <i>The
Prerogative Royal, Privileges of Parliament, Proceedings in Chancery</i>
and <i>The Power of the Star Chamber; Notes and Observations on
Magna Charta, &amp;c.</i>, Sept. 1615 (Harl. 4265, f. 35), and
<i>An Abridgment of Lord Coke&rsquo;s Reports</i>
(see MS. note by F. Hargrave in his copy of
<i>Certain Observations concerning the Office of Lord Chancellor</i>,
Brit. Mus. 510 a 5, also <i>Life of Egerton</i>, p. 80, note T,
catalogue of Harleian collection,
and Walpole&rsquo;s <i>Royal and Noble Authors</i>, 1806, ii. 170).</p>

<p>He was thrice married. By his first wife, Elizabeth, daughter
of Thomas Ravenscroft of Bretton, Flintshire, he had two sons
and a daughter. The elder son, Thomas, predeceased him,
leaving three daughters. The younger, John, succeeded his
father as 2nd Viscount Brackley, was created earl of Bridgewater,
and, marrying Lady Frances Stanley (daughter of his
father&rsquo;s third wife, widow of the 5th earl of Derby), was the
ancestor of the earls and dukes of Bridgewater (<i>q.v.</i>), whose male
line became extinct in 1829. In 1846 the titles of Ellesmere and
Brackley were revived in the person of the 1st earl of Ellesmere
(<i>q.v.</i>), descended from Lady Louisa Egerton, daughter and
co-heir of the 1st duke of Bridgewater.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>No adequate life of Lord Chancellor Ellesmere has been written,
for which, however, materials exist in the Bridgewater MSS., very
scantily calendared in <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> 11th Rep. p. 24, and
app. pt. vii. p. 126. A small selection, with the omission, however, of
personal and family matters intended for a separate projected <i>Life</i>
which was never published, was edited by J.P. Collier for the
Camden Society in 1840.</p>
</div>

<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">

<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Athenae Oxon.</i> (Bliss), ii. 197.</p>

<p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> D&rsquo;Ewes&rsquo;s <i>Parliaments of Elizabeth</i>, 441, 442.</p>

<p><a name="ft3n" id="ft3n" href="#fa3n"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Cal. of St. Pap., Dom.</i>, 1601-1603, p. 191.</p>

<p><a name="ft4n" id="ft4n" href="#fa4n"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Birch&rsquo;s <i>Mem. of Queen Elizabeth</i>, i. 479.</p>

<p><a name="ft5n" id="ft5n" href="#fa5n"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> 11th Rep. p. 24.</p>

<p><a name="ft6n" id="ft6n" href="#fa6n"><span class="fn">6</span></a> T. Birch&rsquo;s <i>Mem. of Queen Elizabeth</i>, ii. 384.</p>

<p><a name="ft7n" id="ft7n" href="#fa7n"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Cal. of St. Pap., Dom.</i>, 1598-1601, pp. 554, 583.</p>

<p><a name="ft8n" id="ft8n" href="#fa8n"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>State Trials</i>, ii. 909.</p>

<p><a name="ft9n" id="ft9n" href="#fa9n"><span class="fn">9</span></a> <i>Cal. St. Pap., Dom.</i>, 1611-1618, p. 381.</p>

<p><a name="ft10n" id="ft10n" href="#fa10n"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>Cal. St. Pap., Dom.</i>, 1611-1618, p. 407.</p>

<p><a name="ft11n" id="ft11n" href="#fa11n"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Lansdowne MS.</i> 91, f. 41.</p>

<p><a name="ft12n" id="ft12n" href="#fa12n"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> app. pt. vii. p. 156.</p>

<p><a name="ft13n" id="ft13n" href="#fa13n"><span class="fn">13</span></a> <i>Life of Donne</i>, by E. Gosse, i. 43.</p>

<p><a name="ft14n" id="ft14n" href="#fa14n"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Judgment on the Post Nati.</p>

<p><a name="ft15n" id="ft15n" href="#fa15n"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Speech to the parliament, 24th of October 1597.</p>

<p><a name="ft16n" id="ft16n" href="#fa16n"><span class="fn">16</span></a> <i>Harleian MS.</i> 2310, f. i.;
Gardiner&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of England</i>, ix. 56.</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRACKLEY,<a name="ar232" id="ar232"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the
southern parliamentary division of Northamptonshire, England,
59 m. N.W. by W. from London by the Great Central railway;
served also by a branch of the London &amp; North-Western railway.
Pop. (1901) 2467. The church of St Peter, the body of which
is Decorated and Perpendicular, has a beautiful Early English
tower. Magdalen College school was founded in 1447 by William
of Waynflete, bishop of Winchester, bearing the name of his
great college at Oxford. Of a previous foundation of the 12th
century, called the Hospital of St John, the transitional Norman
and Early English chapel remains. Brewing is carried on.
The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
Area, 3489 acres.</p>

<p>Brackley (Brachelai, Brackele) was held in 1086 by Earl
Alberie, from whom it passed to the earl of Leicester and thence
to the families of De Quinci and Holand. Brilliant tournaments
were held in 1249 and 1267, and others were prohibited in 1222
and 1244. The market, formerly held on Sunday, was changed
in 1218 to Wednesday, and in answer to a writ of <i>Quo Warranto</i>
Maud de Holand claimed in 1330 that her family had held a fair
on St Andrew&rsquo;s day from time immemorial. In 1553 Mary
granted two fairs to the earl of Derby. By charter of 1686
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page369" id="page369"></a>369</span>
James II. incorporated the town under a mayor, 6 aldermen,
and 26 burgesses, granted three new fairs and confirmed the
old fair and market. In 1708 Anne granted four fairs to the earl
of Bridgewater, and in 1886 the borough had a new charter of
incorporation under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors
under the Municipal Corporations Act of 1882. Camden (<i>Brit.</i>
p. 430) says that Brackley was formerly a famous staple for
wool. It first sent members to parliament in 1547, and continued
to send two representatives till disfranchised by the Reform
Act of 1832. The town formerly had a considerable woollen
and lace-making trade.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRACQUEMOND, FÉLIX<a name="ar233" id="ar233"></a></span> (1833-&emsp;&emsp;), French painter and etcher,
was born in Paris. He was trained in early youth as a
trade lithographer, until Guichard, a pupil of Ingres, took him
to his studio. His portrait of his grandmother, painted by him
at the age of nineteen, attracted Théophile Gautier&rsquo;s attention
at the Salon. He applied himself to engraving and etching about
1853, and played a leading and brilliant part in the revival of
the etcher&rsquo;s art in France. Altogether he has produced over eight
hundred plates, comprising portraits, landscapes, scenes of
contemporary life, and bird-studies, besides numerous interpretations
of other artists&rsquo; paintings, especially those of Meissonier,
Gustave Moreau and Corot. After having been attached
to the Sèvres porcelain factory in 1870, he accepted a post as art
manager of the Paris <i>atelier</i> of the firm of Haviland of Limoges.
He was connected by a link of firm friendship with Manet, Whistler,
and all the other fighters in the impressionist cause, and received
all the honours that await the successful artist in France,
including the grade of officer of the Legion of Honour in 1889.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRACTON, HENRY DE<a name="ar234" id="ar234"></a></span> (d. 1268), English judge and writer
on English law. His real name was Bratton, and in all
probability he derived it either from Bratton Fleming or from
Bratton Clovelly, both of them villages in Devonshire. It is
only after his death that his name appears as &ldquo;Bracton.&rdquo; He
seems to have entered the king&rsquo;s service as a clerk under the
patronage of William Raleigh, who after long service as a royal
justice died bishop of Winchester in 1250. Bracton begins to
appear as a justice in 1245, and from 1248 until his death in 1268
he was steadily employed as a justice of assize in the
south-western counties, especially Somerset, Devon and Cornwall.
During the earlier part of this period he was also sitting as a
judge in the king&rsquo;s central court, and was there hearing those
pleas which &ldquo;followed the king&rdquo;; in other words, he was a
member of that section of the central tribunal which was soon
to be distinguished as the king&rsquo;s bench. From this position
he retired or was dismissed in or about the year 1257, shortly
before the meeting of the Mad Parliament at Oxford in 1258.
Whether his disappearance is to be connected with the political
events of this turbulent time is uncertain. He continued to take
the assizes in the south-west, and in 1267 he was a member of
a commission of prelates, barons and judges appointed to hear
the complaints of the disinherited partisans of Simon de Montfort.
In 1259 he became rector of Combe-in-Teignhead, in 1261 rector
of Barnstaple, in 1264 archdeacon of Barnstaple, and, having
resigned the archdeaconry, chancellor of Exeter cathedral;
he also held a prebend in the collegiate church at Bosham.
Already in 1245 he enjoyed a dispensation enabling him to
hold three ecclesiastical benefices. He died in 1268 and was
buried in the nave of Exeter cathedral, and a chantry for his
soul was endowed out of the revenues of the manor of Thorverton.</p>

<p>His fame is due to a treatise on the laws and customs of
England which is sufficiently described elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">English
Law</a></span>). The main part of it seems to have been compiled between
1250 and 1256; but apparently it is an unfinished work. This
may be due to the fact that when he ceased to be a member
of the king&rsquo;s central court Bracton was ordered to surrender
certain judicial records which he had been using as raw material.
Even though it be unfinished his book is incomparably the best
work produced by any English lawyer in the middle ages.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>The treatise was published in 1569 by Richard Tottel. This
text was reprinted in 1640. An edition (1878-1883) with English
translation was included in the Rolls Series. Manuscript copies are
numerous, and a critical edition is a desideratum. See Bracton&rsquo;s
<i>Note-Book</i> (ed. Maitland, 1887); <i>Bracton and Azo</i> (Selden Society,
1895).</p>
</div>
<div class="author">(F. W. M.)</div>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRADAWL<a name="ar235" id="ar235"></a></span> (from &ldquo;brad,&rdquo; a flat nail, and &ldquo;awl,&rdquo; a piercing
tool), a small tool used for boring holes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tool</a></span>).</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRADDOCK, EDWARD<a name="ar236" id="ar236"></a></span> (1695?-1755), British general, was
born in Perthshire, Scotland, about 1695. He was the son of
Major-General Edward Braddock (d. 1725), and joined the
Coldstream Guards in 1710. In 1747 as a lieutenant-colonel
he served under the prince of Orange in Holland during the siege
of Bergen-op-Zoom. In 1753 he was given the colonelcy of the
14th foot, and in 1754 he became a major-general. Being appointed
shortly afterwards to command against the French in
America, he landed in Virginia in February 1755. After some
months of preparation, in which he was hampered by administrative
confusion and want of resources, he took the field with
a picked column, in which George Washington served as a
volunteer officer, intended to attack Fort Duquesne (Pittsburg,
Pa.). The column crossed the Monongahela river on the 9th of
July and almost immediately afterwards fell into an ambuscade
of French and Indians. The troops were completely surprised
and routed, and Braddock, rallying his men time after time,
fell at last mortally wounded. He was carried off the field
with difficulty, and died on the 13th. He was buried at Great
Meadows, where the remnant of the column halted on its retreat
to reorganize. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seven Years&rsquo; War</a></span>.)</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRADDOCK,<a name="ar237" id="ar237"></a></span> a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the Monongahela river, 10 m. S.E. of Pittsburg.
Pop. (1890) 8561; (1900) 15,654, of whom 5111 were foreign-born;
(1910 census) 19,357. Braddock is served by the Pennsylvania,
the Baltimore &amp; Ohio, and the Pittsburg &amp; Lake
Erie railways. Its chief industry is the manufacture of steel&mdash;especially
steel rails; among its other manufactures are pig-iron,
wire rods, wire nails, wire bale ties, lead pipe, brass and
electric signs, cement and plaster. In 1905 the value of the
borough&rsquo;s factory products was $4,199,079. Braddock has a
Carnegie library. Kennywood Park, near by, is a popular
resort. The municipality owns and operates the water-works.
Braddock was named in honour of the English general Edward
Braddock, who in 1755 met defeat and death near the site of
the present borough at the hands of a force of French and
Indians. The borough was first settled at the close of the 18th
century, and was incorporated in 1867.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRADDON, MARY ELIZABETH<a name="ar238" id="ar238"></a></span> (1837-&emsp;&emsp;), English
novelist, daughter of Henry Braddon, solicitor, of Skirdon
Lodge, Cornwall, and sister of Sir Edward Braddon, prime
minister of Tasmania, was born in London in 1837. She began at
an early age to contribute to periodicals, and in 1861 produced
her first novel, <i>The Trail of the Serpent</i>. In the same year
appeared <i>Garibaldi</i>, accompanied by <i>Olivia</i>, and other poems,
chiefly narrative, a volume of extremely spirited verse, deserving
more notice than it has received. In 1862 her reputation as a
novelist was made by a favourable review in <i>The Times of Lady
Audley&rsquo;s Secret</i>. <i>Aurora Floyd</i>, a novel with a strong affinity
to <i>Madame Bovary</i>, followed, and achieved equal success. Its
immediate successors, <i>Eleanor&rsquo;s Victory, John Marchmont&rsquo;s
Legacy, Henry Dunbar</i>, remain with her former works the best-known
of her novels, but all her numerous books have found a
large and appreciative public. They give, indeed, the great body
of readers of fiction exactly what they require; melodramatic
in plot and character, conventional in their views of life, they are
yet distinguished by constructive skill and opulence of invention.
For a considerable time Miss Braddon conducted <i>Belgravia</i>,
in which several of her novels appeared. In 1874 she married
Mr John Maxwell, publisher, her son, W.B. Maxwell, afterwards
becoming known as a clever novelist and newspaper correspondent.</p>


<hr class="art" />
<p><span class="bold">BRADFORD, JOHN<a name="ar239" id="ar239"></a></span> (1510?-1555), English Protestant martyr,
was born at Manchester in the early part of the reign of Henry
VIII., and educated at the local grammar school. Being a good
penman and accountant, he became secretary to Sir John
<span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370"></a>370</span>
Harrington, paymaster of the English forces in France. Bradford
at this time was gay and thoughtless, and to support
his extravagance he seems to have appropriated some of the
money entrusted to him; but he afterwards made full restitution.
In April 1547 he took chambers in the Inner Temple, and began
to study law; but finding divinity more congenial, he removed,
in the following year, to St Catharine&rsquo;s Hall, Cambridge, where
he studied with such assiduity that in little more than a year
he was admitted by special grace to the degree of master of arts,
and was soon after made fellow of Pembroke Hall, the fellowship
being &ldquo;worth seven pound a year.&rdquo; One of his pupils was John
Whitgift. Bishop Ridley, who in 1550 was translated to the
see of London, sent for him and appointed him his chaplain.
In 1553 he was also made chaplain to Edward VI., and became
one of the most popular preachers in the kingdom, earning high
praise from John Knox. Soon after the accession of Mary he
was arrested on a charge of sedition, and confined in the Tower
and the king&rsquo;s bench prison for a year and a half. During this
time he wrote several epistles which were dispersed in various
parts of the kingdom. He was at last brought to trial (January
1554/5) before the court in which Bishop Gardiner sat as
chief, and, refusing to retract his principles, was condemned
as a heretic and burnt, with John Leaf, in Smithfield on the 1st
of July 1555.</p>

<div class="condensed">
<p>His writings, which consist chiefly of sermons, meditations, tracts,
letters and prayers, were edited by A. Townsend for the Parker
Society (2 vols. 8vo, Cambridge, 1848-1853).</p>
</div>


<hr class="art" />









<pre>





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