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diff --git a/33698.txt b/33698.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..618597c --- /dev/null +++ b/33698.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17659 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 4, Slice 3, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Slice 3 + "Borgia, Lucrezia" to "Bradford, John" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: September 10, 2010 [EBook #33698] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) The following typographical error has been corrected: + + ARTICLE BOROUGH: "In London in the 13th century there was a regular + system for the admission of new members to the borough..." 'London' + amended from 'Londom'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME IV, SLICE III + + Borgia, Lucrezia to Bradford, John + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + BORGIA, LUCREZIA BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE + BORGLUM, SOLON HANNIBAL BOULTON, MATTHEW + BORGOGNONE, AMBROGIO BOUND + BORGO SAN DONNINO BOUNDS, BEATING THE + BORGU BOUNTY + BORIC ACID BOURBAKI, CHARLES DENIS SAUTER + BORING BOURBON + BORIS FEDOROVICH GODUNOV BOURBON, CHARLES + BORISOGLYEBSK BOURBON-LANCY + BORKU BOURBON L'ARCHAMBAULT + BORKUM BOURBONNE-LES-BAINS + BORLASE, WILLIAM BOURCHIER, ARTHUR + BORMIO BOURCHIER, THOMAS + BORN, IGNAZ BOURDALOUE, LOUIS + BORNA BOURDON, FRANCOIS LOUIS + BORNE, KARL LUDWIG BOURG-EN-BRESSE + BORNEO BOURGEOIS, LEON VICTOR AUGUSTE + BORNHOLM BOURGEOIS + BORNIER, HENRI BOURGES + BORNU BOURGET, PAUL CHARLES JOSEPH + BORODIN, ALEXANDER PORFYRIEVICH BOURIGNON, ANTOINETTE + BORODINO BOURKE + BOROLANITE BOURMONT, LOUIS AUGUSTE VICTOR + BORON BOURNE, VINCENT + BOROUGH, STEVEN BOURNE (town) + BOROUGH BOURNE (stream) + BOROUGHBRIDGE BOURNEMOUTH + BOROUGH ENGLISH BOURNONITE + BORROMEAN ISLANDS BOURREE + BORROMEO, CARLO BOURRIENNE, LOUIS ANTOINE FAUVELET DE + BORROMINI, FRANCESCO BOURRIT, MARC THEODORE + BORROW, GEORGE HENRY BOURSAULT, EDME + BORSIPPA BOURSE + BORT BOURSSE, ESAIAS + BORY DE SAINT-VINCENT, JEAN BOUSSINGAULT, JEAN BAPTISTE + BORZHOM BOUTERWEK, FRIEDRICH + BOS, LAMBERT BOUTHILLIER, CLAUDE + BOSA BOUTS-RIMES + BOSBOOM-TOUSSAINT, ANNA LOUISA BOUTWELL, GEORGE SEWALL + BOSC, LOUIS AUGUSTIN GUILLAUME BOUVARDIA + BOSCAN ALMOGAVER, JUAN BOUVET, FRANCOIS JOSEPH + BOSCASTLE BOUVIER, JOHN + BOSCAWEN, EDWARD BOUVINES + BOSCH, JEROM BOVEY BEDS + BOSCOVICH, ROGER JOSEPH BOVIANUM + BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA BOVIDAE + BOSPORUS BOVILL, SIR WILLIAM + BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS BOVILLAE + BOSQUET, PIERRE FRANCOIS JOSEPH BOW + BOSS BOWDICH, THOMAS EDWARD + BOSSI, GIUSEPPE BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL + BOSSU, RENE LE BOWDLER, THOMAS + BOSSUET, JAQUES BENIGNE BOWDOIN, JAMES + BOSTANAI BOWELL, SIR MACKENZIE + BOSTON, THOMAS BOWEN, CHARLES SYNGE CHRISTOPHER BOWEN + BOSTON (Lincolnshire, England) BOWEN, FRANCIS + BOSTON (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) BOWEN, SIR GEORGE FERGUSON + BOSTON (game of cards) BOWER, WALTER + BOSTONITE BOWERBANK, JAMES SCOTT + BOSTROM, CHRISTOFFER JACOB BOWIE, JAMES + BOSWELL, JAMES BOW-LEG + BOSWORTH, JOSEPH BOWLES, SAMUEL + BOTANY BOWLES, WILLIAM LISLE + BOTANY BAY BOWLINE + BOTHA, LOUIS BOWLING + BOTHNIA, GULF OF BOWLING GREEN (Kentucky, U.S.A.) + BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN BOWLING GREEN (Ohio, U.S.A.) + BOTHWELL (town) BOWLS + BOTOCUDOS BOWNESS-ON-WINDERMERE + BOTORI BOWRING, SIR JOHN + BOTOSHANI BOWTELL + BO-TREE BOWYER, WILLIAM + BOTRYTIS BOX + BOTTA, CARLO GIUSEPPE GUGLIELMO BOXING + BOTTESINI, GIOVANNI BOXWOOD + BOTTICELLI, SANDRO BOYACA + BOTTIGER, KARL AUGUST BOYAR + BOTTLE BOY-BISHOP + BOTTLE-BRUSH PLANTS BOYCE, WILLIAM + BOTTLENOSE WHALE BOYCOTT + BOTTOMRY BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON + BOTZARIS, MARCO BOYD, ROBERT BOYD + BOTZEN BOYD, ZACHARY + BOUCHARDON, EDME BOYDELL, JOHN + BOUCHER, FRANCOIS BOYER, ALEXIS + BOUCHER, JONATHAN BOYER, JEAN PIERRE + BOUCHER DE CREVCOEUR, JACQUES BOYLE, JOHN J. + BOUCHES-DU-RHONE BOYLE, ROBERT + BOUCHOR, MAURICE BOYLE (town) + BOUCHOTTE, JEAN BAPTISTE NOEL BOYNE + BOUCICAULT, DION BOYS' BRIGADE + BOUCICAUT, JEAN BOZDAR + BOUDIN, EUGENE BOZRAH + BOUDINOT, ELIAS BRABANT (duchy) + BOUE, AMI BRABANT (Belgium) + BOUFFLERS, LOUIS FRANCOIS BRABANT, NORTH + BOUFFLERS, STANISLAS JEAN BRACCIANO + BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS ANTOINE DE BRACCIOLINI, FRANCESCO + BOUGHTON, GEORGE HENRY BRACE, CHARLES LORING + BOUGIE BRACE, JULIA + BOUGUER, PIERRE BRACE + BOUGUEREAU, ADOLPHE WILLIAM BRACEGIRDLE, ANNE + BOUHOURS, DOMINIQUE BRACELET + BOUILHET, LOUIS HYACINTHE BRACHIOPODA + BOUILLE, FRANCOIS CLAUDE AMOUR BRACHISTOCHRONE + BOUILLON BRACHYCEPHALIC + BOUILLOTTE BRACKYLOGUS + BOUILLY, JEAN NICOLAS BRACKET + BOULAINVILLIERS, HENRI BRACKET-FUNGI + BOULANGER BRACKLESHAM BEDS + BOULANGER, GEORGE ERNEST BRACKLEY, THOMAS EGERTON + BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE, JOSEPH BRACKLEY + BOULDER (Colorado, U.S.A.) BRACQUEMOND, FELIX + BOULDER (large stone) BRACTON, HENRY DE + BOULDER CLAY BRADAWL + BOULE BRADDOCK, EDWARD + BOULEVARD BRADDOCK + BOULLE, ANDRE CHARLES BRADDON, MARY ELIZABETH + BOULOGNE BRADFORD, JOHN + BOULOGNE-SUR-MER + + + + +BORGIA, LUCREZIA (1480-1519), duchess of Ferrara, daughter of Cardinal +Rodrigo Borgia, afterwards Pope Alexander VI. (q.v.), by his mistress +Vanozza dei Cattanei, was born at Rome in 1480. Her early years were +spent at her mother's house near her father's splendid palace; but later +she was given over to the care of Adriana de Mila, a relation of +Cardinal Borgia and mother-in-law of Giulia Farnese, another of his +mistresses. Lucrezia was educated according to the usual curriculum of +Renaissance ladies of rank, and was taught languages, music, embroidery, +painting, &c.; she was famed for her beauty and charm, but the corrupt +court of Rome in which she was brought up was not conducive to a good +moral education. Her father at first contemplated a Spanish marriage for +her, and at the age of eleven she was betrothed to Don Cherubin de +Centelles, a Spanish nobleman. But the engagement was broken off almost +immediately, and Lucrezia was married by proxy to another Spaniard, Don +Gasparo de Procida, son of the count of Aversa. On the death of Innocent +VIII. (1492), Cardinal Borgia was elected pope as Alexander VI., and, +contemplating a yet more ambitious marriage for his daughter, he +annulled the union with Procida; in February 1493 Lucrezia was betrothed +to Giovanni Sforza, lord of Pesaro, with whose family Alexander was now +in close alliance. The wedding was celebrated in June; but when the +pope's policy changed and he became friendly to the king of Naples, the +enemy of the house of Sforza, he planned the subjugation of the vassal +lords of Romagna, and Giovanni, feeling his position insecure, left Rome +for Pesaro with his wife. By Christmas 1495 they were back in Rome; the +pope had all his children around him, and celebrated the carnival with a +series of magnificent festivities. But he decided that he had done with +Sforza, and annulled the marriage on the ground of the husband's +impotence (March 1497). In order to cement his alliance with Naples, he +married Lucrezia to Alphonso of Aragon, duke of Bisceglie, a handsome +youth of eighteen, related to the Neapolitan king. But he too realized +the fickleness of the Borgias' favour when Alexander backed up Louis +XII. of France in the latter's schemes for the conquest of Naples. +Bisceglie fled from Rome, fearing for his life, and the pope sent +Lucrezia to receive the homage of the city of Spoleto as governor. On +her return to Rome in 1499, her husband, who really loved her, was +induced to join her once more. A year later he was murdered by the order +of her brother Cesare. After the death of Bisceglie, Lucrezia retired to +Nepi, and then returned to Rome, where she acted for a time as regent +during Alexander's absence. The latter now was anxious for a union +between his daughter and Alphonso, son and heir to Ercole d'Este, duke +of Ferrara. The negotiations were somewhat difficult, as neither +Alphonso nor his father was anxious for a connexion with the house of +Borgia, and Lucrezia's own reputation was not unblemished. However, by +bribes and threats the opposition was overcome, and in September 1501 +the marriage was celebrated by proxy with great magnificence in Rome. On +Lucrezia's arrival at Ferrara she won over her reluctant husband by her +youthful charm (she was only twenty-two), and from that time forth she +led a peaceful life, about which there was hardly a breath of scandal. +On the death of Ercole in 1505, her husband became duke, and she +gathered many learned men, poets and artists at her court, among whom +were Ariosto, Cardinal Bembo, Aldus Manutius the printer, and the +painters Titian and Dosso Dossi. She devoted herself to the education of +her children and to charitable works; the only tragedy connected with +this period of her life is the murder of Ercole Strozzi, who is said to +have admired her and fallen a victim to Alphonso's jealousy. She died on +the 24th of June 1519, leaving three sons and a daughter by the duke of +Ferrara, besides one son Rodrigo by the duke of Bisceglie, and possibly +another of doubtful paternity. She seems to have been a woman of very +mediocre talents, and only played a part in history because she was the +daughter of Alexander VI. and the sister of Cesare Borgia. While she was +in Rome she was probably no better and no worse than the women around +her, but there is no serious evidence for the charges of incest with her +father and brothers which were brought against her by the +scandal-mongers of the time. + + See the bibliographies for ALEXANDER VI. and BORGIA, CESARE; and + especially F. Gregorovius's _Lucrezia Borgia_ (Stuttgart, 1874), the + standard work on the subject; also W. Gilbert's _Lucrezia Borgia, + Duchess of Ferrara_ (London, 1869), which, while containing much + information, is quite without historic value; and G. Campori's "Una + Vittima della Storia, Lucrezia Borgia," in the _Nuova Antologia_ + (August 31, 1866), which aims at the rehabilitation of Lucrezia. + (L. V.*) + + + + +BORGLUM, SOLON HANNIBAL (1868- ), American sculptor, was born in +Ogden, Utah, on the 22nd of December 1868, the son of a Danish +wood-carver. He studied under Louis F. Rebisso in the Cincinnati art +school in 1895-1897, and under Fremiet in Paris. He took as his chief +subjects incidents of western life, cowboys and Indians, with which he +was familiar from his years on the ranch; notably "Lassoing Wild +Horses," "Stampeding Wild Horses," "Last Round-up," "On the Border of +White Man's Land," and "Burial on the Plains." His elder brother, Gutzon +Borglum (b. 1867), also showed himself an artist of some originality. + + + + +BORGOGNONE, AMBROGIO (fl. 1473-1524), Italian painter of the Milanese +school, whose real name was Ambrogio Stefani da Fossano, was +approximately contemporary with Leonardo da Vinci, but represented, at +least during a great part of his career, the tendencies of Lombard art +anterior to the arrival of that master--the tendencies which he had +adopted and perfected from the hands of his predecessors Foppa and +Zenale. We are not precisely informed of the dates either of the death +or the birth of Borgognone, who was born at Fossano in Piedmont, and +whose appellation was due to his artistic affiliation to the Burgundian +school. His fame is principally associated with that of one great +building, the Certosa, or church and convent of the Carthusians at +Pavia, for which he worked much and in many different ways. It is +certain, indeed, that there is no truth in the tradition which +represents him as having designed, in 1473, the celebrated facade of the +Certosa itself. His residence there appears to have been of eight years' +duration, from 1486, when he furnished the designs of the figures of the +virgin, saints and apostles for the choir-stalls, executed in _tarsia_ +or inlaid wood work by Bartolommeo Pola, till 1494, when he returned to +Milan. Only one known picture, an altar-piece at the church San +Eustorgio, can with probability be assigned to a period of his career +earlier than 1486. For two years after his return to Milan he worked at +the church of San Satiro in that city. From 1497 he was engaged for some +time in decorating with paintings the church of the Incoronata in the +neighbouring town at Lodi. Our notices of him thenceforth are few and +far between. In 1508 he painted for a church in Bergamo; in 1512 his +signature appears in a public document of Milan; in 1524--and this is +our last authentic record--he painted a series of frescoes illustrating +the life of St Sisinius in the portico of San Simpliciano at Milan. +Without having produced any works of signal power or beauty, Borgognone +is a painter of marked individuality. He holds an interesting place in +the most interesting period of Italian art. The National Gallery, +London, has two fair examples of his work --the separate fragments of a +silk banner painted for the Certosa, and containing the heads of two +kneeling groups severally of men and women; and a large altar-piece of +the marriage of St Catherine, painted for the chapel of Rebecchino near +Pavia. But to judge of his real powers and peculiar ideals--his system +of faint and clear colouring, whether in fresco, tempera or oil; his +somewhat slender and pallid types, not without something that reminds us +of northern art in their Teutonic sentimentality as well as their +Teutonic fidelity of portraiture; the conflict of his instinctive love +of placidity and calm with a somewhat forced and borrowed energy in +figures where energy is demanded, his conservatism in the matter of +storied and minutely diversified backgrounds--to judge of these +qualities of the master as they are, it is necessary to study first the +great series of his frescoes and altar-pieces at the Certosa, and next +those remains of later frescoes and altar-pieces at Milan and Lodi, in +which we find the influence of Leonardo and of the new time mingling +with, but not expelling, his first predilections. + + + + +BORGO SAN DONNINO, a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in the +province of Parma, 14 m. N.W. by rail from the town of Parma. Pop. (1901) +town, 6251; commune, 12,109. It occupies the site of the ancient +Fidentia, on the Via Aemilia; no doubt, as its name shows, of Roman +origin. Here M. Lucullus defeated the democrats under Carbo in 82 B.C. It +was independent under Vespasian, but seems soon to have become a village +dependent on Parma. Its present name comes from the martyrdom of S. +Domninus under Maximian in A.D. 304. The cathedral, erected in honour of +this saint, is one of the finest and best-preserved Lombardo-Romanesque +churches of the 11th-13th centuries in north Italy. The upper part of the +facade is incomplete, but the lower, with its three portals and +sculptures, is very fine; the interior is simple and well-proportioned, +and has not been spoilt by restorations. For the _benitier_, a work of +the early 11th century, see _Rassegna d'Arte_, 1905, 180. Not far from +the town is the small church of S. Antonio del Viennese, a 13th-century +structure in brick (_ib_., 1906, 22). The Palazzo Comunale, in the +Gothic-Lombard style, is a work of the 14th century. Borgo S. Donnino is +an important centre for the produce and cattle of Emilia. (T. As.) + + + + +BORGU, or BARBA, an inland country of West Africa. The western part is +included in the French colony of Dahomey (q.v.); the eastern division +forms the Borgu province of the British protectorate of Nigeria. Borgu +is bounded N.E. and E. by the Niger, S. by the Yoruba country, N.W. by +Gurma. The country consists of an elevated plain traversed by rivers +draining north or east to the Niger. The water-parting between the Niger +basin and the coast streams of Dahomey and Lagos runs north-east and +south-west near the western frontier. In about 10 deg. N., below the +town of Bussa, rapids block the course of the Niger, navigable up to +that point from the sea. The soil is mostly fertile, and is fairly +cultivated, producing in abundance millet, yams, plantains and limes. +The acacia tree is common, and from it gum-arabic of good quality is +obtained. From the nut of the horse-radish tree ben oil is expressed. +Cattle are numerous and of excellent breed, and game is abundant. Borgu +is inhabited by a number of pagan negro tribes, several of whom were +dependent on the chief of Nikki, a town in the centre of the country, +the chief being spoken of as sultan of Borgu. The king of Bussa was +another more or less powerful potentate. In the early years of the 19th +century Borgu was invaded by the Fula (q.v.), but the Bariba (as the +people are called collectively) maintained their independence. In 1894 +Borgu became the object of rivalry between France and England. The Royal +Niger Company, which had already concluded a treaty of protection with +the king of Bussa, sent out Captain (afterwards Sir) F.D. Lugard to +negotiate treaties with the king of Nikki and other chiefs, and Lugard +succeeded in doing so a few days before the arrival of French +expeditions from the west. Disregarding the British treaties, French +officers concluded others with various chiefs, invaded Bussa and +established themselves at various points on the Niger. To defend British +interests, the West African Frontier Force was raised locally under +Lugard's command, and a period of great tension ensued, British and +French troops facing one another at several places. A conflict was, +however, averted, and by the convention of June 1898 the western part of +Borgu was declared French and the eastern British, the French +withdrawing from all places on the lower Niger. + +The British portion of Borgu has an area of about 12,000 sq. m. Up to +the period of inclusion within the protectorate of Nigeria little or +nothing was known of the country, though there were interesting legends +of the antiquity of its history. The population was entirely +independent, and resisted with success not only the Fula from the north +but also the armies of Dahomey and Mossi from the south and west. +Travellers who attempted to penetrate this country had never returned. +Since 1898 the country has been opened, and from being the most lawless +and truculent of people the Bariba have become singularly amenable and +law-abiding. Provincial courts are established, but there is little +crime in the province. The British garrisons have been replaced by civil +police. The assessment of taxes under British administration was +successfully carried out in 1904, and taxes are collected without +trouble. In south Borgu the people are agricultural but not industrious +or inclined for trade. In the north there are some pastoral settlements +of Fula. The Bariba themselves remain agricultural. Cart-roads have been +constructed between the town of Kiama and the Niger. The agricultural +resources of Borgu are great, and as the population increases with the +cessation of war and by immigration the country should show marked +development. Shea trees are abundant. Elephants are still to be found in +the fifty-mile strip of forest land which stretches between the Niger +and the interior of the province. The forest contains valuable sylvan +products, and there are great possibilities for the cultivation of +rubber. There are also extensive areas of fine land suitable for cotton, +with the waterway of the Niger close at hand. Labour might be brought +from Yorubaland close by, and a Yoruba colony has been experimentally +started. (See NIGERIA and BUSSA.) + + + + +BORIC ACID, or BORACIC ACID, H3BO3, an acid obtained by dissolving boron +trioxide in water. It was first prepared by Wilhelm Homberg (1652-1715) +from borax, by the action of mineral acids, and was given the name _sal +sedativum Hombergi_. The presence of boric acid or its salts has been +noted in sea-water, whilst it is also said to exist in plants and +especially in almost all fruits (A.H. Allen, _Analyst_, 1904, 301). The +free acid is found native in certain volcanic districts such as Tuscany, +the Lipari Islands and Nevada, issuing mixed with steam from fissures +in the ground; it is also found as a constituent of many minerals +(borax, boracite, boronatrocalcite and colemanite). + +The chief source of boric acid for commercial purposes is the Maremma of +Tuscany, an extensive and desolate tract of country over which jets of +vapour and heated gases (_soffioni_) and springs of boiling water spurt +out from chasms and fissures. In some places the fissures open directly +into the air, but in other parts of the district they are covered by +small muddy lakes (_lagoni_). The soffioni contain a small quantity of +boric acid (usually less than 0.1%), together with a certain amount of +ammoniacal vapours. In order to obtain the acid, a series of basins is +constructed over the vents, and so arranged as to permit of the passage +of water through them by gravitation. Water is led into the highest +basin and by the action of the heated gases is soon brought into a state +of ebullition; after remaining in this basin for about a day, it is run +off into the second one and is treated there in a similar manner. The +operation is carried on through the entire series, until the liquor in +the last basin contains about 2% of boric acid. It is then run into +settling tanks, from which it next passes into the evaporating pans, +which are shallow lead-lined pans heated by the gases of the soffioni. +These pans are worked on a continuous system, the liquor in the first +being concentrated and run off into a second, and so on, until it is +sufficiently concentrated to crystallize. The crystals are purified by +recrystallization from water. Artificial soffioni are sometimes prepared +by boring through the rock until the fissures are reached, and the water +so obtained is occasionally sufficiently impregnated with boric acid to +be evaporated directly. Boric acid is also obtained from +boronatrocalcite by treatment with sulphuric acid, followed by the +evaporation of the solution so obtained. The residue is then heated in a +current of superheated steam, in which the boric acid volatilizes and +distils over. It may also be obtained by the decomposition of boracite +with hot hydrochloric acid. In small quantities, it may be prepared by +the addition of concentrated sulphuric acid to a cold saturated solution +of borax. + + Na2B4O7 + H2SO4 + 5H2O = Na2SO4 + 4H3BO3. + + Boric acid crystallizes from water in white nacreous laminae belonging + to the triclinic system; it is difficultly soluble in cold water, but + dissolves readily in hot water. It is one of the "weak" acids, its + dissociation constant being only 0.08169 (J. Walker, _Jour. of Chem. + Soc._, 1900, lxxvii. 5), and consequently its salts are appreciably + hydrolysed in aqueous solution. The free acid turns blue litmus to a + claret colour. Its action upon turmeric is characteristic; a turmeric + paper moistened with a solution of boric acid turns brown, the colour + becoming much darker as the paper dries; while the addition of sodium + or potassium hydroxide turns it almost black. Boric acid is easily + soluble in alcohol, and if the vapour of the solution be inflamed it + burns with a characteristic vivid green colour. The acid on being + heated to 100 deg. C. loses water and is converted into _metaboric + acid_, HBO3; at 140 deg. C., _pyroboric acid_, H2B4O7, is produced; at + still higher temperatures, boron trioxide is formed. The salts of the + normal or orthoboric acid in all probability do not exist; metaboric + acid, however, forms several well-defined salts which are readily + converted, even by carbon dioxide, into salts of pyroboric acid. That + orthoboric acid is a tribasic acid is shown by the formation of ethyl + orthoborate on esterification, the vapour density of which corresponds + to the molecular formula B(OC2H5)3; the molecular formula of the acid + must consequently be B(OH)3 or H3BO3. The metallic borates are + generally obtained in the hydrated condition, and with the exception + of those of the alkali metals, are insoluble in water. The most + important of the borates is sodium pyroborate or borax (q.v.). + + Borax and boracic acid are feeble but useful antiseptics. Hence they + may be used to preserve food-substances, such as milk and butter (see + ADULTERATION). In medicine boracic acid is used in solution to relieve + itching, but its chief use is as a mild antiseptic to impregnate lint + or cotton-wool. Recent work has shown it is too feeble to be relied + upon alone, but where really efficient antiseptics, such as mercuric + chloride and iodide, and carbolic acid, have been already employed, + boracic acid (which, unlike these, is non-poisonous and non-irritant) + may legitimately be used to maintain the aseptic or non-bacterial + condition which they have obtained. Borax taken internally is of some + value in irritability of the bladder, but as a urinary antiseptic it + is now surpassed by several recently introduced drugs, such as + urotropine. + + + + +BORING. The operations of deep boring are resorted to for ascertaining +the nature, thickness and extent of the various geological formations +underlying the surface of the earth. Among the purposes for which boring +is specifically employed are: (1) prospecting or searching for mineral +deposits; (2) sinking petroleum, natural gas, artesian or salt wells; +(3) determining the depth below the surface of bed-rock or other firm +substratum, together with the character of the overlying materials, +preparatory to mining or civil engineering operations; (4) carrying on +geological or other scientific explorations. + +Prospecting by boring is practised most successfully in the case of +mineral deposits of large area, which are nearly horizontal, or at least +not highly inclined; e.g. deposits of coal, iron, lead and salt. Wide, +flat beds of such minerals may be pierced at any desired number of +points. The depth at which each hole enters the deposit and the +thickness of the mineral itself are readily ascertained, so that a map +may be constructed with some degree of accuracy. Samples of the mineral +are also secured, furnishing data as to the value of the deposit. While +boring is sometimes adopted for prospecting irregular and steeply +inclined mineral deposits of small area, the results are obviously less +trustworthy than under the conditions named above, and may be actually +misleading unless a large number of holes are bored. Incidentally, +bore-holes supply information as to the character and depth of the +valueless depositions of earth or rock overlying the mineral deposit. +Such data assist in deciding upon the appropriate method for, and in +estimating the cost of, sinking shafts or driving tunnels for the +development and exploitation of the deposit. In sinking petroleum wells, +boring serves not only for discovering the oil-bearing strata but also +for extracting the oil. This industry has become of great importance in +many parts of the United States, in southern Russia and elsewhere. Rock +salt deposits are sometimes worked through bore-holes, by introducing +water and pumping out the solution of brine for further treatment. The +sinking of artesian wells is another application of boring. They are +often hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of feet in depth. A well in St +Louis, Missouri, has a depth of 3843 ft. + +Boring is useful in mines themselves for a variety of purposes, such as +exploring the deposit ahead of the workings, searching for neighbouring +veins, and sounding the ground on approaching dangerous inundated +workings. In the coal regions of Pennsylvania, bore-holes are often sunk +for carrying steam pipes and hoisting ropes underground at points remote +from a shaft. + +Several of the methods of boring in soft ground are employed in +connexion with civil engineering operations; as for ascertaining the +depth below the surface to solid rock, preparatory to excavating for and +designing deep foundations for heavy structures, and for estimating the +cost of large scale excavations in earth and rock. + +Lastly, a number of deep holes have been bored for geological +exploration or for observing the increase of temperature in depth in the +earth's crust; for example, at Paruschowitz, Silesia, about 6700 ft. +deep; at Leipzig, Germany, 6265 ft.; near Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, 5532 +ft.; and at Wheeling, West Virginia, nearly 5000 ft. The two last +mentioned were intended to obtain as complete a knowledge as possible of +the bituminous coal and oil-bearing formations. + +There are five methods of boring, viz.: by (1) earth augers, (2) drive +pipes, (3) long, jointed rods and drop drill, (4) the rope system, in +which the rods are replaced by rope, (5) rotary drills. The first two +methods are adapted to soft or earthy soils only; the others are for +rock. + + 1. _Earth augers_ comprise spiral and pod augers. The ordinary spiral + auger resembles the wood auger commonly used by carpenters. It is + attached to the rod or stem by a socket joint, successive sections of + rod being added as the hole is deepened. The auger is rotated by means + of horizontal levers, clamped to the rod--by hand for holes of small + diameter (2 to 6 in.), the larger sizes (8 to 16 in.) by horse power. + Clayey, cohesive soils, containing few stones, are readily bored; + stony ground with difficulty. The operation of the auger is + intermittent. After a few revolutions it is raised and emptied, the + soil clinging between the spirals. Depths to 50 or 60 ft. are usually + bored by hand; deeper holes by horse power. For sandy, non-cohesive + soils, the auger may be encircled by a close-fitting sheet-iron + cylinder to prevent the soil from falling out. + + Pod augers generally vary in diameter from 8 to 20 in. A common form + (fig. l) consists of two curved iron plates, one attached to the rod + rigidly, the other by hinge and key. By being turned through a few + revolutions the pod is filled, and is then raised and emptied. For + boring in sandy soils, the open sides are closed by hinged plates. + Fig. 2 shows another type of pod auger. For holes of large diameter + earth augers are handled with the aid of a light derrick. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2. Pod Auger.] + + 2. _Drive pipes_ are widely used, both for testing the depth and + character of soft material overlying solid rock and as a necessary + preliminary to rock boring, when some thickness of surface soil must + first be passed through. In its simplest form the drive pipe consists + of one or more lengths of wrought iron pipe, open at both ends and + from 1/2 in. to 6 in. diameter. When of small size the pipe is driven + by a heavy hammer; for deep and large holes, a light pile-driver + becomes necessary. The lower end of the pipe is provided with an + annular steel shoe; the upper end has a drivehead for receiving the + blows of the hammer. Successive lengths are screwed on as required. + For shallow holes the pipe is cleaned out by a "bailer" or + "sand-pump"--a cylinder 4 to 6 ft. long, with a valve in the lower + end. It is lowered at intervals, filled by being dashed up and down, + and then raised and emptied. If, after reaching some depth, the + external frictional resistance prevents the pipe from sinking farther, + another pipe of small diameter may be inserted and the driving + continued. Drive pipes are often sunk by applying weights at the + surface and slowly rotating by a lever. Two pipes are then used, one + inside the other. Water is pumped down the inner pipe, thus loosening + the soil, raising the debris and increasing the speed of driving. The + "driven well" for water supply is an adaptation of the drive pipe and + put down in the same way. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3. Drill Bit.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 4. Rod Joint.] + + 3. _Drill and Rods._--This method has long been used in Europe and + elsewhere for deep boring. In the United States it is rarely employed + for depths greater than 200 or 300 ft. The usual form of cutting tool + or drill is shown in fig. 3. The iron rods are from 1 to 2 in. square, + in long lengths with screw joints (fig. 4). Wooden rods are + occasionally used. For shallow holes (50 to 75 ft.) the work is done + by hand, one or two cross-bars being clamped to the rod. The men + alternately raise and drop the drill, meanwhile slowly walking around + and around to rotate the bit and so keep the hole true. The cuttings + are cleaned out by a bailer, as for drive pipes. + + In boring by hand, the practical limit of depth is soon reached, on + account of the increasing weight of the rods. For going deeper a + "spring-pole" may be used. This is a tapering pole, say 30 ft. long + and 5 or 6 in. diameter at the small end. It rests in an inclined + position on a fulcrum set about 10 ft. from the butt, the latter being + firmly fixed. The rods are suspended from the end of the pole, which + extends at a height of several feet over the mouth of the hole. With + the aid of the spring of the pole the strokes are produced by a slight + effort on the part of the driller. Average speeds of 6 to 10 ft. per + 10 hours are easily made, to depths of 200 to 250 ft. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5. Sliding Link.] + + For deep boring the rod system requires a more elaborate plant. The + rods are suspended from a heavy "walking beam" or lever, usually + oscillated by a steam engine. By means of a screw-feed device, the + rods, which are rotated slightly after every stroke, are gradually fed + down as the hole is deepened, length after length being added. A tall + derrick carries the sheaves and ropes by which the rods and tools are + manipulated. The drill bit cannot be attached rigidly to the rods as + in shallow boring, because the momentum of the heavy moving parts, + transmitted directly to the bit as the blow is struck, would cause + excessive vibration and breakage. It becomes necessary, therefore, to + introduce a sliding-link joint between the rods and bit. One form of + link is shown in fig. 5. On striking its blow, the bit comes to rest, + while the rods continue to descend to the end of the stroke, the upper + member of the link sliding down upon the lower. Then, on the up stroke + the lower link, with the bit, is raised for delivering another blow. + For large holes the striking weight is, say, 800 to 1000 lb., length + of stroke 2-1/2 to 5 ft., and speed from 20 to 30 strokes per minute. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6. Kind Free-Falling Tool.] + + By using the sliding link the cross-section and weight of the rods may + be greatly reduced, the only strain being that of tension. To deliver + a sharp, effective blow, however, the rods must drop with a quick + stroke, which brings a heavy strain upon the operating machinery. For + overcoming this difficulty, various "free-falling tools" have been + devised. By these the bit is allowed to fall by gravity; the rod + follows on its measured down stroke, and picks up the bit. + Free-falling tools are of two classes: (1) those by which the bit is + released automatically; (2) those operated by a sudden twist imparted + to the rod by the drillman. One of the best known of the first class + is the Kind free-fall (fig. 6). The shank of the bit is gripped and + released by the jaws J, J, worked through a toggle joint by movements + of the disk D. When the rod begins its downward stroke, the resistance + of the water in the hole slightly raises D, thus opening the jaws and + releasing the bit, which falls by gravity. On reaching the end of the + stroke the jaws again catch the shank of the bit and raise it for + delivering another blow. The Fabian free-fall may be noted as an + example of the second class (see Kohler, _Lehrbuch der Bergbaukunde_, + p. 57). Tools are sometimes used for cutting an annular groove in the + bottom of the hole, and raising to the surface the core so formed, for + observing the character of the rock. + + 4. _Rope and Drop Tools._--This method was long ago used in China. + Because of its extensive application in the oil-fields it is generally + designated in the United States as the "oil-well system." In its + various modifications it is often employed also in general prospecting + of mineral deposits and in sinking artesian, natural gas and salt + wells. One of its forms is known in England as the Mather & Platt + system. + + The chief point of difference from rod-boring is the substitution of + rope for the jointed rods. For deep boring it possesses the advantage + of saving the large amount of time consumed in raising and lowering + the rods, as required whenever the hole is to be cleaned out, or a + dull bit replaced, since the tools are rapidly run up or down by means + of the rope with which they are operated while drilling. The speed of + rope-boring is therefore but little affected by increase of depth, + while with rod-boring it falls off rapidly. In its simplest form the + so-called "string of tools," suspended from the rope, is composed of + the bit or drill, jars and rope-socket. The jars are a pair of sliding + links, similar to those used for rod-boring, but serving a different + purpose, viz. to produce a sharp shock on the upward stroke, as the + jars come together, for loosening the bit should it tend to stick fast + in the hole. A heavy bar (auger stem) is generally inserted between + the jars and bit, for increasing the force of the blow. The weight of + another bar above the jars (sinker-bar) keeps the rope taut. The + length of stroke and feed are regulated by the "temper-screw" (fig. + 7), a feed device resembling that used for rod-boring. Clamped to it + is the drill rope, which is let out at intervals, as the hole is + deepened. The bits usually range from 3 to 8 in. diameter, the speed + of boring being generally between 20 and 40 ft. per 24 hours, + according to the kind of rock. A great variety of special "fishing + tools" are made, for use in case of breakage of parts in the hole or + other accident. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7. Temper Screw.] + + 5. _Diamond Drill._--The methods described above are capable of boring + holes vertically downward only. By the diamond drill, holes can be + bored in any direction, from vertically downward to vertically upward. + It has the further advantage of making an annular hole from which is + obtained a core, furnishing a practically complete cross-section of + the strata penetrated; the thickness and character of each stratum are + shown, together with its depth below the surface. Thus, the diamond + drill is peculiarly well adapted for prospecting mineral deposits from + which samples are desired. The first practical application of diamonds + for drilling in rock was made in 1863 by Professor Rudolph Leschot, a + civil engineer of Paris. + + The apparatus consists essentially of a line of hollow rods, coupled + by screw joints, an annular steel bit or crown, set with diamonds, + being attached to the lower end. By means of a small engine on the + surface the rods are rapidly rotated and fed down automatically as the + hole deepened. The speed of rotation is from 300 to 800 revolutions + per minute, depending on the character of the rock and diameter of the + bit. While boring a stream of water is forced down the hollow rods by + a pump, passing back to the surface through the annular space between + the rods and the walls of the drill hole. The cuttings are thus + carried to the surface, leaving the bottom of the hole clean and + unobstructed. For recovering the core and inspecting the bit and + diamonds, the rods are raised at every 3 to 8 ft. of depth. This is + done by a small drum and rope, operated by the driving engine. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Little Champion Rock Drill.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.] + + Diamond drills of standard designs (fig. 8) bore holes from 1-9/16 to + 2-3/4 in. diameter, yielding cores of 1 to 1-15/16 in. diameter, and + are capable of reaching depths of a few hundred to 4000 ft. or more. + They require from 8 to 30 boiler horse-power. Large machines will bore + shallower holes up to 6, 9 or even 12 in. diameter. For operating in + underground workings of mines, small and compact machines are + sometimes mounted on columns (fig. 9). They bore 1-1/4 to 1-9/16 in. + holes to depths of 300 to 400 ft., cores being 7/8 to 1 in. diameter. + Hand-power drills are also built. In the South African goldfields + several diamond drill holes from 4500 to 5200 ft. deep have been + successfully bored. Rates of advance for core-drilling to moderate + depths range usually from 2 to 3 ft. per hour, including ordinary + delays, though in favourable rock much higher speeds are often + attained. In deep holes the speeds diminish, because of time consumed + in raising and lowering the rods. If no core is desired a "solid bit" + is used. The drilling then proceeds faster, as it is only necessary to + raise the rods occasionally, for examining the condition of the bit. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10. Diamond Drill Bit.] + + The driving engine has two inclined cylinders, coupled to a + crank-shaft, by which, through gearing, the drill-rod is rotated. The + rods are wrought iron or steel tubes, in 5 to 10 ft. lengths. For + producing the feed two devices are employed, the differential screw + and hydraulic cylinder. For the _differential feed_ (fig. 9) the + engine has a hollow left-hand threaded screw-shaft, to which the rods + are coupled. This shaft is driven by a spline and bevel gearing and is + supported by a threaded feed-nut, carried in the lower bearing. Geared + to the screw-shaft is a light counter-shaft. By properly proportioning + the number of teeth in the system of gear-wheels, the feed-nut is + caused to revolve a little faster than the screw-shaft, so that the + drill-rod is fed downward a small fraction of an inch for each + revolution. To vary the rate of feed, as suitable for different rocks, + three pairs of gears with different ratios of teeth are provided. The + screw-shaft and gearing are carried by a swivel-head, which can be + rotated in a vertical plane, for boring holes at an angle. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11. Core Lifter and Barrel.] + + The _hydraulic feed_ is an improvement on the above, in that the rate + of feed is independent of the rotative speed of the rods and can be + adjusted with the utmost nicety. There are either one or two feed + cylinders, supplied with water from the pump. The rod, while rotating + freely, is supported by the feed cylinder piston and caused to move + slowly downward by allowing the water to pass from the lower to the + upper part of the cylinder. A valve regulates the passage of the water + and hence the rate of feed. + + The bit (fig. 10 and fig. 11, B) is of soft steel, set with six to + eight or more diamonds according to its diameter. The diamonds, + usually from 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 carats in size, are carefully set in the + bit, projecting but slightly from its surface. Two kinds of diamonds + are used, "carbons" and "borts." The carbons are opaque, dark in + colour, tougher than the brilliant, and have no cleavage planes. They + are therefore suitable for drilling in hard rock. Borts are rough, + imperfect brilliants, and are best used for the softer rocks. As the + bit wears, the stones must be reset from time to time. The wear of + carbons in a well-set bit is small, though extremely variable. Above + the bit are the core-lifter and core-barrel. The core-lifter (fig. 11, + A) is a device for gripping and breaking off the core and raising it + to the surface. The barrel, 3 to 10 ft. long, fits closely in the hole + and is often spirally grooved for the passage of the water and debris. + It serves partly as a guide, tending to keep the hole straight, partly + for holding and protecting the core. + + Diamond drills do not work satisfactorily in broken, fissured rock, as + the carbons are liable to be injured, loosened or torn from their + settings. In these circumstances, and for soft rocks, the diamond bit + may be replaced by a steel toothed bit. Another apparatus for + core-drilling is the Davis Calyx drill. For hard rock it has an + annular bit, accompanied by a quantity of chilled steel shot; for soft + rock, a toothed bit is used. + + Diamond drill holes are rarely straight, and usually deviate + considerably from the direction in which they are started. Very deep + holes have been found to vary as much as 45 deg. and even 60 deg. from + their true direction. This is due to the fact that the rods do not fit + closely in the hole and therefore bend. It is also likely to occur in + drilling through inclined strata, specially when of different degrees + of hardness. By using a long and closely fitting core-barrel the + liability to deviation is reduced, but cannot be wholly prevented. + Holes which are nearly horizontal always deflect upward, because the + sag of the rods tilts up the bit. Diamond drill holes should therefore + always be surveyed. This is done by lowering into the hole instruments + for observing at a number of successive points the direction and + degree of deviation.[1] If accurately surveyed a crooked hole may be + quite as useful as a straight one. + + AUTHORITIES.--For further information on boring see _Trans. Amer. + Inst. Mining Engs._ vol. ii. p. 241, vol. xxvii. p. 123; C. le Neve + Foster, _Text-book of Ore and Stone Mining_, chap. iii.; _Gluckauf_, + 9th December 1899, 20th and 27th May 1905; _Scientific American_, 21st + August 1886; _Engineering and Mining Jour._ vol. lviii. p. 268, vol. + lxx. p. 699, vol. lxxx. p. 920; _Trans. Inst. Mining Engs._, England, + vol. xxiii. p. 685; _School of Mines Quarterly_, N. Y., vol. xvi. p. + 1; _Zeitschr. fur Berg- Hutten- und Salinenwesen_, vol. xxv. p. 29; + Denny, "Diamond Drilling," _Mines and Minerals_, vol. xx., August + 1899, p. 7, to January 1900, p. 241; _Mining Jour._, 26th January + 1901; _Mining and Scientific Press_, 28th November 1903, p. 353; _Ost. + Zeitschr. fur Berg- und Huttenwesen_, 21st May, 4th June 1904; _Trans. + Inst. Mining and Metallurgy_, vol. xii. p. 301; _Engineering + Magazine_, March 1896, p. 1075. (R. P.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Brough, _Mine Surveying_, pp. 276-278; Marriott, _Trans. Inst. + Mining and Metallurgy_, vol. xiv. p. 255. + + + + +BORIS FEDOROVICH GODUNOV, tsar of Muscovy (c. 1551-1605), the most +famous member of an ancient, now extinct, Russian family of Tatar +origin, which migrated from the Horde to Muscovy in the 14th century. +Boris' career of service began at the court of Ivan the Terrible. He is +mentioned in 1570 as taking part in the Serpeisk campaign as one of the +archers of the guard. In 1571 he strengthened his position at court by +his marriage with Maria, the daughter of Ivan's abominable favourite +Malyuta Skuratov. In 1580 the tsar chose Irene, the sister of Boris, to +be the bride of the tsarevich Theodore, on which occasion Boris was +promoted to the rank of _boyar_. On his deathbed Ivan appointed Boris +one of the guardians of his son and successor; for Theodore, despite his +seven-and-twenty years, was of somewhat weak intellect. The reign of +Theodore began with a rebellion in favour of the infant tsarevich +Demetrius, the son of Ivan's fifth wife Marie Nagaya, a rebellion +resulting in the banishment of Demetrius, with his mother and her +relations, to their appanage at Uglich. On the occasion of the tsar's +coronation (May 31, 1584), Boris was loaded with honours and riches, yet +he held but the second place in the regency during the lifetime of his +co-guardian Nikita Romanovich, on whose death, in August, he was left +without any serious rival. A conspiracy against him of all the other +great boyars and the metropolitan Dionysy, which sought to break Boris' +power by divorcing the tsar from Godunov's childless sister, only ended +in the banishment or tonsuring of the malcontents. Henceforth Godunov +was omnipotent. The direction of affairs passed entirely into his hands, +and he corresponded with foreign princes as their equal. His policy was +generally pacific, but always most prudent. In 1595 he recovered from +Sweden the towns lost during the former reign. Five years previously he +had defeated a Tatar raid upon Moscow, for which service he received the +title of _sluga_, an obsolete dignity even higher than that of boyar. +Towards Turkey he maintained an independent attitude, supporting an +anti-Turkish faction in the Crimea, and furnishing the emperor with +subsidies in his war against the sultan. Godunov encouraged English +merchants to trade with Russia by exempting them from tolls. He +civilized the north-eastern and south-eastern borders of Muscovy by +building numerous towns and fortresses to keep the Tatar and Finnic +tribes in order. Samara, Saratov, and Tsaritsyn and a whole series of +lesser towns derive from him. He also re-colonized Siberia, which had +been slipping from the grasp of Muscovy, and formed scores of new +settlements, including Tobolsk and other large centres. It was during +his government that the Muscovite church received its patriarchate, +which placed it on an equality with the other Eastern churches and +emancipated it from the influence of the metropolitan of Kiev. Boris' +most important domestic reform was the _ukaz_ (1587) forbidding the +peasantry to transfer themselves from one landowner to another, thus +binding them to the soil. The object of this ordinance was to secure +revenue, but it led to the institution of serfdom in its most grinding +form. The sudden death of the tsarevich Demetrius at Uglich (May 15, +1591) has commonly been attributed to Boris, because it cleared his way +to the throne; but this is no clear proof that he was personally +concerned in that tragedy. The same may be said of the many, often +absurd, accusations subsequently brought against him by jealous rivals +or ignorant contemporaries who hated Godunov's reforms as novelties. + +On the death of the childless tsar Theodore (January 7, 1598), +self-preservation quite as much as ambition constrained Boris to seize +the throne. Had he not done so, lifelong seclusion in a monastery would +have been his lightest fate. His election was proposed by the patriarch +Job, who acted on the conviction that Boris was the one man capable of +coping with the extraordinary difficulties of an unexampled situation. +Boris, however, would only accept the throne from a _Zemsky Sobor_, or +national assembly, which met on the 17th of February, and unanimously +elected him on the 21st. On the 1st of September he was solemnly crowned +tsar. During the first years of his reign he was both popular and +prosperous, and ruled the people excellently well. Enlightened as he +was, he fully recognized the intellectual inferiority of Russia as +compared with the West, and did his utmost to bring about a better state +of things. He was the first tsar to import foreign teachers on a great +scale, the first to send young Russians abroad to be educated, the first +to allow Lutheran churches to be built in Russia. He also felt the +necessity of a Baltic seaboard, and attempted to obtain Livonia by +diplomatic means. He cultivated friendly relations with the +Scandinavians, in order to intermarry if possible with foreign royal +houses, so as to increase the dignity of his own dynasty. That Boris was +one of the greatest of the Muscovite tsars there can be no doubt. But +his great qualities were overbalanced by an incurable suspiciousness, +which made it impossible for him to act cordially with those about him. +His fear of possible pretenders induced him to go so far as to forbid +the greatest of the boyars to marry. He also encouraged informers and +persecuted suspects on their unsupported statements. The Romanov family +in especial suffered severely from these delations. Boris died suddenly +(April 13, 1605), leaving one son, Theodore II., who succeeded him for a +few months and then was foully murdered by the enemies of the Godunovs. + + See Platon Vasilievich Pavlov, _On the Historical Significance of the + Reign of Boris Godunov_ (Rus.) (Moscow, 1850); Sergyei Mikhailivich + Solovev, _History of Russia_ (Rus.) (2nd ed., vols. vii.-viii., St + Petersburg, 1897). (R. N. B.) + + + + +BORISOGLYEBSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tambov, 100 m. +S.S.E. of the city of that name, in 51 deg. 22' N. lat. and 43 deg. 4' +E. long. It was founded in 1646 to defend the southern frontiers of +Muscovy against the Crimean Tatars, and in 1696 was surrounded by wooden +fortifications. The principal industries are the preparation of wool, +iron-casting, soap-boiling, tallow-melting, and brick-making; and there +is an active trade in grain, wool, cattle, and leather, and two +important annual fairs. Pop. (1867) 12,254; (1897) 22,370. + + + + +BORKU, or BORGU, a region of Central Africa between 17 deg. and 19 deg. +N. and 18 deg. and 21 deg. E., forming part of the transitional zone +between the arid wastes of the Sahara and the fertile lands of the +central Sudan. It is bounded N. by the Tibesti Mountains, and is in +great measure occupied by lesser elevations belonging to the same +system. These hills to the south and east merge into the plains of Wadai +and Darfur. South-west, in the direction of Lake Chad, is the Bodele +basin. The drainage of the country is to the lake, but the numerous +khors with which its surface is scored are mostly dry or contain water +for brief periods only. A considerable part of the soil is light sand +drifted about by the wind. The irrigated and fertile portions consist +mainly of a number of valleys separated from each other by low and +irregular limestone rocks. They furnish excellent dates. Barley is also +cultivated. The northern valleys are inhabited by a settled population +of Tibbu stock, known as the Daza, and by colonies of negroes; the +others are mainly visited by nomadic Berber and Arab tribes. The +inhabitants own large numbers of goats and asses. + +A caravan route from Barca and the Kufra oasis passes through Borku to +Lake Chad. The country long remained unknown to Europeans. Gustav +Nachtigal spent some time in it in the year 1871, and gave a valuable +account of the region and its inhabitants in his book, _Sahara und +Sudan_ (Berlin, 1879-1889). In 1899 Borku, by agreement with Great +Britain, was assigned to the French sphere of influence. The country, +which had formerly been periodically raided by the Walad Sliman Arabs, +was then governed by the Senussi (q.v.), who had placed garrisons in the +chief centres of population. From it raids were made on French +territory. In 1907 a French column from Kanem entered Borku, but after +capturing Ain Galakka, the principal Senussi station, retired. Borku is +also called Borgu, but must not be confounded with the Borgu (q.v.) west +of the Niger. + + A summary of Nachtigal's writing on Borku will be found in section 28 + of _Gustav Nachtigal's Reisen in der Sahara und im Sudan_ (1 vol.), + arranged by Albert Frankel (Leipzig, 1887). See also an article (with + map) by Commdt. Bordeaux in _La Geographie_, Oct. 1908. + + + + +BORKUM, an island of Germany, in the North Sea, belonging to the +Prussian province of Hanover, the westernmost of the East Frisian chain, +lying between the east and west arms of the estuary of the Ems, and +opposite to the Dollart. Pop. about 2500. The island is 5 m. long and +2-1/2 m. broad, is a favourite summer resort, and is visited annually by +about 20,000 persons. There is a daily steamboat service with Emden, +Leer and Hamburg during the summer months. The island affords pasture +for cattle, and a breeding-place for sea-birds. + + + + +BORLASE, WILLIAM (1695-1772), English antiquary and naturalist, was born +at Pendeen in Cornwall, of an ancient family, on the 2nd of February +1695. He was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, and in 1719 was +ordained. In 1722 he was presented to the rectory of Ludgvan, and in +1732 he obtained in addition the vicarage of St Just, his native parish. +In the parish of Ludgvan were rich copper works, abounding with mineral +and metallic fossils, of which he made a collection, and thus was led to +study somewhat minutely the natural history of the county. In 1750 he +was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society; and in 1754 he published, at +Oxford, his _Antiquities of Cornwall_ (2nd ed., London, 1769). His next +publication was _Observations on the Ancient and Present State of the +Islands of Scilly, and their Importance to the Trade of Great Britain_ +(Oxford, 1756). In 1758 appeared his _Natural History of Cornwall_. He +presented to the Ashmolean museum, Oxford, a variety of fossils and +antiquities, which he had described in his works, and received the +thanks of the university and the degree of LL.D. He died on the 31st of +August 1772. Borlase was well acquainted with most of the leading +literary men of the time, particularly with Alexander Pope, with whom he +kept up a long correspondence, and for whose grotto at Twickenham he +furnished the greater part of the fossils and minerals. + + Borlase's letters to Pope, St Aubyn and others, with answers, fill + several volumes of MS. There are also MS. notes on Cornwall, and a + complete unpublished treatise _Concerning the Creation and Deluge_. + Some account of these MSS., with extracts from them, was given in the + _Quarterly Review_, October 1875. Borlase's memoirs of his own life + were published in Nichol's _Literary Anecdotes_, vol. v. + + + + +BORMIO (Ger. _Worms_), a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of +Sondrio, 41-1/2 m. N.E. of the town of Sondrio. Pop. (1901) 1814. It is +situated in the Valtellina (the valley of the Adda), 4020 ft. above +sea-level, at the foot of the Stelvio pass, and, owing to its position, +was of some military importance in the middle ages. It contains +interesting churches and picturesque towers. A cemetery of pre-Roman +date was discovered at Bormio in 1820. + +The baths of Bormio, 2 m. farther up the valley, are mentioned by Pliny +and Cassiodorus, the secretary of Theodoric, and are much frequented. + + + + +BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742-1791), Austrian mineralogist and +metallurgist, was born of a noble family at Karlsburg, in Transylvania, +on the 26th of December 1742. Educated in a Jesuit college in Vienna, he +was for sixteen months a member of the order, but left it and studied +law at Prague. Then he travelled extensively in Germany, Holland and +France, studying mineralogy, and on his return to Prague in 1770 entered +the department of mines and the mint. In 1776 he was appointed by Maria +Theresa to arrange the imperial museum at Vienna, where he was nominated +to the council of mines and the mint, and continued to reside until his +death on the 24th of July 1791. He introduced a method of extracting +metals by amalgamation (_Uber das Anquicken der Erze_, 1786), and other +improvements in mining and other technical processes. His publications +also include _Lithophylacium Bornianum_ (1772-1775) and _Bergbaukunde_ +(1789), besides several museum catalogues. Von Born attempted satire +with no great success. _Die Staatsperucke_, a tale published without his +knowledge in 1772, and an attack on Father Hell, the Jesuit, and king's +astronomer at Vienna, are two of his satirical works. Part of a satire, +entitled _Monachologia_, in which the monks are described in the +technical language of natural history, is also ascribed to him. Von Born +was well acquainted with Latin and the principal modern languages of +Europe, and with many branches of science not immediately connected with +metallurgy and mineralogy. He took an active part in the political +changes in Hungary. After the death of the emperor Joseph II., the diet +of the states of Hungary rescinded many innovations of that ruler, and +conferred the rights of denizen on several persons who had been +favourable to the cause of the Hungarians, and, amongst others, on von +Born. At the time of his death in 1791, he was employed in writing a +work entitled _Fasti Leopoldini_, probably relating to the prudent +conduct of Leopold II., the successor of Joseph, towards the Hungarians. + + + + +BORNA, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Saxony, on the Wyhra at its +junction with the Pleisse, 17 m. S. by E. of Leipzig by rail. Pop. +(1905) 9176. The industries include peat-cutting, iron foundries, organ, +pianoforte, felt and shoe factories. + + + + +BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786-1837), German political writer and satirist, +was born on the 6th of May 1786 at Frankfort-On-Main, where his father, +Jakob Baruch, carried on the business of a banker. He received his early +education at Giessen, but as Jews were ineligible at that time for +public appointments in Frankfort, young Baruch was sent to study +medicine at Berlin under a physician, Markus Herz, in whose house he +resided. Young Baruch became deeply enamoured of his patron's wife, the +talented and beautiful Henriette Herz (1764-1847), and gave vent to his +adoration in a series of remarkable letters. Tiring of medical science, +which he had subsequently pursued at Halle, he studied constitutional +law and political science at Heidelberg and Giessen, and in 1811 took +his doctor's degree at the latter university. On his return to +Frankfort, now constituted as a grand duchy under the sovereignty of the +prince bishop Karl von Dalberg, he received (1811) the appointment of +police actuary in that city. The old conditions, however, returned in +1814 and he was obliged to resign his office. Embittered by the +oppression under which the Jews suffered in Germany, he engaged in +journalism, and edited the Frankfort liberal newspapers, +_Staatsristretto_ and _Die Zeitschwingen_. In 1818 he became a convert +to Lutheran protestantism, changing his name from Lob Baruch to Ludwig +Borne. This step was taken less out of religious conviction than, as in +the case of so many of his descent, in order to improve his social +standing. From 1818 to 1821 he edited _Die Wage_, a paper distinguished +by its lively political articles and its powerful but sarcastic +theatrical criticisms. This paper was suppressed by the police +authorities, and in 1821 Borne quitted for a while the field of +publicist writing and led a retired life in Paris, Hamburg and +Frankfort. After the July Revolution (1830), he hurried to Paris, +expecting to find the newly-constituted state of society somewhat in +accordance with his own ideas of freedom. Although to some extent +disappointed in his hopes, he was not disposed to look any more kindly +on the political condition of Germany; this lent additional zest to the +brilliant satirical letters (_Briefe aus Paris_, 1830-1833, published +Paris, 1834), which he began to publish in his last literary venture, +_La Balance_, a revival under its French name of _Die Wage_. The _Briefe +aus Paris_ was Borne's most important publication, and a landmark in the +history of German journalism. Its appearance led him to be regarded as +one of the leaders of the new literary party of "Young Germany." He died +at Paris on the 12th of February 1837. + +Borne's works are remarkable for brilliancy of style and for a thorough +French vein of satire. His best criticism is to be found in his +_Denkrede auf Jean Paul_ (1826), a writer for whom he had warm sympathy +and admiration, in his _Dramaturgische Blatter_ (1829-1834), and the +witty satire, _Menzel der Franzosenfresser_ (1837). He also wrote a +number of short stories and sketches, of which the best known are the +_Monographie der deutschen Postschnecke_ (1829) and _Der Esskunstler_ +(1822). + + The first edition of his _Gesammelte Schriften_ appeared at Hamburg + (1829-1834) in 14 volumes, followed by 6 volumes of _Nachgelassene + Schriften_ (Mannheim, 1844-1850); more complete is the edition in 12 + volumes (Hamburg, 1862-1863), reprinted in 1868 and subsequently. The + latest complete edition is that edited by A. Klaar (8 vols., Leipzig, + 1900). For further biographical matter see K. Gutzkow, _Bornes Leben_ + (Hamburg, 1840), and M. Holzmann, _L. Borne, sein Leben und sein + Wirken_ (Berlin, 1888). _Bornes Briefe an Henriette Herz_ (1802-1807), + first published in 1861, have been re-edited by L. Geiger (Oldenburg, + 1905), who has also published Borne's _Berliner Briefe_ (1828) + (Berlin, 1905). See also Heine's witty attack on Borne (_Werke_, ed. + Elster, vii.), G. Gervinus' essay in his _Historiche Schriften_ + (Darmstadt, 1838), and the chapters in G. Brandes, _Hovedstromninger i + det 19 de Aarhundredes Litteratur_ vol. vi. (Copenhagen, 1890, German + trans. 1891; English trans. 1905), and in J. Proelss, _Das junge + Deutschland_ (Stuttgart, 1892). + + + + +BORNEO, a great island of the Malay Archipelago, extending from 7 deg. +N. to 4 deg. 20' S., and from 108 deg. 53' to 119 deg. 22' E. It is 830 +m. long from N.E. to S.W., by 600 m. in maximum breadth. Its area +according to the calculations of the Topographical Bureau of Batavia +(1894) comprises 293,496 sq. m. These figures are admittedly +approximate, and Meyer, who is generally accurate, gives the area of +Borneo at 289,860 sq. m. It is roughly, however, five times as large as +England and Wales. Politically Borneo is divided into four portions: (1) +British North Borneo, the territory exploited and administered by the +Chartered British North Borneo Company, to which a separate section of +this article is devoted; (2) Brunei (q.v.), a Malayan sultanate under +British protection; (3) Sarawak (q.v.), the large territory ruled by +raja Brooke, and under British protection in so far as its foreign +relations are concerned; and (4) Dutch Borneo, which comprises the +remainder and by far the largest and most valuable portion of the +island. + +_Physical Features_.--The general character of the country is +mountainous, though none of the ranges attains to any great elevation, +and Kinabalu, the highest peak in the island, which is situated near its +north-western extremity, is only 13,698 ft. above sea-level. There is no +proper nucleus of mountains whence chains ramify in different +directions. The central and west central parts of the island, however, +are occupied by three mountain chains and a plateau. These chains are: +(1) the folded chain of the upper Kapuas, which divides the western +division of Dutch Borneo from Sarawak, extends west to east, and attains +near the sources of the Kapuas river a height of 5000 to 6000 ft.; (2) +the Schwaner chain, south of the Kapuas, whose summits range from 3000 +to 7500 ft., the latter being the height of Bukit Raja, a plateau which +divides the waters of the Kapuas from the rivers of southern Borneo; and +(3) the Muller chain, between the eastern parts of the Madi plateau +(presently to be mentioned) and the Kapuas chain, a volcanic region +presenting heights, such as Bukit Terata (4700 ft.), which were once +active but are now long extinct volcanos. The Madi plateau lies between +the Kapuas and the Schwaner chains. Its height is from 3000 to 4000 ft., +and it is clothed with tropical high fens. These mountain systems are +homologous in structure with those, not of Celebes or of Halmahera, but +of Malacca, Banka and Billiton. From the eastern end of the Kapuas +mountains there are further to be observed: (1) A chain running +north-north-east, which forms the boundary between Sarawak and Dutch +Borneo, the highest peak of which, Gunong Tebang, approaches 10,000 ft. +This chain can hardly be said to extend continuously to the extreme +north of the island, but it carries on the line of elevation towards the +mountains of Sarawak to the west, and those of British North Borneo to +the north, of which latter Kinabalu is the most remarkable. The +mountains of North Borneo are more particularly referred to in the +portion of this article which deals with that territory. (2) A chain +which runs eastward from the central mountains and terminates in the +great promontory of the east coast, known variously as Cape Kanior or +Kaniungan. (3) A well-marked chain running in a south-easterly direction +among the congeries of hills that extend south-eastward from the central +mountains, and attaining, near the southern part of the east coast, +heights up to and exceeding 6000 ft. + +_Coasts._--Resting on a submarine plateau of no great depth, the coasts +of Borneo are for the most part rimmed round by low alluvial lands, of a +marshy, sandy and sometimes swampy character. In places the sands are +fringed by long lines of _Casuarina_, trees; in others, and more +especially in the neighbourhood of some of the river mouths, there are +deep banks of black mud covered with mangroves; in others the coast +presents to the sea bold headlands, cliffs, mostly of a reddish hue, +sparsely clad with greenery, or rolling hills covered by a growth of +rank grass. The depth of the sea around the shore rarely exceeds a +maximum depth of 1 to 3 fathoms, and the coast as a whole offers few +accessible ports. The towns and seaports are to be found as a rule at or +near the mouths of those rivers which are not barricaded too efficiently +by bars formed of mud or sand. All round the long coast-line of Dutch +Borneo there are only seven ports of call, which are habitually made use +of by the ships of the Dutch Packet Company. They are Pontianak, +Banjermasin, Kota Bharu, Pasir, Samarinda, Beru and Bulungan. The +islands off the coast are not numerous. Excluding some of alluvial +formation at the mouths of many of the rivers, and others along the +shore which owe their existence to volcanic upheaval, the principal +islands are Banguey and Balambangan at the northern extremity, Labuan +(q.v.), a British colony off the west coast of the territory of North +Borneo, and the Karimata Islands off the south-west coast. On Great +Karimata is situated the village of Palembang with a population of about +500 souls employed in fishing, mining for iron, and trading in forest +produce. + +[Illustration: BORNEO] + +_Rivers_.--The rivers play a very important part in the economy of +Borneo, both as highways and as lines along which run the main arteries +of population. Hydrographically the island may be divided into five +principal versants. Of these the shortest embraces the north-western +slope, north of the Kapuas range, and discharges its waters into the +China Sea. The most important of its rivers are the Sarawak, the +Batang-Lupar, the Sarebas, the Rejang (navigable for more than 100 m.), +the Baram, the Limbang or Brunei river, and the Padas. The rivers of +British North Borneo to the north of the Padas are of no importance and +of scant practical utility, owing to the fact that the mountain range +here approaches very closely to the coast with which it runs parallel. +In the south-western versant the largest river is the Kapuas, which, +rising near the centre of the island, falls into the sea between Mampawa +and Sukadana after a long and winding course. This river, of volume +varying with the tide and the amount of rainfall, is normally navigable +by small steamers and native prahus, of a draught of 4 to 5 ft., for +300 to 400 m., that is to say, from Pontianak up to Sintang, and thence +as far as Benut. The middle part of this river, wider and more shallow +than the lower reaches, gives rise to a region of inundation and lakes +which extend as far as the northern mountain chain. Among its +considerable tributaries may be mentioned the southern Melawi with its +affluent the Penuh. It reaches the sea through several channels in a +wide marshy delta. The Sambas, north of the Kapuas, is navigable in its +lower course for vessels drawing 25 ft. Rivers lying to the south of the +Kapuas, but of less importance in the way of size, commerce and +navigation, are the Simpang, Pawanand Kandawangan, in the neighbourhood +of whose mouths, or upon the adjacent coast, the principal native +villages are situated in each case. The Barito, which is the principal +river of the southern versant, takes its rise in the Kuti Lama Lake, and +falls into the Java Sea in 114 deg. 30' E. Its upper reaches are greatly +impeded by rocks, rapids and waterfalls, but the lower part of its +course is wide, and traverses a rich, alluvial district, much of which +is marshy. Cross branches unite it with two rivers of considerable size +towards the west, the Kapuas Murung or Little Dyak, and the Kahayan or +Great Dyak. The Katingan or Mendawei, the Sampit, Pembuang or Surian and +the Kota Waringin are rivers that fall into the sea farther to the west. +The rivers of the southern versant are waters of capacious drainage, the +basin of the Kahayan having, for instance, an area of 16,000 sq. m., and +the Barito one of 38,000 sq. m. These rivers are navigable for +two-thirds of their course by steamers of a fair size, but in many cases +the bars at their mouths present considerable difficulties to ships +drawing anything over 8 or 9 ft. Most of the larger affluents of the +Barito are also navigable throughout the greater part of their courses. +The south-eastern like the north-western corner of the island is watered +by a considerable number of short mountain streams. The one great river +of the eastern versant is the Kutei or Mahakan, which, rising in the +central mountains, flows east with a sinuous course and falls by +numerous mounts into the Straits of Madassar. At a great distance from +its mouth it has still a depth of three fathoms, and in all its physical +features it is comparable to the Kapuas and Barito. The Kayan or +Bulungan river is the only other in the eastern versant that calls for +mention. Most of the rivers of the northern versant are comparatively +small, as the island narrows into a kind of promontory. Of these the +Kinabatangan in the territory of British North Borneo is the most +important. Lakes are neither numerous nor very large. In most cases they +are more fittingly described as swamps. In the flood area of the upper +Kapuas, of which mention has already been made, there occurs Lake Luar, +and there are several lake expanses of a similar character in the basins +of the Barito and Kutei rivers. The only really fine natural harbour in +the island of which any use has been made is that of Sandakan, the +principal settlement of the North Borneo Company on the north coast. + + _Geology._--The geology of Borneo is very imperfectly known. The + mountain range which lies between Sarawak and the Dutch possessions, + and may be looked upon as the backbone of the island, consists chiefly + of crystalline schists, together with slates, sandstones and + limestones. All these beds are much disturbed and folded. The + sedimentary deposits were formerly believed to be Palaeozoic, but + Jurassic fossils have since been found in them, and it is probable + that several different formations are represented. Somewhat similar + rocks appear to form the axis of the range in south-east Borneo, and + possibly of the Tampatung Mountains. But the Muller range, the Madi + plateau, and the Schwaner Mountains of west Borneo, consist chiefly of + almost undisturbed sedimentary and volcanic rocks of Tertiary age. The + low-lying country between the mountain ranges is covered for the most + part by Tertiary and Quaternary deposits, but Cretaceous beds occur at + several localities. Some of the older rocks of the mountain regions + have been referred to the Devonian, but the evidence cannot be + considered conclusive. _Vertebraria_ and _Phyllotheca_, plants + characteristic of the Indian Gondwana series, have been recorded in + Sarawak; and marine forms, similar to those of the lower part of the + Australian Carboniferous system, are stated to occur in the limestone + of north Borneo. _Pseudomonotis salinaria_, a Triassic form, has been + noted from the schists of the west of Borneo. In the Kapoewas district + radiolarian cherts supposed to be of Jurassic age are met with. + Undoubted Jurassic fossils, belonging to several horizons, have been + described from west Borneo and Sarawak. The Cretaceous beds, which + have long been known in west Borneo, are comparatively little + disturbed. They consist for the most part of marls with _Orbitolina + concava_, and are referred to the Cenomanian. Cretaceous beds of + somewhat later date are found in the Marpapura district in south-east + Borneo. The Tertiary system includes conglomerates, sandstones, + limestones and marls, which appear to be of Eocene, Oligocene and + Miocene age. They contain numerous seams of coal. The Tertiary beds + generally lie nearly horizontal and form the lower hills, but in the + Madi plateau and the Schwaner range they rise to a height of several + thousand feet. Volcanic rocks of Tertiary and late Cretaceous age are + extensively developed, especially in the Muller Mountains. The whole + of this consists of tuffs and lavas, andesites prevailing in the west + and rhyolites and dacites in the east. + +_Minerals._--The mineral wealth of Borneo is great and varied. It +includes diamonds, the majority of which, however, are of a somewhat +yellow colour, gold, quicksilver, cinnabar, copper, iron, tin, antimony, +mineral oils, sulphur, rock-salt, marble and coal. The exploitation of +the mines suffers in many cases from the difficulties and expense of +transport, the high duties payable in Dutch Borneo to the native +princes, the competition among the rival companies, and often the +limited quantities of the minerals found in the mines. The districts of +Sambas and Landak in the west, the Kahayan river, the mountain valleys +of the extreme south-east and parts of Sarawak furnish the largest +quantities of gold, which is obtained for the most part from alluvial +washings. The Borneo Company is engaged in working gold-mines in the +upper part of the Sarawak valley, and the prospects of the enterprise, +which is conducted on a fairly extensive scale, are known to be +encouraging. Diamonds are also found widely distributed and mainly in +the same regions as the gold. The Kapuas valley has so far yielded the +largest quantity, and Pontianak is, for diamonds, the principal port of +export. Considerable progress has been made in the development of the +oil-fields in Dutch Borneo, and the _Nederlandsch Indische Industrie en +Handel Maatschappij_, the Dutch business of the Shell Transport and +Trading Company, increased its output from 123,592 tons in 1901 to +285,720 tons in 1904, and showed further satisfactory increase +thereafter. This company owns extensive oil-fields at Balik Papan and +Sanga-Sanga. The quality of the oil varies in a remarkable way according +to the depth. The upper stratum is struck at a depth of 600 to 700 ft., +and yields a natural liquid fuel of heavy specific gravity. The next +source is met with at about 1200 ft., yielding an oil which is much +lighter in weight and, as such, more suitable for treatment in the +refinery. The former oil is almost invariably of an asphalte basis, +whereas the latter sometimes is found to contain a considerable +percentage of paraffin wax. The average daily production is very high, +owing to a large number of the wells flowing under the natural pressure +of the gas. There is every reason to believe that the oil-fields of +Dutch Borneo have a great future. Coal mines have, in many instances, +been opened and abandoned, failure being due to the difficulty of +production. Coal of good quality has been found in Pengaron and +elsewhere in the Banjermasin district, but most Borneo coal is +considerably below this average of excellence. It has also been found in +fair quantities at various places in the Kutei valley and in Sarawak. +The coalmines of Labuan have been worked spasmodically, but success has +never attended the venture. Sadong yields something under 130 tons a +day, and the Brooketown mine, the property of the raja of Sarawak, +yields some 50 tons a day of rather indifferent coal. The discovery that +Borneo produced antimony was made in 1825 by John Crawfurd, the +orientalist, who learned in that year that a quantity had been brought +to Singapore by a native trader as ballast. The supply is practically +unlimited and widely distributed. The principal mine is at Bidi in +Sarawak. + +_Climate and Health_.--As is to be anticipated, having regard to its +insular position and to the fact that the equator passes through the +very middle of the island, the climate is at once hot and very damp. In +the hills and in the interior regions are found which may almost be +described as temperate, but on the coasts the atmosphere is dense, humid +and oppressive. Throughout the average temperature is from 78 deg. to 80 +deg. F., but the thermometer rarely falls below 70 deg., except in the +hills, and occasionally on exceptional days mounts as high as 96 deg. in +the shade. The rainy westerly winds (S.W. and N.W.) prevail at all the +meteorological stations, not the comparatively dry south-east wind. Even +at Banjermasin, near the south coast, the north-west wind brings +annually a rainfall of 60 in., as against 33 in. of rain carried by the +south-east wind. The difference between the seasons is not rigidly +marked. The climate is practically unchanging all the year round, the +atmosphere being uniformly moist, and though days of continuous downpour +are rare, comparatively few days pass without a shower. Most rain falls +between November and May, and at this season the torrents are tremendous +while they last, and squalls of wind are frequent and violent, almost +invariably preceding a downpour. Over such an extensive area there is, +of course, great variety in the climatic character of different +districts, especially when viewed in relation to health. Some places, +such as Bidi in Sarawak, for instance, are notoriously unhealthy; but +from the statistics of the Dutch government, and the records of Sarawak +and British North Borneo, it would appear that the European in Borneo +has in general not appreciably more to fear than his fellow in Java, or +in the Federated Malay States of the Malayan Peninsula. Among the native +races the prevailing diseases, apart from those of a malarial origin, +are chiefly such as arise from bad and insufficient food, from +intemperance, and from want of cleanliness. The habit of allowing their +meat to putrefy before regarding it as fit for food, and of encouraging +children of tender age to drink to intoxication, accounts for absence of +old folk and the heavy mortality which are to be observed among the +Muruts of British North Borneo and some of the other more debased tribes +of the interior of the island. Scrofula and various forms of lupus are +common among the natives throughout the country and especially in the +interior; elephantiasis is frequently met with on the coast. Smallpox, +dysentery and fevers, frequently of a bilious character, are endemic and +occasionally epidemic. Cholera breaks out from time to time and works +great havoc, as was the case in 1903 when one of the raja of Sarawak's +punitive expeditions was stricken while ascending the Limbang river by +boat, and lost many hundreds of its numbers before the coast could be +regained. Ophthalmia is common and sometimes will attack whole tribes. +About one sixth of the native population of the interior, and a smaller +proportion of those living on the coast, suffer from a kind of ringworm +called _kurap_, which also prevails almost universally among the Sakai +and Semang, the aboriginal hill tribes of the Malayan Peninsula. The +disease is believed to be aggravated by chronic anaemia. Consumption is +not uncommon. + +_Fauna_.--The fauna of Borneo comprises a large variety of species, many +of which are numerically of great importance. Among the quadrupeds the +most remarkable is the orang-utan (Malay, _orang utan_, i.e. jungle +man), as the huge ape, called _mias_ or _mayas_ by the natives, is named +by Europeans. Numerous species of monkey are found in Borneo, including +the wahwah, a kind of gibbon, a creature far more human in appearance +and habits than the orang-utan, and several _Semnopitheci_, such as the +long-nosed ape and the golden-black or _chrysomelas_. The large-eyed +_Stenops tardigradus_ also deserves mention. The larger beasts of prey +are not met with, and little check is therefore put on the natural +fecundity of the graminivorous species. A small panther and the clouded +tiger (so called)--_Felis macroscelis_--are the largest animals of the +cat kind that occur in Borneo. The Bengal tiger is not found. The Malay +or honey-bear is very common. The rhinoceros and the elephant both occur +in the northern part of the island, though both are somewhat rare, and +in this connexion it should be noted that the distribution of quadrupeds +as between Borneo, Sumatra and the Malayan Peninsula is somewhat +peculiar and seemingly somewhat capricious. Many quadrupeds, such as the +honey-bear and the rhinoceros, are common to all, but while the tiger is +common both in the Malayan Peninsula and in Sumatra, it does not occur +in Borneo; the elephant, so common in the peninsula, and found in +Borneo, is unknown in Sumatra; and the orang-utan, so plentiful in parts +of Borneo and parts of Sumatra, has never been discovered in the Malay +Peninsula. It has been suggested, but with very scant measure of +probability, that the existence of elephants in Borneo, whose +confinement to a single district is remarkable and unexplained, is due +to importation; and the fact is on record that when Magellan's ships +visited Brunei in 1522 tame elephants were in use at the court of the +sultan of Brunei. Wild oxen of the Sunda race, not to be in any way +confounded with the Malayan _seladang_ or gaur, are rare, but the whole +country swarms with wild swine, and the _babirusa_, a pig with curious +horn-like tusks, is not uncommon. Alligators are found in most of the +rivers, and the gavial is less frequently met with. Three or four +species of deer are common, including the mouse-deer, or _plandok_, an +animal of remarkable grace and beauty, about the size of a hare but +considerably less heavy. Squirrels, flying-squirrels, porcupines, +civet-cats, rats, bats, flying-foxes and lizards are found in great +variety; snakes of various kinds, from the boa-constrictor downward, are +abundant, while the forests swarm with tree-leeches, and the marshes +with horse-leeches and frogs. A remarkable flying-frog was discovered by +Professor A.R. Wallace. Birds are somewhat rare in some quarters. The +most important are eagles, kites, vultures, falcons, owls, horn-bills, +cranes, pheasants (notably the argus, fire-back and peacock-pheasants), +partridges, ravens, crows, parrots, pigeons, woodpeckers, doves, snipe, +quail and swallows. Of most of these birds several varieties are met +with. The _Cypselus esculentus_, or edible-nest swift, is very common, +and the nests, which are built mostly in limestone caves, are esteemed +the best in the archipelago. Mosquitoes and sand-flies are the chief +insect pests, and in some districts are very troublesome. Several kinds +of parasitic jungle ticks cause much annoyance to men and to beasts. +There are also two kinds of ants, the semut api ("fire ant") and the +_semut lada_ ("pepper ant"), whose bites are peculiarly painful. +Hornets, bees and wasps of many varieties abound. The honey and the wax +of the wild bee are collected by the natives. Butterflies and moths are +remarkable for their number, size, variety and beauty. Beetles are no +less numerously represented, as is to be expected in a country so richly +wooded as Borneo. The swamps and rivers, as well as the surrounding +seas, swarm with fish. The _siawan_ is a species of fish found in the +rivers and valued for its spawn, which is salted. The natives are expert +and ingenious fishermen. Turtles, trepang and pearl-shell are of some +commercial importance. + +The dog, the cat, the pig, the domestic fowl (which is not very +obviously related to the bantam of the woods), the buffalo, a smaller +breed than that met with in the Malayan Peninsula, and in some districts +bullocks of the Brahmin breed and small horses, are the principal +domestic animals. The character of the country and the nomadic habits of +many of the natives of the interior, who rarely occupy their villages +for more than a few years in succession, have not proved favourable to +pastoral modes of life. The buffaloes are used not only in agriculture, +but also as beasts of burden, as draught-animals and for the saddle. +Horses, introduced by Europeans and owned only by the wealthier classes, +are found in Banjermasin and in Sarawak. In British North Borneo, and +especially in the district of Tempasuk on the north-west coast, Borneo +ponies, bred originally, it is supposed, from the stock which is +indigenous to the Sulu archipelago, are common. + +_Flora_.--The flora of Borneo is very rich, the greater portion of the +surface of the island being clothed in luxuriant vegetation. The king of +the forest is the _tapan_, which, rising to a great height without fork +or branch, culminates in a splendid dome of foliage. The official seats +of some of the chiefs are constructed from the wood of this tree. +Iron-wood, remarkable for the durability of its timber, is abundant; it +is used by the natives for the pillars of their homes and forms an +article of export, chiefly to Hong-Kong. It is rivalled in hardness by +the _kayu tembesu_. In all, about sixty kinds of timber of marketable +quality are furnished in more or less profusion, but the difficulty of +extraction, even in the regions situated in close proximity to the large +waterways, renders it improbable that the timber trade of Borneo will +attain to any very great dimensions until other and easier sources of +supply have become exhausted. Palm-trees are abundant in great variety, +including the _nipah_, which is much used for thatching, the cabbage, +fan, sugar, coco and sago palms. The last two furnish large supplies of +food to the natives, some copra is exported, and sago factories, mostly +in the hands of Chinese, prepare sago for the Dutch and British markets. +Gutta-percha (_getah percha_ in the vernacular), camphor, cinnamon, +cloves, nutmegs, gambir and betel, or areca-nuts, are all produced in +the island; most of the tropical fruits flourish, including the +much-admired but, to the uninitiated, most evil-smelling durian, a large +fruit with an exceedingly strong outer covering composed of stout +pyramidal spikes, which grows upon the branches of a tall tree and +occasionally in falling inflicts considerable injuries upon passers-by. +Yams, several kinds of sweet potatoes, melons, pumpkins, cucumbers, +pineapples, bananas and mangosteens are cultivated, as also are a large +number of other fruits. Rice is grown in irrigated lands near the rivers +and in the swamps, and also in rude clearings in the interior; +sugar-cane of superior quality in Sambas and Montrado; cotton, sometimes +exported in small quantities, on the banks of the Negara, a tributary of +the Barito; tobacco, used very largely now in the production of cigars, +in various parts of northern Borneo; and tobacco for native consumption, +which is of small commercial importance, is cultivated in most parts of +the island. Indigo, coffee and pepper have been cultivated since 1855 in +the western division of Dutch Borneo. Among the more beautiful of the +flowering plants are rhododendrons, orchids and pitcher-plants--the +latter reaching extraordinary development, especially in the northern +districts about Kinabalu. Epiphytous plants are very common, many that +are usually independent assuming here the parasitic character; the +_Vanda lowii_, for example, grows on the lower branches of trees, and +its strange pendent flower-stalks often hang down so as almost to reach +the ground. Ferns are abundant, but not so varied as in Java. + +_Population._--The population of Borneo is not known with any approach +to accuracy, but according to the political divisions of the island it +is estimated as follows:-- + + Dutch Borneo 1,130,000 + British North Borneo 200,000 + Sarawak 500,000 + Brunei 20,000 + +No effective census of the population has ever been taken, and vast +areas in Dutch Borneo and in British North Borneo remain unexplored, and +free from any practical authority or control. In Sarawak, owing to the +high administrative genius of the first raja and his successor, the +natives have been brought far more completely under control, but the +raja has never found occasion to utilize the machinery of his government +for the accurate enumeration of his subjects. + +Dutch Borneo is divided for administrative purposes into two divisions, +the western and the south and eastern respectively. Of the two, the +former is under the more complete and effective control. The estimated +population in the western division is 413,000 and in the south and +eastern 717,000. Europeans number barely 1000; Arabs about 3000, and +Chinese, mainly in the western division, over 40,000. In both divisions +there is an average density of little more than 1 to every 2 sq. m. The +sparseness of the population throughout the Dutch territory is due to a +variety of causes--to the physical character of the country, which for +the most part restricts the area of population to the near neighbourhood +of the rivers; to the low standard of civilization to which the majority +of the natives have attained and the consequent disregard of sanitation +and hygiene; to wars, piracy and head-hunting, the last of which has not +even yet been effectually checked among some of the tribes of the +interior; and to the aggression and oppressions in earlier times of +Malayan, Arab and Bugis settlers. Among the natives, more especially of +the interior, an innate restlessness which leads to a life of spasmodic +nomadism, poverty, insufficient nourishment, an incredible improvidence +which induces them to convert into intoxicating liquor a large portion +of their annual crops, feasts of a semi-religious character which are +invariably accompanied by prolonged drunken orgies, and certain +superstitions which necessitate the frequent procuration of abortion, +have contributed to check the growth of population. In Sambas, Montrado +and some parts of Pontianak, the greater density of the population is +due to the greater fertility of the soil, the opening of mines, the +navigation and trade plied on the larger rivers, and the concentration +of the population at the junctions of rivers, the mouths of rivers and +the seats of government. Of the chief place in the western division, +Pontianak has about 9000 inhabitants; Sambas about 8000; Montrado, +Mampawa and Landak between 2000 and 4000 each; and in the south and +eastern division there are Banjermasin with nearly 50,000 inhabitants; +Marabahan, Amuntai, Negara, Samarinda and Tengarung with populations of +from 5000 to 10,000 inhabitants each. In Amuntai and Martapura early +Hindu colonization, of which the traces and the influence still are +manifest, the fertile soil, trade and industry aided by navigable +rivers, have co-operated towards the growth of population to a degree +which presents a marked contrast to the conditions in the interior parts +of the Upper Barito and of the more westerly rivers. Only a very small +proportion of the Europeans in Dutch Borneo live by agriculture and +industry, the great majority of them being officials. The Arabs and +Chinese are engaged in trading, mining, fishing and agriculture. Of the +natives fully 90% live by agriculture, which, however, is for the most +part of a somewhat primitive description. The industries of the natives +are confined to such crafts as spinning and weaving and dyeing, the +manufacture of iron weapons and implements, boat- and shipbuilding, &c. +More particularly in the south-eastern division, and especially in the +districts of Negara, Banjermasin, Amuntai and Martapura, shipbuilding, +iron forging, gold- and silversmith's work, and the polishing of +diamonds, are industries of high development in the larger centres of +population. + +_Races._--The peoples of Borneo belong to a considerable variety of +races, of different origin and degrees of civilization. The most +important numerically are the Dyaks, the Dusuns and Muruts of the +interior, the Malays, among whom must be counted such Malayan tribes as +the Bajaus, Ilanuns, &c., the Bugis, who were originally immigrants from +Celebes, and the Chinese. The Dutch, and to a minor extent the Arabs, +are of importance on account of their political influence in Dutch +Borneo, while the British communities have a similar importance in +Sarawak and in British North Borneo. Accounts of the Malays, Dyaks and +Bugis are given under their several headings, and some information +concerning the Dusuns and Muruts will be found in the section below, +which deals with British North Borneo. The connexion of the Chinese with +Borneo calls for notice here. They seem to have been the first civilized +people who had dealings with Borneo, if the colonization of a portion of +the south-eastern corner of the island by Hindus be excepted. The +Chinese annals speak of tribute paid to the empire by Pha-la on the +north-east coast of the island as early as the 7th century, and later +documents mention a Chinese colonization in the 15th century. The +traditions of the Malays and Dyaks seem to confirm the statements, and +many of the leading families of Brunei in north-west Borneo claim to +have Chinese blood in their veins, while the annals of Sulu record an +extensive Chinese immigration about 1575. However this may be, it is +certain that the flourishing condition of Borneo in the 16th and 17th +centuries was largely due to the energy of Chinese settlers and to trade +with China. In the 18th century there was a considerable Chinese +population settled in Brunei, engaged for the most part in planting and +exporting pepper, but the consistent oppression of the native rajas +destroyed their industry and led eventually to the practical extirpation +of the Chinese. The Malay chiefs of other districts encouraged +immigration from China with a view to developing the mineral resources +of their territories, and before long Chinese settlers were to be found +in considerable numbers in Sambas, Montrado, Pontianak and elsewhere. +They were at first forbidden to engage in commerce or agriculture, to +carry firearms, to possess or manufacture gunpowder. About 1779 the +Dutch acquired immediate authority over all strangers, and thus assumed +responsibility for the control of the Chinese, who presently proved +themselves somewhat troublesome. Their numbers constantly increased and +were reinforced by new immigrants, and pushing inland in search of fresh +mineral-bearing areas, they contracted frequent intermarriages with the +Dyaks and other non-Mahommedan natives. They brought with them from +China their aptitude for the organization of secret societies which, +almost from the first, assumed the guise of political associations. +These secret societies furnished them with a machinery whereby +collective action was rendered easy, and under astute leaders they +offered a formidable opposition to the Dutch government. Later, when +driven into the interior and eventually out of Dutch territory, they +cost the first raja of Sarawak some severe contests before they were at +last reduced to obedience. Serious disturbances among the Chinese are +now in Borneo matters of ancient history, and to-day the Chinaman forms +perhaps the most valuable element in the civilization and development of +the island, just as does his fellow in the mining states of the Malayan +Peninsula. They are industrious, frugal and intelligent; the richer +among them are excellent men of business and are peculiarly equitable in +their dealings; the majority of all classes can read and write their own +script, and the second generation acquires an education of an European +type with great facility. The bulk of the shopkeeping, trading and +mining industries, so long as the mining is of an alluvial character, is +in Chinese hands. The greater part of the Chinese on the west coast are +originally drawn from the boundaries of Kwang-tung and Kwang-si. They +are called Kehs by the Malays, and are of the same tribes as those which +furnish the bulk of the workers to the tin mines of the Malay Peninsula. +They are a rough and hardy people, and are apt at times to be +turbulent. The shopkeeping class comes mostly from Fuh-kien and the +coast districts of Amoy. They are known to the Borneans as Ollohs. + +_History._--As far as is known, Borneo never formed a political unity, +and even its geographical unity as an island is a fact unappreciated by +the vast majority of its native inhabitants. The name of Kalamantan has +been given by some Europeans (on what original authority it is not +possible now to ascertain) as the native name for the island of Borneo +considered as a whole; but it is safe to aver that among the natives of +the island itself Borneo has never borne any general designation. To +this day, among the natives of the Malayan Archipelago, men speak of +going to Pontianak, to Sambas or to Brunei, as the case may be, but make +use of no term which recognizes that these localities are part of a +single whole. The only archaeological remains are a few Hindu temples, +and it is probable that the early settlement of the south-eastern +portion of the island by Hindus dates from some time during the first +six centuries of our era. There exist, however, no data, not even any +trustworthy tradition, from which to reconstruct the early history of +Borneo. Borneo began to be known to Europeans after the fall of Malacca +in 1511, when Alphonso d'Albuquerque despatched Antonio d'Abreu with +three ships in search of the Molucca or Spice Islands with instructions +to establish friendly relations with all the native states that he might +encounter on his way. D'Abreu, sailing in a south-easterly direction +from the Straits of Malacca, skirted the southern coast of Borneo and +laid up his ships at Amboyna, a small island near the south-western +extremity of Ceram. He returned to Malacca in 1514, leaving one of his +captains, Francisco Serrano, at Ternate, where Magellan's followers +found him in 1521. After Magellan's death, his comrades sailed from the +Moluccas across the Celebes into the Sulu Sea, and were the first white +men who are known to have visited Brunei on the north-west coast of +Borneo, where they arrived in 1522. Pigafetta gives an interesting +account of the place and of the reception of the adventurers by the +sultan. The Molucca Islands being, at that time, the principal objective +of European traders, and the route followed by Magellan's ships being +frequently used, Borneo was often touched at during the remainder of the +16th century, and trade relations with Brunei were successfully +established by the Portuguese. In 1573 the Spaniards tried somewhat +unsuccessfully to obtain a share of this commerce, but it was not until +1580, when a dethroned sultan appealed to them for assistance and by +their agency was restored to his own, that they attained their object. +Thereafter the Spaniards maintained a fitful intercourse with Brunei, +varied by not infrequent hostilities, and in 1645 a punitive expedition +on a larger scale than heretofore was sent to chastise Brunei for +persistent acts of piracy. No attempt at annexation followed upon this +action, commerce rather than territory being at this period the prime +object of both the Spaniards and the Portuguese, whose influence upon +the natives was accordingly proportionately small. The only effort at +proselytizing of which we have record came to an untimely end in the +death of the Theatine monk, Antonio Ventimiglia, who had been its +originator. Meanwhile the Dutch and British East India Companies had +been formed, had destroyed the monopoly so long enjoyed by the +Portuguese, and to a less extent the Spaniards, in the trade of the +Malayan Archipelago, and had gained a footing in Borneo. The +establishment of Dutch trading-posts on the west coast of Borneo dates +from 1604, nine years after the first Dutch fleet, under Houtman, sailed +from the Texel to dispute with the Portuguese the possession of the +Eastern trade, and in 1608 Samuel Blommaert was appointed Dutch +resident, or head factor, in Landak and Sukedana. The first appearance +of the British in Borneo dates from 1609, and by 1698 they had an +important settlement at Banjermasin, whence they were subsequently +expelled by the influence of the Dutch, who about 1733 obtained from the +sultan a trading monopoly. The Dutch, in fact, speedily became the +predominant European race throughout the Malay Archipelago, defeating +the British by superior energy and enterprise, and the trading-posts all +along the western and southern coasts of Borneo were presently their +exclusive possessions, the sultan of Bantam, who was the overlord of +these districts, ceding his rights to the Dutch. The British meanwhile +had turned their attention to the north of the island, over which the +sultan of Sulu exercised the rights of suzerain, and from him, in 1759, +Alexander Dalrymple obtained possession of the island of Balambangan, +and the whole of the north-eastern promontory. A military post was +established, but it was destroyed in 1775 by the natives under the +_dato'_, or vassal chiefs, who resented the cession of their territory. +This mishap rendered a treaty, which had been concluded in 1774 with the +sultan of Brunei, practically a dead letter, and by the end of the +century British influence in Borneo was to all intents and purposes at +an end. The Dutch also mismanaged their affairs in Borneo and suffered +from a series of misfortunes which led Marshal Daendels in 1809 to order +the abandonment of all their posts. The natives of the coasts of Borneo, +assisted and stimulated by immigrants from the neighbouring islands to +the north, devoted themselves more and more to organized piracy, and +putting to sea in great fleets manned by two and three thousand men on +cruises that lasted for two and even three years, they terrorized the +neighbouring seas and rendered the trade of civilized nations almost +impossible for a prolonged period. During the occupation of Java by the +British an embassy was despatched to Sir Stamford Raffles by the sultan +of Banjermasin asking for assistance, and in 1811 Alexander Hare was +despatched thither as commissioner and resident. He not only obtained +for his government an advantageous treaty, but secured for himself a +grant of a district which he proceeded to colonize and cultivate. About +the same time a British expedition was also sent against Sambas and a +post established at Pontianak. On the restoration of Java to the Dutch +in 1816, all these arrangements were cancelled, and the Dutch government +was left in undisputed possession of the field. An energetic policy was +soon after adopted, and about half the kingdom of Banjermasin was +surrendered to the Dutch by its sultan in 1823, further concessions +being made two years later. Meanwhile, George Muller, while exploring +the east coast, obtained from the sultan of Kutei an acknowledgment of +Dutch authority, a concession speedily repented by its donor, since the +enterprising traveller was shortly afterwards killed. The outbreak of +war in Java caused Borneo to be more or less neglected by the Dutch for +a considerable period, and no effective check was imposed upon the +natives with a view to stopping piracy, which was annually becoming more +and more unendurable. On the rise of Singapore direct trade had been +established with Sarawak and Brunei, and it became a matter of moment to +British merchants that this traffic should be safe. In 1838 Sir James +Brooke, an Englishman, whose attention had been turned to the state of +affairs in the Eastern Archipelago, set out for Borneo, determined, if +possible, to remedy the evil. By 1841 he had obtained from the sultan of +Brunei the grant of supreme authority over Sarawak, in which state, on +the sultan's behalf, he had waged a successful war, and before many +years had elapsed he had, with the aid of the British government, +succeeded in suppressing piracy (see BROOKE, SIR JAMES; and SARAWAK). In +1847 the sultan of Brunei agreed to make no cession of territory to any +nation or individual without the consent of Great Britain. Since then +more and more territory has been ceded by the sultans of Brunei to the +raja of Sarawak and to British North Borneo, and to-day the merest +remnant of his once extensive state is left within the jurisdiction of +the sultan. The treaty in 1847 put an end once for all to the hopes +which the Dutch had cherished of including the whole island in their +dominions, but it served also to stimulate their efforts to consolidate +their power within the sphere already subjected to their influence. +Gunong Tebur, Tanjong, and Bulungan had made nominal submission to them +in 1834, and in 1844 the sultan of Kutei acknowledged their +protectorate, a treaty of a similar character being concluded about the +same time with Pasir. The boundaries of British and Dutch Borneo were +finally defined by a treaty concluded on the 20th of June 1891. In spite +of this, however, large areas in the interior, both in Dutch Borneo and +in the territory owned by the British North Borneo Company, are still +only nominally under European control, and have experienced few direct +effects of European administration. + + +BRITISH NORTH BORNEO OR SABAH + +Sabah is the name applied by the natives to certain portions of the +territory situated on the north-western coast of the island, and +originally in no way included the remainder of the country now owned by +the British North Borneo Company. It has become customary, however, for +the name to be used by Europeans in Borneo to denote the whole of the +company's territory, and little by little the more educated natives are +insensibly adopting the practice. + +_History._--As has been seen, the British connexion with northern and +north-western Borneo terminated with the 18th century, nor was it +resumed until 1838, when Raja Brooke set out for Brunei and Sarawak. The +island of Labuan (q.v.) was occupied by the British as a crown colony in +1848, and this may be taken as the starting-point of renewed British +relations with that portion of northern Borneo which is situated to the +north of Brunei. In 1872 the Labuan Trading Company was established in +Sandakan, the fine harbour on the northern coast which was subsequently +the capital of the North Borneo Company's territory. In 1878, through +the instrumentality of Mr (afterwards Sir) Alfred Dent, the sultan of +Sulu was induced to transfer to a syndicate, formed by Baron Overbeck +and Mr Dent, all his rights in North Borneo, of which, as has been seen, +he had been from time immemorial the overlord. The chief promoters of +this syndicate were Sir Rutherford Alcock, Admiral the Hon. Sir Harry +Keppel, who at an earlier stage of his career had rendered great +assistance to the first raja of Sarawak in the suppression of piracy, +and Mr Richard B. Martin. Early in 1881 the British North Borneo +Provisional Association, Limited, was formed to take over the concession +which had been obtained from the sultan of Sulu, and in November of that +year a petition was addressed to Queen Victoria praying for a royal +charter. This was granted, and subsequently the British North Borneo +Company, which was formed in May 1882, took over, in spite of some +diplomatic protests on the part of the Dutch and Spanish governments, +all the sovereign and territorial rights ceded by the original grants, +and proceeded under its charter to organize the administration of the +territory. The company subsequently acquired further sovereign and +territorial rights from the sultan of Brunei and his chiefs in addition +to some which had already been obtained at the time of the formation of +the company. The Putatan river was ceded in May 1884, the Padas +district, including the Padas and Kalias rivers, in November of the same +year, the Kawang river in February 1885, and the Mantanani islands in +April 1885. In 1888, by an agreement with the "State of North Borneo," +the territory of the company was made a British protectorate, but its +administration remained entirely in the hands of the company, the crown +reserving only control of its foreign relations, and the appointment of +its governors being required to receive the formal sanction of the +secretary of state for the colonies. In 1890 the British government +placed the colony of Labuan under the administration of the company, the +governor of the state of North Borneo thereafter holding a royal +commission as governor of Labuan in addition to his commission from the +company. This arrangement held good until 1905, when, in answer to the +frequently and strongly expressed desire of the colonists, Labuan was +removed from the jurisdiction of the company and attached to the colony +of the Straits Settlements. In March 1898 arrangements were made whereby +the sultan of Brunei ceded to the company all his sovereign and +territorial rights to the districts situated to the north of the Padas +river which up to that time had been retained by him. This had the +effect of rounding off the company's territories, and had the additional +advantage of doing away with the various no-man's lands which had long +been used by the discontented among the natives as so many Caves of +Adullam. The company's acquisition of territory was viewed with +considerable dissatisfaction by many of the natives, and this found +expression in frequent acts of violence. The most noted and the most +successful of the native leaders was a Bajau named Mat Saleh (Mahomet +Saleh), who for many years defied the company, whose policy in his +regard was marked by considerable weakness and vacillation. In 1898 a +composition was made with him, the terms of which were unfortunately not +defined with sufficient clearness, and he retired into the Tambunan +country, to the east of the range which runs parallel with the west +coast, where for a period he lorded it unchecked over the Dusun tribes +of the valley. In 1899 it was found necessary to expel him, since his +acts of aggression and defiance were no longer endurable. A short, and +this time a successful campaign followed, resulting, on the 31st of +January 1900, in the death of Mat Saleh, and the destruction of his +defences. Some of his followers who escaped raided the town of Kudat on +Marudu Bay in April of the same year, but caused more panic than damage, +and little by little during the next years the last smouldering embers +of rebellion were extinguished. At the present time, though effective +administration of the more inaccessible districts of the interior cannot +be said to have been established even yet, the pacification of the +native population is to all intents and purposes complete. The Tambunan +district, the last stronghold of Mat Saleh, is now thoroughly settled. +It is some 500 sq. m. in extent, and carries a population of perhaps +12,000. + +_Geography._--The state of North Borneo may roughly be said to form a +pentagon of which three sides, the north-west, north-east and east are +washed by the sea, while the remaining two sides, the south-west and the +south, are bordered respectively by the Malayan sultanate of Brunei, and +by the territories of the raja of Sarawak and of the Dutch government. +The boundary between the company's territory and the Dutch government is +defined by the treaty concluded in June 1891, of which mention has +already been made. + +The total area of the company's territory is estimated at about 31,000 +sq. m., with a coast-line of over 900 m. The greater portion is +exceedingly hilly and in parts mountainous, and the interior consists +almost entirely of highlands with here and there open valleys and +plateaus of 50 to 60 sq. m. in extent. On the west coast the mountain +range, as already noted, runs parallel with the seashore at a distance +from it of about 15 m. Of this range the central feature is the mountain +of Kinabalu, which is composed of porphyritic granite and igneous rocks +and attains to a height of 13,698 ft. Mount Madalon, some 15 or 20 m. to +the north, is 5000 ft. in height, and inland across the valley of the +Pagalan river, which runs through the Tambunan country and falls into +the Padas, rises the peak of Trus Madi, estimated to be 11,000 ft. above +sea-level. The valley of the Pagalan is itself for the most part from +1000 to 2000 ft. above the sea, forming a string of small plateaus +marking the sites of former lakes. From the base of Trus Madi to the +eastern coast the country consists of huddled hills broken here and +there by regions of a more mountainous character. The principal plateaus +are in the Tambunan and Kaningau valleys, in the basin of the Pagalan, +and the Ranau plain to the eastward of the base of Kinabalu. Similar +plateaus of minor importance are to be found dotted about the interior. +The proximity of the mountain range to the seashore causes the rivers of +the west coast, with the single exception of the Padas, to be rapid, +boulder-obstructed, shallow streams of little value as means of +communication for a distance of more than half a dozen miles from their +mouths. The Padas is navigable for light-draught steam-launches and +native boats for a distance of nearly 50 m. from its mouth, and smaller +craft can be punted up as far as Rayoh, some 15 m. farther, but at this +point its bed is obstructed by impassable falls and rapids, which are of +such a character that nothing can even be brought down them. Even below +Rayoh navigation is rendered difficult and occasionally dangerous by +similar obstructions. The other principal rivers of the west coast are +the Kalias, Kimanis, Benoneh, Papar, Kinarut, Putatan, Inaman, +Mengkabong, Tampasuk and Pandasan, none of which, however, is of any +great importance as a means of communication. There is a stout breed of +pony raised along the Tampasuk, which is also noted for the Kalupis +waterfall (1500 ft.), one of the highest in the world, though the volume +of water is not great. Here also are the principal Bajau settlements. +Throughout the Malayan Archipelago the words _Bajau_ and _perompak_ +(pirate) are still used as synonymous terms. At the northern extremity +of the island Marudu Bay receives the waters of the Marudu which rises +on the western side of Mount Madalon. On the east coast the principal +rivers are the Sugut, which rises in the hills to the east of Kinabalu +and forms its delta near Torongohok or Pura-Pura Island; the Labuk, +which has its sources 70 m. inland and debouches into Labuk Bay; and the +Kinabatangan, the largest and most important river in the territory, +which is believed to have its rise eastward of the range of which Trus +Madi is the principal feature, and is navigable by steamer for a +considerable distance and by native boats for a distance of over 100 m. +from its mouth. Some valuable tobacco land, which, however, is somewhat +liable to flood, and some remarkable burial-caves are found in the +valley of the Kinabatangan. The remaining rivers of the east coast are +the Segamah, which rises west of Darvel Bay, the Kumpong, and the +Kalabakang, which debouches into Cowie Harbour. Taking it as a whole, +the company's territory is much less generously watered than are other +parts of Borneo, which again compares unfavourably in this respect with +the Malayan states of the peninsula. Many of the rivers, especially +those of the west coast, are obstructed by bars at their mouths that +render them difficult of access. Several of the natural harbours of +North Borneo, on the other hand, are accessible, safe and commodious. +Sandakan Harbour, on the north-east coast (5 deg. 40' N., 118 deg. 10' +E.), runs inland for some 17 m. with a very irregular outline broken by +the mouths of numerous creeks and streams. The mouth, only 2 m. across, +is split into two channels by the little, high, bluff-like island of +Barhala. The depth in the main entrance varies from 10 to 17 fathoms, +and vessels drawing 20 ft. can advance half-way up the bay. The +principal town in the territory, and the seat of government (though an +attempt has been unsuccessfully made to transfer this to Jesselton on +the west coast), is Sandakan, situated just inside the mouth of the +Sarwaka inlet. At Silam, on Darvel Bay, there is good anchorage; and +Kudat in Marudu Bay, first surveyed by Commander Johnstone of H.M.S. +"Nigeria" in 1881, is a small but useful harbour. + +_Climate and Population._--The climate of North Borneo is tropical, hot, +damp and enervating. The rainfall is steady and not usually excessive. +The shade temperature at Sandakan ordinarily ranges from 72 deg. to 94 +deg. F. The population of the company's territory is not known with any +approach to accuracy, but is estimated, somewhat liberally, to amount to +175,000, including 16,000 Chinese. Of this total about three-fourths are +found in the districts of the west coast. The seashore and the country +bordering closely on the west coast are inhabited chiefly by Dusuns, by +Kadayans, by Bajaus and Ilanuns--both Malayan tribes--and by Brunei +Malays. The east coast is very sparsely populated and its inhabitants +are mostly Bajaus and settlers from the neighbouring Sulu archipelago. +The interior is dotted with infrequent villages inhabited by Dusuns or +by Muruts, a village ordinarily consisting of a single long hut divided +up into cubicles, one for the use of each family, opening out on to a +common verandah along which the skulls captured by the tribe are +festooned. It has been customary to speak of these tribes as belonging +to the Dyak group, but the Muruts would certainly seem to be the +representatives of the aboriginal inhabitants of the island, and there +is much reason to think that the Dusuns also must be classed as distinct +from the Dyaks. The Dusun language, it is interesting to note, presents +very curious grammatical complications and refinements such as are not +to be found among the tongues spoken by any of the other peoples of the +Malayan Archipelago or the mainland of south-eastern Asia. Dusuns and +Muruts alike are in a very low state of civilization, and both indulge +inordinately in the use of intoxicating liquors of their own +manufacture. + +_Settlements and Communication._--The company possesses a number of +small stations along the coast, of which Sandakan, with a population of +9 500, is the most important. The remainder which call for separate +mention are Lahat Datu on Darvel Bay on the east coast; Kudat on Marudu +Bay and Jesselton on Gaya Bay on the west coast. A railway of +indifferent construction runs along the west coast from Jesselton to +Weston on Brunei Bay, with a branch along the banks of the Padas to +Tenom above the rapids. It was originally intended that this should +eventually be extended across the territory to Cowie Harbour (Sabuko +Bay) on the east coast, but the extraordinary engineering difficulties +which oppose themselves to such an extension, the sparse population of +the territory, and the failure of the existing line to justify the +expectations entertained by its designers, combine to render the +prosecution of any such project highly improbable. Sandakan is connected +by telegraph with Mempakul on the west coast whence a cable runs to +Labuan and so gives telegraphic communication with Singapore. The +overland line from Mempakul to Sandakan, however, passes through +forest-clad and very difficult country, and telegraphic communication is +therefore subject to very frequent interruption. Telegraphic +communication between Mempakul and Kudat, via Jesselton, has also been +established and is more regularly and successfully maintained. The only +roads in the territory are bridle-paths in the immediate vicinity of the +company's principal stations. The Sabah Steamship Company, subsidized by +the Chartered Company, runs steamers along the coast, calling at all the +company's stations at which native produce is accumulated. A German firm +runs vessels at approximately bi-monthly intervals from Singapore to +Labuan and thence to Sandakan, calling in on occasion at Jesselton and +Kudat _en route_. There is also fairly frequent communication between +Sandakan and Hong-Kong, a journey of four days' steaming. + +_Products and Trade._--The capabilities of the company's territory are +only dimly known. Coal has been found in the neighbourhood of Cowie +Harbour and elsewhere, but though its quality is believed to be as good +as that exported from Dutch Borneo, it is not yet known whether it +exists in payable quantities. Gold has been found in alluvial deposits +on the banks of some of the rivers of the east coast, but here again the +quantity available is still in serious doubt. The territory as a whole +has been very imperfectly examined by geologists, and no opinion can at +present be hazarded as to the mineral wealth or poverty of the company's +property. Traces of mineral oil, iron ores, copper, zinc and antimony +have been found, but the wealth of North Borneo still lies mainly in its +jungle produce. It possesses a great profusion of excellent timber, but +the difficulty of extraction has so far restricted the lumber industry +within somewhat modest limits. Gutta, rubber, rattans, mangrove-bark, +edible nuts, guano, edible birds'-nests, &c., are all valuable articles +of export. The principal cultivated produce is tobacco, sago, cocoanuts, +coffee, pepper, gambier and sugar-canes. Of these the tobacco and the +sago are the most important. Between 1886 and 1900 the value of the +tobacco crop increased from L471 to L200,000. + +As is common throughout Malayan lands, the trade of North Borneo is +largely in the hands of Chinese shopkeepers who send their agents inland +to attend the _Tamus_ (Malay, _temu_, to meet) or fairs, which are the +recognized scenes of barter between the natives of the interior and +those of the coast. At Sandakan there is a Chinese population of over +2000. + +_Administration._--For administrative purposes the territory is divided +into nine provinces: Alcock and Dewhurst in the north; Keppel on the +west; Martin in the centre; Myburgh, Mayne and Elphinstone on the east +coast; and Dent and Cunliffe in the south. The boundaries of these +provinces, however, are purely arbitrary and not accurately defined. The +form of government is modelled roughly upon the system adopted in the +Malay States of the peninsula during the early days of their +administration by British residents. The government is vested primarily +in the court of directors appointed under the company's charter, which +may be compared to the colonial office in its relation to a British +colony, though the court of directors interests itself far more closely +than does the colonial department in the smaller details of local +administration. The supreme authority on the spot is represented by the +governor, under whom are the residents of Kudat, Darvel Bay and Keppel, +officers who occupy much the same position as that usually known by the +title of magistrate and collector. The less important districts are +administered by district magistrates, who also collect the taxes. The +principal departments, whose chiefs reside at the capital, are the +treasury, the land and survey, the public works, the constabulary, the +medical and the judicial. The secretariat is under the charge of a +government secretary who ranks next in precedence to the governor. +Legislation is by the proclamation of the governor, but there is a +council, meeting at irregular intervals, upon which the principal heads +of departments and one unofficial member have seats. The public service +is recruited by nomination by the court of directors. The governor is +the chief judge of the court of appeal, but a judge who is subordinate +to him takes all ordinary supreme court cases. The laws are the Indian +Penal and Civil Procedure Codes and Evidence Acts, supplemented by a few +local laws promulgated by proclamation. There is an Imam's court for the +trial of cases affecting Mahommedan law of marriage, succession, &c. The +native chiefs are responsible to the government for the preservation of +law and order in their districts. They have restricted judicial powers. +The constabulary numbers some 600 men and consists of a mixed force of +Sikhs, Pathans, Punjabi Mahommedans, Dyaks and Malays, officered by a +few Europeans. There is a Protestant mission which supports a +church--the only stone building in the territory--and a school at +Sandakan, with branches at Kudat, Kaningau and Tambunan. The Roman +Catholic mission maintains an orphanage, a church and school at +Sandakan, and has missions among the Dusuns at several points on the +west coast and in the Tambunan country. Its headquarters are at Kuching +in Sarawak. The Chinese have their joss-houses and the Mahommedans a few +small mosques, but the vast majority of the native inhabitants are +pagans who have no buildings set apart for religious purposes. + +_Finance and Money._--The principal sources of revenue are the licences +granted for the importation and retailing of opium, wine and spirits, +which are in the hands of Chinese; a customs duty of 5% on imports; an +export tax of 5% on jungle produce; a poll-tax sanctioned by ancient +native custom; and a stamp duty. A land revenue is derived from the sale +of government lands, from quit rents and fees of transfer, &c. Judicial +fees bring in a small amount, and the issue and sale of postage and +revenue stamps have proved a fruitful source of income. The people of +the country are by no means heavily taxed, a large number of the natives +of the interior escaping all payment of dues to the company, the revenue +being for the most part contributed by the more civilized members of the +community residing in the neighbourhood of the company's stations. There +are bank agencies in Sandakan, and the company does banking business +when required. The state, which has adopted the penny postage, is in the +Postal Union, and money orders on North Borneo are issued in the United +Kingdom and in most British colonies and vice versa. Notes issued by the +principal banks in Singapore were made current in North Borneo in 1900. +There is also a government note issue issued by the company for use +within the territory only. The currency is the Mexican and British +dollar, the company issuing its own copper coin--viz. cents and half +cents. It is proposed to adopt the coinage of the Straits Settlements, +and measures have been taken with a view to the accomplishment of this. +In the interior the principal medium of exchange among the natives is +the large earthenware jars, imported originally, it is believed, from +China, which form the chief wealth both of tribes and individuals. + (H. Cl.) + + AUTHORITIES.--Among early works may be mentioned, S. Blommaert, + _Discours ende ghelegentheyt van het eylandt Borneo int Jear 1609_; + _Hachelyke reystogt van Jacob Jansz. de Roy na Borneo en Atchin in het + jaar 1691_; Beeckman, _Visit to Borneo_, 1718, in J. Pinkerton's + _General Collections_ (1808-1814); F. Valentijn in _Ond en Nieuw Oost + Indien_ (Dordrecht, 1724-1726). See also H. Keppel, _Expedition to + Borneo of H.M.S. "Dido"_ (London, 1846); R. Mundy, _Narrative of + Events in Borneo and Celebes_ (London, 1848); F.S. Marryat, + _Borneo_, &c. (1848); P.J. Veth, _Borneo's Westerafdeeling_ + (Zalt-Bommel, 1854 and 1856); S. Muller, _Reizen en onderzoekingen in + den Indischen Archipel_ (Amsterdam, 1857); C. Bock, _Head-hunters of + Borneo_ (London, 1881), and _Reis in Oost en Zuid-Borneo_ (The Hague, + 1887); J. Hatton, _The New Ceylon, a Sketch of British North Borneo_ + (London, 1882); F. Hatton, _North Borneo_ (London, 1885); T. Posewitz, + _Borneo... Verbreitung der nutzbaren Mineralien_ (Berlin, 1889), Eng. + trans., _Borneo; its Geology and Mineral Resources_ (London, 1892); J. + Whitehead, _Exploration of Mount Kini Balu_ (London, 1893); Mrs W.B. + Pryor, _A Decade in Borneo_ (London, 1894); H. Ling Roth, _The Natives + of Sarawak and North Borneo_ (London, 1896); G.A.F. Molengraaf, + _Geologische Verkinningstochten in Centraal Borneo_ (Leiden, 1900, + Eng. trans. 1902); A.W. Niewenhuis, _In Centraal Borneo_ (Leiden, + 1901), and _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leiden, 1904), &c.; W.H. Furness, + _Home Life of Borneo Head-hunters_ (London, 1902); O. Beccari, _Nelle + Foreste di Borneo_ (Florence, 1902), Eng. trans., _Wanderings in the + Great Forests of Borneo_ (London, 1904); D. Cator, _Everyday Life + among the Head-hunters_ (London, 1905). For geology, besides the works + of Posewitz and Molengraaf already cited, see R.B. Newton in _Geol. + Mag_., 1897, pp. 407-415, and _Proc. Malac. Soc_., London, vol. v. + (1902-1903), pp. 403-409. A series of papers on the palaeontology of + the island will be found in the several volumes of the _Samml. Geol_. + R. Mus., Leiden. + + + + +BORNHOLM, an island in the Baltic Sea, 22 m. S.E. of the Swedish coast, +belonging to Denmark, lying on 15 deg. E., and between 55 deg. and 55 +deg. 18' N., and measuring 24 m. from S.E. to N.W. and 19 (extreme) from +E. to W. Pop. (1901) 40,889. The surface is generally hilly; the scenery +is fine in the north, where the cliffs reach a height of 135 ft., and +the granite hill of Helligdomsklipper dominates the island. Besides +freestone, exported for building, limestone, blue marble, and +porcelain-clay are worked. A little coal is found and used locally, but +it is not of good quality. Oats, flax and hemp are cultivated. The +inhabitants are employed in agriculture, fishing, brewing, distillation +and the manufacture of earthenware. Weaving and clock-making are also +carried on to some extent. The capital is Ronne (115 m. by sea from +Copenhagen), and there are five other small towns on the +island--Svanike, Nekso, Hasle, Allinge, and Sandvig. A railway connects +Ronne with Nekso (22 m. E. by S.), where a bust commemorates J.N. +Madvig, the philologist, who was born there in 1804 (d. 1886). Blanch's +Hotel, 10 m. N. of Ronne, is the most favoured resort on the island, +which attracts many visitors. On the north-west coast are the ruins of +the castle of Hammershus, which was built in 1158, and long served as a +state prison; while another old castle, erected by Christian V. in 1684, +and important as commanding the entrance to the Baltic, is situated on +Christianso, one of a small group of islands 15 m. E. by N. The island +of Bornholm has had an eventful history. In early times it was long the +independent seat of marauding Vikings. In the 12th century it became a +fief of the archbishop of Lund. In 1510 it was captured by the Hanseatic +League, in 1522 it came under Danish sway, and in 1526 it was made +directly subject to the city of Lubeck. In 1645 the Swedes took it by +storm, and their possession of it was confirmed by the peace of Roskilde +in 1658; but the sympathies of the people were with Denmark, and a +popular insurrection succeeded in expelling the Swedish forces, the +island coming finally into the possession of Denmark in 1660. + + + + +BORNIER, HENRI, VICOMTE DE (1825-1901) French poet and dramatist, was +born at Lunel (Herault) on the 25th of December 1825. He came to Paris +in 1845 With the object of studying law, but in that year he published a +volume of verse, _Les Premieres Feuilles_, and the Comedie Francaise +accepted a play of his entitled _Le Mariage de Luther_. He was given a +post in the library of the Arsenal, where he served for half a century, +becoming director in 1889. In 1875 was produced at the Theatre Francais +his heroic drama in verse, _La Fille de Roland_. The action of the play +turns on the love of Gerald, son of the traitor Ganelon, for the +daughter of Roland. The patriotic subject and the nobility of the +character of Gerald, who renounces Berthe when he learns his real +origin, procured for the piece a great success. The conflict between +honour and love and the grandiose sentiment of the play inevitably +provoked comparison with Corneille. The piece would indeed be a +masterpiece if, as its critics were not slow to point out, the verse had +been quite equal to the subject. Among the numerous other works of M. de +Bornier should be mentioned: _Dimitri_ (1876), libretto of an opera by +M.V. de Joncieres; and the dramas, _Les Noces d'Allila_ (1880) and +_Mahomet_ (1888). The production of this last piece was forbidden in +deference to the representations of the Turkish ambassador. Henri de +Bornier was critic of the _Nouvelle Revue_ from 1879 to 1887. His +_Poesies completes_ were published in 1894. He died in January 1901. + + + + +BORNU, a country in the Central Sudan, lying W. and S. of Lake Chad. It +is bounded W. and S. by the Hausa states and N. by the Sahara. Formerly +an independent Mahommedan sultanate it has been divided between Great +Britain, Germany and France. To France has fallen a portion of northern +Bornu and also Zinder (q.v.), a tributary state to the north-west, while +the south-west part is incorporated in the German colony of Cameroon. +Three-fourths of Bornu proper, some 50,000 sq. m., forms part of the +British protectorate of Nigeria. + +Bornu is for the most part an alluvial plain, the country sloping +gradually to Lake Chad, which formerly spread over a much larger area +than it now occupies. The Komadugu (i.e. river) Waube--generally known +as the Yo--and its tributaries rise in the highlands which, beyond the +western border of Bornu, form the watershed between the Niger and Chad +systems, and flow north and east across the plains to Lake Chad, the Yo +in its last few miles marking the frontier between the French and +British possessions. In the south-west a part of Bornu drains to the +Benue. The rivers are intermittent, and water in southern Bornu is +obtained only from wells, which are sunk to a great depth. The vast +plain of Bornu is stoneless, except for rare outcrops of ironstone, and +consists of the porous fissured black earth called "cotton soil" in +India, alternating with, or more probably overlaid by, sand. Throughout +the flat country water is apparently found everywhere at a depth of 54 +ft., corresponding to the level of Chad. Towards Damjiri in the +north-west the country becomes more broken, hilly and timbered. In the +south limestone is found near Gujba and also along the Gongola tributary +of the Benue. A forest of red and green barked acacia, yielding the +species of gum most valuable in the market, extends from the Gongola to +Gujba. Immense baobabs (_Adansonia digitata_), fine tamarinds and a few +trees of the genus _Ficus_ are met with in the south. North of Maifoni +(latitude 12 deg. N.) the baobab ceases, except at Kuka, where extensive +plantations have been made, and its place is taken by the _Kigelia_ and +also by a very handsome species of _Diospyros_. North of Kuka is a dense +belt of _Hyphaene_ palm with fine tamarinds and figs. Cotton and indigo +grow wild, and afford the materials for the cloths, finely dyed with +blue stripes, which form the staple fabric of the country. On the shores +of Lake Chad the cotton grown is of a peculiarly fine quality. Rice and +wheat of excellent quality are raised, but in small quantities, the +staple food being a species of millet called _gussub_, which is made +into a kind of paste and eaten with butter or honey. Ground-nuts, yams, +sweet potatoes, several sorts of beans and grains, peppers, onions, +water-melons and tomatoes are grown. Of fruit trees the country +possesses the lime and fig. + +Wild animals, in great numbers, find both food and cover in the +extensive districts of wood and marsh. Lions, giraffes, elephants, +hyenas, crocodiles, hippopotami, antelopes, gazelles and ostriches are +found. The horse, the camel and the ox are the chief domestic animals; +all are used as beasts of burden. The country abounds with bees, and +honey forms one of the chief Bornuese delicacies. + +The climate, especially from March to the end of June, is oppressively +hot, rising sometimes to 105 deg. and 107 deg., and even during most of +the night not falling much below 100 deg. In May the wet season begins, +with violent storms of thunder and lightning. In the end of June the +rivers and lakes begin to overflow, and for several months the rains, +accompanied with sultry weather, are almost incessant. The inhabitants +at this season suffer greatly from fevers. In October the rains abate; +cool, fresh winds blow from the west and north-west; and for several +months the climate is healthy and agreeable. + +_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants, of whom the great majority profess +Mahommedanism, are divided into Negroes and those of mixed blood, i.e. +Negro and Berber, Arab or other crossing. The total population of +British Bornu is estimated at 500,000. The dominant tribe, called +Bornuese, Berberi or Kanuri, a Negro race with an infusion of Berber +blood, have black skins, large mouths, thick lips and broad noses, but +good teeth and high foreheads. The females add to their want of beauty +by extensive tattooing; they also stain their faces with indigo, and dye +their front teeth black and their canine teeth red. The law allows +polygamy, but the richest men have seldom more than two or three wives. +The marriage ceremonies last for a whole week, the first three days +being spent in feasting on the favourite national dishes, and the others +appropriated to certain symbolical rites. A favourite amusement is the +watching of wrestling matches. A game bearing some resemblance to chess, +played with beans and holes in the sand, is also a favourite occupation. + +The pastoral districts of the country are occupied by the Shuwas, who +are of Arab origin, and speak a well-preserved dialect of Arabic. Of the +date of their immigration from the East there is no record; but they +were in the country as early as the middle of the 17th century. They are +divided into numerous distinct clans. Their villages in general consist +of rudely constructed huts, of an exaggerated conical form. Another +tribe, called La Salas, inhabits a number of low fertile islands in Lake +Chad, separated from the mainland by fordable channels. + +The Bornuese are noted horsemen, and in times of war the horses, as well +as the riders, used to be cased in light iron mail. The Shuwas, however, +are clad only in a light shirt, and the Kanembu spearmen go almost +naked, and fight with shield and spear. It is indispensable to a chief +of rank that he should possess a huge belly, and when high feeding +cannot produce this, padding gives the appearance of it. Notwithstanding +the heat of the climate, the body is enveloped in successive robes, the +number indicating the rank of the wearer. The head likewise is enclosed +in numerous turbans. The prevailing language in Bornu is the Kanuri. It +has no affinity, according to Heinrich Barth, with the great Berber +family. A grammar was published in 1854 by S.W. Koelle, as well as a +volume of tales and fables, with a translation and vocabulary. + +The towns in Bornu, which have populations varying from 10,000 to 50,000 +or more, are surrounded with walls 35 or 40 ft. in height and 20 ft. in +thickness, having at each of the four corners a triple gate, composed of +strong planks of wood, with bars of iron. The abodes of the principal +inhabitants form an enclosed square, in which are separate houses for +each of the wives; the chief's palace consists of turrets connected +together by terraces. These are well built of a reddish clay, highly +polished, so as to resemble stucco; the interior roof, though composed +only of branches, is tastefully constructed. Maidugari, which in 1908 +became the seat of the native government, is a thriving commercial town +some 70 m. south-west of Lake Chad. The former capital, Kuka (q.v.), and +Ngornu (the town of "blessing"), are near the shores of Lake Chad. On +the Yo are still to be seen extensive remains of Old Bornu or Birni and +Gambarou or Ghambaru, which were destroyed by the Fula about 1809. +Dikwa, the capital chosen by Rabah (see below), lies in the German part +of Bornu. + +_History._--The history of Bornu goes back to the 9th century A.D., but +its early portions are very fragmentary and dubious. The first dynasty +known is that of the Sefuwa or descendants of Sef, which came to the +throne in the person of Dugu or Duku, and had its capital at Njimiye +(Jima) in Kanem on the north-east shores of Lake Chad. The Sefuwa are of +Berber origin, the descent from Sef, the Himyaritic ruler, being +mythical. From this Berber strain comes the name Berberi or +Ba-Berberche, applied by the Hausa to the inhabitants of Bornu. +Mahommedanism was adopted towards the end of the 11th century, and has +since continued the religion of the country. From 1194 to 1220 reigned +Selma II., under whom the power of the kingdom was greatly extended; and +Dunama II., his successor was also a powerful and warlike prince. In +the following reigns the prosperity of the country began to diminish, +and about 1386 the dynasty was expelled from Njimiye, and forced to seek +refuge in the western part of its territory by the invasion of the +Bulala. Mai Ali (I.) Ghajideni, who founded the city of Birni, rendered +his country once more redoubtable and strong. His successor, Idris II., +completely vanquished the Bulala and subjugated Kanem; and under +Mahommed V., the next monarch, Bornu reached its highest pitch of +greatness. At this period Zinder became a tributary state. A series of +for the most part peaceful reigns succeeded till about the middle of the +18th century, when Ali (IV.) Omarmi entered upon a violent struggle with +the Tuareg or Imoshagh. Under his son Ahmed (about 1808) the kingdom +began to be harassed by the Fula, who had already conquered the Hausa +country. Expelled from his capital by the invaders, Ahmed was only +restored by the assistance of the fakir Mahommed al-Amin al-Kanemi, who, +pretending to a celestial mission, hoisted the green flag of the +Prophet, and undertook the deliverance of his country. The Fula appear +to have been taken by surprise, and were in ten months driven completely +out of Bornu. The conqueror invested the nearest heir of the ancient +kings with all the appearance of sovereignty--reserving for himself, +however, under the title of sheik, all its reality. The court of the +sultan (_shehu_) was established at New Bornu, or Birni, which was made +the capital, the old city having been destroyed during the Fula +invasion; while the sheik, in military state, took up his residence at +the new city of Kuka. Fairly established, he ruled the country with a +rod of iron, and at the same time inspired his subjects with a +superstitious notion of his sanctity. His zeal was peculiarly directed +against moral or religious offences. The most frivolous faults of women, +as talking too loud, and walking in the street unveiled, rendered the +offender liable to public indictment, while graver errors were visited +with the most ignominious punishments, and often with death itself. +Kanemi died in 1835, and was succeeded by his son, Sheik Omar, who +altogether abolished the nominal kingship of the Sefuwa. + +During Omar's reign, which lasted about fifty years, Bornu was visited +by many Europeans, who reached it via Tripoli and the Sahara. The first +to enter the country were Walter Oudney, Hugh Clapperton and Dixon +Denham (1823). They were followed in 1851-1855 by Heinrich Barth. Later +travellers included Gerhard Rohlfs (1866) and Gustav Nachtigal. All +these travellers were well received by the Kanuri, whose power from the +middle of the 19th century began to decay. This was foreseen by Barth; +and Nachtigal, who in 1870 conveyed presents sent by King William of +Prussia, in acknowledgment of the sheik's kindness to many German +explorers, writes thus in December 1872: + + "The rapid declension of Bornu is an undeniable and lamentable fact. + It is taking place with increasing rapidity, and the boundless + weakness of Sheik Omar--otherwise so worthy and brave a man--must bear + almost all the blame. His sons and ministers plunder the provinces in + an almost unheard-of manner; trade and intercourse are almost at a + standstill; good faith and confidence exist no more. The indolence of + the court avoids military expeditions, and anarchy and a lack of + security on the routes are the consequences.... Thus the sheik and the + land grow poorer and poorer, and public morality sinks lower and + lower." + +After the visit of Nachtigal the country was visited by no European +traveller until 1892, when Colonel P.L. Monteil resided for a time at +Kuka during his great journey from the Senegal to Tripoli. The French +traveller noticed many signs of decadence, the energy of the people +being sapped by luxury, while a virtual anarchy prevailed owing to +rivalries and intrigues among members of the royal family. The chief of +Zinder had ceased to pay tribute, and the sultan was not strong enough +to exact it by force. At the same time a danger was threatening from the +south-east, where the negro adventurer Rabah, once a slave of Zobeir +Pasha, was menacing the kingdom of Bagirmi. After making himself master +of the fortified town of Manifa, Rabah proceeded against Bornu, +defeating the army of the sultan Ahsem in two pitched battles. In +December 1893 Ahsem fled from Kuka, which was entered by Rabah and soon +afterwards destroyed, the capital being transferred to Dikwa in the +south-east of the kingdom. These events ruined for many years the trade +between Tripoli and Kuka by the long-established route via Bilma. Rabah +had raised a large, well-drilled army, and proved a formidable opponent +to the French in their advance on Lake Chad from the south. However in +1900 he was killed at Kussuri near the lower Shari, by the combined +forces of three French expeditions which had been converging from the +Congo, the Sahara and the Niger. + +By an Anglo-French agreement of 1898 the tributary state of Zinder in +the north had been included in the French sphere, and after the defeat +of Rabah French military expeditions occupied both the German and +British portions of Bornu, but in 1902 on the appearance of British and +German expeditions the French withdrew to their own country east of the +Shari. The British placed on the throne of Bornu Shehu Garbai, a +descendant of the ancient sultans, and Kuka was again chosen as the +capital of the state. From that date British Bornu has been under +administrative control. It has been divided into East and West Bornu, +the line of division being fixed approximately at longitude 12 deg., and +placed under the administration of a resident. Maifoni and Kuka were +selected for British stations in the east, and Damjiri and Gujba in the +west. Garrisons are quartered at these points. The province has been +mapped, and a network of tracks available for wheeled transport has been +made through it. Water communication with the Benue and Niger has been +opened through the Gongola river. The _shehu_, who took the oath of +allegiance to the British crown on the occasion of his formal +installation in November 1904, is maintained in all local dignity as a +native chief, and co-operates loyally with the British administration. +Peace has prevailed in Bornu since the British occupation, and it is +estimated that the population has increased by immigration to about 50% +more than it was in 1902. The people are industrious. Extensive areas +are being brought under cultivation, and taxes are collected without +difficulty. Owing to its increasing commercial importance, the native +capital was in 1908 transferred to Maidugari (see also NIGERIA: +_History;_ and RABAH). + + AUTHORITIES.--Heinrich Barth's _Travels in North and Central Africa_ + (1857, new ed., London, 1890) contains an exact picture of the state + in the period (c. 1850) preceding its decay. The earlier _Travels_ of + Denham and Clapperton (London, 1828) may also be consulted, as well as + Rohlfs, _Land und Volk in Afrika_ (Bremen, 1870); Nachtigal, _Sahara + und Sudan_, vol. i. (Berlin, 1879); and Monteil, _de St.-Louis a + Tripoli par le lac Tchad_ (Paris, 1895). For later information consult + Lady Lugard's _A Tropical Dependency_ (London, 1905), and the _Annual + Reports_, from 1900 onward, on Northern Nigeria, issued by the + Colonial Office, London. (F. L. L.) + + + + +BORODIN, ALEXANDER PORFYRIEVICH (1834-1887), Russian musical composer, +natural son of a Russian prince, was born in St Petersburg on the 12th +of November 1834. He was brought up to the medical profession, and in +1862 was appointed assistant professor of chemistry at the St Petersburg +academy of medicine. He wrote several works on chemistry, and took a +leading part in advocating women's education, helping to found the +school of medicine for women, and lecturing there from 1872 till his +death. But he is best known as a musician. His interest in music was +indeed stimulated from 1862 onwards by his friendship with Balakirev, +and from 1863 by his marriage with a lady who was an accomplished +pianist; but in his earlier years he had been proficient both in playing +the piano, violin, 'cello and other instruments, and also in composing; +and during life he did his best to pursue his studies in both music and +chemistry with equal enthusiasm. Like other Russian composers he owed +much to the influence of Liszt at Weimar. His first symphony was written +in 1862-1867; his opera _Prince Igor_, begun in 1869, was left +unfinished at his death, and was completed by Rimsky-Korsakov and +Glazounov (1889); his symphonic sketch, "In the Steppes" (1880) is, +however, his best-known work. Borodin also wrote a second symphony +(1871-1877), part of a third (orchestrated after his death by +Glazounov), and a few string quartets and some fine songs. His music is +characteristically Russian, and of an advanced modern type. He died +suddenly at St Petersburg, on the 28th of February 1887. + + + + +BORODINO, a village of Russia, 70 m. W. by S. of Moscow, on the +Kolotscha, an affluent of the river Moskva, famous as the scene of a +great battle between the army of Napoleon and the Russians under Kutusov +on the 7th of September 1812. Though the battle is remembered chiefly +for the terrible losses incurred by both sides, in many respects it is +an excellent example of Napoleon's tactical methods. After preliminary +fighting on the 5th of September both sides prepared for battle on the +6th, Napoleon holding back in the hope of confirming the enemy in his +resolution to fight a decisive battle. For the same reason the French +right wing, which could have manoeuvred the Russians from their +position, was designedly weakened. The Russian right, bent back at an +angle and strongly posted, was also neglected, for Napoleon intended to +make a direct frontal attack. The enemy's right centre near the village +of Borodino was to be attacked by the viceroy of Italy, Eugene, who was +afterwards to roll up the Russian line towards its centre, the so-called +"great redoubt," which was to be attacked directly from the front by Ney +and Junot. Farther to the French right, Davout was to attack frontally a +group of field works on which the Russian left centre was formed; and +the extreme right of the French army was composed of the weak corps of +Poniatowski. The cavalry corps were assigned to the various leaders +named, and the Guard was held in reserve. The whole line was not more +than about 2 m. long, giving an average of over 20 men per yard. When +the Russians closed on their centre they were even more densely massed, +and their reserves were subjected to an effective fire from the French +field guns. At 6 A.M. on the 7th of September the French attack began. +By 8 A.M. the Russian centre was driven in, and though a furious +counter-attack enabled Prince Bagration's troops to win back their +original line, fresh French troops under Davout and Ney drove them back +again. But the Russians, though they lost ground elsewhere, still clung +to the great redoubt, and for a time the advance of the French was +suspended by Napoleon's order, owing to a cavalry attack by the Russians +on Eugene's extreme left. When this alarm was ended the advance was +resumed. Napoleon had now collected a sufficient target for his guns. A +terrific bombardment by the artillery was followed by the decisive +charge of the battle, made by great masses of cavalry. The horsemen, +followed by the infantry, charged at speed, broke the Russian line in +two, and the French squadrons entered the gorge of the great redoubt +just as Eugene's infantry climbed up its faces. In a fearful _melee_ the +Russian garrison of the redoubt was almost annihilated. The defenders +were now dislodged from their main line and the battle was practically +at an end. Napoleon has been criticized for not using the Guard, which +was intact, to complete the victory. There is, however, no evidence that +any further expenditure of men would have had good results. Napoleon had +imposed his will on the enemy so far that they ceded possession of +Moscow without further resistance. That the defeat and losses of the +Russian field army did not end the war was due to the national spirit of +the Russians, not to military miscalculations of Napoleon. Had it not +been for this spirit, Borodino would have been decisive of the war +without'the final blow of the Guard. As it was, the Russians lost about +42,000 men out of 121,000; Napoleon's army (of which one-half consisted +of the contingents of subject allies-Germany, Poland, Switzerland, +Holland, &c.) 32,000 out of 130,000 (Berndt, _Zahl im Kriege_). On the +side of the French 31 general officers were killed, wounded or taken, +and amongst the killed were General Montbrun, who fell at the head of +his cavalry corps, and Auguste Caulaincourt, who took Montbrun's place +and fell in the _melee_ in the redoubt. The Russians lost 22 generals, +amongst them Prince Bagration, who died of his wounds after the battle, +and to whose memory a monument was erected on the battle-field by the +tsar Nicholas I. + + + + +BOROLANITE, one of the most remarkable rocks of the British Isles, found +on the shores of Loch Borolan in Sutherlandshire, after which it has +been named. In this locality there is a considerable area of granite +rich in red alkali felspar, and passing, by diminution in the amount of +its quartz, into quartz-syenites (nordmarkites) and syenites. At the +margins of the outcrop patches of nepheline-syenite occur; usually the +nepheline is decomposed, but occasionally it is well-preserved; the +other ingredients of the rock are brown garnet (melanite) and aegirine. +The abundance of melanite is very unusual in igneous rocks, though some +syenites, leucitophyres, and aegirine-felsites resemble borolanite in +this respect. In places the nepheline-syenite assumes the form of a dark +rock with large rounded white spots. These last consist of an +intermixture of nepheline or sodalite and alkali-felspar. From the +analogy of certain leucite-syenites which are known in Arkansas, it is +very probable that these spots represent original leucites which have +been changed into aggregates of the above-named minerals. They resemble +leucite in their shape, but have not yet been proved to have its +crystalline outlines. The "pseudo-leucites," as they have been called, +measure one-quarter to three-quarters of an inch across. The dark matrix +consists of biotite, aegirine-augite and melanite. Connected with the +borolanite there are other types of nepheline-syenite and pegmatite. In +Finland, melanite-bearing nepheline rocks have been found and described +as Ijolite, but the only other locality for melanite-leucite-syenite is +Magnet Cove in Arkansas. (J. S. F.) + + + + +BORON (symbol B, atomic weight 11), one of the non-metallic elements, +occurring in nature in the form of boracic (boric) acid, and in various +borates such as borax, tincal, boronatrocalcite and boracite. It was +isolated by J. Gay Lussac and L. Thenard in 1808 by heating boron +trioxide with potassium, in an iron tube. It was also isolated at about +the same time by Sir H. Davy, from boracic acid. It may be obtained as a +dark brown amorphous powder by placing a mixture of 10 parts of the +roughly powdered oxide with 6 parts of metallic sodium in a red-hot +crucible, and covering the mixture with a layer of well-dried common +salt. After the vigorous reaction has ceased and all the sodium has been +used up, the mass is thrown into dilute hydrochloric acid, when the +soluble sodium salts go into solution, and the insoluble boron remains +as a brown powder, which may by filtered off and dried. H. Moissan +(_Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1895, 6, p. 296) heats three parts of the oxide +with one part of magnesium powder. The dark product obtained is washed +with water, hydrochloric acid and hydrofluoric acid, and finally +calcined again with the oxide or with borax, being protected from air +during the operation by a layer of charcoal. Pure amorphous boron is a +chestnut-coloured powder of specific gravity 2.45; it sublimes in the +electric arc, is totally unaffected by air at ordinary temperatures, and +burns on strong ignition with production of the oxide B2O3 and the +nitride BN. It combines directly with fluorine at ordinary temperature, +and with chlorine, bromine and sulphur on heating. It does not react +with the alkali metals, but combines with magnesium at a low red heat to +form a boride, and with other metals at more or less elevated +temperatures. It reduces many metallic oxides, such as lead monoxide and +cupric oxide, and decomposes water at a red heat. Heated with sulphuric +acid and with nitric acid it is oxidized to boric acid, whilst on fusion +with alkaline carbonates and hydroxides it gives a borate of the alkali +metal. Like silicon and carbon, very varying values had been given for +its specific heat, until H.F. Weber showed that the specific heat +increases rapidly with increasing temperature. By strongly heating a +mixture of boron trioxide and aluminium, protected from the air by a +layer of charcoal, F. Wohler and H. Sainte-Claire Deville obtained a +grey product, from which, on dissolving out the aluminium with sodium +hydroxide, they obtained a crystalline product, which they thought to be +a modification of boron, but which was shown later to be a mixture of +aluminium borides with more or less carbon. Boron dissolves in molten +aluminium, and on cooling, transparent, almost colourless crystals are +obtained, possessing a lustre, hardness and refractivity near that of +the diamond. In 1904 K.A. Kuhne (D.R.P. 147,871) described a process in +which external heating is not necessary, a mixture of aluminium +turnings, sulphur and boric acid being ignited by a hot iron rod, the +resulting aluminium sulphide, formed as a by-product, being decomposed +by water. + + Boron hydride has probably never been isolated in the pure condition; + on heating boron trioxide with magnesium filings, a magnesium boride + Mg3B2 is obtained, and if this be decomposed with dilute hydrochloric + acid a very evil-smelling gas, consisting of a mixture of hydrogen and + boron hydride, is obtained. This mixture burns with a green flame + forming boron trioxide; whilst boron is deposited on passing the gas + mixture through a hot tube, or on depressing a cold surface in the gas + flame. By cooling it with liquid air Sir W. Ramsay and H.S. Hatfield + obtained from it a gas of composition B3H3. The mixture probably + contained also some BH3 (W. Ramsay and H.S. Hatfield, _Proc. Chem. + Soc._, 17, p. 152). Boron fluoride BF3 was first prepared in 1808 by + Gay Lussac and L. Thenard and is best obtained by heating a mixture of + the trioxide and fluorspar with concentrated sulphuric acid. It is a + colourless pungent gas which is exceedingly soluble in water. It fumes + strongly in air, and does not attack glass. It rapidly absorbs the + elements of water wherever possible, so that a strip of paper plunged + into the gas is rapidly charred. It does not burn, neither does it + support combustion. A saturated solution of the gas, in water, is a + colourless, oily, strongly fuming liquid which after a time + decomposes, with separation of metaboric acid, leaving hydrofluoboric + acid HF.BF3 in solution. This acid cannot be isolated in the free + condition, but many of its salts are known. Boron fluoride also + combines with ammonia gas, equal volumes of the two gases giving a + white crystalline solid of composition BF3.NH3; with excess of ammonia + gas, colourless liquids BF3.2NH3 and BF3.3NH3 are produced, which on + heating lose ammonia and are converted into the solid form. + + Boron chloride BCl3 results when amorphous boron is heated in chlorine + gas, or more readily, on passing a stream of chlorine over a heated + mixture of boron trioxide and charcoal, the volatile product being + condensed in a tube surrounded by a freezing mixture. It is a + colourless fuming liquid boiling at 17-18 deg. C, and is readily + decomposed by water with formation of boric and hydrochloric acids. It + unites readily with ammonia gas forming a white crystalline solid of + composition 2BCl3.3NH3. + + Boron bromide BBr3 can be formed by direct union of the two elements, + but is best obtained by the method used for the preparation of the + chloride. It is a colourless fuming liquid boiling at 90.5 deg. C. + With water and with ammonia it undergoes the same reactions as the + chloride. Boron and iodine do not combine directly, but gaseous + hydriodic acid reacts with amorphous boron to form the iodide, BI3, + which can also be obtained by passing boron chloride and hydriodic + acid through a red-hot porcelain tube. It is a white crystalline solid + of melting point 43 C.; it boils at 210 deg. C., and it can be + distilled without decomposition. It is decomposed by water, and with a + solution of yellow phosphorus in carbon bisulphide it gives a red + powder of composition PBI2, which sublimes _in vacuo_ at 210 deg. C. + to red crystals, and when heated in a current of hydrogen loses its + iodine and leaves a residue of boron phosphide PB. + + Boron nitride BN is formed when boron is burned either in air or in + nitrogen, but can be obtained more readily by heating to redness in a + platinum crucible a mixture of one part of anhydrous borax with two + parts of dry ammonium chloride. After fusion, the melt is well washed + with dilute hydrochloric acid and then with water, the nitride + remaining as a white powder. It can also be prepared by heating + borimide B2(NH)3; or by heating boron trioxide with a metallic + cyanide. It is insoluble in water and unaffected by most reagents, but + when heated in a current of steam or boiled for some time with a + caustic alkali, slowly decomposes with evolution of ammonia and the + formation of boron trioxide or an alkaline borate; it dissolves slowly + in hydrofluoric acid. + + Borimide B2(NH)3 is obtained on long heating of the compound B2S3.6NH2 + in a stream of hydrogen, or ammonia gas at 115-120 deg. C. It is a + white solid which decomposes on heating into boron nitride and + ammonia. Long-continued heating with water also decomposes it slowly. + + Boron sulphide B2S3 can be obtained by the direct union of the two + elements at a white heat or from the tri-iodide and sulphur at 440 + deg. C., but is most conveniently prepared by heating a mixture of the + trioxide and carbon in a stream of carbon bisulphide vapour. It forms + slightly coloured small crystals possessing a strong disagreeable + smell, and is rapidly decomposed by water with the formation of boric + acid and sulphuretted hydrogen. A pentasulphide B2S5 is prepared, in + an impure condition, by heating a solution of sulphur in carbon + bisulphide with boron iodide, and forms a white crystalline powder + which decomposes under the influence of water into sulphur, + sulphuretted hydrogen and boric acid. + + Boron trioxide B2O3 is the only known oxide of boron; and may be + prepared by heating amorphous boron in oxygen, or better, by strongly + igniting boric acid. After fusion the mass solidifies to a transparent + vitreous solid which dissolves readily in water to form boric acid + (q.v.); it is exceedingly hygroscopic and even on standing in moist + air becomes opaque through absorption of water and formation of boric + acid. Its specific gravity is 1.83 (J. Dumas). It is not volatile + below a white heat, and consequently, if heated with salts of more + volatile acids, it expels the acid forming oxide from such salts; for + example, if potassium sulphate be heated with boron trioxide, sulphur + trioxide is liberated and potassium borate formed. It also possesses + the power of combining with most metallic oxides at high + temperatures, forming borates, which in many cases show characteristic + colours. Many organic compounds of boron are known; thus, from the + action of the trichloride on ethyl alcohol or on methyl alcohol, ethyl + borate B(OC2H5)3 and methyl borate B(OCH3)3 are obtained. These are + colourless liquids boiling at 119 deg. C. and 72 deg. C. respectively, + and both are readily decomposed by water. By the action of zinc methyl + on ethyl borate, in the requisite proportions, boron trimethyl is + obtained, thus:--2B(OC2H5)2 + 6Zn(CH3)2 = 2B(CH3)3 + + + / CH3 + + 6Zn < + \ OC2H5 + + as a colourless spontaneously inflammable gas of unbearable smell. + Boron triethyl B(C2H5)3 is obtained in the same manner, by using zinc + ethyl. It is a colourless spontaneously inflammable liquid of boiling + point 95 deg. C. By the action of one molecule of ethyl borate on two + molecules of zinc ethyl, the compound B(C2H5)2.OC2H5 diethylboron + ethoxide is obtained as a colourless liquid boiling at 102 deg. C. By + the action of water it is converted into B(C2H5)2.OH, and this latter + compound on exposure to air takes up oxygen slowly, forming the + compound B.C2H5.OC2H5.OH, which, with water, gives B(C2H5).(OH)2. From + the condensation of two molecules of ethyl borate with one molecule of + zinc ethyl the compound B2.C2H5.(OC2H5)5 is obtained as a colourless + liquid of boiling point. 112 deg. C. Boron triethyl and boron + trimethyl both combine with ammonia. + + The atomic weight of boron has been determined by estimating the water + content of pure borax (J. Berzelius), also by conversion of anhydrous + borax into sodium chloride (W. Ramsay and E. Aston) and from analysis + of the bromide and chloride (Sainte-Claire Deville); the values + obtained ranging from 10.73 to 11.04. Boron can be estimated by + precipitation as potassium fluoborate, which is insoluble in a mixture + of potassium acetate and alcohol. For this purpose only boric acid or + its potassium salt must be present; and to ensure this, the borate can + be distilled with sulphuric acid and methyl alcohol and the volatile + ester absorbed in potash. + + + + +BOROUGH [BURROUGH, BURROWE, BORROWS], STEVEN (1525-1584), English +navigator, was born at Northam in Devonshire on the 25th of September +1525. In 1553 he took part in the expedition which was despatched from +the Thames under Sir Hugh Willoughby to look for a northern passage to +Cathay and India, serving as master of the "Edward Bonaventure," on +which Richard Chancellor sailed as pilot in chief. Separated by a storm +from the "Bona Esperanza" and the "Bona Confidentia," the other two +ships of the expedition, Borough proceeded on his voyage alone, and +sailing into the White Sea, in the words of his epitaph, "discouered +Moscouia by the Northerne sea passage to St Nicholas" (Archangel). In a +second expedition, made in the "Serchthrift" in 1556, he discovered Kara +Strait, between Novaya Zemlya and Vaygach island. In 1560 he was in +charge of another expedition to Russia, and, probably in 1558, he also +made a voyage to Spain. At the beginning of 1563 he was appointed chief +pilot and one of the four masters of the queen's ships in the Medway, +and in this office he spent the rest of his life. He died on the 12th of +July 1584, and was buried at Chatham. His son, Christopher Borough, +wrote a description of a trading expedition made in 1579-1581 from the +White Sea to the Caspian and back. + +His younger brother, WILLIAM BOROUGH, born in 1536, also at Northam, +served as an ordinary seaman in the "Edward Bonaventure" on her voyage +to Russia in 1553, and subsequently made many voyages to St Nicholas. +Later he transferred his services from the merchant adventurers to the +crown. As commander of the "Lion" he accompanied Sir Francis Drake in +his Cadiz expedition of 1587, but he got himself into trouble by +presuming to disagree with his chief concerning the wisdom of the attack +on Lagos. He died in 1599. He was the author of _A Discourse of the +Variation of the Compas, or Magneticall Needle_ (1581), and some of the +charts he made are preserved at the British Museum and Hatfield. + + + + +BOROUGH (A.S. nominative _burh_, dative _byrig_, which produces some of +the place-names ending in _bury_, a sheltered or fortified place, the +camp of refuge of a tribe, the stronghold of a chieftain; of. Ger. +_Burg_, Fr. _bor_, _borc_, _bourg_), the term for a town, considered as +a unit of local government. + +_History of the English Borough._--After the early English settlement, +when Roman fortifications ceased to shelter hostile nations, their +colonies and camps were used by the Anglo-Saxon invaders to form tribal +strongholds; nevertheless burhs on the sites of Roman colonies show no +continuity with Roman municipal organization. The resettlement of the +Roman Durovernum as the burh of the men of (East) Kent, under a changed +name, the name "burh of the men of Kent," Cant-wara-byrig (Canterbury), +illustrates this point. The burh of the men of West Kent was +Hrofesceaster (Durobrivae), Rochester, and many other _ceasters_ mark +the existence of a Roman camp occupied by an early English burh. The +tribal burh was protected by an earthen wall, and a general obligation +to build and maintain burhs at the royal command was enforced by +Anglo-Saxon law. Offences in disturbance of the peace of the burh were +punished by higher fines than breaches of the peace of the "ham" or +ordinary dwelling. The burh was the home of the king as well as the +asylum of the tribe, and there is reason to think that the boundary of +the borough was annually sanctified by a religious ceremony, and hence +the long retention of a processional perambulation. Possibly the "hedge" +or "wall" of the borough gave it, besides safety, a sanctity analogous +to that enjoyed by the Germanic assembly while gathered within its +"hedge," which the priests solemnly set up when the assembly gathered, +and removed when it was over. While the "peace" of the Germanic assembly +was essentially temporary, the "peace" of the burh was sacred all the +year round. Its "hedge" was never removed. The sanctity of the burh was +enjoyed by all the dwellings of the king, at first perhaps only during +his term of residence. Neither in the early English language nor in the +contemporary Latin was there any fixed usage differentiating the various +words descriptive of the several forms of human settlement, and the +tribal refuges cannot accordingly be clearly distinguished from villages +or the strongholds of individuals by any purely nomenclative test. It is +not till after the Danish invasions that it becomes easier to draw a +distinction between the burhs that served as military strongholds for +national defence and the royal vills which served no such purpose. Some +of the royal vills eventually entered the class of boroughs, but by +another route, and for the present the private stronghold and the royal +dwelling may be neglected. It was the public stronghold and the +administrative centre of a dependent district which was the source of +the main features peculiar to the borough. + +Many causes tended to create peculiar conditions in the boroughs built +for national defence. They were placed where artificial defence was most +needed, at the junction of roads, in the plains, on the rivers, at the +centres naturally marked out for trade, seldom where hills or marshes +formed a sufficient natural defence. The burhs drew commerce by every +channel; the camp and the palace, the administrative centre, the +ecclesiastical centre (for the mother-church of the state was placed in +its chief burh), all looked to the market for their maintenance. The +burh was provided by law with a mint and royal moneyers and exchangers, +with an authorized scale for weights and measures. Mercantile +transactions in the burhs or _ports_, as they were called when their +commercial rather than their military importance was accentuated, were +placed by law under special legal privileges in order no doubt to secure +the king's hold upon his toll. Over the burh or port was set a reeve, a +royal officer answerable to the king for his dues from the burh, his +rents for lands and houses, his customs on commerce, his share of the +profits from judicial fines. At least from the 10th century the burh had +a "moot" or court, the relation of which to the other courts is matter +of speculation. A law of Edgar, about 960, required that it should meet +three times a year, these being in all likelihood assemblies at which +attendance was compulsory on all tenants of the burghal district, when +pleas concerning life and liberty and land were held, and men were +compelled to find pledges answerable for their good conduct. At these +great meetings the borough reeve (_gerefa_) presided, declaring the law +and guiding the judgments given by the suitors of the court. The reeve +was supported by a group of assistants, called in Devon the "witan," in +the boroughs of the Danelaw by a group of (generally twelve) "lawmen," +in other towns probably by a group of aldermen, senior burgesses, with +military and police authority, whose office was in some cases +hereditary. These persons assisted the reeve at the great meetings of +the full court, and sat with him as judges at the subordinate meetings +which were held to settle the unfinished causes and minor causes. There +was no compulsion on those not specially summoned to attend these extra +meetings. At these subordinate jurisdictional assemblies, held in +public, and acting by the same authority as the annual gathering of all +the _burh-wara_, other business concerning borough administration was +decided, at least in later days, and it is to these assemblies that the +origin of the town council may in many cases be ascribed. In the larger +towns the division into wards, with a separate police system, can be +traced at an early time, appearing as a unit of military organization, +answerable for the defence of a gate of the town. The police system of +London is described in detail in a record of 930-940. Here the free +people were grouped in associations of ten, each under the +superintendence of a headman. The bishops and reeves who belonged to the +"court of London" appear as the directors of the system, and in them we +may see the aldermen of the wards of a later time. The use of the word +_bertha_ for ward at Canterbury, and the fact that the London wardmoot +at a later time was used for the frankpledge system as well as for the +organization of the muster, point to a connexion between the military +and the police systems in the towns. At the end of the 9th and beginning +of the 10th century there is evidence of a systematic "timbering" of new +burhs, with the object of providing strongholds for the defence of +Wessex against the Danes, and it appears that the surrounding districts +were charged with their maintenance. In charters of this period a "haw," +or enclosed area within a burh, was often conveyed by charter as if it +were an apanage of the lands in the neighbourhood with which it was +conveyed; the Norman settlers who succeeded to lands in the county +succeeded therewith to houses in the burhs, for a close association +existed between the "thegns" of the shire and the shirestow, an +association partly perhaps of duty and also of privilege. The king +granted borough "haws" as places of refuge in Kent, and in London he +gave them with commercial privileges to his bishops. What has been +called the "heterogeneous" tenure of the shirestow, one of the most +conspicuous characteristics of that particular type of borough, was +further increased by the liberty which some burgesses enjoyed to +"commend" themselves to a lord of their own choosing, promising to that +lord suit and service and perhaps rent in return for protection. Over +these burgesses the lords could claim jurisdictional rights, and these +were in some cases increased by royal grants of special rights within +certain "sokes." The great boroughs were honeycombed with sokes, or +areas of seignorial jurisdiction, within which the royal reeve's +authority was greatly restricted while that of the lord's reeve took +precedence. Even the haws, being "burhs" or strongholds within a +stronghold, enjoyed a local "peace" which protected from official +intrusion. Besides heterogeneity of tenure and jurisdiction in the +borough, there was also heterogeneity of status; there were burh-thegns +and cnihts, mercatores, burgesses of various kinds, the three groups +representing perhaps military, commercial and agricultural elements. The +burh generally shows signs of having been originally a village +settlement, surrounded by open fields, of which the borough boundary +before 1835 will suggest the outline. This area was as a rule eventually +the area of borough jurisdiction. There is some evidence pointing to the +fact that the restriction of the borough authority to this area is not +ancient, but due to the Norman settlement. The wide districts over which +the boroughs had had authority were placed under the control of the +Norman castle which was itself built by means of the old English levy of +"burh-work." The borough court was allowed to continue its work only +within its own immediate territory, and, to prevent conflict, the castle +was placed outside the borough. Losing their place in the national +scheme of defence, the burgess "cnihts" made commerce their principal +object under the encouragement of the old privileges of the walled +place. + +Besides the great co-operative strongholds in which many lords had +burgesses, there were small boroughs held by a single lord. In many +cases boroughs of this "seignorial" type were created upon the royal +estates. Out of the king's vill, as a rule the jurisdictional centre of +a hundred, there was sometimes created a borough. The lines of division +before Domesday Book are obscure, but it is probable that in some cases, +by a royal grant of jurisdiction, the inhabitants of a populous royal +vill, where a hundred court for the district was already held, were +authorized to establish a permanent court, for the settlement of their +disputes, distinct from the hundred court of the district. Boroughs of +this type with a uniform tenure were created not only on the king's +estates but also on those of his tenants-in-chief, and in 1086 they were +probably already numerous. A borough was usually, though perhaps not +invariably, the companion of a Norman castle. In some cases a French +"bourg" was created by the side of an English borough, and the two +remained for many generations distinct in their laws and customs: in +other cases a French "bourg" was settled by the side of an English +village. A large number of the followers of the Norman lords had been +almost certainly town-dwellers in their own country, and lost none of +their burghal privileges by the migration. Every castle needed for its +maintenance a group of skilled artisans, and the lords wished to draw to +the castle gates all kinds of commodities for the castle's provision. +The strength of the garrison made the neighbourhood of the castle a +place of danger to men unprotected by legal privilege; and in order to +invite to its neighbourhood desirable settlers, legal privileges similar +to those enjoyed in Norman or English boroughs were guaranteed to those +who would build on the plots which were offered to colonists. A low +fixed rental, release from the renders required of villeins, release +from the jurisdiction of the castle, and the creation of a separate +borough jurisdiction, with or without the right to choose their own +officers, rules fixing the maximum of fees and fines, or promising +assessment of the fines by the burgesses themselves, the cancelling of +all the castellan's rights, especially the right to take a forced levy +of food for the castle from all within the area of his jurisdiction, +freedom from arbitrary tallage, freedom of movement, the right to +alienate property and devise land, these and many other privileges named +in the early seignorial charters were what constituted the Norman _liber +burgus_ of the seignorial type. Not all these privileges were enjoyed by +all boroughs; some very meagre releases of seignorial rights accompanied +the lord's charter which created a borough and made burgesses out of +villeins. However liberal the grant, the lord or his reeve still +remained in close personal relation with the burgesses of such places, +and this character, together with the uniformity of their tenure, +continued to hold them apart from the boroughs of the old English type, +where all varieties of personal relationship between the lords and their +groups of tenants might subsist. The royal charters granting the right +to retain old customs prevented the systematic introduction into the old +boroughs of some of the incidents of feudalism. Rights of the king took +precedence of those of the lord, and devise with the king's consent was +legal. By these means the lords' position was weakened, and other +seignorial claims were later evaded or contested. The rights which the +lords failed to keep were divided between the king and the municipality; +in London, for instance, the king obtained all escheats, while the +borough court secured the right of wardship of burgess orphans. + +From Norman times the yearly profit of the royal boroughs was as a rule +included in the general "farm" rendered for the county by the sheriff; +sometimes it was rendered by a royal farmer apart from the county-farm. +The king generally accepted a composition for all the various items due +from the borough. The burgesses were united in their efforts to keep +that composition unchanged in amount, and to secure the provision of the +right amount at the right time for fear that it should be increased by +way of punishment. The levy of fines on rent arrear, and the distraints +for debt due, which were obtained through the borough court, were a +matter of interest to the burgesses of the court, and first taught the +burgesses co-operative action. Money was raised, possibly by order of +the borough court, to buy a charter from the king giving the right to +choose officers who should answer directly to the exchequer and not +through the sheriff of the county. The sheriff was in many cases also +the constable of the castle, set by the Normans to overawe the English +boroughs; his powers were great and dangerous enough to make him an +officer specially obnoxious to the boroughs. Henry I. about 1131 gave +the London citizens the right to choose their own sheriffs and a +justiciar answerable for keeping the pleas of the crown. In 1130 the +Lincoln citizens paid to hold their city in chief of the king. By the +end of the 12th century many towns paid by the hand of their own reeves, +and John's charters began to make rules as to the freedom of choice to +be allowed in the nomination of borough officers and as to the royal +power of dismissal. In Richard I.'s reign London imitated the French +communes in styling the chief officer a mayor; in 1208 Winchester also +had a mayor, and the title soon became no rarity. The chartered right to +choose two or more citizens to keep the pleas of the crown gave to many +boroughs the control of their coroners, who occupied the position of the +London justiciar of earlier days, subject to those considerable +modifications which Henry II.'s systematization of the criminal law had +introduced. Burgesses who had gone for criminal and civil justice to +their own court in disputes between themselves, or between themselves +and strangers who were in their town, secured confirmation of this right +by charter, not to exclude the justices in eyre, but to exempt +themselves from the necessity of pleading in a distant court. The +burgess, whether plaintiff or defendant, was a privileged person, and +could claim in this respect a "benefit" somewhat similar to the benefit +of clergy. In permitting the boroughs to answer through their own +officers for his dues, the king handed over to the boroughs the farming +of his rents and a large number of rights which would eventually prove +to be sources of great profit. + +No records exist showing the nature of municipal proceedings at the time +of the first purchase of charters. Certain it is that the communities in +the 12th century became alive to the possibilities of their new +position, that trade received a new impulse, and the vague +constitutional powers of the borough court acquired a new need for +definition. At first the selection of officers who were to treat with +the exchequer and to keep the royal pleas was almost certainly +restricted to a few rich persons who could find the necessary +securities. Nominated probably in one of the smaller judicial +assemblies, the choice was announced at the great Michaelmas assembly of +the whole community, and it is not till the next century that we hear of +any attempt of the "vulgus" to make a different selection from that of +the magnates. The "vulgus" were able to take effective action by means +of the several craft organizations, and first found the necessity to do +so when taxation was heavy or when questions of trade legislation were +mooted (see GILDS). The taxation of the boroughs in the reign of Henry +II. was assessed by the king's justices, who fixed the sums due _per +capita_; but if the borough made an offer of a gift, the assessment was +made by the burgesses. In the first case the taxation fell on the +magnates. In the levy _per communam_ the assessment was made through the +wardmoots (in London) and the burden fell on the poorer class. In Henry +II.'s reign London was taxed by both methods, the _barones majores_ by +head, the _barones minores_ through the wardmoot. The pressure of +taxation led in the 13th century to a closer definition of the burghal +constitutions; the commons sought to get an audit of accounts, and (in +London) not only to hear but to treat of municipal affairs. By the end +of the century London had definitely established two councils, that of +the mayor and aldermen, representing the old borough court, and a common +council, representing the voice of the commonalty, as expressed through +the city wards. The choice of councillors in the wards rested probably +with the aldermen and the ward jury summoned by them to make the +presentments. In some cases juries were summoned not to represent +different areas but different classes; thus at Lincoln there were in +1272 juries of the rich, the middling and the poor, chosen presumably by +authority from groups divided by means of the tax roll. Elsewhere the +several groups of traders and artisans made of their gilds all-powerful +agencies for organizing joint action among classes of commons united by +a trade interest, and the history of the towns becomes the history of +the struggle between the gilds which captured control of the council +and the gilds which were excluded therefrom. Many municipal revolutions +took place, and a large number of constitutional experiments were tried +all over the country from the 13th century onward. Schemes which +directed a gradual co-optation, two to choose four, these six to choose +more, and so in widening circles from a centre of officialdom, found +much favour throughout the middle ages. A plan, like the London plan, of +two companies, alderman and council, was widely favoured in the 14th +century, perhaps in imitation of the Houses of Lords and Commons. The +mayor was sometimes styled the "sovereign" and was given many +prerogatives. Great respect was paid to the "ancients," those, namely, +who had already held municipal office. Not till the 15th century were +orderly arrangements for counting "voices" arrived at in a few of the +most highly developed towns, and these were used only in the small +assemblies of the governing body, not in the large electoral assemblies +of the people. + +In London in the 13th century there was a regular system for the +admission of new members to the borough "franchise," which was at first +regarded not as conferring any form of suffrage but as a means to secure +a privileged position in the borough court and in the trade of the +borough. Admission could be obtained by inheritance, by purchase or +gift, in some places by marriage, and in London, at least from 1275, by +a municipal register of apprenticeship. The new freeman in return for +his privileges was bound to share with the other burgesses all the +burdens of taxation, control, &c., which fell upon burgesses. Personal +service was not always necessary, and in some towns there were many +non-resident burgesses. When in later times admission to this freedom +came to be used as means to secure the parliamentary franchise, the +freedom of the borough was freely sold and given. The elections in which +the commons of the boroughs first took interest were those of the +borough magistrates. Where the commons succeeded for a time in asserting +their right to take part in borough elections they were rarely able to +keep it, not in all cases perhaps because their power was feared, but +sometimes because of the riotous proceedings which ensued. These led to +government interference, which no party in the borough desired. The +possibility of a forfeiture of their enfranchised position made the +burgesses on the whole fairly submissive. In the 13th century London +repeatedly was "taken into the king's hand," subjected to heavy fines +and put under the constable of the Tower. In the 15th century +disturbances in the boroughs led to the issue of new constitutions, some +of which were the outcome of royal charters, others the result of +parliamentary legislation. The development of the law of corporations +also at this time compelled the boroughs to seek new charters which +should satisfy the now exacting demands of the law. The charters of +incorporation were issued at a time when the state was looking more and +more to the borough authorities as part of its executive and judicial +staff, and thus the government was closely interested in the manner of +their selection. The new charters were drafted in such a way as to +narrow the popular control. The corporations were placed under a council +and in a number of cases popular control was excluded altogether, the +whole system being made one of co-optation. The absence of popular +protest may be ascribed in part to the fact that the old popular control +had been more nominal than real, and the new charter gave as a rule two +councils of considerable size. These councils bore a heavy burden of +taxation in meeting royal loans and benevolences, paying _per capita_ +like the magnates of the 12th century, and for a time there is on the +whole little evidence of friction between the governors and the +governed. Throughout, popular opinion in the closest of corporations had +a means of expression, though none of execution, in the presentments of +the leet juries and sessions juries. By means of their "verdicts" they +could use threats against the governing body, express their resentment +against acts of the council which benefited the governing body rather +than the town, and call in the aid of the justices of assize where the +members of the governing body were suspected of fraud. Elizabeth +repeatedly declared her dislike of incorporations "because of the +abuses committed by their head rulers," but in her reign they were +fairly easily controlled by the privy council, which directed their +choice of members of parliament and secured supporters of the government +policy to fill vacancies on the borough bench. The practice in Tudor and +Stuart charters of specifying by name the members of the governing body +and holders of special offices opened the way to a "purging" of the +hostile spirits when new charters were required. There were also rather +vaguely worded clauses authorizing the dismissal of officers for +misconduct, though as a rule the appointments were for life. When under +the Stuarts and under the Commonwealth political and religious feeling +ran high in the boroughs, use was made of these clauses both by the +majority on the council and by the central government to mould the +character of the council by a drastic "purging." Another means of +control first used under the Commonwealth was afforded by the various +acts of parliament, which subjected all holders of municipal office to +the test of an oath. Under the Commonwealth there was no improvement in +the methods used by the central government to control the boroughs. All +opponents of the ruling policy were disfranchised and disqualified for +office by act of parliament in 1652. Cases arising out of the act were +to be tried by commissioners, and the commissions of the major-generals +gave them opportunity to control the borough policy. Few Commonwealth +charters have been preserved, though several were issued in response to +the requests of the corporations. + +In some cases the charters used words which appeared to point to an +opportunity for popular elections in boroughs where a usage of election +by the town council had been established. In 1598 the judges gave an +opinion that the town councils could by by-law determine laws for the +government of the town regardless of the terms of the charter. In the +18th century the judges decided to the contrary. But even where a usage +of popular election was established, there were means of controlling the +result of a parliamentary election. The close corporations, though their +right to choose a member of parliament might be doubtful, had the sole +right to admit new burgesses, and in order to determine parliamentary +elections they enfranchised non-residents. Where conflicts arose over +the choice of a member, and two selections were made, the matter came +before the House of Commons. On various occasions the House decided in +favour of the popularly elected candidate against the nominee of the +town council, on the general principle that neither the royal charter +nor a by-law could curtail this particular franchise. But as each case +was separately determined by a body swayed by the dominant political +party, no one principle was steadily adhered to in the trial of election +petitions. The royal right to create boroughs was freely used by +Elizabeth and James I. as a means of securing a submissive parliament. +The later Stuarts abandoned this method, and the few new boroughs made +by the Georges were not made for political reasons. The object of the +later Stuarts was to control the corporations already in existence, not +to make new ones. Charles II. from the time of his restoration decided +to exercise a strict control of the close corporations in order to +secure not only submissive parliaments, but also a pliant executive +among the borough justices, and pliant juries, which were impanelled at +the selection of the borough officers. In 1660 it was made a rule that +all future charters should reserve expressly to the crown the first +nomination of the aldermen, recorder and town-clerk, and a proviso +should be entered placing with the common council the return of the +member of parliament. The Corporation Act of 1661 gave power to royal +commissioners to settle the composition of the town councils, and to +remove all who refused the sacraments of the Church of England or were +suspected of disaffection, even though they offered to take the +necessary oaths. Even so the difficulty of securing submissive juries +was again so great in 1682 that a general attack on the borough +franchises was begun by the crown. A London jury having returned a +verdict hostile to the crown, after various attempts to bend the city to +his will, Charles II. issued a _quo warranto_ against the mayor and +commonalty in order to charge the citizens with illegal encroachments +upon their chartered rights. The want of a sound philosophical +principle in the laws which were intended to regulate the actions of +organized groups of men made it easy for the crown judges to find flaws +in the legality of the actions of the boroughs, and also made it +possible for the Londoners to argue that no execution could be taken +against the mayor, commonalty and citizens, a "body politic invisible"; +that the indictment lay only against every particular member of the +governing body; and that the corporation as a corporation was incapable +of suffering a forfeiture or of making a surrender. The judges gave a +judgment for the king, the charters were forfeited and the government +placed with a court of aldermen of the king's own choosing. Until James +II. yielded, there was no common council in London. The novelty of the +proceedings of Charles II. and James II. lay in using the weapon of the +_quo warranto_ systematically to ensure a general revocation of +charters. The new charters which were then granted required the king's +consent for the more important appointments, and gave him power to +remove officers without reason given. Under James II. in 1687 six +commissioners were appointed to "regulate" the corporations and remove +from them all persons who were opposed to the abolition of the penal +laws against Catholics. The new appointments were made under a writ +which ran, "We will and require you to elect" (a named person). When +James II. sought to withdraw from his disastrous policy, he issued a +proclamation (October 17, 1688) restoring to the boroughs their ancient +charters. The governing charter thenceforth in many boroughs, though not +in all, was the charter which had established a close corporation, and +from this time on to 1835 the boroughs made no progress in +constitutional growth. The tendency for the close corporation to treat +the members of the governing body as the only corporators, and to +repudiate the idea that the corporation was answerable to the +inhabitants of the borough if the corporate property was squandered, +became more and more manifest as the history of the past slipped into +oblivion. The corporators came to regard themselves as members of a +club, legally warranted in dividing the lands and goods of the same +among themselves whensoever such a division should seem profitable. Even +where the constitution of the corporation was not close by charter, the +franchise tended to become restricted to an ever-dwindling electorate, +as the old methods for the extension of the municipal franchise by other +means than inheritance died out of use. At Ipswich in 1833 the "freemen" +numbered only one fifty-fifth of the population. If the electorate was +increased, it was increased by the wholesale admission to the freedom of +voters willing to vote as directed by the corporation at parliamentary +elections. The growth of corruption in the boroughs continued unchecked +until the era of the Reform Bill. Several boroughs had by that time +become insolvent, and some had recourse to their member of parliament to +eke out their revenues. In Buckingham the mayor received the whole town +revenue without rendering account; sometimes, however, heavy charges +fell upon the officers. Before the Reform era dissatisfaction with the +corporations was mainly shown by the number of local acts of parliament +which placed under the authority of special commissioners a variety of +administrative details, which if the corporation had not been suspected +would certainly have been assigned to its care. The trust offered +another convenient means of escape from difficulty, and in some towns +out of the trust was developed a system of municipal administration +where there was no recognized corporation. Thus at Peterborough the +feoffees who had succeeded to the control of certain ancient charities +constituted a form of town council with very restricted powers. In the +17th century Sheffield was brought under the act "to redress the +misemployment of lands given to charitable uses," and the municipal +administration of what had been a borough passed into the hands of the +trustees of the Burgery or town trust. + +The many special authorities created under act of parliament led to much +confusion, conflict and overlapping, and increased the need for a +general reform. The reform of the boroughs was treated as part of the +question of parliamentary reform. In 1832 the exclusive privileges of +the corporations in parliamentary elections having been abolished and +male occupiers enfranchised, the question of the municipal franchise was +next dealt with. In 1833 a commission inquired into the administration +of the municipal corporations. The result of the inquiry was the +Municipal Corporations Act 1835, which gave the municipal franchise to +the ratepayers. In all the municipal corporations dealt with by the act, +the town council was to consist of a mayor, aldermen and councillors, +and the councils were given like powers, being divided into those with +and those without a commission of the peace. The minutes were to be open +to the inspection of any burgess, and an audit of accounts was required. +The exclusive rights of retail trading, which in some towns were +restricted to freemen of the borough, were abolished. The system of +police, which in some places was still medieval in character, was placed +under the control of the council. The various privileged areas within +the bounds of a borough were with few exceptions made part of the +borough. The powers of the council to alienate corporate property were +closely restricted. The operations of the act were extended by later +legislation, and the divers amendments and enactments which followed +were consolidated in the Municipal Corporations Act 1882. (M. Bat.) + +_Irish Boroughs._--In Ireland the earliest traces of burghal life are +connected with the maritime settlements on the southern and eastern +coast. The invasion of Henry II. colonized these Ostman ports with +Anglo-Norman communities, who brought with them, or afterwards obtained, +municipal charters of a favourable kind. The English settlement +obviously depended on the advantages which the burgesses possessed over +the native population outside. Quite different from these were the new +close boroughs which during the plantation of Ulster James I. introduced +from England. The conquest was by this time completed, and by a rigorous +enforcement of the Supremacy and Uniformity Acts the existing liberties +of the older boroughs were almost entirely withdrawn. By the new rules +published (in terms of the Act of Settlement and Explanation) in 1672 +resident traders were permitted to become freemen, but neither this +regulation nor the ordinary admissions through birth, marriage and +apprenticeship succeeded in giving to Ireland free and vigorous +municipalities. The corrupt admission of non-resident freemen, in order +to outvote the ancient freeholders in parliamentary elections, and the +systematic exclusion of Roman Catholics, soon divorced the "commonalty" +from true local interests, and made the corporations, which elected +themselves or selected the constituency, dangerously unpopular. + +_Scottish Boroughs._--In Scotland burghs or burrows are divided into +royal burghs, burghs of regality and burghs of barony. The first were +erected by royal charter, and every burgess held direct of the crown. It +was, therefore, impossible to subfeu the burgh lands,--a distinction +still traceable in modern conveyancing. Where perhaps no charter ever +existed, the law on proof of immemorial possession of the privileges of +a royal burgh has presumed that a charter of erection once existed. The +charter gave power to elect provost, bailies and council, a power long +exercised under the act of 1469, which directed the new council to be +chosen annually by the retiring council, and the magistrates by both +councils. The jurisdiction of these magistrates, which was specially +reserved in the act of 1747 abolishing heritable jurisdictions, was +originally cumulative with, and as large as, that of the sheriff. It is +now confined to police offences, summary ejections, orders for _interim_ +aliment (for prisoners), payment of burgh dues and delivery of title +deeds. Three head courts were held in the year, at which all burgesses +were obliged to attend, and at which public business was done and +private transactions were ratified. There were three classes of +burgesses--burgesses _in sua arte_, members of one or other of the +corporations; burgesses who were gild brothers; and simple burgesses. +The Leges Burgorum apparently contemplate that all respectable +inhabitants should have the franchise, but a ceremony of admission was +required, at which the applicant swore fealty and promised to watch and +ward for the community, and to pay his "maill" to the king. These +borough maills, or rents, and the great and small customs of burghs, +formed a large part of the royal revenue, and, although frequently +leased or feued out for a fixed duty, were on the accession of James I. +annexed to the crown as an alimentary fund. Burgh customs still stand in +the peculiar position of being neither adjudgeable nor arrestable; they +are therefore bad security. The early charters contain the usual +privileges of holding a market, of exemption from toll or tribute, and +that distraint will be allowed only for the burgess's own debts. There +was also the usual strife between the gildry and the craftsmen, who were +generally prohibited from trading, and of whom dyers, fleshers and +shoemakers were forbidden to enter the gildry. Deacons, wardens and +visitors were appointed by the crafts, and the rate of wages was fixed +by the magistrates. The crafts in Scotland were frequently incorporated, +not by royal charter, but, as in the case of the cordiners of Edinburgh, +by seals of cause from the corporation. The trade history of the free +burghs is very important. Thus in 1466 the privilege of importing and +exporting merchandise was confined to freemen, burgesses and their +factors. Ships were directed to trade to the king's free burghs, there +to pay the customs, and to receive their _cocquets_ or custom-house +seals; and in 1503 persons dwelling outside burghs were forbidden to +"use any merchandise," or to sell wine or staple goods. An act of 1633, +erroneously called a _Ratification_ of the privileges of burghs, +extended these privileges of buying and selling to retail as well as +wholesale trade, but restricted their enjoyment to royal burghs. +Accordingly, in 1672, a general declaratory act was passed confirming to +the freemen in royal burghs the wholesale trade in wine, wax, silk, +dyeing materials, &c., permitting generally to all persons the export of +native raw material, specially permitting the burgesses of barony and +regality to export their own manufactures, and such goods as they may +buy in "markets," and to import against these consignments certain +materials for tillage, building, or for use in their own manufactures, +with a general permission to retail all commodities. This extraordinary +system was again changed in 1690 by an act which declared that freemen +of royal burghs should have the sole right of importing everything by +sea or land except bestial, and also of exporting by sea everything +which was not native raw material, which might be freely exported by +land. The gentry were always allowed to import for their personal +consumption and to export an equal quantity of commodities. The act +mentions that the royal burghs as an estate of the kingdom contributed +one-sixth part of all public impositions, and were obliged to build and +maintain prison-houses. Some of these trade privileges were not +abolished till 1846. + +In the north of Scotland there was an association of free burghs called +the Hanse or _Ansus_; and the lord chamberlain, by his _Iter_, or +circuit of visitation, maintained a common standard of right and duties +in all burghs, and examined the state of the "common good," the accounts +of which in 1535 were appointed to be laid before the auditors in +exchequer. The chamberlain latterly presided in the Curia Quatuor +Burgorum (Edinburgh, Berwick, Stirling, Roxburgh), which not only made +regulations in trade, but decided questions of private right (e.g. +succession), according to the varying customs of burghs. This court +frequently met at Haddington; in 1454 it was fixed at Edinburgh. The +more modern convention of royal burghs (which appeared as a judicial +_persona_ in the Court of Session so late as 1839) probably dates from +the act of James III. (1487, c. 111), which appointed the commissioners +of burghs, both north and south, to meet yearly at Inverkeithing "to +treat of the welfare of merchandise, the good rule and statutes for the +common profit of burghs, and to provide for remeid upon the skaith and +injuries sustained within the burghs." Among the more important +functions of this body (on whose decrees at one time summary diligence +proceeded) were the prohibition of undue exactions within burghs, the +revisal of the "set" or mode of municipal election, and the _pro rata_ +division among the burghs of the parliamentary subsidy required from the +third estate. The reform of the municipalities, and the complete +representation of the mercantile interests in the united parliament, +deprived this body of any importance. + +Burghs of regality and of barony held in vassalage of some great +lordship, lay or ecclesiastical, but were always in theory or in +practice created by crown grant. They received jurisdiction in civil and +criminal matters, generally cumulative with that of the baron or the +lord of regality, who in some cases obtained the right of nominating +magistrates. Powers to hold markets and to levy customs were likewise +given to these burghs. + +The Scottish burghs emerged slowly into political importance. In 1295 +the procurators of six burghs ratified the agreement for the marriage of +Edward Baliol; and in 1326 they were recognized as a third estate, +granting a tenth penny on all rents for the king's life, if he should +apply it for the public good. The commissioners of burghs received from +the exchequer their costages or expenses of attending parliament. The +burghs were represented in the judicial committee, and in the committee +on articles appointed during the reign of James V. After the +Reformation, in spite of the annexation of kirk lands to the crown, and +the increased burdens laid on temporal lands, the proportion of general +taxation borne by the burghs (viz. 1s. 6d.) was expressly preserved by +act 1587, c. 112. The number of commissioners, of course, fluctuated +from time to time. Cromwell assigned ten members to the Scottish burghs +in the second parliament of Three Nations (1654). The general practice +until 1619 had been, apparently, that each burgh should send two +members. In that year (by an arrangement with the convention of burghs) +certain groups of burghs returned one member, Edinburgh returning two. +Under art. 22 of the treaty of Union the number of members for royal +burghs was fixed at fifteen, who were elected in Edinburgh by the +magistrates and town council, and in the groups of burghs by delegates +chosen ad hoc. (W. C. S.) + + See C. Gross, _Bibliography of British Municipal History_ (1897), + which contains all needful references up to that date; F.W. Maitland, + _Township and Borough_ (1898); A. Ballard, _Domesday Boroughs_ (1904); + M. Bateson, _Borough Customs_ (1904-1906); S. and B. Webb, _English + Local Government_ (3 vols., 1906-1908). For the character of the + modern Scottish burgh see Mabel Atkinson, _Local Government in + Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1904), where other works are mentioned. + + + + +BOROUGHBRIDGE, a market town in the Ripon parliamentary division of the +West Riding of Yorkshire, England; 22 m. N.W. of York on a branch of the +North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 830. It lies in the central plain of +Yorkshire, on the river Ure near its confluence with the Swale. It is in +the parish of Aldborough, the village of that name (q.v.), celebrated +for its Roman remains, lying a mile south-east. + + About half a mile to the west of Boroughbridge there are three upright + stones called the Devil's Arrows, which are of uncertain origin but + probably of the Celtic period. The manor of Boroughbridge, then called + Burc, was held by Edward the Confessor and passed to William the + Conqueror, but suffered so much from the ravages of his soldiers that + by 1086 it had decreased in value from L10 to 55 s. When the site of + the Great North Road was altered, towards the end of the 11th century, + a bridge was built across the Ure, about half a mile above the Roman + bridge at Aldborough, and called Burgh bridge or Ponteburgem. This + caused a village to spring up, and it afterwards increased so much as + to become a market town. In 1229 Boroughbridge, as part of the manor + of Aldborough, was granted to Hubert de Burgh, but was forfeited a few + years later by his son who fought against the king at Evesham. It then + remained a royal manor until Charles I. granted it to several citizens + of London, from whom it passed through numerous hands to the present + owner. The history of Boroughbridge during the early 14th century + centres round the war with Scotland, and culminates with the battle + fought there in 1321. When in 1317 the Scots invaded England, they + penetrated as far south as Boroughbridge and burnt the town. + Boroughbridge was evidently a borough by prescription, and as such was + called upon to return two members to parliament in 1299. It was not + represented again until 1553, when the privilege was revived. The town + was finally disfranchised in 1832. In 1504 the bailiff and inhabitants + of Boroughbridge received a grant of two fairs, and Charles II. in + 1670 created three new fairs in the borough, on the 12th of June, the + 5th of August and the 12th of October, and leased them to Francis + Calvert and Thomas Wilkinson for ninety-nine years. + + + + +BOROUGH ENGLISH, a custom prevailing in certain ancient English +boroughs, and in districts attached to them (where the lands are held in +socage), and also in certain copyhold manors (chiefly in Surrey, +Middlesex, Suffolk and Sussex), by which in general lands descend to the +youngest son, to the exclusion of all the other children, of the person +dying seised and intestate. Descent to the youngest brother to the +exclusion of all other collaterals, where there is no issue, is +sometimes included in the general definition, but this is really a +special custom to be proved from the court-rolls of the manor and from +local reputation--a custom which is sometimes extended to the youngest +sister, uncle, aunt. Generally, however, Borough English, apart from +specialties, may be said to differ from gavelkind in not including +collaterals. It is often found in connexion with the distinct custom +that the widow shall take as dower the whole and not merely one-third of +her husband's lands. + +The origin of the custom of Borough English has been much disputed. +Though frequently claimed to be of Saxon origin, there is no direct +evidence of such being the case. The first mention of the custom in +England occurs in Glanvil, without, however, any explanation as to its +origin. Littleton's explanation, which is the more usually accepted, is +that custom casts the inheritance upon the youngest, because after the +death of his parents he is least able to support himself, and more +likely to be left destitute of any other support. Blackstone derived +Borough English from the usages of pastoral life, the elder sons +migrating and the youngest remaining to look after the household. C.I. +Elton claims it to be a survival of pre-Aryan times. It was referred to +by the Normans as "the custom of the English towns." In the Yearbook of +22 Edward IV. fol. 32b it is described as the custom of Nottingham, +which is made clear by the report of a trial in the first year of Edward +III. where it was found that in Nottingham there were two districts, the +one the _Burgh-Frauncoyes_, the other the _Burgh-Engloyes_, where +descent was to the youngest son, from which circumstance the custom has +derived its name. On the European continent the custom of junior-rights +is not unknown, more particularly in Germany, and it has by some been +ascribed to the _jus primae noctis_ (q.v.). It is also said to exist +amongst the Mongols. + + See also GAVELKIND; INHERITANCE; PRIMOGENITURE; TENURE; Blackstone's + _Commentaries_; Coke's _Institutes_; Comyn's _Digest of the Law_; + Elton's _Origin of English History_; Pollock and Maitland, _History of + English Law_. + + + + +BORROMEAN ISLANDS, a group of four islands on the W. side of Lago +Maggiore off Baveno and Stresa. The southernmost, the Isola Bella, is +famous for its chateau and terraced gardens, constructed by Count +Vitaliano Borromeo (d. 1690). To the N.W. is the Isola dei Pescatori, +containing a fishing village; and to the N.E. of this the Isola Madre, +the largest of the group, with a chateau and garden; and to the N. +again, off Pallanza, is the little Isola S. Giovanni. + + + + +BORROMEO, CARLO (1538-1584), saint and cardinal of the Roman Catholic +Church, son of Ghiberto Borromeo, count of Arona, and Margarita de' +Medici, was born at the castle of Arona on Lago Maggiore on the 2nd of +October 1538. When he was about twelve years old, Giulio Cesare Borromeo +resigned to him an abbacy, the revenue of which he applied wholly in +charity to the poor. He studied the civil and canon law at Pavia. In +1554 his father died, and, although he had an elder brother, Count +Federigo, he was requested by the family to take the management of their +domestic affairs. After a time, however, he resumed his studies, and in +1559 he took his doctor's degree. In 1560 his uncle, Cardinal Angelo de' +Medici, was raised to the pontificate as Pius IV. Borromeo was made +prothonotary, entrusted with both the public and the privy seal of the +ecclesiastical state, and created cardinal with the administration of +Romagna and the March of Ancona, and the supervision of the Franciscans, +the Carmelites and the knights of Malta. He was thus at the age of +twenty-two practically the leading statesman of the papal court. Soon +after he was raised to the archbishopric of Milan. In compliance with +the pope's desire, he lived in great splendour; yet his own temperance +and humility were never brought into question. He established an academy +of learned persons, and published their memoirs as the _Noctes +Vaticanae_. About the same time he also founded and endowed a college at +Pavia, which he dedicated to Justina, virgin and martyr. On the death of +his elder brother Federigo, he was advised to quit the church and +marry, that his family might not become extinct. He declined the +proposal, however, and became henceforward still more fervent in +exercises of piety, and more zealous for the welfare of the church. +Owing to his influence over Pius IV., he was able to facilitate the +final deliberations of the council of Trent, and he took a large share +in the drawing up of the Tridentine catechism (_Catechismus Romanus_). + +On the death of Pius IV. (1566), the skill and diligence of Borromeo +contributed materially to suppressing the cabals of the conclave. +Subsequently he devoted himself wholly to the reformation of his +diocese, which had fallen into a most unsatisfactory condition owing to +the prolonged absences of its previous archbishops. He made a series of +pastoral visits, and restored decency and dignity to divine service. In +conformity with the decrees of the council of Trent, he cleared the +cathedral of its gorgeous tombs, rich ornaments, banners, arms, sparing +not even the monuments of his own relatives. He divided the nave of the +church into two compartments for the separation of the sexes. He +extended his reforms to the collegiate churches (even to the +fraternities of penitents and particularly that of St John the Baptist), +and to the monasteries. The great abuses which had overrun the church at +this time arose principally from the ignorance of the clergy. Borromeo, +therefore, established seminaries, colleges and communities for the +education of candidates for holy orders. The most remarkable, perhaps, +of his foundations was the fraternity of the Oblates, a society whose +members were pledged to give aid to the church when and where it might +be required. He further paved the way for the "Golden" or "Borromean" +league formed in 1586 by the Swiss Catholic cantons of Switzerland to +expel heretics if necessary by armed force. + +In 1576, when Milan was visited by the plague, he went about giving +directions for accommodating the sick and burying the dead, avoiding no +danger and sparing no expense. He visited all the neighbouring parishes +where the contagion raged, distributing money, providing accommodation +for the sick, and punishing those, especially the clergy, who were +remiss in discharging their duties. He met with much opposition to his +reforms. The governor of the province, and many of the senators, +apprehensive that the cardinal's ordinances and proceedings would +encroach upon the civil jurisdiction, addressed remonstrances and +complaints to the courts of Rome and Madrid. But Borromeo had more +formidable difficulties to struggle with, in the inveterate opposition +of several religious orders, particularly that of the Humiliati +(Brothers of Humility). Some members of that society formed a conspiracy +against his life, and a shot was fired at him in the archiepiscopal +chapel under circumstances which led to the belief that his escape was +miraculous. The number of his enemies was increased by his successful +attack on his Jesuit confessor Ribera, who with other members of the +college of Milan was found to be guilty of unnatural offences. His +manifold labours and austerities appear to have shortened his life. He +was seized with an intermittent fever, and died at Milan on the 4th of +November 1584. He was canonized in 1610, and his feast is celebrated on +the 4th of November. + +Besides the _Nodes Vaticanae_, to which he appears to have contributed, +the only literary relics of this intrepid and zealous reformer are some +homilies, discourses and sermons, with a collection of letters. His +sermons, which have little literary merit, were published by J.A. Sax (5 +vols., Milan, 1747-1748), and have been translated into many languages. +The record of his episcopate is to be found in the two volumes of the +_Acta Ecclesiae Mediolanensis_ (Milan, 1599). Contrary to his last +wishes a memorial was erected to him in Milan cathedral, as well as a +statue 70 ft. high on the hill above Arona, by his admirers who regarded +him as the leader of a Counter-Reformation. + +His nephew, Federigo Borromeo (1564-1631), was archbishop of Milan from +1595, and in 1609 founded the Ambrosian library in that city. + + See G.P. Giussano, _Vita di S. Carlo Borromeo_ (1610, Eng. ed. by H.E. + Manning, London, 1884); A. Sala, _Documenti circa la vita e la gesta + di Borromeo_ (4 vols., Milan, 1857-1859); Chanoine Silvain, _Histoire + de St Charles Borromee_ (Milan, 1884); and A. Cantono, _Un grande + riformatore del secolo XVI_ (Florence, 1904); article "Borromaus" in + Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (Leipzig, 1897). + + + + +BORROMINI, FRANCESCO (1599-1667), Italian architect, was born at Bissone +in 1599. He was the chief representative of the style known in +architecture as "baroque," which marked a fearless and often reckless +departure from the traditional laws of the Renaissance, and often +obtained originality only at the cost of beauty or wisdom. One of the +main opponents of this style was Barocchio (q.v.). Borromini was much +employed in the middle of the 17th century at Rome. His principal works +are the church of St Agnese in Piazza Navona, the church of La Sapienza +in Rome, the church of San Carlino alle Fontane, the church of the +Collegio di Propaganda, and the restoration of San Giovanni in Laterano. +He died by his own hand at Rome in 1667. Engravings of his chief +compositions are to be found in the posthumous work, _Francisci +Borromini opus Architectonicum_ (1727). + + + + +BORROW, GEORGE HENRY (1803-1881), English traveller, linguist and +author, was born at East Dereham, Norfolk, on the 5th of July 1803, of a +middle-class Cornish family. His father was a recruiting officer, and +his mother a Norfolk lady of French extraction. From 1816 to 1818 Borrow +attended, with no very great profit, the grammar school at Norwich. +After leaving school he was articled to a firm of Norwich solicitors, +where he neglected the law, but gave a great deal of desultory attention +to languages. He was encouraged in these studies by William Taylor, the +friend of Southey. On the death of his father, in 1824 he went to London +to seek his fortune as a literary adventurer. In 1826 he published a +volume of _Romantic Ballads_ translated from the Danish. Engaged by Sir +Richard Phillips, the publisher, as a hack-writer at starvation wages, +his experiences in London were bitter indeed. His struggles at last +became so dire that if he would escape Chatterton's doom, he must leave +London and either return to Norwich and share his mother's narrow +income, or turn to account in some way the magnificent physical strength +with which nature had endowed him. Determining on the latter of these +courses, he left London on tramp. As he stood considerably more than 6 +ft. in height, was a fairly trained athlete, and had a countenance of +extraordinary impressiveness, if not of commanding beauty--Greek in type +with a dash of the Hebrew--we may assume that there had never before +appeared on the English high-roads so majestic-looking a tramp as he +who, on an afternoon in May, left his squalid lodging with bundle and +stick to begin life on the roads. Shaping his course to the south-west, +he soon found himself on Salisbury Plain. And then his extraordinary +adventures began. After a while he became a travelling hedge-smith, and +it was while pursuing this avocation that he made the acquaintance of +the splendid road-girl, born at Long Melford workhouse, whom he has +immortalized under the name of Isopel Berners. He was now brought much +into contact with the gipsies, and this fact gave him the most important +subject-matter for his writings. For picturesque as is Borrow's style, +it is this subject-matter of his, the Romany world of Great Britain, +which--if his pictures of that world are true--will keep his writings +alive. Now that the better class of gipsies are migrating so rapidly to +America that scarcely any are left in England, Borrow's pictures of them +are challenged as being too idealistic. It is unfortunate that no one +who knew Borrow, and the gryengroes or horse-dealers with whom he +associated, and whom he depicted, has ever written about him and them. +Full of "documents" as is Dr Knapp's painstaking biography, it cannot be +said to give a vital picture of Borrow and his surroundings during this +most interesting period of his life. It is this same peculiar class of +gipsies (the gryengroes) with whom the present writer was brought into +contact, and he can only refer, in justification of Borrow's +descriptions of them, to certain publications of his own, where the +whole question is discussed at length, and where he has set out to prove +that Borrow's pictures of the section of the English gipsies he knew are +not idealized. But there is one great blemish in _all_ Borrow's dramatic +scenes of gipsy life, wheresoever they may be laid. This was pointed +out by the gentleman who "read" _Zincali_ for Mr Murray, the +publisher:-- + + "The dialogues are amongst the best parts of the book; but in several + of them the tone of the speakers, of those especially who are in + humble life, is too correct and elevated, and therefore out of + character. This takes away from their effect. I think it would be very + advisable that Mr Borrow should go over them with reference to this + point, simplifying a few of the terms of expression and introducing a + few contractions--_don'ts, can'ts_, &c. This would improve them + greatly." + +It is the same with his pictures of the English gipsies. The reader has +only to compare the dialogues between gipsies given in that photographic +study of Romany life, _In Gipsy Tents_, by F.H. Groome, with the +dialogues in _Lavengro_ and _The Romany Rye_, to see how the illusion in +Borrow's narrative is disturbed by the uncolloquial locutions of the +speakers. It is true, no doubt, that all Romanies, especially perhaps +the English and Hungarian, have a passion for the use of high-sounding +words, and the present writer has shown this in his remarks upon the +Czigany Czindol, who is said to have taught the Czigany language to the +archduke Joseph, often called the "Gipsy Archduke." But after all +allowance is made for this racial peculiarity, Borrow's presentation of +it considerably weakens our belief in Mr and Mrs Petulengro, Ursula, and +the rest, to find them using complex sentences and bookish words which, +even among English people, are rarely heard in conversation. As to the +deep impression that Borrow made upon his gipsy friends, that is partly +explained by the singular nobility of his appearance, for the gipsies of +all countries are extremely sensitive upon matters of this kind. The +silvery whiteness of the thick crop of hair which Borrow retained to the +last seemed to add in a remarkable way to the nobility of his hairless +face, but also it gave to the face a kind of strange look "not a bit +like a Gorgio's," to use the words of one of his gipsy friends. +Moreover, the shy, defiant, stand-off way which Borrow assumed in the +company of his social equals left him entirely when he was with the +gipsies. The result of this was that these wanderers knew him better +than did his own countrymen. + +Seven years after the events recorded in _Lavengro_ and _The Romany Rye_ +Borrow obtained the post of agent to the Bible Society, in which +capacity he visited St Petersburg (1833-1835) (where he published +_Targum_, a collection of translations), and Spain, Portugal and Morocco +(1835-1839). From 1837 to 1839 he acted as correspondent to the _Morning +Herald_. The result of these travels and adventures was the publication, +in 1841, of _Zincali, or The Gypsies in Spain_, the original MS. of +which, in the hands of the present writer, shows how careful was +Borrow's method of work. In 1843 appeared _The Bible in Spain_, when +suddenly Borrow became famous. Every page of the book glows with +freshness, picturesqueness and vivacity. In 1840 he married Mary Clarke, +the widow of a naval officer, and permanently settled at Oulton Broad, +near Lowestoft, with her and her daughter. Here he began to write again. +Very likely Borrow would never have told the world about his vagabond +life in England as a hedge-smith had not _The Bible in Spain_ made him +famous as a wanderer. _Lavengro_ appeared in 1851 with a success which, +compared with that of _The Bible in Spain_, was only partial. He was +much chagrined at this, and although _Lavengro_ broke off in the midst +of a scene in the Dingle, and only broke off there because the three +volumes would hold no more, it was not until 1857 that he published the +sequel, _The Romany Rye_. In 1844 he travelled in south-eastern Europe, +and in 1854 he made a tour with his step-daughter in Wales. This tour he +described in _Wild Wales_, published in 1862. In 1874 he brought out a +volume of ill-digested material upon the Romany tongue, _Romano +Lavo-lil, or Word-book of the Gypsy Language_, a book which has been +exhaustively analysed and criticized by Mr John Sampson. In the summer +of 1874 he left London, bade adieu to Mr Murray and a few friends, and +returned to Oulton. On the 26th of July 1881 he was found dead in his +house at Oulton, in his seventy-ninth year. + +Borrow was indisputably a linguist of wide knowledge, though he was not +a scholar in the strict sense. The variety of his attainments is shown +by his translation of the Church of England _Homilies_ into Manchu, of +the Gospel of St Luke into the Git dialect of the Gitanos, of _The +Sleeping Bard_ from the Cambrian-British, and of _Bluebeard_ into +Turkish. But it is not Borrow's linguistic accomplishments that have +kept his name fresh, and will continue to keep it fresh for many a +generation to come. It is his character, his unique character as +expressed, or partially expressed, in his books. Among all the +"remarkable individuals" (to use his favourite expression) who during +the middle of the 19th century figured in the world of letters, Borrow +was surely the most eccentric, the most whimsical, and in many ways the +most extraordinary. There was scarcely a point in which he resembled any +other writer of his time. With regard to _Lavengro_ and _The Romany +Rye_, there has been very much discussion as to how much _Dichtung_ is +mingled with the _Wahrheit_ in those fascinating books. Had it not been +for the amazingly clumsy pieces of fiction which he threw into the +narrative, few readers would have doubted the autobiographical nature of +the two books. Such incidents as are here alluded to shed an air of +unreality over the whole. It has been said by Dr Knapp that Borrow never +created a character, and that to one who thoroughly knows the times and +Borrow's writings the originals are easily recognizable. This is true, +no doubt, as regards people whom he knew at Norwich, and indeed +generally as regards those he knew before the period of his gipsy +wanderings. It must not be supposed, however, that such a character as +the man who "touched" to avert the evil chance is in any sense a +portrait of an individual with whom he had been brought into contact. +The character has so many of Borrow's own eccentricities that it might +rather be called a portrait of himself. There was nothing that Borrow +strove against with more energy than the curious impulse, which he seems +to have shared with Dr Johnson, to touch the objects along his path in +order to save himself from the evil chance. He never conquered the +superstition. In walking through Richmond Park with the present writer +he would step out of his way constantly to touch a tree, and he was +offended if the friend he was with seemed to observe it. Many of the +peculiarities of the man who taught himself Chinese in order to distract +his mind from painful thoughts were also Borrow's own. (T. W.-D.) + + + + +BORSIPPA (_Barsip_ in the Babylonian and Assyrian inscriptions; _Borsif_ +in the Talmud; mod. Birs or Birs-Nimrud), the Greek name of an ancient +city about 15 m. S.W. of Babylon and 10 m. from Hillah, on the Nahr +Hindieh, or Hindieh canal, formerly known as "the Euphrates of +Borsippa," and even during the Arabic period called "the river of Birs." +Borsippa was the sister city of Babylon, and is often called in the +inscriptions Babylon II., also the "city without equal." Its patron god +was Nebo or Nabu. Like Babylon Borsippa is not mentioned in the oldest +inscriptions, but comes into importance first after Khammurabi had made +Babylon the capital of the whole land, somewhere before 2000 B.C. He +built or rebuilt the temple E-Zida at this place, dedicating it, +however, to Marduk (Bel-Merodach). But although Khammurabi himself does +not seem to have honoured Nebo (q.v.), subsequent kings recognized him +as the deity of E-Zida and made him the son of Marduk (q.v.). Each new +year his image was taken to visit his father, in Babylon, who in his +turn gave him escort homeward, and his temple was second in wealth and +importance only to E-Saggila, the temple of Marduk in Babylon. As with +Babylon, so with Borsippa, the time of Nebuchadrezzar was the period of +its greatest prosperity. In general Borsippa shared the fate of Babylon, +falling into decay after the time of Alexander, and finally in the +middle ages into ruins. The site of the ancient city is represented by +two large ruin mounds. Of these the north-westerly, the lower of the +two, but the larger in superficial area, is called Ibrahim Khalil, from +a _ziara_, or shrine, of Abraham, the friend of God, which stands on its +highest point. According to Arabic lore, based on Jewish legends, at +this spot Nimrod sought to throw Abraham into a fiery furnace, from +which he was saved by the grace of God. Excavations were first conducted +here by the French Expedition Scientifique en Mesopotamie in 1852, with +small result. In 1879 and 1880 Hormuzd Rassam conducted more extensive, +although unsystematic, excavations in this mound, finding a +considerable quantity of inscribed tablets and the like, now in the +British Museum; but by far the greater part of this ruin still remains +unexplored. The south-westerly mound, the Birs proper, is probably the +most conspicuous and striking ruin in all Irak. On the top of a hill +over 100 ft. high rises a pointed mass of vitrified brick split down the +centre, over 40 ft. high, about which lie huge masses of vitrified +brick, some as much as 15 ft. in diameter, and also single enamelled +bricks, generally bearing an inscription of Nebuchadrezzar, twisted, +curled and broken, apparently by great heat. Jewish and Arabic tradition +makes this the Tower of Babel, which was supposed to have been destroyed +by lightning. Excavations conducted here by Sir Henry Rawlinson in 1854 +showed it to be the stage tower or _ziggurat_, called the "house of the +seven divisions of heaven and earth," of E-Zida, the temple of Nebo. On +a large platform rose seven solid terraces, each smaller than the one +below it, the lowest being 272 ft. square and 26 ft. high. Each of these +terraces was faced with bricks of a different colour. The approach to +this _ziggurat_ was toward the north-east, and on this side lay also the +principal rooms of the temple of which this was the tower. These rooms +were partly excavated by Hormuzd Rassam in 1879-1880. In its final form +this temple and tower were the work of Nebuchadrezzar, but from the clay +cylinders found by Sir Henry Rawlinson in two of the corners of the +tower it appears that he restored an incomplete _ziggurat_ of a former +king, "which was long since fallen into decay." Some of the best +authorities believe that it was this ambitious but incomplete and +ruinous _ziggurat_, existing before the time of Nebuchadrezzar, which +gave occasion to or afforded local attachment for the Biblical story of +the Tower of Babel. + + AUTHORITIES.--H.C. Rawlinson, _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_ + (1860); J. Oppert, _Expedition scientifique en Mesopotamie_ (Paris, + 1863); F. Delitzsch, _Wo lag das Paradies?_ (Leipzig, 1881); J.P. + Peters, _Nippur_ (New York and London, 1896); H. Rassam, _Asshur and + the Land of Nimrod_ (London and New York, 1897); M. Jastrow, _Religion + of Babylonia and Assyria_ (Boston, 1898); see also BABYLON, BABEL. + (J. P. Pe.) + + + + +BORT, or BOART, an inferior kind of diamond, unfit for cutting but +useful as an abrasive agent. The typical bort occurs in small spherical +masses, of greyish colour, rough or drusy on the surface, and showing on +fracture a radiate crystalline structure. These masses, known in Brazil +as bolas, are often called "shot bort" or "round bort." Much of the bort +consists of irregular aggregates of imperfect crystals. In trade, the +term bort is extended to all small and impure diamonds, and crystalline +fragments of diamond, useless as gem-stones. A large proportion of the +output of some of the South African mines consists of such material. +This bort is crushed in steel mortars to form diamond powder, which is +largely used in lapidaries' work. + + + + +BORY DE SAINT-VINCENT, JEAN BAPTISTE GEORGE MARIE (1780-1846), French +naturalist, was born at Agen in 1780. He was sent as naturalist with +Captain Nicholas Baudin's expedition to Australia in 1798, but left the +vessel at Mauritius, and spent two years in exploring Reunion and other +islands. Joining the army on his return, he was present at the battles +of Ulm and Austerlitz, and in 1808 went to Spain with Marshal Soult. His +attachment to the Napoleonic dynasty and dislike to the Bourbons were +shown in various ways during 1815, and his name was consequently placed +on the list of the proscribed; but after wandering in disguise from +place to place he was allowed quietly to return to Paris in 1820. In +1829 he was placed at the head of a scientific expedition to the Morea, +and in 1839 he had charge of the exploration of Algeria. He died on the +23rd of December 1846. He was editor of the _Dictionnaire classique +d'histoire naturelle_, and among his separate productions were:--_Essais +sur les Iles Fortunees_ (1802); _Voyage dans les Iles d'Afrique_ (1803); +_Voyage souterrain, ou description du plateau de Saint-Pierre de +Maestricht et de ses vastes cryptes_ (1821); _L'Homme, essai zoologique +sur le genre humain_ (1827); _Resume de la geographie de la Peninsule_ +(1838). + + + + +BORZHOM, a watering-place of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of +Tiflis, and 93 m. by rail W. of the city of Tiflis. Pop. (1897) 5800. +It is situated at an altitude of 2750 ft. in the Borzhom gorge, a narrow +rift in the Little Caucasus mountains, and on the Kura. Its warm +climate, its two hot springs (71-1/2 deg.-82 deg. Fahr.) and its +beautiful parks make it a favourite summer resort, and give it its +popular name of "the pearl of Caucasus." The bottled mineral waters are +very extensively exported. + + + + +BOS, LAMBERT (1670-1717), Dutch scholar and critic, was born at Workum +in Friesland, where his father was headmaster of the school. He went to +the university of Franeker (suppressed by Napoleon in 1811), and was +appointed professor of Greek there in 1704; after an uneventful life he +died at Franeker in 1717. His most famous work, _Ellipses Graecae_ +(1702), was translated into English by John Seager (1830); and his +_Antiquitates Graecae_ (1714) passed through several editions. He also +published _Vetus Testamentum_, Ex Versione lxx. Interpretum (1709); +notes on Thomas Magister (1698); _Exercitationes Philologicae_ (1700); +_Animadversiones ad Scriptores quosdam Graecos_ (1715); and two small +treatises on Accents and Greek Syntax. + + + + +BOSA, a seaport and episcopal see on the W. coast of Sardinia, in the +province of Cagliari, 30 m. W. of Macomer by rail. Pop. (1901) 6846. The +height above the town is crowned by a castle of the Malaspina family. +The cathedral, founded in the 12th century, restored in the 15th, and +rebuilt in 1806, is fine. There are some tanneries, and the fishing +industry is important, but the coral production of Sicily has entirely +destroyed that of Bosa since 1887. The district produces oil and wine. +The present town of Bosa was founded in 1112 by the Malaspina, 1-1/2 m. +from the site of the ancient town (Bosa or Calmedia), where a +well-preserved church still exists. The old town is of Roman origin, but +is only mentioned by Pliny and Ptolemy, and as a station on the +coast-road in the Itineraries (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ x. 7939 seq.). One of +the inscriptions preserved in the old cathedral records the erection of +four silver statues, of Antoninus Pius, his wife Faustina and their two +sons. + + + + +BOSBOOM-TOUSSAINT, ANNA LOUISA GEERTRUIDA (1812-1886), Dutch novelist, +was born at Alkmaar in north Holland on the 16th of September 1812. Her +father, named Toussaint, a local chemist of Huguenot descent, gave her a +fair education, and at an early period of her career she developed a +taste for historical research, fostered, perhaps, by a forced indoor +life, the result of weak health. In 1851 she married the Dutch painter, +Johannes Bosboom (1817-1891), and thereafter was known as Mrs +Bosboom-Toussaint. Her first romance, _Almagro_, appeared in 1837, +followed by the _Graaf van Devonshire_ (_The Earl of Devonshire_) in +1838; the _Engelschen te Rome_ (_The English at Rome_) in 1840, and _Het +Huis Lauernesse (The House of Lauernesse_) in 1841, an episode of the +Reformation, translated into many European languages. These stories, +mainly founded upon some of the most interesting epochs of Dutch +history, betrayed a remarkable grasp of facts and situations, combined +with an undoubted mastery over her mother tongue, though her style is +sometimes involved, and not always faultless. Ten years (1840-1850) were +mainly devoted to further studies, the result of which was revealed in +1851-1854, when her _Leycester in Nederland_ (3 vols.), _Vrouwen van het +Leycestersche Tydperk (Women of Leicester's Epoch_, 3 vols.), and +_Gideon Florensz_ (3 vols.) appeared, a series dealing with Robert +Dudley's adventures in the Low Countries. After 1870 Mrs +Bosboom-Toussaint abandoned historical romance for the modern society +novel, but her _Delftsche Wonderdokter (The Necromancer of Delft_, 1871, +3 vols.) and _Majoor Frans_ (1875, 3 vols.) did not command the success +of her earlier works. _Major Frank_ has been translated into English +(1885). She died at the Hague on the 13th of April 1886. Her novels have +been published there in a collected edition (1885-1888, 25 vols.). + + + + +BOSC, LOUIS AUGUSTIN GUILLAUME (1759-1828), French naturalist, was born +at Paris on the 29th of January 1759. He was educated at the college of +Dijon, where he showed a taste for botany, and he followed up his +studies in Paris at the Jardin des Plantes, where he made the +acquaintance of Mme M.J.P. Roland. At the age of eighteen he obtained a +government appointment, and he rose to be one of the chief officials in +the postal department. Under the ministry of J.M. Roland in 1792 he also +held the post of superintendent of prisons, but the violent outbreaks of +1793 drove him from office, and compelled him to take refuge in flight. +For some months he lay concealed at Sainte-Radegonde, in the forest of +Montmorency, barely subsisting on roots and vegetables. He was enabled +to return to Paris on the fall of Robespierre, and under the title +_Appel a l'impartiale posterite par la citoyenne Roland_ published a +manuscript Mme Roland had entrusted to him before her execution. Soon +afterwards he set out for America, resolving to explore the natural +riches of that country. The immense materials he gathered were never +published in a complete form, but much went to enrich the works of +B.G.E. de Lacepede, P.A. Latreille and others. After his return, on the +establishment of the Directory, he was reinstated in his old office. Of +this he was again deprived by the _coup d'etat_ of 1799, and for a time +he was in great destitution; but by his copious contributions to +scientific literature he contrived to support himself and to lay the +foundations of a solid reputation. He was engaged on the new +_Dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle_, and on the _Encyclopedie +methodique_, he edited the _Dictionnaire raisonne et universel +d'agriculture_, and was one of the editors of the _Annales de +l'agriculture francaise_. He was made inspector of the gardens at +Versailles, and of the public nurseries belonging to the ministry of the +interior. The last years of his life were devoted to an elaborate work +on the vine, for which he had amassed an immense quantity of materials, +but his death at Paris on the 10th of July 1828 prevented its +completion. + + + + +BOSCAN ALMOGAVER, JUAN (1490?-1542), Spanish poet, was born about the +close of the 15th century. He was a Catalan of patrician birth, and, +after some years of military service, became tutor to the duke of Alva. +His poems were published in 1543 at Barcelona by his widow. They are +divided into sections which mark the stages of Boscan's poetical +evolution. The first book contains poems in the old Castilian metres, +written in his youth, before 1526, in which year he became acquainted +with the Venetian ambassador, Andrea Navagiero, who urged him to adopt +Italian measures, and this advice gave a new turn to Boscan's activity. +The remaining books contain a number of pieces in the Italian manner, +the longest of these being _Hero y Leander_, a poem in blank verse, +based on Musaeus. Boscan's best effort, the _Octava Rima_, is a skilful +imitation of Petrarch and Bembo. Boscan also published in 1534 an +admirable translation of Castiglione's _Il Cortegiano_. Italian measures +had been introduced into Spanish literature by Santillana and +Villalpando; it is Boscan's distinction to have naturalized these forms +definitively, and to have founded a poetic school. + + The best edition of his poems is that issued at Madrid in 1875 by W.J. + Knapp; for his indebtedness to earlier writers, see Francesco Flamini, + _Studi di storia literaria italiana e straniera_ (Livorno, 1895). + + + + +BOSCASTLE, a small seaport and watering-place in the Launceston +parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 5 m. N. of Camelford +station on the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (civil parish of +Forrabury, 1901) 329. The village rises steeply above a very narrow cove +on the north coast, sheltered, but difficult of access, vessels having +to be warped into it by means of hawsers. A mound on a hill above the +harbour marks the site of a Norman castle. The parish church of St +Symphorian, Forrabury, also stands high, overlooking the Atlantic from +Willapark Point. The tower is without bells, and the tradition that a +ship bearing a peal hither was wrecked within sight of the harbour, and +that the lost bells may still be heard to toll beneath the waves, has +been made famous by a ballad of the Cornish poet Robert Stephen Hawker, +vicar of Moorwinstow. The coast scenery near Boscastle is severely +beautiful, with abrupt cliffs fully exposed to the sea, and broken only +by a few picturesque inlets such as Crackington Cove and Pentargan Cove. +Inland are bare moors, diversified by narrow dales. + + + + +BOSCAWEN, EDWARD (1711-1761), British admiral, was born on the 19th of +August 1711. He was the third son of Hugh, 1st Viscount Falmouth. He +early entered the navy, and in 1739 distinguished himself at the taking +of Porto Bello. At the siege of Cartagena, in March 1741, at the head of +a party of seamen, he took a battery of fifteen 24-pounders, while +exposed to the fire of another fort. On his return to England in the +following year he married, and entered parliament as member for Truro. +In 1744 he captured the French frigate "Medee," commanded by M. de +Hocquart, the first ship taken in the war. In May 1747 he signalized +himself in the engagement off Cape Finisterre, and was wounded in the +shoulder with a musket-ball. Hocquart again became his prisoner, and the +French ships, ten in number, were taken. On the 15th of July he was made +rear-admiral and commander-in-chief of the expedition to the East +Indies. On the 29th of July 1748 he arrived off Fort St David's, and +soon after laid siege to Pondicherry; but the sickness of his men and +the approach of the monsoons led to the raising of the siege. Soon +afterwards he received news of the peace, and Madras was delivered up to +him by the French. In April 1750 he arrived in England, and was the next +year made one of the lords of the Admiralty, and chosen an elder brother +of the Trinity House. In February 1755 he was appointed vice-admiral, +and in April he intercepted the French squadron bound to North America, +and took the "Alcide" and "Lys" of sixty-four guns each. Hocquart became +his prisoner for the third time, and Boscawen returned to Spithead with +his prizes and 1500 prisoners. For this exploit, he received the thanks +of parliament. In 1758 he was appointed admiral of the blue and +commander-in-chief of the expedition to Cape Breton, when, in +conjunction with General Amherst, he took the fortress of Louisburg, and +the island of Cape Breton--services for which he again received the +thanks of the House of Commons. In 1759, being appointed to command in +the Mediterranean, he pursued the French fleet, commanded by M. de la +Clue, and after a sharp engagement in Lagos Bay took three large ships +and burnt two, returning to Spithead with his prizes and 2000 prisoners. +The victory defeated the proposed concentration of the French fleet in +Brest to cover an invasion of England. In December 1760 he was appointed +general of the marines, with a salary of L3000 per annum, and was also +sworn a member of the privy council. He died at his seat near Guildford +on the 10th of January 1761. + + + + +BOSCH (or Bos), JEROM (c. 1460-1518), the name generally given, from his +birthplace Hertogenbosch, to Hieronymus van Aeken, the Dutch painter. He +was probably a pupil of Albert Ouwater, and may be called the Breughel +of the 15th century, for he devoted himself to the invention of bizarre +types, _diableries_, and scenes of the kind generally associated with +Breughel, whose art is to a great extent based on Bosch's. He was a +satirist much in advance of his time, and one of the most original and +ingenious artists of the 15th century. He exercised great influence on +Lucas Cranach, who frequently copied his paintings. His works were much +admired in Spain, especially by Philip II., at whose court Bosch painted +for some time. One of his chief works is the "Last Judgment" at the +Berlin gallery, which also owns a little "St Jerome in the Desert." "The +Fall of the Rebellious Angels" and the "St Anthony" triptych are in the +Brussels museum, and two important triptychs are at the Munich gallery. +The Lippmann collection in Berlin contains an important "Adoration of +the Magi," the Antwerp museum a "Passion," and a practically unknown +painting from his brush is at the Naples museum. + + + + +BOSCOVICH, ROGER JOSEPH (1711?-1787), Italian mathematician and natural +philosopher, one of the earliest of foreign _savants_ to adopt Newton's +gravitation theory, was born at Ragusa in Dalmatia on the 18th of May +1711, according to the usual account, but ten years earlier according to +Lalande (_Eloge_, 1792). In his fifteenth year, after passing through +the usual elementary studies, he entered the Society of Jesus. On +completing his noviciate, which was spent at Rome, he studied +mathematics and physics at the Collegium Romanum; and so brilliant was +his progress in these sciences that in 1740 he was appointed professor +of mathematics in the college. For this post he was especially fitted by +his acquaintance with recent advances in science, and by his skill in a +classical severity of demonstration, acquired by a thorough study of the +works of the Greek geometricians. Several years before this appointment +he had made himself a name by an elegant solution of the problem to find +the sun's equator and determine the period of its rotation by +observation of the spots on its surface. Notwithstanding the arduous +duties of his professorship he found time for investigation in all the +fields of physical science; and he published a very large number of +dissertations, some of them of considerable length, on a wide variety of +subjects. Among these subjects were the transit of Mercury, the Aurora +Borealis, the figure of the earth, the observation of the fixed stars, +the inequalities in terrestrial gravitation, the application of +mathematics to the theory of the telescope, the limits of certainty in +astronomical observations, the solid of greatest attraction, the +cycloid, the logistic curve, the theory of comets, the tides, the law of +continuity, the double refraction micrometer, various problems of +spherical trigonometry, &c. In 1742 he was consulted, with other men of +science, by the pope, Benedict XIV., as to the best means of securing +the stability of the dome of St Peter's, Rome, in which a crack had been +discovered. His suggestion was adopted. Shortly after he engaged to take +part in the Portuguese expedition for the survey of Brazil, and the +measurement of a degree of the meridian; but he yielded to the urgent +request of the pope that he would remain in Italy and undertake a +similar task there. Accordingly, in conjunction with Christopher Maire, +an English Jesuit, he measured an arc of two degrees between Rome and +Rimini. The operations were begun towards the close of 1750, and were +completed in about two years. An account of them was published in 1755, +entitled _De Litteraria expeditione per pontificam ditionem ad +dimetiendos duos meridiani gradus a PP. Maire et Boscovich_. The value +of this work was increased by a carefully prepared map of the States of +the Church. A French translation appeared in 1770. A dispute having +arisen between the grand duke of Tuscany and the republic of Lucca with +respect to the drainage of a lake, Boscovich was sent, in 1757, as agent +of Lucca to Vienna, and succeeded in bringing about a satisfactory +arrangement of the matter. In the following year he published at Vienna +his famous work, _Theoria philosophiae naturalis redacta ad unicam legem +virium in natura existentium_, containing his atomic theory (see +MOLECULE). Another occasion for the exercise of his diplomatic ability +soon after presented itself. A suspicion having arisen on the part of +the British government that ships of war had been fitted out in the port +of Ragusa for the service of France, and that the neutrality of Ragusa +had thus been violated, Boscovich was selected to undertake an embassy +to London (1760), to vindicate the character of his native place and +satisfy the government. This mission he discharged successfully, with +credit to himself and satisfaction to his countrymen. During his stay in +England he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He soon after paid +this society the compliment of dedicating to it his Latin poem, entitled +_De Solis et Lunae Defectibus_ (London, 1764). This prolix composition, +one of a class which at that time was much in vogue--metrical epitomes +of the facts of science--contains in about five thousand lines, +illustrated by voluminous notes, a compendium of astronomy. It was for +the most part written on horseback, during the author's rides in the +country while engaged in his meridian measurements. The book is +characterized by G.B.J. Delambre as "uninstructive to an astronomer and +unintelligible to any one else." + +On leaving England Boscovich travelled in Turkey, but ill-health +compelled him soon to return to Italy. In 1764 he was called to the +chair of mathematics at the university of Pavia, and this post he held, +together with the directorship of the observatory of Brera, for six +years. He was invited by the Royal Society of London to undertake an +expedition to California to observe the transit of Venus in 1769; but +this was prevented by the recent decree of the Spanish government for +the expulsion of the Jesuits from its dominions. The vanity, egotism and +petulance of Boscovich provoked his rivals and made him many enemies, so +that in hope of peace he was driven to frequent change of residence. +About 1770 he removed to Milan, where he continued to teach and to hold +the directorship of the observatory of Brera; but being deprived of his +post by the intrigues of his associates he was about to retire to his +native place, when the news reached him (1773) of the suppression of his +order in Italy. Uncertainty as to his future led him to accept an +invitation from the king of France to Paris, where he was naturalized +and was appointed director of optics for the marine, an office +instituted for him, with a pension of 8000 livres. He remained there ten +years, but his position became irksome, and at length intolerable. He +continued, however, to devote himself diligently to the pursuits of +science, and published many remarkable memoirs. Among them were an +elegant solution of the problem to determine the orbit of a comet from +three observations, and memoirs on the micrometer and achromatic +telescopes. In 1783 he returned to Italy, and spent two years at +Bassano, where he occupied himself with the publication of his _Opera +pertinentia ad opticam et astronomiam, &c._, which appeared in 1785 in +five volumes quarto. After a visit of some months to the convent of +Vallombrosa, he went to Milan and resumed his literary labours. But his +health was failing, his reputation was on the wane, his works did not +sell, and he gradually sank a prey to illness and disappointment. He +fell into melancholy, imbecility, and at last madness, with lucid +intervals, and died at Milan on the 15th (13th) of February 1787. In +addition to the works already mentioned Boscovich published _Elementa +universae matheseos_ (1754), the substance of the course of study +prepared for his pupils; and a narrative of his travels, entitled +_Giornale di un viaggio da Constantinopoli in Polonia_, of which several +editions and a French translation appeared. His latest labour was the +editing of the Latin poems of his friend Benedict Stay on the philosophy +of Descartes, with scientific annotations and supplements. + (W. L. R. C.) + + + + +BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA, or BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA, two provinces formerly +included in European Turkey, which now, together with Dalmatia, form the +southernmost territories of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The name +_Herzegovina_ is also written _Hertzegovina, Hertsegovina_ or, in +Croatian, _Hercegovina_. In shape roughly resembling an equilateral +triangle, with base uppermost, Bosnia and Herzegovina cover an area of +19,696 sq. m., in the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula. They are +bounded N. and N.W. by Croatia-Slavonia; W. and S.W. by Dalmatia; S.E. +by Montenegro and the Sanjak of Novibazar; and N.E. by Servia. Opposite +to the promontory of Sabbioncello, and at the entrance to the Bocche di +Cattaro, the frontier of Herzegovina comes down to the Adriatic; but +these two strips of coast do not contain any good harbour, and extend +only for a total distance of 14-1/2 m. Bosnia is altogether an inland +territory. + +1. _Physical Features._--Along the Dalmatian border, and through the +centre of Bosnia, runs the backbone of the Dinaric Alps, which attain +their greatest altitudes (6000-7500 ft.) near Travnik, Serajevo and +Mostar. There are numerous high valleys shut in among the mountains of +this range; the most noteworthy being the plain of Livno, which lies +parallel to the Dalmatian border, at a height of 500 ft. above the sea. +The zone of highlands throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina reaches a mean +altitude of 1500 ft., while summits of more than 4000 ft. occur +frequently. To the north-east of the Dinaric Alps extends a region of +mountain, moor and forest, with deeply sunk alluvial basins, which +finally expand into the lowlands of the Posavina, or Vale of the Save, +forming the southernmost fringe of the Hungarian Alfold. Bosnia belongs +wholly to the watershed of the Save, and its rivers to the Danubian +system, no large stream finding a way to the Adriatic. The Save flows +eastward along the northern frontier for 237 m. It is joined by four +main tributaries, the Drina, Bosna, Vrbas and Una. The Drina is formed +on the Montenegrin frontier by the united streams of the Tara and Piva; +curving north-eastwards past Visegrad, it marches for 102 m. with +Servian territory, and falls into the Save at Racha, after a total +course of 155 m. The Bosna issues from many springs near Serajevo, and +winds for 107 m. northward, through a succession of fertile glens, +reaching the Save 1 m. west of Samac. Farther west, the Vrbas cuts a +channel through the Dinaric Alps, and, after passing Jajce and +Banjaluka, meets the Save 94 m. from its own headwaters. The Una rises +on the Croatian border, and, after skirting the Pljesevica Planina, in +Croatia, turns sharply to the north-east; serving as a frontier stream +for 37 m. before entering the Save at Jasenovac. Its length is 98 m. At +Novi it is joined by the Sana, a considerable affluent. + +Herzegovina, which lies south of Bosnia, in a parallelogram defined by +Montenegro, Dalmatia, the Dinaric Alps, and an irregular line drawn from +a point 25 m. west-north-west of Mostar to the bend of the river +Narenta, differs in many respects from the larger territory. Its +mountains, which belong to the Adriatic watershed, and form a +continuation of the Montenegrin highlands, are less rounded and more +dolomitic in character. They descend in parallel ridges of grey Karst +limestone, south-westwards to the sea; their last summits reappear in +the multitude of rocky islands along the Dalmatian littoral. As in the +peaks of Orjen, Orobac, Samotica and Veliki Kap, their height often +exceeds 6000 ft. West of the Narenta, their flanks are in places covered +with forests of beech and pine, but north-east of that river they +present for the most part a scene of barren desolation. Their monotony +is varied only by the fruitful river-valleys and _poljes_, or upland +hollows, where the smaller towns and villages are grouped; the districts +or cantons thus formed are walled round by a natural rampart of +limestone. These _poljes_ may be described as oases in what is otherwise +a desert expanse of mountains. The surface of some, as notably the +_Mostarsko Blato_, lying west of Mostar, is marshy, and in spring forms +a lake; others are watered by streams which disappear in swallow-holes +of the rock, and make their way by underground channels either to the +sea or the Narenta. The most conspicuous example of these is the +Trebinjcica, which disappears in two swallow-holes in Popovopolye, and +after making its way by a subterranean passage through a range of +mountains, wells up in the mighty source of Ombla near Ragusa, and +hurries in undiminished volume to the Adriatic. The Narenta, or Neretva, +is the one large river of Herzegovina which flows above ground +throughout its length. Rising on the Montenegrin border, under the +Lebrsnik mountains, it flows north-westwards at the foot of the Dinaric +Alps; and, near Konjica, sweeps round suddenly to the south, and falls +into the Adriatic near Metkovic, after traversing 125 m. North of +Mostar, it cleaves a passage through the celebrated Narenta defile, a +narrow gorge, 12 m. long, overshadowed by mountains which rise on either +side and culminate in Lupoglav (6796 ft.) on the east, and Cvrstnica +(7205 ft.) on the west. + +2. _Geology and Minerals._--Geologically, the highlands of Bosnia and +Herzegovina are to be regarded, in both their orographic and tectonic +character, as a continuation of the South Alpine calcareous belt. Along +the west frontier there appear broad and strongly marked zones of +Cretaceous limestone, alternating with Jurassic and Triassic, joined by +a strip of Palaeozoic formations running from the north-west corner of +Bosnia. Next, proceeding from this region in an easterly direction, are +the Neogene freshwater formations, filling up the greatest part of the +north-east of Bosnia, as also a zone of flysch intermingled with several +strips of eruptive rock. In the south-east of Bosnia the predominant +formations are Triassic and Palaeozoic strata with red sandstone and +quartzite. Along the whole northern rim of Bosnia, as also in the +fluvial and Karst valleys (_poljes_), are found diluvial and alluvial +formations, interrupted at one place by an isolated granite layer. +Bosnia is rich in minerals, including coal, iron, copper, chrome, +manganese, cinnabar, zinc and mercury, besides marble and much excellent +building stone. Among the mountains, gold and silver were worked by the +Romans, and, in the middle ages, by the Ragusans. After 1881 the Mining +Company of Bosnia began to develop the coal and iron fields; and from +1886 its operations were continued by the government. Valuable salt is +obtained from the pits at Dolnja Tuzla, and the southern part of +Herzegovina yields asphalt and lignite. Mineral springs also abound, and +those of Ilidze, near Serajevo, have been utilized since the days of +the Romans; but the majority remained unexploited at the beginning of +the 20th century. + +3. _Climate._--In climate Bosnia differs considerably from Herzegovina. +In both alike the _scirocco_, bringing rain from the south-west, is a +prevalent wind, as well as the _bora_, the fearful north-north-easter of +Illyria, which, sweeping down the lateral valleys of the Dinaric Alps, +overwhelms everything in its path. The snow-fall is slight, and, except +on a few of the loftier peaks, the snow soon melts. In Bosnia the +weather resembles that of the south Austrian highlands, generally mild, +though apt to be bitterly cold in winter. In Serajevo the mean annual +temperature is 50 deg. Fahr. Herzegovina has more affinity to the +Dalmatian mountains, oppressively hot in summer, when the mercury often +rises beyond 110 deg. Fahr. The winter rains of the Karst region show +that it belongs to the sub-tropical climatic zone. + +4. _Fauna._--In 1893 the bones of a cave-bear (_Ursus spelaeus_) were +taken from a cavern of the Bjelasnica range, in Herzegovina, a discovery +without parallel in the Balkan Peninsula. Of existing species the bear, +wild-boar, badger, roe-deer and chamois may occasionally be seen in the +remotest wilds of mountain and forest. Hares are uncommon, and the last +red-deer was shot in 1814; but wolves, otters and squirrels abound. +Snipe, woodcock, ducks and rails, in vast flocks, haunt the banks of the +Drina and Save; while the crane, pelican, wild-swan and wild-goose are +fairly plentiful. The lammergeier (_Gypaetus barbatus_) had almost +become extinct in 1900; but several varieties of eagle and falcon are +left. Falconry was long a pastime of the Moslem landlords. The +destruction of game, recklessly carried out under Turkish rule, is +prevented by the laws of 1880, 1883 and 1893, which enforced a close +time, and rendered shooting-licences necessary. The list of reptiles +includes the venomous _Vipera ammodytes_ and _Pelias berus_, while +scorpions and lizards infest the stony wastes of the Karst. In the +museum at Serajevo there is a large entomological collection, including +the remarkable _Pogonus anophthalmus_, from the underground Karst caves. +The caves are rich in curious kinds of fish, _Paraphoxinus Gethaldii_, +which is unknown elsewhere, _Chondrostoma phoximus, Phoxinellus +alepidatus_ and others, which are caught and eaten by the peasantry. In +Herzegovina, although many of the high mountain tarns are unproductive, +the eel-fisheries of the Narenta are of considerable value. +Leech-gathering is a characteristic Bosnian industry. The streams of +both territories yield excellent trout and crayfish; salmon, sturgeon +and sterlet, from the Danube, are netted in the Save. + + + Forests. + +5. _Flora._--Serajevo museum has a collection of the Bosnian flora, +representing over 3000 species; among them, the rare _Veronica crinita, +Pinus leucodermis, Picea omorica_ and _Daphne Blagayana_. About 50% of +the occupied territory is clothed with forest. "Bosnia begins with the +forest," says a native proverb, "Herzegovina with the rock"; and this +account is, broadly speaking, accurate, although the Bosnian Karst is as +bare as that of Herzegovina. Below the mountain crests, where only the +hardiest lichens and mosses can survive, comes a belt of large timber, +including many giant trees, 200 ft. high, and 20 ft. in girth at the +level of a man's shoulder. Dense brushwood prevails on the foothills. +There are three main zones of woodland. Up to 2500 ft. among the ranges +of northern Bosnia, the sunnier slopes are overgrown by oaks, the +shadier by beeches. Farther south, in central Bosnia, the oak rarely +mounts beyond the foothills, being superseded by the beech, elm, ash, +fir and pine, up to 5000 ft. The third zone is characterized by the +predominance, up to 6000 ft., of the fir, pine and other conifers. In +all three zones occur the chestnut, aspen, willow (especially _Salix +laurea_), hornbeam, birch, alder, juniper and yew; while the mountain +ash, hazel, wild plum, wild pear and other wild fruit trees are found at +rarer intervals. Until 1878 the forests were almost neglected; +afterwards, the government was forced to levy a graduated tax on goats, +owing to the damage they inflicted upon young trees, and to curtail the +popular rights of cutting timber and fir-wood and of pasturage. These +measures were largely successful, but in 1902 the export of oak staves +was discontinued owing to a shortage of supply. + +6. _Agriculture._--In 1895, according to the agricultural survey, the +surface of Bosnia and Herzegovina was laid out as follows:-- + + Acres. + Plough-land. 2,355,499 + Garden-ground. 103,040 + Meadow. 739,200 + Vineyards. 12,598 + Pasture. 1,875,840 + Forest. 5,670,619 + Unproductive. 210,998 + +Apart from the arid wastes of the Karst, the soil is well adapted for +the growing of cereals, especially Indian corn; olives, vines, +mulberries, figs, pomegranates, melons, oranges, lemons, rice and +tobacco flourish in Herzegovina and the more sheltered portions of +Bosnia. Near Doboj, on the Bosna, there is a state sugar-refinery, for +which beetroot is largely grown in the vicinity. _Pyrethrum +cinerariaefolium_ is exported for the manufacture of insect-powder, and +sunflowers are cultivated for the oil contained in their seeds. The +plum-orchards of the Posavina furnish prunes and a spirit called +_slivovica, shlivovitsa_ or _sliwowitz_. This district is the +headquarters of a thriving trade in pigs. Poultry, bees and silkworms +are commonly kept. On the whole agriculture is backward, despite the +richness of the soil; for the cultivators are a very conservative race, +and prefer the methods and implements of their ancestors. Many +improvements were, nevertheless, introduced by the government after +1878. Machinery was lent to the farmers, and free grants of seed were +made. Model farms were established at Livno and at Gacko, on the +Montenegrin border; a school of viticulture near Mostar; a model +poultry-farm at Prijedor, close to the Croatian boundary; a school of +agriculture and dairy farming at Ilidze; and another school at Modric, +near the mouth of the Bosna, where a certain number of village +schoolmasters are annually trained, for six weeks, in practical +husbandry. Seed is distributed, and agricultural machinery lent, by the +government. To better the breeds of live-stock, a stud-farm was opened +near Serajevo, and foreign horses, cattle, sheep and poultry are +imported. + +7. _Land Tenure._--The _zadruga_, or household community, more common in +Servia (q.v.), survives to a small extent in Bosnia and Herzegovina; +but, as a rule, the tenure of land resembles the system called +_metayage_. At the time of the Austrian occupation (1878) it was +regulated by a Turkish enactment[1] of the 12th of September 1859. Apart +from gardens and house-property, all land was, according to this +enactment, owned by the state; in practice, it was held by the Moslem +_begs_ or _beys_ (nobles) and _agas_ (landlords), who let it to the +peasantry. The landlord received from his tenant (_kmet_) a fixed +percentage, usually one third (_tretina_), of the annual produce; and, +of the remaining two thirds, the cash equivalent of one tenth +(_desetina_) went to the state. The amount of the _desetina_ was always +fixed first, and served as a basis for the assessment of the _tretina_, +which, however, was generally paid in kind. At any time the tenant could +relinquish his holding; but he could only be evicted for refusing to pay +his _tretina_, for wilful neglect of his land or for damage done to it. +The landlord was bound to keep his tenants' dwellings and outhouses in +repair. Should he desire to sell his estates, the right of pre-emption +belonged to the tenants, or, in default, to the neighbours. Thus foreign +speculators in land were excluded, while a class of peasant proprietors +was created; its numbers being increased by the custom that, if any man +reclaimed a piece of waste land, it became his own property after ten +years. The Turkish land-system remained in force during the entire +period of the occupation (1878-1908). It had worked, on the whole, +satisfactorily; and between 1885 and 1895 the number of peasants farming +their own land rose from 117,000 to 200,000. One conspicuous feature of +the Bosnian land-system is the Moslem _Vakuf_, or ecclesiastical +property, consisting of estates dedicated to such charitable purposes as +poor-relief, and the endowment of mosques, schools, hospitals, +cemeteries and baths. It is administered by a central board of Moslem +officials, who meet in Sarajevo, under state supervision. Its income +rose to L25,000 in 1895, having quadrupled itself in ten years. The +_Vakuf_ tenants were at that time extremely prosperous, for their rent +had been fixed for ten years in advance on the basis of the year's +harvest, and so had not risen proportionately to the value of their +holdings. + +8. _Industries and Commerce._--Beside agriculture, which employed over +88% of the whole population in 1895, the other industries are +insignificant. Chief among them are weaving and leather and metal work, +carried on by the workmen in their own houses. There are also government +workshops, opened with a view to a higher technical and artistic +development of the house industry. More particularly, chased and inlaid +metallic wares, _bez_ (thin cotton) and carpet-weaving receive +government support. Besides the sugar-refinery already mentioned, there +were in 1900 four tobacco factories, a national printing-press, an +annular furnace for brick-burning, an iron-foundry and several +blast-furnaces, under the management of the state. Among the larger +private establishments there existed in the same year seven breweries, +one brandy distillery, two jam, two soap and candle factories, two +building and furniture works, a factory for spinning thread, one iron +and steel works, one paper and one ammonia and soda factory, and one +mineral-oil refinery. + +In respect of foreign trade Bosnia and Herzegovina were in 1882 included +in the customs and commercial system of Austria-Hungary, to the +extinction of all intermediate imposts. Since 1898 special statistics +have been drawn up respecting their trade also with Austria and Hungary. +According to these statistics the most important articles of export are +coal and turf, fruit, minerals, soda, iron and steel, and cattle. Other +articles of export are chemicals, dyeing and tanning stuffs, tobacco, +sugar-beet and kitchen-salt. The imports consist principally of food +stuffs, building materials, drinks, sugar, machinery, glass, fats, +clothes, wooden and stone wares, and various manufactured goods. + +There is a national bank in Serajevo, which carries on a hypothecary +credit business and manages the wholesale trade of the tobacco +factories. There are savings banks in Banjaluka, Bjelina and Brcka. + +9. _Communications._--The construction of carriage-roads, wholly +neglected by the Turks, was carried out on a large scale by the +Austrians. Two railways were also built, in connexion with the Hungarian +state system. One crosses the Una at Kostajnica, and, after skirting the +right bank of that river as far as Novi, strikes eastward to Banjaluka. +The other, a narrow-gauge line, crosses the Save at Bosna Brod, and +follows the Bosna to Serajevo, throwing out branches eastward beyond +Dolnja Tuzla, and westward to Jajce and Bugojno. It then pierces through +the mountains of northern Herzegovina, traverses the Narenta valley, and +runs almost parallel with the coast to Trebinje, Ragusa and the Bocche +di Cattaro. Up to this point the railways of the occupied territory were +complete in 1901. A farther line, from Serajevo to the frontiers of +Servia and Novibazar, was undertaken in 1902, and by 1906 782 m. of +railway were open. Small steamers ply on the Drina, Save and Una, but +the Bosna, though broad from its very source, is, like the Vrbas, too +full of shallows to be utilized; while the Narenta only begins to be +navigable when it enters Dalmatia. All the railway lines, like the +postal, telegraphic and telephonic services, are state property. In many +of the principal towns there are also government hotels. + +Serajevo, with 41,543 inhabitants in 1895, is the capital of the +combined provinces, and other important places are Mostar (17,010), the +capital of Herzegovina, Banjaluka (14,812), Dolnja Tuzla (11,034), +Travnik (6626), Livno (5273), Visoko(5000), Foca (4217), Jajce (3929) +and Trebinje (2966). All these are described in separate articles. + +10. _Population and National Characteristics._--In 1895 the population, +which tends to increase slowly, with a preponderance of males over +females, numbered 1,568,092. The alien element is small, consisting +chiefly of Austro-Hungarians, gipsies, Italians and Jews. Spanish is a +comomon language of the Jews, whose ancestors fled hither, during the +16th century, to escape the Inquisition. The natives are officially +described as Bosniaks, but classify themselves according to religion. +Thus the Roman Catholics prefer the name of Croats, Hrvats or Latins; +the Orthodox, of Serbs; the Moslems, of Turks. All alike belong to the +Serbo-Croatian branch of the Slavonic race; and all speak a language +almost identical with Servian, though written by the Roman Catholics in +Latin instead of Cyrillic letters. A full account of this language, and +its literature, is given under SERVIA and CROATIA-SLAVONIA. To avoid +offending either "Serbs" or "Croats," it is officially designated +"Bosnisch." In some parts of Herzegovina the dress, manners and physical +type of the peasantry are akin to those of Montenegro. The Bosnians or +Bosniaks resemble their Servian kinsfolk in both appearance and +character. They have the same love for poetry, music and romance; the +same intense pride in their race and history; many of the same +superstitions and customs. The Christians retain the Servian costume, +modified in detail, as by the occasional use of the turban or fez. The +"Turkish" women have in some districts abandoned the veil; but in others +they even cover the eyes when they leave home. Polygamy is almost +unknown, possibly because many of the "Turks" are descended from the +austere Bogomils, who were, in most cases, converted to Islam, but more +probably because the "Turks" are as a rule too poor to provide for more +than one wife on the scale required by Islamic law. In general, the +people of Bosnia and Herzegovina are sober and thrifty, subsisting +chiefly on Indian corn, dried meat, milk and vegetables. Their houses +are built of timber and thatch, or clay tiles, except in the Karst +region, where stone is more plentiful than wood. Family ties are strong, +and the women are not ill-treated, although they share in all kinds of +manual labour. + +11. _Government._--At the time of the Austrian annexation in 1908, the +only remaining token of Ottoman suzerainty was that the foreign consuls +received their _exequatur_ from Turkey, instead of Austria; otherwise +the government of the country was conducted in the name of the Austrian +emperor, through the imperial minister of finance at Vienna, who +controlled the civil service for the occupied territory. Its central +bureau, with departments of the interior, religion and education, +finance and justice, was established at Serajevo; and its members were +largely recruited among the Austrian Slavs, who were better able than +the Germans to comprehend the local customs and language. A consultative +assembly, composed of the highest ecclesiastical authorities, together +with 12 popular representatives, also met at Serajevo. For +administrative purposes the country was divided into 6 districts or +prefectures (_kreise_), which were subdivided into 49 subprefectures +(_bezirke_). + +Every large town has a mayor and deputy mayor, appointed by the +government, and a town council, of whom one third are similarly +appointed, while the citizens choose the rest; a proportionate number of +councillors representing each religious community. To ensure economy, +the decisions of this body are supervised by a government commissioner. +The commune is preserved, somewhat as in Servia (q.v.), but with +modified powers. Each district has its court of law, where cases are +tried by three official judges and two assessors, selected from the +leading citizens. The assessors vote equally with the judges, and three +votes decide the verdict. Except where the litigants and witnesses are +German, the Serbo-Croatian language is used. An appeal, on points of law +alone, may be carried to the supreme court in Serajevo, and there tried +by five judges without assessors. In cases not involving a sum greater +than 300 florins (L25), no appeal will lie; and where only 50 florins +(L4:3:4) are in question, the case is summarily decided at the +_Bagatelle Gericht_, or court for trifling cases. The number of lawyers +admitted to practice is strictly limited. As far as possible, the +Turkish law was retained during the period of occupation; all cases +between Moslems were settled in separate courts by Moslem judges, +against whom there was an appeal to the supreme court, aided by +assessors. All able-bodied males are liable, on reaching their 21st +year, for 3 years' service with the colours, and 9 years in the reserve. +The garrison numbers about 20,000 Austrian troops, and there are 7100 +native troops. The principal military stations are Bjelina, Zvornik, +Visegrad, Gorazda, Foca, Bilek, Avtovac and Trebinje, along the eastern +frontier; Mostar and Stolac in the south; Livno in the west; and Bihac +in the north. + +12. _Religion._--In 1895 43% of the population were Orthodox Christians, +35% Moslems and 21% Roman Catholics. The patriarch of Constantinople is +the nominal head of the Orthodox priesthood; but by an arrangement +concluded in 1879, his authority was delegated to the Austrian emperor, +in exchange for a revenue equal to the tribute previously paid by the +clergy of the provinces; and his nominations for the metropolitanate of +Serajevo, and the bishoprics of Dolnja Tuzla, Banjaluka and Mostar +require the imperial assent. Under Turkish rule the communes chose their +own parish priests, but this right is now vested in the government. The +Roman Catholics have an archbishop in Serajevo, a bishop in Mostar and +an apostolic administrator in Banjaluka. Serajevo is also the seat of +the Jewish chief rabbi; and of the highest Moslem ecclesiastic, or +_reis-el-ulema_, who with his council is nominated and paid by the +government. The inferior Moslem clergy draw their stipends from the +_Vakuf_. Considerable bitterness prevails between the rival confessions, +each aiming at political ascendancy, but the government favours none. In +order to conciliate even the Moslems, who include the bulk of the great +landholders and of the urban population, its representatives visit the +mosques in state on festivals; grants are made for the Mecca pilgrimage; +and even the howling Dervishes in Serajevo are maintained by the state. + +13. _Education._--Education for boys and girls between the ages of seven +and fifteen is free, but not compulsory. The state supports primary +schools (352 in 1905), where reading, writing, arithmetic and history +are taught; and separate instruction is given by the Orthodox, Roman +Catholic, Jewish and Moslem clergy. There are also various private +schools, belonging to the different religious communities. These receive +a grant from the government, which nevertheless encourages all parents +to send their children to its own schools. One of the earliest and +best-known private schools is the orphanage at Serajevo, founded in 1869 +by two English ladies, Miss Irby and Miss Mackenzie. In the Moslem +schools, which, in 1905, comprised 855 _mektebs_ or primary schools, and +41 _madrasas_ or high schools, instruction is usually given in Turkish +or Arabic; while in Orthodox schools the books are printed in Cyrillic +characters. + +For higher education there were in 1908 three gymnasia, a real-school at +Banjaluka, a technical college and a teachers' training-college at +Serajevo, where, also, is the state school for Moslem law-students, +called _scheriatschule_ from the _sheri_ or Turkish code; and various +theological, commercial and art institutes. Promising pupils are +frequently sent to Vienna University, with scholarships, which may be +forfeited if the holders engage in political agitation. + +14. _Antiquities._--Up to 1900 no traces of palaeolithic man had been +discovered in Bosnia or Herzegovina; but many later prehistoric remains +are preserved in Serajevo museum. The neolithic station of Butmir, near +Ilidze, was probably a lake-dwellers' colony, and has yielded numerous +stone and horn implements, clay figures and pottery. Not far off, +similar relics were found at Sobunar, Zlatiste and Debelobrdo; iron and +bronze ornaments, vessels and weapons, often of elaborate design, occur +in the huts and cemeteries of Glasinac, and in the cemetery of Jezerine, +where they are associated with objects in silver, tin, amber, glass, &c. +Among the numerous finds made in other districts may be mentioned the +discovery, at Vrankamer, near Bihac, of 98 African coins, the oldest of +which dates from 300 B.C. Many vestiges of Roman rule survive, such as +roads, mines, ruins, tombs, coins, frescoes and inscriptions. Such +remains occur frequently near Bihac, Foca, Livno, Jajce and Serajevo; +and especially near the sources of the Drina. The period between the +downfall of Roman power, late in the 5th century, and the growth of a +Bosnian state, in the 11th, is poorer in antiquities. The later middle +ages are represented by several monasteries, and many castles, such as +those of Dervent, Doboj, Maglaj, Zepce and Vranduk, on the Bosna; Bihac, +on the Una; Prijedor and Kljuc, on the Sana; and Stolac, Gabela, +Irebinje and Konjica, in Herzegovina. The bridge across the Narenta, at +Konjica, is said to date from the 10th century. A group of signs carved +on some rocks near Visegrad have been regarded as cuneiform writing, but +are probably medieval masonic symbols. In a few cases, such as the +Begova Dzamia at Serajevo, the Foca mosques and the Mostar bridge, the +buildings raised by the Turks are of high architectural merit. More +remarkable are the tombstones, generally measuring 6 ft. in length, 3 in +height and 3 in breadth, which have been supposed to mark the graves of +the Bogomils. These are, as a rule, quite unadorned, a few only being +decorated with rude has-reliefs of animals, plants, weapons, the +crescent and star, or, very rarely, the cross. + + + Formation of the Banate. + +15. _History._--Under Roman rule Bosnia had no separate name or history, +and until the great Slavonic immigration of 636 it remained an +undifferentiated part of Illyria (q.v.). Owing to the scarcity of +authoritative documents, it is impossible to describe in detail the +events of the next three centuries. During this period Bosnia became the +generally accepted name for the valley of the Bosna (ancient +_Basanius_); and subsequently for several outlying and tributary +principalities, notably those of Soli, afterwards Tuzla; Usora, along +the south-eastern bank of the Save; Donji Kraj, the later Krajina, +Kraina or Turkish Croatia, in the north-west; and Rama, the modern +district of Livno. The old Illyrian population was rapidly absorbed or +expelled, its Latin institutions being replaced by the autonomous tribal +divisions, or _Zupanates_, of the Slavs. Pressure from Hungary and +Byzantium gradually welded these isolated social units into a single +nation, whose ruler was known as the Ban (q.v.). But the central power +remained weak, and the country possessed no strong natural frontiers. It +seems probable that the bans were originally viceroys of the Croatian +kings, who resumed their sovereignty over Bosnia from 958 to 1010. +Thenceforward, until 1180, the bans continued subject to the Eastern +empire or Hungary, with brief intervals of independence. The territory +now called Herzegovina was also subject to various foreign powers. It +comprised the principalities of Tribunia or Travunja, with its capital +at Trebinje; and Hlum or Hum, the Zachlumia of Constantine +Porphyrogenitus, who gives a clear picture of this region as it was in +the 10th century.[2] + + + Religious controversies. + +The schism between Eastern and Western Christendom left Bosnia divided +between the Greek and Latin Churches. Early in the 12th century a new +religion, that of the Bogomils (q.v.), was introduced, and denounced as +heretical. Its converts nevertheless included many of the Bosnian nobles +and the ban Kulin (1180-1204), whose reign was long proverbial for its +prosperity, owing to the flourishing state of commerce and agriculture, +and the extensive mining operations carried on by the Ragusans. An +unusually able ruler, connected by marriage with the powerful Servian +dynasty of Nemanya, and by treaty with the republic of Ragusa,[3] Kulin +perceived in the new doctrines a barrier between his subjects and +Hungary. He was compelled to recant, under strong pressure from Pope +Innocent III. and Bela III. of Hungary; but, despite all efforts, +Bogomilism incessantly gained ground. In 1232 Stephen, the successor of +Kulin, was dethroned by the native magnates, who chose instead Matthew +Ninoslav, a Bogomil. This event illustrates the three dominant +characteristics of Bosnian history: the strength of the aristocracy; the +corresponding weakness of the central authority, enhanced by the lack of +any definite rule of inheritance; and the supreme influence of religion. +Threatened by Pope Gregory IX. with a crusade, Ninoslav was baptized, +only to abjure Christianity in 1233. For six years he withstood the +Hungarian crusaders, led by Kaloman, duke of Croatia; in 1241 the Tatar +invasion of Hungary afforded him a brief respite; and in 1244 peace was +concluded after a Bosnian campaign against Croatia. A renewal of the +crusade proving equally vain, in 1247 Pope Innocent III. entered into +friendly negotiations with the ban, whose country was for the moment an +independent and formidable state. The importance attached to its +conversion is well attested by the correspondence of Pope Gregory IX. +with Ninoslav and various Bosnian ecclesiastics.[4] + + + Period of Hungarian supremacy. + +On the death of Ninoslav in 1250, vigorous efforts were made to +exterminate the Bogomil heresy; and to this end, Bela IV., who appeared +as the champion of Roman Catholicism, secured the election of his +nominee Prijesda to the banate. Direct Hungarian suzerainty lasted until +1299, the bans preserving only a shadow of their former power. From 1299 +to 1322 the country was ruled by the Croatian princes, Paul and Mladen +Subic, who, though vassals of Hungary, reunited the provinces of Upper +and Lower Bosnia, created by the Hungarians in order to prevent the +growth of a dangerous national unity. A rising of the native magnates in +1322 resulted in the election of the Bogomil, Stephen Kotromanic, last +and greatest of the Bosnian bans. + + + Stephen Kotromanic. + +At this period the Servian empire had reached its zenith; Hungary, +governed by the feeble monarch, Charles Robert of Anjou, was striving to +crush the insurgent magnates of Croatia; Venice, whose commercial +interests were imperilled, desired to restore peace and maintain the +balance of power. Dread of Servia impelled Kotromanic to aid Hungary. In +an unsuccessful war against the Croats (1322-26), from which Venice +derived the sole advantage, the ban appears to have learned the value of +sea-power; immediately afterwards he occupied the principality of Hlum +and the Dalmatian littoral between Spalato and the river Narenta. Ragusa +furnished him with money and a fleet, in return for a guarantee of +protection; commercial treaties with Venice further strengthened his +position; and the Vatican, which had instigated the Croats to invade the +dominions of their heretical neighbour (1337-40), was conciliated by his +conversion to Roman Catholicism. Defeated by the Servian tsar Dushan, +and driven to ally himself with Servia and Venice against Louis I. of +Hungary, Kotromanic returned to his allegiance in 1344. Four years later +his influence brought about a truce between Hungary and the Venetians, +who had agreed with Bosnia for mutual support against the Croats; and in +1353, the year of his death, his daughter Elizabeth was married to King +Louis. + + + Establishment of the Bosnian kingdom. + +Stephen Tvrtko, the nephew and successor of Kotromanic, was a minor, and +for thirteen years his mother, Helena, acted as regent. Confronted by +civil war, and deprived of Hlum by the Hungarians, she was compelled to +acknowledge the suzerainty of Stephen Dushan, and afterwards of Louis. +But in 1366 Tvrtko overcame all opposition at home, and forthwith +embarked on a career of conquest, recapturing Hlum and annexing part of +Dalmatia. The death of Stephen Dushan, in 1356, had left his empire +defenceless against the Hungarians, Turks and other enemies; and to win +help from Bosnia the Servian tsar Lazar ceded to Tvrtko a large tract of +territory, including the principality of Tribunia. In 1376 Tvrtko was +crowned as "Stephen I., king of Bosnia, Servia, and all the Sea-coast," +although Lazar retained his own title and a diminished authority. The +death of Louis in 1392, the regency of his widow Elizabeth, and a fresh +outbreak in Croatia, enabled Tvrtko to fulfil his predecessor's designs +by establishing a maritime state. With Venetian aid he wrested from +Hungary the entire Adriatic littoral between Fiume and Cattaro, except +the city of Zara; thus adding Dalmatia to his kingdom at the moment when +Servia was lost through the Ottoman victory of Kossovo (1389). At his +coronation he had proclaimed his purpose to revive the ancient Servian +empire; in 1378 he had married the daughter of the last Bulgarian tsar; +and it is probable that he dreamed of founding an empire which should +extend from the Adriatic to the Black Sea. The disaster of Kossovo, +though fatal to his ambition, did not immediately react on Bosnia +itself; and when Tvrtko died in 1391, his kingdom was still at the +summit of its prosperity. + + + Decline of the Bosnian kingdom. + +Kotromanic and Tvrtko had known how to crush or conciliate their +turbulent magnates, whose power reasserted itself under Dabisa (Stephen +II., 1391-1398), a brother of Tvrtko. Sigismond of Hungary profited by +the disorder that ensued to regain Croatia and Dalmatia; and in 1398 the +Turks, aided by renegade Slavs,[5] overran Bosnia. Ostoja (Stephen III., +1398-1418), an illegitimate son of Tvrtko, proved a puppet in the hands +of Hrvoje Vukcic, duke of Spalato, Sandalj Hranic,[6] and other leaders +of the aristocracy, who fought indifferently against the Turks, the +Hungarians, the king or one another. Some upheld a rival claimant to the +throne in Tvrtkovic, a legitimate son of Tvrtko, and all took sides in +the incessant feud between Bogomils and Roman Catholics. During the +reigns of Ostojic (Stephen IV., 1418-1421) and Tvrtkovic (Stephen V., +1421-1444) Bosnia was thus left an easy prey to the Turks, who exacted a +yearly tribute, after again ravaging the country, and carrying off many +thousands of slaves, with a vast store of plunder. + + + Turkish conquest. + +The losses inflicted on the Turks by Hunyadi Janos, and the attempt to +organize a defensive league among the neighbouring Christian lands, +temporarily averted the ruin of Bosnia under Thomas Ostojic (Stephen +VI., 1444-1461). Hoping to gain active support from the Vatican, Ostojic +renounced Bogomilism, and persecuted his former co-religionists, until +the menace of an insurrection forced him to grant an amnesty. His +position was endangered by the growing power of his father-in-law, +Stephen Vukcic, an ardent Bogomil, who had united Tribunia and Hlum into +a single principality. Vukcic--or _Cosaccia_, as he is frequently called +by the contemporary chroniclers, from his birthplace, Cosac--was the +first and last holder of the title "Duke of St Sava," conferred on him +by the emperor Frederick III. in 1448; and from this title is derived +the name _Herzegovina_, or "the Duchy." Hardly had the king become +reconciled with this formidable antagonist, when, in 1453, the death of +Hunyadi, and the fall of Constantinople, left Bosnia defenceless against +the Turks. In 1460 it was again invaded. Venice and the Papacy were +unable, and Hungary unwilling, to render assistance; while the Croats +proved actively hostile. Ostojic died in 1461, and his successor +Tomasevic (Stephen VII., 1461-1463) surrendered to the Turks and was +beheaded. Herzegovina, where Vukcic offered a desperate resistance, held +out until 1483; but apart from the heroic defence of Jajce, the efforts +of the Bosnians were feeble and inglorious, many of the Bogomils joining +the enemy. From 1463 the greater part of the country submitted to the +Turks; but the districts of Jajce and Srebrenica were occupied by +Hungarian garrisons, and organized as a separate "banate" or "kingdom of +Bosnia," until 1526, when the Hungarian power was broken at Mohacs. In +1528 Jajce surrendered, after repelling every attack by the Turkish +armies for 65 years. + +The fall of Jajce was the consummation of the Turkish conquest. It was +followed by the flight of large bodies of Christian refugees. Many of +the Roman Catholics withdrew into Croatia-Slavonia and south Hungary, +where they ultimately fell again under Ottoman dominion. Others found +shelter in Rome or Venice, and a large number settled in Ragusa, where +they doubtless contributed to the remarkable literary development of the +16th and 17th centuries in which the use of the Bosnian dialect was a +characteristic feature. Some of the most daring spirits waged war on +their conquerors from Clissa in Dalmatia, and afterwards from Zengg in +maritime Croatia, where they formed the notorious pirate community of +the Uskoks (q.v.). There was less inducement for the Orthodox +inhabitants to emigrate, because almost all the neighbouring lands were +governed by Moslems or Roman Catholics; and at home the peasants were +permitted to retain their creed and communal organization. Judged by its +influence on Bosnian politics, the Orthodox community was relatively +unimportant at the Turkish conquest; and its subsequent growth is +perhaps due to the official recognition of the Greek Church, as the +representative of Christianity in Turkey. The Christian aristocracy lost +its privileges, but its ancient titles of duke (_vojvod_) and count +(_knez_) did not disappear. The first was retained by the leaders who +still carried on the struggle for liberty in Montenegro; the second was +transferred to the headmen of the communes. Many of the Franciscans +refused to abandon their work, and in 1463 they received a charter from +the sultan Mahomet II., which is still preserved in the monastery of +Fojnica, near Travnik. This toleration of religious orders, though it +did not prevent occasional outrages, remained to the last characteristic +of Turkish policy in Bosnia; and even in 1868 a colony of Trappist monks +was permitted to settle in Banjaluka. + + + Bosnia under Turkish rule. + +The Turkish triumph was the opportunity of the Bogomils, who +thenceforth, assuming a new character, controlled the destinies of their +country for more than three centuries. Bosnia was regarded by successive +sultans as the gateway into Hungary; hatred of the Hungarians and their +religion was hereditary among the Bogomils. Thus the desire for +vengeance and the prospect of a brilliant military career impelled the +Bogomil magnates to adopt the creed of Islam, which, in its austerity, +presented some points of resemblance to their own doctrines. The nominal +governor of the country was the Turkish _vali_, who resided at Banjaluka +or Travnik, and rarely interfered in local affairs, if the taxes were +duly paid. Below him ranked the newly converted Moslem aristocracy, who +adopted the dress, titles and etiquette of the Turkish court, without +relinquishing their language or many of their old customs. They dwelt in +fortified towns or castles, where the vali was only admitted on +sufferance for a few days; and, at the outset, they formed a separate +military caste, headed by 48 _kapetans_--landholders exercising +unfettered authority over their retainers and Christian serfs, but +bound, in return, to provide a company of mounted troops for the service +of their sovereign. Their favourite pursuits were fighting, either +against a common enemy or among themselves, hunting, hawking and +listening to the minstrels who celebrated their exploits. Their yearly +visits to Serajevo assumed in time the character of an informal +parliament, for the discussion of national questions; and their rights +tended always to increase, and to become hereditary, in fact, though not +in law. In every important campaign of the Turkish armies, these +descendants of the Bogomils were represented; they amassed considerable +wealth from the spoils of war, and frequently rose to high military and +administrative positions. Thus, in 1570, Ali Pasha, a native of +Herzegovina, became grand vizier; and he was succeeded by the +distinguished soldier and statesman, Mahomet Beg Sokolovic, a Bosnian. +Below the feudal nobility and their Moslem soldiers came the Christian +serfs, tillers of the soil and taxpayers, whose lives and property were +at the mercy of their lords. The hardships of their lot, and, above all, +the system by which the strongest of their sons were carried off as +recruits for the corps of janissaries (q.v.), frequently drove them to +brigandage, and occasionally to open revolt. + + + External history 1528-1821. + +These conditions lasted until the 19th century, and meanwhile the +country was involved in the series of wars waged by the Turks against +Austria, Hungary and Venice. In the Krajina and all along the +Montenegrin frontier, Moslems and Christians carried on a ceaseless +feud, irrespective of any treaties concluded by their rulers; while the +Turkish campaigns in Hungary provided constant occupation for the nobles +during a large part of the 16th and 17th centuries. But after the +Ottoman defeat at Vienna in 1683, the situation changed. Instead of +extending the foreign conquests of their sultan, the Bosnians were hard +pressed to defend their own borders. Zvornik fell before the +Austro-Hungarian army in 1688, and the Turkish vali, who was still +officially styled the "vali of Hungary," removed his headquarters from +Banjaluka to Travnik, a more southerly, and therefore a safer capital. +Two years later, the imperial troops reached Dolnja Tuzla, and retired +with 3000 Roman Catholic emigrants. Serajevo was burned in 1697 by +Eugene of Savoy, who similarly deported 40,000 Christians. The treaties +of Carlowitz (1699) and Passarowitz (1718) deprived the Turks of all the +Primorje, or littoral of Herzegovina, except the narrow enclaves of Klek +and Suttorina, left to sunder the Ragusan dominions from those of +Venice. At the same time a strip of territory in northern Bosnia was +ceded to Austria, which was thus able to control both banks of the Save. +This territory was restored to Turkey in 1739, at the peace of +Belgrade;[7] but in 1790 it was reoccupied by Austrian troops. Finally, +in 1791, the treaty of Sistova again fixed the line of the Save and Una +as the Bosnian frontier. + + + Moslem rebellions. + +The reform of the Ottoman government contemplated by the sultan Mahmud +II. (1808-1839) was bitterly resented in Bosnia, where Turkish prestige +had already been weakened by the establishment of Servian autonomy under +Karageorge. Many of the janissaries had married and settled on the land, +forming a strongly conservative and fanatical caste, friendly to the +Moslem nobles, who now dreaded the curtailment of their own privileges. +Their opportunity came in 1820, when the Porte was striving to repress +the insurrections in Moldavia, Albania and Greece. A first Bosnian +revolt was crushed in 1821; a second, due principally to the massacre of +the janissaries, was quelled with much bloodshed in 1827. After the +Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29, a further attempt at reform was initiated +by the sultan and his grand vizier, Reshid Pasha. Two years later came a +most formidable outbreak; the sultan was denounced as false to Islam, +and the Bosnian nobles gathered at Banjaluka, determined to march on +Constantinople, and reconquer the Ottoman empire for the true faith. A +holy war was preached by their leader, Hussein Aga Berberli, a brilliant +soldier and orator, who called himself _Zmaj Bosanski_, the "Dragon of +Bosnia," and was regarded by his followers as a saint. The Moslems of +Herzegovina, under Ali Pasha Rizvanbegovic, remained loyal to the Porte, +but in Bosnia Hussein Aga encountered little resistance. At Kossovo he +was reinforced by 20,000 Albanians, led by the rebel Mustapha Pasha; and +within a few weeks the united armies occupied the whole of Bulgaria, and +a large part of Macedonia. Their career was checked by Reshid Pasha, who +persuaded the two victorious commanders to intrigue against one another, +secured the division of their forces, and then fell upon each in turn. +The rout of the Albanians at Prilipe and the capture of Mustapha at +Scutari were followed by an invasion of Bosnia. After a desperate +defence, Hussein Aga fled to Esseg in Croatia-Slavonia; his appeal for +pardon was rejected, and in 1832 he was banished for life to Tribizond. +The power of the Bosnian nobles, though shaken by their defeat, remained +unbroken; and they resisted vigorously when their kapetanates were +abolished in 1837; and again when a measure of equality before the law +was conceded to the Christians in 1839. In Herzegovina, Ali Pasha +Rizvanbegovic reaped the reward of his fidelity. He was left free to +tyrannize over his Christian subjects, a king in all but name. In 1840 +he descended from his mountain stronghold of Stolac to wage war upon the +vladika Peter II. of Montenegro, and simultaneously to suppress a +Christian rising. Peace was arranged at Ragusa in 1842, and it was +rumoured that Ali had concluded a secret alliance with Montenegro, +hoping to shake off the suzerainty of the sultan, and to found an +entirely independent kingdom. It is impossible to verify this charge, +but during the troubled years that ensued, Ali pursued an elaborate +policy of intrigue. He sent large bribes to influential persons at +Constantinople; he aided the Turkish vali to repress the Christians, who +had again revolted; and he supported the Bosnian nobles against reforms +imposed by the vali. At last, in 1850, a Turkish army was despatched to +restore quiet. Ali Pasha openly professed himself a loyal subject, but +secretly sent reinforcements to the rebel aristocracy. The Turks proved +everywhere successful. After a cordial reception by their commander Omer +or Omar Pasha, Ali was imprisoned; he was shortly afterwards +assassinated, lest his lavish bribery of Turkish officials should +restore him to favour, and bring disgrace on his captor (March 1851). + + + Condition of the serfs. + +The downfall of the Moslem aristocracy resulted in an important +administrative change: Serajevo, which had long been the commercial +centre of the country, and the jealously guarded stronghold of the +nobles, superseded Travnik as the official capital, and the residence of +the vali. A variety of other reforms, including the reorganization of +Moslem education, were introduced by Omer Pasha, who governed the +country until 1860. But as the administration grew stronger, the +position of the peasantry became worse. They had now to satisfy the +imperial tax-farmers and excisemen, as well as their feudal lords. The +begs and agas continued to exact their forced labour and one-third of +their produce; the central government imposed a tithe which had become +an eighth by 1875. Three kinds of cattle-tax, the tax for exemption from +military service, levied on every newborn male, forced labour on the +roads, forced loan of horses, a heavy excise on grapes and tobacco, and +a variety of lesser taxes combined to burden the Christian serfs; but +even more galling than the amount was the manner in which these dues +were exacted--the extortionate assessments of tax-farmers and excisemen, +the brutal licence of the soldiery who were quartered on recalcitrant +villagers. A crisis was precipitated by the example of Servian +independence, the hope of Austrian intervention, and the public +bankruptcy of Turkey. + + + Christian rising of 1875. + +Sporadic insurrections had already broken out among the Bosnian +Christians, and on the 1st of July 1875 the villagers of Nevesinje, +which gives its name to a mountain range east of Mostar, rose against +the Turks. Within a few weeks the whole country was involved. The +Herzegovinians, under their leaders Peko Pavlovic, Socica, Ljubibratic, +and others, held out for a year against all the forces that Turkey could +despatch against them.[8] In July 1876 Servia and Montenegro joined the +struggle, and in April 1877 Russia declared war on the sultan. + + + Austro-Hungarian occupation, 1878-1908. + +The Austro-Hungarian occupation, authorized on the 13th of July 1878 by +the treaty of Berlin (arts. 23 and 26), was not easily effected; and, +owing to the difficulty of military operations among the mountains, it +was necessary to employ a force of 200,000 men. Haji Loja, the native +leader, was supported by a body of Albanians and mutinous Turkish +troops, while the whole Moslem population bitterly resented the proposed +change. The losses on both sides were very heavy, and, besides those who +fell in battle, many of the insurgents were executed under martial law. +But after a series of stubbornly contested engagements, the Austrian +general, Philippovic, entered Serajevo on the 19th of August, and ended +the campaign on the 20th of September, by the capture of Bihac in the +north-west, and of Klobuk in Herzegovina. The government of the country +was then handed over to the imperial ministry of finance; but the +bureaucratic methods of the finance ministers, Baron von Hoffmann and +Joseph de Szlavy, resulted only in the insurrection of 1881-82. Order +was restored in June 1882, when the administration was entrusted to +Benjamin von Kallay (q.v.), as imperial minister of finance. Kallay +retained this position until his death on the 13th of July 1903, when he +was succeeded by Baron Stephan Burian de Rajecz. During this period life +and property were rendered secure, and great progress was achieved, on +the lines already indicated, in creating an efficient civil service, +harmonizing Moslem law with new enactments, promoting commerce, carrying +out important public works, and reorganizing the fiscal and educational +systems. All classes and creeds were treated impartially; and, although +the administration has been reproached alike for undue harshness and +undue leniency, neither accusation can be sustained. Critics have also +urged that Kallay fostered the desire for material welfare at the cost +of every other national ideal; that, despite his own popularity, he +never secured the goodwill of the people for Austria-Hungary; that he +left the agrarian difficulty unsolved, and the hostile religious +factions unreconciled. These charges are not wholly unfounded; but the +chief social and political evils in Bosnia and Herzegovina may be traced +to historical causes operative long before the Austro-Hungarian +occupation, and above all to the political ambition of the rival +churches. Justly to estimate the work done by Kallay, it is only +necessary to point to the contrast between Bosnia in 1882 and Bosnia in +1903; for in 21 years the anarchy and ruin entailed by four centuries of +misrule were transformed into a condition of prosperity unsurpassed in +south-eastern Europe. + + + Austrian annexation. + +It was no doubt natural that Austrian statesmen should wish to end the +anomalous situation created by the treaty of Berlin, by incorporating +Bosnia and Herzegovina into the Dual Monarchy. The treaty had +contemplated the evacuation of the occupied provinces after the +restoration of order and prosperity; and this had been expressly +stipulated in an agreement signed by the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman +plenipotentiaries at Berlin, as a condition of Turkish assent to the +provisions of the treaty. But the Turkish reform movement of 1908 seemed +to promise a revival of Ottoman power, which might in time have enabled +the Turks to demand the promised evacuation, and thus to reap all the +ultimate benefits of the Austrian administration. The reforms in Turkey +certainly encouraged the Serb and Moslem inhabitants of the occupied +territory to petition the emperor for the grant of a constitution +similar to that in force in the provinces of Austria proper. But the +Austro-Hungarian government, profiting by the weakness of Russia after +the war with Japan, and aware that the proclamation of Bulgarian +independence was imminent, had already decided to annex Bosnia and +Herzegovina, in spite of the pledges given at Berlin, and although the +proposal was unpopular in Hungary. Its decision, after being +communicated to the sovereigns of the powers signatory to the treaty of +Berlin, in a series of autograph letters from the emperor Francis +Joseph, was made known to Bosnia and Herzegovina in an imperial rescript +published on the 7th of October 1908. The Serb and Moslem delegates, who +had started on the same day for Budapest, to present their petition to +the emperor, learned from the rescript that the government intended to +concede to their compatriots "a share in the legislation and +administration of provincial affairs, and equal protection for all +religious beliefs, languages and racial distinctions." The separate +administration was, however, to be maintained, and the rescript did not +promise that the new provincial diet would be more than a consultative +assembly, elected on a strictly limited franchise. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G. Capus, _A travers la Bosnie et l'Herzegovine_ + (Paris, 1896) contains a detailed and fully illustrated account of the + combined provinces, their resources and population. J. Asboth, _An + Official Tour through Bosnia and Herzegovina_ (London, 1890) is + valuable for details of local history, antiquities and topography: A. + Bordeaux, _La Bosnie populaire_ (Paris, 1904) for social life and + mining. Much information is also contained in the works by Lamouche, + Miller, Thomson, Joanne, Cambon, Millet, Hamard and Laveleye, cited + under the heading BALKAN PENINSULA. See also B. Nikasinovic, _Bosnien + und die Herzegovina unter der Verwaltung der osterreich-ungarischen + Monarchie_ (Berlin, 1901, &c.), and M. Oransz, _Auf dem Rade durch + Kroatien und Bosnien_ (Vienna, 1903). The best map is that of the + Austrian General Staff. See also for geology, J. Cvijic, + _Morphologische und glaciale Studien aus Bosnien_ (Vienna, 1900); F. + Katzer, _Geologischer Fuhrer durch Bosnien und Herzegovina_ (Serajevo, + 1903); P. Ballif, _Wasserbauten in Bosnien und Herzegovina_ (Vienna, + 1896). Sport: "Snaffle," _In the Land of the Bora_ (London, 1897). + Agriculture and Commerce: annual British consular reports, and the + official _Ergebnisse der Viehzahlungen_ (1879 and 1895), and + _Landwirtschaft in Bosnien und Herzegovina_ (1899). The chief official + publications are in German. For antiquities, see R. Munro, _Through + Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia_ (Edinburgh, 1900); A.J. Evans, + _Illyrian Letters_ (London, 1878); W. Radimsky, _Die neolithische + Station von Butmir_ (Vienna 1895-1898); P. Ballif, _Romische Strassen + in Bosnien und Herzegovina_ (Vienna, 1893, &c.). No adequate history + of Bosnia was published up to the 20th century; but the chief + materials for such a work are contained in the following books:--A. + Theiner, _Vetera monumenta historica Hungariam sacram illustrantia_ + (Rome, 1860) and _Vetera monumenta Slavorum Meridionalium_ (1. Rome, + 1863; 2. Agram, 1875),--these are collections of Latin documents from + the Vatican library; V. Makushev, _Monumenta historica Slavorum + Meridionalium_ (Belgrade, 1885); Y. Shafarik, _Acta archivi Veneti + spectantia ad historiam Serborum_, &c. (Belgrade, 1860-1862); F. + Miklosich, _Monumenta Serbica_ (Vienna, 1858). Other important + authorities are G. Lucio, _De Regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae_ (Amsterdam, + 1666); M. Orbini, _Regno degli Slavi_ (Pesaro 1601); D. Farlatus and + others, _Illyricum Sacrum_ (Venice, 1751-1819); C. du Fresne du Cange, + _Illyricum vetus et novum_ (1746); M. Simek, _Politische Geschichte + des Konigreiches Bosnien und Rama_ (Vienna, 1787). The best modern + history, though valueless for the period after 1463, is by P. + Coquelle, _Histoire du Montenegro et de la Bosnie_ (Paris, 1895). See + also V. Klaic, _Geschichte Bosniens_ (Leipzig 1884). J. Spalaikovitch + (Spalajkovic), in _La Bosnie et l'Herzegovine_ (Paris, 1897), give a + critical account of the Austro-Hungarian administration. + (K. G. J.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This was soon modified in detail. Arrears of debt, for instance, + were made recoverable for one year only, instead of the ten years + allowed by Turkish law. + + [2] _De Administrando Imperio_, 33 and 34. The names of _Chulmia_ and + _Chelmo_, applied to this region by later Latin and Italian + chroniclers, are occasionally adopted by English writers. + + [3] For the commercial and political relations of Ragusa and Bosnia, + see L. Villari, _The Republic of Ragusa_ (London, 1904). + + [4] Given by Theiner, _Vetera monumenta Hungariam ... illustrantia_, + 173-185. + + [5] This is the first recorded instance of such an alliance. The + Slavs were probably Bogomils. + + [6] These magnates played a considerable part in the politics of + south-eastern Europe; see especially their correspondence with the + Venetian Republic, given by Shafarik, _Acta archivi Veneti_, &c. + + [7] For details of these events see Umar Effendi, _History of the War + in Bosnia_ (1737-1739). Translated by C. Fraser (London, 1830). + + [8] For the Christian rebellion and its causes, see A.J. Evans, + _Through Bosnia and Herzegovina on Foot_ (London, 1876); and W.J. + Stillman, _Herzegovina and the Late Uprising_ (London, 1877). + + + + + BOSPORUS, or BOSPHORUS (Gr. [Greek: Bosporos] = ox-ford, traditionally + connected with Io, daughter of Inachus, who, in the form of a heifer, + crossed the Thracian Bosporus on her wanderings). By the ancients this + name, signifying a strait, was especially applied to the _Bosporus + Cimmerius_ (see below), and the _Bosporus Thracius_; but when used + without any adjective it now denotes the latter, which unites the + Black Sea with the Sea of Marmora and forms part of the boundary + between Europe and Asia. The channel is 18 m. long, and has a maximum + breadth at the northern entrance of 2-3/4 m., a minimum breadth of + about 800 yds., and a depth varying from 20 to 66 fathoms in + mid-stream. In the centre there is a rapid current from the Black Sea + to the Sea of Marmora, but a counter-current sets in the opposite + direction below the surface and along the shores. The surface current + varies in speed, but averages nearly 3 m. an hour; though at narrow + places it may run at double this pace. The strait is very rarely + frozen over, though history records a few instances; and the Golden + Horn, the inlet on either side of which Constantinople lies, has been + partially frozen over occasionally in modern times. The shores of the + Bosporus are composed in the northern portion of different volcanic + rocks, such as dolerite, granite and trachyte; but along the remaining + course of the channel the prevailing formations are Devonian, + consisting of sandstones, marls, quartzose conglomerates, and + calcareous deposits of various kinds. The scenery on both sides is of + the most varied and beautiful description, many villages lining each + well-wooded shore, while on the European side are numerous fine + residences of the wealthy class of Constantinople. The Bosporus is + under Turkish dominion, and by treaty of 1841, confirmed by the treaty + of Berlin in 1878 and at other times, no ship of war other than + Turkish may pass through the strait (or through the Dardanelles) + without the countenance of the Porte. (See also CONSTANTINOPLE.) + + + + +BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS, the ancient name for the Straits of Kerch or +Yenikale, connecting the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov; the Cimmerii +(q.v.) were the ancient inhabitants. The straits are about 25 m. long +and 2-1/2 m. broad at the narrowest, and are formed by an eastern +extension of the Crimea and the peninsula of Taman, a kind of +continuation of the Caucasus. This in ancient times seems to have formed +a group of islands intersected by arms of the Hypanis or Kuban and +various sounds now silted up. The whole district was dotted with Greek +cities; on the west side, Panticapaeum (Kerch, q.v.), the chief of all, +often itself called Bosporus, and Nymphaeum (Eltegen); on the east +Phanagoria (Sennaja), Cepi, Hermonassa, Portus Sindicus, Gorgippia +(Anapa). These were mostly settled by Milesians, Panticapaeum in the 7th +or early in the 6th century B.C., but Phanagoria (c. 540 B.C.) was a +colony of Teos, and Nymphaeum had some connexion with Athens--at least +it appears to have been a member of the Delian Confederacy. The towns +have left hardly any architectural or sculptural remains, but the +numerous barrows in their neighbourhood have yielded very beautiful +objects now mostly preserved in the Hermitage in St Petersburg. They +comprise especially gold work, vases exported from Athens, textiles and +specimens of carpentry and marquetry. The numerous terra-cottas are +rather rude in style. + +According to Diodorus Siculus (xii. 31) the locality was governed from +480 to 438 B.C. by the Archaeanactidae, probably a ruling family, who +gave place to a tyrant Spartocus (438-431 B.C.), apparently a Thracian. +He founded a dynasty which seems to have endured until c. 110 B.C. The +Spartocids have left many inscriptions which tell us that the earlier +members of the house ruled as archons of the Greek cities and kings of +various native tribes, notably the Sindi of the island district and +other branches of the Maitae (Maeotae). The text of Diodorus, the +inscriptions and the coins do not supply sufficient material for a +complete list of them. Satyrus (431-387), the successor of Spartocus, +established his rule over the whole district, adding Nymphaeum to his +dominions and laying siege to Theodosia, which was a serious commercial +rival by reason of its ice-free port and direct proximity to the +cornfields of the eastern Crimea. It was reserved for his son Leucon +(387-347) to take this city. He was succeeded by his two sons +conjointly, Spartocus II. and Paerisades; the former died in 342 and his +brother reigned alone until 310. Then followed a civil war in which +Eumelus (310-303) was successful. His successor was Spartocus III. +(303-283) and after him Paerisades II. Succeeding princes repeated the +family names, but we cannot assign them any certain order. We know only +that the last of them, a Paerisades, unable to make headway against the +power of the natives, called in the help of Diophantus, general of +Mithradates VI. (the Great) of Pontus, promising to hand over his +kingdom to that prince. He was slain by a Scythian Saumacus who led a +rebellion against him. The house of Spartocus was well known as a line +of enlightened and wise princes; although Greek opinion could not deny +that they were, strictly speaking, tyrants, they are always described as +dynasts. They maintained close relations with Athens, their best +customers for the Bosporan corn export, of which Leucon I. set the +staple at Theodosia, where the Attic ships were allowed special +privileges. We have many references to this in the Attic orators. In +return the Athenians granted him Athenian citizenship and set up decrees +in honour of him and his sons. Mithradates the Great entrusted the +Bosporus Cimmerius to his son Machares, who, however, deserted to the +Romans. But even when driven out of his own kingdom by Pompey, +Mithradates was strong enough to regain the Bosporus Cimmerius, and +Machares slew himself. Subsequently the Bosporans again rose in revolt +under Pharnaces, another of the old king's sons. After the death of +Mithradates (B.C. 63), this Pharnaces (63-47) made his submission to +Pompey, but tried to regain his dominion during the civil war. He was +defeated by Caesar at Zela, and on his return to Rome was slain by a +pretender Asander who married his daughter Dynamis, and in spite of +Roman nominees ruled as archon, and later as king, until 16 B.C. After +his death Dynamis was compelled to marry an adventurer Scribonius, but +the Romans under Agrippa interfered and set Polemon (14-8) in his place. +To him succeeded Aspurgus (8 B.C.-A.D. 38?), son of Asander, who founded +a line of kings which endured with certain interruptions until A.D. 341. +These kings, who mostly bore the Thracian names of Cotys, Rhescuporis, +Rhoemetalces, and the native name Sauromates, claimed descent from +Mithradates the Great, and used the Pontic era (starting from 297 B.C.) +introduced by him, regularly placing dates upon their coins and +inscriptions. Hence we know their names and dates fairly well, though +scarcely any events of their reigns are recorded. Their kingdom covered +the eastern half of the Crimea and the Taman peninsula, and extended +along the east coast of the Sea of Azov to Tanais at the mouth of the +Don, a great mart for trade with the interior. They carried on a +perpetual war with the native tribes, and in this were supported by +their Roman suzerains, who even lent the assistance of garrison and +fleet. At times rival kings of some other race arose and probably +produced some disorganization. At one of these periods (A.D. 255) the +Goths and Borani were enabled to seize Bosporan shipping and raid the +shores of Asia Minor. With the last coin of the last Rhescuporis, A.D. +341, materials for a connected history of the Bosporus Cimmerius come to +an end. The kingdom probably succumbed to the Huns established in the +neighbourhood. In later times it seems in some sort to have been revived +under Byzantine protection, and from time to time Byzantine officers +built fortresses and exercised authority at Bosporus, which was +constituted an archbishopric. They also held Ta Matarcha on the Asiatic +side of the strait, a town which in the 10th and 11th centuries became +the seat of the Russian principality of Tmutarakan, which in its turn +gave place to Tatar domination. + +The Bosporan kingdom is interesting as the first Hellenistic state, the +first, that is to say, in which a mixed population adopted the Greek +language and civilization. It depended for its prosperity upon the +export of wheat, fish and slaves, and this commerce supported a class +whose wealth and vulgarity are exemplified by the contents of the +numerous tombs to which reference has been made. In later times a Jewish +element was added to the population, and under its influence were +developed in all the cities of the kingdom, especially Tanais, societies +of "worshippers of the highest God," apparently professing a monotheism +which without being distinctively Jewish or Christian was purer than any +found among the inhabitants of the Empire. + +We possess a large series of coins of Panticapaeum and other cities from +the 5th century B.C. The gold _staters_ of Panticapaeum bearing Pan's +head and a griffin are specially remarkable for their weight and fine +workmanship. We have also coins with the names of the later Spartocids +and a singularly complete series of dated _solidi_ issued by the later +or Achaemenian dynasty; in them may be noticed the swift degeneration of +the gold _solidus_ through silver and potin to bronze (see also +NUMISMATICS). + + See, for history, introduction to V.V. Latyshev, _Inscrr. orae + Septent. Ponti Euxini_, vol. ii. (St Petersburg, 1890); art. + "Bosporus" (2) by C.G. Brandis in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencycl._ vol. + iii. 757 (Stuttgart, 1899); E.H. Minns, _Scythians and Greeks_ + (Cambridge, 1907). For inscriptions, Latyshev as above and vol. iv. + (St Petersburg, 1901). Coins: B. Koehne, _Musee Kotschoubey_ (St + Petersburg, 1855). Religious Societies: E. Schurer in _Sitzber. d. k. + pr. Akad. d. Wissenschaft zu Berlin_ (1897), i. pp. 200-227. + Excavations: _Antiquites du Bosphore cimmerien_ (St Petersburg, 1854, + repr. Paris, 1892) and _Compte rendu_ and _Bulletin de la Commission + Imp. Archeologique de St. Petersbourg_. (E. H. M.) + + + + +BOSQUET, PIERRE FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1810-1861), French marshal, entered the +artillery in 1833, and a year later went to Algeria. Here he soon did +good service, and made himself remarkable not only for technical skill +but the moral qualities indispensable for high command. Becoming captain +in 1839, he greatly distinguished himself at the actions of Sidi-Lakhdar +and Oued-Melah. He was soon afterwards given the command of a battalion +of native _tirailleurs_, and in 1843 was thanked in general orders for +his brilliant work against the Flittahs. In 1845 he became +lieutenant-colonel, and in 1847 colonel of a French line regiment. In +the following year he was in charge of the Oran district, where his +swift suppression of an insurrection won him further promotion to the +grade of general of brigade, in which rank he went through the campaign +of Kabulia, receiving a severe wound. In 1853 he returned to France +after nineteen years' absence, a general of division. Bosquet was +amongst the earliest chosen to serve in the Crimean War, and at the +battle of the Alma his division led the French attack. When the +Anglo-French troops formed the siege of Sevastopol, Bosquet's corps of +two divisions protected them against interruption. His timely +intervention at Inkerman (November 5, 1854) secured the victory for the +allies. During 1855 Bosquet's corps occupied the right wing of the +besieging armies opposite the Mamelon and Malakov. He himself led his +corps at the storming of the Mamelon (June 7), and at the grand assault +of the 8th of September he was in command of the whole of the storming +troops. In the struggle for the Malakov he received another serious +wound. At the age of forty-five Bosquet, now one of the foremost +soldiers in Europe, became a senator and a marshal of France, but his +health was broken, and he lived only a few years longer. He had the +grand cross of the Bath, the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, and +the Medjidieh of the 1st class. + + + + +BOSS. (1) (From the O. Eng. _boce_, a swelling, cf. Ital. _bozza_, and +Fr. _bosse_, possibly connected with the O. Ger. _bozan_, to beat), a +round protuberance; the projecting centre or "umbo" of a buckler; in +geology a projection of rock through strata of another species; in +architecture, the projecting keystone of the ribs of a vault which masks +their junction; the term is also applied to similar projecting blocks at +every intersection. The boss was often richly carved, generally with +conventional foliage but sometimes with angels, animals or grotesque +figures. The boss was also employed in the flat timber ceilings of the +15th century, where it formed the junction of cross-ribs. (2) (From the +Dutch _baas_, a word used by the Dutch settlers in New York for +"master," and so generally used by the Kaffirs in South Africa; +connected with the Ger. _Base_, cousin, meaning a "chief kinsman," the +head of a household or family), a colloquial term, first used in +America, for an employer, a foreman, and generally any one who gives +orders, especially in American political slang for the manager of a +party organization. + + + + +BOSSI, GIUSEPPE (1777-1816), Italian painter and writer on art, was born +at the village of Busto Arsizio, near Milan. He was educated at the +college of Monza; and his early fondness for drawing was fostered by the +director of the college, who supplied him with prints after the works of +Agostino Caracci for copies. He then studied at the academy of Brera at +Milan, and about 1795 went to Rome, where he formed an intimate +friendship with Canova. On his return to Milan he became assistant +secretary, and then secretary, of the Academy of Fine Arts. He rendered +important service in the organization of this new institution. In 1804, +in conjunction with Oriani, he drew up the rules of the three academies +of art of Bologna, Venice and Milan, and soon after was rewarded with +the decoration of the Iron Crown. On the occasion of the visit of +Napoleon I. to Milan in 1805, Bossi exhibited a drawing of the Last +Judgment of Michelangelo, and pictures representing Aurora and Night, +Oedipus and Creon, and the Italian Parnassus. By command of Prince +Eugene, viceroy of Italy, Bossi undertook to make a copy of the Last +Supper of Leonardo, then almost obliterated, for the purpose of getting +it rendered in mosaic. The drawing was made from the remains of the +original with the aid of copies and the best prints. The mosaic was +executed by Raffaelli, and was placed in the imperial gallery of Vienna. +Bossi made another copy in oil, which was placed in the museum of Brera. +This museum owed to him a fine collection of casts of great works of +sculpture acquired at Paris, Rome and Florence. Bossi devoted a large +part of his life to the study of the works of Leonardo; and his last +work was a series of drawings in monochrome representing incidents in +the life of that great master. He left unfinished a large cartoon in +black chalk of the Dead Christ in the bosom of Mary, with John and the +Magdalene. In 1810 he published a special work in large quarto, entitled +_Del Cenacolo di Leonardo da Vinci_, which had the merit of greatly +interesting Goethe. His other works are _Delle Opinioni di Leonardo +intorno alla simmetria de' corpi umani_ (1811), and _Del Tipo dell' arte +della pittura_ (1816). Bossi died at Milan on the 15th of December 1816. +A monument by Canova was erected to his memory in the Ambrosian library, +and a bust was placed in the Brera. + + + + +BOSSU, RENE LE (1631-1680), French critic, was born in Paris on the 16th +of March 1631. He studied at Nanterre, and in 1649 became one of the +regular canons of Sainte-Genevieve. He wrote _Parallele des principes de +la physique d'Aristote et de celle de Rene Descartes_ (1674), and a +_Traite du poeme epique_, highly praised by Boileau, the leading +doctrine of which was that the subject should be chosen before the +characters, and that the action should be arranged without reference to +the personages who are to figure in the scene. He died on the 14th of +March 1680. + + + + +BOSSUET, JAQUES BENIGNE (1627-1704), French divine, orator and writer, +was born at Dijon on the 27th of September 1627. He came of a family of +prosperous Burgundian lawyers; his father was a judge of the parliament +(a provincial high court) at Dijon, afterwards at Metz. The boy was sent +to school with the Jesuits of Dijon till 1642, when he went up to the +college of Navarre in Paris to begin the study of theology; for a pious +mother had brought him up to look on the priesthood as his natural +vocation. At Navarre he gained a great reputation for hard work; +fellow-students nicknamed him _Bos suetus aratro_--an ox broken in to +the plough. But his abilities became known beyond the college walls. He +was taken up by the Hotel de Rambouillet, a great centre of aristocratic +culture and the original home of the _Precieuses_. Here he became the +subject of a celebrated experiment. A dispute having arisen about +extempore preaching, the boy of sixteen was put up, late one night, to +deliver an impromptu discourse. He acquitted himself as well as in more +conventional examinations. In 1652 he took a brilliant degree in +divinity, and was ordained priest. The next seven years he spent at +Metz, where his father's influence had got him a canonry at the early +age of thirteen; to this was now added the more important office of +archdeacon. He was plunged at once into the thick of controversy; for +nearly half Metz was Protestant, and Bossuet's first appearance in print +was a refutation of the Huguenot pastor Paul Ferry (1655). To reconcile +the Protestants with the Roman Church became the great object of his +dreams; and for this purpose he began to train himself carefully for the +pulpit, an all-important centre of influence in a land where political +assemblies were unknown, and novels and newspapers scarcely born. Not +that he reached perfection at a bound. His youthful imagination was +unbridled, and his ideas ran easily into a kind of paradoxical subtlety, +redolent of the divinity school. But these blemishes vanished when he +settled in Paris (1659), and three years later mounted the pulpit of the +Chapel Royal. + +In Paris the congregations had no mercy on purely clerical logic or +clerical taste; if a preacher wished to catch their ear, he must manage +to address them in terms they would agree to consider sensible and +well-bred. Not that Bossuet thought too much of their good opinion. +Having very stern ideas of the dignity of a priest, he refused to +descend to the usual devices for arousing popular interest. The +narrative element in his sermons grows shorter with each year. He never +drew satirical pictures, like his great rival Bourdaloue. He would not +write out his discourses in full, much less learn them off by heart: of +the two hundred printed in his _Works_ all but a fraction are rough +drafts. No wonder ladies like Mme de Sevigne forsook him, when +Bourdaloue dawned on the Paris horizon in 1669; though Fenelon and La +Bruyere, two much sounder critics, refused to follow their example. +Bossuet possessed the full equipment of the orator, voice, language, +flexibility and strength. He never needed to strain for effect; his +genius struck out at a single blow the thought, the feeling and the +word. What he said of Martin Luther applies peculiarly to himself: he +could "fling his fury into theses," and thus unite the dry light of +argument with the fire and heat of passion. These qualities reach their +highest point in the _Oraisons funebres_. Bossuet was always best when +at work on a large canvas; besides, here no conscientious scruples +intervened to prevent him giving much time and thought to the artistic +side of his subject. For the _Oraison_, as its name betokened, stood +midway between the sermon proper and what would nowadays be called a +biographical sketch. At least, that was what Bossuet made it; for on +this field he stood not merely first, but alone. His three great +masterpieces were delivered at the funerals of Henrietta Maria, widow of +Charles I. (1669), her daughter, Henrietta, duchess of Orleans (1670), +and the great soldier Conde (1687). + +Apart from these state occasions, Bossuet seldom appeared in a Paris +pulpit after 1669. In that year he was gazetted bishop of Condom in +Gascony, though he resigned the charge on being appointed tutor to the +dauphin, only child of Louis XIV., and now a boy of nine (1670). The +choice was scarcely fortunate. Bossuet unbent as far as he could, but +his genius was by no means fitted to enter into the feelings of a child; +and the dauphin was a cross, ungainly, sullen lad, who grew up to be a +merely genealogical incident at his father's court. Probably no one was +happier than the tutor, when his charge's sixteenth birthday came round, +and he was promptly married off to a Bavarian princess. Still the nine +years at court were by no means wasted. Hitherto Bossuet had published +nothing, except his answer to Ferry. Now he sat down to write for his +pupil's instruction--or rather, to fit himself to give that +instruction--a remarkable trilogy. First came the _Traite de la +connaissance de Dieu et de soi-meme_, then the _Discours sur l'histoire +universelle_, lastly the _Politique tiree de l'Ecriture Sainte_. The +three books fit into each other. The _Traite_ is a general sketch of the +nature of God and the nature of man. The _Discours_ is a history of +God's dealings with humanity in the past. The _Politique_ is a code of +rights and duties drawn up in the light thrown by those dealings. Not +that Bossuet literally supposed that the last word of political wisdom +had been said by the Old Testament. His conclusions are only "drawn from +Holy Scripture," because he wished to gain the highest possible sanction +for the institutions of his country--to hallow the France of Louis XIV. +by proving its astonishing likeness to the Israel of Solomon. Then, too, +the veil of Holy Scripture enabled him to speak out more boldly than +court-etiquette would have otherwise allowed, to remind the son of Louis +XIV. that kings have duties as well as rights. Louis had often forgotten +these duties, but Louis' son would bear them in mind. The tutor's +imagination looked forward to a time when France would blossom into +Utopia, with a Christian philosopher on the throne. That is what made +him so stalwart a champion of authority in all its forms: _"le roi, +Jesus-Christ et l'Eglise, Dieu en ces trois noms"_, he says in a +characteristic letter. And the object of his books is to provide +authority with a rational basis. For Bossuet's worship of authority by +no means killed his confidence in reason; what it did was to make him +doubt the honesty of those who reasoned otherwise than himself. The +whole chain of argument seemed to him so clear and simple. Philosophy +proved that a God exists, and that He shapes and governs the course of +human affairs. History showed that this governance is, for the most +part, indirect, exercised through certain venerable corporations, as +well civil as ecclesiastical, all of which demand implicit obedience as +the immediate representatives of God. Thus all revolt, whether civil or +religious, is a direct defiance of the Almighty. Cromwell becomes a +moral monster, and the revocation of the edict of Nantes is "the +greatest achievement of the second Constantine." Not that Bossuet +glorified the _status quo_ simply as a clerical bigot. The France of his +youth had known the misery of divided counsels and civil war; the France +of his manhood, brought together under an absolute sovereign, had +suddenly shot up into a splendour only comparable with ancient Rome. Why +not, then, strain every nerve to hold innovation at bay and prolong that +splendour for all time? Bossuet's own _Discours sur l'histoire +universelle_ might have furnished an answer, for there the fall of many +empires is detailed. But then the _Discours_ was composed under a single +preoccupation. To Bossuet the establishment of Christianity was the one +point of real importance in the whole history of the world. Over Mahomet +and the East he passed without a word; on Greece and Rome he only +touched in so far as they formed part of the _Praeparatio Evangelica_. +And yet his _Discours_ is far more than a theological pamphlet. Pascal, +in utter scorn for science, might refer the rise and fall of empires to +Providence or chance--the nose of Cleopatra, or "a little grain of sand" +in the English lord protector's veins. Bossuet held fast to his +principle that God works through secondary causes. "It is His will that +every great change should have its roots in the ages that went before +it." Bossuet, accordingly, made a heroic attempt to grapple with origins +and causes, and in this way his book deserves its place as one of the +very first of philosophic histories. + +From writing history he turned to history in the making. In 1681 he was +gazetted bishop of Meaux; but before he could take possession of his +see, he was drawn into a violent quarrel between Louis XIV. and the pope +(see GALLICANISM). Here he found himself between two fires. To support +the pope meant supporting the Jesuits; and he hated their casuists and +_devotion aisee_ almost as much as Pascal himself. To oppose the pope +was to play into the hands of Louis, who was frankly anxious to humble +the Church before the State. So Bossuet steered a middle course. Before +the general assembly of the French clergy he preached a great sermon on +the unity of the Church, and made it a magnificent plea for compromise. +As Louis insisted on his clergy making an anti-papal declaration, +Bossuet got leave to draw it up, and made it as moderate as he could. +And when the pope declared it null and void, he set to work on a +gigantic _Defensio Cleri Gallicani_, only published after his death. + +The Gallican storm a little abated, he turned back to a project very +near his heart. Ever since the early days at Metz he had been busy with +schemes for uniting the Huguenots to the Roman Church. In 1668 he +converted Turenne; in 1670 he published an _Exposition de la foi +catholique_, so moderate in tone that adversaries were driven to accuse +him of having fraudulently watered down the Roman dogmas to suit a +Protestant taste. Finally in 1688 appeared his great _Histoire des +variations des eglises protestantes_, perhaps the most brilliant of all +his works. Few writers could have made the Justification controversy +interesting or even intelligible. His argument is simple enough. Without +rules an organized society cannot hold together, and rules require an +authorized interpreter. The Protestant churches had thrown over this +interpreter; and Bossuet had small trouble in showing that, the longer +they lived, the more they varied on increasingly important points. For +the moment the Protestants were pulverized; but before long they began +to ask whether variation was necessarily so great an evil. Between 1691 +and 1701 Bossuet corresponded with Leibnitz with a view to reunion, but +negotiations broke down precisely at this point. Individual Roman +doctrines Leibnitz thought his countrymen might accept, but he flatly +refused to guarantee that they would necessarily believe to-morrow what +they believe to-day. "We prefer," he said, "a church eternally variable +and for ever moving forwards." Next, Protestant writers began to +accumulate some startling proofs of Rome's own variations; and here they +were backed up by Richard Simon, a priest of the Paris Oratory, and the +father of Biblical criticism in France. He accused St Augustine, +Bossuet's own special master, of having corrupted the primitive doctrine +of Grace. Bossuet set to work on a _Defense de la tradition_, but Simon +calmly went on to raise issues graver still. Under a veil of politely +ironical circumlocutions, such as did not deceive the bishop of Meaux, +he claimed his right to interpret the Bible like any other book. Bossuet +denounced him again and again; Simon told his friends he would wait +until "the old fellow" was no more. Another Oratorian proved more +dangerous still. Simon had endangered miracles by applying to them lay +rules of evidence, but Malebranche abrogated miracles altogether. It was +blasphemous, he argued, to suppose that the Author of nature would break +through a reign of law He had Himself established. Bossuet might +scribble _nova, mira, falsa_, in the margins of his book and urge on +Fenelon to attack them; Malebranche politely met his threats by saying +that to be refuted by such a pen would do him too much honour. These +repeated checks soured Bossuet's temper. In his earlier controversies he +had borne himself with great magnanimity, and the Huguenot ministers he +refuted found him a kindly advocate at court. Even his approval of the +revocation of the edict of Nantes stopped far short of approving +dragonades within his diocese of Meaux. But now his patience was wearing +out. A dissertation by one Father Caffaro, an obscure Italian monk, +became his excuse for writing certain violent _Maximes sur la comedie_ +(1694) wherein he made an outrageous attack on the memory of Moliere, +dead more than twenty years. Three years later he was battling with +Fenelon over the love of God, and employing methods of controversy at +least as odious as Fenelon's own (1697-1699). All that can be said in +his defence is that Fenelon, four-and-twenty years his junior, was an +old pupil, who had suddenly grown into a rival; and that on the matter +of principle most authorities thought him right. + +Amid these gloomy occupations Bossuet's life came slowly to an end. Till +he was over seventy he had scarcely known what illness was; but in 1702 +he was attacked by the stone. Two years later he was a hopeless invalid, +and on the 12th of April 1704 he passed quietly away. Of his private +life there is little to record. Meaux found him an excellent and devoted +bishop, much more attentive to diocesan concerns than his more stirring +occupations would seem to allow. In general society he was kindly and +affable enough, though somewhat ill at ease. Until he was over forty, he +had lived among purely ecclesiastical surroundings; and it was probably +want of self-confidence, more than want of moral courage, that made him +shut his eyes a little too closely to the disorders of Louis XIV.'s +private life. After all, he was not the king's confessor; and to +"reform" Louis, before age and Mme de Maintenon had sobered him down, +would have taxed the powers of Daniel or Ezekiel. But in his books +Bossuet was anything but timid. All of them, even the attacks on Simon, +breathe an air of masculine belief in reason, rare enough among the +apologists of any age. Bossuet would willingly have undertaken, as +Malebranche actually undertook, to make an intelligent Chinaman accept +all his ideas, if only he could be induced to lend them his attention. +But his best praise is to have brought all the powers of language to +paint an undying picture of a vanished world, where religion and +letters, laws and science, were conceived of as fixed unalterable +planets, circling for ever round one central Sun. + + AUTHORITIES.--The best edition of Bossuet's sermons is the _OEuvres + oratoires de Bossuet_, edited by Abbe Lebarq, in 6 vols. (Paris, + 1890-1896). His complete works were edited by Lachat, in 31 vols. + (Paris, 1862-1864). A complete list of the innumerable works relating + to him will be found in the _Bossuet_ number of the _Bibliotheque des + bibliographies critiques_, compiled by Canon Charles Urbain, and + published by the Societe des Etudes Historiques (Paris, 1900). The + general reader will find all he requires in the respective studies of + M. Rebelliau, _Bossuet_ (Paris, 1900), and M. Gustave Lanson, + _Bossuet_ (Paris, 1901). In English there is a modest _Bossuet_ by Mrs + Sidney Lear (London, 1874), and two remarkable studies by Sir J. + Fitz-James Stephen in the second volume of his _Horae Sabbaticae_ + (London, 1892). (St. C.) + + + + +BOSTANAI, the name of the first exilarch under Mahommedan rule, in the +middle of the 7th century. The exilarchs had their seat in Persia, and +were practically the secular heads of the Jewish community in the +Orient. + + + + +BOSTON, THOMAS (1676-1732), Scottish divine, was born at Duns on the +17th of March 1676. His father, John Boston, and his mother, Alison +Trotter, were both Covenanters. He was educated at Edinburgh, and +licensed in 1697 by the presbytery of Chirnside. In 1699 he became +minister of the small parish of Simprin, where there were in all "not +more than 90 examinable persons." In 1704 he found, while visiting a +member of his flock, a book which had been brought into Scotland by a +commonwealth soldier. This was the famous _Marrow of Modern Divinity_, +by Edward Fisher, a compendium of the opinions of leading Reformation +divines on the doctrine of grace and the offer of the Gospel. Its object +was to demonstrate the unconditional freeness of the Gospel. It cleared +away such conditions as repentance, or some degree of outward or inward +reformation, and argued that where Christ is heartily received, full +repentance and a new life follow. On Boston's recommendation, Hog of +Carnock reprinted _The Marrow_ in 1718; and Boston also published an +edition with notes of his own. The book, being attacked from the +standpoint of high Calvinism, became the standard of a far-reaching +movement in Scottish Presbyterianism. The "Marrow men" were marked by +the zeal of their service and the effect of their preaching. As they +remained Calvinists they could not preach a universal atonement; they +were in fact extreme particular redemptionists. In 1707 Boston was +translated to Ettrick. He distinguished himself by being the only member +of the assembly who entered a protest against what he deemed the +inadequate sentence passed on John Simson, professor of divinity at +Glasgow, who was accused of heterodox teaching on the Incarnation. He +died on the 20th of May 1732. His books, _The Fourfold State, The Crook +in the Lot_, and his _Body of Divinity_ and _Miscellanies_, long +exercised a powerful influence over the Scottish peasantry. + + His _Memoirs_ were published in 1776 (ed. G.D. Low, 1908). An edition + of his works in 12 volumes appeared in 1849. (D. Mn.) + + + + +BOSTON, a municipal and parliamentary borough and seaport of +Lincolnshire, England, on the river Witham, 4 m. from its mouth in the +Wash, 107 m. N. of London by the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901) +15,667. It lies in a flat agricultural fen district, drained by numerous +cuts, some of which are navigable. The church of St Botolph is a superb +Decorated building, one of the largest and finest parish churches in +the kingdom. A Decorated chapel in it, formerly desecrated, was restored +to sacred use by citizens of Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A., in 1857, in +memory of the connexion of that city with the English town. The western +tower, commonly known as Boston Stump, forms a landmark for 40 m. Its +foundations were the first to be laid of the present church (which is on +the site of an earlier one), but the construction was arrested until the +Perpendicular period, of the work of which it is a magnificent example. +It somewhat resembles the completed tower of Antwerp cathedral, and is +crowned by a graceful octagonal lantern, the whole being nearly 290 ft. +in height. The church of Skirbeck, 1 m. south-east, though extensively +restored, retains good Early English details. Other buildings of +interest are the guildhall, a 15th-century structure of brick; +Shodfriars Hall, a half-timbered house adjacent to slight remains of a +Dominican priory; the free grammar school, founded in 1554, with a fine +gateway of wrought iron of the 17th century brought from St Botolph's +church; and the Hussey Tower of brick, part of a mansion of the 16th +century. Public institutions include a people's park and large municipal +buildings (1904). + +As a port Boston was of ancient importance, but in the 18th century the +river had silted up so far as to exclude vessels exceeding about 50 +tons. In 1882-1884 a dock some 7 acres in extent was constructed, with +an entrance lock giving access to the quay sides for vessels of 3000 +tons. The bed of the river was deepened to 27 ft. for 3 m. below the +town, and a new cut of 3 m. was made from the mouth into deep water. An +iron swing-bridge connects the dock with the Great Northern railway. +There is a repairing slipway accommodating vessels of 800 tons. Imports, +principally timber, grain, cotton and linseed, increased owing to these +improvements from L116,179 in 1881 to L816,698 in 1899; and exports +(coal, machinery and manufactured goods) from L83,000 in 1883 to +L261,873 in 1899. The deep-sea and coastal fisheries are important. +Engineering, oil-cake, tobacco, sail and rope works are the principal +industries in the town. Boston returns one member to parliament. The +parliamentary borough falls within the Holland or Spalding division of +the county. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 +councillors. Area, 2727 acres. + + Boston (Icanhoe, St Botolph or Botolph's Town) derives its name from + St Botolph, who in 654 founded a monastery here, which was destroyed + by the Danes, 870. Although not mentioned in Domesday, Boston was + probably granted as part of Skirbeck to Alan, earl of Brittany. The + excellent commercial position of the town at the mouth of the Witham + explains its speedy rise into importance. King John by charter of 1204 + granted the bailiff of Boston sole jurisdiction in the town. By the + 13th century it was a great commercial centre second only to London in + paying L780 for two years to the fifteenth levied in 1205, and Edward + III. made it a staple port for wool in 1369. The Hanseatic and Flemish + merchants largely increased its prosperity, but on the withdrawal of + the Hanseatic League about 1470 and the break-up of the gild system + Boston's prosperity began to wane, and for some centuries it remained + almost without trade. Nevertheless it was raised to the rank of a free + borough by Henry VIII.'s charter of 1546, confirmed by Edward VI. in + 1547, by Mary in 1553, by Elizabeth (who granted a court of admiralty) + in 1558 and 1573, and by James I. in 1608. Boston sent members to the + great councils in 1337, 1352 and 1353; and from 1552 to 1885 two + members were returned to each parliament. The Redistribution Act 1885 + reduced the representation to one member. In 1257 a market was granted + to the abbot of Crowland and in 1308 to John, earl of Brittany. The + great annual mart was held before 1218 and attended by many German and + other merchants. Two annual fairs and two weekly markets were granted + by Henry VIII.'s charter, and are still held. The Great Mart survives + only in the Beast Mart held on the 11th of December. + + See Pishey Thompson, _History and Antiquities of Boston and the + Hundred of Skirbeck_ (Boston, 1856); George Jebb, _Guide to the Church + of St Botolph, with Notes on the History of Boston; Victoria County + History: Lincolnshire_. + + + + +BOSTON, the capital of the state of Massachusetts, U.S.A., in Suffolk +county; lat. 42 deg. 21' 27.6" N., long. 71 deg. 3' 30" W. Pop. (1900) +560,892, (197,129 being foreign born); (1905, state census) 595,580; +(1910), 670,585. Boston is the terminus of the Boston & Albany (New York +Central), the Old Colony system of the New York, New Haven & Hartford, +and the Boston & Maine railway systems, each of which controls several +minor roads once independent. The city lies on Massachusetts bay, on +what was once a pear-shaped peninsula attached to the mainland by a +narrow, marshy neck, often swept by the spray and water. On the north is +the Charles river, which widens here into a broad, originally much +broader, inner harbour or back-bay. The surface of the peninsula was +very hilly and irregular, the shore-line was deeply indented with coves, +and there were salt marshes that fringed the neck and the river-channel +and were left oozy by the ebbing tides. Until after the War of +Independence the primitive topography remained unchanged, but it was +afterwards subjected to changes greater than those effected on the site +of any other American city. The area of the original Boston was only 783 +acres, but by the filling in of tidal flats (since 1804) this was +increased to 1829 acres; while the larger corporate Boston of the +present day--including the annexed territories of South Boston (1804), +Roxbury (1868), Charlestown, Dorchester, Brighton and West Roxbury +(1874)--comprehends almost 43 sq. m. The beautiful Public Garden and the +finest residential quarter of the city--the Back Bay, so called from +that inner harbour from whose waters it was reclaimed (1856-1886)--stand +on what was once the narrowest, but to-day is the widest and fairest +portion of the original site. Whole forests, vast quarries of granite, +and hills of gravel were used in fringing the water margins, +constructing wharves, piers and causeways, redeeming flats, and +furnishing piling and solid foundations for buildings. At the edge of +the Common, which is now well within the city, the British troops in +1775 took their boats on the eve of the battle of Lexington; and the +post-office, now in the very heart of the business section of the city, +stands on the original shore-line. The reclaimed territory is level and +excellently drained. The original territory still preserves to a large +degree its irregularity of surface, but its hills have been much +degraded or wholly razed. Beacon Hill, so called from its ancient use as +a signal warning station, is still the most conspicuous topographical +feature of the city, but it has been changed from a bold and picturesque +eminence into a gentle slope. After the great fire of 1872 it became +possible, in the reconstruction of the business district, to widen and +straighten its streets and create squares, and so provide for the +traffic that had long outgrown the narrow, crooked ways of the older +city. Atlantic Avenue, along the harbour front, was created, and +Washington Street, the chief business artery, was largely remade after +1866. It is probable that up to 1875, at least, there had been a larger +outlay of labour, material and money, in reducing, levelling and +reclaiming territory, and in straightening and widening thoroughfares[1] +in Boston, than had been expended for the same purposes in all the other +chief cities of the United States together. Washington Street, still +narrow, is perhaps the most crowded and congested thoroughfare in +America. The finest residence streets are in the Back Bay, which is laid +out, in sharp contrast with the older quarters, in a regular, +rectangular arrangement. The North End, the original city and afterwards +the fashionable quarter, is now given over to the Jews and foreign +colonies. + +The harbour islands, three of which have been ceded to the United States +for the purpose of fortification, are numerous, and render the +navigation of the shipping channels difficult and easily guarded. Though +tortuous of access, the channels afford a clear passage of 27-35 ft. +since great improvements were undertaken by the national government in +1892, 1899, 1902 and 1907, and the harbour, when reached, is secure. It +affords nearly 60 sq. m. of anchorage, but the wharf line, for lack of +early reservation, is not so large as it might and should have been. The +islands in the harbour, now bare, were for the most part heavily wooded +when first occupied. It has been found impossible to afforest them on +account of the roughness of the sea-air, and the wash from their bluffs +into the harbour has involved large expense in the erection of +sea-walls. Castle Island has been fortified since the earliest days; +Fort Independence, on this island, and Forts Winthrop and Warren on +neighbouring islands, constitute permanent harbour defences. The broad +watercourses around the peninsula are spanned by causeways and bridges, +East Boston only, that the harbours may be open to the navy-yard at +Charlestown, being reached by ferry (1870), and by the electric subway +under the harbour. At the Charlestown navy-yard (1800) there are docks, +manufactories, foundries, machine-shops, ordnance stores, rope-walks, +furnaces, casting-pits, timber sheds, ordnance-parks, ship-houses, &c. +The famous frigate "Independence" was launched here in 1814, the more +famous "Constitution" having been launched while the yard was still +private in 1797. The first bridge over the Charles, to Charlestown, was +opened in 1786. The bridge of chief artistic merit is the Cambridge +Bridge (1908), which replaced the old West Boston Bridge, and is one +feature of improvements long projected for the beautifying of the +Charles river basin. + +Comparatively few relics of the early town have been spared by time and +the improvements of the modern city. Three cemeteries remain +intact--King's chapel burying ground, with the graves of John Winthrop +and John Cotton; the Old Granary burial ground in the heart of the city, +where Samuel Sewall, the parents of Franklin, John Hancock, James Otis +and Samuel Adams are buried; and Copp's Hill burial ground, containing +the tombs of the Mathers. Christ church (1723) is the oldest church of +the city; in its tower the signal lanterns were displayed for Paul +Revere on the night of the 18th of April 1775. The Old South church +(1730-1782), the old state house (1748, restored 1882), and Faneuil Hall +(1762-1763, enlarged 1805, reconstructed 1898) are rich in memorable +associations of the period preceding the War of Independence. The second +was the seat of the royal government of Massachusetts during the +provincial period, and within its walls from 1760 to 1775 the questions +of colonial dependence or independence probably first came into evident +conflict. The Old South church has many associations; it was, for +instance, the meeting-place of the people after the "Boston Massacre" of +1770, when they demanded the removal of the British troops from the +city; and here, too, were held the meetings that led up to the "Boston +Tea Party" of 1773. Faneuil Hall (the original hall of the name was +given to the city by Peter Faneuil, a Huguenot merchant, in 1742) is +associated, like the Old South, with the patriotic oratory of +revolutionary days and is called "the cradle of American liberty." Its +association with reform movements and great public issues of later times +is not less close and interesting.[2] The adjoining Quincy market may be +mentioned because its construction (1826) was utilized to open six new +streets, widen a seventh, and secure flats, docks and wharf rights--all +without laying tax or debt upon the city. The original King's chapel +(1688, present building 1749-1754) was the first Episcopal church of +Boston, which bitterly resented the action of the royal governor in 1687 +in using the Old South for the services of the Church of England. The +new state house, the oldest portion of which (designed by Charles +Bulfinch) was erected in 1795-1798, was enlarged in 1853-1856, and again +by a huge addition in 1889-1898 (total cost about $6,800,000 to 1900). +Architecturally, everything is subordinated to a conformity with the +style of the original portion; and its gilded dome is a conspicuous +landmark. Other buildings of local importance are the city hall (1865); +the United States government building (1871-1878, cost about +$6,000,000); the county court-house (1887-1893, $2,250,000); the +custom-house (1837-1848); and the chamber of commerce (1892). + +Copley Square, in the Back Bay, is finely distinguished by a group of +exceptional buildings: Trinity church, the old Museum of Fine Arts, the +public library and the new Old South church. Trinity (1877, cost +$800,000), in yellowish granite with dark sandstone trimmings, the +masterpiece of H.H. Richardson, is built in the Romanesque style of +southern France; it is a Latin cross surmounted by a massive central +tower, with smaller towers and an adjacent chapel reached by open +cloisters that distribute the balance (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate XVI. fig. +137). It has windows by La Farge, William Morris, Burne-Jones and +others. + +The library (1888-1895; cost $2,486,000, exclusive of the site, given +by the state) is a dignified, finely proportioned building of +pinkish-grey stone, built in the style of the Italian Renaissance, +suggesting a Florentine palace. It has an imposing exterior (see +ARCHITECTURE, Plate XVI. fig. 135), a beautiful inner court, and notable +decorative features and embellishments, including bronze doors by D.C. +French, a statue of Sir Henry Vane by Macmonnies, a fine staircase in +Siena marble, some characteristic decorative panels by Puvis de +Chavannes (illustrating the history of science and literature), and +other notable decorative paintings by John S. Sargent (on the history of +religion), Edwin A. Abbey (on the quest of the Holy Grail). The old +Museum of Fine Arts (1876) is a red brick edifice in modern Gothic +style, with trimmings of light stone and terra-cotta. The new Old South +(the successor of the Old South, which is now a museum) is a handsome +structure of Italian Gothic style, with a fine campanile. The dignified +buildings of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology are near. In +Huntington Avenue, at its junction with Massachusetts Avenue, is another +group of handsome new buildings, including Horticultural Hall, Symphony +Hall (1900) and the New England Conservatory of Music. In the Back Bay +Fens, reclaimed swamps laid out by F.L. Olmsted, still other groups +have formed--among others those of the marble buildings of the Harvard +medical school; Fenway Court, a building in the style, internally, of a +Venetian palace, that houses the art treasures of Mrs. J.L. Gardner, +and Simmons College. Here, too, is the new building (1908) of the Museum +of Fine Arts. Throughout the Fens excellently effective use is being +made of monumental buildings grouped in ample grounds. + +Boston compares favourably with other American cities in the character +of its public and private architecture. The height of buildings in the +business section is limited to 125 ft., and in some places to 90 ft. + +One of the great public works of Boston is its subway for electric +trams, about 3 m. long, in part with four tracks and in part with two, +constructed since 1895 at a cost of about $7,500,000 up to 1905. The +branch to East Boston (1900-1904) passes beneath the harbour bed and +extends from Scollay Square, Boston, to Maverick Square, East Boston; it +was the first all-cement tunnel (diameter, 23.6 ft.) in the world. The +subway was built by the city, but leased and operated by a private +company on such terms as to repay its cost in forty years. Another +tunnel has been added to the system, under Washington Street. The narrow +streets and the traffic congestion of the business district presented +difficult problems of urban transit, but the system is of exceptional +efficiency. There is an elevated road whose trains, like the surface +cars, are accommodated in the centre of the city by the subway. All the +various roads--surface, elevated (about 7 m., built 1896-1901), and +subway--are controlled, almost wholly, by one company. They all connect +and interchange passengers freely; so that the ordinary American +five-cent fare enables a passenger to travel between almost any two +points over an area of 100 sq. m. The two huge steam-railway stations of +the Boston & Maine and the Boston & Albany systems also deserve mention. +The former (the North, or Union station, 1893) covers 9 acres and has 23 +tracks; the latter (the South Terminal, 1898), one of the largest +stations in the world, covers 13 acres and has 32 tracks, and is used by +the Boston & Albany and by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways. + +A noteworthy feature of the metropolitan public water service was begun +in 1896 in the Wachusett lake reservoir at Clinton, on the Nashua river. +The basin here excavated by ten years of labour, lying 385 ft. above +high-tide level of Boston harbour, has an area of 6.5 sq. m., an average +depth of 46 ft., and a capacity of 63,068,000,000 gallons of water. It +is the largest municipal reservoir in the world[3], yet it is only part +of a system planned for the service of the metropolitan area. + +The park system is quite unique among American cities. The Common, a +park of 48 acres, in the centre of the city, has been a public +reservation since 1634, and no city park in the world is cherished more +affectionately for historical associations. Adjoining it is the Public +Garden of 24 acres (1859), part of the made area of the city. +Commonwealth Avenue, one of the Back Bay streets running from the foot +of the Public Garden, is one of the finest residence streets of the +country. It is 240 ft. wide, with four rows of trees shading the parking +of its central mall, and is a link through the Back Bay Fens with the +beautiful outer park system. The park system consists of two concentric +rings, the inner being the city system proper, the outer the +metropolitan system undertaken by the commonwealth in co-operation with +the city. The former has been laid out since 1875, and includes upwards +of 2300 acres, with more than 100 m. of walks, drives and rides. Its +central ornament is Franklin Park (527 acres). The metropolitan system, +which extends around the city on a radius of 10 to 12 m., was begun in +1893. It embraces over 10,000 acres, including the Blue Hill reservation +(about 5000 acres), the highest land in eastern Massachusetts, a +beautiful reservation of forest, crag and pond known as Middlesex Fells, +two large beach bath reservations on the harbour at Revere and Hull +(Nantasket), and the boating section of the Charles river. At the end of +1907 more than $13,000,000 had been expended on the system. Including +the local parks of the cities and towns of the metropolitan district +there are over 17,000 acres of pleasure grounds within the metropolitan +park district. Boston was the pioneer municipality of the country in the +establishment of open-air gymnasiums. A great improvement, planned for +many years, was brought nearer by the completion of the new Cambridge +Bridge. This improvement was projected to include the damming of the +Charles river, and the creation of a great freshwater basin, with +drive-ways of reclaimed land along the shores, and other adornments, +somewhat after the model of the Alster basins at Hamburg. + +_Art and Literature._--The Museum of Fine Arts was founded in 1870 +(though there were art exhibits collected from 1826 onward) and its +present building was erected in 1908. It has one of the finest +collections of casts in existence, a number of original pieces of Greek +statuary, the second-best collection in the world of Aretine ware, the +finest collection of Japanese pottery, and probably the largest and +finest of Japanese paintings in existence. Among the memorials to men of +Massachusetts (a large part of them Bostonians) commemorated by +monuments in the Common, the Public Garden, the grounds of the state +house, the city hall, and other public places of the city, are statues +of Charles Sumner, Josiah Quincy and John A. Andrew by Thomas Ball; of +Generals Joseph Hooker and William F. Bartlett, and of Rufus Choate by +Daniel C. French; of W.L. Garrison and Charles Devens by Olin L. Warner; +of Samuel Adams by Anne Whitney; of John Winthrop and Benjamin Franklin +by R.S. Greenough; of Edward Everett (W.W. Story), Colonel W. Prescott +(Story), Horace Mann (E. Stebbins), Daniel Webster (H. Powers), W.E. +Channing (H. Adams), N.P. Banks (H.H. Kitson), Phillips Brooks (A. St +Gaudens), and J.B. O'Reilly (D.C. French). + +Among other important monuments are a group by J.Q.A. Ward +commemorating the first proof of the anaesthetic properties of ether, +made in 1846 in the Massachusetts General Hospital by Dr W.T.G. +Morton; an emancipation group of Thomas Ball with a portrait statue of +Lincoln; a fine equestrian statue, by the same sculptor, of Washington, +one of the best works in the country (1869); an army and navy monument +in the Common by Martin Millmore, in memory of the Civil War; another +(1888) recording the death of those who fell in the Boston Massacre of +1770; statues of Admiral D.G. Farragut (H.H. Kitson), Leif Ericson +(Anne Whitney), and Alexander Hamilton (W. Rimmer); and a magnificent +bronze bas-relief (1897) by Augustus St Gaudens commemorating the +departure from Boston of Colonel Robert G. Shaw with the first regiment +of negro soldiers enlisted in the Civil War. There is an art department +of the city government, under unpaid commissioners, appointed by the +mayor from candidates named by local art and literary institutions; and +without their approval no work of art can now become the property of the +city. + +The public library, containing 922,348 volumes in January 1908, is the +second library of the country in size, and is the largest free +circulating library in the world (circulation 1907, 1,529,111 volumes). +There was a public municipal library in Boston before 1674--probably in +1653; but it was burned in 1747 and was apparently never replaced. The +present library (antedated by several circulating, social and +professional collections) may justly be said to have had its origin in +the efforts of the Parisian, Alexandre Vattemare (1796-1864), from 1830 +on, to foster international exchanges. From 1847 to 1851 he arranged +gifts from France to American libraries aggregating 30,655 volumes, and +a gift of 50 volumes by the city of Paris in 1843 (reciprocated in 1849 +with more than 1000 volumes contributed by private citizens) was the +nucleus of the Boston public library. Its legal foundation dates from +1848. Among the special collections are the George Ticknor library of +Spanish and Portuguese books (6393 vols.), very full sets of United +States and British public documents, the Bowditch mathematical library +(7090 vols.), the Galatea collection on the history of women (2193 +vols.), the Barton library, including one of the finest existing +collections of Shakespeariana (3309 vols., beside many in the general +library), the A.A. Brown library of music (9886 vols.), a very full +collection on the anthropology and ethnology of Europe, and more than +100,000 volumes on the history, biography, geography and literature of +the United States. The library is supported almost entirely by municipal +appropriations, though holding also considerable trust funds ($388,742 +in 1905). The other notable book-collections of the city include those +of the Athenaeum, founded in 1807 (about 230,000 vols. and pamphlets), +the Massachusetts Historical Society (founded 1791; 50,300), the Boston +medical library (founded 1874; about 80,000), the New England +Historic-Genealogical Society (founded 1845; 33,750 volumes and 34,150 +pamphlets), the state library (founded 1826; 140,000), the American +Academy of Arts and Sciences (founded 1780; 30,000), the Boston Society +of Natural History (founded 1830; about 35,000 volumes and 27,000 +pamphlets). + +The leading educational institutions are the Massachusetts Institute of +Technology, the largest purely scientific and technical school in the +country, opened to students (including women) in 1865, four years after +the granting of a charter to Prof. W.B. Rogers, the first president; +Boston University (chartered in 1869; Methodist Episcopal; +co-educational); the New England Conservatory of Music (co-educational; +private; 1867, incorporated 1880), the largest in the United States, +having 2400 students in 1905-1906; the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy +(1852); the Massachusetts Normal Art School (1873); the School of +Drawing and Painting (1876) of the Museum of Fine Arts; Boston College +(1860), Roman Catholic, under the Society of Jesus; St John's +Theological Seminary (1880), Roman Catholic; Simmons College (1899) for +women, and several departments of Harvard University. The Institute of +Technology has an exceptional reputation for the wide range of its +instruction and its high standards of scholarship. It was a pioneer in +introducing as a feature of its original plans laboratory instruction in +physics, mechanics and mining. The architects of the United States navy +are sent here for instruction in their most advanced courses. Boston +University was endowed by Isaac Rich (1801-1872), a Boston +fish-merchant, Lee Claflin (1791-1871), a shoe manufacturer and a +benefactor of Wesleyan University and of Wilbraham Seminary, and Jacob +Sleeper. It has been co-educational from the beginning. Its faculties of +theology--founded in 1841 at Newbury, Vt., as the Biblical Institute; in +1847-1867 in Concord, N.H.; and in 1867-1871 the Boston Theological +Seminary--law, music, medicine, liberal arts and agriculture (at +Amherst, in association with the Massachusetts Agricultural College), +all antedate 1876. The funds for Simmons College were left by John +Simmons in 1870, who wished to found a school to teach the professions +and "branches of art, science and industry best calculated to enable the +scholars to acquire an independent livelihood." The Lowell Institute +(q.v.), established in 1839 (by John Lowell, Jr., who bequeathed +$237,000 for the purpose), provides yearly courses of free public +lectures, and its lecturers have included many of the leading scholars +of America and Europe. During each winter, also, a series of public +lectures on American history is delivered in the Old South meeting +house. The public schools, particularly the secondary schools, enjoy a +very high reputation. The new English High and Latin school, founded in +1635, is the oldest school of the country. A girls' Latin school, with +the same standards as the boys' school, was established in 1878 (an +outcome of the same movement that founded Radcliffe College). There are +large numbers of private schools, in art, music and academic studies. + +In theatrical matters Boston is now one of the chief American centres. +The Federal Street theatre--the first regular theatre--was established +in 1794, the old Puritan feeling having had its natural influence in +keeping Boston behind New York and Philadelphia in this respect. The +dramatic history of the city is largely associated with the Boston +Museum, built in 1841 by Moses Kimball on Tremont Street, and rebuilt in +1846 and 1880; here for half a century the principal theatrical +performances were given (see an interesting article in the _New England +Magazine_, June 1903), in later years under the management of R. +Montgomery Field, until in 1903 the famous Boston Museum was swept away, +as other interesting old places of entertainment (the old Federal Street +theatre, the Tremont theatre, &c.) had been, in the course of further +building changes. The Boston theatre dates from 1854, and there were +seventeen theatres altogether in 1900. + +As a musical centre Boston rivals New York. Among musical organizations +may be mentioned the Handel and Haydn Society (1815), the Harvard +Musical Association (1837), the Philharmonic (1880) and the Symphony +Orchestra, organized in 1881 by the generosity of Henry Lee Higginson. +This orchestra has done much for music not only in Boston but in the +United States generally. In 1908 the Boston Opera Company was +incorporated, and an opera house has been erected on the north side of +Huntington Avenue. + +Boston was the undisputed literary centre of America until the later +decades of the 19th century, and still retains a considerable and +important colony of writers and artists. Its ascendancy was identical +with the long predominance of the New England literary school, who lived +in Boston or in the country round about. Two Boston periodicals (one no +longer so) that still hold an exceptional position in periodical +literature, the _North American Review_ (1815) and the _Atlantic +Monthly_ (1857), date from this period. The great majority of names in +the long list of worthies of the commonwealth--writers, statesmen, +orators, artists, philanthropists, reformers and scholars, are +intimately connected with Boston. Among the city's daily newspapers the +_Boston Herald_ (1846), the _Boston Globe_, the _Evening Transcript_ +(1830), the _Advertiser_ (1813) and the _Post_ (1831) are the most +important. + +_Industry and Commerce._--Boston is fringed with wharves. Commercial +interests are largely concentrated in East Boston. Railway connexion +with Worcester, Lowell and Providence was opened in 1835; with Albany, +N.Y., and thereby with various lines of interior communication, in 1841 +(double track, 1868); with Fitchburg, in 1845; and in 1851 connexion was +completed with the Great Lakes and Canada. In 1840 Boston was selected +as the American terminus of the Cunard Line, the first regular line of +trans-Atlantic steamers. The following decade was the most active of the +city's history as regards the ocean carrying trade. Boston ships went to +all parts of the globe. The Cunard arrangement was the first of various +measures that worked for a commercial rapprochement between the New +England states and Canada, culminating in the reciprocity treaty of +1854, and Boston's interests are foremost to-day in demanding a return +to relations of reciprocity. Beginning about 1855 the commerce of the +port greatly declined. The Cunard service has not been continuous. In +1869 there was not one vessel steaming directly for Europe; in 1900 +there were 973 for foreign ports. Great improvements of the harbour were +undertaken in 1902 by the United States government, looking to the +creation of two broad channels 35 ft. deep. Railway rates have also been +a matter of vital importance in recent years; Boston, like New York, +complaining of discriminations in favour of Philadelphia, Baltimore, New +Orleans and Galveston. Boston also feels the competition of Montreal and +Portland; the Canadian roads being untrammelled in the matter of freight +differentials. Boston is the second import port of the United States, +but its exports in 1907 were less than those of Philadelphia, of +Galveston, or of New Orleans. The total tonnage in foreign trade +entering and leaving in 1907 was 5,148,429 tons; and in the same year +9616 coasting vessels (tonnage, 10,261,474) arrived in Boston. The value +of imports and exports for 1907 were respectively $123,414,168 and +$104,610,908. Fibres and vegetable grasses, wool, hides and skins, +cotton, sugar, iron and steel and their manufactures, chemicals, coal, +and leather and its manufactures are the leading imports; provisions, +leather and its manufactures, cotton and its manufactures, breadstuffs, +iron and steel and their manufactures are the leading exports. In the +exportation of cattle, and of the various meat and dairy products +classed as provisions, Boston is easily second to New York. It is the +largest wool and the largest fish market of the United States, being in +each second in the world to London only. + +Manufacturing is to-day the most distinctive industry, as was commerce +in colonial times. The value of all manufactured products from +establishments under the "factory system" in 1900 was $162,764,523; in +1905 it was $184,351,163. Among the leading and more distinctive items +were printing and publishing ($21,023,855 in 1905); sugar and molasses +refining ($15,746,547 in 1900; figures not published in 1905 because of +the industry being in the hands of a single owner); men's clothing (in +1900, $8,609,475, in 1905, $11,246,004); women's clothing (in 1900, +$3,258,483, in 1905, $5,705,470); boots and shoes (in 1900, $3,882,655, +in 1905, $5,575,927); boot and shoe cut stock (in 1905, $5,211,445); +malt liquors (in 1900, $7,518,668, in 1905, $6,715,215); confectionery +(in 1900, $4,455,184, in 1905, $6,210,023); tobacco products (in 1900, +$3,504,603, in 1905, $4,592,698); pianos and organs ($3,670,771 in +1905); other musical instruments and materials (in 1905, $231,780); +rubber and elastic goods (in 1900, $3,139,783, in 1905, $2,887,323); +steam fittings and heating apparatus (in 1900, $2,876,327, in 1905, +$3,354,020); bottling, furniture, &c. Art tiles and pottery are +manufactured in Chelsea. Shipbuilding and allied industries early became +of great importance. The Waltham watch and the Singer sewing-machine had +their beginning in Boston in 1850. The making of the Chickering pianos +goes back to 1823, and of Mason & Hamlin reed organs to 1854; these are +to-day very important and distinctive manufactures of the city. The +ready-made clothing industry began about 1830. + +_Government._--Beyond a recognition of its existence in 1630, when it +was renamed, Boston can show no legal incorporation before 1822; +although the uncertain boundaries between the powers of colony and +township prompted repeated petitions to the legislature for +incorporation, beginning as early as 1650. In 1822 Boston became a city. +Thus for nearly two centuries it preserved intact its old "town" +government, disposing of all its affairs in the "town-meeting" of its +citizens. Excellent political training such a government unquestionably +offered; but it became unworkable as disparities of social condition +increased, as the number of legal voters (above 7000 in 1822) became +greater, and as the population ceased to be homogeneous in blood. All +the citizens did not assemble; on the contrary ordinary business seldom +drew out more than a hundred voters, and often a mere handful. From very +early days executive officers known as "select-men," constables, clerks +of markets, hog reeves, packers of meat and fish, &c., were chosen; and +the select-men, particularly, gained power as the attendance of the +freemen on meetings grew onerous. Interested cliques could control the +business of the town-meeting in ordinary times, and boisterousness +marred its democractic excellence in exciting times. Large sums were +voted loosely, and expended by executive boards without any budgetary +control. The whole system was full of looseness, complexity and +makeshifts. But the tenacity with which it was clung to, proved that it +was suited to the community; and whether helpful or harmful to, it was +not inconsistent with, the continuance of growth and prosperity. Various +other Massachusetts townships, as they have grown older, have been +similarly compelled to abandon their old form of government. The powers +of the old township were much more extensive than those of the present +city of Boston, including as they did the determination of the residence +of strangers, the allotment of land, the grant of citizenship, the +fixing of wages and prices, of the conditions of lawsuits and even a +voice in matters of peace and war. The city charter was revised in 1854, +and again reconstructed in important particulars by laws of 1885 +separating the executive and legislative powers, and by subsequent acts. +A complete alteration of the government has indeed been effected since +1885. Boston proper is only the centre of a large metropolitan area, +closely settled, with interests in large part common. This metropolitan +area, within a radius of approximately 10 m. about the state house, +contained in 1900 about 40% of the population of the state. In the last +two decades of the 19th century the question of giving to this greater +city some general government, fully consolidated or of limited powers, +was a standing question of expediency. The commonwealth has four times +recognized a community of metropolitan interests in creating state +commissions since 1882 for the union of such interests, beginning with a +metropolitan health district in that year. The metropolitan water +district (1895) included in 1908 Boston and seventeen cities or +townships in its environs; the metropolitan sewerage district (1889) +twenty four; the park service (1893) thirty-nine. Local sentiment was +firmly against complete consolidation. The creation of the state +commissions, independent of the city's control, but able to commit the +city indefinitely by undertaking expensive works and new debt, was +resented. Independence is further curtailed by other state boards +semi-independent of the city--the police commission of three members +from 1885 to 1906, and in 1906 a single police commissioner, appointed +by the governor, a licensing board of three members, appointed by the +governor; the transit commission, &c. There are, further, county offices +(Suffolk county comprises only Boston, Chelsea, Revere and Winthrop), +generally independent of the city, though the latter pays practically +all the bills. + +A new charter went into effect in 1910. It provided for municipal +elections in January; for the election of a mayor for four years; for +his recall at the end of two years if a majority of the registered +voters so vote in the state election in November in the second year of +his term; for the summary removal for cause by the mayor of any +department head or other of his appointees, for a city council of one +chamber of nine members, elected at large each for three years; for +nomination by petition; for a permanent finance commission appointed by +the governor; for the confirmation of the mayor's appointments by the +state civil service commission; for the mayor's preparation of the +annual budget (in which items may be reduced but not increased by the +council), and for his absolute veto of appropriations except for school +use. The school committee (who serve gratuitously) appoint the +superintendent and supervisors of schools. The number of members of the +school-board was in 1905 reduced from twenty-four to five, elected by +the city at large, and serving for one, two or three years; at the same +time power was centralized in the hands of the superintendent of +schools. Civil service reform principles cover the entire municipal +administration. The city's work is done under an eight-hour law. + +An analysis of city election returns for the decade 1890-1899 showed +that the interest of the citizens was greatest in the choice of a +president; then, successively, in the choice of a mayor, a governor, the +determination of liquor-license questions by referendum, and the +settlement of other referenda. On 21 referenda, 10 being questions of +license, the ratio of actual to registered voters ranged on the latter +from 57.00 to 75.38% (mean 61.15), and on other referenda from 75.63 to +33.40 (mean 61.39),--the mean for all, 64.18. But the average of two +presidential votes was 85.37%; and the maxima, minima and means for +mayors and governors were respectively 83.86, 74.99, 78.36 and 84.73, +61.78, 75.72. Of those who might, only some 50 to 65% actually register. +Women vote for school committee-men (categories as above, 95.18, 59.62, +76.49%). On a referendum in 1895 on the expediency of granting municipal +suffrage to women only 59.08% of the women who were registered voted, +and probably less than 10% of those entitled to be registered. + +Hospitals, asylums, refuges and homes, pauper, reformatory and penal +institutions, flower missions, relief associations, and other charitable +or philanthropic organizations, private and public, number several +hundreds. The Associated Charities is an incorporated organization for +systematizing the various charities of the city. The Massachusetts +general hospital (1811-1821)--with a branch for mental and nervous +diseases, McLean hospital (1816), in the township of Belmont +(post-office, Waverley) about 6 m. W.N.W. of Boston; the Perkins +Institution and Massachusetts school for the blind (1832), famous for +its conduct by Samuel G. Howe, and for association with Laura Bridgman +and Helen Keller; the Massachusetts school for idiotic and feebleminded +children (1839); and the Massachusetts charitable eye and ear infirmary +(1824), all receive financial aid from the commonwealth, which has +representation in their management. The city hospital dates from 1864. A +floating hospital for women and children in the summer months, with +permanent and transient wards, has been maintained since 1894 +(incorporated 1901). Boston was one of the first municipalities of the +country to make provision for the separate treatment of juvenile +offenders; in 1906 a juvenile court was established. A People's Palace +dedicated to the work of the Salvation Army, and containing baths, +gymnasium, a public hall, a library, sleeping-rooms, an employment +bureau, free medical and legal bureaus, &c., was opened in 1906. Simmons +College and Harvard University maintain the Boston school for social +workers (1904). Beneficent social work out of the more usual type is +directed by the music and bath departments of the city government. In +the provision of public gymnasiums and baths (1866) Boston was the +pioneer city of the country, and remains the most advanced. The beach +reservations of the metropolitan park system at Revere and Nantasket, +and several smaller city beaches are a special feature of this service. +Benjamin Franklin, who was born and spent his boyhood in Boston, left +L1000 to the city in his will; it amounted in 1905 to $403,000, and +constituted a fund to be used for the good of the labouring class of the +city. + + Largely owing to activity in public works Boston has long been the + most expensively governed of American cities. The average yearly + expenditure for ten years preceding 1904 was $27,354,416, exclusive of + payments on funded and floating debts. The running expenses + _per-capita_ in 1900 were $35.23; more than twice the average of 86 + leading cities of the country (New York, $23.92; Chicago, $11.62). + Schools, police, charities, water, streets and parks are the items of + heaviest cost. The cost of the public schools for the five years from + 1901-1902 to 1906-1907 was $27,883,937, of which $7,057,895.42 was for + new buildings; the cost of the police department was $11,387,314.66 + for the six years 1902-1907; and of the water department $4,941,343.37 + for the six years 1902-1907; of charities and social work a much + larger sum. The remaking of the city was enormously expensive, + especially the alteration of the streets after 1866, when the city + received power to make such alterations and assess a part of the + improvements upon abutting estates. The creation of the city + water-system has also been excessively costly, and the total cost up + to the 31st of January 1908 of the works remaining to the city after + the creation of the metropolitan board in 1898 was about $17,000,000. + The metropolitan water board--of whose expenditures Boston bears only + a share--expended from 1895 to 1900 $20,693,870; and the system was + planned to consume finally probably 40 millions at least. The city + park system proper had cost $16,627,033 up to 1899 inclusive; and the + metropolitan parks $13,679,456 up to 1907 inclusive. There are no + municipal lighting-plants; but the companies upon which the city + depends for its service are (with all others) subject to the control + of a state commission. In 1885 a state law placed a limit on the + contractable debt and upon the taxation rate of the city. Revenues + were not realized adequate to its lavish undertakings, and loans were + used to meet current expenses. The limits were altered subsequently, + but the net debt has continued to rise. In 1822 it was $100,000; in + 1850, $6,195,144; in 1886, $24,712,820; in 1904, $58,216,725; in 1907, + $70,781,969 (gross debt, $104,206,706)--this included the debt of + Suffolk county which in 1907 was $3,517,000. The chief objects for + which the city debt was created were in 1907, in millions of dollars: + highways, 24.07, parks, 16.29, drainage and sewers, 15.05, rapid + transit, 13.57 and water-works, 4.53. Boston paid in 1907 36% of all + state taxes, and about 33, 62, 47 and 79% respectively of the + assessments for the metropolitan sewer, parks, boulevards and water + services. About a third of its revenue goes for such uses or for + Suffolk county expenditures over which it has but limited control. The + improvement of the Back Bay and of the South Boston flats was in + considerable measure forced upon the city by the commonwealth. The + debt per capita is as high as the cost of current administration + relatively to other cities. The average interest rate on the city + obligations in 1907 was about 3.7%. The city's tax valuation in 1907 + was $1,313,471,556 (in 1822, $42,140,200; in 1850, $180,000,500), of + which only $242,606,856 represented personalty; although in the + judgment of the city board of trade such property cannot by any + possibility be inferior in value to realty. + +_Population._--Up to the War of Independence the population was not only +American, but it was in its ideas and standards essentially Puritan; +modern liberalism, however, has introduced new standards of social life. +In 1900 35.1% of the inhabitants were foreign-born, and 72.2% wholly or +in part of foreign parentage. Irish, English-Canadian, Russian, Italian, +English and German are the leading races. Of the foreign-born population +these elements constituted respectively 35.6, 24.0, 7.6, 7.0, 6.7 and +5.3%. Large foreign colonies, like adjoining but unmixing nations, +divide among themselves a large part of the city, and give to its life a +cosmopolitan colour of varied speech, opinion, habits, traditions, +social relations and religions. Most remarkable of all, the Roman +Catholic churches, in this stronghold of exiled Puritanism where +Catholics were so long under the heavy ban of law, outnumber those of +any single Protestant denomination; Irish Catholics dominate the +politics of the city, and Protestants and Catholics have been aligned +against each other on the question of the control of the public schools. +Despite, however, its heavy foreign admixture the old Americanism of the +city remains strikingly predominant. The population of Boston at the end +of each decennial period since 1790 was as follows:--(1790), 18,320; +(1800), 24,937; (1810), 33,787; (1820), 43,298; (1830), 61,392; (1840), +93,383; (1850), 136,881; (1860), 177,840; (1870), 250,526; (1880), +362,839; (1890), 448,477; (1900), 560,892. + +_History._--John Smith visited Boston Harbour in 1614, and it was +explored in 1621 by a party from Plymouth. There were various attempts +to settle about its borders in the following years before John Endecott +in 1628 landed at Salem as governor of the colony of Massachusetts bay, +within which Boston was included. In June 1630 John Winthrop's company +reached Charlestown. At that time a "bookish recluse," William Blaxton +(Blackstone), one of the several "old planters" scattered about the bay, +had for several years been living on Boston peninsula. The location +seemed one suitable for commerce and defence, and the Winthrop party +chose it for their settlement. The triple summit of Beacon Hill, of +which no trace remains to-day (or possibly a reference to the three +hills of the then peninsula, Beacon, Copp's and Fort) led to the +adoption of the name Trimountaine for the peninsula,--a name perpetuated +variously in present municipal nomenclature as in Tremont; but on the +17th of September 1630, the date adopted for anniversary celebrations, +it was ordered that "Trimountaine shall be called Boston," after the +borough of that name in Lincolnshire, England, of which several of the +leading settlers had formerly been prominent citizens.[4] + +For several years it was uncertain whether Cambridge, Charlestown or +Boston should be the capital of the colony, but in 1632 the General +Court agreed "by general consent, that Boston is the fittest place for +public meetings of any place in the Bay." It rapidly became the +wealthiest and most populous. Throughout the 17th century its history is +so largely that of Massachusetts generally that they are inseparable. +Theological systems were largely concerned. The chief features of this +epoch --the Antinomian dissensions, the Quaker and Baptist persecutions, +the witchcraft delusion (four witches were executed in Boston, in 1648, +1651, 1656, 1688) &c.--are referred to in the article MASSACHUSETTS +(q.v.). In 1692 the first permanent and successful printing press was +established; in 1704 the first newspaper in America, the _Boston +News-Letter_, which was published weekly until 1776. Puritanism steadily +mellowed under many influences. By the turn of the first century bigotry +was distinctly weakened. Among the marks of the second half of the 17th +century was growing material prosperity, and there were those who +thought their fellows unduly willing to relax church tests of fellowship +when good trade was in question. There was an unpleasant Englishman who +declared in 1699 that he found "Money Their God, and Large Possessions +the only Heaven they Covet." Prices were low, foreign commerce was +already large, business thriving; wealth gave social status; the +official British class lent a lustre to society; and Boston "town" was +drawing society from the "country." Of the two-score or so of families +most prominent in the first century hardly one retained place in the +similar list for the early years of the second. Boston was a prosperous, +thrifty, English country town, one traveller thought. Another, Daniel +Neal, in 1720, found Boston conversation "as polite as in most of the +cities and towns in England, many of their merchants having the +advantage of a free conversation with travellers; so that a gentleman +from London would almost think himself at home at Boston, when he +observes the number of people, their houses, their furniture, their +tables, their dress and conversation, which perhaps is as splendid and +showy as that of the most considerable tradesmen in London." + +The population, which was almost stationary through much of the century, +was about 20,000 in the years immediately before the War of +Independence. At this time Boston was the most flourishing town of North +America. It built ships as cheaply as any place in the world, it carried +goods for other colonies, it traded--often evading British laws--with +Europe, Guinea, Madagascar and above all with the West Indies. The +merchant princes and social leaders of the time are painted with +elaborate show of luxury in the canvases of Copley. The great English +writers of Queen Anne's reign seem to have been but little known in the +colony, and the local literature, though changed somewhat in character, +showed but scant improvement. About the middle of the century +restrictions upon the press began to disappear. At the same time +questions of trade, of local politics, finally of colonial autonomy, of +imperial policy, had gradually, but already long since, replaced +theology in leading interest. In the years 1760-1776 Boston was the most +frequently recurring and most important name in British colonial +history. Sentiments of limited independence of the British government +had been developing since the very beginning of the settlement (see +MASSACHUSETTS), and their strength in 1689 had been strikingly exhibited +in the local revolution of that year, when the royal governor, Sir +Edmund Andros, and other high officials, were frightened into surrender +and were imprisoned. This movement, it should be noted, was a popular +rising, and not the work of a few leaders. + +The incidents that marked the approach of the War of Independence need +barely be adverted to. Opposition to the measures of the British +government for taxing and oppressing the colonies began in Boston. The +argument of Otis on the writs of assistance was in 1760-1761. The Stamp +Act, passed in 1765, was repealed in 1766; it was opposed in Boston by a +surprising show of determined and unified public sentiment. Troops were +first quartered in the town in 1768. In 1770, on the 5th of March, in a +street brawl, a number of citizens were killed or wounded by the +soldiers, who fired into a crowd that were baiting a sentry. This +incident is known as the "Boston Massacre." The Tea Act of 1773 was +defied by the emptying into the harbour of three cargoes of tea on the +16th of December 1773, by a party of citizens disguised as Indians, +after the people in town-meeting had exhausted every effort, through a +period of weeks, to procure the return of the tea-ships to England. To +this act Great Britain replied by various penal regulations and +reconstructive acts of government. She quartered troops in Boston; she +made the juries, sheriffs and judges of the colony dependent on the +royal officers; she ordered capital offenders to be tried in Nova Scotia +or England; she endeavoured completely to control or to abolish +town-meetings; and finally, by the so-called "Boston Port Bill," she +closed the port of Boston on the 1st of June 1774. Not even a ferry, a +scow or other boat could move in the harbour. Marblehead and Salem were +made ports of entry, and Salem was made the capital. But they would not +profit by Boston's misfortune. The people covenanted not to use British +goods and to suspend trade with Great Britain. From near neighbours and +from distant colonies came provisions and encouragement. In October +1774, when General Gage refused recognition to the Massachusetts general +court at Salem, the members adjourned to Concord as the first provincial +congress. Finally came war, with Lexington and Bunker Hill, and +beleaguerment by the colonial army; until on the 17th of March 1776 the +British were compelled by Washington to evacuate the city. With them +went about 1100 Tory refugees, many of them of the finest families of +the city and province. The evacuation closed the heroic period of +Boston's history. War did not again approach the city. + +The years from 1776 to the end of "town" government in 1822 were marked +by slow growth and prosperity. Commerce and manufactures alike took +great impetus. Direct trade with the East Indies began about 1785, with +Russia in 1787. A Boston vessel, the "Columbia" (Captain Robert Gray), +opened trade with the north-west coast of America, and was the first +American ship to circumnavigate the globe (1787-1790). In 1805 Boston +began the export of ice to Jamaica, a trade which was gradually extended +to Cuba, to ports of the southern states, and finally to Rio de Janeiro +and Calcutta (1833), declining only after the Civil War; it enabled +Boston to control the American trade of Calcutta against New York +throughout the entire period. But of course it was far less important +than various other articles of trade in the aggregate values of +commerce. It was Boston commerce that was most sorely hurt by the +embargo and non-importation policy of President Jefferson. In +manufactures the foundation was laid of the city's wealth. In politics +the period is characterized by Boston's connexion with the fortunes of +the Federalist party. The city was warmly in favour of the adoption of +the federal constitution of 1787; even Samuel Adams was rejected for +Congress because he was backward in its support. It was the losses +entailed upon her commerce by the commercial policy of Jefferson's +administration that embittered Boston against the Democratic-Republican +party and put her public men in the forefront of the opposition to its +policies that culminated in lukewarmness toward the War of 1812, and in +the Hartford Convention of 1814. + +Some mention must be made of the Unitarian movement. Unitarian +tendencies away from the Calvinism of the old Congregational churches +were plainly evident about 1750, and it is said by Andrew P. Peabody +(1811-1893) that by 1780 nearly all the Congregational pulpits around +Boston were filled by Unitarians. Organized Unitarianism in Boston dates +from 1785. In 1782 King's chapel (Episcopal) became Unitarian, and in +1805 one of that faith was made professor of divinity in Harvard. But +the Unitarianism of those times, even the Unitarianism of Channing, was +very different from that of to-day. Theodore Parker and Channing have +been the greatest leaders. The American Unitarian Association, organized +in 1825, has always retained its headquarters in Boston. The theological +and philosophical developments of the second quarter of the 19th century +were characterized by the transcendental movement (see MASSACHUSETTS). + +In the period from 1822 to the Civil War anti-slavery is the most +striking feature of Boston's annals. Garrison established the Liberator +in 1831; W.E. Channing became active in the cause of abolition in 1835, +and Wendell Phillips a little later. In 1835 a mob, composed in part of +wealthy and high-standing citizens, attacked a city-building, and +dragged Garrison through the streets until the mayor secured his safety +by putting him in gaol. But times changed. In 1850 a reception was given +in Faneuil Hall in honour of the English anti-slavery leader, George +Thompson, whose reported intention to address Bostonians in 1835 +precipitated the riot of that year. In 1851 the Court House was +surrounded with chains to prevent the "rescue" of a slave (Sims) held +for rendition under the Fugitive Slave Law; another slave (Shadrach) was +released this same year, and in 1854 there was a riot and intense +excitement over the rendition of Anthony Burns. Boston had long since +taken her place in the very front of anti-slavery ranks, and with the +rest of Massachusetts was playing somewhat the same part as in the years +before the War of Independence. + +Later events of importance have already been indicated in essentials. On +the 9th-10th of November 1872 a terrible fire swept the business part of +the city, destroying hundreds of buildings of brick and granite, and +inflicting a loss of some $75,000,000. Within two years the whole area, +solidly rebuilt and with widened and straightened streets, showed no +traces of the ruin except an appearance superior in all respects to that +presented before the fire. The expense of this re-creation probably +duplicated, at least, the loss from the conflagration. Since this time +there has been no set-back to the prosperity of the city. But it is not +upon material prosperity that Boston rests its claims for consideration. +It prides itself on its schools, its libraries, its literary traditions, +its splendid public works and its reputation as the chief centre of +American culture. + + AUTHORITIES.--See the annual _City Documents_; also Justin Winsor + (ed.) _The Memorial History of Boston, including Suffolk County ... + 1630-1880_ (4 vols., Boston, 1880-1881), a work that covers every + phase of the city's growth, history and life; S.A. Drake, _The History + and Antiquities of ... Boston_ (2 vols., Boston, 1854; and later + editions), and _Old Landmarks and Historic Personages of Boston_ + (Boston, 1873, and later editions); Josiah Quincy, _A Municipal + History of ... Boston ... to ... 1830_ (Boston, 1852); C.W. Ernst, + _Constitutional History of Boston_ (Boston, 1894); H.H. Sprague, _City + Government in Boston--its Rise and Development_ (Boston, 1890); E.E. + Hale, _Historic Boston and its Neighbourhood_ (New York, 1898), and L. + Swift, _Literary Landmarks of Boston_ (Boston, 1903). A great mass of + original historical documents have been published by the registry + department of the city government since 1876 (34 v. to 1905). Boston + has been described in many works of fiction, and the reader may be + referred to the novels of E.L. Bynner, to L. Maria Childs' _The + Rebels_, to J.F. Cooper's _Lionel Lincoln_, to the early novels of + W.D. Howells (also those of Arlo Bates), to O.W. Holmes' _Poet_ and + _Autocrat_, and Hawthorne's _Scarlet Letter_, as pictures of Boston + life at various periods since early colonial days. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] On the alteration of streets alone $26,691,496 were expended from + 1822 to 1880. + + [2] Faneuil Hall is the headquarters of the Ancient and Honourable + Artillery Company of Boston, the oldest military organization of the + country, organized in 1638. + + [3] The dam is 1250 ft. long, with a maximum height of 129 ft., only + 750 ft. having a depth of more than 40 ft. from high water to rock. + The entire surface of the basin was scraped to bed rock, sand or + mineral earth, this alone costing $3,000,000. Connected with the + reservoir is an aqueduct, of which 2 m. are tunnel and 7 m. covered + masonry. The metropolitan system as planned in 1905 for the near + future contemplated storage for 80,000,000,000 gallons, reservoirs + holding 2,200,000,000 gallons for immediate use, aqueducts capable of + carrying 420,000,000 gallons daily, and a minimum daily supply of + 173,000,000 gallons. + + [4] In 1851 the mayor of the English Boston sent over a copy of that + city's seals, framed in oak from St Botolph's church, of which John + Cotton, the famous Boston divine (he came over in 1633) had been + vicar. The seals now hang in the city hall. In 1855 a number of + Americans, including Charles Francis Adams and Edward Everett, and + also various descendants of Cotton, united to restore the south-west + chapel of St Botolph's church, and to erect in it a memorial tablet + to Cotton's memory. The total amount raised by subscription for this + purpose was L673. + + + + +BOSTON, a game of cards invented during the last quarter of the 18th +century. It is said to have originated in Boston, Massachusetts, during +the siege by the British. It seems to have been invented by the officers +of the French fleet which lay for a time off the town of Marblehead, and +the name of the two small islands in Marblehead harbour which have, from +the period of the American Revolution, been called Great and Little +Misery, correspond with expressions used in the game. William Tudor, in +his _Letters on the Eastern States_, published in 1821, states somewhat +differently that "A game of cards was invented in Versailles and called +in honour of the town, Boston; the points of the game are allusive, +'great independence,' 'little independence,' 'great misery,' 'little +misery,' &c. It is composed partly of whist and partly of quadrille, +though partaking mostly of the former." The game enjoyed an +extraordinary vogue in high French society, where it was the fashion at +that time to admire all things American. "The ladies... filled my +pockets with bon-bons, and ... called me _'le petit Bostonien.'_ It was +indeed by the name of Bostonian that all Americans were known in France +then. The war having broken out in Boston and the first great battle +fought in its neighbourhood, gave to that name universal celebrity. A +game invented at that time, played with cards, was called 'Boston,' and +is to this day (1830) exceedingly fashionable at Paris by that +appellation" (_Recollections of Samuel Breck_, Philadelphia, 1877). +There was a tradition that Dr Franklin was fond of the game and even +that he had a hand in its invention. At the middle of the 19th century +it was still popular in Europe, and to a less degree in America, but its +favour has steadily declined since then. + + The rules of Boston recognized in English-speaking countries differ + somewhat from those in vogue in France. According to the former, two + packs of 52 cards are used, which rank as in whist, both for cutting + and dealing. Four players take part, and there are usually no + partners. Counters are used, generally of three colours and values, + and each hand is settled for as soon as finished. The entire first + pack is dealt out by fours and fives, and the second pack is cut for + the trump, the suit of the card turned being "first preference," the + other suit of the same colour "second preference" or "colour," while + the two remaining suits are "plain suits." The eldest hand then + announces that he will make a certain number of tricks provided he may + name the trump, or lose a certain number without trumps. The different + bids are called by various names, but the usual ones are as + follows:--To win five tricks, "Boston." (To win) "six tricks." (To + win) "seven tricks." To lose twelve tricks, after discarding one card + that is not shown, "little _misere_." (To win) "eight tricks." (To + win) "nine tricks." To lose every trick, "grand _misere_." (To win) + "ten tricks." (To win) "eleven tricks." To lose twelve tricks, after + discarding one card that is not shown, the remaining twelve cards + being exposed on the table but not liable to be called, "little + spread." (To win) "twelve tricks." To lose every trick with exposed + cards, "grand spread." To win thirteen tricks, "grand slam." If a + player does not care to bid he may pass, and the next player bids. + Succeeding players may "overcall," _i.e_. overbid, previous bidders. + Players passing may thereafter bid only "_miseres_." If a player bids + seven but makes ten he is paid for the three extra tricks, but on a + lower scale than if he had bid ten. If no bid should be made, a + "_misere partout_" (general poverty) is often played, the trump being + turned down and each player striving to take as few tricks as + possible. Payments are made by each loser according to the value of + the winner's bid and the overtricks he has scored. There are regular + tables of payments. In America overtricks are not usually paid for. In + French Boston the knave of diamonds arbitrarily wins over all other + cards, even trumps. The names of the different bids remind one of the + period of the American Revolution, including "Independence," + "Philadelphia," "Souveraine," "Concordia," &c. Other variations of the + game are _Boston de Fontainebleau_ and Russian Boston. + + + + +BOSTONITE, in petrology, a fine-grained, pale-coloured, grey or pinkish +rock, which consists essentially of alkali-felspar (orthoclase, +microperthite, &c.). Some of them contain a small amount of interstitial +quartz (quartz bostonites); others have a small percentage of lime, +which occasions the presence of a plagioclase felspar (maenite, +gauteite, lime-bostonite). Other minerals, except apatite, zircon and +magnetite, are typically absent. They have very much the same +composition as the trachytes; and many rocks of this series have been +grouped with these or with the orthophyres. Typically they occur as +dikes or as thin sills, often in association with nepheline-syenite; and +they seem to bear a complementary relationship to certain types of +lamprophyre, such as camptonite and monchiquite. Though nowhere very +common they have a wide distribution, being known from Scotland, Wales, +Massachusetts, Montreal, Portugal, Bohemia, &c. The lindoites and +quartz-lindoites of Norway are closely allied to the bostonites. + + + + +BOSTROM, CHRISTOFFER JACOB (1797-1866), Swedish philosopher, was born at +Pitea and studied at Upsala, where from 1840 to 1863 he was professor of +practical philosophy. His philosophy, as he himself described it, is a +thoroughgoing rational idealism founded on the principle that the only +true reality is spiritual. God is Infinite Spirit in whom all existence +is contained, and is outside the limitations of time and space. Thus +Bostrom protests not only against empiricism but also against those +doctrines of Christian theology which seemed to him to picture God as +something less than Pure Spirit. In ethics the highest aim is the +direction of actions by reason in harmony with the Divine; so the +state, like the individual, exists solely in God, and in its most +perfect form consists in the harmonious obedience of all its members to +a constitutional monarch; the perfection of mankind as a whole is to be +sought in a rational orderly system of such states in obedience to +Universal Reason. This system differs from Platonism in that the "ideas" +of God are not archetypal abstractions but concrete personalities. + + Bostrom's writings were edited by H. Edfeldt (2 vols., Upsala, 1883). + For his school see SWEDEN: _Literature_; also H. Hoffding, _Filosofien + i Sverig_ (German trans. in _Philos. Monatsheften_, 1879), and + _History of Mod. Philos._ (Eng. trans., 1900), p. 284; R. Falckenberg, + _Hist. of Phil._ (Eng. trans., 1895); A. Nyblaeus, _Om den Bostromske + filosofien_ (Lund, 1883), and _Karakteristik af den Bostromska + filosofien_ (Lund, 1892). + + + + +BOSWELL, JAMES (1740-1795), Scottish man of letters, the biographer of +Samuel Johnson, was born at Edinburgh on the 29th of October 1740. His +grandfather was in good practice at the Scottish bar, and his father, +Alexander Boswell of Auchinleck, was also a noted advocate, who, on his +elevation to the supreme court in 1754, took the name of his Ayrshire +property as Lord Auchinleck. A Thomas Boswell (said upon doubtful +evidence to have been a minstrel in the household of James IV.) was +killed at Flodden, and since 1513 the family had greatly improved its +position in the world by intermarriage with the first Scots nobility. In +contradiction to his father, a rigid Presbyterian Whig, James was "a +fine boy, wore a white cockade, and prayed for King James until his +uncle Cochrane gave him a shilling to pray for King George, which he +accordingly did" ("Whigs of all ages are made in the same way" was +Johnson's comment). He met one or two English boys, and acquired a +"tincture of polite letters" at the high school in Edinburgh. Like R.L. +Stevenson, he early frequented society such as that of the actors at the +Edinburgh theatre, sternly disapproved of by his father. At the +university, where he was constrained for a season to study civil law, he +met William Johnson Temple, his future friend and correspondent. The +letters of Boswell to his "Atticus" were first published by Bentley in +1857. One winter he spent at Glasgow, where he sat under Adam Smith, who +was then lecturing on moral philosophy and rhetoric. + +In 1760 he was first brought into contact with "the elegance, the +refinement and the liberality" of London society, for which he had long +sighed. The young earl of Eglintoun took him to Newmarket and introduced +him into the society of "the great, the gay and the ingenious." He wrote +a poem called "The Cub at Newmarket," published by Dodsley in 1762, and +had visions of entering the Guards. Reclaimed with some difficulty by +his father from his rakish companions in the metropolis, he contrived to +alleviate the irksomeness of law study in Edinburgh by forcing his +acquaintance upon the celebrities then assembled in the northern +capital, among them Kames, Blair, Robertson, Hume and Sir David +Dalrymple (Lord Hailes), of whose sayings on the Northern Circuit he +kept a brief journal. Boswell had already realized his vocation, the +exercise of which was to give a new word to the language. He had begun +to Boswellize. He was already on the track of bigger game--the biggest +available in the Britain of that day. In the spring of 1763 Boswell came +to a composition with his father. He consented to give up his pursuit of +a guidon in the Guards and three and sixpence a day on condition that +his father would allow him to study civil law on the continent. He set +out in April 1763 by "the best road in Scotland" with a servant, on +horseback like himself, in "a cocked hat, a brown wig, brown coat made +in the court fashion, red vest, corduroy small clothes and long military +boots." On Monday, the 16th of May 1763, in the back shop of Tom Davies +the bookseller, No. 8 Russell Street, Covent Garden, James Boswell first +met "Dictionary Johnson," the great man of his dreams, and was severely +buffeted by him. Eight days later, on Tuesday, the 24th of May, Boswell +boldly called on Mr Johnson at his chambers on the first floor of No. 1 +Inner Temple Lane. On this occasion Johnson pressed him to stay; on the +13th of June he said, "Come to me as often as you can"; on the 25th of +June Boswell gave the great man a little sketch of his own life, and +Johnson exclaimed with warmth, "Give me your hand; I have taken a +liking to you." Boswell experienced a variety of sensations, among which +exultation was predominant. Some one asked, "Who is this Scotch cur at +Johnson's heels?" "He is not a cur," replied Goldsmith, "he is only a +bur. Tom Davies flung him at Johnson in sport, and he has the faculty of +sticking." Johnson was fifty-four at this time and Boswell twenty-three. +After June 1763 they met on something like 270 subsequent days. These +meetings formed the memorable part of Boswell's life, and they are told +inimitably in his famous biography of his friend. + +The friendship, consecrated by the most delightful of biographies, and +one of the most gorgeous feasts in the whole banquet of letters, was not +so ill-assorted as has been inconsiderately maintained. Boswell's +freshness at the table of conversation gave a new zest to every maxim +that Johnson enunciated, while Boswell developed a perfect genius for +interpreting the kind of worldly philosophy at which Johnson was so +unapproachable. Both men welcomed an excuse for avoiding the task-work +of life. Johnson's favourite indulgence was to talk; Boswell's great +idea of success to elicit memorable conversation. Boswell is almost +equally admirable as a reporter and as an interviewer, as a collector +and as a researcher. He prepared meetings for Johnson, he prepared +topics for him, he drew him out on questions of the day, he secured a +copy of his famous letter to Lord Chesterfield, he obtained an almost +verbatim report of Johnson's interview with the king, he frequented the +tea-table of Miss Williams, he attended the testy old scholar on lengthy +peregrinations in the Highlands and in the midlands. "Sir," said Johnson +to his follower, "you appear to have only two subjects, yourself and me, +and I am sick of both." Yet thorough as the scheme was from the outset, +and admirable as was the devotedness of the biographer, Boswell was far +too volatile a man to confine himself to any one ambition in life that +was not consistent with a large amount of present fame and notoriety. He +would have liked to Boswellize the popular idol Wilkes, or Chatham, or +Voltaire, or even the great Frederick himself. As it was, during his +continental tour he managed in the autumn of 1765 to get on terms with +Pasquale di Paoli, the leader of the Corsican insurgents in their unwise +struggle against Genoa. After a few weeks in Corsica he returned to +London in February 1766, and was received by Johnson with the utmost +cordiality. In accordance with the family compact referred to, he was +now admitted advocate at Edinburgh, and signalized his return to the law +by an enthusiastic pamphlet entitled _The Essence of the Douglas Cause_ +(November 1767), in which he vigorously repelled the charge of imposture +from the youthful claimant. In the same year he issued a little book +called _Dorando_, containing a history of the Douglas cause in the guise +of a Spanish tale, and bringing the story to a conclusion by the triumph +of Archibald Douglas in the law courts. Editors who published extracts +while the case was still _sub judice_ were censured severely by the +court of session; but though his identity was notorious the author +himself escaped censure. In the spring of 1768 Boswell published through +the Foulis brothers of Glasgow his _Account of Corsica, Journal of a +Tour to that Island, and Memoirs of Pascal Paoli_. The liveliness of +personal impression which he managed to communicate to all his books +gained for this one a deserved success, and the _Tour_ was promptly +translated into French, German, Italian and Dutch. Walpole and others, +jeered, but Boswell was talked about everywhere, as Paoli Boswell or +Paoli's Englishman, and to aid the mob in the task of identifying him at +the Shakespeare jubilee of 1769 he took the trouble to insert a placard +in his hat bearing the legend "Corsica Boswell." The amazing costume of +"a Corsican chief" which he wore on this occasion was described at +length in the magazines. + +On the 25th of November 1769, after a short tour in Ireland undertaken +to empty his head of Corsica (Johnson's emphatic direction), Boswell +married his cousin Margaret Montgomery at Lainshaw in Ayrshire. For some +years henceforth his visits to London were brief, but on the 30th of +April 1773 he was present at his admission to the Literary Club, for +which honour he had been proposed by Johnson himself, and in the autumn +of this year in the course of his tour to the Hebrides Johnson visited +the Boswells in Ayrshire. Neither Boswell's father nor his wife shared +his enthusiasm for the lexicographer. Lord Auchinleck remarked that +Jamie was "gane clean gyte ... And whose tail do ye think he has pinned +himself to now, man? A dominie, an auld dominie, that keepit a schule +and ca'd it an academy!" Housewives less prim than Mrs Boswell might +have objected to Johnson's habit of turning lighted candles upside down +when in the parlour to make them burn better. She called the great man a +bear. Boswell's _Journal of a Tour in the Hebrides_ was written for the +most part during the journey, but was not published until the spring of +1786. The diary of Pepys was not then known to the public, and Boswell's +indiscretions as to the emotions aroused in him by the neat ladies' +maids at Inveraray, and the extremity of drunkenness which he exhibited +at Corrichatachin, created a literary sensation and sent the _Tour_ +through three editions in one year. In the meantime his pecuniary and +other difficulties at home were great; he made hardly more than L100 a +year by his profession, and his relations with his father were +chronically strained. In 1775 he began to keep terms at the Inner Temple +and managed to see a good deal of Johnson, between whom and John Wilkes +he succeeded in bringing about a meeting at the famous dinner at Dilly's +on the 15th of May 1776. On the 30th of August 1782 his father died, +leaving him an estate worth L1600 a year. On the 30th of June 1784, +Boswell met Johnson for the last time at a dinner at Sir Joshua +Reynolds's. He accompanied him back in the coach from Leicester Square +to Bolt Court. "We bade adieu to each other affectionately in the +carriage. When he had got down upon the foot pavement he called out +'Fare you well'; and without looking back, sprung away with a kind of +pathetic briskness, if I may use that expression, which seemed to +indicate a struggle to conceal uneasiness, and impressed me with a +foreboding of our long, long separation." Johnson died that year, and +two years later the Boswells moved to London. In 1789 Mrs Boswell died, +leaving five children. She had been an excellent mother and a good wife, +despite the infidelities and drunkenness of her husband, and from her +death Boswell relapsed into worse excesses, grievously aggravated by +hypochondria. He died of a complication of disorders at his house in +Great Poland Street on the 19th of May 1795, and was buried a fortnight +later at Auchinleck. + +Up to the eve of his last illness Boswell had been busy upon his magnum +opus, _The Life of Samuel Johnson_, which was in process of +crystallization to the last. The first edition was published in two +quarto volumes in an edition of 1700 copies on the 16th of May 1791. He +was preparing a third edition when he died; this was completed by his +friend Edmund Malone, who brought out a fifth edition in 1807. That of +James Boswell junior (the editor of Malone's _Variorum Shakespeare_, +1821) appeared in 1811. + +The _Life of Johnson_ was written on a scale practically unknown to +biographers before Boswell. It is a full-length with all the blotches +and pimples revealed ("I will not make my tiger a cat to please +anybody," wrote "Bozzy"). It may be overmuch an exhibition of oddities, +but it is also, be it remembered, a pioneer application of the +experimental method to the determination of human character. Its size +and lack of divisions (to divide it into chapters was an original device +of Croker's) are a drawback, and have prevented Boswell's _Life_ from +that assured triumph abroad which has fallen to the lot of various +English classics such as _Robinson Crusoe_ or _Gulliver's Travels_. But +wherever English is spoken, it has become a veritable sacred book and +has pervaded English life and thought in the same way, that the Bible, +Shakespeare and Bunyan have done. Boswell has successfully (to use his +own phrase) "Johnsonized" Britain, but has not yet Johnsonized the +planet. The model originally proposed to himself by Boswell was Mason's +_Life of Gray_, but he far surpassed that, or indeed any other, model. +The fashion that Boswell adopted of giving the conversations not in the +neutral tints of _oratio obliqua_ but in full _oratio recta_ was a +stroke of genius. But he is far from being the mere mechanical +transmitter of good things. He is a dramatic and descriptive artist of +the first order. The extraordinary vitality of his figures postulates a +certain admixture of fiction, and it is certain that Boswell exaggerates +the sympathy expressed in word or deed by Johnson for some of his own +tenderer foibles. But, on the whole, the best judges are of opinion that +Boswell's accuracy is exceptional, as it is undoubtedly seconded by a +power of observation of a singular retentiveness and intensity. The +difficulty of dramatic description can only be realized, as Jowett well +pointed out, by those who have attempted it, and it is not until we +compare Boswell's reports with those of less skilful hearers that we can +appreciate the skill with which the essence of a conversation is +extracted, and the whole scene indicated by a few telling touches. The +result is that Johnson, not, it is true, in the early days of his +poverty, total idleness and the pride of literature, but in the fulness +of fame and competence of fortune from 1763 to 1784, is better known to +us than any other man in history. The old theory to explain such a +marvel (originally propounded by Gray when the _Tour in Corsica_ +appeared) that "any fool may write a valuable book by chance" is now +regarded as untenable. If fool is a word to describe Boswell (and his +folly was at times transcendent) he wrote his great book because and not +in despite of the fact that he was one. There can be no doubt, in fact, +that he was a biographical genius, and that he arranged his +opportunities just as he prepared his transitions and introduced those +inimitable glosses by which Johnson's motives are explained, his state +of mind upon particular occasions indicated, and the general feeling of +his company conveyed. This remarkable literary faculty, however, was but +a fraction of the total make-up requisite to produce such a masterpiece +as the _Life_. There is a touch of genius, too, in the naif and +imperturbable good nature and persistency ("Sir, I will not be baited +with 'what' and 'why.' 'Why is a cow's tail long?' 'Why is a fox's tail +bushy?'"), and even in the abnegation of all personal dignity, with +which Boswell pursued his hero. As he himself said of Goldsmith, "He had +sagacity enough to cultivate assiduously the acquaintance of Johnson, +and his faculties were gradually enlarged." Character, the vital +principle of the individual, is the _ignis fatuus_ of the mechanical +biographer. Its attainment may be secured by a variety of means--witness +Xenophon, Cellini, Aubrey, Lockhart and Froude--but it has never been +attained with such complete intensity as by Boswell in his _Life of +Johnson_. The more we study Boswell, the more we compare him with other +biographers, the greater his work appears. + + The eleventh edition of Boswell's _Johnson_ was brought out by John + Wilson Croker in 1831; in this the original text is expanded by + numerous letters and variorum anecdotes and is already knee-deep in + annotation. Its blunders provoked the celebrated and mutually + corrective criticisms of Macaulay and Carlyle. Its value as an + unrivalled granary of Johnsoniana, stored opportunely before the last + links with a Johnsonian age had disappeared, has not been adequately + recognized. A new edition of the original text was issued in 1874 by + Percy Fitzgerald (who has also written a useful life of James Boswell + in 2 vols., London, 1891); a six-volume edition, including the _Tour_ + and Johnsoniana, was published by the Rev. Alexander Napier in 1884; + the definitive edition is that by Dr Birkbeck Hill in 6 vols., 1887, + with copious annotations and a model index. A generously illustrated + edition was completed in 1907 in two large volumes by Roger Ingpen, + and reprints of value have also been edited by R. Carruthers (with + woodcuts), A. Birrell, Mowbray Morris (Globe edition) and Austin + Dobson. A short biography of Boswell was written in 1896 by W. Keith + Leask. Boswell's commonplace-book was published in 1876, under the + title of _Boswelliana_, with a memoir by the Rev. C. Rogers. + (T. Se.) + + + + +BOSWORTH, JOSEPH (1789-1876), British Anglo-Saxon scholar, was born in +Derbyshire in 1789. Educated at Repton, whence he proceeded to Aberdeen +University, he became in 1817 vicar of Little Horwood, Buckinghamshire, +and devoted his spare time to literature and particularly to the study +of Anglo-Saxon. In 1823 appeared his _Elements of Anglo-Saxon Grammar_. +In 1829 Bosworth went to Holland as chaplain, first at Amsterdam and +then at Rotterdam. He remained in Holland until 1840, working there on +his _Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon Language_ (1838), his best-known +work. In 1857 he became rector of Water Shelford, Buckinghamshire, and +in the following year was appointed Rawlinson professor of Anglo-Saxon +at Oxford. He gave to the university of Cambridge in 1867 L10,000 for +the establishment of a professorship of Anglo-Saxon. He died on the +27th of May 1876, leaving behind him a mass of annotations on the +Anglo-Saxon charters. + + + + +BOTANY (from Gr. [Greek: botanae], plant; [Greek: bodkein], to graze), +the science which includes everything relating to the vegetable kingdom, +whether in a living or in a fossil state. It embraces a consideration of +the external forms of plants--of their anatomical structure, however +minute--of the functions which they perform --of their arrangement and +classification--of their distribution over the globe at the present and +at former epochs--and of the uses to which they are subservient. It +examines the plant in its earliest state of development, and follows it +through all its stages of progress until it attains maturity. It takes a +comprehensive view of all the plants which cover the earth, from the +minutest organism, only visible by the aid of the microscope, to the +most gigantic productions of the tropics. It marks the relations which +subsist between all members of the plant world, including those between +existing groups and those which are known only from their fossilized +remains preserved in the rocks. We deal here with the history and +evolution of the science. + +The plants which adorn the globe more or less in all countries must +necessarily have attracted the attention of mankind from the earliest +times. The science that treats of them dates back to the days of +Solomon, who "spake of trees, from the cedar of Lebanon to the hyssop on +the wall." The Chaldaeans, Egyptians and Greeks were the early +cultivators of science, and botany was not neglected, although the study +of it was mixed up with crude speculations as to vegetable life, and as +to the change of plants into animals. About 300 years before Christ +Theophrastus wrote a _History of Plants_, and described about 500 +species used for the treatment of diseases. Dioscorides, a Greek writer, +who appears to have flourished about the time of Nero, issued a work on +Materia Medica. The elder Pliny described about a thousand plants, many +of them famous for their medicinal virtues. Asiatic and Arabian writers +also took up this subject. Little, however, was done in the science of +botany, properly so called, until the 16th century of the Christian era, +when the revival of learning dispelled the darkness which had long hung +over Europe. Otto Brunfels, a physician of Bern, has been looked upon as +the restorer of the science in Europe. In his _Herbarium_, printed at +Strassburg (1530-1536), he gave descriptions of a large number of +plants, chiefly those of central Europe, illustrated by beautiful +woodcuts. He was followed by other writers,--Leonhard Fuchs, whose +_Historia Stirpium_ (Basel, 1542) is worthy of special note for its +excellent woodcuts; Hieronymus Bock, whose _Kreutter Buch_ appeared in +1539; and William Turner, "The Father of English Botany," the first part +of whose _New Herbal_, printed in English, was issued in 1551. The +descriptions in these early works were encumbered with much medicinal +detail, including speculations as to the virtues of plants. Plants which +were strikingly alike were placed together, but there was at first +little attempt at systematic classification. A crude system, based on +the external appearance of plants and their uses to man, was gradually +evolved, and is well illustrated in the _Herbal_, issued in 1597 by John +Gerard (1545-1612), a barber-surgeon, who had a garden in Holborn, and +was a keen student of British plants. + +One of the earliest attempts at a methodical arrangement of plants was +made in Florence by Andreas Caesalpinus (1519-1603), who is called by +Linnaeus _primus verus systematicus_. In his work _De Plantis_, +published at Florence in 1583, he distributed the 1520 plants then known +into fifteen classes, the distinguishing characters being taken from the +fruit. + +John Ray (1627-1705) did much to advance the science of botany, and was +also a good zoologist. He promulgated a system which may be considered +as the dawn of the "natural system" of the present day (Ray, _Methodus +Plantarum_, 1682). He separated flowering from flowerless plants, and +divided the former into Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. His orders (or +"classes") were founded to some extent on a correct idea of the +affinities of plants, and he far outstripped his contemporaries in his +enlightened views of arrangement. + +About the year 1670 Dr Robert Morison[1] (1620-1683), the first +professor of botany at Oxford, published a systematic arrangement of +plants, largely on the lines previously suggested by Caesalpinus. He +divided them into eighteen classes, distinguishing plants according as +they were woody or herbaceous, and taking into account the nature of the +flowers and fruit. In 1690 Rivinus[2] promulgated a classification +founded chiefly on the forms of the flowers. J.P. de Tournefort[3] +(1656-1708), who about the same time took up the subject of vegetable +taxonomy, was long at the head of the French school of botany, and +published a systematic arrangement in 1694-1700. He described about 8000 +species of plants, and distributed them into twenty-two classes, chiefly +according to the form of the corolla, distinguishing herbs and +under-shrubs on the one hand from trees and shrubs on the other. The +system of Tournefort was for a long time adopted on the continent, but +was ultimately displaced by that of Carl von Linne, or Linnaeus (q.v.; +1707-1778). + +The system of Linnaeus was founded on characters derived from the +stamens and pistils, the so-called sexual organs of the flower, and +hence it is often called the sexual system. It is an artificial method, +because it takes into account only a few marked characters in plants, +and does not propose to unite them by natural affinities. It is an index +to a department of the book of nature, and as such is useful to the +student. It does not aspire to any higher character, and although it +cannot be looked upon as a scientific and natural arrangement, still it +has a certain facility of application which at once commended it. It +does not of itself give the student a view of the true relations of +plants, and by leading to the discovery of the name of a plant, it is +only a stepping-stone to the natural system. Linnaeus himself claimed +nothing higher for it. He says--"Methodi Naturalis fragmenta studiose +inquirenda sunt. Primum et ultimum hoc in botanicis desideratum est. +Natura non facit saltus. Plantae omnes utrinque affinitatem monstrant, +uti territorium in mappa geographica." Accordingly, besides his +artificial index, he also promulgated fragments of a natural method of +arrangement. + +The Linnean system was strongly supported by Sir James Edward Smith +(1759-1828), who adopted it in his _English Flora_, and who also became +possessor of the Linnean collection. The system was for a long time the +only one taught in the schools of Britain, even after it had been +discarded by those in France and in other continental countries. + +The foundation of botanic gardens during the 16th and 17th centuries did +much in the way of advancing botany. They were at first appropriated +chiefly to the cultivation of medicinal plants. This was especially the +case at universities, where medical schools existed. The first botanic +garden was established at Padua in 1545, and was followed by that of +Pisa. The garden at Leiden dates from 1577, that at Leipzig from 1579. +Gardens also early existed at Florence and Bologna. The Montpellier +garden was founded in 1592, that of Giessen in 1605, of Strassburg in +1620, of Altdorf in 1625, and of Jena in 1629. The Jardin des Plantes at +Paris was established in 1626, and the Upsala garden in 1627. The +botanic garden at Oxford was founded in 1632. The garden at Edinburgh +was founded by Sir Andrew Balfour and Sir Robert Sibbald in 1670, and, +under the name of the Physic Garden, was placed under the +superintendence of James Sutherland, afterwards professor of botany in +the university. The garden at Kew dates from about 1730, when Frederick, +prince of Wales, obtained a long lease of Kew House and its gardens from +the Capel family. After his death in 1751 his widow, Princess Augusta of +Saxe-Gotha, showed great interest in their scientific development, and +in 1759 engaged William Aiton to establish a Physic Garden. The garden +of the Royal Dublin Society at Glasnevin was opened about 1796; that of +Trinity College, Dublin, in 1807; and that of Glasgow in 1818. The +Madrid garden dates from 1763, and that of Coimbra from 1773. Jean +Gesner (1709-1790), a Swiss physician and botanist, states that at the +end of the 18th century there were 1600 botanic gardens in Europe. + +A new era dawned on botanical classification with the work of Antoine +Laurent de Jussieu (1748-1836). His uncle, Bernard de Jussieu, had +adopted the principles of Linnaeus's _Fragmenta_ in his arrangement of +the plants in the royal garden at the Trianon. At an early age Antoine +became botanical demonstrator in the Jardin des Plantes, and was thus +led to devote his time to the science of botany. Being called upon to +arrange the plants in the garden, he necessarily had to consider the +best method of doing so, and, following the lines already suggested by +his uncle, adopted a system founded in a certain degree on that of Ray, +in which he embraced all the discoveries in organography, adopted the +simplicity of the Linnean definitions, and displayed the natural +affinities of plants. His _Genera Plantarum_, begun in 1778, and finally +published in 1789, was an important advance, and formed the basis of all +natural classifications. One of the early supporters of this natural +method was Augustin Pyramus de Candolle (1778-1841), who in 1813 +published his _Theorie elementaire de la botanique_, in which he showed +that the affinities of plants are to be sought by the comparative study +of the form and development of organs (morphology), not of their +functions (physiology). His _Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni +Vegetabilis_ was intended to embrace an arrangement and description of +all known plants. The work was continued after his death, by his son +Alphonse de Candolle, with the aid of other eminent botanists, and +embraces descriptions of the genera and species of the orders of +Dicotyledonous plants. The system followed by de Candolle is a +modification of that of Jussieu. + +In arranging plants according to a natural method, we require to have a +thorough knowledge of structural and morphological botany, and hence we +find that the advances made in these departments have materially aided +the efforts of systematic botanists. + +Robert Brown (1773-1858) was the first British botanist to support and +advocate the natural system of classification. The publication of his +_Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae_ (in 1810), according to the natural +method, led the way to the adoption of that method in the universities +and schools of Britain. In 1827 Brown announced his important discovery +of the distinction between Angiosperms and Gymnosperms, and the +philosophical character of his work led A. von Humboldt to refer to him +as "Botanicorum facile princeps." In 1830 John Lindley published the +first edition of his _Introduction to the Natural System_, embodying a +slight modification of de Candolle's system. From the year 1832 up to +1859 great advances were made in systematic botany, both in Britain and +on the continent of Europe. The _Enchiridion_ and _Genera Plantarum_ of +S.L. Endlicher (1804-1849), the _Prodromus_ of de Candolle, and the +_Vegetable Kingdom_ (1846) of J. Lindley became the guides in systematic +botany, according to the natural system. + +The least satisfactory part of all these systems was that concerned with +the lower plants or Cryptogams as contrasted with the higher or +flowering plants (Phanerogams). The development of the compound +microscope rendered possible the accurate study of their life-histories; +and the publication in 1851 of the results of Wilhelm Hofmeister's +researches on the comparative embryology of the higher Cryptogamia shed +a flood of light on their relationships to each other and to the higher +plants, and supplied the basis for the distinction of the great groups +Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta and Phanerogamae, the last named +including Gymnospermae and Angiospermae. + +A system of classification for the Phanerogams, or, as they are +frequently now called, Spermatophyta (seed-plants), which has been much +used in Great Britain and in America, is that of Bentham and Hooker, +whose _Genera Plantarum_ (1862-1883) is a descriptive account of all the +genera of flowering plants, based on their careful examination. The +arrangement is a modification of that adopted by the de Candolles. +Another system differing somewhat in detail is that of A.W. Eichler +(Berlin, 1883), a modified form of which was elaborated by Dr Adolf +Engler of Berlin, the principal editor of _Die natrurliche +Pflanzenfamilien_. + +The study of the anatomy and physiology of plants did not keep pace with +the advance in classification. Nehemiah Grew and his contemporary +Marcello Malpighi were the earliest discoverers in the department of +plant anatomy. Both authors laid an account of the results of their +study of plant structure before the Royal Society of London almost at +the same time in 1671. Malpighi's complete work, _Anatome Plantarum_, +appeared in 1675 and Grew's _Anatomy of Plants_ in 1682. For more than a +hundred years the study of internal structure was neglected. In 1802 +appeared the _Traite d'anatomie et de physiologie vegetale_ of C.F.B. de +Mirbel (1776-1854), which was quickly followed by other publications by +Kurt Sprengel, L.C. Treviranus (1779-1864), and others. In 1812 J.J. +P. Moldenhawer isolated cells by maceration of tissues in water. The +work of F.J.F. Meyen and H. von Mohl in the middle of the 19th century +placed the study of plant anatomy on a more scientific basis. Reference +must also be made to M.J. Schleiden (1804-1881) and F. Unger +(1800-1870), while in K.W. von Nageli's investigations on molecular +structure and the growth of the cell membrane we recognize the origin of +modern methods of the study of cell-structure included under cytology +(q.v.). The work of Karl Sanio and Th. Hartig advanced knowledge on the +structure and development of tissues, while A. de Bary's _Comparative +Anatomy of the Phanerogams and Ferns_ (1877) supplied an admirable +presentation of the facts so far known. Since then the work has been +carried on by Ph. van Tieghem and his pupils, and others, who have +sought to correlate the large mass of facts and to find some general +underlying principles (see PLANTS: _Anatomy of_). + +The subject of fertilization was one which early excited attention. The +idea of the existence of separate sexes in plants was entertained in +early times, long before separate male and female organs had been +demonstrated. The production of dates in Egypt, by bringing two kinds of +flowers into contact, proves that in very remote periods some notions +were entertained on the subject. Female date-palms only were cultivated, +and wild ones were brought from the desert in order to fertilize them. +Herodotus informs us that the Babylonians knew of old that there were +male and female date-trees, and that the female required the concurrence +of the male to become fertile. This fact was also known to the +Egyptians, the Phoenicians and other nations of Asia and Africa. The +Babylonians suspended male clusters from wild dates over the females; +but they seem to have supposed that the fertility thus produced depended +on the presence of small flies among the wild flowers, which, by +entering the female flowers, caused them to set and ripen. The process +was called palmification. Theophrastus, who succeeded Aristotle in his +school in the 114th Olympiad, frequently mentions the sexes of plants, +but he does not appear to have determined the organs of reproduction. +Pliny, who flourished under Vespasian, speaks particularly of a male and +female palm, but his statements were not founded on any real knowledge +of the organs. From Theophrastus down to Caesalpinus, who died at Rome +in 1603, there does not appear to have been any attention paid to the +reproductive organs of plants. Caesalpinus had his attention directed to +the subject, and he speaks of a halitus or emanation from the male +plants causing fertility in the female. + +Nehemiah Grew seems to have been the first to describe, in a paper on +the _Anatomy of Plants_, read before the Royal Society in November 1676, +the functions of the stamens and pistils. Up to this period all was +vague conjecture. Grew speaks of the _attire_, or the stamens, as being +the male parts, and refers to conversations with Sir Thomas Millington, +Sedleian professor at Oxford, to whom the credit of the sexual theory +seems really to belong. Grew says that "when the attire or apices break +or open, the globules or dust falls down on the seedcase or uterus, and +touches it with a prolific virtue." Ray adopted Grew's views, and states +various arguments to prove their correctness in the preface to his work +on European plants, published in 1694. In 1694 R.J. Camerarius, +professor of botany and medicine at Tubingen, published a letter on the +sexes of plants, in which he refers to the stamens and pistils as the +organs of reproduction, and states the difficulties he had encountered +in determining the organs of Cryptogamic plants. In 1703 Samuel Morland, +in a paper read before the Royal Society, stated that the farina +(pollen) is a congeries of seminal plants, one of which must be conveyed +into every ovum or seed before it can become prolific. In this +remarkable statement he seems to anticipate in part the discoveries +afterwards made as to pollen tubes, and more particularly the peculiar +views promulgated by Schleiden. In 1711 E.F. Geoffrey, in a memoir +presented to the Royal Academy at Paris, supported the views of Grew and +others as to the sexes of plants. He states that the germ is never to be +seen in the seed till the apices (anthers) shed their dust; and that if +the stamina be cut out before the apices open, the seed will either not +ripen, or be barren if it ripens. He mentions two experiments made by +him to prove this--one by cutting off the staminal flowers in Maize, and +the other by rearing the female plant of Mercurialis apart from the +male. In these instances most of the flowers were abortive, but a few +were fertile, which he attributes to the dust of the apices having been +wafted by the wind from other plants. + +Linnaeus took up the subject in the inauguration of his sexual system. +He first published his views in 1736, and he thus writes--"Antheras et +stigmata constituere sexum plantarum, a palmicolis, Millingtono, Grewio, +Rayo, Camerario, Godofredo, Morlando, Vaillantio, Blairio, Jussievio, +Bradleyo, Royeno, Logano, &c., detectum, descriptum, et pro infallibili +assumptum; nec ullum, apertis oculis considerantem cujuscunque plantae +flores, latere potest." He divided plants into sexual and asexual, the +former being Phanerogamous or flowering, and the latter Cryptogamous or +flowerless. In the latter division of plants he could not detect stamens +and pistils, and he did not investigate the mode in which their germs +were produced. He was no physiologist, and did not promulgate any views +as to the embryogenic process. His followers were chiefly engaged in the +arrangement and classification of plants, and while descriptive botany +made great advances the physiological department of the science was +neglected. His views were not, however, adopted at once by all, for we +find Charles Alston stating arguments against them in his _Dissertation +on the Sexes of Plants_. Alston's observations were founded on what +occurred in certain unisexual plants, such as Mercurialis, Spinach, +Hemp, Hop and Bryony. The conclusion at which he arrives is that the +pollen is not in all flowering plants necessary for impregnation, for +fertile seeds can be produced without its influence. He supports +parthenogenesis in some plants. Soon after the promulgation of +Linnaeus's method of classification, the attention of botanists was +directed to the study of Cryptogamic plants, and the valuable work of +Johann Hedwig (1730-1799) on the reproductive organs of mosses made its +appearance in 1782. He was one of the first to point out the existence +of certain cellular bodies in these plants which appeared to perform the +functions of reproductive organs, and to them the names of antheridia +and pistillidia were given. This opened up a new field of research, and +led the way in the study of Cryptogamic reproduction, which has since +been much advanced by the labours of numerous botanical inquiries. The +interesting observations of Morland, already quoted, seem to have been +neglected, and no one attempted to follow in the path which he had +pointed out. Botanists were for a long time content to know that the +scattering of the pollen from the anther, and its application to the +stigma, were necessary for the production of perfect seed, but the +stages of the process of fertilization remained unexplored. The matter +seemed involved in mystery, and no one attempted to raise the veil which +hung over the subject of embryogeny. The general view was, that the +embryo originated in the ovule, which was in some obscure manner +fertilized by the pollen. + +In 1815 L.C. Treviranus, professor of botany in Bonn, roused the +attention of botanists to the development of the embryo, but although he +made valuable researches, he did not add much in the way of new +information. In 1823 G.B. Amici discovered the existence of pollen +tubes, and he was followed by A.T. Brongniart and R. Brown. The latter +traced the tubes as far as the nucleus of the ovule. These important +discoveries mark a new epoch in embryology, and may be said to be the +foundation of the views now entertained, which were materially aided by +the subsequent elucidation of the process of cytogenesis, or +cell-development, by Schleiden, Schwann, Mohl and others. The whole +subject of fertilization and development of the embryo has been more +recently investigated with great assiduity and zeal, as regards both +cryptogamous and phanerogamous plants, and details must be sought in the +various special articles. The observations of Darwin as to the +fertilization of orchids, _Primula, Linum_ and _Lythrum_, and other +plants, and the part which insects take in this function, gave an +explanation of the observations of Christian Konrad Sprengel, made at +the close of the 18th century, and opened up a new phase in the study of +botany, which has been followed by Hermann Muller, Federico Delpino and +others, and more recently by Paul Knuth. + +One of the earliest workers at plant physiology was Stephen Hales. In +his _Statical Essays_ (1727) he gave an account of numerous experiments +and observations which he had made on the nutrition of plants and the +movement of sap in them. He showed that the gaseous constituents of the +air contribute largely to the nourishment of plants, and that the leaves +are the organs which elaborate the food; the importance of leaves in +nutrition had been previously pointed out by Malpighi in a short account +of nutrition which forms an appendix to his anatomical work. The birth +of modern chemistry in the work of J. Priestley and Lavoisier, at the +close of the 18th century, made possible the scientific study of +plant-nutrition, though Jan Ingenhousz in 1779 discovered that plants +incessantly give out carbonic acid gas, but that the green leaves and +shoots only exhale oxygen in sunlight or clear daylight, thereby +indicating the distinction between assimilation of carbonic acid gas +(photosynthesis) and respiration. N.T. de Saussure (1767-1845) gave +precision to the science of plant-nutrition by use of quantitative +methods. The subjects of plant nutrition and respiration were further +studied by R.J.H. Dutrochet towards the middle of the century, and +Liebig's application of chemistry to agriculture and physiology put +beyond question the parts played by the atmosphere and the soil in the +nutrition of plants. + +The phenomena of movements of the organs of plants attracted the +attention of John Ray (1693), who ascribed the movements of the leaf of +Mimosa and others to alteration in temperature. Linnaeus also studied +the periodical movements of flowers and leaves, and referred to the +assumption of the night-position as the sleep-movement. Early in the +19th century Andrew Knight showed by experiment that the vertical growth +of stems and roots is due to the influence of gravitation, and made +other observations on the relation between the position assumed by plant +organs and external directive forces, and later Dutrochet, H. von Mohl +and others contributed to the advance of this phase of plant physiology. +Darwin's experiments in reference to the movements of climbing and +twining plants, and of leaves in insectivorous plants, have opened up a +wide field of inquiry as to the relation between plants and the various +external factors, which has attracted numerous workers. By the work of +Julius Sachs and his pupils plant physiology was established on a +scientific basis, and became an important part of the study of plants, +for the development of which reference may be made to the article +PLANTS: _Physiology_. The study of form and development has advanced +under the name "morphology," with the progress of which are associated +the names of K. Goebel, E. Strasburger, A. de Bary and others, while +more recently, as cytology (q.v.), the intimate study of the cell and +its contents has attracted considerable attention. + +The department of geographical botany made rapid advance by means of the +various scientific expeditions which have been sent to all quarters of +the globe, as well as by individual effort (see PLANTS: _Distribution_) +since the time of A. von Humboldt. The question of the mode in which the +floras of islands and of continents have been formed gave rise to +important speculations by such eminent botanical travellers as Charles +Darwin, Sir J.D. Hooker, A.R. Wallace and others. The connexion +between climate and vegetation has also been studied. Quite recently +under the name of "Ecology" or "Oecology" the study of plants in +relation to each other and to their environment has become the subject +of systematic investigation. + +The subject of palaeontological botany (see PALAEOBOTANY) has been +advanced by the researches of both botanists and geologists. The nature +of the climate at different epochs of the earth's history has also been +determined from the character of the flora. The works of A.T. +Brongniart, H.R. Goeppert and W.P. Schimper advanced this department of +science. Among others who contributed valuable papers on the subject may +be noticed Oswald Heer (1809-1883), who made observations on the Miocene +flora, especially in Arctic regions; Gaston de Saporta (1823-1895), who +examined the Tertiary flora; Sir J.W. Dawson and Leo Lesquereux, and +others who reported on the Canadian and American fossil plants. In Great +Britain also W.C. Williamson, by his study of the structure of the +plants of the coal-measures, opened up a new line of research which has +been followed by Bertrand Renault, D.H. Scott, A.C. Seward and others, +and has led to important discoveries on the nature of extinct groups of +plants and also on the phylogeny of existing groups. + +Botany may be divided into the following departments:-- + +1. Structural, having reference to the form and structure of the various +parts, including (a) Morphology, the study of the general form of the +organs and their development--this will be treated in a series of +articles dealing with the great subdivisions of plants (see ANGIOSPERMS, +GYMNOSPERMS, PTERIDOPHYTA, BRYOPHYTA, ALGAE, LICHENS, FUNGI and +BACTERIOLOGY) and the more important organs (see STEM, LEAF, ROOT, +FLOWER, FRUIT); (b) Anatomy, the study of internal structure, including +minute anatomy or histology (see PLANTS: _Anatomy_). + +2. Cytology (q.v.), the intimate structure and behaviour of the cell and +its contents--protoplasm, nucleus, &c. + +3. Physiology, the study of the life-functions of the entire plant and +its organs (see PLANTS: _Physiology_). + +4. Systematic, the arrangement and classification of plants (see PLANTS: +_Classification_). + +5. Distribution or Geographical Botany, the consideration of the +distribution of plants on the earth's surface (see PLANTS: +_Distribution_). + +6. Palaeontology, the study of the fossils found in the various strata +of which the earth is composed (see PALAEOBOTANY). + +7. Ecology or Oecology, the study of plants in relation to each other +and to their environment (see PLANTS: _Ecology_). + +Besides these departments which deal with Botany as a science, there are +various applications of botany, such as forestry (see FORESTS AND +FORESTRY), agriculture (q.v.), horticulture (q.v.), and materia medica +(for use in medicine; see the separate articles on each plant). + (A. B. R.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Morison, _Pradudia Botanica_ (1672); _Plantarum Historia + Universalis_ (1680). + + [2] Rivinus (Augustus Quirinus) paterno nomine Bachmann, _Introductio + genetatis in Rem Herbariam_ (Lipsiae, 1690). + + [3] Tournefort, _Elemens de botanique_ (1694); _Institutiones Rei + Herbariae_ (1700). + + + + +BOTANY BAY, an inlet on the coast of Cumberland county, New South Wales, +Australia, 5 m. south of the city of Sydney. On its shore is the +township of Botany, forming a suburb of Sydney, with which it is +connected by a tramway. It was first visited by Captain Cook in 1770, +who landed at a spot marked by a monument, and took possession of the +territory for the crown. The bay received its name from Joseph Banks, +the botanist of the expedition, on account of the variety of its flora. +When, on the revolt of the New England colonies, the convict +establishments in America were no longer available (see DEPORTATION and +NEW SOUTH WALES), the attention of the British government, then under +the leadership of Pitt, was turned to Botany Bay; and in 1787 Commodore +Arthur Phillip was commissioned to form a penal settlement there. +Finding, on his arrival, however, that the locality was ill suited for +such a purpose, he removed northwards to the site of the present city of +Sydney. The name of Botany Bay seems to have struck the popular fancy, +and continued to be used in a general way for any convict establishment +in Australia. The transportation of criminals to New South Wales was +discontinued in 1840. + + + + +BOTHA, LOUIS (1862- ), Boer general and statesman, was the son of one +of the "Voortrekkers," and was born on the 27th of September 1862 at +Greytown (Natal). He saw active service in savage warfare, and in 1887 +served as a field-cornet. Subsequently he settled in the Vryheid +district, which he represented in the Volksraad of 1897. In the war of +1899 he served at first under Lucas Meyer in northern Natal, but soon +rose to higher commands. He was in command of the Boers at the battles +of Colenso and Spion Kop, and these victories earned him so great a +reputation that on the death of P.J. Joubert, Botha was made +commander-in-chief of the Transvaal Boers. His capacity was again +demonstrated in the action of Belfast-Dalmanutha (August 23-28, 1900), +and after the fall of Pretoria he reorganized the Boer resistance with a +view to prolonged guerrilla warfare. In this task, and in the subsequent +operations of the war, he was aided by his able lieutenants de la Rey +and de Wet. The success of his measures was seen in the steady +resistance offered by the Boers to the very close of the three years' +war. He was the chief representative of his countrymen in the peace +negotiations of 1902, after which, with de Wet and de la Rey, he visited +Europe in order to raise funds to enable the Boers to resume their +former avocations. In the period of reconstruction under British rule, +General Botha, who was still looked upon as the leader of the Boer +people, took a prominent part in politics, advocating always measures +which he considered as tending to the maintenance of peace and good +order and the re-establishment of prosperity in the Transvaal. After the +grant of self-government to the Transvaal in 1907, General Botha was +called upon by Lord Selborne to form a government, and in the spring of +the same year he took part in the conference of colonial premiers held +in London. During his visit to England on this occasion General Botha +declared the whole-hearted adhesion of the Transvaal to the British +empire, and his intention to work for the welfare of the country +regardless of racial differences. (See TRANSVAAL: _History_.) + + + + +BOTHNIA, GULF OF, the northern part of the Baltic Sea (q.v.). The name +is preserved from the former territory of Bothnia, of which the western +part is now included in Sweden, the eastern in Finland. + + + + +BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN, 4TH EARL OF, duke of Orkney and Shetland (c. +1536-1578), husband of Mary, queen of Scots, son of Patrick, 3rd earl of +Bothwell, and of Agnes, daughter of Henry, Lord Sinclair, was born about +1536. His father, Patrick, the 3rd earl (c. 1512-1556), was the only son +of Adam, the 2nd earl, who was killed at Flodden, and the grandson of +Patrick (d. c. 1508), 3rd Lord Hailes and 1st earl of Bothwell. It was +this Patrick who laid the foundation of the family fortunes. Having +fought against King James III. at the battle of Sauchieburn in 1488, he +was rewarded by the new king, James IV., with the earldom of Bothwell, +the office of lord high admiral and other dignities. He also received +many grants of land, including the lordship of Bothwell, which had been +taken from John Ramsay, Lord Bothwell (d. 1513), the favourite of James +III. + +James Hepburn succeeded in 1556 to his father's titles, lands and +hereditary offices, including that of lord high admiral of Scotland. +Though a Protestant, he supported the government of Mary of Guise, +showed himself violently anti-English, and led a raid into England, +subsequently in 1559 meeting the English commissioners and signing +articles for peace on the border. The same year he seized L1000 secretly +sent by Elizabeth to the lords of the congregation. In retaliation Arran +occupied and stripped his castle at Crichton, whereupon Bothwell in +November sent Arran a challenge, which the latter declined. In December +he was sent by the queen dowager to secure Stirling, and in 1560 was +despatched on a mission to France, visiting Denmark on the way, where he +either married or seduced Anne, daughter of Christopher Thorssen, whom +he afterwards deserted, and who came to Scotland in 1563 to obtain +redress. He joined Mary at Paris in September, and in 1561 was sent by +her as a commissioner to summon the parliament; in February he arrived +in Edinburgh and was chosen a privy councillor on the 6th of September. +He now entered into obligations to keep the peace with his various +rivals, but was soon implicated in riots and partisan disorders, and was +ordered in December to leave the city. In March 1562, having made up his +quarrel with Arran, he was accused of having proposed to the latter a +project for seizing the queen, and in May he was imprisoned in Edinburgh +castle, whence he succeeded in escaping on the 28th of August. On the +23rd of September he submitted to the queen. Murray's influence, +however, being now supreme, he embarked in December for France, but was +driven by storms on to Holy Island, where he was detained, and was +subsequently, on the 18th of January 1564, seized at Berwick and sent by +Elizabeth to the Tower, whence he was soon liberated and proceeded to +France. After these adventures he returned to Scotland in March 1565, +but withdrew once more before the superior strength of his opponents to +France. The same year, however, he was recalled by Mary to aid in the +suppression of Murray's rebellion, successfully eluding the ships of +Elizabeth sent to capture him. As lieutenant of the Marches he was +employed in settling disputes on the border, but used his power to +instigate thieving and disorders, and is described by Cecil's +correspondents as "as naughty a man as liveth and much given to the most +detestable vices," "as false as a devil," "one that the godly of this +whole nation hath a cause to curse for ever."[1] In February 1566 +Bothwell, in spite of his previous matrimonial engagements--and he had +also been united by "handfasting" to Janet Betoun of Cranstoun +Riddell--married Jane, daughter of George Gordon, 4th earl of Huntly. +Notwithstanding his insulting language concerning Mary and the fact that +he was the "stoutest" in refusing mass, he became one of her chief +advisers, but his complete ascendancy over her mind and affections dates +from the murder of Rizzio on the 9th of March 1566. The queen required a +protector, whom she found, not in the feeble Darnley, nor in any of the +leaders of the factions, but in the strong, determined earl who had ever +been a stanch supporter of the throne against the Protestant party and +English influence. In Bothwell also, "the glorious, rash and hazardous +young man," romantic, handsome, charming even in his guilt, Mary gained +what she lacked in her husband, a lover. He now stood forth as her +champion; Mary took refuge with him at Dunbar, presented him, among +other estates, with the castle there and the chief lands of the earldom +of March, and made him the most powerful noble in the south of Scotland. +Her partiality for him increased as her contempt and hatred of Darnley +became more confirmed. On the 7th of October he was dangerously wounded, +and the queen showed her anxiety for his safety by riding 40 miles to +visit him, incurring a severe illness. In November she visited him at +Dunbar, and in December took place the conference at Craigmillar at +which both were present, and at which the disposal of Darnley was +arranged, Bothwell with some others subsequently signing the bond to +accomplish his murder. He himself superintended all the preparations, +visiting Darnley with Mary on the night of the crime, Sunday, 9th of +February 1567, attending the queen on her return to Holyrood for the +ball, and riding back to Kirk o' Field to carry out the crime. After the +explosion he hurried back to Holyrood and feigned surprise at the +receipt of the news half an hour later, ascribing the catastrophe to +"the strangest accident that ever chancit, to wit, the fouder +(lightning) came out of the luft (sky) and had burnt the king's +house."[2] + +Bothwell's power was now greater, and the queen's affection for him more +ardent than ever. She was reported to have said that she cared not to +lose France, England and her own country for him, and would go with him +to the world's end in a white petticoat ere she left him.[3] He was +gratified with further rewards, and his success was clouded by no stings +of conscience or remorse. According to Melville he had designs on the +life of the young prince. On the demand of Lennox, Darnley's father, +Bothwell was put upon his trial in April, but Lennox, having been +forbidden to enter the city with more than six attendants, refused to +attend, and Bothwell was declared not guilty. The queen's intention to +marry Bothwell, which had been kept a strict secret before the issue of +the trial, was now made public. On the 19th of April he obtained the +consent and support of the Protestant lords, who signed a bond in his +favour. On the 24th he seized Mary's willing person near Edinburgh, and +carried her to his castle at Dunbar. On the 3rd of May Bothwell's +divorce from his wife was decreed by the civil court, on the ground of +his adultery with a maidservant, and on the 7th by the Roman Catholic +court on the ground of consanguinity. Archbishop Hamilton, however, who +now granted the decree, had himself obtained a papal dispensation for +the marriage,[4] and in consequence it is extremely doubtful whether +according to the Roman Catholic law Bothwell and Mary were ever husband +and wife. On the 12th Bothwell was created duke of Orkney and Shetland +and the marriage took place on the 15th according to the Protestant +usage, the Roman Catholic rite being performed, according to some +accounts, afterwards in addition.[5] + +Bothwell's triumph, however, was shortlived. The nobles, both Protestant +and Roman Catholic, now immediately united to effect his destruction. In +June Mary and Bothwell fled from Holyrood to Borthwick Castle, whence +Bothwell, on the place being surrounded by Morton and his followers, +escaped to Dunbar, Mary subsequently joining him. Thence they marched +with a strong force towards Edinburgh, meeting the lords on the 15th of +June at Carberry Hill. Bothwell invited any one of the nobles to single +combat, but Mary forbade the acceptance of the challenge. Meanwhile, +during the negotiations, the queen's troops had been deserting; a +surrender became inevitable, and Bothwell returned to Dunbar, parting +from Mary for ever. Subsequently Bothwell left Dunbar for the north, +visited Orkney and Shetland, and in July placed himself at the head of a +band of pirates, and after eluding all attempts to capture him, arrived +at Karm Sound in Norway. Here he was confronted by his first wife or +victim, Anne Thorssen, whose claims he satisfied by the gift of a ship +and promises of an annuity, and on his identity becoming known he was +sent by the authorities to Copenhagen, where he arrived on the 30th of +September. He wrote _Les Affaires du comte de Boduel_, exhibiting +himself as the victim of the malice of his enemies, and gained King +Frederick II.'s goodwill by an offer to restore the Orkneys and +Shetlands to Denmark. In consequence the king allowed him to remain at +Copenhagen, and refused all requests for his surrender. In January 1568 +he was removed to Malmoe in Sweden. He corresponded frequently with +Mary, but there being no hopes whatever of his restoration, and a new +suitor being found in the duke of Norfolk, Mary demanded a divorce, on +pleas which recall those of Henry VIII. in the matter of Catherine of +Aragon. The divorce was finally granted by the pope in September 1570 on +the ground of her prenuptial ravishment by Bothwell,[6] and met with no +opposition from the latter. After the downfall of Mary, Bothwell's good +treatment came to an end, and on the 16th of June 1573 he was removed to +the castle of Dragsholm or Adelersborg in Zealand. Here the close and +solitary confinement, and the dreary and hopeless inactivity to which he +was condemned, proved a terrible punishment for the full-blooded, +energetic and masterful Bothwell. He sank into insanity, and died on the +14th of April 1578. He was buried at the church of Faareveille, where a +coffin, doubtfully supposed to be his, was opened in 1858. A portrait +was taken of the head of the body found therein, now in the museum of +the Society of Antiquaries in Scotland. His so-called death-bed +confession is not genuine. + +He left no lawful descendants; but his nephew, FRANCIS STEWART HEPBURN, +who, through his father, John Stewart, prior of Coldingham, was a +grandson of King James V., and was thus related to Mary, queen of Scots, +and the regent Murray, was in 1581 created earl of Bothwell. He was lord +high admiral of Scotland, and was a person of some importance at the +court of James VI. during the time when the influence of the Protestants +was uppermost. He was anxious that Mary Stuart's death should be +avenged by an invasion of England, and in 1589 he suffered a short +imprisonment for his share in a rising. By this time he had completely +lost the royal favour. Again imprisoned, this time on a charge of +witchcraft, he escaped from captivity in 1591, and was deprived by +parliament of his lands and titles; as an outlaw his career was one of +extraordinary lawlessness. In 1591 he attempted to seize Holyrood +palace, and in 1593 he captured the king, forcing from him a promise of +pardon. But almost at once he reverted to his former manner of life, +and, although James failed to apprehend him, he was forced to take +refuge in France about 1595. He died at Naples before July 1614. This +earl had three sons, but his titles were never restored. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ and + authorities; _Les Affaires du comte de Boduel_ (written January 1568, + publ. Bannatyne Club, 1829); "Memoirs of James, Earl of Bothwell," in + G. Chalmers's _Life of Mary, Queen of Scots_ (1818); _Life of + Bothwell_, by F. Schiern (trans. 1880); _Pieces et documents relatifs + au comte de Bothwell_, by Prince A. Lobanoff (1856); _Appendix to the + Hist. of Scotland_, by G. Buchanan (1721); _Sir James Melville's + Memoirs_ (Bannatyne Club, 1827); _A Lost Chapter in the Hist. of Mary, + Queen of Scots_, by J. Stuart (1874); J.H. Burton's _Hist. of + Scotland_ (1873); A. Lang's _Hist. of Scotland_, ii. (1902); + _Archaeologia_, xxxviii. 308; _Cal. of State Papers, Foreign, + Scottish, Venetian_, vii; _Exchequer Rolls of Scotland_, xix. and xx., + _Domestic, Border Papers_; _Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Marq. of + Salisbury_, i. ii. See also MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS. (P. C. Y.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Cal. of State Papers, Scottish, i. 679._ + + [2] _Sir James Melville's Mem. 174._ + + [3] _Cal. of State Pap., Foreign, 1566-1568_, p. 212. + + [4] _Hist. MSS. Comm._ Rep. ii. p. 177. + + [5] _Cal. of State Pap., Scottish_, ii. 333. + + [6] _Cal. of State Pap., Foreign, 1569-1571_, p. 372. + + + + +BOTHWELL, a town of Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. of town (1901) 3015; of +parish (1901) 45,905. The town lies on the right bank of the Clyde, 9 m. +E. S. E. of Glasgow by the North British and Caledonian railways. Owing +to its pleasant situation it has become a residential quarter of +Glasgow. The choir of the old Gothic church of 1398 (restored at the end +of the 19th century) forms a portion of the parish church. Joanna +Baillie, the poetess, was born in the manse, and a memorial has been +erected in her honour. The river is crossed by a suspension bridge as +well as the bridge near which, on the 22nd of June 1679, was fought the +battle of Bothwell Bridge between the Royalists, under the duke of +Monmouth, and the Covenanters, in which the latter lost 500 men and 1000 +prisoners. Adjoining this bridge, on the level north-eastern bank, is +the castle that once belonged to James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh (fl. +1566-1580), the assassin of the regent Murray; and near the present +farmhouse the South Calder is spanned by a Roman bridge. The picturesque +ruins of Bothwell Castle occupy a conspicuous position on the side of +the river, which here takes the bold sweep famed in Scottish song as +Bothwell bank. The fortress belonged to Sir Andrew Moray, who fell at +Stirling in 1297, and passed by marriage to the Douglases. The lordship +was bestowed in 1487 on Patrick Hepburn, 3rd Lord Hailes, 1st earl of +Bothwell, who resigned it in 1491 in favour of Archibald Douglas, 5th +earl of Angus. It thus reverted to the Douglases and now belongs to the +earl of Home, a descendant. The castle is a fine example of Gothic, and +mainly consists of a great oblong quadrangle, flanked on the south side +by circular towers. At the east end are the remains of the chapel. A +dungeon bears the nickname of "Wallace's Beef Barrel." The unpretending +mansion near by was built by Archibald Douglas, 1st earl of Forfar +(1653-1712). The parish of Bothwell contains several flourishing towns +and villages, all owing their prosperity to the abundance of coal, iron +and oil-shale. The principal places, most of which have stations on the +North British or Caledonian railway or both, are Bothwell Park, Carfin, +Chapelhall, Bellshill (pop. 8786), Holytown, Mossend, Newarthill, +Uddingston (pop. 7463), Clydesdale, Hamilton Palace, Colliery Rows and +Tennochside. + + + + +BOTOCUDOS (from Port. _botoque_, a plug, in allusion to the wooden disks +or plugs worn in their lips and ears), the foreign name for a tribe of +South American Indians of eastern Brazil, also known as the Aimores or +Aimbores. They appear to have no collective tribal name for themselves. +Some are called Nac-nanuk or Nac-poruk, "sons of the soil." The name +Botocudos cannot be traced much farther back than the writings of Prince +Maximilian von Neuwied (_Reise nach Bresilien_, Frankfort-On-Main, +1820). When the Portuguese adventurer Vasco Fernando Coutinho reached +the east coast of Brazil in 1535, he erected a fort at the head of +Espirito Santo Bay to defend himself against "the Aimores and other +tribes." The original home of the tribe comprised most of the present +province of Espirito Santo, and reached inland to the headwaters of Rio +Grande (Belmonte) and Rio Doce on the eastern slopes of the Serra do +Espinhacao, but the Botocudos are now mainly confined to the country +between Rio Pardo and Rio Doce, and seldom roam westward beyond Serra +dos Aimores into Minas Geraes. It was in the latter district that at the +close of the 18th century they came into collision with the whites, who +were attracted thither by the diamond fields. + +The Botocudos are nomads, wandering naked in the woods and living on +forest products. They are below the medium height, but broad-shouldered +and remarkable for the muscular development and depth of their chests. +Their arms and legs are, however, soft and fleshy, and their feet and +hands small. Their features, which vary individually almost as much as +those of Europeans, are broad and flat, with prominent brow, high +cheek-bones, small bridgeless nose, wide nostrils and slight projection +of the jaws. They are longheaded, and their hair is coarse, black and +lank. Their colour is a light yellowish brown, sometimes almost +approaching white. The general yellow tint emphasizes their Mongolic +appearance, which all travellers have noticed. The Botocudos were +themselves greatly struck by the Chinese coolies, whom they met in +Brazilian seaports, and whom they at once accepted as kinsmen (Henri +Hollard, _De l'homme et des races humaines_, Paris, 1853).[1] Some few +Botocudos have settled and become civilized, but the great bulk of them, +numbering between twelve and fourteen thousand, are still the wildest of +savages. During the earlier frontier wars (1790-1820) every effort was +made to extirpate them. They were regarded by the Portuguese as no +better than wild beasts. Smallpox was deliberately spread among them; +poisoned food was scattered in the forests; by such infamous means the +coast districts about Rios Doce and Belmonte were cleared, and one +Portuguese commander boasted that he had either slain with his own hands +or ordered to be butchered many hundreds of them. Their implements and +domestic utensils are all of wood; their only weapons are reed spears +and bows and arrows. Their dwellings are rough shelters of leaf and +bast, seldom 4 ft. high. So far as the language of the Botocudos is +known, it would appear that they have no means of expressing the +numerals higher than one. Their only musical instrument is a small +bamboo nose-flute. They attribute all the blessings of life to the +"day-fire" (sun) and all evil to "night-fire" (moon). At the graves of +the dead they keep fires burning for some days to scare away evil +spirits, and during storms and eclipses arrows are shot into the sky to +drive away demons. + +The most conspicuous feature of the Botocudos is the _tembeitera_, or +wooden plug or disk which is worn in the lower lip and the lobe of the +ear. This disk, made of the specially light and carefully dried wood of +the barriguda tree (_Chorisia ventricosa_), is called by the natives +themselves _embure_, whence Augustin Saint Hilaire suggests the probable +derivation of their name Aimbore (_Voyages dans l'interieur du Bresil +1816-1821_, Paris, 1830). It is worn only in the under-lip, now chiefly +by women, but formerly by men also. The operation for preparing the lip +begins often as early as the eighth year, when an initial boring is made +by a hard pointed stick, and gradually extended by the insertion of +larger and larger disks or plugs, sometimes at last as much as 3 in. in +diameter. Notwithstanding the lightness of the wood the _tembeitera_ +weighs down the lip, which at first sticks out horizontally and at last +becomes a mere ring of skin around the wood. Ear-plugs are also worn, of +such size as to distend the lobe down to the shoulders. Ear-ornaments of +like nature are common in south and even central America, at least as +far north as Honduras. When Columbus discovered this latter country +during his fourth voyage (1502) he named part of the seaboard _Costa de +la Oreja_, from the conspicuously distended ears of the natives. Early +Spanish explorers also gave the name _Orejones_ or "big-eared" to +several Amazon tribes. + + See A.R. Wallace, _Travels on the Amazon_ (1853-1900); H.H. Bancroft, + _Hist. of Pacific States_ (San Francisco, 1882), vol. i. p. 211; A.H. + Keane, "On the Botocudos" in _Journ. Anthrop. Instit._ vol. xiii. + (1884); J.R. Peixoto, _Novos Estudios Craniologicos sobre os Botocuds_ + (Rio Janeiro, 1882); Prof. C.F. Hartt, _Geology and Physical Geography + of Brazil_ (Boston, 1870), pp. 577-606. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A parallel case is that of the Bashkir soldiers of Orenburg, who + formed part of the Russian army sent to put down the Hungarian revolt + of 1848, and who recognized their Ugrian kinsmen in the Zeklars and + other Magyars settled in the Danube basin. + + + + +BOTORI, a Japanese game played at the naval, military and other schools, +by two sides of equal number, usually about one hundred, each of which +defends a pole about 8 ft. high firmly set in the ground, the poles +being about 200 yds. distant from each other. The object of each party +is to overthrow the adversaries' pole while keeping their own upright. +Pulling, hauling and wrestling are allowed, but no striking or kicking. +The players resort to all kinds of massed formations to arrive at the +enemies' pole, and frequently succeed in passing over their heads and +shoulders one or more comrades, who are thus enabled to reach the pole +and bear it down unless pulled off in time by its defenders. A game +similar in character is played by the Sophomore and Freshman classes of +Amherst College (Massachusetts), called the "Flag-rush." It was +instituted at the instance of the faculty to take the place of the +traditional "Cane-rush," a general _melee_ between the two classes for +the ultimate possession of a stout walking-stick, which became so rough +that students were frequently seriously injured. In the "Flag-rush" a +small flag is set upon a padded post about 6 ft. high, and is defended +by one class while the other endeavours, as at Botori, to overthrow it. +If the flag is not captured or torn down within a certain time the +defending side wins. + + + + +BOTOSHANI (_Botosani_), the capital of the department of Botoshani, +Rumania; on a small tributary of the river Jijia, and in one of the +richest agricultural and pastoral regions of the north Moldavian hills. +Pop. (1900) 32,193. Botoshani is commercially important as the town +through which goods from Poland and Galicia pass in transit for the +south; being situated on a branch railway between Dorohoi and on the +main line from Czernowitz to Galatz. It has extensive starch and flour +mills; and Botoshani flour is highly prized in Rumania, besides being +largely exported to Turkey and the United Kingdom. Botoshani owes its +name to a Tatar chief, Batus or Batu Khan, grandson of Jenghiz Khan, who +occupied the country in the 13th century. There are large colonies of +Armenians and Jews. + + + + +BO-TREE, or BODHI-TREE, the name given by the Buddhists of India and +Ceylon to the Pipul or sacred wild fig (_Ficus religiosa_). It is +regarded as sacred, and one at least is planted near each temple. These +are traditionally supposed to be derived from the original one, the +Bodhi-tree of Buddhist annals, beneath which the Buddha is traditionally +supposed to have attained perfect knowledge. The Bo-tree at the ruined +city of Anuradhapura, 80 m. north of Kandy, grown from a branch of the +parent-tree sent to Ceylon from India by King Asoka in the 3rd century +B.C., is said to have been planted in 288 B.C., and is to this day +worshipped by throngs of pilgrims who come long distances to pray before +it. Usually a bo-tree is planted on the graves of the Kandy priests. + + + + +BOTRYTIS, a minute fungus which appears as a brownish-grey mould on +decaying vegetation or on damaged fruits. Under a hand-lens it is seen +to consist of tiny, upright, brown stalks which are branched at the +tips, each branchlet being crowned with a naked head of pale-coloured +spores. It is a very common fungus, growing everywhere in the open or in +greenhouses, and can be found at almost any season. It has also a bad +record as a plant disease. If it once gains entrance into one of the +higher plants, it spreads rapidly, killing the tissues and reducing them +to a rotten condition. Seedling pines, lilies and many other cultivated +plants are subject to attack by _Botrytis_, Some of the species exist in +two other growth-forms, so different in appearance from the _Botrytis_ +that they have been regarded as distinct plants:--a sclerotium, which is +a hard compact mass of fungal filaments, or mycelium, that can retain +its vitality for a considerable time in a resting condition; and a +stalked _Peziza_, or cup-fungus, which grows out of the sclerotium. The +latter is the perfect form of fruit. The _Botrytis_ mould is known as +the conidial form. + + + + +BOTTA, CARLO GIUSEPPE GUGLIELMO (1766-1837), Italian historian, was born +at San Giorgio Canavese in Piedmont. He studied medicine at the +university of Turin, and obtained his doctor's degree when about twenty +years of age. Having rendered himself obnoxious to the government during +the political commotions that followed the French Revolution, he was +imprisoned for over a year; and on his release in 1795 he withdrew to +France, only to return to his native country as a surgeon in the French +army, whose progress he followed as far as Venice. Here he joined the +expedition to Corfu, from which he did not return to Italy till 1798. At +first he favoured French policy in Italy, contributed to the annexation +of Piedmont by France in 1799, and was an admirer of Napoleon; but he +afterwards changed his views, realizing the necessity for the union of +all Italians and for their freedom from foreign control. After the +separation of Piedmont from France in 1814 he retired into private life, +but, fearing persecution at home, became a French citizen. In 1817 he +was appointed rector of the university of Rouen, but in 1822 was removed +owing to clerical influence. Amid all the vicissitudes of his early +manhood Botta had never allowed his pen to be long idle, and in the +political quiet that followed 1816 he naturally devoted himself more +exclusively to literature. In 1824 he published a history of Italy from +1789 to 1814 (4 vols.), on which his fame principally rests; he himself +had been an eyewitness of many of the events described. His continuation +of Guicciardini, which he was afterwards encouraged to undertake, is a +careful and laborious work, but is not based on original authorities and +is of small value. Though living in Paris he was in both these works the +ardent exponent of that recoil against everything French which took +place throughout Europe. A careful exclusion of all Gallicisms, as a +reaction against the French influences of the day, is one of the marked +features of his style, which is not infrequently impassioned and +eloquent, though at the same time cumbrous, involved and ornate. Botta +died at Paris in August 1837, in comparative poverty, but in the +enjoyment of an extensive and well-earned reputation. + +His son, Paul Emile Botta (1802-1870), was a distinguished traveller and +Assyrian archaeologist, whose excavations at Khorsabad (1843) were among +the first efforts in the line of investigation afterwards pursued by +Layard. + + The works of Carlo Botta are _Storia naturale e medica dell' Isola di + Corfu_ (1798); an Italian translation of Born's _Joannis Physiophili + specimen monachologiae_ (1801); _Souvenirs d'un voyage en Dalmatie_ + (1802); _Storia della guerra dell' Independenza d'America_ (1809); + _Camillo_, a poem (1815); _Storia d'Italia dal 1789 al 1814_ (1824, + new ed., Prato, 1862); _Storia d'ltalia in continuazione al + Guicciardini_ (1832, new ed., Milan, 1878). See C. Dionisiotti, _Vita + di Carlo Botta_ (Turin, 1867); C. Pavesio, _Carlo Botta e le sue opere + storiche_ (Florence, 1874); Scipione Botta, _Vita privata di Carlo + Botta_ (Florence, 1877); A. d'Ancona c O. Bacci, _Manuela della + Letteratura Italiana_ (Florence, 1894), vol. v. pp. 245 seq. + + + + +BOTTESINI, GIOVANNI (1823-1889), Italian contrabassist and musical +composer, was born at Crema in Lombardy on the 24th of December 1823. He +studied music at the Milan Conservatoire, devoting himself especially to +the double-bass, an instrument with which his name is principally +associated. On leaving Milan he spent some time in America and also +occupied the position of principal double-bass in the theatre at Havana. +Here his first opera, _Cristoforo Colombo_, was produced in 1847. In +1849 he made his first appearance in England, playing double-bass solos +at one of the Musical Union concerts. After this he made frequent visits +to England, and his extraordinary command of his unwieldy instrument +gained him great popularity in London and the provinces. Apart from his +triumphs as an executant, Bottesini was a conductor of European +reputation, and earned some success as a composer, though his work had +not sufficient individuality to survive the changes of taste and +fashion. He was conductor at the Theatre des Italiens in Paris from 1855 +to 1857, where his second opera, _L'Assedio di Firenze_, was produced +in 1856. In 1861 and 1862 he conducted at Palermo, supervising the +production of his opera _Marion Delorme_ in 1862, and in 1863 at +Barcelona. During these years he diversified the toils of conducting by +repeated concert tours through the principal countries of Europe. In +1871 he conducted a season of Italian opera at the Lyceum theatre in +London, during which his opera _Ali Baba_ was produced, and at the close +of the year he was chosen by Verdi to conduct the first performance of +_Aida_, which took place at Cairo on 27th December 1871. Bottesini wrote +three operas besides those already mentioned: _Il Diavolo della Notte_ +(Milan, 1859); _Vinciguerra_ (Paris, 1870); and _Ero e Leandro_ (Turin, +1880), the last named to a libretto by Arrigo Boito, which was +subsequently set by Mancinelli. He also wrote _The Garden of Olivet_, a +devotional oratorio (libretto by Joseph Bennett), which was produced at +the Norwich festival in 1887, a concerto for the double-bass, and +numerous songs, and minor instrumental pieces. Bottesini died at Parma +on the 7th of July 1889. + + + + +BOTTICELLI, SANDRO, properly ALESSANDRO DI MARIANO DEI FILIPEPI +(1444-1510). Florentine painter, was born at Florence in 1444, in a +house in the Via Nuova, Borg' Ognissanti. This was the home of his +father, Mariano di Vanni dei Filipepi, a struggling tanner. Sandro, the +youngest child but one of his parents, derived the name Botticelli, by +which he was commonly known, not, as related by Vasari, from a goldsmith +to whom he was apprenticed, but from his eldest brother Giovanni, a +prosperous broker, who seems to have taken charge of the boy, and who +for some reason bore the nickname _Botticello_ or Little Barrel. A +return made in 1457 by his father describes Sandro as aged thirteen, +weak in health, and still at school (if the words _sta al legare_ are to +be taken as a misspelling of _sta al leggere_, otherwise they might +perhaps mean that he was apprenticed either to a jeweller or a +bookbinder). One of his elder brothers, Antonio, who afterwards became a +bookseller, was at this time in business as a goldsmith and +gold-leaf-beater, and with him Sandro was very probably first put to +work. Having shown an irrepressible bent towards painting, he was +apprenticed in 1458-1459 to Fra Filippo Lippi, in whose workshop he +remained as an assistant apparently until 1467, when the master went to +carry out a commission for the decoration with frescoes of the cathedral +church of Spoleto. During his apprentice years Sandro was no doubt +employed with other pupils upon the great series of frescoes in the +choir of the Pieve at Prato upon which his master was for long +intermittently engaged. The later among these frescoes in many respects +anticipate, by charm of sentiment, animation of movement and rhythmic +flutter of draperies, some of the prevailing characteristics of Sandro's +own style. One of Sandro's earliest extant pictures, the oblong +"Adoration of the Magi" at the National Gallery, London (No. 592, long +ascribed in error to Filippino), shows him almost entirely under the +influence of his first master. Left in Florence on Fra Filippo's +departure to Spoleto, he can be traced gradually developing his +individuality under various influences, among which that of the +realistic school of the Pollaiuoli is for some time the strongest. From +that school he acquired a knowledge of bodily structure and movement, +and a searching and expressive precision of linear draughtsmanship, +which he could never have learnt from his first master. The Pollaiuolo +influence dominates, with some slight admixture of that of Verrocchio, +in the fine figure of Fortitude, now in the Uffizi, which was painted by +Botticelli for the Mercanzia about 1470; this is one of a series of the +seven Virtues, of which the other six, it seems, were executed by Piero +Pollaiuolo from the designs of his brother Antonio. The same influence +is again very manifest in the two brilliant little pictures at the +Uffizi in which the youthful Botticelli has illustrated the story of +Judith and Holofernes; in his injured portrait of a man holding a medal +of Cosimo de' Medici, No. 1286 at the Uffizi; and in his life-sized "St +Sebastian" at Berlin, which we know to have been painted for the church +of Sta Maria Maggiore in 1473. Tradition and internal evidence seem also +to point to Botticelli's having occasionally helped, in his earliest or +Pollaiuolo period, to furnish designs to the school of engravings in +Florence which had been founded by the goldsmith Maso Finiguerra. + +Some authorities hold that he must have attended for a while the +much-frequented workshop of Verrocchio. But the "Fortitude" is the only +authenticated early picture in which the Verrocchio influence is really +much apparent; the various other pictures on which this opinion is +founded, chiefly Madonnas dispersed among the museums of Naples, +Florence, Paris and elsewhere, have been shown to be in all probability +the work not of Sandro himself, but of an anonymous artist, influenced +partly by him and partly by Verrocchio, whose individuality it has been +endeavoured to reconstruct under the provisional name of Amico di +Sandro. At the same time we know that the young Botticelli stood in +friendly relations with some of the pupils in Verrocchio's workshop, +particularly with Leonardo da Vinci. Among the many "Madonnas" which +bear Botticelli's name in galleries public and private, the earliest +which carries the unmistakable stamp of his own hand and invention is +that which passed from the Chigi collection at Rome to that of Mrs +Gardner at Boston. At the beginning of 1474 he entered into an agreement +to work at Pisa, both in the Campo Santo and in the chapel of the +Incoronata in the Duomo, but after spending some months in that city +abandoned the task, we know not why. Next in the order of his preserved +works comes probably the much-injured round of the "Adoration of the +Magi" in the National Gallery (No. 1033), long ascribed in error, like +the earlier oblong panel of the same subject, to Filippino Lippi. (To +about this date is assigned by some the well-known "Assumption of the +Virgin surrounded with the heavenly hierarchies," formerly at Hamilton +Palace and now in the National Gallery [No. 1126]; but recent criticism +has proved that the tradition is mistaken which since Vasari's time has +ascribed this picture to Botticelli, and that it is in reality the work +of a subordinate painter somewhat similarly named, Francesco Botticini.) + +A more mature and more celebrated "Adoration of the Magi" than either of +those in the National Gallery is that now in the Uffizi, which +Botticelli painted for Giovanni Lami, probably in 1477, and which was +originally placed over an altar against the front wall of the church of +Sta Maria Novella to the right inside the main entrance. The scene is +here less crowded than in some other of the master's representations of +the subject, the conception entirely sane and masculine, with none of +those elements of bizarre fantasy and over-strained sentiment to which +he was sometimes addicted and which his imitators so much exaggerated; +the execution vigorous and masterly. The picture has, moreover, special +interest as containing lifelike portraits of some of the chief members +of the Medici family. Like other leading artists of his time in +Florence, Botticelli had already begun to profit by the patronage of +this family. For the house of Lorenzo Il Magnifico in the Via Larga he +painted a decorative piece of Pallas with lance and shield (not to be +confounded with the banner painted with a similar allegoric device of +Pallas by Verrocchio, to be carried by Giuliano de' Medici in the famous +tournament in 1475 in which he wore the favour of La Bella Simonetta, +the wife of his friend Marco Vespucci). This Pallas by Botticelli is now +lost, as are several other decorative works in fresco and panel recorded +to have been done by him for Lorenzo Il Magnifico between 1475 and +Lorenzo's death in 1492. But Sandro's more especial patron, for whom +were executed several of his most important still extant works, was +another Lorenzo, the son of Pierfrancesco de' Medici, grandson of a +natural brother of Cosimo _Pater Patriae_, and inheritor of a vast share +of the family estates and interests. For the villa of this younger +Lorenzo at Castello Botticelli painted about 1477-1478 the famous +picture of "Primavera" or Spring now in the Academy at Florence. The +design, inspired by Poliziano's poem the "Giostra," with reminiscences +of Lucretius and of Horace (perhaps also, as has lately been suggested, +of the late Latin "Mythologikon" of Fulgentius) thrown in, is of an +enchanting fantasy, and breathes the finest and most essential spirit of +the early Renaissance at Florence. Venus fancifully draped, with Cupid +hovering above her, stands in a grove of orange and myrtle and welcomes +the approach of Spring, who enters heralded by Mercury, with Flora and +Zephyrus gently urging her on. In pictures like this and in the later +"Birth of Venus," the Florentine genius, brooding with passion on the +little that it really yet knew of the antique, and using frankly and +freshly the much that it was daily learning of the truths of bodily +structure and action, creates a style wholly new, in which something of +the strained and pining mysticism of the middle ages is intimately and +exquisitely blended with the newly awakened spirit of naturalism and the +revived pagan delight in bodily form and movement and richness of linear +rhythm. In connexion with this and other classic and allegoric pictures +by the master, much romantic speculation has been idly spent on the +supposition that the chief personages were figured in the likeness of +Giuliano de' Medici and Simonetta Vespucci. Simonetta in point of fact +died in 1476, Giuliano was murdered in 1478; the web of romance which +has been spun about their names in modern days is quite unsubstantial; +and there is no reason whatever why Botticelli should have introduced +the likenesses of these two supposed lovers (for it is not even certain +that they were lovers at all) in pictures all of which were demonstrably +painted after the death of one and most of them after the death of both. + +The tragedy of Giuliano's assassination by the Pazzi conspirators in +1478 was a public event which certainly brought employment to +Botticelli. After the capture and execution of the criminals he was +commissioned to paint their effigies hanging by the neck on the walls of +the Palazzo del Podesta, above the entrance of what was formerly the +Dogana. In the course of Florentine history public buildings had on +several previous occasions received a similar grim decoration: the last +had been when Andrea del Castagno painted in 1434 the effigies, hanging +by the heels, of the chief citizens outlawed and expelled on the return +of Cosimo de' Medici. Perhaps from the time of this Pazzi commission may +be dated the evidences which are found in some of Botticelli's work of a +closer study than heretofore of the virile methods and energetic types +of Castagno. His frescoes of the hanged conspirators held their place +for sixteen years only, and were destroyed in 1494 in consequence of +another revolution in the city's politics. Two years later (1480) he +painted in rivalry with Ghirlandaio a grand figure of St Augustine on +the choir screen of the Ognissanti; now removed to another part of the +church. About the same time we find clear evidence of his contributing +designs to the workshops of the "fine-manner" engravers in the shape of +a beautiful print of the triumph of Bacchus and Ariadne adapted from an +antique sarcophagus (the only example known is in the British Museum), +as well as in nineteen small cuts executed for the edition of Dante with +the commentary of Landino printed at Florence in 1481 by Lorenzo della +Magna. This series of prints was discontinued after canto xix., perhaps +because of the material difficulties involved by the use of line +engravings for the decoration of a printed page, perhaps because the +artist was at this time called away to Rome to undertake the most +important commission of his life. Due possibly to the same call is the +unfinished condition of a much-damaged, crowded "Adoration of the Magi" +by Botticelli preserved in the Uffizi, the design of which seems to have +influenced Leonardo da Vinci in his own Adoration (which in like manner +remains unfinished) of nearly the same date, also at the Uffizi. + +The task with which Botticelli was charged at Rome was to take part with +other leading artists of the time (Ghirlandaio, Cosimo Rosselli, +Perugino and Pinturicchio) in the decoration of Sixtus IV.'s chapel at +the Vatican, the ceiling of which was afterwards destined to be the +field of Michelangelo's noblest labours. Internal evidence shows that +Sandro and his assistants bore a chief share in the series of papal +portraits which decorate the niches between the windows. His share in +the decoration of the walls with subjects from the Old and the New +Testament consists of three frescoes, one illustrating the history of +Moses (several episodes of his early life arranged in a single +composition); another the destruction of Korah, Dathan and Abiram; a +third the temptation of Christ by Satan (in this case the main theme is +relegated to the background, while the foreground is filled with an +animated scene representing the ritual for the purification of a +leper). On these three frescoes Botticelli laboured for about a year and +a half at the height of his powers, and they may be taken as the central +and most important productions of his career, though they are far from +being the best-known, and from their situation on the dimmed and stained +walls of the chapel are by no means easy of inspection. Skill in the +interlinking of complicated groups; in the principal actors energy of +dramatic action and expression not yet overstrained, as it came to be in +the artist's later work; an incisive vigour of portraiture in the +personages of the male bystanders; in the faces and figures of the women +an equally vital grasp of the model, combined with that peculiar strain +of haunting and melancholy grace which is this artist's own; the most +expressive care and skill in linear draughtsmanship, the richest and +most inventive charm in fanciful costume and decorative colouring, all +combine to distinguish them. During this time of his stay in Rome +(1481-1482) Botticelli is recorded also to have painted another +"Adoration of the Magi," his fifth or sixth embodiment of the same +subject; this has been identified, no doubt rightly, with a picture now +in the Hermitage gallery at St Petersburg. + +Returning to Florence towards the end of 1482, Botticelli worked there +for the next ten years, until the death of Lorenzo Il Magnifico in 1492, +with but slight variations in manner and sentiment, in the now formed +manner of his middle life. Some of the recorded works of this time have +perished; but a good many have been preserved, and except in the few +cases where the dates of commission and payment can be established by +existing records, their sequence can only be conjectured from internal +evidence. A scheme of work which he was to have undertaken with other +artists in the Sala dei Gigli in the Palazzo Pubblico came to nothing +(1483); a set of important mythologic frescoes carried out by him in the +vestibule of a villa of Lorenzo Il Magnifico at Spedaletto near Volterra +in 1484 has been destroyed by the effects first of damp and then of +fire. To 1482-1483 belongs the fine altar-piece of San Barnabo (a +Madonna and Child with six saints and four angels), now in the academy +at Florence. Very nearly of the same time must be the most popular and +most often copied, though very far from the best-preserved, of his +works, the round picture of the Madonna with singing angels in the +Uffizi, known, from the text written in the open choir-book, as the +"Magnificat." Somewhere near this must be placed the beautiful and +highly finished drawing of "Abundance," which has passed through the +Rogers, Morris Moore and Malcolm collections into the British Museum, as +well as a small Madonna in the Poldi-Pezzoli collection at Milan, and +the fine full-faced portrait of a young man, probably some pupil or +apprentice in the studio, at the National Gallery (No. 626). For the +marriage of Antonio Pucci to Lucrezia Dini in 1483 Botticelli designed, +and his pupils or assistants carried out, the interesting and dramatic +set of four panels illustrating Boccaccio's tale of Nastagio +degl'Onesti, which were formerly in the collection of Mr Barker and are +now dispersed. His magnificent and perfectly preserved altar-piece of +the Madonna between the two saints John, now in the Berlin gallery, was +painted for the Bardi chapel in the church of San Spirito in 1486. In +the same year he helped to celebrate the marriage of Lorenzo Tornabuoni +with Giovanna degli Albizzi by an exquisite pair of symbolical frescoes, +the remains of which, after they had been brought to light from under a +coat of whitewash on the walls of the Villa Lemmi, were removed in 1882 +to the Louvre. Within a few years of the same date (1485-1488) should +apparently be placed that second masterpiece of fanciful classicism done +for Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco's villa at Castello, the "Birth of Venus," +now in the Uffizi, the design of which seems to have been chiefly +inspired by the "Stanze" of Poliziano, perhaps also by the _Pervigilium +Veneris_; together with the scarcely less admirable "Mars and Venus" of +the National Gallery, conceived in the master's peculiar vein of virile +sanity mingled with exquisite caprice; and the most beautiful and +characteristic of all his Madonnas, the round of the "Virgin with the +Pomegranate" (Uffizi). The fine picture of "Pallas and the Centaur," +rediscovered after an occultation of many years in the private +apartments of the Pitti Palace, would seem to belong to about 1488, and +to celebrate the security of Florentine affairs and the quelling of the +spirit of tumult in the last years of the power of the great Lorenzo +(1488-1490). "The Annunciation" from the convent of Cestello, now in the +Uffizi, shows a design adapted from Donatello, and expressive, in its +bending movements and vehement gestures, of that agitation of spirit the +signs of which become increasingly perceptible in Botticelli's work from +about this time until the end. The great altar-piece at San Marco with +its _predelle_, commissioned by the Arte della Seta in 1488 and finished +in 1490, with the incomparable ring of dancing and quiring angels +encircling the crowned Virgin in the upper sky, is the last of +Botticelli's altar-pieces on a great scale. To nearly the same date +probably belongs his deeply felt and beautifully preserved small +painting of the "Last Communion of St Jerome" belonging to the Marchese +Farinola. + +In 1490 Botticelli was called to take part with other artists in a +consultation as to the completion of the facade of the Duomo, and to +bear a share with Alessio Baldovinetti and others in the mosaic +decorations of the chapel of San Zenobio in the same church. The death +of Lorenzo Il Magnifico in 1492, and the accession to chief power of his +worthless son Piero, soon plunged Florence into political troubles, to +which were by and by added the profound spiritual agitation consequent +upon the preaching and influence of Savonarola. Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco +de' Medici, who with his brother Giovanni was in a position of political +rivalry against their cousin Piero, continued his patronage of +Botticelli; and it was for him, apparently chiefly between the years +1492 and 1495, that the master undertook to execute a set of drawings in +illustration of Dante on a far more elaborate and ambitious plan than +the little designs for the engraver which had been interrupted in 1481. +Eighty-five of these drawings are in the famous manuscript acquired for +the Berlin museum at the sale of the Hamilton Palace collection in 1882, +and eleven more in the Vatican library at Rome. The series is one of the +most interesting that has been preserved by any ancient master; +revealing an intimate knowledge of and profound sympathy with the text; +full of Botticelli's characteristic poetic yearning and vehemence of +expression, his half-childish intensity of vision; exquisite in +lightness of touch and in swaying, rhythmical grace of linear +composition and design. These gifts were less suited on the whole to the +illustration of the Hell than of the later parts of the poem, and in the +fiercer episodes there is often some puerility and inadequacy of +invention. Throughout the Hell and Purgatory Botticelli maintains a +careful adherence to the text, illustrating the several progressive +incidents of each canto on a single page in the old-fashioned way. In +the Paradise he gives a freer rein to his invention, and his designs +become less a literal illustration of the text than an imaginative +commentary on it. Almost all interest is centred on the persons of Dante +and Beatrice, who are shown us again and again in various phases of +ascending progress and rapt contemplation, often with little more than a +bare symbolical suggestion of the beatific visions presented to them. +Most of the drawings remain in pen outline only over a light preliminary +sketch with the lead stylus; all were probably intended to be finished +in colour, as a few actually are. To the period of these drawings +(1492-1497) would seem to belong the fine and finely preserved small +round of the "Virgin and Child with Angels" at the Ambrosiana, Milan, +and the famous "Calumny of Apelles" at the Uffizi, inspired no doubt by +some contemporary translation of the text by Lucian, and equally +remarkable by a certain feverish energy in its sentiment and +composition, and by its exquisite finish and richness of execution and +detail. Probably the small "St Augustine" in the Uffizi, the injured +"Judith with the head of Holofernes" in the Kaufmann collection at +Berlin, and the "Virgin and Child with St John," belonging to Mr +Heseltine in London, are works of the same period. + +Simone di Mariano, a brother of Botticelli long resident at Naples, +returned to Florence in 1493 and shared Sandro's home in the Via Nuova. +He soon became a devoted follower of Savonarola, and has left a +manuscript chronicle which is one of the best sources for the history of +the friar and of his movement. Sandro himself seems to have remained +aloof from the movement almost until the date of the execution of +Savonarola and his two followers in 1498. At least there is clear +evidence of his being in the confidence and employ of Lorenzo di +Pierfrancesco so late as 1496 and 1497, which he could not possibly have +been had he then been an avowed member of the party of the Piagnoni. It +was probably the enforced departure of Lorenzo from Florence in 1497 +that brought to a premature end the master's great undertaking on the +illustration of Dante. After Lorenzo's return, following on the +overthrow and death of Savonarola in 1498, we find no trace of any +further relations between him and Botticelli, who by that time would +seem to have become a declared devotee of the friar's memory and an +adherent, like his brother, of the defeated side. During these years of +swift political and spiritual revolution in Florence, documents give +some glimpses of him: in 1497 as painting in the monastery of Monticelli +a fresco of St Francis which has perished; in the winter of the same +year as bound over to keep the peace with, a neighbour living next to +the small suburban villa which Sandro held jointly with his brother +Simone in the parish of San Sepolcro; in 1499 as paying belated +matriculation fees to the gild of doctors and druggists (of which the +painters were a branch); and again in 1499 as carrying out some +decorative paintings for a member of the Vespucci family. It has been +suggested, probably with reason, that portions of these decorations are +to be recognized in two panels of dramatic scenes from Roman history, +one illustrating the story of Virginia, which has passed with the +collection of Senatore Morelli into the gallery at Bergamo, the other a +history of Lucretia formerly belonging to Lord Ashburnham, which passed +into Mrs Gardner's collection at Boston. These and the few works still +remaining to be mentioned are all strongly marked by the strained +vehemence of design and feeling characteristic of the master's later +years, when he dramatizes his own high-strung emotions in figures flung +forward and swaying out of all balance in the vehemence of action, with +looks cast agonizingly earthward or heavenward, and gestures of wild +yearning or appeal. These characters prevail still more in a small Pieta +at the Poldi-Pezzoli gallery, probably a contemporary copy of one which +the master is recorded to have painted for the Panciatichi chapel in the +church of Sta Maria Maggiore; they are present to a degree even of +caricature in the larger and coarser painting of the same subject which +bears the master's name in the Munich gallery, but is probably only a +work of his school. The mystic vein of religious and political +speculation into which Botticelli had by this time fallen has its finest +illustration in the beautiful symbolic "Nativity" which passed in +succession from the Aldobrandini, the Ottley, and the Fuller Maitland +collections into the National Gallery in 1882, with the apocalyptic +inscription in Greek which the master has added to make his meaning +clear (No. 1034). In a kindred vein is a much-injured symbolic +"Magdalene at the foot of the Cross" in private possession at Lyons. +Among extant pictures those which from internal evidence we must put +latest in the master's career are three panels illustrating the story of +St Zenobius, of which one is at Dresden and the other two in the +collection of Dr Mond in London. The documentary notices of him after +1500 are few. In 1502 he is mentioned in the correspondence of Isabella +d'Este, marchioness of Gonzaga, and in a poem by Ugolino Verino. In +1503-1504 he served on the committee of artists appointed to decide +where the colossal David of Michelangelo should be placed. In these and +the following years we find him paying fees to the company of St Luke, +and the next thing recorded of him is his death, followed by his burial +in the Ortaccio or garden burial-ground of the Ognissanti, in May 1510. + +The strong vein of poetical fantasy and mystical imagination in +Botticelli, to which many of his paintings testify, and the capacity for +religious conviction and emotional conversion which made of him an +ardent, if belated, disciple of Savonarola, coexisted in him, according +to all records, with a strong vein of the laughing humour and love of +rough practical and verbal jesting which belonged to the Florentine +character in his age. His studio in the Via Nuova is said to have been +the resort, not only of pupils and assistants, of whom a number seem to +have been at all times working for him, but of a company of more or less +idle gossips with brains full of rumour and tongues always wagging. +Vasari's account of the straits into which he was led by his absorption +in the study of Dante and his adhesion to the sect of Savonarola are +evidently much exaggerated, since there is proof that he lived and died, +not rich indeed, but possessed of property enough to keep him from any +real pinch of distress. The story of his work and life, after having +been the subject in recent years of much half-informed study and +speculation, has at length been fully elucidated in the work of Mr H.P. +Horne cited below,--a masterpiece of documentary research and critical +exposition. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Vasari, _Le Opere_ (ed. Milanesi), vol. iii.; + Crowe-Cavalcaselle, _Hist. of Painting in Italy_, vol. ii.; Fr. + Lippmann, _Botticellis Zeichnungen zu Dantes Gottlicher Komodie_; Dr + Karl Woermann, "Sandro Botticelli" (in Dohme, _Kunst u. Kunstler_); Dr + Hermann Ulmann, _Sandro Botticelli_; Dr E. Steinmann, _Sandro + Botticelli_ (in Knackfuss series, valuable for the author's + elucidation of the Sixtine frescoes); I.B. Supino, _Sandro + Botticelli_; Bernhard Berenson, _The Drawings of Florentine Painters; + The Florentine Painters of the Renaissance_ (2nd ed.); _The Study and + Criticism of Italian Art_; papers in the _Burlington Magazine_, the + _Gazette des Beaux-Arts_ (to this critic is due the first systematic + attempt to discriminate between the original work of Botticelli and + that of his various pupils); J. Mesnil, _Miscellanea d'Arte_ and + papers in the _Rivista d'Arte_, &c.; W. Warburg, _Sandro Botticelli's + "Geburt der Venus" and "Fruhling"_; Julia Cartwright (Mrs Ady), _The + Life and Art of Sandro Botticelli_ (1904); F. Wickhoff in the + _Jahrbuch der k. Preussischen Kunstsammlungen_ (1906); Herbert P. + Horne, _Alessandro Filipepi commonly called Sandro Botticelli_ (1908); + this last authority practically supersedes all others. (S. C.) + + + + +BOTTIGER, KARL AUGUST (1760-1835), German archaeologist, was born at +Reichenbach on the 8th of June 1760. He was educated at the school of +Pforta, and the university of Leipzig. After holding minor educational +posts, he obtained in 1791, through the influence of Herder, the +appointment of rector of the gymnasium at Weimar, where he entered into +a circle of literary men, including Wieland, Schiller, and Goethe. He +published in 1803 a learned work, _Sabina, oder Morgenszenen im +Putzzimmer einer reichen Romerin_, a description of a wealthy Roman +lady's toilette, and a work on ancient art, _Griechische Vasengemalde_. +At the same time he assisted in editing the _Journal des Luxus und der +Moden_, the _Deutsche Merkur_, and the _London and Paris_. In 1804 he +was called to Dresden as superintendent of the studies of the court +pages, and received the rank of privy councillor. In 1814 he was made +director of studies at the court academy, and inspector of the Museum of +Antiquities. He died at Dresden on the 17th of November 1835. His chief +works are:--_Ideen zur Archaologie der Malerei_, i. (1811) (no more +published); _Kunstmythologie_ (1811); _Vorlesungen und Aufsatze zur +Alterthumskunde_ (1817); _Amalthea_ (1821-1825); _Ideen zur +Kunstmythologie_ (1826-1836). The _Opuscula et Carmina Latina_ were +published separately in 1837; with a collection of his smaller pieces, +_Kleine Schriften_ (1837-1838), including a complete list of his works +(56 pages). His biography was written by his son Karl Wilhelm Bottiger +(1790-1862), for some time professor of history at Erlangen, and author +of several valuable histories (_History of Germany_, _History of +Saxony_, _History of Bavaria_, _Universal History of Biographies_). + + + + +BOTTLE (Fr. bouteille, from a diminutive of the Lat. _butta_, a flask; +cf. Eng. "butt"), a vessel for containing liquids, generally as opposed +to one for drinking from (though this probably is not excluded), and +with a narrow neck to facilitate closing and pouring. The first bottles +were probably made of the skins of animals. In the _Iliad_ (iii. 247) +the attendants are represented as bearing wine for use in a bottle made +of goat's skin. The ancient Egyptians used skins for this purpose, and +from the language employed by Herodotus (ii. 121), it appears that a +bottle was formed by sewing up the skin and leaving the projection of +the leg and foot to serve as a vent, which was hence termed [Greek: +podeon]. The aperture was closed with a plug or a string. Skin bottles +of various forms occur on Egyptian monuments. The Greeks and Romans also +were accustomed to use bottles made of skins; and in the southern parts +Europe they are still used for the transport of wine. The first of +explicit reference to bottles of skin in Scripture occurs in Joshua (ix. +4), where it is said that the Gibeonites took "old sacks upon their +asses, and wine-bottles _old and rent and bound up_." The objection to +putting "new wine into old bottles" (Matt. ix. 17) is that the skin, +already stretched and weakened by use, is liable to burst under the +pressure of the gas from new wine. Skins are still most extensively used +throughout western Asia for the conveyance and storage of water. It is +an error to represent the bottles of the ancient Hebrews as being made +exclusively of skins. In Jer. xix. 1 the prophet speaks of "a potter's +earthen vessel." The Egyptians (see EGYPT: _Art and Archaeology_) +possessed vases and bottles of hard stone, alabaster, glass, ivory, +bone, porcelain, bronze, silver and gold, and also of glazed pottery or +common earthenware. In modern times bottles are usually made of glass +(q.v.), or occasionally of earthenware. The glass bottle industry has +attained enormous dimensions, whether for wine, beer, &c., or mineral +waters; and labour-saving machinery for filling the bottles has been +introduced, as well as for corking or stoppering, for labelling and for +washing them. + +[Illustration: Roman Skin Bottles, from specimens at Pompeii and +Herculaneum.] + + + + +BOTTLE-BRUSH PLANTS, a genus of Australian plants, known botanically as +_Callistemon_, and belongiug to the myrtle family (Myrtaceae). They take +their name from the resemblance of the head of flowers to a +bottle-brush. They are well known in cultivation as greenhouse shrubs; +the flower owes its beauty to the numerous long thread-like stamens +which far exceed the small petals. _Callistemon salignus_ is a valuable +hard wood. + + + + +BOTTLENOSE WHALE (_Hyperoodon rostratus_), a member of the sperm-whale +family, which is an inhabitant of the North Atlantic, passing the summer +in the Spitzbergen seas and going farther south in winter. It resembles +the sperm-whale in possessing a large store of oil in the upper part of +the head, which yields spermaceti when refined; on this account, and +also for the sake of the blubber, which supplies an oil almost +indistinguishable from sperm-oil, this whale became the object of a +regular chase in the latter half of the 19th century. In length these +whales vary between 20 ft. and 30 ft.; and in colour from black on the +upper surface in the young to light brown in old animals, the +under-parts being greyish white. There is no notch between the flukes, +as in other whales, but the hinder part of the tail is rounded. +Bottlenoses feed on cuttle-fishes and squills, and are practically +toothless; the only teeth which exist in the adult being a small pair at +the front of the lower jaw, concealed beneath the gum during life. +Examples have frequently been recorded on the British coasts. In +November 1904 a female, 24 ft. long, and a calf 15 ft. long were driven +ashore at Whitstable. (See CETACEA.) + + + + +BOTTOMRY, a maritime contract by which a ship (or bottom) is +hypothecated in security for money borrowed for expenses incurred in the +course of her voyage, under the condition that if she arrive at her +destination the ship shall be liable for repayment of the loan, together +with such premium thereon as may have been agreed for; but that if the +ship be lost, the lender shall have no claim against the borrower either +for the sum advanced or for the premium. The freight may be pledged as +well as the ship, and, if necessary, the cargo also. In some cases the +personal obligation of the shipmaster is also included. When money is +borrowed on the security of the cargo alone, it is said to be taken up +at _respondentia_; but it is now only in rare and exceptional cases +that it could be competent to the shipmaster to pledge the cargo, except +under a general bottomry obligation, along with the ship and freight. In +consideration of the risks assumed by the lender, the bottomry premium +(sometimes termed _maritime interest_) is usually high, varying of +course with the nature of the risk and the difficulty of procuring +funds. + +A bottomry contract may be written out in any form which sufficiently +shows the conditions agreed on between the parties; but it is usually +drawn up in the form of a _bond_ which confers a maritime lien (q.v.). +The document must show, either by express terms or from its general +tenor, that the risk of loss is assumed by the lender,--this being the +consideration for which the high premium is conceded. The lender may +transfer the bond by indorsation, in the same manner as a bill of +exchange or bill of lading, and the right to recover its value becomes +vested in the indorsees. (See BOND.) + +According to the law of England, a bottomry contract remains in force so +long as the ship exists _in the form of a ship_, whatever amount of +damage she may have sustained. Consequently, the "constructive total +loss" which is recognized in marine insurance, when the ship is damaged +to such an extent that she is not worth repairing, is not recognized in +reference to bottomry, and will not absolve the borrower from his +obligation. But if the ship go to pieces, the borrower is freed from all +liability under the bottomry contract; and the lender is not entitled to +receive any share of the proceeds of such of the ship's stores or +materials as may have been saved from the wreck. Money advanced on +bottomry is not liable in England for general average losses. If the +ship should _deviate_ from the voyage for which the funds were advanced, +her subsequent loss will not discharge the obligation of the borrower +under the bottomry contract. If she should not proceed at all on her +intended voyage, the lender is not entitled to recover the bottomry +premium in addition to his advance, but only the ordinary rate of +interest for the temporary loan. As the bottomry premium is presumed, in +every case, to cover the risks incurred by the lender, he is not +entitled to charge the borrower with the premium which he may pay for +_insurance_ of the sum advanced, in addition to that stipulated in the +bond. + +The contract of bottomry seems to have arisen from the custom of +permitting the master of a ship, when in a foreign country, to pledge +the ship in order to raise money for repairs, or other extraordinary +expenditures rendered necessary in the course of the voyage. +Circumstances often arise, in which, without the exercise of this power +on the part of the master, it would be impossible to provide means for +accomplishing the voyage; and it is better that the master should have +authority to burden the ship, and, if necessary, the freight and cargo +also, in security for the money which has become requisite, than that +the adventure should be defeated by inability to proceed. But the right +of the master to pledge the ship or goods must always be created by +necessity; if exercised without necessity the contract will be void. +Accordingly, the master of a British ship has no power to grant a +bottomry bond at a British port, or at any foreign port where he might +raise funds on the personal credit of the shipowners. Neither has he any +power to pledge the ship or goods for private debts of his own, but only +for such supplies as are indispensable for the purposes of the voyage. +And in all cases he ought, if possible, to communicate with the owners +of the ship, and with the proprietor of the cargo before pledging their +property ("The Bonaparte," 1853, 8 Moo. P.C. 473; "The Staffordshire," +1872, L.R. 4 P.C. 194). Increased facility of communication, by +telegraph and otherwise, has given additional stringency to this rule, +and caused a decline in the practice of giving bottomry bonds. + +The bottomry lender must use reasonable diligence to ascertain that a +real necessity exists for the loan; but he is not bound to see to the +application of the money advanced. If the lender has originally advanced +the funds on the personal credit of the owner he is not entitled to +require a bottomry obligation. A bond procured from the shipmaster by +improper compulsion would be void. + +The power of the master to pledge the cargo depends upon there being +some reasonable prospect of benefit to it by his so doing. He has no +such power except in virtue of circumstances which may oblige him to +assume the character of _agent for the cargo_, in the absence of any +other party authorized to act on its behalf. Under ordinary +circumstances he is not at liberty to pledge the cargo for repairs to +the ship. If indeed the goods be of a perishable nature, and if it be +impossible to get the ship repaired in sufficient time to obviate +serious loss on them by delay, without including them under the bottomry +contract, he has power to do so, because it may fairly be assumed, in +the case supposed, that the cargo will be benefited by this procedure. +The general principle is, that the master must act for the cargo, with a +reasonable view to the interests of its proprietors, under the whole +circumstances of the case. When he does this his proceedings will be +sustained; but should he manifestly prejudice the interests of the cargo +by including it under bottomry for the mere purpose of relieving the +ship, or of earning the freight, the owners of the cargo will not be +bound by the bottomry contract. Any bottomry or respondentia bond may be +good in part or bad in part, according as the master may have acted +_within_ or _beyond_ the scope of his legitimate authority in granting +it. If two or more bottomry bonds have been granted at different stages +of the voyage, and the value of the property be insufficient to +discharge them all, the last-dated bond has the priority of payment, as +having furnished the means of preserving the ship, and thereby +preventing the total loss of the security for the previous bonds. + +When the sum due under a bottomry bond over ship, freight and cargo is +not paid at the stipulated time, proceedings may be taken by the +bondholder for recovery of the freight and for the sale of the ship; and +should the proceeds of these be insufficient to discharge the claim, a +judicial sale of the cargo may be resorted to. As a general rule the +value of the ship and freight must be exhausted before recourse can be +taken against the cargo. A bottomry bond gives no remedy to the lenders +against the owners of the ship or cargo personally. The whole liability +under it may be met by the surrender of the property pledged, whether +the value so surrendered covers the amount of the bond or not. But the +owners of the ship, though not liable to the bondholder for more than +the value of the ship and freight, may be further liable to the +proprietors of the cargo for any sum in excess of the cargo's proper +share of the expenses, taken by the bondholder out of the proceeds of +the cargo to satisfy the bond after the ship and freight have been +exhausted. + +The bottomry premium must be ultimately paid by the parties for whose +benefit the advances were obtained, as ascertained on the final +adjustment of the average expenditures at the port of destination. + + The practice of pledging property subject to maritime risks was common + among the ancient Greeks, being known as [Greek: ekdosis] or [Greek: + daneion] (see Demosthenes' speeches _Pro Phormione, Contra Lacritum_ + and _In Dionysodorum_); it passed into Roman law as _foenus nauticum_ + or _usura maritima_. + + See also LIEN: _Maritime_; and generally Abbott on _Shipping_ (14th + ed., 1901). + + + + +BOTZARIS [BOZZARIS], MARCO (c. 1788-1823), leader in the War of Greek +Independence, born at Suli in Albania, was the second son of Kitzo +Botzaris, murdered at Arta in 1809 by order of Ali of Iannina. In 1803, +after the capture of Suli by Ali Pasha, Marco, with the remnant of the +Suliots, crossed over to the Ionian Islands, where he ultimately took +service in an Albanian regiment in French pay. In 1814 he joined the +Greek patriotic society known as the _Hetairia Philike_, and in 1820, +with other Suliots, made common cause with Ali of Iannina against the +Ottomans. On the outbreak of the Greek revolt, he distinguished himself +by his courage, tenacity and skill as a partisan leader in the fighting +in western Hellas, and was conspicuous in the defence of Missolonghi +during the first siege (1822-1823). On the night of the 21st of August +1823 he led the celebrated attack at Karpenisi of 350 Suliots on 4000 +Albanians who formed the vanguard of the army with which Mustai Pasha +was advancing to reinforce the besiegers. The rout of the Turks was +complete; but Botzaris himself fell. His memory is still celebrated in +popular ballads in Greece. Marco Botzaris's brother Kosta (Constantine), +who fought at Karpenisi and completed the victory, lived to become a +general and senator in the Greek kingdom. He died at Athens on the 13th +of November 1853. Marco's son, Dimitri Botzaris, born in 1813, was three +times minister of war under the kings Otho and George. He died at Athens +on the 17th of August 1870. + + + + +BOTZEN, or BOZEN (Ital. _Bolzano_), a town in the Austrian province of +Tirol, situated at the confluence of the Talfer with the Eisak, and a +short way above the junction of the latter with the Adige or Etsch. It +is built at a height of 869 ft., and is a station on the Brenner +railway, being 58 m. S. of that pass and 35 m. N. of Trent. In 1900 it +had a population of 13,632, Romanist and mainly German-speaking, though +the Italian element is said to be increasing. Botzen is a Teutonic town +amid Italian surroundings. It is well built, and boasts of a fine old +Gothic parish church, dating from the 14th and 15th centuries, opposite +which a statue was erected in 1889 to the memory of the famous +_Minnesanger_, Walther von der Vogelweide, who, according to some +accounts, was born (c. 1170) at a farm above Waidbruck, to the north of +Botzen. Botzen is the busiest commercial town in the German-speaking +portion of Tirol, being admirably situated at the junction of the +Brenner route from Germany to Italy with that from Switzerland down the +Upper Adige valley or the Vintschgau. Hence the transit trade has always +been very considerable (it has four large fairs annually), while the +local wine is mentioned as early as the 7th century. Lately its +prosperity has been increased by the rise into favour as a winter resort +of the village of Gries, on the other bank of the Talfer, and now +practically a suburb of Botzen. + +The _pons Drusi_ (probably over the Adige, just below Botzen) is +mentioned in the 4th century by the _Peutinger Table_. In the 7th to 8th +centuries Botzen was held by a dynasty of Bavarian counts. But in 1027, +with the rest of the diocese of Trent, it was given by the emperor +Conrad II. to the bishop of Trent. From 1028 onwards it was ruled by +local counts, the vassals of the bishops, but after Tirol fell into the +hands of the Habsburgers (1363) their power grew at the expense of that +of the bishops. In 1381 Leopold granted to the citizens the privilege of +having a town council, while in 1462 the bishops resigned all rights of +jurisdiction over the town to the Habsburgers, so that its later history +is merged in that of Tirol. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +BOUCHARDON, EDME (1698-1762), French sculptor, was esteemed in his day +the greatest sculptor of his time. Born at Chaumont, he became the pupil +of Guillaume Coustou and gained the _prix de Rome_ in 1722. Resisting +the tendency of the day he was classic in his taste, pure and chaste, +always correct, charming and distinguished, a great stickler for all the +finish that sand-paper could give. During the ten years he remained at +Rome, Bouchardon made a striking bust of Pope Benedict XIII. (1730). In +1746 he produced his first acclaimed masterpiece, "Cupid fashioning a +Bow out of the Club of Hercules," perfect in its grace, but cold in the +purity of its classic design. His two other leading _chefs-d'oeuvre_ are +the fountain in the rue de Grenelle, Paris, the first portions of which +had been finished and exhibited in 1740, and the equestrian statue of +Louis XV., a commission from the city of Paris. This superb work, which, +when the model was produced, was declared the finest work of its kind +ever produced in France, Bouchardon did not live to finish, but left its +completion to Pigalle. It was destroyed during the Revolution. + + Among the chief books on the sculptor and his art are _Vie d'Edme + Bouchardon_, by le comte de Caylus (Paris, 1762); _Notice sur Edme + Bouchardon, sculpteur_, by E. Jolibois (Versailles, 1837); _Notice + historique sur Edme Bouchardon_, by J. Carnandet (Paris, 1855); and + _French Architects and Sculptors of the 18th Century_, by Lady Dilke + (London, 1900). + + + + +BOUCHER, FRANCOIS (1703-1770), French painter, was born in Paris, and at +first was employed by Jean Francois Cars (1670-1739), the engraver, +father of the engraver Laurent Cars (1699-1771), to make designs and +illustrations for books. In 1727, however, he went to Italy, and at +Rome became well known as a painter. He returned to Paris in 1731 and +soon became a favourite in society. His picture "Rinaldo and Armida" +(1734) is now in the Louvre. He was made inspector of the Gobelins +factory in 1755 and court painter in 1765, and was employed by Madame de +Pompadour both to paint her portrait and to execute various decorative +works. He died in 1770. His Watteau-like style and graceful +voluptuousness gave him the title of the Anacreon of painting, but his +repute declined until recent years. The Wallace collection, at Hertford +House, has some of his finest pictures, outside the Louvre. His etchings +were also numerous and masterly. + + See Antoine Bret's notice in the _Necrologe des hommes celebres_ for + 1771, and the monographs by the brothers de Goncourt and Paul Mantz. + + + + +BOUCHER, JONATHAN (1738-1804), English divine and philologist, was born +in the hamlet of Blencogo, near Wigton, Cumberland, on the 12th of March +1738. He was educated at the Wigton grammar school, and about 1754 went +to Virginia, where he became a private tutor in the families of Virginia +planters. Among his charges was John Parke Custis, the step-son of +George Washington, with whom he began a long and intimate friendship. +Returning to England, he was ordained by the bishop of London in March +1762, and at once sailed again for America, where he remained until 1775 +as rector of various Virginia and Maryland parishes, including Hanover, +King George's county, Virginia, and St Anne's at Annapolis, Maryland. He +was widely known as an eloquent preacher, and his scholarly attainments +won for him the friendship and esteem of some of the ablest scholars in +the colonies. During his residence in Maryland he vigorously opposed the +"vestry act," by which the powers and emoluments of the Maryland pastors +were greatly diminished. When the struggle between the colonies and the +mother country began, although he felt much sympathy for the former, his +opposition to any form of obstruction to the Stamp Act and other +measures, and his denunciation of a resort to force created a breach +between him and his parish, and in a fiery farewell discourse preached +after the opening of hostilities he declared that no power on earth +should prevent him from praying and shouting "God save the King." In the +succeeding autumn he returned to England, where his loyalism was +rewarded by a government pension. In 1784 he became vicar of Epsom in +Surrey, where he continued until his death on the 27th of April 1804, +becoming known as one of the most eloquent preachers of his day. He was +an accomplished writer and scholar, contributed largely to William +Hutchinson's _History of the County of Cumberland_ (2 vols., 1704 seq.), +and published _A View of the Causes and Consequences of the American +Revolution_ (1797), dedicated to George Washington, and consisting of +thirteen discourses delivered in America between 1763 and 1775. His +philological studies, to which the last fourteen years of his life were +devoted, resulted in the compilation of "A Glossary of Provincial and +Archaic Words," intended as a supplement to Dr Johnson's _Dictionary_, +but never published except in part, which finally in 1831 passed into +the hands of the English compilers of Webster's _Dictionary_, by whom it +was utilized. + +His son, BARTON BOUCHER (1794-1865), rector of Fonthill Bishops, +Wiltshire, in 1856, was well known as the author of religious tracts, +hymns and novels. + + + + +BOUCHER DE CREVCOEUR DE PERTHES, JACQUES (1788-1868), French geologist +and antiquary, was born on the 10th of September 1788 at Rethel, +Ardennes, France. He was the eldest son of Jules Armand Guillaume +Boucher de Crevecoeur, botanist and customs officer, and of +Etienne-Jeanne-Marie de Perthes (whose surname he was authorized by +royal decree in 1818 to assume in addition to his father's). In 1802 he +entered government employ as an officer of customs. His duties kept him +for six years in Italy, whence returning (in 1811) he found rapid +promotion at home, and finally was appointed (March 1825) to succeed his +father as director of the _douane_ at Abbeville, where he remained for +the rest of his life, being superannuated in January 1853, and dying on +the 5th of August 1868. His leisure was chiefly devoted to the study of +what was afterwards called the Stone Age, "antediluvian man," as he +expressed it. About the year 1830 he had found, in the gravels of the +Somme valley, flints which in his opinion bore evidence of human +handiwork; but not until many years afterwards did he make public the +important discovery of a worked flint implement with remains of +elephant, rhinoceros, &c., in the gravels of Menchecourt. This was in +1846. A few years later he commenced the issue of his monumental work, +_Antiquites celtiques et an ediluviennes_ (1847, 1857, 1864; 3 vols.), a +work in which he was the first to establish the existence of man in the +Pleistocene or early Quaternary period. His views met with little +approval, partly because he had previously propounded theories regarding +the antiquity of man without facts to support them, partly because the +figures in his book were badly executed and they included drawings of +flints which showed no clear sign of workmanship. In 1855 Dr Jean Paul +Rigollot (1810-1873), of Amiens, strongly advocated the authenticity of +the flint implements; but it was not until 1858 that Hugh Falconer +(q.v.) saw the collection at Abbeville and induced Prestwich (q.v.) in +the following year to visit the locality. Prestwich then definitely +agreed that the flint implements were the work of man, and that they +occurred in undisturbed ground in association with remains of extinct +mammalia. In 1863 his discovery of a human jaw, together with worked +flints, in a gravel-pit at Moulin-Quignon near Abbeville seemed to +vindicate Boucher de Perthes entirely; but doubt was thrown on the +antiquity of the human remains (owing to the possibility of interment), +though not on the good faith of the discoverer, who was the same year +made an officer of the Legion of Honour together with Quatrefages his +champion. Boucher de Perthes displayed activity in many other +directions. For more than thirty years he filled the presidential chair +of the Societe d'Emulation at Abbeville, to the publications of which he +contributed articles on a wide range of subjects. He was the author of +several tragedies, two books of fiction, several works of travel, and a +number of books on economic and philanthropic questions. To his +scientific books may be added _De l'homme antedilumen et de ses oeuvres_ +(Paris, 1860). + + See Alcius Ledien, _Boucher de Perthes; sa vie, ses oeuvres, sa + correspondence_ (Abbeville, 1885); Lady Prestwich, "Recollections of + M. Boucher de Perthes" (with portrait) in _Essays Descriptive and + Biographical_ (1901). + + + + +BOUCHES-DU-RHONE, a maritime department of south-eastern France situated +at the mouth of the Rhone. Area, 2026 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 765,918. Formed +in 1790 from western Provence, it is bounded N. by Vaucluse, from which +it is separated by the Durance, E. by Var, W. by Card, and S. by the +Mediterranean, along which its seaboard stretches for about 120 m. The +western portion consists of the Camargue (q.v.), a low and marshy plain +enclosed between the Rhone and the Petit-Rhone, and comprising the Rhone +delta. A large portion of its surface is covered by lagoons and pools +(etangs), the largest of which is the Etang de Vaccares; to the east of +the Camargue is situated the remarkable stretch of country called the +Crau, which is strewn with pebbles like the sea-beach; and farther east +and north there are various ranges of mountains of moderate elevation +belonging to the Alpine system. The Etang de Berre, a lagoon covering an +area of nearly 60 sq. m., is situated near the sea to the south-east of +the Crau. A few small tributaries of the Rhone and the Durance, a number +of streams, such as the Arc and the Touloubre, which flow into the Etang +de Berre, and the Huveaune, which finds its way directly to the sea, are +the only rivers that properly belong to the department. + +Bouches-du-Rhone enjoys the beautiful climate of the Mediterranean +coast, the chief drawback being the mistral, the icy north-west wind +blowing from the central plateau of France. The proportion of arable +land is small, though the quantity has been considerably increased by +artificial irrigation and by the draining of marshland. Cereals, of +which wheat and oats are the commonest, are grown in the Camargue and +the plain of Aries, but they are of less importance than the olive-tree, +which is grown largely in the east of the department and supplies the +oil-works of Marseilles. The vine is also cultivated, the method of +submersion being used as a safeguard against phylloxera. In the cantons +of the north-west large quantities of early vegetables are produced. Of +live-stock, sheep alone are raised to any extent. Almonds, figs, capers, +mulberry trees and silkworms are sources of considerable profit. Iron is +worked, but the most important mines are those of lignite, in which +between 2000 and 3000 workmen are employed; the department also produces +bauxite, building-stone, lime, cement, gypsum, clay, sand and gravel and +marble. The salt marshes employ many workmen, and the amount of sea-salt +obtained exceeds in quantity the produce of any other department in +France. Marseilles, the capital, is by far the most important industrial +town. In its oil-works, soap-works, metallurgical works, shipbuilding +works, distilleries, flour-mills, chemical works, tanneries, engineering +and machinery works, brick and tile works, manufactories of preserved +foods and biscuits, and other industrial establishments, is concentrated +most of the manufacturing activity of the department. To these must be +added the potteries of the industrial town of Aubagne, the silk-works in +the north-west cantons, and various paper and cardboard manufactories, +while several of the industries of Marseilles, such as the distilling of +oil, metal-founding, shipbuilding and soap-making, are common to the +whole of Bouches-du-Rhone. Fishing is also an important industry. +Cereals, flour, silk, woollen and cotton goods, wine, brandy, oils, +soap, sugar and coffee are chief exports; cereals, oil-seeds, wine and +brandy, raw sugar, cattle, timber, silk, wool, cotton, coal, &c., are +imported. The foreign commerce of the department, which is principally +carried on in the Mediterranean basin, is for the most part concentrated +in the capital; the minor ports are Martigues, Cassis and La Ciotat. +Internal trade is facilitated by the canal from Aries to Port-de-Bouc +and two smaller canals, in all about 35 m. in length. The Rhone and the +Petit-Rhone are both navigable within the department. + +Bouches-du-Rhone is divided into the three arrondissements of +Marseilles, Aix and Arles (33 cantons, 111 communes). It belongs to the +archiepiscopal province of Aix, to the region of the XV. army corps, the +headquarters of which are at Marseilles, and to the _academie_ +(educational division) of Aix. Its court of appeal is at Aix. +Marseilles, Aix, Arles, La Ciotat, Martigues, Salon, Les Saintes-Maries, +St Remy, Les Baux and Tarascon, the principal places, are separately +noticed. Objects of interest elsewhere may be mentioned. Near +Saint-Chamas there is a remarkable Roman bridge over the Touloubre, +which probably dates from the 1st century B.C. and is thus the oldest in +France. It is supported on one semicircular span and has triumphal +arches at either end. At Vernegues there are remains of a Roman temple +known as the "Maison-Basse." The famous abbey of Montmajour, of which +the oldest parts are the Romanesque church and cloister, is 2-1/2 m. +from Arles. At Orgon there are the ruins of a chateau of the 15th +century, and near La Roque d'Antheron the church and other buildings of +the Cistercian abbey of Silvacane, founded in the 12th century. + + + + +BOUCHOR, MAURICE (1855- ), French poet, was born on the 15th of +December 1855 in Paris. He published in succession _Chansons joyeuses_ +(1874), _Poemes de l'amour et de la mer_ (1875), _Le Faust moderne_ +(1878) in prose and verse, and _Les Contes parisiens_ (1880) in verse. +His _Aurore_ (1883) showed a tendency to religious mysticism, which +reached its fullest expression in _Les Symboles_ (1888; new series, +1895), the most interesting of his works. Bouchor (whose brother, Joseph +Felix Bouchor, b. 1853, became well known as an artist) was a sculptor +as well as a poet, and he designed and worked the figures used in his +charming pieces as marionettes, the words being recited or chanted by +himself or his friends behind the scenes. These miniature dramas on +religious subjects, _Tobie_ (1889), _Noel_ (1890) and _Sainte Cecile_ +(1892), were produced in Paris at the Theatre des Marionnettes. A +one-act verse drama by Bouchor, Conte de Noel, was played at the Theatre +Francais in 1895, but _Dieu le veut_ (1888) was not produced. In +conjunction with the musician Julien Tiersot (b. 1857), he made efforts +for the preservation of the French folk-songs, and published _Chants +populaires pour les ecoles_ (1897). + + + + +BOUCHOTTE, JEAN BAPTISTE NOEL (1754-1840), French minister, was born at +Metz on the 25th of December 1754. At the outbreak of the Revolution he +was a captain of cavalry, and his zeal led to his being made colonel and +given the command at Cambrai. When Dumouriez delivered up to the +Austrians the minister of war, the marquis de Beurnonville, in April +1793, Bouchotte, who had bravely defended Cambrai, was called by the +Convention to be minister of war, where he remained until the 31st of +March 1794. The predominant role of the Committee of Public Safety +during that period did not leave much scope for the new minister, yet he +rendered some services in the organization of the republican armies, and +chose his officers with insight, among them Kleber, Massena, Moreau and +Bonaparte. During the Thermidorian reaction, in spite of his +incontestable honesty, he was accused by the anti-revolutionists. He was +tried by the tribunal of the Eure-et-Loire and acquitted. Then he +withdrew from politics, and lived in retirement until his death on the +8th of June 1840. + + + + +BOUCICAULT, DION (1822-1890), Irish actor and playwright, was born in +Dublin on the 26th of December 1822, the son of a French refugee and an +Irish mother. Before he was twenty he was fortunate enough to make an +immediate success as a dramatist with _London Assurance_, produced at +Covent Garden on the 4th of March 1841, with a cast that included +Charles Matthews, William Farren, Mrs Nesbitt and Madame Vestris. He +rapidly followed this with a number of other plays, among the most +successful of the early ones being _Old Heads and Young Hearts_, _Louis +XI_., and _The Corsican Brothers_. In June 1852 he made his first +appearance as an actor in a melodrama of his own entitled _The Vampire_ +at the Princess's theatre. From 1853 to 1869 he was in the United +States, where he was always a popular favourite. On his return to +England he produced at the Adelphi a dramatic adaptation of Gerald +Griffin's novel, _The Collegians_, entitled _The Colleen Bawn_. This +play, one of the most successful of modern times, was performed in +almost every city of the United Kingdom and the United States, and made +its author a handsome fortune, which he lost in the management of +various London theatres. It was followed by _The Octoroon_ (1861), the +popularity of which was almost as great. Boucicault's next marked +success was at the Princess's theatre in 1865 with _Arrah-na-Pogue_, in +which he played the part of a Wicklow carman. This, and his admirable +creation of Con in his play _The Shaughraun_ (first produced at Drury +Lane in 1875), won him the reputation of being the best stage Irishman +of his time. In 1875 he returned to New York City and finally made his +home there, but he paid occasional visits to London, where his last +appearance was made in his play, _The Jilt_, in 1886. _The Streets of +London_ and _After Dark_ were two of his late successes as a dramatist. +He died in New York on the 18th of September 1890. Boucicault was twice +married, his first wife being Agnes Robertson, the adopted daughter of +Charles Kean, and herself an actress of unusual ability. Three children, +Dion (b. 1859), Aubrey (b. 1868) and Nina, also became distinguished in +the profession. + + + + +BOUCICAUT, JEAN [JEAN LE MEINGRE, called BOUCICAUT] (c. 1366-1421), +marshal of France, was the son of another Jean le Meingre, also known as +Boucicaut, marshal of France, who died on the 15th of March 1368 (N.S.). +At a very early age he became a soldier; he fought in Normandy, in +Flanders and in Prussia, distinguishing himself at the battle of +Roosebeke in 1382; and then after a campaign in Spain he journeyed to +the Holy Land. Boucicaut's great desire appears to have been to fight +the Turk, and in 1396 he was one of the French soldiers who marched to +the defence of Hungary and shared in the Christian defeat at Nicopolis, +where he narrowly escaped death. After remaining for some months a +captive in the hands of the sultan, he obtained his ransom and returned +to France; then in 1399 he was sent at the head of an army to aid the +Eastern emperor, Manuel II., who was harassed by the Turks. Boucicaut +drove the enemy from his position before Constantinople and returned to +France for fresh troops, but instead of proceeding again to eastern +Europe, he was despatched in 1401 to Genoa, who in 1396 had placed +herself under the dominion of France. Here he was successful in +restoring order and in making the French occupation effective, and he +was soon able to turn his attention to the defence of the Genoese +possessions in the Mediterranean. The energy which he showed in this +direction involved him not only in a quarrel with Janus, king of Cyprus, +but led also to a short war with Venice, whose fleet he encountered off +Modon in the Archipelago in October 1403. This battle has been claimed +by both sides as a victory. Peace was soon made with the republic, and +then in 1409, while the marshal was absent on a campaign in northern +Italy, Genoa threw off the French yoke, and Boucicaut, unable to reduce +her again to submission, retired to Languedoc. He fought at Agincourt, +where he was taken prisoner, and died in England. Boucicaut, who was +very skilful in the tournament, founded the order of the _Dame blanche a +l'ecu vert_, a society the object of which was to defend the wives and +daughters of absent knights. + + There is in existence an anonymous account of Boucicaut's life and + adventures, entitled _Livre des faits du bon messire Jean le Meingre + dit Boucicaut_, which was published in Paris by T. Godefroy in 1620. + See J. Delaville le Roulx, _La France en Orient: expeditions du + marechal Boucicaut_ (Paris, 1886). + + + + +BOUDIN, EUGENE (1824-1898), French painter of the _paysage de mer_, was +the son of a pilot. Born at Honfleur he was cabin-boy for a while on +board the rickety steamer that plied between Havre and Honfleur across +the estuary of the Seine. But before old age came on him, Boudin's +father abandoned seafaring, and the son gave it up too, having of course +no real vocation for it, though he preserved to his last days much of a +sailor's character,--frankness, accessibility, open-heartedness. Boudin +the elder now established himself as stationer and frame-maker; this +time in the greater seaport town of Havre; and Eugene helped in the +little business, and, in stolen hours, produced certain drawings. That +was a time at which the romantic outlines of the Norman coast engaged +Isabey, and the green wide valleys of the inland country engaged Troyon; +and Troyon and Isabey, and Millet too, came to the shop at Havre. Young +Boudin found his desire to be a painter stimulated by their influence; +his work made a certain progress, and the interest taken in the young +man resulted in his being granted for a short term of years by the town +of his adoption a pension, that he might study painting. He studied +partly in Paris; but whatever individuality he possessed in those years +was hidden and covered, rather than disclosed. An instance of tiresome, +elaborate labour--good enough, no doubt, as groundwork, and not out of +keeping with what at least was the popular taste of that day--is his +"Pardon of Sainte Anne de la Palud," a Breton scene, of 1858, in which +he introduced the young Breton woman who was immediately to become his +wife. This conscientious and unmoving picture hangs in the museum of +Havre, along with a hundred later, fresher, thoroughly individual +studies and sketches, the gift of Boudin's brother, Louis Boudin, after +the painter's death. Re-established at Honfleur, Boudin was married and +poor. But his work gained character and added, to merely academic +correctness, character and charm. He was beginning to be himself by 1864 +or 1865--that was the first of such periods of his as may be accounted +good--and, though not at that time so fully a master of transient +effects of weather as he became later, he began then to paint with a +success genuinely artistic the scenes of the harbour and the estuary, +which no longer lost vivacity by deliberate and too obvious +completeness. The war of 1870-71 found Boudin impecunious but great, for +then there had well begun the series of freshly and vigorously conceived +canvases and panels, which record the impressions of a precursor of the +Impressionists in presence of the Channel waters, and of those autumn +skies, or skies of summer, now radiant, now uncertain, which hung over +the small ports and the rocky or chalk-cliff coasts, over the +watering-places, Trouville, Dieppe, and over those larger harbours, with +_port_ and _avant-port_ and _bassin_, of Dunkirk, of Havre. In the war +time, Boudin was in Brittany and then in the Low Countries. About +1875-1876 he was at Rotterdam and Bordeaux. That great bird's-eye +vision of Bordeaux which is in the Luxembourg dates from these years, +and in these years he was at Rotterdam, the companion of Jongkind, with +whom he had so much in common, but whose work, like his, free and +fearless and unconventional, can never be said with accuracy to have +seriously influenced his own. Doing excellent things continually through +all the 'seventies, when he was in late middle age--gaining scope in +colour, having now so many notes--faithful no longer wholly to his +amazing range of subtle greys, now blithe and silvery, now nobly +deep--sending to the Salon great canvases, and to the few enlightened +people who would buy them of him the _toile_ or panel of most moderate +size on which he best of all expressed himself--Boudin was yet not +acceptable to the public or to the fashionable dealer. The late +'eighties had to come and Boudin to be elderly before there was a sale +for his work at any prices that were in the least substantial. Broadly +speaking his work in those very 'eighties was not so good as the labour, +essentially delicate and fresh and just, of some years earlier, nor had +it always the attractiveness of the impulsive deliverances of some years +later, when the inspired sketch was the thing that he generally stopped +at. Old age found him strong and receptive. Only in the very last year +of his life was there perceptible a positive deterioration. Not very +long before it, Boudin, in a visit to Venice, had produced impressions +of Venice for which much more was to be said than that they were not +Ziem's. And the deep colouring of the South, on days when the sunshine +blazes least, had been caught by him and presented nobly at Antibes and +Villefranche. At last, resorting to the south again as a refuge from +ill-health, and recognizing soon that the relief it could give him was +almost spent, he resolved that it should not be for him, in the words of +Maurice Barres, a "_tombe fleurie_," and he returned, hastily, weak and +sinking, to his home at Deauville, that he might at least die within +sight of Channel waters and under Channel skies. As a "marine +painter"--more properly as a painter of subjects in which water must +have some part, and as curiously expert in the rendering of all that +goes upon the sea, and as the painter too of the green banks of tidal +rivers and of the long-stretched beach, with crinolined Parisienne noted +as ably as the sailor-folk--Boudin stands alone. Beside him others are +apt to seem rather theatrical--or if they do not romance they appear, +perhaps, to chronicle dully. The pastels of Boudin--summary and economic +even in the 'sixties, at a time when his painted work was less +free--obtained the splendid eulogy of Baudelaire, and it was no other +than Corot who, before his pictures, said to him: "You are the master of +the sky." + + See also Gustave Cahen, _Eugene Boudin_ (Paris, 1899); Arsene + Alexandre, _Essais_; Frederick Wedmore, _Whistler and Others_ (1906). + (F. We.) + + + + +BOUDINOT, ELIAS (1740-1821), American revolutionary leader, was born at +Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, of Huguenot descent, on the 2nd of May 1740. +He studied law at Princeton, New Jersey, in the office of Richard +Stockton, whose sister Hannah he married in 1762, and in November 1760 +he was licensed as a counsellor and attorney-at-law, afterwards +practising at Elizabethtown, New Jersey. On the approach of the War of +Independence he allied himself with the conservative Whigs. He was a +deputy to the provincial congress of New Jersey from May to August 1775, +and from May 1777 until July 1778 was the commissary-general of +prisoners, with the rank of colonel, in the continental army. He was one +of the New Jersey members of the continental congress in 1778 and again +from 1781 until 1783, and from November 1782 until October 1783 was +president of that body, acting also for a short time, after the +resignation of Robert R. Livingston, as secretary for foreign affairs. +From 1789 to 1795 he sat as a member of the national House of +Representatives, and from 1795 until 1805 he was the director of the +United States mint at Philadelphia. He took an active part in the +founding of the American Bible Society in 1816, of which he became the +first president. He was a trustee and a benefactor of the college of New +Jersey (afterwards Princeton University). In reply to Thomas Paine's +_Age of Reason_, he published the _Age of Revelation_ (1790); he also +published a volume entitled _A Star in the West, or a Humble Attempt to +Discover the Long Lost Ten Tribes of Israel_ (1816), in which he +endeavours to prove that the American Indians may be the ten lost +tribes. Boudinot died at Burlington, New Jersey, on the 24th of October +1821. + + See _The Life, Public Services, Addresses and Letters of Elias + Boudinot_, edited by J.J. Boudinot (Boston and New York, 1896). + + + + +BOUE, AMI (1794-1881), Austrian geologist, was born at Hamburg on the +16th of March 1794, and received his early education there and in Geneva +and Paris. Proceeding to Edinburgh to study medicine at the university, +he came under the influence of Robert Jameson, whose teachings in +geology and mineralogy inspired his future career. Boue was thus led to +make geological expeditions to various parts of Scotland and the +Hebrides, and after taking his degree of M.D. in 1817 he settled for +some years in Paris. In 1820 he issued his _Essai geologique sur +l'Ecosse_, in which the eruptive rocks in particular were carefully +described. He travelled much in Germany, Austria and southern Europe, +studying various geological formations, and becoming one of the pioneers +in geological research; he was one of the founders of the Societe +Geologique de France in 1830, and was its president in 1835. In 1841 he +settled in Vienna, and became naturalized as an Austrian. He died on the +21st of November 1881. To the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Vienna he +communicated important papers on the geology of the Balkan States +(1859-1870), and he also published _Memoires geologiques et +paleontologiques_ (Paris, 1832) and _La Turquie d'Europe; observations +sur la geographie, la geologie, l'histoire naturelle, &c._ (Paris, +1840). + + + + +BOUFFLERS, LOUIS FRANCOIS, DUC DE, comte de Cagny (1644-1711), marshal +of France, was born on the 10th of January 1644. He entered the army and +saw service in 1663 at the siege of Marsal, becoming in 1669 colonel of +dragoons. In the conquest of Lorraine (1670) he served under Marshal de +Crequi. In Holland he served under Turenne, frequently distinguishing +himself by his skill and bravery; and when Turenne was killed by a +cannon-shot in 1675 he commanded the rear-guard during the retreat of +the French army. He was already a brigadier, and in 1677 he became +_marechal de camp_. He served throughout the campaigns of the time with +increasing distinction, and in 1681 became lieutenant-general. He +commanded the French army on the Moselle, which opened the War of the +League of Augsburg with a series of victories; then he led a corps to +the Sambre, and reinforced Luxemburg on the eve of the battle of +Fleurus. In 1691 he acted as lieutenant-general under the king in +person; and during the investment of Mons he was wounded in an attack on +the town. He was present with the king at the siege of Namur in 1692, +and took part in the victory of Steinkirk. For his services he was +raised in 1692 to the rank of marshal of France, and in 1694 was made a +duke. In 1694 he was appointed governor of French Flanders and of the +town of Lille. By a skilful manoeuvre he threw himself into Namur in +1695, and only surrendered to his besiegers after he had lost 8000 of +his 13,000 men. In the conferences which terminated in the peace of +Ryswick he had a principal share. During the following war, when Lille +was threatened with a siege by Marlborough and Eugene, Boufflers was +appointed to the command, and made a most gallant resistance of three +months. He was rewarded and honoured by the king for his defence of +Lille, as if he had been victorious. It was indeed a species of triumph; +his enemy, appreciating his merits, allowed him to dictate his own terms +of capitulation. In 1708 he was made a peer of France. In 1709, when the +affairs of France were threatened with the most urgent danger, Boufflers +offered to serve under his junior, Villars, and was with him at the +battle of Malplaquet. Here he displayed the highest skill, and after +Villars was wounded he conducted the retreat of the French army without +losing either cannon or prisoners. He died at Fontainebleau on the 22nd +of August 1711. + + See F...., _Vie du Mal. de Boufflers_ (Lille, 1852), and Pere + Delarue's and Pere Poisson's _Oraisons funebres du Mal. B._ (1712). + + + + + +BOUFFLERS, STANISLAS JEAN, CHEVALIER DE (1737-1815), French statesman +and man of letters, was born near Nancy on the 31st of May 1738. He was +the son of Louis Francois, marquis de Boufflers. His mother, Marie +Catherine de Beauveau Craon, was the mistress of Stanislas Leszczynski, +and the boy was brought up at the court of Luneville. He spent six +months in study for the priesthood at Saint Sulpice, Paris, and during +his residence there he put in circulation a story which became extremely +popular, _Aline, reine de Golconde_. Boufflers did not, however, take +the vows, as his ambitions were military. He entered the order of the +Knights of Malta, so that he might be able to follow the career of arms +without sacrificing the revenues of a benefice he had received in +Lorraine from King Stanislas. After serving in various campaigns he +reached the grade of _marechal de camp_ in 1784, and in the next year +was sent to West Africa as governor of Senegal. He proved an excellent +administrator, and did what he could to mitigate the horrors of the +slave trade; and he interested himself in opening up the material +resources of the colony, so that his departure in 1787 was regarded as a +real calamity by both colonists and negroes. The _Memoires secrets_ of +Bachaumont give the current opinion that Boufflers was sent to Senegal +because he was in disgrace at court; but the real reason appears to have +been a desire to pay his debts before his marriage with Mme de Sabran, +which took place soon after his return to France. Boufflers was admitted +to the Academy in 1788, and subsequently became a member of the +states-general. During the Revolution he found an asylum with Prince +Henry of Prussia at Rheinsberg. At the Restoration he was made +joint-librarian of the Bibliotheque Mazarine. His wit and his skill in +light verse had won him a great reputation, and he was one of the idols +of the Parisian salons. His paradoxical character was described in an +epigram attributed to Antoine de Rivarol, "_abbe libertin, militaire +philosophe, diplomate chansonnier, emigre patriote, republicain +courtisan_." He died in Paris on the 18th of January 1815. + + His _OEuvres completes_ were published under his own supervision in + 1803. A selection of his stories in prose and verse was edited by + Eugene Asse in 1878; his _Poesies_ by O. Uzanne in 1886; and the + _Correspondance inedite de la comtesse de Sabran et du chevalier de + Boufflers_ (1778-1788), by E. de Magnieu and Henri Prat in 1875. + + + + +BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS ANTOINE DE (1729-1811), French navigator, was born +at Paris on the 11th of November 1729. He was the son of a notary, and +in early life studied law, but soon abandoned the profession, and in +1753 entered the army in the corps of musketeers. At the age of +twenty-five he published a treatise on the integral calculus, as a +supplement to De l'Hopital's treatise, _Des infiniment petits_. In 1755 +he was sent to London as secretary to the French embassy, and was made a +member of the Royal Society. In 1756 he went to Canada as captain of +dragoons and aide-de-camp to the marquis de Montcalm; and having +distinguished himself in the war against England, was rewarded with the +rank of colonel and the cross of St Louis. He afterwards served in the +Seven Years' War from 1761 to 1763. After the peace, when the French +government conceived the project of colonizing the Falkland Islands, +Bougainville undertook the task at his own expense. But the settlement +having excited the jealousy of the Spaniards, the French government gave +it up to them, on condition of their indemnifying Bougainville. He was +then appointed to the command of the frigate "La Boudeuse" and the +transport "L'Etoile," and set sail in December 1766 on a voyage of +discovery round the world. Having executed his commission of delivering +up the Falkland Islands to the Spanish, Bougainville proceeded on his +expedition, and touched at Buenos Aires. Passing through the Straits of +Magellan, he visited the Tuamotu archipelago, and Tahiti, where the +English navigator Wallis had touched eight months before. He proceeded +across the Pacific Ocean by way of the Samoan group, which he named the +Navigators Islands, the New Hebrides and the Solomon Islands. His men +now suffering from scurvy, and his vessels requiring refitting, he +anchored at Buru, one of the Moluccas, where the governor of the Dutch +settlement supplied his wants. It was the beginning of September, and +the expedition took advantage of the easterly monsoon, which carried +them to Batavia. In March 1769 the expedition arrived at St Malo, with +the loss of only seven out of upwards of 200 men. Bougainville's account +of the voyage (Paris, 1771) is written with simplicity and some humour. +After an interval of several years, he again accepted a naval command +and saw much active service between 1779 and 1782. In the memorable +engagement of the 12th of April 1782, in which Rodney defeated the comte +de Grasse, near Martinique, Bougainville, who commanded the "Auguste," +succeeded in rallying eight ships of his own division, and bringing them +safely into St Eustace. He was created _chef d'escadre_, and on +re-entering the army, was given the rank of _marechal de camp_. After +the peace he returned to Paris, and obtained the place of associate of +the Academy. He projected a voyage of discovery towards the north pole, +but this did not meet with support from the French government. +Bougainville obtained the rank of vice-admiral in 1791; and in 1792, +having escaped almost miraculously from the massacres of Paris, he +retired to his estate in Normandy. He was chosen a member of the +Institute at its formation, and returning to Paris became a member of +the Board of Longitude. In his old age Napoleon I. made him a senator, +count of the empire, and member of the Legion of Honour. He died at +Paris on the 31st of August 1811. He was married and had three sons, who +served in the French army. + +Bougainville's name is given to the largest member of the Solomon +Islands, which belongs to Germany; and to the strait which divides it +from the British island of Choiseul. It is also applied to the strait +between Mallicollo and Espiritu Santo Islands of the New Hebrides group, +and the South American climbing plant _Bougainvillea_, often cultivated +in greenhouses, is named after him. + + + + +BOUGHTON, GEORGE HENRY (1834-1905), Anglo-American painter, was born in +England, but his parents went to the United States in 1839, and he was +brought up at Albany, N.Y. He studied art in Paris in 1861-62, and +subsequently lived mainly in London; he was much influenced by Frederick +Walker, and the delicacy and grace of his pictures soon made his +reputation. He was elected an A.R.A. in 1879, and R.A. in 1896, and a +member of the National Academy of Design in New York in 1871. His +pictures of Dutch life and scenery were especially characteristic; and +his subject-pictures, such as the "Return of the Mayflower" and "The +Scarlet Letter," were very popular in America. + + + + +BOUGIE, a seaport of Algeria, chief town of an arrondissement in the +department of Constantine, 120 m. E. of Algiers. The town, which is +defended by a wall built since the French occupation, and by detached +forts, is beautifully situated on the slope of Mount Guraya. Behind it +are the heights of Mounts Babor and Tababort, rising some 6400 ft. and +crowned with forests of pinsapo fir and cedar. The most interesting +buildings in the town are the ancient forts, Borj-el-Ahmer and +Abd-el-Kader, and the kasbah or citadel, rectangular in form, flanked by +bastions and towers, and bearing inscriptions stating that it was built +by the Spaniards in 1545. Parts of the Roman wall exist, and +considerable portions of that built by the Hammadites in the 11th +century. The streets are very steep, and many are ascended by stairs. +The harbour, sheltered from the east by a breakwater, was enlarged in +1897-1902. It covers 63 acres and has a depth of water of 23 to 30 ft. +Bougie is the natural port of Kabylia, and under the French rule its +commerce--chiefly in oils, wools, hides and minerals--has greatly +developed; a branch railway runs to Beni Mansur on the main line from +Constantine to Oran. Pop. (1906) of the town, 10,419; of the commune, +17,540; of the arrondissement, which includes eight communes, 37,711. + +Bougie, if it be correctly identified with the Saldae of the Romans, is +a town of great antiquity, and probably owes its origin to the +Carthaginians. Early in the 5th century Genseric the Vandal surrounded +it with walls and for some time made it his capital. En-Nasr +(1062-1088), the most powerful of the Berber dynasty of Hammad, made +Bougie the seat of his government, and it became the greatest commercial +centre of the North African coast, attaining a high degree of +civilization. From an old MS. it appears that as early as 1068 the +heliograph was in common use, special towers, with mirrors properly +arranged, being built for the purpose of signalling. The Italian +merchants of the 12th and 13th centuries owned numerous buildings in the +city, such as warehouses, baths and churches. At the end of the 13th +century Bougie passed under the dominion of the Hafsides, and in the +15th century it became one of the strongholds of the Barbary pirates. It +enjoyed partial independence under amirs of Hafside origin, but in +January 1510 was captured by the Spaniards under Pedro Navarro. The +Spaniards strongly fortified the place and held it against two attacks +by the corsairs Barbarossa. In 1555, however, Bougie was taken by Salah +Rais, the pasha of Algiers. Leo Africanus, in his _Africae descriptio_, +speaks of the "magnificence" of the temples, palaces and other buildings +of the city in his day (c. 1525), but it appears to have fallen into +decay not long afterwards. When the French took the town from the +Algerians in 1833 it consisted of little more than a few fortifications +and ruins. It is said that the French word for a candle is derived from +the name of the town, candles being first made of wax imported from +Bougie. + + + + +BOUGUER, PIERRE (1698-1758), French mathematician, was born on the 16th +of February 1698. His father, John Bouguer, one of the best +hydrographers of his time, was regius professor of hydrography at +Croisic in lower Brittany, and author of a treatise on navigation. In +1713 he was appointed to succeed his father as professor of hydrography. +In 1727 he gained the prize given by the Academie des Sciences for his +paper "On the best manner of forming and distributing the masts of +ships"; and two other prizes, one for his dissertation "On the best +method of observing the altitude of stars at sea," the other for his +paper "On the best method of observing the variation of the compass at +sea." These were published in the _Prix de l'Academie des Sciences_. In +1729 he published _Essai d'optique sur la gradation de la lumiere_, the +object of which is to define the quantity of light lost by passing +through a given extent of the atmosphere. He found the light of the sun +to be 300 times more intense than that of the moon, and thus made some +of the earliest measurements in photometry. In 1730 he was made +professor of hydrography at Havre, and succeeded P.L.M. de Maupertuis as +associate geometer of the Academie des Sciences. He also invented a +heliometer, afterwards perfected by Fraunhofer. He was afterwards +promoted in the Academy to the place of Maupertuis, and went to reside +in Paris. In 1735 Bouguer sailed with C.M. de la Condamine for Peru, in +order to measure a degree of the meridian near the equator. Ten years +were spent in this operation, a full account of which was published by +Bouguer in 1749, _Figure de la terre determinee_. His later writings +were nearly all upon the theory of navigation. He died on the 15th of +August 1758. + + The following is a list of his principal works:--_Traite d'optique sur + la gradation de la lumiere_ (1729 and 1760); _Entretiens sur la cause + d'inclinaison des orbites des planetes_ (1734); _Traite de navire, + &c._ (1746, 4to); _La Figure de la terre determinee, &c._ (1749), 4to; + _Nouveau traite de navigation, contenant la theorie et la pratique du + pilotage_ (1753); _Solution des principaux problemes sur la manoeuvre + des vaisseaux_ (1757); _Operations faites pour la verification du + degre du meridien entre Paris et Amiens_, par Mess. Bouguer, Camus, + Cassini et Pingre(1757). + + See J.E. Montucla, _Histoire des mathematiques_ (1802). + + + + +BOUGUEREAU, ADOLPHE WILLIAM (1825-1905), French painter, was born at La +Rochelle on the 30th of November 1825. From 1843 till 1850 he went +through the course of training at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, and in 1850 +divided the Grand Prix de Rome scholarship with Baudry, the subject set +being "Zenobia on the banks of the Araxes." On his return from Rome in +1855 he was employed in decorating several aristocratic residences, +deriving inspiration from the frescoes which he had seen at Pompeii and +Herculaneum, and which had already suggested his "Idyll" (1853). He also +began in 1847 to exhibit regularly at the Salon. "The Martyr's Triumph," +the body of St Cecilia borne to the catacombs, was placed in the +Luxembourg after being exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1855; and in +the same year he exhibited "Fraternal Love," a "Portrait" and a +"Study." The state subsequently commissioned him to paint the emperor's +visit to the sufferers by the inundations at Tarascon. In 1857 +Bouguereau received a first prize medal. Nine of his panels executed in +wax-painting for the mansion of M. Bartholomy were much +discussed--"Love," "Friendship," "Fortune," "Spring," "Summer," +"Dancing," "Arion on a Sea-horse," a "Bacchante" and the "Four Divisions +of the Day." He also exhibited at the Salon "The Return of Tobit" (now +in the Dijon gallery). While in antique subjects he showed much grace of +design, in his "Napoleon," a work of evident labour, he betrayed a lack +of ease in the treatment of modern costume. Bouguereau subsequently +exhibited "Love Wounded" (1859), "The Day of the Dead" (at Bordeaux), +"The First Discord" (1861, in the Club at Limoges), "The Return from the +Fields" (a picture in which Theophile Gautier recognized "a pure feeling +for the antique"), "A Fawn and Bacchante" and "Peace"; in 1863 a "Holy +Family," "Remorse," "A Bacchante teasing a Goat" (in the Bordeaux +gallery); in 1864 "A Bather" (at Ghent), and "Sleep"; in 1865 "An +Indigent Family," and a portrait of Mme Bartholomy; in 1866 "A First +Cause," and "Covetousness," with "Philomela and Procne"; and some +decorative work for M. Montlun at La Rochelle, for M. Emile Pereire in +Paris, and for the churches of St Clotilde and St Augustin; and in 1866 +the large painting of "Apollo and the Muses on Olympus," in the Great +Theatre at Bordeaux. Among other works by this artist may be mentioned +"Between Love and Riches" (1869), "A Girl Bathing" (1870), "In Harvest +Time" (1872), "Nymphs and Satyrs" (1873), "Charity" and "Homer and his +Guide" (1874), "Virgin and Child," "Jesus and John the Baptist," "Return +of Spring" (which was purchased by an American collector, and was +destroyed by a fanatic who objected to the nudity), a "Pieta" (1876), "A +Girl defending herself from Love" (1880), "Night" (1883), "The Youth of +Bacchus" (1884), "Biblis" (1885), "Love Disarmed" (1886), "Love +Victorious" (1887), "The Holy Women at the Sepulchre" and "The Little +Beggar Girls" (1890), "Love in a Shower" and "First Jewels" (1891). To +the Exhibition of 1900 were contributed some of Bouguereau's best-known +pictures. Most of his works, especially "The Triumph of Venus" (1856) +and "Charity," are popularly known through engravings. "Prayer," "The +Invocation" and "Sappho" have been engraved by M. Thirion, "The Golden +Age" by M. Annetombe. Bouguereau's pictures, highly appreciated by the +general public, have been severely criticized by the partisans of a +freer and fresher style of art, who have reproached him with being too +content to revive the formulas and subjects of the antique. At the Paris +Exhibition of 1867 Bouguereau took a third-class medal, in 1878 a medal +of honour, and the same again in the Salon of 1885. He was chosen by the +Society of French Artists to be their vice-president, a post he filled +with much energy. He was made a member of the Legion of Honour in 1856, +an officer of the Order 26th of July 1876, and commander 12th of July +1885. He succeeded Isidore Pils as member of the Institute, 8th of +January 1876. He died on the 20th of August 1905. + + See Ch. Vendryes, _Catalogue illustre des oeuvres de Bouguereau_ + (Paris, 1885); Jules Claretie, _Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains_ + (Paris, 1874); P.G. Hamerton, _French Painters; Artistes modernes: + dictionnaire illustre des beaux-arts_ (1885); "W. Bouguereau," + _Portfolio_ (1875); Emile Bayard, "William Bouguereau," _Monde + moderne_ (1897). + + + + +BOUHOURS, DOMINIQUE (1628-1702), French critic, was born in Paris in +1628. He entered the Society of Jesus at the age of sixteen, and was +appointed to read lectures on literature in the college of Clermont at +Paris, and on rhetoric at Tours. He afterwards became private tutor to +the two sons of the duke of Longueville. He was sent to Dunkirk to the +Romanist refugees from England, and in the midst of his missionary +occupations published several books. In 1665 or 1666 he returned to +Paris, and published in 1671 _Les Entretiens d'Ariste et d'Eugene_, a +critical work on the French language, printed five times at Paris, twice +at Grenoble, and afterwards at Lyons, Brussels, Amsterdam, Leiden, &c. +The chief of his other works are _La Maniere de bien penser sur les +ouvrages d'esprit_ (1687), _Doutes sur la langue francaise_ (1674), _Vie +de Saint Ignace de Loyola_ (1679), _Vie de Saint Francois Xavier_ +(1682), and a translation of the New Testament into French (1697). His +practice of publishing secular books and works of devotion alternately +led to the _mot_, _"qu'il servait le monde et le ciel par semestre."_ +Bouhours died at Paris on the 27th of May 1702. + + See Georges Doucieux, _Un Jesuite homme de lettres au dix-septieme + siecle: Le pere Bouhours_ (1886). For a list of Bouhours' works see + Backer and Sommervogel, _Bibliotheque de la Compagnie de Jesus_, i. + pp. 1886 et seq. + + + + +BOUILHET, LOUIS HYACINTHE (1822-1869), French poet and dramatist, was +born at Cany, Seine Inferieure, on the 27th of May 1822. He was a +schoolfellow of Gustave Flaubert, to whom he dedicated his first work, +_Meloenis_ (1851), a narrative poem in five cantos, dealing with Roman +manners under the emperor Commodus. His volume of poems entitled +_Fossiles_ attracted considerable attention, on account of the attempt +therein to use science as a subject for poetry. These poems were +included also in _Festons et astragales_ (1859). As a dramatist he +secured a success with his first play, _Madame de Montarcy_ (1856), +which ran for seventy-eight nights at the Odeon; and _Helene Peyron_ +(1858) and _L'Oncle Million_ (1860) were also favourably received. But +of his other plays, some of them of real merit, only the _Conjuration +d'Amboise_ (1866) met with any great success. Bouilhet died on the 18th +of July 1869, at Rouen. Flaubert published his posthumous poems with a +notice of the author, in 1872. + + See also Maxime du Camp, _Souvenirs litteraires_ (1882); and H. de la + Ville de Mirmont, _Le Poete Louis Bouilhet_ (1888). + + + + +BOUILLE, FRANCOIS CLAUDE AMOUR, MARQUIS DE (1739-1800), French general. +He served in the Seven Years' War, and as governor in the Antilles +conducted operations against the English in the War of American +Independence. On his return to France he was named governor of the Three +Bishoprics, of Alsace and of Franche-Comte. Hostile to the Revolution, +he had continual quarrels with the municipality of Metz, and brutally +suppressed the military insurrections at Metz and Nancy, which had been +provoked by the harsh conduct of certain noble officers. Then he +proposed to Louis XVI. to take refuge in a frontier town where an appeal +could be made to other nations against the revolutionists. When this +project failed as a result of Louis XVI.'s arrest at Varennes, Bouille +went to Russia to induce Catherine II. to intervene in favour of the +king, and then to England, where he died in 1800, after serving in +various royalist attempts on France. He left _Memoires sur la Revolution +francaise depuis son origine jusqu'a la retraite du duc de Brunswick_ +(Paris, 1801). + + + + +BOUILLON, formerly the seat of a dukedom in the Ardennes, now a small +town in the Belgian province of Luxemburg. Pop. (1904) 2721. It is most +picturesquely situated in the valley under the rocky ridge on which are +still the very well preserved remains of the castle of Godfrey of +Bouillon (q.v.), the leader of the first crusade. The town, 690 ft. +above the sea, but lying in a basin, skirts both banks of the river +Semois which is crossed by two bridges. The stream forms a loop round +and almost encircles the castle, from which there are beautiful views of +the sinuous valley and the opposite well-wooded heights. The whole +effect of the grim castle, the silvery stream and the verdant woods +makes one of the most striking scenes in Belgium. In the 8th and 9th +centuries Bouillon was one of the castles of the counts of Ardenne and +Bouillon. In the 10th and 11th centuries the family took the higher +titles of dukes of Lower Lorraine and Bouillon. These dukes all bore the +name of Godfrey (Godefroy) and the fifth of them was the great crusader. +He was the son of Eustace, count of Boulogne, which has led many +commentators into the error of saying that Godfrey of Bouillon was born +at the French port, whereas he was really born in the castle of Baisy +near Genappe and Waterloo. His mother was Ida d'Ardenne, sister of the +fourth Godfrey ("the Hunchback"), and the successful defence of the +castle when a mere youth of seventeen on her behalf was the first feat +of arms of the future conqueror of Jerusalem. This medieval fortress, +strong by art as well as position before the invention of modern +artillery, has since undergone numerous sieges. In order to undertake +the crusade Godfrey sold the castle of Bouillon to the prince bishop of +Liege, and the title of duke of Bouillon remained the appendage of the +bishopric till 1678, or for 580 years. The bishops appointed +"chatelains," one of whom was the celebrated "Wild Boar of the +Ardennes," William de la Marck. His descendants made themselves +quasi-independent and called themselves princes of Sedan and dukes of +Bouillon, and they were even recognized by the king of France. The +possession of Bouillon thenceforward became a constant cause of strife +until in 1678 Louis XIV. garrisoned it under the treaty of Nijmwegen. +From 1594 to 1641 the duchy remained vested in the French family of La +Tour d'Auvergne, one of whom (Henry, viscount of Turenne and marshal of +France) had married in 1591 Charlotte de la Marck, the last of her race. +In 1676 the duke of Crequy seized it in the name of Louis XIV., who in +1678 gave it to Godefroy Marie de La Tour d'Auvergne, whose descendants +continued in possession till 1795. Bouillon remained French till 1814, +and Vauban called it "the key of the Ardennes." In 1760 the elder +Rousseau established here the famous press of the Encyclopaedists. In +1814-1815, before the decrees of the Vienna Congress were known, an +extraordinary attempt was made by Philippe d'Auvergne of the British +navy, the cousin and adopted son of the last duke, to revive the ancient +duchy of Bouillon. The people of Bouillon freely recognized him, and +Louis XVIII. was well pleased with the arrangement, but the congress +assigned Bouillon to the Netherlands. Napoleon III. on his way to +Germany after Sedan slept one night in the little town, which is a +convenient centre for visiting that battlefield. + + + + +BOUILLOTTE, a French game of cards, very popular during the Revolution, +and again for some years from 1830. Five, four or three persons may +play; a piquet pack is used, from which, in case five play, the sevens, +when four the knaves, and when three the queens also, are omitted. +Counters or chips, as in poker, are used. Before the deal each player +"antes" one counter, after which each, the "age" passing, may "raise" +the pot; those not "seeing the raise" being obliged to drop out. Three +cards are dealt to each player, and a thirteenth, called the _retourne_, +when four play, turned up. Each player must then bet, call, raise or +drop out. When a call is made the hands are shown and the best hand +wins. The hands rank as follows: _brelan carre_, four of a kind, one +being the _retourne_; _simple brelan_, three of a kind, ace being high; +_brelan favori_, three of a kind, one being the _retourne_. When no +player holds a _brelan_ the hand holding the greatest number of pips +wins, ace counting 11, and court cards 10. + + + + +BOUILLY, JEAN NICOLAS (1763-1842), French author, was born near Tours on +the 24th of January 1763. At the outbreak of the Revolution he held +office under the new government, and had a considerable share in the +organization of primary education. In 1799 he retired from public life +to devote himself to literature. His numerous works include the musical +comedy, _Pierre le Grand_ (1790), for Gretry's music, and the opera, +_Les Deux Journees_ (1800), music by Cherubini; also _L'Abbe de l'epee_ +(1800), and some other plays; and _Causeries d'un vieillard_ (1807), +_Contes a ma fille_ (1809), and _Les Adieux du vieux conteur_ (1835). +His _Leonore_ (1798) formed the basis of the libretto of the _Fidelio_ +of Beethoven. Bouilly died in Paris on the 14th of April 1842. + + See Bouilly, _Mes recapitulations_ (3 vols., 1836-1837); E. Legouve, + _Soixante ans de souvenir_ (lere partie, 1886). + + + + +BOULAINVILLIERS, HENRI, COMTE DE (1658-1722), French political writer, +was born at St Saire in Normandy in 1658. He was educated at the college +of Juilly, and served in the army until 1697. He wrote a number of +historical works (published after his death), of which the most +important were the following: _Histoire de l'ancien gouvernement de la +France_ (La Haye, 1727); _Etat de la France, avec des memoires sur +l'ancien gouvernement_ (London, 1727); _Histoire de la pairie de France_ +(London, 1753); _Histoire des Arabes_ (1731). His writings are +characterized by an extravagant admiration of the feudal system. He was +an aristocrat of the most pronounced type, attacking absolute monarchy +on the one hand and popular government on the other. He was at great +pains to prove the pretensions of his own family to ancient nobility, +and maintained that the government should be entrusted solely to men of +his class. He died in Paris on the 23rd of January 1722. + + + + +BOULANGER, the name of several French artists:--JEAN (1606-1660), a +pupil of Guido Reni at Bologna, who had an academy at Modena; his cousin +JEAN (1607-1680), a celebrated line-engraver; the latter's son MATTHIEU, +another engraver; LOUIS (1806-1867), a subject-painter, the friend of +Victor Hugo, and director of the imperial school of art at Dijon; the +best-known, GUSTAVE RODOLPHE CLARENCE (1824-1888), a pupil of Paul +Delaroche, a notable painter of Oriental and Greek and Roman subjects, +and a member of the Institute (1882); and CLEMENT (1805-1842), a pupil +of Ingres. + + + + +BOULANGER, GEORGE ERNEST JEAN MARIE (1837-1891), French general, was +born at Rennes on the 29th of April 1837. He entered the army in 1856, +and served in Algeria, Italy, Cochin-China and the Franco-German War, +earning the reputation of being a smart soldier. He was made a +brigadier-general in 1880, on the recommendation of the duc d'Aumale, +then commanding the VII. army corps, and Boulanger's expressions of +gratitude and devotion on this occasion were remembered against him +afterwards when, as war minister in M. Freycinet's cabinet, he erased +the name of the due d'Aumale from the army list, as part of the +republican campaign against the Orleanist and Bonapartist princes. In +1882 his appointment as director of infantry at the war office enabled +him to make himself conspicuous as a military reformer; and in 1884 he +was appointed to command the army occupying Tunis, but was recalled +owing to his differences of opinion with M. Cambon, the political +resident. He returned to Paris, and began to take part in politics under +the aegis of M. Clemenceau and the Radical party; and in January 1886, +when M. Freycinet was brought into power by the support of the Radical +leader, Boulanger was given the post of war minister. + +By introducing genuine reforms for the benefit of officers and common +soldiers alike, and by laying himself out for popularity in the most +pronounced fashion--notably by his fire-eating attitude towards Germany +in April 1887 in connexion with the Schnaebele frontier +incident--Boulanger came to be accepted by the mob as the man destined +to give France her revenge for the disasters of 1870, and to be used +simultaneously as a tool by all the anti-Republican intriguers. His +action with regard to the royal princes has already been referred to, +but it should be added that Boulanger was taunted in the Senate with his +ingratitude to the duc d'Aumale, and denied that he had ever used the +words alleged. His letters containing them were, however, published, and +the charge was proved. Boulanger fought a bloodless duel with the baron +de Lareinty over this affair, but it had no effect at the moment in +dimming his popularity, and on M. Freycinet's defeat in December 1886 he +was retained by M. Goblet at the war office. M. Clemenceau, however, had +by this time abandoned his patronage of Boulanger, who was becoming so +inconveniently prominent that, in May 1887, M. Goblet was not sorry to +get rid of him by resigning. The mob clamoured for their "brav' +general," but M. Rouvier, who next formed a cabinet, declined to take +him as a colleague, and Boulanger was sent to Clermont-Ferrand to +command an army corps. A Boulangist "movement" was now in full swing. +The Bonapartists had attached themselves to the general, and even the +comte de Paris encouraged his followers to support him, to the dismay of +those old-fashioned Royalists who resented Boulanger's treatment of the +duc d'Aumale. His name was the theme of the popular song of the +moment--"C'est Boulanger qu'il nous faut"; the general and his black +horse became the idol of the Parisian populace; and he was urged to play +the part of a plebiscitary candidate for the presidency. + +The general's vanity lent itself to what was asked of it; after various +symptoms of insubordination had shown themselves, he was deprived of +his command in 1888 for twice coming to Paris without leave, and finally +on the recommendation of a council of inquiry composed of five generals, +his name was removed from the army list. He was, however, almost at once +elected to the chamber for the Nord, his political programme being a +demand for a revision of the constitution. In the chamber he was in a +minority, since genuine Republicans of all varieties began to see what +his success would mean, and his actions were accordingly directed to +keeping the public gaze upon himself. A popular hero survives many +deficiencies, and neither his failure as an orator nor the humiliation +of a discomfiture in a duel with M. Floquet, then an elderly civilian, +sufficed to check the enthusiasm of his following. During 1888 his +personality was the dominating feature of French politics, and, when he +resigned his seat as a protest against the reception given by the +chamber to his revisionist proposals, constituencies vied with one +another in selecting him as their representative. At last, in January +1889, he was returned for Paris by an overwhelming majority. He had now +become an open menace to the parliamentary Republic. Had Boulanger +immediately placed himself at the head of a revolt he might at this +moment have effected the _coup d'etat_ which the intriguers had worked +for, and might not improbably have made himself master of France; but +the favourable opportunity passed. The government, with M. Constans as +minister of the interior, had been quietly taking its measures for +bringing a prosecution against him, and within two months a warrant was +signed for his arrest. To the astonishment of his friends, on the 1st of +April he fled from Paris before it could be executed, going first to +Brussels and then to London. It was the end of the political danger, +though Boulangist echoes continued for a little while to reverberate at +the polls during 1889 and 1890. Boulanger himself, having been tried and +condemned _in absentia_ for treason, in October 1889 went to live in +Jersey, but nobody now paid much attention to his doings. The world was +startled, however, on the 30th of September 1891 by hearing that he had +committed suicide in a cemetery at Brussels by blowing out his brains on +the grave of his mistress, Madame de Bonnemains (_nee_ Marguerite +Crouzet), who had died in the preceding July. + + See also the article FRANCE: History; and Verly, _Le General Boulanger + et la conspiration monarchique_ (Paris, 1893). (H. Ch.) + + + + +BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE, ANTOINE JACQUES CLAUDE JOSEPH, COMTE (1761-1840), +French politician and magistrate, son of an agricultural labourer, was +born at Chamousey (Vosges) on the 19th of February 1761. Called to the +bar at Nancy in 1783, he presently went to Paris, where he rapidly +acquired a reputation as a lawyer and a speaker. He supported the +revolutionary cause in Lorraine, and fought at Valmy (1792) and +Wissembourg (1793) in the republican army. But his moderate principles +brought suspicion on him, and during the Terror he had to go into +hiding. He represented La Meurthe in the Council of Five Hundred, of +which he was twice president, but his views developed steadily in the +conservative direction. Fearing a possible renewal of the Terror, he +became an active member of the plot for the overthrow of the Directory +in November 1799. He was rewarded by the presidency of the legislative +commission formed by Napoleon to draw up the new constitution; and as +president of the legislative section of the council of state he examined +and revised the draft of the civil code. In eight years of hard work as +director of a special land commission he settled the titles of land +acquired by the French nation at the Revolution, and placed on an +unassailable basis the rights of the proprietors who had bought this +land from the government. He received the grand cross of the Legion of +Honour and the title of count, was a member of Napoleon's privy council, +but was never in high favour at court. After Waterloo he tried to obtain +the recognition of Napoleon II. He was placed under surveillance at +Nancy, and later at Halberstadt and Frankfort-on-Main. He was allowed to +return to France in 1819, but took no further active part in politics, +although he presented himself unsuccessfully for parliamentary election +in 1824 and 1827. He died in Paris on the 4th of February 1840. He +published two books on English history--_Essai sur les causes qui, en +1649, amenerent en Angleterre l'etablissement de la republique_ (Paris, +1799), and _Tableau politique des regnes de Charles II et Jacques II, +derniers rois de la maison de Stuart_ (The Hague, 1818)--which contained +much indirect criticism of the Directory and the Restoration +governments. He devoted the last years of his life to writing his +memoirs, which, with the exception of a fragment on the _Theorie +constitutionnelle de Sieyes_ (1836), remained unpublished. + +His elder son, Comte HENRI GEORGES BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE (1797-1858), was +a constant Bonapartist, and after the election of Louis Napoleon to the +presidency, was named (January 1849) vice-president of the republic. He +zealously promoted popular education, and became in 1842 president of +the society for elementary instruction. + + + + +BOULDER, a city and the county-seat of Boulder county, Colorado, U.S.A., +about 30 m. N.W. of Denver. Pop. (1890) 3330; (1900) 6150 (693 +foreign-born); (1910) 9539. It is served by the Union Pacific, the +Colorado & Southern, and the Denver, Boulder & Western railways; the +last connects with the neighbouring mining camps, and affords fine views +of mountain scenery. Boulder lies about 5300 ft. above the sea on Middle +Boulder Creek, a branch of the St Vrain river about 30 m. from its +confluence with the Platte, and has a beautiful situation in the valley +at the foot of the mountains. The state university of Colorado, +established at Boulder by an act of 1861, was opened in 1877; it +includes a college of liberal arts, school of medicine (1883), school of +law (1892), college of engineering (1893), graduate school, college of +commerce (1906), college of education (1908), and a summer school +(1904), and has a library of about 42,000 volumes. There are a fine park +of 2840 acres, the property of the city, and three beautiful canons near +Boulder. At the southern limits, in a beautiful situation 400 ft. above +the city, are the grounds of an annual summer school, the Colorado +Chautauqua. The climate is beneficial for those afflicted with bronchial +and pulmonary troubles; the average mean annual temperature for eleven +years ending with 1907 was 51 deg. F. There are medicinal springs in the +vicinity. The water-works are owned and operated by the city, the water +being obtained from lakes at the foot of the Arapahoe Peak glacier in +the Snowy Range, 20 m. from the city. The surrounding country is +irrigated, and successfully combines agriculture and mining. There are +ore sampling works and brick-making establishments. Oil and natural gas +abound in the vicinity; there are oil refineries in the city; and in +Boulder county, especially at Nederland, 18 m. south-west, and at +Eldora, about 22 m. south-west of the city, has been obtained since 1900 +most of the tungsten mined in the United States; the output in 1907 was +valued at about $520,000. The first settlement near the site of Boulder +was made in the autumn of 1858. Placer gold was discovered on an +affluent of Boulder Creek in January 1859. The town was laid out and +organized in February 1859, and a city charter was secured in 1871 and +another in 1882. + + + + +BOULDER (short for "boulder-stone," of uncertain origin; cf. Swed. +_bullersten_, a large stone which causes a noise of rippling water in a +stream, from _bullra_, to make a loud noise), a large stone, weathered +or water-worn; especially a geological term for a large mass of rock +transported to a distance from the formation to which it belongs. +Similarly, in mining, a mass of ore found at a distance from the lode. + + + + +BOULDER CLAY, in geology, a deposit of clay, often full of boulders, +which is formed in and beneath glaciers and ice-sheets wherever they are +found, but is in a special sense the typical deposit of the Glacial +Period in northern Europe and America. Boulder clay is variously known +as "till" or "ground moraine" (Ger. _Blocklehme_, _Geschiebsmergel_ or +_Grundmorane_; Fr. _argile a blocaux_, _moraine profonde_; Swed. +_Krosstenslera_). It is usually a stiff, tough clay devoid of +stratification; though some varieties are distinctly laminated. +Occasionally, within the boulder clay, there are irregular lenticular +masses of more or less stratified sand, gravel or loam. As the boulder +clay is the result of the abrasion (direct or indirect) of the older +rocks over which the ice has travelled, it takes its colour from them; +thus, in Britain, over Triassic and Old Red Sandstone areas the clay is +red, over Carboniferous rocks it is often black, over Silurian rock it +may be buff or grey, and where the ice has passed over chalk the clay +may be quite white and chalky (chalky boulder clay). Much boulder clay +is of a bluish-grey colour where unexposed, but it becomes brown upon +being weathered. + +The boulders are held within the clay in an irregular manner, and they +vary in size from mere pellets up to masses many tons in weight. Usually +they are somewhat oblong, and often they possess a flat side or "sole"; +they may be angular, sub-angular, or well rounded, and, if they are hard +rocks, they frequently bear grooves and scratches caused by contact with +other rocks while held firmly in the moving ice. Like the clay in which +they are borne, the boulders belong to districts over which the ice has +travelled; in some regions they are mainly limestones or sandstones; in +others they are granite, basalts, gneisses, &c.; indeed, they may +consist of any hard rock. By the nature of the contained boulders it is +often possible to trace the path along which a vanished ice-sheet moved; +thus in the Glacial drift of the east coast of England many Scandinavian +rocks can be recognized. + +With the exception of foraminifera which have been found in the boulder +clay of widely separated regions, fossils are practically unknown; but +in some maritime districts marine shells have been incorporated with the +clay. See GLACIAL PERIOD; and GLACIER. + + + + +BOULE (Gr. [Greek: boulae], literally "will," "advice"; hence a +"council"), the general term in ancient Greece for an advisory council. +In the loose Homeric state, as in all primitive societies, there was a +council of this kind, probably composed of the heads of families, i.e. +of the leading princes or nobles, who met usually on the summons of the +king for the purpose of consultation. Sometimes, however, it met on its +own initiative, and laid suggestions before the king. It formed a means +of communication between the king and the freemen assembled in the +Agora. In Dorian states this aristocratic form of government was +retained (for the Spartan Council of Elders see GEROUSIA). In Athens the +ancient council was called the Boule until the institution of a +democratic council, or committee of the Ecclesia, when, for purposes of +distinction, it was described as "the Boule on the Areopagus," or, more +shortly, "the Areopagus" (q.v.). It must be clearly understood that the +second, or Solonian Boule, was entirely different from the Areopagus +which represented the Homeric Council of the King throughout Athenian +history, even after the "mutilation" carried out by Ephialtes. Further, +it is, as will appear below, a profound mistake to call the second Boule +a "senate." There is no real analogy between the Roman senate and the +Athenian council of Five Hundred. + +Before describing the Athenian Boule, the only one of its kind of which +we have even fairly detailed information, it is necessary to mention +that councils existed in other Greek states also, both oligarchic and +democratic. A Boule was in the first place a necessary part of a Greek +oligarchy; the transition from monarchy to oligarchy was nominally begun +by the gradual transference of the powers of the monarch to the Boule of +nobles. Further, in the Greek democracy, the larger democratic Boule was +equally essential. The general assembly of the people was utterly +unsuited to the proper management of state affairs in all their +minutiae. We therefore find councils of both kinds in almost all the +states of Greece. (1) At Corinth we learn that there was an oligarchic +council of unknown numbers presided over by eight leaders (Nicol. +Damasc. _Frag_. 60). It was probably like the old Homeric council, +except that its constitution did not depend on a birth qualification, +but on a high census. This was natural in Corinth where, according to +Herodotus (ii. 167), mercantile pursuits bore no stigma. (2) From an +inscription we learn that the Athenians, in imposing a constitution on +Erythrae (about 450 B.C.), included a council analogous to their own. +(3) In Elis (Thuc. v. 47) there was an aristocratic council of ninety, +which was superseded by a popular council of six hundred (471). (4) +Similarly in Argos there were an aristocratic council of eighty and +later a popular council of much larger size (Thuc. v. 47). Councils are +also found at (5) Rhodes, (6) Megalopolis (democratic), (7) Corcyra +(democratic), (Thuc. iii. 70). Of these seven the most instructive is +that of Erythrae, which proves that in the 5th century the Council of +Five Hundred was so efficient in Athens that a similar body was imposed +at Erythrae (and probably in the other tributary cities). + +_The Boule at Athens. History._--The origin of the second Boule, or +Council of Four Hundred, at Athens is involved in obscurity. In the +Aristotelian _Constitution of Athens_ (c. 4), it is stated that Draco +established a council of 401, and that he transferred to it some of the +functions of the Council of Areopagus (q.v.). It is, however, generally +held (see DRACO) that this statement is untrue, and that it was Solon +who first established the council as a part of the constitution. +Thirdly, it has been held that the council was not invented either by +Draco or by Solon, but was of older and unknown origin. Fourthly, it has +also been maintained by some recent writers that no Boule existed before +Cleisthenes. The principal evidence for this view is the omission of any +reference to the Boule in one of the earliest Athenian inscriptions, +that relating to Salamis (Hicks and Hill, No. 4), where in place of the +customary formula of a later age, [Greek: hedoxe tae boulae kai to +daemo], we have the formula [Greek: edochsen to daemo]. This argument is +far from conclusive, and it is clear from the _Constitution_ (c. 20) +that the resistance of the Boule to Cleomenes and Isagoras was anterior +to the legislation of Cleisthenes (i.e. that the Boule in question was +the Solonian and not the Cleisthenian). On the whole it is reasonable to +conclude that it was Solon who invented the Boule to act as a +semi-democratic check upon the democracy, whose power he was increasing +at the expense of the oligarchs by giving new powers to the people in +the Ecclesia and the Dicasteries. Practically nothing is known of the +operations of this council until the struggle between Isagoras and +Cleisthenes (Herod, v. 72). Solon's council had been based on the four +Ionic tribes. When Cleisthenes created the new ten tribes in order to +destroy the local influence of dominant families and to give the country +demes a share in government, he changed the Solonian council into a body +of 500 members, 50 from each tribe. This new body (see below) was the +keystone of the Cleisthenean democracy, and may be said in a sense to +have embodied the principle of local representation. After Cleisthenes, +the council remained unaltered till 306 B.C., when, on the addition of +two new tribes named after Antigonus and his son, Demetrius Poliorcetes, +its numbers were increased to 600. In A.D. 126-127 the old number of 500 +was restored. A council of 750 members is mentioned in an inscription of +the early 3rd century A.D., and about A.D. 400 the number of councillors +had fallen to 300. + + + Solon's council. + + Cleisthenes' council. + +_Constitution and Functions._--(a) Under Solon the council consisted of +400 members, 100 from each of the four Ionic tribes. It is certain that +all classes were eligible except the Thetes, but the method of +appointment is not known. Three suggestions have been made, (1) that +each tribe chose its representatives, (2) that they were chosen by lot +from qualified citizens in rotation, (3) that the combined method of +selection by lot from a larger number of elected candidates was +employed. According to the passage in Plutarch's _Solon_ the functions +of this body were from the first _probouleutic_ (i.e. it prepared the +business for the Ecclesia). Others hold that this function was not +assigned to it until the Cleisthenean reforms. When we consider, +however, the double danger of leaving the Ecclesia in full power, and +yet under the presidency of the aristocratic archons, it seems probable +that the probouleutic functions were devised by Solon as a method of +maintaining the balance. On this hypothesis the Solonian Boule was from +the first what it certainly was later, a _committee_ of the Ecclesia, +i.e. not a "senate." It may be regarded as certain that the system of +Prytaneis was the invention of Cleisthenes, not of Solon. (b) Under +Cleisthenes the council reached its full development as a democratic +representative body. Its actual organization is still uncertain, but it +may be inferred that it became gradually a more strictly self-existent +body than the Solonian council. Every full citizen of thirty years of +age was eligible, and, unlike other civil offices, it was permissible to +serve twice, but not more than twice (_Ath. Pol._ c. 62). It may be +regarded as certain, although our evidence is derived from inscriptions +which date from the 3rd century B.C., that from the first the Bouleutae +were appointed by the demes, in numbers proportionate to the size of the +deme, and that from the first also the method of sortition was employed. +For each councillor chosen by lot, a substitute was chosen in case of +death or disgrace. After nomination each had to pass before the old +council an examination in which the whole of his private life was +scrutinized. After this, the councillors had to take an oath that they +(1) would act according to the laws, (2) would give the best advice in +their power, and (3) would carry out the examination of their successors +in an impartial spirit. As symbols of office they wore wreaths; they +received payment originally at the rate of one drachma a day,[1] at the +end of the 4th century of five obols a day. At the end of the year of +office each councillor had to render an account of his work, and if the +council had done well the people voted crowns of honour. Within its own +sphere the council exercised disciplinary control over its members by +the device known as _Ecphyllophoria_; it could provisionally suspend a +member, pending a formal trial before the whole council assembled _ad +hoc_. The council had further a complete system of scribes or +secretaries (_grammateis_), private treasury officials, and a paid +herald who summoned the Boule and the Ecclesia. The meetings took place +generally in the council hall (_Bouleuterion_), but on special occasions +in the theatre, the stadium, the dockyards, the Acropolis or the +Theseum. They were normally public, the audience being separated by a +barrier, but on occasions of peculiar importance the public was +excluded. + + + Prytaneis. + +The Ecclesia, owing to its size and constitution, was unable to meet +more than three or four times a month; the council, on the other hand, +was in continuous session, except on feast days. It was impossible that +the Five Hundred should all sit every day, and, therefore, to facilitate +the despatch of business, the system of Prytaneis was introduced, +probably by Cleisthenes. By this system the year was divided into ten +equal periods. During each of these periods the council was represented +by the fifty councillors of one of the ten tribes, who acted as a +committee for carrying on business for a tenth of the year. Each of +these committees was led by a president (_Epistates_), who acted as +chairman of the Boule and the Ecclesia also, and a third of its numbers +lived permanently during their period of office in the Tholos (Dome) or +Skias, a round building where they (with certain other officials and +honoured citizens) dined at the public expense. In 378-377 B.C. (or +perhaps in the archonship of Eucleides, 403) the presidency of the +Ecclesia was transferred to the _Epistates of the Proedri_, the +_Proedri_ being a body of nine chosen by lot by the Epistates of the +Prytaneis from the remaining nine tribes. It was the duty of the Boule +(i.e. the Prytany which was for the time in session) to prepare all +business for the consideration of the Ecclesia. Their recommendation +([Greek: probouleuma]) was presented to the popular assembly (for +procedure, see ECCLESIA), which either passed it as it stood or made +amendments subject to certain conditions. It must be clearly understood +that the recommendation of the council had no intrinsic force until by +the votes of the Ecclesia it passed into law as a psephism. But in +addition to this function, the Council of the Five Hundred had large +administrative and judicial control. (1) It was before the council that +the Poletae arranged the farming of public revenues, the receipt of +tenders for public works and the sale of confiscated property; further, +it dealt with defaulting collectors ([Greek: eklogeis]), exacted the +debts of private persons to the state, and probably drew up annual +estimates. (2) It supervised the treasury payments of the Apodectae +("Receivers") and the "Treasurers of the God." (3) From Demosthenes (_In +Androt_.) it is clear that it had to arrange for the provision of so +many triremes per annum and the award of the trierarchic crown. (4) It +arranged for the maintenance of the cavalry and the special levies from +the demes. (5) It heard certain cases of _eisangelia_ (impeachment) and +had the right to fine up to 500 drachmas, or hand the case over to the +Heliaea. The cases which it tried were mainly prosecutions for crimes +against the state (e.g. treason, conspiracy, bribery). In later times it +acted mainly as a court of first instance. Subsequently (_Ath. Pol._ c. +45) its powers were limited and an appeal was allowed to the popular +courts. (6) The council presided over the _dokimasia_ (consideration of +fitness) of the magistrates; this examination, which was originally +concerned with a candidate's moral and physical fitness, degenerated +into a mere inquiry into his politics. (7) In foreign affairs the +council as the only body in permanent session naturally received foreign +envoys and introduced them to the Ecclesia. Further, the Boule, with +the Strategi ("Generals"), took treaty oaths, after the Ecclesia had +decided on the terms. The Xenophontic _Politeia_ states that the council +of the 5th century was "concerned with war," but in the 4th century it +chiefly supervised the docks and the fleet. On two occasions at least +the council was specially endowed with full powers; Demosthenes (_De +Fals. Leg._ p. 389) states that the people gave it full powers to send +ambassadors to Philip, and Andocides (_De Myst._ 14 foil.) states that +it had full power to investigate the affair of the mutilation of the +Hermae on the night before the sailing of the Sicilian Expedition. + +It will be seen that this democratic council was absolutely essential to +the working of the Athenian state. Without having any final legislative +authority, it was a necessary part of the legislative machinery, and it +may be regarded as certain that a large proportion of its +recommendations were passed without alteration or even discussion by the +Ecclesia. The Boule; was, therefore, in the strict sense a committee of +the Ecclesia, and was immediately connected with a system of +sub-committees which exercised executive functions. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--With this article compare ECCLESIA, STRATEGUS, ARCHON, + DRACO, SOLON, CLEISTHENES, where collateral information is given. + Besides the chief histories of Greece (Grote, ed. 1907, Meyer &c.), + see Gilbert, _Constitutional Antiquities_ (Eng. trans. by E.J. Brooks + and T. Nicklin, 1895); J.B. Bury, _History of Greece_ (1900); A.H.J. + Greenidge _Handbook of Greek Constitutional History_ (1896); J.E. + Sandys' edition of the _Constitution of Athens_; Boeckh, _Die + Staatshaushaltung der Athener_ (1886); Schumann, _Griechische + Altertumer_ (1897-1902); Busolt, _Die griechischen Staats- und + Rechtsaltertumer_ (1902). See also H. Swoboda, _Die griechischen + Volksbeschlusse_ (1890); Szanto, _Das griechische Burgerrecht_ (1892); + Perrot, _Essai sur le droit public d'Athenes_ (1869). It should be + observed that all works published before 1891 are so far useless that + they are without the information contained in the _Constitution of + Athens_ (q.v.). See also GREEK LAW. (J. M. M.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The institution of pay for the councillors may safely be ascribed + to Pericles although we have no direct evidence of it before 411 B.C. + (Thuc. viii. 69; see PERICLES). + + + + +BOULEVARD (a Fr. word, earlier _boulevart_, from Dutch or Ger. +_Bollwerk_, cf. Eng. "bulwark"), originally, in fortification, an +earthwork with a broad platform for artillery. It came into use owing to +the width of the gangways in medieval walls being insufficient for the +mounting of artillery thereon. The boulevard or bulwark was usually an +earthen outwork mounting artillery, and so placed in advance as to +prevent the guns of a besieger from battering the foot of the main +walls. It was as a rule circular. Semicircular _demi-boulevards_ were +often constructed round the bases of the old masonry towers with the +same object. In modern times the word is most frequently used to denote +a promenade laid out on the site of a former fortification, and, by +analogy, a broad avenue in a town planted with rows of trees. + + + + +BOULLE, ANDRE CHARLES (1642-1732), French cabinet-maker, who gave his +name to a fashion of inlaying known as Boulle or Buhl work. The son of +Jean Boulle, a member of a family of _ebenistes_ who had already +achieved distinction--Pierre Boulle, who died c. 1636, was for many +years _tourneur et menuisier du roy des cabinets d'ebene_,--he became +the most famous of his name and was, indeed, the second +cabinet-maker--the first was Jean Mace--who has acquired individual +renown. That must have begun at a comparatively early age, for at thirty +he had already been granted one of those lodgings in the galleries of +the Louvre which had been set apart by Henry IV. for the use of the +most talented of the artists employed by the crown. To be admitted to +these galleries was not only to receive a signal mark of royal favour, +but to enjoy the important privilege of freedom from the trammels of the +trade gilds. Boulle was given the deceased Jean Mace's own lodging in +1672 by Louis XIV. upon the recommendation, of Colbert, who described +him as "_le plus habile ebeniste de Paris_," but in the patent +conferring this privilege he is described also as "chaser, gilder and +maker of marqueterie." Boulle appears to have been originally a painter, +since the first payment to him by the crown of which there is any record +(1669) specifies "ouvrages de peinture." He was employed for many years +at Versailles, where the mirrored walls, the floors of "wood mosaic," +the inlaid panelling and the pieces in marqueterie in the Cabinet du +Dauphin were regarded as his most remarkable work. These rooms were long +since dismantled and their contents dispersed, but Boulle's drawings for +the work are in the Musee des Arts Decoratifs. His royal commissions +were, indeed, innumerable, as we learn both from the _Comptes des +batiments_ and from the correspondence of Louvois. Not only the most +magnificent of French monarchs, but foreign princes and the great nobles +and financiers of his own country crowded him with commissions, and the +_mot_ of the abbe de Marolles, "_Boulle y tourne en ovale_," has become +a stock quotation in the literature of French cabinet-making. Yet +despite his distinction, the facility with which he worked, the high +prices he obtained, and his workshops full of clever craftsmen, Boulle +appears to have been constantly short of money. He did not always pay +his workmen, clients who had made considerable advances failed to obtain +the fine things they had ordered, more than one application was made for +permission to arrest him for debt under orders of the courts within the +asylum of the Louvre, and in 1704 we find the king giving him six +months' protection from his creditors on condition that he used the time +to regulate his affairs or "ce scra la derniere grace que sa majeste lui +fera la-dessus." Twenty years later one of his sons was arrested at +Fontainebleau and kept in prison for debt until the king had him +released. In 1720 his finances were still further embarrassed by a fire +which, beginning in another atelier, extended to his twenty workshops +and destroyed most of the seasoned materials, appliances, models and +finished work of which they were full. The salvage was sold and a +petition for pecuniary help was sent to the regent, the result of which +does not appear. It would seem that Boulle was never a good man of +business, but, according to his friend Mariette, many of his pecuniary +difficulties were caused by his passion for collecting pictures, +engravings and other objects of art--the inventory of his losses in the +fire, which exceeded L40,000 in amount, enumerates many old masters, +including forty-eight drawings by Raphael and the manuscript journal +kept by Rubens in Italy. He attended every sale of drawings and +engravings, borrowed at high interest to pay for his purchases, and when +the next sale took place, fresh expedients were devised for obtaining +more money. Collecting was to Boulle a mania of which, says his friend, +it was impossible to cure him. Thus he died in 1732, full of fame, years +and debts. He left four sons who followed in his footsteps in more +senses than one--Jean Philippe (born before 1690, dead before 1745), +Pierre Benoit (d. 1741), Charles Andre (1685-1749) and Charles Joseph +(1688-1754). Their affairs were embarrassed throughout their lives, and +the three last are known to have died in debt. + +All greatness is the product of its opportunities, and the elder Boulle +was made by the happy circumstances of his time. He was born into a +France which was just entering upon the most brilliant period of +sumptuary magnificence which any nation has known in modern times. Louis +XIV., so avid of the delights of the eye, by the reckless extravagance +of his example turned the thoughts of his courtiers to domestic +splendours which had hitherto been rare. The spacious palaces which +arose in his time needed rich embellishment, and Boulle, who had not +only inherited the rather flamboyant Italian traditions of the late +Renaissance, but had _ebenisterie_ in his blood, arose, as some such man +invariably does arise, to gratify tastes in which personal pride and +love of art were not unequally intermingled. He was by no means the +first Frenchman to practise the delightful art of marqueterie, nor was +he quite the inventor of the peculiar type of inlay which is chiefly +associated with his name; but no artist, before or since, has used these +motives with such astonishing skill, courage and surety. He produced +pieces of monumental solidity blazing with harmonious colour, or +gleaming with the sober and dignified reticence of ebony, ivory and +white metal. The Renaissance artists chiefly employed wood in making +furniture, ornamenting it with gilding and painting, and inlaying it +with agate, cornelian, lapis-lazuli, marble of various tints, ivory, +tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl and various woods. Boulle improved upon +this by inlaying brass devices into wood or tortoise-shell, which last +he greatly used according to the design he had immediately in view, +whether flowers, scenes, scrolls, &c.; to these he sometimes added +enamelled metal. Indeed the use of tortoise-shell became so +characteristic that any furniture, however cheap and common, which has a +reddish _fond_ that might by the ignorant be mistaken for inlay, is now +described as "Buhl"--the name is the invention of the British auctioneer +and furniture-maker. In this process the brass is thin, and, like the +ornamental wood or tortoise-shell, forms a veneer. In the first instance +the production of his work was costly, owing to the quantity of valuable +material that was cut away and wasted, and, in addition, the labour lost +in separately cutting for each article or copy of a pattern. By a +subsequent improvement Boulle effected an economy by gluing together +various sheets of material and sawing through the whole, so that an +equal number of figures and matrices were produced at one operation. +Boulle adopted from time to time various plans for the improvement of +his designs. He placed gold-leaf or other suitable material under the +tortoise-shell to produce such effect as he required; he chased the +brass-work with a graver for a like purpose, and, when the metal +required to be fastened down with brass pins or nails, these were +hammered flat and disguised by ornamental chasing. He also adopted, in +relief or in the round, brass feet, brackets, edgings, and other +ornaments of appropriate design, partly to protect the corners and edges +of his work, and partly for decoration. He subsequently used other brass +mountings, such as claw-feet to pedestals, or figures in high or low +relief, according to the effect he desired to produce. These mounts in +the pieces that undoubtedly come from Boulle's _atelier_ are nearly +always of the greatest excellence. They were cast in the rough--the +tools of the chaser gave them their sharpness, their minute finish, +their jewel-like smoothness. + +Unhappily it is by no means easy, even for the expert, to declare the +authenticity of a commode, a bureau, or a table in the manner of Boulle +and to all appearance from his workshops. His sons unquestionably +carried on the traditions for some years after his death, and his +imitators were many and capable. A few of the more magnificent +pedigree-pieces are among the world's mobiliary treasures. There are, +for instance, the two famous _armoires_, which fetched L12,075 at the +Hamilton Palace sale; the marqueterie commodes, enriched with bronze +mounts, in the Bibliotheque Mazarine; various cabinets and commodes and +tables in the Louvre, the Musee Cluny and the Mobilier National; the +marriage coffers of the dauphin which were in the San Donato collection. +There are several fine authenticated pieces in the Wallace collection at +Hertford House, together with others consummately imitated, probably in +the Louis Seize period. On the rare occasions when a pedigree example +comes into the auction-room, it invariably commands a high price; but +there can be little doubt that the most splendid and sumptuous specimens +of Boulle are diminishing in number, while the second and third classes +of his work are perhaps becoming more numerous. The truth is that this +wonderful work, with its engraved or inlaid designs of Berain, its +myriads of tiny pieces of ivory and copper, ebony and tortoise-shell, +all kept together with glue and tiny chased nails, and applied very +often to a rather soft, white wood, is not meet to withstand the ravages +of time and the variations of the atmosphere. Alternate heat and +humidity are even greater enemies of inlaid furniture than time and +wear--such delicate things are rarely much used, and are protected from +ordinary chances of deterioration. There is consequently reason to +rejoice when a piece of real artistry in furniture finds its final home +in a museum, where a degree of warmth is maintained which, however +distressing it may be to the visitor, at least preserves the contents +from one of the worst enemies of the collector. (J. P.-B.) + + + + +BOULOGNE, or BOULLONGNE, the name of a family of French painters. Louis +(1609-1674), who was one of the original members of the Academy of +Painting and Sculpture (1648), became celebrated under Louis XIV. His +traditions were continued by his children: GENEVIEVE (1645-1708), who +married the sculptor Jacques Clerion; MADELEINE (1646-1710), whose work +survives in the _Trophies d'armes_ at Versailles; BON (1649-1717), a +successful teacher and decorative artist; and LOUIS the younger +(1654-1733), who copied Raphael's cartoons for the Gobelins tapestry, +and besides taking a high place as a painter was also a designer of +medals. + + + + +BOULOGNE-SUR-MER, a fortified seaport of northern France and chief town +of an arrondissement in Pas-de-Calais, situated on the shore of the +English Channel at the mouth of the river Liane, 157 m. N.N.W. of Paris +on the Northern railway, and 28 m. by sea S.E. of Folkestone, Kent. Pop. +(1906) 49,636. Boulogne occupies the summit and slopes of a ridge of +hills skirting the right bank of the Liane; the industrial quarter of +Capecure extends along the opposite bank, and is reached by two bridges, +while the river is also crossed by a double railway viaduct. The town +consists of two parts, the Haute Ville and the Basse Ville. The former, +situated on the top of the hill, is of comparatively small extent, and +forms almost a parallelogram, surrounded by ramparts of the 13th +century, and, outside them, by boulevards, and entered by ancient +gateways. In this part are the law court, the chateau and the hotel de +ville (built in the 18th century), and a belfry tower of the 13th and +17th centuries is in the immediate neighbourhood. In the chateau (13th +century) now used as barracks, the emperor Napoleon III was confined +after the abortive insurrection of 1840. At some distance north-west +stands the church of Notre-Dame, a well-known place of pilgrimage, +erected (1827-1866) on the site of an old building destroyed in the +Revolution, of which the extensive crypt still remains. The modern town +stretches from the foot of the hill to the harbour, along which it +extends, terminating in an expanse of sandy beach frequented by bathers, +and provided with a bathing establishment and casino. It contains +several good streets, some of which are, however, very steep. A main +street, named successively rue de la Lampe, St Nicolas and Grande rue, +extends from the bridge across the Liane to the promenade by the side of +the ramparts. This is intersected first by the Quai Gambetta, and +farther back by the rue Victor Hugo and the rue Nationale, which contain +the principal shops. The public buildings include several modern +churches, two hospitals and a museum with collections of antiquities, +natural history, porcelain, &c. Connected with the museum is a public +library with 75,000 volumes and a number of valuable manuscripts, many +of them richly illuminated. There are English churches in the town, and +numerous boarding-schools intended for English pupils. Boulogne is the +seat of a sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of +commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a +branch of the Bank of France. There are also communal colleges, a +national school of music, and schools of hydrography, commerce and +industry. Boulogne has for a long time been one of the most anglicized +of French cities; and in the tourist season a continuous stream of +English travellers reach the continent at this point. + +The harbour is formed by the mouth of the Liane. Two jetties enclose a +channel leading into the river, which forms a tidal basin with a depth +at neap-tides of 24 ft. Alongside this is an extensive dock, and behind +it an inner port. There is also a tidal basin opening off the entrance +channel. The depth of water in the river-harbour is 33 ft. at +spring-tide and 24 ft. at neap-tide; in the sluice of the dock the +numbers are 29-1/2 and 23-1/2 respectively. The commerce of Boulogne +consists chiefly in the importation of jute, wool, woven goods of silk +and wool skins, threads, coal, timber, and iron and steel, and the +exportation of wine, woven goods, table fruit, potatoes and other +vegetables, skins, motor-cars, forage and cement. The average annual +value of the exports in the five years 1901-1905 was L10,953,000 +(L11,704,000 in the years 1896-1900), and of the imports L6,064,000 +(L7,003,000 in the years 1896-1900). From 1901 to 1905 the annual +average of vessels entered, exclusive of fishing-smacks, was 2735, +tonnage 1,747,699; and cleared 2750, tonnage 1,748,297. The total number +of passengers between Folkestone and Boulogne in 1906 was 295,000 or 49% +above the average for the years 1901-1905. These travelled by the +steamers of the South-Eastern & Chatham railway company. The liners of +the Dutch-American, Hamburg-American and other companies also call at +the port. In the extent and value of its fisheries Boulogne is exceeded +by no seaport in France. The most important branch is the +herring-fishery; next in value is the mackerel. Large quantities of +fresh fish are transmitted to Paris by railway, but an abundant supply +is reserved to the town itself. The fishermen live for the most part in +a separate quarter called La Beurriere, situated in the upper part of +the town. In 1905 the fisheries of Boulogne and the neighbouring village +of Etaples employed over 400 boats and 4500 men, the value of the fish +taken being estimated at L1,025,000. Among the numerous industrial +establishments in Boulogne and its environs may be mentioned foundries, +cement-factories, important steel-pen manufactories, oil-works, +dye-works, fish-curing works, flax-mills, saw-mills, and manufactories +of cloth, fireproof ware, chocolate, boots and shoes, and soap. +Shipbuilding is also carried on. + +Among the objects of interest in the neighbourhood the most remarkable +is the Colonne de la Grande Armee, erected on the high ground above the +town, in honour of Napoleon I., on occasion of the projected invasion of +England, for which he here made great preparations. The pillar, which is +of the Doric order, 166 ft. high, is surmounted by a statue of the +emperor by A.S. Bosio. Though begun in 1804, the monument was not +completed till 1841. On the edge of the cliff to the east of the port +are some rude brick remains of an old building called Tour d'Ordre, said +to be the ruins of a tower built by Caligula at the time of his intended +invasion of Britain. + +Boulogne is identified with the _Gessoriacum_ of the Romans, under whom +it was an important harbour. It is suggested that it was the _Portus +Itius_ where Julius Caesar assembled his fleet (see ITIUS PORTUS). At an +early period it began to be known as _Bononia_, a name which has been +gradually modified into the present form. The town was destroyed by the +Normans in 882, but restored about 912. During the Carolingian period +Boulogne was the chief town of a countship that was for long the subject +of dispute between Flanders and Ponthieu. From the year 965 it belonged +to the house of Ponthieu, of which Godfrey of Bouillon, the first king +of Jerusalem, was a scion. Stephen of Blois, who became king of England +in 1135, had married Mahaut, daughter and heiress of Eustace, count of +Boulogne. Their daughter Mary married Matthew of Alsace (d. 1173), and +her daughter Ida (d. 1216) married Renaud of Dammartin. Of this last +marriage was issue Mahaut, countess of Boulogne, wife of Philip Hurepel +(d. 1234), a son of King Philip Augustus. To her succeeded the house of +Brabant, issue of Mahaut of Boulogne, sister of Ida, and wife of Henry +I. of Brabant; and then the house of Auvergne, issue of Alice, daughter +of Henry I. of Brabant, inherited the Boulonnais. It remained in the +possession of descendants of these families until Philip the Good, duke +of Burgundy, seized upon it in 1419. In 147 7 Louis XI. of France +reconquered it, and reunited it to the French crown, giving Lauraguais +as compensation to Bertrand IV. de la Tour, count of Auvergne, heir of +the house of Auvergne. To avoid doing homage to Mary of Burgundy, +suzerain of the Boulonnais and countess of Artois, Louis XI declared the +countship of Boulogne to be held in fee of Our Lady of Boulogne. In 1544 +Henry VIII.--more successful in this than Henry III. had been in +1347--took the town by siege; but it was restored to France in 1550. +From 1566 to the end of the 18th century it was the seat of a +bishopric. + + + + +BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE, a town of northern France, in the department of +Seine, on the right bank of the Seine, S.W. of Paris and immediately +outside the fortifications. Pop. (1906) 49,412. The town has a Gothic +church of the 14th and 15th centuries (restored in 1863) founded in +honour of Notre-Dame of Boulogne-sur-Mer. To this fact is due the name +of the place, which was previously called Menus-les-St Cloud. Laundrying +is extensively carried on as well as the manufacture of metal boxes, +soap, oil and furniture, and there are numerous handsome residences. For +the neighbouring Bois de Boulogne see PARIS. + + + + +BOULTON, MATTHEW (1728-1809), English manufacturer and engineer, was +born on the 3rd of September 1728, at Birmingham, where his father, +Matthew Boulton the elder, was a manufacturer of metal articles of +various kinds. To this business he succeeded on his father's death in +1759, and in consequence of its growth removed his works in 1762 from +Snowhill to what was then a tract of barren heath at Soho, 2 mi. north +of Birmingham. Here he undertook the manufacture of artistic objects in +metal, as well as the reproduction of oil paintings by a mechanical +process in which he was associated with Francis Eginton (1737-1805), who +subsequently achieved a reputation as a worker in stained or enamelled +glass. About 1767, Boulton, who was finding the need of improving the +motive power for his machinery, made the acquaintance of James Watt, who +on his side appreciated the advantages offered by the Soho works for the +development of his steam-engine. In 1772 Watt's partner, Dr John +Roebuck, got into financial difficulties, and Boulton, to whom he owed +L1200, accepted the two-thirds share in Watt's patent held by him in +satisfaction of the debt. Three years later Boulton and Watt formally +entered into partnership, and it was mainly through the energy and +self-sacrifice of the former, who devoted all the capital he possessed +or could borrow to the enterprise, that the steam-engine was at length +made a commercial success. It was also owing to Boulton that in 1775 an +act of parliament was obtained extending the term of Watt's 1769 patent +to 1799. In 1800 the two partners retired from the business, which they +handed over to their sons, Matthew Robinson Boulton and James Watt +junior. In 1788 Boulton turned his attention to coining machinery, and +erected at Soho a complete plant with which he struck coins for the +Sierra Leone and East India companies and for Russia, and in 1797 +produced a new copper coinage for Great Britain. In 1797 he took out a +patent in connexion with raising water on the principle of the hydraulic +ram. He died at Birmingham on the 18th of August 1809. + + + + +BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. _bonde_, Med. Lat. _bodena_ or _butina_, +a frontier line), that which serves to indicate the limit or extent of +land. It is usually defined by a certain mark, such as a post, ditch, +hedge, dyke, wall of stones, &c., though on the other hand it may have +to be ascertained by reference to a plan or by measurement. In law, the +exact boundary of land is always a matter of evidence; where no evidence +is available, the court acts on presumption. For example, the boundary +of land on opposite sides of a road, whether public or private, is +presumed to be the middle line of the road. Where two fields are +separated by a hedge and ditch the boundary line will run between the +hedge and the ditch. Boundaries of parishes, at common law, depended +upon ancient and immemorial custom, and in many parishes great care was +taken to perpetuate the boundaries of the parish by perambulations from +time to time. The confusion of local boundaries in England was the +subject of several commissions and committees in the 19th century, and +much information will be found in their reports (1868, 1870, 1873, +1888). The Local Government Act 1888, ss. 50-63, contains provisions for +the alteration of local areas. + + + + +BOUNDS, BEATING THE, an ancient custom still observed in many English +parishes. In former times when maps were rare it was usual to make a +formal perambulation of the parish boundaries on Ascension day or during +Rogation week. The latter is in the north of England still called "Gang +Week" or "Ganging Days" from this "ganging" or procession. The priest +of the parish with the churchwardens and the parochial officials headed +a crowd of boys who, armed with green boughs, beat with them the parish +border-stones. Sometimes the boys were themselves whipped or even +violently bumped on the boundary-stones to make them remember. The +object of taking boys was obviously to ensure that witnesses to the +boundaries should survive as long as possible. In England the custom is +as old as Anglo-Saxon days, as it is mentioned in laws of Alfred and +Aethelstan. It is thought that it may have been derived from the Roman +Terminalia, a festival celebrated on the 22nd of February in honour of +Terminus, the god of landmarks, to whom cakes and wine were offered, +sports and dancing taking place at the boundaries. In England a +parish-ale or feast was always held after the perambulation, which +assured its popularity, and in Henry VIII.'s reign the occasion had +become an excuse for so much revelry that it attracted the condemnation +of a preacher who declared "these solemne and accustomable processions +and supplications be nowe growen into a right foule and detestable +abuse." Beating the bounds had a religious side in the practice which +originated the term Rogation, the accompanying clergy being supposed to +beseech (_rogare_) the divine blessing upon the parish lands for the +ensuing harvest. This feature originated in the 5th century, when +Mamercus, bishop of Vienne, instituted special prayers and fasting and +processions on these days. This clerical side of the parish +bounds-beating was one of the religious functions prohibited by the +Injunctions of Queen Elizabeth; but it was then ordered that the +perambulation should continue to be performed as a quasi-secular +function, so that evidence of the boundaries of parishes, &c. might be +preserved (Gibson, _Codex juris Ecclesiastici Anglicani_ (1761) pp. +213-214). Bequests were sometimes made in connexion with bounds-beating. +Thus at Leighton Buzzard on Rogation Monday, in accordance with the will +of one Edward Wilkes, a London merchant who died in 1646, the trustees +of his almshouses accompanied the boys. The will was read and beer and +plum rolls distributed. A remarkable feature of the bequest was that +while the will is read one of the boys has to stand on his head. + + + + +BOUNTY (through O. Fr. _bontet_, from Lat. _bonitas_, goodness), a gift +or gratuity; more usually, a premium paid by a government to encourage +some branch of production or industry, as in England in the case of the +bounty on corn, first granted in 1688 and abolished in 1814, the +herring-fishery bounties, the bounties on sail-cloth, linen and other +goods. It is admitted that the giving of bounties is generally +impolitic, though they may sometimes be justified as a measure of state. +The most striking modern example of a bounty was that on sugar (q.v.). +Somewhat akin to bounties are the subsidies granted to shipping (q.v.) +by many countries. Bounties or, as they may equally well be termed, +grants are often given, more especially in new countries, for the +destruction of beasts of prey; in the United States and some other +countries, bounties have been given for tree-planting; France has given +bounties to encourage the Newfoundland fisheries. + +Bounty was also the name given to the money paid to induce men to enlist +in the army or navy, and, in the United Kingdom, to the sum given on +entering the militia reserve. During the American Civil War, many +recruits joined solely for the sake of the bounty offered, and +afterwards deserted; they were called "bounty-jumpers." The term bounty +was also applied in the English navy to signify money payable to the +officers and crew of a ship in respect of services on particular +occasions. + +Queen Anne's Bounty (q.v.) is a fund applied for the augmentation of +poor livings in the established church. + +King's Bounty is a grant made by the sovereign of his royal bounty to +those of his subjects whose wives are delivered of three or more +children at a birth. + + + + +BOURBAKI, CHARLES DENIS SAUTER (1816-1897), French general, was born at +Pau on the 22nd of April 1816, the son of a Greek colonel who died in +the War of Independence in 1827. He entered St Cyr, and in 1836 joined +the Zouaves, becoming lieutenant of the Foreign Legion in 1838, and +aide-de-camp to King Louis Philippe. It was in the African expedition +that he first came to the front. In 1842 he was captain in the Zouaves; +1847, colonel of the Turcos; in 1850, lieutenant-colonel of the 1st +Zouaves; 1851, colonel; 1854, brigadier-general. In the Crimean War he +commanded a portion of the Algerian troops; and at the Alma, Inkerman +and Sevastopol Bourbaki's name became famous. In 1857 he was made +general of division, commanding in 1859 at Lyons. His success in the war +with Italy was only second to that of MacMahon, and in 1862 he was +proposed as a candidate for the vacant Greek throne, but declined the +proffered honour. In 1870 the emperor entrusted him with the command of +the Imperial Guard, and he played an important part in the fighting +round Metz. + +A curious incident of the siege of Metz is connected with Bourbaki's +name. A man who called himself Regnier,[1] about the 21st of September, +appeared at Hastings, to seek an interview with the refugee empress +Eugenie, and failing to obtain this he managed to get from the young +prince imperial a signed photograph with a message to the emperor +Napoleon. This he used, by means of a safe-conduct from Bismarck, as +credentials to Marshal Bazaine, to whom he presented himself at Metz, +telling him on the empress's alleged authority that peace was about to +be signed and that either Marshal Canrobert or General Bourbaki was to +go to Hastings for the purpose. Bourbaki at once went to England, with +Prussian connivance, as though he had a recognized mission, only to +discover from the empress at Hastings that a trick had been played on +him; and as soon as he could manage he returned to France. He offered +his services to Gambetta and received the command of the Northern Army, +but was recalled on the 19th of November and transferred to the Army of +the Loire. In command of the hastily-trained and ill-equipped Army of +the East, Bourbaki made the attempt to raise the siege of Belfort, +which, after the victory of Villersexel, ended in the repulse of the +French in the three days' battle of the Lisaine. Other German forces +under Manteuffel now closed upon Bourbaki, and he was eventually driven +over the Swiss frontier with the remnant of his forces (see +FRANCO-GERMAN WAR). His troops were in the most desperate condition, +owing to lack of food; and out of 150,000 men under him when he started, +only 84,000 escaped from the Germans into Swiss territory. Bourbaki +himself, rather than submit to the humiliation of a probable surrender, +on the 26th of January 1871 delegated his functions to General +Clinchant, and in the night fired a pistol at his own head, but the +bullet, owing to a deviation of the weapon, was flattened against his +skull and his life was saved. General Clinchant carried Bourbaki into +Switzerland, and he recovered sufficiently to return to France. In July +1871 he again took the command at Lyons, and subsequently became +military governor. In 1881, owing to his political opinions, he was +placed on the retired list. In 1885 he was an unsuccessful candidate for +the senate. He died on the 27th of September 1897. A patriotic Frenchman +and a brilliant soldier and leader, Bourbaki, like some other French +generals of the Second Empire whose training had been obtained in +Africa, was found wanting in the higher elements of command when the +European conditions of 1870 were concerned. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The whole Regnier affair remained a mystery; the man himself--who + on following Bourbaki to England made the impression on Lord + Granville (see the _Life of Lord Granville_, by Lord Fitzmaurice, ii. + 61) of being a "swindler" but honestly wishing to serve the + empress--was afterwards mixed up in the Humbert frauds of 1902-1903; + he published his own version of the affair in 1870 in a pamphlet, + _Quel est votre nom?_ It has been suspected that on the part either + of Bazaine or of the German authorities some undisclosed intrigue was + on foot. + + + + +BOURBON. The noble family of Bourbon, from which so many European kings +have sprung, took its name from Bourbon l'Archambault, chief town of a +lordship which in the 10th century was one of the largest baronies of +the kingdom of France. The limits of the lordship, which was called the +Bourbonnais, were approximately those of the modern department of +Allier, being on the N. the Nivernais and Berry, on the E. Burgundy and +Lyonnais, on the S. Auvergne and Marche and on the W. Berry. The first +of the long line of Bourbons known in history was Adhemar or Aimar, who +was invested with the barony towards the close of the 9th century. +Matilda, heiress of the first house of Bourbon, brought this lordship to +the family of Dampierre by her marriage, in 1196, with Guy of Dampierre, +marshal of Champagne (d. 1215). In 1272 Beatrix, daughter of Agnes of +Bourbon-Dampierre, and her husband John of Burgundy, married Robert, +count of Clermont, sixth son of Louis IX. (St Louis) of France. The +elder branches of the family had become extinct, and their son Louis +became duke of Bourbon in 1327. In 1488 the line of his descendants +ended with Jean II., who died in that year. The whole estates passed to +Jean's brother Pierre, lord of Beaujeu, who was married to Anne, +daughter of Louis XI. Pierre died in 1503, leaving only a daughter, +Suzanne, who, in 1505, married Charles de Montpensier, heir of the +Montpensier branch of the Bourbon family. Charles, afterwards constable +of France, who took the title of duke of Bourbon on his marriage, was +born in 1489, and at an early age was looked upon as one of the finest +soldiers and gentlemen in France. With the constable ended the direct +line from Pierre I., duke of Bourbon (d. 1356). But the fourth in +descent from Pierre's brother, Jacques, count of La Marche, Louis, count +of Vendome and Chartres (d. 1446), became the ancestor of the royal +house of Bourbon and of the noble families of Conde, Conti and +Montpensier. The fourth in direct descent from Louis of Vendome was +Antoine de Bourbon, who in 1548 married Jeanne d'Albret, heiress of +Navarre, and became king of Navarre in 1554. Their son became king of +France as Henry IV. Henry was succeeded by his son, Louis XIII., who +left two sons, Louis XIV., and Philip, duke of Orleans, head of the +Orleans branch. Louis XIV.'s son, the dauphin, died before his father, +and left three sons, one of whom died without issue. Of the others the +elder, Louis of Burgundy, died in 1712, and his only surviving son +became Louis XV. The younger, Philip, duke of Anjou, became king of +Spain, and founded the Spanish branch of the Bourbon family. Louis XV. +was succeeded by his grandson, Louis XVI., who perished on the scaffold. +At the restoration the throne of France was occupied by Louis XVIII., +brother of Louis XVI., who in turn was succeeded by his brother Charles +X. The second son of Charles X., the duc de Berry, left a son, Henri +Charles Ferdinand Marie Dieudonne d'Artois, duc de Bordeaux, and comte +de Chambord (q.v.). From Louis XIV.'s brother, Philip, descended another +claimant of the throne. Philip's son was the regent Orleans, whose +great-grandson, "Philippe Egalite," perished on the scaffold in 1793. +Egalite's son, Louis Philippe, was king of the French from 1830 to 1848; +his grandson, Louis Philippe, comte de Paris (1838-1894), inherited on +the death of the comte de Chambord the rights of that prince to the +throne of France, and was called by the royalists Philip VII. He had a +son, Louis Philippe Robert, duc d'Orleans, called by his adherents +Philip VIII. + +_Spanish Branch._--Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV., became +king of Spain as Philip V., in 1700. He was succeeded in 1746 by his son +Ferdinand VI., who died in 1759 without family, and was followed by his +brother Charles III. Charles III.'s eldest son became Charles IV. of +Spain in 1788, while his second son, Ferdinand, was made king of Naples +in 1759. Charles IV. was deposed by Napoleon, but in 1814 his son, +Ferdinand VII., again obtained his throne. Ferdinand was succeeded by +his daughter Isabella, who in 1870 abdicated in favour of her son, +Alphonso XII. (d. 1885). Alphonso's posthumous son became king of Spain +as Alphonso XIII. Ferdinand's brother, Don Carlos (d. 1855), claimed the +throne in 1833 on the ground of the Salic law, and a fierce war raged +for some years in the north of Spain. His son Don Carlos, count de +Montemolin (1818-1861), revived the claim, but was defeated and +compelled to sign a renunciation. The nephew of the latter, Don Carlos +Maria Juan Isidor, duke of Madrid, for some years carried on war in +Spain with the object of attaining the rights contended for by the +Carlist party. + + +GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF BOURBON + +I. _The French Bourbons_ + + Henry IV. (1553-1610) + | + +-----------------+-----------------------+ + | | + Louis XIII. Gaston, + (1601-1643) duke of Orleans + | (1608-1660) + | + +-------+--------------------------------------------------+ + | | + Louis XIV. Philip I. + (1638-1715) duke of Orleans + | (1640-1701) + | | + Louis the Dauphin Philip II. + (1661-1711) duke of Orleans,[1] the regent + | (1674-1723) + +------------------+---------------+ | + | | | | + Louis, Charles, Philip, Louis, + duke of Burgundy duke of Berry duke of Anjou, duke of Orleans + (1682-1712) (1686-1714) king of Spain (1703-1752) + | as Philip V. | + | (1683-1746) | + Louis XV. Louis Philippe, + (1710-1774) duke of Orleans + | (1725-1785) + | | + Louis the Dauphin Louis Philippe, "Egalite," + (1729-1765) duke of Orleans + | (1747-1793) + +------------+-------------+ | + | | | | + Louis XVI. Louis XVIII. Charles X. Louis Philippe, + (1754-1793) (1755-1824) (1757-1836) king of the French + | | (1773-1850) + | +----------+--------+ | + | | | +------------------+----------------+----+------------------+---------------+ + | | | | | | | | + Louis XVII. Louis, Charles Ferdinand, Ferdinand, Francis, Antony, Henry, Louis, + (1785-1795) duke of Angouleme duke of Berry duke of Orleans prince of Joinville duke of Montpensier duke of Aumale duke of Nemours + (1775-1844) (1778-1820) (1810-1842) (1818-1900) (1824-1890) (1822-1897) (1814-1896) + | | | | | + | | | | +---------+-------+ + | | | | | | + Henry Charles, | Peter, Antony, Gaston, Ferdinand, + duke of Bordeaux and | duke of Penthievre duke of Galliera count of Eu, duke of Alencon + count of Chambord | (b. 1845) (b. 1866) (b. 1842) (b. 1844) + (1820-1883) | | | | + | +-----------------------+ +---------+---------+ +-------+ + | | | | | | | + | Alphonso Louis Ferdinand Peter Louis Antony Emmanuel, + | (b. 1886) (b. 1888) (b. 1875) (b. 1878) (b. 1881) duke of Vendome + | (b. 1872) + | | + +-------------------+-------------------+ | + | | | + Louis Philippe, Robert, Charles Philip, + count of Paris duke of Chartres duke of Nemours, + (1838-1894) (b. 1840) (b. 1905) + | | + +------+------------+ +--------+---------+ + | | | | + Louis Philippe, Ferdinand, Henry, John, + duke of Orleans duke of Montpensier prince of Orleans duke of Guise + (b. 1869) (b. 1884) (1867-1901) (b. 1874) + + +II. The Spanish and Italian Bourbons. + + Philip V., king of Spain (1683-1746) + | + +--------------+------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | | | + Charles III. Ferdinand VI. Philip, + (1716-1788) (1713-1759) duke of + | Parma + +---+--------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+ (1715-1765) + | | | | + Charles IV. Ferdinand I., Gabriel[3] Ferdinand, + (1748-1819) king of the (1752-1788) duke of + | Two Sicilies Parma + +--------+------+------------------------+ (1751-1825) (1765-1802) + | | | | | + Ferdinand VII. Francis, Carlos, Francis I. Louis, + (1784-1833) duke of duke of (1777-1830) king of + | Cadiz Madrid | Erutrea + | (d. 1865) (1788-1855) +-----+--------+-------------+---------------------------+ (c. 1786-1803) + | | | | | | | | + | +------------+ +--+-------------+ Ferdinand II. Francis, Leopold, Louis, Charles II, + | | | | | (1810-1859) count of count of count of duke of + Isabella II. + Francis Henry, Carlos, Juan | Trapani, Syracuse Aquila Parma + (1830-1904) | (1822-1902) duke of duke of (1823-1887) | (1827-1892) (c. 1825-1860) (1824-1897) (1799-1883) + | Seville[2] Madrid | | | | + | (1823-1870) (1818-1861) | +------------+-------------+----------+-----------+ +-+--------+ Charles III, + | | | | | | | | | duke of + Alphonso XII. +---------------+ Francis II. Alphonso, Louis, Gaetan, Pascal, Louis Philip Parma + (1857-1885) | | (1836-1894) count of count of count of count of count of (b. 1847) (1823-1854) + | Carlos, Alphonso Castera Trani Gergenti Bari Aquila | + Alphonso XIII. duke of (b. 1849) (b. 1841) (1838-1886) (1846-1871) (1852-1904) (b. 1845) +--------------+-------+ + (b. 1886) Madrid | | | + | (b. 1848) +---------+---+-----------+---------+----------+--------+----------+ Robert[4] Henry + +------+---------+ | | | | | | | | duke of count of + | | Jaime Ferdinand, Charles Gabriel Francis Philip Renier Gennaro Parma Bardi + Alphonso Jaime (b. 1870) duke of (b. 1870) (b. 1897) (b. 1888) (b. 1885) (b. 1883) (b. 1882) (b. 1848) (1851-1905) + prince of the (b. 1908) Calabria | | + Asturias (b. 1869) Alphonso +------+----+-----------+ + (b. 1907) | (b. 1901) | | | + Roger Henry Joseph Elias + duke of (b. 1873) (b. 1875) (b. 1880) + Noto | + (b. 1901) Charles + (b. 1905) +_Neapolitan Branch._--The first Bourbon who wore the crown of Naples was +Charles III. of Spain, who on his succession to the Spanish throne in +1759, resigned his kingdom of Naples to his son Ferdinand. Ferdinand was +deposed by Napoleon, but afterwards regained his throne, and took the +title of Ferdinand I., king of the Two Sicilies. In 1825 he was +succeeded by his son Francis, who in turn was succeeded in 1830 by his +son Ferdinand II. Ferdinand II. died in 1859, and in the following year +his successor Francis II. was deprived of his kingdom, which was +incorporated into the gradually-uniting Italy. + +_Duchies of Lucca and Parma._--In 1748 the duchy of Parma was conferred +on Philip, youngest son of Philip V. of Spain. He was succeeded by his +son Ferdinand in 1765. Parma was ceded to France in 1801, Ferdinand's +son Louis being made king of Etruria, but the French only took +possession of the duchy after Ferdinand's death in 1802. Louis's son +Charles Louis was forced to surrender Etruria to France in 1807, and he +was given the duchy of Lucca by the congress of Vienna in 1815. In 1847, +on the death of Marie Louise, widow of Napoleon, who had received Parma +and Piacenza in accordance with the terms of the treaty of Paris of +1814, Charles Louis succeeded to the duchies as Charles II., at the same +time surrendering Lucca to Tuscany. In 1849 he abdicated in favour of +his son, Charles III., who married a daughter of the duke of Berry, and +was assassinated in 1854, being succeeded by his son Robert. In 1860 the +duchies were annexed by Victor Emmanuel to the new kingdom of Italy. + +_Bastard Branches._--There are numerous bastard branches of the family +of Bourbon, the most famous being the Vendome branch, descended from +Caesar, natural son of Henry IV., and the Maine and Toulouse branches, +descended from the two natural sons of Louis XIV. and Madame de +Montespan. + + See Coiffier de Moret, _Histoire du Bourbonnais et des Bourbons_ (2 + vols., 1824); Berand, _Histoire des sires et ducs de Bourbon_ (1835); + Desormeaux, _Histoire de la maison de Bourbon_ (5 vols., 1782-1788); + Achaintre, _Histoire genealogique et chronologique de la maison royale + de Bourbon_ (2 vols., 1825-1826); and Dussieux, _Genealogie de la + maison de Bourbon_ (1872). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Philip married a natural daughter of Louis XIV., and in this way + the later princes of Orleans are descended from the Grand Monarque. + + [2] Henry contracted a morganatic marriage, and consequently his son + Henry, who died in 1894, was ruled out of the succession. This branch + of the family is now extinct. + + [3] The branch of the family descended from the infante Gabriel is + still flourishing, its head being Francis, duke of Marchena. + + [4] By a second marriage Robert has a large family, including six + sons--Sixtus, Xavier, Felix, Rene, Louis and Gaetan. + + + + +BOURBON, CHARLES, DUKE OF (1490-1527), constable of France, second son +of Gilbert, count of Montpensier and dauphin of Auvergne, was born on +the 17th of February 1490, his mother being a Gonzaga. In 1505 he +married Suzanne, heiress of Peter II., duke of Bourbon, by Anne of +France, daughter of King Louis XI., and assumed the title of duke of +Bourbon. The addition of this duchy to the numerous duchies, countships +and other fiefs which he had inherited on the death of his elder brother +Louis in 1501, made him at the age of fifteen the wealthiest noble in +Europe. He gained his first military experience in the Italian campaigns +of Louis XII., taking part in the suppression of the Genoese revolt +(1507) and contributing to the victory over the Venetians at Agnadello +(May 14, 1509). Shortly after the accession of Francis I. Bourbon +received the office of constable of France, and for his brilliant +services at the battle of Marignano (September 1515) he was made +governor of the Milanese, which he succeeded in defending against an +attack of the emperor Maximilian. But dissensions arose between Francis +and the constable. Grave, haughty and taciturn, Bourbon was but ill +suited to the levities of the court, and his vast wealth and influence +kindled in the king a feeling of resentment, if not of fear. The duke +was recalled from the government of the Milanese; his official salary +and the sums he had borrowed for war expenses remained unpaid; and in +the campaign in the Netherlands against the emperor Charles V. the +command of the vanguard, one of the most cherished prerogatives of the +constables, was taken from him. The death of his wife without surviving +issue, on the 28th of April 1521, afforded the mother of the king, +Louise of Savoy, a means to gratify her greed, and at the same time to +revenge herself on Bourbon, who had slighted her love. A suit was +instituted at her instance against the duke in the parlement of Paris, +in which Louise, as grand-daughter of Charles, duke of Bourbon (d. +1456), claimed the female and some of the male fiefs of the duchy of +Bourbon, while the king claimed those fiefs which were originally +appanages, as escheating to the crown, and other claims were put +forward. Before the parlement was able to arrive at a decision, Francis +handed over to his mother a part of the Bourbon estates, and ordered +the remainder to be sequestrated. + +Smarting under these injuries, Bourbon, who for some time had been +coquetting with the enemies of France, renewed his negotiations with the +emperor and Henry VIII. of England. It was agreed that the constable +should raise in his own dominions an armed force to assist the emperor +in an invasion of France, and should receive in return the hand of +Eleonora, queen dowager of Portugal, or of another of the emperor's +sisters, and an independent kingdom comprising his own lands together +with Dauphine and Provence. He was required, too, to swear fidelity to +Henry VIII. as king of France. But Bourbon's plans were hampered by the +presence of the French troops assembling for the invasion of Italy, and +for this reason he was unable to effect a junction with the emperor's +German troops from the east. News of the conspiracy soon reached the +ears of Francis, who was on his way to take command of the Italian +expedition. In an interview with Bourbon at Moulins the king endeavoured +to persuade him to accompany the French army into Italy, but without +success. Bourbon remained at Moulins for a few days, and after many +vicissitudes escaped into Italy. The joint invasion of France by the +emperor and his ally of England had failed signally, mainly through lack +of money and defects of combination. In the spring of 1524, however, +Bourbon at the head of the imperialists in Lombardy forced the French +across the Sesia (where the chevalier Bayard was mortally wounded) and +drove them out of Italy. In August 1524 he invested Marseilles, but +being unable to prevent the introduction of supplies by Andrea Doria, +the Genoese admiral in the service of Francis, he was forced to raise +the siege and retreat to the Milanese. He took part in the battle of +Pavia (1525), where Francis was defeated and taken prisoner. But +Bourbon's troops were clamouring for pay, and the duke was driven to +extreme measures to satisfy their demands. Cheated of his kingdom and +his bride after the treaty of Madrid (1526), Bourbon had been offered +the duchy of Milan by way of compensation. He now levied contributions +from the townsmen, and demanded 20,000 ducats for the liberation of the +chancellor Girolamo Morone (d. 1529), who had been imprisoned for an +attempt to realize his dream of an Italy purged of the foreigner. But +the sums thus raised were wholly inadequate. In February 1527 Bourbon's +army was joined by a body of German mercenaries, mostly Protestants, and +the combined forces advanced towards the papal states. Refusing to +recognize the truce which the viceroy of Naples had concluded with Pope +Clement VII., Bourbon hastened to put into execution the emperor's plan +of attaching Clement to his side by a display of force. But the troops, +starving and without pay, were in open mutiny, and Spaniards and +Lutherans alike were eager for plunder. On the 5th of May 1527 the +imperial army appeared before the walls of Rome. On the following +morning Bourbon attacked the Leonine City, and while mounting a scaling +ladder fell mortally wounded by a shot, which Benvenuto Cellini in his +_Life_ claims to have fired. After Bourbon's death his troops took and +sacked Rome. + + See E. Armstrong, _Charles V._ (London, 1902); _Cambridge Mod. Hist._ + vol. ii., bibliography to chaps. i. ii. and iii. + + + + +BOURBON-LANCY, a watering-place of east-central France in the department +of Saone-et-Loire, on a hill about 2 m. from the right bank of the Loire +and on the Borne, 52 m. S.S.E. of Nevers by rail. Pop. (1906) town, +1896; commune, 4266. The town possesses thermal springs, resorted to in +the Roman period, and ancient baths and other remains have been found. +The waters, which are saline and ferruginous, are used for drinking and +bathing, in cases of rheumatism, &c. Their temperature varies from 117 +deg. to 132 deg. F. Cardinal Richelieu, Madame de Sevigne, James II. of +England, and other celebrated persons visited the springs in the 17th +and 18th centuries. The town has a well-equipped bathing establishment, +a large hospital, and a church of the 11th and 12th centuries (used as +an archaeological museum), and there are ruins of an old stronghold on a +hill overlooking the town. A belfry pierced by a gateway of the 15th +century and houses of the 15th and 16th centuries also remain. The +industries of the town include the manufacture of farm implements. + +In the middle ages Bourbon-Lancy was an important stronghold and a fief +of the Bourbon family, from the name of a member of which the suffix to +its name is derived. + + + + +BOURBON L'ARCHAMBAULT, a town of central France in the department of +Allier, on the Burge, 16 m. W. of Moulins by rail. Pop. (1906) 2306. The +town has thermal springs known in Roman times, which are used in cases +of scrofula and rheumatism. The bathing-establishment is owned by the +state. A church dating from the 12th century, and ruins of a castle of +the dukes of Bourbon (13th and 15th centuries), including a cylindrical +keep, are of interest. There are a military and a civil hospital in the +town. Stone is quarried in the vicinity. Bourbon (_Aquae Borvonis_ or +_Bormonis_) was anciently the capital of the Bourbonnais and gave its +name to the great Bourbon family. The affix Archambault is the name of +one of its early lords. + + + + +BOURBONNE-LES-BAINS, a town of eastern France, in the department of +Haute-Marne, 35-1/2 m. by rail E.N.E. of Langres. Pop. (1906) 3738. It +is much frequented on account of its hot saline springs, which were +known to the Romans under the name _Aquae Borvonis_. The heat of these +springs varies from 110 deg. to 156 deg. F. The waters are used in cases +of lymphatic affections, scrofula, rheumatism, wounds, &c. The principal +buildings are a church of the 12th century, the state +bathing-establishment and the military hospital; there are also the +remains of a castle. Timber-sawing and plaster manufacture are carried +on in the town. In the neighbourhood are the buildings of the celebrated +Cistercian abbey of Morimond. + + + + +BOURCHIER, ARTHUR (1864- ), English actor, was born in Berkshire in +1864, and educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. At the university +he became prominent as an amateur actor in connexion with the +O.U.A.D.C., which he founded, and in 1889 he joined Mrs Langtry as a +professional. He also acted with Charles Wyndham at the Criterion, and +was for a while in Daly's company in America. In 1894 he married the +actress Violet Vanbrugh, elder sister of the no less well-known actress +Irene Vanbrugh, and he and his wife subsequently took the leading parts +under his management of the Garrick theatre. Both as tragedian and +comedian Mr Bourchier took high rank on the London stage, and his career +as actor-manager was remarkable for the production of a number of +successful modern plays, by Mr Sutro and others. + + + + +BOURCHIER, THOMAS (c. 1404-1486), English archbishop, lord chancellor +and cardinal, was a younger son of William Bourchier, count of Eu (d. +1420), and through his mother, Anne, a daughter of Thomas of Woodstock, +duke of Gloucester, was a descendant of Edward III. One of his brothers +was Henry, earl of Essex (d. 1483), and his grand-nephew was John, Lord +Berners, the translator of Froissart. Educated at Oxford and then +entering the church, he obtained rapid promotion, and after holding some +minor appointments he became bishop of Worcester in 1434. In the same +year he was chancellor of the university of Oxford, and in 1443 he was +appointed bishop of Ely; then in April 1454 he was made archbishop of +Canterbury, becoming lord chancellor of England in the following March. +Bourchier's short term of office as chancellor coincided with the +opening of the Wars of the Roses, and at first he was not a strong +partisan, although he lost his position as chancellor when Richard, duke +of York, was deprived of power in October 1456. Afterwards, in 1458, he +helped to reconcile the contending parties, but when the war was renewed +in 1459 he appears as a decided Yorkist; he crowned Edward IV. in June +1461, and four years later he performed a similar service for the queen, +Elizabeth Woodville. In 1457 Bourchier took the chief part in the trial +of Reginald Pecock, bishop of Chichester, for heresy; in 1467 he was +created a cardinal; and in 1475 he was one of the four arbitrators +appointed to arrange the details of the treaty of Picquigny between +England and France. After the death of Edward IV. in 1483 Bourchier +persuaded the queen to allow her younger son, Richard, duke of York, to +share his brother's residence in the Tower of London; and although he +had sworn to be faithful to Edward V. before his father's death, he +crowned Richard III. in July 1483. He was, however, in no way implicated +in the murder of the young princes, and he was probably a participant in +the conspiracies against Richard. The third English king crowned by +Bourchier was Henry VII., whom he also married to Elizabeth of York in +January 1486. The archbishop died on the 30th of March 1486 at his +residence, Knole, near Sevenoaks, and was buried in Canterbury +cathedral. + + See W.F. Hook, _Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury_ (1860-1884). + + + + +BOURDALOUE, LOUIS (1632-1704), French Jesuit and preacher, was born at +Bourges on the 20th of August 1632. At the age of sixteen he entered the +Society of Jesus, and was appointed successively professor of rhetoric, +philosophy and moral theology, in various colleges of the Order. His +success as a preacher in the provinces determined his superiors to call +him to Paris in 1669 to occupy for a year the pulpit of the church of St +Louis. Owing to his eloquence he was speedily ranked in popular +estimation with Corneille, Racine, and the other leading figures of the +most brilliant period of Louis XIV.'s reign. He preached at the court of +Versailles during the Advent of 1670 and the Lent of 1672, and was +subsequently called again to deliver the Lenten course of sermons in +1674, 1675, 1680 and 1682, and the Advent sermons of 1684, 1689 and +1693. This was all the more noteworthy as it was the custom never to +call the same preacher more than three times to court. On the revocation +of the Edict of Nantes he was sent to Languedoc to confirm the new +converts in the Catholic faith, and he had extraordinary success in this +delicate mission. Catholics and Protestants were unanimous in praising +his fiery eloquence in the Lent sermons which he preached at Montpellier +in 1686. Towards the close of his life he confined his ministry to +charitable institutions, hospitals and prisons, where his sympathetic +discourses and conciliatory manners were always effective. He died in +Paris on the 13th of May 1704. His peculiar strength lay in his power of +adapting himself to audiences of every kind, and throughout his public +career he was highly appreciated by all classes of society. His +influence was due as much to his saintly character and to the gentleness +of his manners as to the force of his reasoning. Voltaire said that his +sermons surpassed those of Bossuet (whose retirement in 1669, however, +practically coincided with Bourdaloue's early pulpit utterances); and +there is little doubt that their simplicity and coherence, and the +direct appeal which they made to hearers of all classes, gave them a +superiority over the more profound sermons of Bossuet. Bourdaloue may be +with justice regarded as one of the greatest French orators, and many of +his sermons have been adopted as text-books in schools. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The only authoritative source for the Sermons is the + edition of Pere Bretonneau (14 vols., Paris, 1707-1721, followed by + the _Pensees_, 2 vols., 1734). There has been much controversy both as + to the authenticity of some of the sermons in this edition and as to + the text in general. It is, however, generally agreed that the changes + confessedly made by Bretonneau were merely formal. Other editions not + based on Bretonneau are inferior; some, indeed, are altogether + spurious (e.g. that of Abbe Sicard, 1810). Among critical works are: + Anatole Feugere, _Bourdaloue, sa predication et son temps_ (Paris, + 1874); Adrien Lezat, _Bourdaloue, theologien et orateur_ (Paris, + 1874); P.M. Lauras, _Bourdaloue, sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (2 vols., + Paris, 1881); Abbe Blampignon, _Etude sur Bourdaloue_ (Paris, 1886); + Henri Cherot, _Bourdaloue inconnu_ (Paris, 1898), and _Bourdaloue, sa + correspondance et ses correspondans_ (Paris, 1898-1904); L. Pauthe, + _Bourdaloue_ (_les maitres de la chaire au XVII^e siecle_) (Paris, + 1900); E. Griselle, _Bourdaloue, histoire critique de sa predication_ + (2 vols., Paris, 1901), _Sermons inedits; bibliographie, &c._ (Paris, + 1901), _Deux sermons inedits sur le royaume de Dieu_ (Lille and Paris, + 1904); Ferdinand Castets, _Bourdaloue, la vie et la predication d'un + religieux au XVII^e siecle_, and _La Revue Bourdaloue_ (Paris, + 1902-1904); C.H. Brooke, _Great French Preachers_ (sermons of + Bourdaloue and Bossuet, London, 1904); F. Brunetiere, "L'Eloquence de + Bourdaloue," in _Revue des deux mondes_ (August 1904), a general + inquiry into the authenticity of the sermons and their general + characteristics. + + + + +BOURDON, FRANCOIS LOUIS (d. 1797), known as BOURDON DE L'OISE, French +revolutionist, was _procureur_ at the parlement of Paris. He ardently +embraced the revolutionary doctrines and took an active part in the +insurrection of the 10th of August 1792. Representing the department of +the Oise in the Convention, he voted for the immediate death of the +king. He accused the Girondists of relations with the court, then turned +against Robespierre, who had him expelled from the Jacobin club for his +conduct as commissioner of the Convention with the army of La Rochelle. +On the 9th Thermidor he was one of the deputies delegated to aid Barras +to repress the insurrection made by the commune of Paris in favour of +Robespierre. Bourbon then became a violent reactionary, attacking the +former members of the Mountain and supporting rigorous measures against +the rioters of the 12th Germinal and the 1st Prairial of the year III. +In the council of Five Hundred, Bourdon belonged to the party of +"Clichyens," composed of disguised royalists, against whom the directors +made the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th Fructidor. Bourdon was arrested and +deported to French Guiana, where he died soon after his arrival. + + + + +BOURG-EN-BRESSE, a town of eastern France, capital of the department of +Ain, and formerly capital of the province of Bresse, 36 m. N.N.E. of +Lyons by the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) town, 13,916; commune, +20,045. Bourg is situated at the western base of the Jura, on the left +bank of the Reyssouze, a tributary of the Saone. The chief of the older +buildings is the church of Notre-Dame (16th century), of which the +facade belongs to the Renaissance; other parts of the church are Gothic. +In the interior there are stalls of the 16th century. The other public +buildings, including a handsome prefecture, are modern. The hotel de +ville contains a library and the Lorin museum with a collection of +pictures, while another museum has a collection of the old costumes and +ornaments characteristic of Bresse. Among the statues in the town there +is one of Edgar Quinet (1803-1875), a native of Bourg. Bourg is the seat +of a prefect and of a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first +instance, a tribunal and a chamber of commerce, and a branch of the Bank +of France. Its educational establishments include lycees for boys and +girls, and training colleges. The manufactures consist of iron goods, +mineral waters, tallow, soap and earthenware, and there are flour mills +and breweries; and there is considerable trade in grain, cattle and +poultry. The church of Brou, a suburb of Bourg, is of great artistic +interest. Marguerite of Bourbon, wife of Philibert II. of Savoy, had +intended to found a monastery on the spot, but died before her intention +could be carried into effect. The church was actually built early in the +16th century by her daughter-in-law Marguerite of Austria, wife of +Philibert le Beau of Savoy, in memory of her husband. The exterior, +especially the facade, is richly ornamented, but the chief interest lies +in the works of art in the interior, which date from 1532. The most +important are the three mausoleums with the marble effigies of +Marguerite of Bourbon, Philibert le Beau, and Marguerite of Austria. All +three are remarkable for perfection of sculpture and richness of +ornamentation. The rood loft, the oak stalls, and the reredos in the +chapel of the Virgin are masterpieces in a similar style. + +Roman remains have been discovered at Bourg, but little is known of its +early history. Raised to the rank of a free town in 1250, it was at the +beginning of the 15th century chosen by the dukes of Savoy as the chief +city of the province of Bresse. In 1535 it passed to France, but was +restored to Duke Philibert Emmanuel, who later built a strong citadel, +which afterwards withstood a six months' siege by the soldiers of Henry +IV. The town was finally ceded to France in 1601. In 1814 the +inhabitants, in spite of the defenceless condition of their town, +offered resistance to the Austrians, who put the place to pillage. + + + + +BOURGEOIS, LEON VICTOR AUGUSTE (1851- ), French statesman, was born at +Paris on the 21st of May 1851, and was educated for the law. After +holding a subordinate office (1876) in the department of public works, he +became successively prefect of the Tarn (1882) and the Haute-Garonne +(1885), and then returned to Paris to enter the ministry of the interior. +He became prefect of police in November 1887, at the critical moment of +President Grevy's resignation. In the following year he entered the +chamber, being elected deputy for the Marne, in opposition to General +Boulanger, and joined the radical left. He was under-secretary for home +affairs in the Floquet ministry of 1888, and resigned with it in 1889, +being then returned to the chamber for Reims. In the Tirard ministry, +which succeeded, he was minister of the interior, and subsequently, on +the 18th of March 1890, minister of public instruction in the cabinet of +M. de Freycinet, a post for which he had qualified himself by the +attention he had given to educational matters. In this capacity he was +responsible in 1890 for some important reforms in secondary education. He +retained his office in M. Loubet's cabinet in 1892, and was minister of +justice under M. Ribot at the end of that year, when the Panama scandals +were making the office one of peculiar difficulty. He energetically +pressed the Panama prosecution, so much so that he was accused of having +put wrongful pressure on the wife of one of the defendants in order to +procure evidence. To meet the charge he resigned in March 1893, but again +took office, and only retired with the rest of the Freycinet ministry. In +November 1895 he himself formed a cabinet of a pronouncedly radical type, +the main interest of which was attached to its fall, as the result of a +constitutional crisis arising from the persistent refusal of the senate +to vote supply. The Bourgeois ministry appeared to consider that popular +opinion would enable them to override what they claimed to be an +unconstitutional action on the part of the upper house; but the public +was indifferent and the senate triumphed. The blow was undoubtedly +damaging to M. Bourgeois's career as an _homme de gouvernement_. As +minister of public instruction in the Brisson cabinet of 1898 he +organized courses for adults in primary education. After this short +ministry he represented his country with dignity and effect at the Hague +peace congress, and in 1903 was nominated a member of the permanent court +of arbitration. He held somewhat aloof from the political struggles of +the Waldeck-Rousseau and Combes ministries, travelling considerably in +foreign countries. In 1902 and 1903 he was elected president of the +chamber. In 1905 he replaced the due d'Audiffret-Pasquier as senator for +the department of Marne, and in May 1906 became minister of foreign +affairs in the Sarrien cabinet. He was responsible for the direction of +French diplomacy in the conference at Algeciras. + + + + +BOURGEOIS, a French word, properly meaning a freeman of a _bourg_ or +borough in France; later the term came to have the wider significance of +the whole class lying between the _ouvriers_ or workmen and the +nobility, and is now used generally of the trading middle-class of any +country. In printing, the word (pronounced burjoice') is used of a type +coming in size between longprimer and brevier; the derivation is +supposed to be from the name of a French printer, otherwise unknown. + + + + +BOURGES, a city of central France, chief town of the department of Cher, +144 m. S. of Paris on the Orleans railway between Vierzon and Nevers. +Pop. (1906) town, 34,581; commune, 44,133. Bourges is built amidst flat +and marshy country on an eminence limited on three sides by the waters +of the Canal Of Berry, the Yevre, the Auron, and other smaller streams +with which they unite at this point. The older part of the town with its +narrow streets and old houses forms a centre, to the south and east of +which lie important engineering suburbs. Flourishing nurseries and +market-gardens are situated in the marshy ground to the north and +north-east. Bourges preserves portions of the Roman ramparts of the 4th +century, which are for the most part built into the houses of the old +quarter. They measure considerably less in circumference than the +fortifications of the 13th century, remains of which in the shape of +ruined walls and towers are still to be seen. The summit of the rise on +which the city is built is crowned by the cathedral of St Etienne, one +of the most important in France. Begun at the end of the 12th century, +it was not completed till the 16th century, to which period belong the +northernmost of the two unfinished towers flanking the facade and two of +its five elaborately sculptured portals. The interior, which has double +aisles, the inner aisles of remarkable height, and no transepts, +contains, among many other works of art, magnificent stained glass of +the 13th century. Beneath the choir there is a crypt of Romanesque +construction, where traces of the Roman fosses are to be found; the two +lateral portals are also survivals of a Romanesque church. The Jardin de +l'Archeveche, a pleasant terrace-garden, adjoins the choir of the +cathedral. Bourges has many fine old houses. The hotel Lallemant and the +hotel Cujas (now occupied by the museum) are of the Renaissance period. +The hotel de Jacques Coeur, named after the treasurer of Charles VII. +and now used as the law-court, is of still greater interest, though it +has been doubted whether Jacques Coeur himself inhabited it. The mansion +is in the Renaissance style, but two towers of the Roman fortifications +were utilized in the construction of the south-western facade (see +HOUSE, Plate II. figs. 7 and 8). Its wings surround a courtyard into +which three staircase turrets project; one of these leads to a chapel, +the ceiling of which is decorated by fine frescoes. + +Bourges is the seat of an archbishopric, a court of appeal, a court of +assizes and a prefect; and is the headquarters of the VIII. army corps. +It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of +trade-arbitrators, and a chamber of commerce, and a branch of the Bank +of France. Its educational institutions include an ecclesiastical +seminary, a lycee for boys, and a college for girls, training colleges, +and a school of industrial art. The industrial activity of Bourges +depends primarily on its gunpowder and ammunition factories, its +cannon-foundry and gun-carriage works. These all belong to the +government, and, together with huge magazines, a school of pyrotechnics, +and an artillery school, lie in the east of the town. The suburb of +Mazieres has large iron and engineering works, and there are +manufactories of anvils, edge-tools, biscuits, woollen goods, oil-cloth, +boots and shoes, fertilizers, brick and tile works, breweries, +distilleries, tanneries, saw-mills and dye-works. The town has a port on +the canal of Berry, and does a considerable trade in grain, wine, +vegetables, hemp and fruit. + +Bourges occupies the site of the Gallic town of _Avaricum_, capital of +the Bituriges, mentioned by Caesar as one of the most important of all +Gaul. In 52 B.C., during the war with Vercingetorix, it was completely +destroyed by the Roman conqueror, but under Augustus it rose again into +importance, and was made the capital of Aquitania Prima. About A.D. 250 +it became the seat of a bishop, the first occupant of the see being +Ursinus. Captured by the Visigoths about 475, it continued in their +possession till about 507. In the middle ages it was the capital of +Berry. During the English occupation of France in the 15th century it +became the residence of Charles VII., who thus acquired the popular +title of "king of Bourges." In 1463 a university was founded in the city +by Louis XI., which continued for centuries to be one of the most famous +in France, especially in the department of jurisprudence. On many +occasions Bourges was the seat of ecclesiastical councils--the most +important being the council of 1438, in which the Pragmatic Sanction of +the Gallican church was established, and that of 1528, in which the +Lutheran doctrines were condemned. + + + + +BOURGET, PAUL CHARLES JOSEPH (1852- ), French novelist and critic, was +born at Amiens on the 2nd of September 1852. His father, a professor of +mathematics, was afterwards appointed to a post in the college at +Clermont-Ferrand. Here Bourget received his early education. He +afterwards studied at the Lycee Louis-le-Grand and at the Ecole des +Hautes Etudes. In 1872-1873 he produced a volume of verse, _Au bord de +la mer_, which was followed by others, the last, _Les Aveux_, appearing +in 1882. Meanwhile he was making a name in literary journalism, and in +1883 he published _Essais de psychologic contemporaine_, studies of +eminent writers first printed in the _Nouvelle Revue_, and now brought +together. In 1884 Bourget paid a long visit to England, and there wrote +his first published story (_L'Irreparable_). _Cruelle Enigme_ followed +in 1885; and _Andre Cornelis_ (1886) and _Mensonges_ (1887) were +received with much favour. _Le Disciple_ (1889) showed the novelist in a +graver attitude; while in 1891 _Sensations d'Italie_, notes of a tour in +that country, revealed a fresh phase of his powers. In the same year +appeared the novel _Coeur de femme_, and _Nouveaux Pastels_, types of +the characters of men, the sequel to a similar gallery of female types +(_Pastels_, 1890). His later novels include _La Terre promise_ (1892); +_Cosmopolis_ (1892), a psychological novel, with Rome as a background; +_Une Idylle tragique_ (1896); _La Duchesse bleue_ (1897); _Le Fantome_ +(1901); _Les Deux Soeurs_ (1905); and some volumes of shorter +stories--_Complications sentimentales_ (1896), the powerful _Drames de +famille_ (1898), _Un Homme fort_ (1900), _L'Etape_ (1902), a study of +the inability of a family raised too rapidly from the peasant class to +adapt itself to new conditions. This powerful study of contemporary +manners was followed by _Un Divorce_ (1904), a defence of the Roman +Catholic position that divorce is a violation of natural laws, any +breach of which inevitably entails disaster. _Etudes et portraits_, +first published in 1888, contains impressions of Bourget's stay in +England and Ireland, especially reminiscences of the months which he +spent at Oxford; and _Outre-Mer_ (1895), a book in two volumes, is his +critical journal of a visit to the United States in 1893. He was +admitted to the Academy in 1894, and in 1895 was promoted to be an +officer of the Legion of Honour, having received the decoration of the +order ten years before. + +As a writer of verse Bourget was merely trying his wings, and his poems, +which were collected in two volumes(1885-1887), are chiefly interesting +for the light which they throw upon his mature method and the later +products of his art. It was in criticism that his genius first found its +true bent. The habit of close scientific analysis which he derived from +his father, the sense of style produced by a fine ear and moulded by a +classical education, the innate appreciation of art in all its forms, +the taste for seeing men and cities, the keen interest in the oldest not +less than the newest civilizations, and the large tolerance not to be +learned on the _boulevard_--all these combined to provide him with a +most uncommon equipment for the critic's task. It is not surprising that +the _Sensations d'ltalie_ (1891), and the various psychological studies, +are in their different ways scarcely surpassed throughout the whole +range of literature. Bourget's reputation as a novelist has long been +assured. Deeply impressed by the singular art of Henry Beyle (Stendhal), +he struck out on a new course at a moment when the realist school +reigned without challenge in French fiction. His idealism, moreover, had +a character of its own. It was constructed on a scientific basis, and +aimed at an exactness, different from, yet comparable to, that of the +writers who were depicting with an astonishing faithfulness the +environment and the actions of a person or a society. With Bourget +observation was mainly directed to the secret springs of human +character. At first his purpose seemed to be purely artistic, but when +_Le Disciple_ appeared, in 1889, the preface to that remarkable story +revealed in him an unsuspected fund of moral enthusiasm. Since then he +has varied between his earlier and his later manner, but his work in +general has been more seriously conceived. From first to last he has +painted with a most delicate brush the intricate emotions of women, +whether wronged, erring or actually vicious; and he has described not +less happily the ideas, the passions and the failures of those young men +of France to whom he makes special appeal. + +Bourget has been charged with pessimism, and with undue delineation of +one social class. The first charge can hardly be sustained. The lights +in his books are usually low; there is a certain lack of gaiety, and the +characters move in a world of disenchantment. But there is no despair in +his own outlook upon human destiny as a whole. As regards the other +indictment, the early stories sometimes dwell to excess on the mere +framework of opulence; but the pathology of moral irresolution, of +complicated affairs of the heart, of the ironies of friendship, in which +the writer revels, can be more appropriately studied in a cultured and +leisured society than amid the simpler surroundings of humbler men and +women. The style of all Bourget's writings is singularly graceful. His +knowledge of the literature of other lands gives it a greater +flexibility and a finer allusiveness than most of his contemporaries can +achieve. The precision by which it is not less distinguished, though +responsible for a certain over-refinement, and for some dull pages of +the novels, is an almost unmixed merit in the critical essays. As a +critic, indeed, either of art or letters, Bourget leaves little to be +desired. If he is not in the very first rank of novelists, if his books +display more ease of finished craftsmanship than joy in spontaneous +creation, it must be remembered that the supreme writers of fiction have +rarely succeeded as he has in a different field. + + See also C. Lecigne, _L'Evolution morale et religieuse de M. Paul + Bourget_ (1903); Sargeret, _Les Grands Convertis_ (1906). His _Oeuvres + completes_ began to appear in a uniform edition in 1899. + + + + +BOURIGNON, ANTOINETTE (1616-1680), Flemish mystic, was born at Lille on +the 13th of January 1616. From an early age she was under the influence +of religion, which took in course of time a mystical turn. Undertaking +the work of a reformer, she visited France, Holland, England and +Scotland. Her religious enthusiasm, peculiarity of views and disregard +of all sects raised both zealous persecutors and warm adherents. On her +death at Franeker, Friesland, on the 30th of October 1680, she left a +large number of followers, who, however, dwindled rapidly away; but in +the early 18th century her influence revived in Scotland sufficiently to +call forth several denunciations of her doctrines in the various +Presbyterian general assemblies of 1701, 1709 and 1710. So far as +appears from her writings and contemporary records, she was a visionary +of the ordinary type, distinguished only by the audacity and persistency +of her pretensions. + + Her writings, containing an account of her life and of her visions and + opinions, were collected by her disciple, Pierre Poiret (19 vols., + Amsterdam, 1679-1686), who also published her life (2 vols., 1679). + For a critical account see Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (Leipzig, 1897), + and Etude sur Antoinette Bourignon_, by M. E. S. (Paris, 1876). Three + of her works at least have been translated into English:--_An + Abridgment of the Light of the World_ (London, 1786); _A Treatise of + Solid Virtue_ (1699); _The Restoration of the Gospel Spirit (1707) + + + + +BOURKE, a town of Cowper county, New South Wales, Australia, 503 m. by +rail N.W. from Sydney. Pop. (1901) 2614. It is situated on the south +bank, and at the head of the ordinary winter navigation, of the Darling +river. Very rich copper ore exists in the district in great abundance. +Bourke is the centre of a large sheep-farming area, and the annual +agricultural show is one of the best in the colony. On the west side of +the Darling, 3 m. distant, is the small town of North Bourke, and at +Pera, 10 m. distant, is an important irrigation settlement. + + + + +BOURMONT, LOUIS AUGUSTE VICTOR, COMTE DE GHAISNE DE (1773-1846), marshal +of France, entered the _Gardes Francaises_ of the royal army shortly +before the Revolution, emigrated in 1789, and served with Conde and the +army of the _emigres_ in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793, subsequently +serving as chief of staff to Scepeaux, the royalist leader, in the civil +war in lower Anjou (1794-1796). Bourmont, excepted from the amnesty of +April 1796, fled into Switzerland, but soon afterwards, having been made +by Louis XVIII. a _marechal de camp_ and a knight of St Louis, he headed +a fresh insurrection, which after some preliminary successes collapsed +(1799-1800). He then made his submission to the First Consul, married, +and lived in Paris; but his thinly veiled royalism caused his arrest a +few months later, and he remained a prisoner for more than three years, +finally escaping to Portugal in 1804. Three years later the French army +under General Junot invaded Portugal, and Bourmont offered his services +to Junot, who made him chief of staff of a division. He returned to +France with Junot after the convention of Cintra, and was promptly +re-arrested. He was soon released, however, on Junot's demand, and was +commissioned as an officer in the imperial army. He served in Italy for +a time, then went on the staff of the viceroy Eugene (Beauharnais), whom +he accompanied in the Moscow campaign. He was taken prisoner in the +retreat, but escaped after a time and rejoined the French army. His +conspicuous courage at the battle of Lutzen in 1813 led Napoleon to +promote him general of brigade, and in 1814 his splendid defence of +Nogent (February 13) earned him the rank of general of division. At the +first Restoration Bourmont was naturally employed by the Bourbons, to +whose service he had devoted his life, but he rejoined Napoleon on his +return from Elba. On the eve of the campaign of 1815, and at the urgent +request of Count Gerard, he was given a divisional command in the army +of the north. On the first day of the Waterloo campaign Bourmont went +over to the enemy. It is not probable that he gave information of French +movements to the allies, but the best that can be said in exculpation of +his treachery is that his old friends and comrades, the royalists of +Anjou, were again in insurrection, and that he felt that he must lead +them. He made no attempt to defend his conduct, and acted as the accuser +of Marshal Ney. A year later he was given command of a division of the +royal guard; and in 1823 he held an important position in the army +which, under the command of the duc d'Angouleme, invaded Spain. He +commanded the whole army in Spain for a time in 1824, became minister of +war in 1829, and in 1830 was placed in command of the Algiers +expedition. The landing of the French and the capture of Algiers were +directed by him with complete success, and he was rewarded with the +_baton_ of marshal. But the revolution of 1830 put an end to his +command, and, refusing to take the oath to Louis Philippe, he was forced +to resign. In 1832 Marshal Bourmont took part in the rising of the +duchesse de Berri, and on its failure retired to Portugal. Here, as +always, on the side of absolutism, he commanded the army of Dom Miguel +during the civil war of 1833-1834, and after the victory of the +constitutional party he retired to Rome. At the amnesty of 1840 he +returned to France. He died at the chateau of Bourmont on the 27th of +October 1846. + + Charles de Bourmont, a son of the marshal, wrote several pamphlets in + vindication of his father's career. + + + + +BOURNE, VINCENT (1695-1747), English classical scholar, familiarly known +as "Vinny" Bourne, was born at Westminster in 1695. In 1710 he became a +scholar at Westminster school, and in 1714 entered Trinity College, +Cambridge. He graduated in 1717, and obtained a fellowship three years +later. Of his afterlife exceedingly little is known. It is certain that +he passed the greater portion of it as usher in Westminster school. He +died on; the 2nd of December 1747. During his lifetime he published +three editions of his Latin poems, and in 1772 there appeared a very +handsome quarto volume containing all Bourne's pieces, but also some +that did not belong to him. The Latin poems are remarkable not only for +perfect mastery of all linguistic niceties, but for graceful expression +and genuine poetic feeling. A number of them are translations of English +poems, and it is not too much to say that the Latin versions almost +invariably surpass the originals. Cowper, an old pupil of Bourne's, +Beattie and Lamb have combined in praise of his wonderful power of Latin +versification. + + See an edition (1840) of his _Poemata_, with a memoir by John Mitford. + + + + +BOURNE, or BOURN, a market town in the S. Kesteven or Stamford +parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England; lying in a fenny +district 95 m. N. by W. from London. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4361. +The Stamford-Sleaford branch of the Great Northern railway here crosses +the Saxby-Lynn joint line of the Great Northern and Midland companies. +The church of St Peter and St Paul is Norman and Early English with +later insertions; it is part of a monastic church belonging to a +foundation of Augustinian canons of 1138, of which the other buildings +have almost wholly disappeared. Trade is principally agricultural. +Bourne is famous through its connexion with the ardent opponent of +William the Conqueror, Hereward the Wake. Of his castle very slight +traces remain. Bourne was also the birthplace of the Elizabethan +statesman Cecil, Lord Burghley. The Red Hall, which now forms part of +the railway station buildings, belonged to the family of Digby, of whom +Sir Everard Digby was executed in 1606 for his connexion with the +Gunpowder Plot. + + + + +BOURNE (southern form of burn, Teutonic _born, brun, burna_), an +intermittent stream frequent in chalk and limestone country where the +rock becomes saturated with winter rain, that slowly drains away until +the rock becomes dry, when the stream ceases. A heavy rainfall will +cause streams to run in winter from the saturated soil. These are the +winter bournes that have given name to several settlements upon +Salisbury Plain, such as Winterbourne Gunning. The "bourne" may also be +a permanent "burn," but the word is usually applied to an intermittent +stream. (2) (From the Fr. _borne_), a boundary; the first use of the +word in English is in Lord Ferrers' translation of Forrest, 1523; the +figurative meaning of limit, end or final destination comes from +Shakespeare's Hamlet, "the undiscovered country, from whose bourne no +traveller returns." + + + + +BOURNEMOUTH, a municipal and county borough and watering-place of +Hampshire, England, in the parliamentary borough of Christchurch, +107-1/2 m. S.W. by W. from London by the London & South-Western railway. +Pop. (1901) 59,762. It is beautifully situated on Poole Bay. +Considerable sandstone cliffs rise from the sandy beach, and are scored +with deep picturesque dells or chines. The town itself lies in and about +the valley of the Bourne stream. Its sheltered situation and desirable +winter climate began to attract notice about 1840; in 1855 a national +sanatorium for consumptive patients was erected by subscription; a pier +was opened in 1861, and in 1870 railway communication was afforded. The +climate is remarkably equable, being relatively warm in winter and cool +in summer; the average temperature in July is 61.7 deg. F., and in +January 40.3 deg. The town contains numerous handsome buildings, +including municipal buildings, churches, various places of +entertainment, sanatoria and hospitals, a public library and a science +and art school. Its suburbs have greatly extended along the sea front, +and the beautiful chines of Boscombe, Alum and Branksome have attracted +a large number of wealthy residents. There are piers at the town itself +and at Boscombe, and the bathing is excellent. The parks, gardens and +drives are extensive and pleasant. A service of electric tramways is +maintained, notable as being the first system installed in England with +a combination of the trolley and conduit principles of supplying +current. There are golf links in Meyrick and Queen's parks, both laid +out by the corporation, which has in other ways studied the +entertainment of visitors. The two railway stations are the Central and +West, and through communications with the north are maintained by the +Somerset & Dorset and Midland, and the Great Western and Great Central +railways. The town, which is of wholly modern and remarkably rapid +growth (for in the middle of the 19th century the population was less +than 1000), was incorporated in 1890, and became a county borough in +1900. The corporation consists of a mayor, 11 aldermen and 33 +councillors. Area, 5769 acres. + + + + +BOURNONITE, a mineral species, a sulphantimonite of lead and copper with +the formula PbCuSbS3. It is of some interest on account of the twinning +and the beautiful development of its crystals. It was first mentioned by +Philip Rashleigh in 1797 as "an ore of antimony," and was more +completely described by the comte de Bournon in 1804, after whom it was +named: the name given by Bournon himself (in 1813) was endellione, since +used in the form endellionite, after the locality in Cornwall where the +mineral was first found. The crystals are orthorhombic, and are +generally tabular in habit owing to the predominance of the basal +pinacoid (c); numerous smooth bright faces are often developed on the +edges and corners of the crystals. An un-twinned crystal is represented +in fig. 1. Usually, however, the crystals are twinned, the twin-plane +being a face of the prism (m); the angle between the faces of this prism +being nearly a right angle (86 deg. 20'), the twinning gives rise to +cruciform groups (fig. 2), and when it is often repeated the group has +the appearance of a cog-wheel, hence the name _Radelerz_ (wheel-ore) of +the Kapnik miners. The repeated twinning gives rise to twin-lamellae, +which may be detected on the fractured surfaces, even of the massive +material. The mineral is opaque, and has a brilliant metallic lustre +with a lead-grey colour. The hardness is 2-1/2, and the specific gravity +5.8. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Crystal of Bournonite.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Twinned Crystal of Bournonite.] + +At the original locality, Wheal Boys in the parish of Endellion in +Cornwall, it was found associated with jamesonite, blende and chalybite. +Later, still better crystals were found in another Cornish mine, namely, +Herodsfoot mine near Liskeard, which was worked for argentiferous +galena. Fine crystals of large size have been found with quartz and +chalybite in the mines at Neudorf in the Harz, and with blende and +tetrahedrite at Kapnik-Banya near Nagy-Banya in Hungary. A few other +localities are known for this mineral. (L. J. S.) + + + + +BOURREE, a French name for a dance common in Auvergne and in Biscay in +Spain; also a term for a musical composition or a dance-movement in a +suite, somewhat akin to the gavotte, in quick time with two beats to the +bar. + + + + +BOURRIENNE, LOUIS ANTOINE FAUVELET DE (1769-1834), French diplomatist, +was born at Sens on the 9th of July 1769. He was educated at the +military school of Brienne in Champagne along with Napoleon Bonaparte; +and although the solitary habits of the latter made intimacy difficult, +the two youths seem to have been on friendly terms. It must, however, be +added that the stories of their very close friendship, as told in +Bourrienne's memoirs, are open to suspicion. Leaving Brienne in 1787, +and conceiving a distaste for the army, Bourrienne proceeded to Vienna. +He was pursuing legal and diplomatic studies there and afterwards at +Leipzig, when the French Revolution broke out and went through its first +phases. Not until the spring of 1792 did Bourrienne return to France; at +Paris he renewed his acquaintance with Bonaparte. They led a Bohemian +life together, and among other incidents of that exciting time, they +witnessed the mobbing of the royal family in the Tuileries (June 20) and +the overthrow of the Swiss Guards at the same spot (August 10). +Bourrienne next obtained a diplomatic appointment at Stuttgart, and soon +his name was placed on the list of political _emigres_, from which it +was not removed until November 1797. Nevertheless, after the affair of +13th Vendemiaire (October 5, 1795) he returned to Paris and renewed his +acquaintance with Bonaparte, who was then second in command of the Army +of the Interior and soon received the command of the Army of Italy. +Bourrienne did not proceed with him into Italy, but was called thither +by the victorious general at the time of the long negotiations with +Austria (May-October 1797), when his knowledge of law and diplomacy was +of some service in the drafting of the terms of the treaty of Campo +Formio (October 17). In the following year he accompanied Bonaparte to +Egypt as his private secretary, and left a vivid, if not very +trustworthy, account of the expedition in his memoirs. He also +accompanied him on the adventurous return voyage to Frejus +(September-October 1799), and was of some help in the affairs which led +up to the _coup d'etat_ of Brumaire (November) 1799. He remained by the +side of the First Consul in his former capacity, but in the autumn of +1802 incurred his displeasure owing to his very questionable financial +dealings. In the spring of 1805 he was sent as French envoy to the free +city of Hamburg. There it was his duty to carry out the measures of +commercial war against England, known as the Continental System; but it +is known that he not only viewed those tyrannical measures with disgust, +but secretly relaxed them in favour of those merchants who plied him +with _douceurs_. In the early spring of 1807, when directed by Napoleon +to order a large number of military cloaks for the army, then in East +Prussia, he found that the only means of procuring them expeditiously +was to order them from England. After gaining a large fortune while at +Hamburg, he was recalled to France in disgrace at the close of 1810. In +1814 he embraced the royal cause, and during the Hundred Days (1815) +accompanied Louis XVIII. to Ghent. The rest of his life was uneventful; +he died at Caen on the 7th of February 1834, after suffering from a +mental malady for two years. + + The fame of Bourrienne rests, not upon his achievements or his + original works, which are insignificant, but upon his _Memoires_, + edited by C.M. de Villemarest (10 vols., Paris, 1829-1831), which + have been frequently republished and translated. The best English + edition is that edited by Colonel R.W. Phipps (4 vols., London, + 1893); a new French edition has been edited by D. Lacroix (5 vols., + Paris, 1899-1900). See _Bourrienne et ses erreurs, volontaires et + involontaires_ (Paris, 1830), by Generals Belliard, Gourgaud, &c., for + a discussion of the genuineness of his Memoirs; also _Napoleon et ses + detracteurs_, by Prince Napoleon (Paris, 1887; Eng. trans., London, + 1888). (J. Hl. R.) + + + + +BOURRIT, MARC THEODORE (1739-1819), Swiss traveller and writer, came of +a family which was of French origin but had taken refuge at Geneva for +reasons connected with religion. His father was a watchmaker there, and +he himself was educated in his native city. He was a good artist and +etcher, and also a pastor, so that by reason of his fine voice and love +of music he was made (1768) precentor of the church of St Peter (the +former cathedral) at Geneva. This post enabled him to devote himself to +the exploration of the Alps, for which he had conceived a great passion +ever since an ascent (1761) of the Voirons, near Geneva. In 1775 he made +the first ascent of the Buet (10,201 ft.) by the now usual route from +the Pierre a Berard, on which the great flat rock known as the _Table au +Chantre_ still preserves his memory. In 1784-1785 he was the first +traveller to attempt the ascent of Mont Blanc (not conquered till 1786), +but neither then nor later (1788) did he succeed in reaching its summit. +On the other hand he reopened (1787) the route over the Col du Geant +(11,060 ft.), which had fallen into oblivion, and travelled also among +the mountains of the Valais, of the Bernese Oberland, &c. He received a +pension from Louis XVI., and was named the _historiographe des Alpes_ by +the emperor Joseph II., who visited him at Geneva. His last visit to +Chamonix was in 1812. His writings are composed in a naive, sentimental +and rather pompous style, but breathe throughout a most passionate love +for the Alps, as wonders of nature, and not as objects of scientific +study. His chief works are the _Description des glacieres de Savoye_, +1773 (English translation, Norwich, 1775-1776), the _Description des +Alpes pennines et rhetiennes_ (2 vols., 1781) (reprinted in 1783 under +the title of _Nouvelle Description des vallees de glace_, and in 1785, +with additions, in 3 vols., under the name of _Nouvelle Description des +glacieres_), and the _Descriptions des cols ou passages des Alpes_, (2 +vols., 1803), while his _Itineraire de Geneve, Lausanne et Chamouni_, +first published in 1791, went through several editions in his lifetime. + (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +BOURSAULT, EDME (1638-1701), French dramatist and miscellaneous writer, +was born at Mussy l'Eveque, now Mussy-sur-Seine (Aube), in October 1638. +On his first arrival in Paris in 1651 his language was limited to a +Burgundian patois, but within a year he produced his first comedy, _Le +Mort vivant_. This and some other pieces of small merit secured for him +distinguished patronage in the society ridiculed by Moliere in the +_Ecole des femmes_. Boursault was persuaded that the "Lysidas" of that +play was a caricature of himself, and attacked Moliere in _Le Portrait +du peintre ou la contre-critique de l'Ecole des femmes_ (1663). Moliere +retaliated in _L'Impromptu de Versailles_, and Boileau attacked +Boursault in Satires 7 and 9. Boursault replied to Boileau in his +_Satire des satires_ (1669), but was afterwards reconciled with him, +when Boileau on his side erased his name from his satires. Boursault +obtained a considerable pension as editor of a rhyming gazette, which +was, however, suppressed for ridiculing a Capuchin friar, and the editor +was only saved from the Bastille by the interposition of Conde. In 1671 +he produced a work of edification in _Ad usum Delphini: la veritable +etude des souverains_, which so pleased the court that its author was +about to be made assistant tutor to the dauphin when it was found that +he was ignorant of Greek and Latin, and the post was given to Pierre +Huet. Perhaps in compensation Boursault was made collector of taxes at +Mont-lucon about 1672, an appointment that he retained until 1688. Among +his best-known plays are _Le Mercure galant_, the title of which was +changed to _La Comedie sans titre_ (1683); _La Princesse de Cleves_ +(1676), an unsuccessful play which, when refurbished with fresh names by +its author, succeeded as _Germanicus; Esope a la ville_ (1690); and +_Esope a la cour_ (1701). His lack of dramatic instinct could hardly be +better indicated than by the scheme of his _Esope_, which allows the +fabulist to come on the stage in each scene and recite a fable. +Boursault died in Paris on the 15th of September 1701. + + The _Oeuvres choisies_ of Boursault were published in 1811, and a + sketch of him is to be found in M. Saint-Rene Taillandier's _Etudes + litteraires_ (1881). + + + + +BOURSE (from the Med. Lat. _bursa_, a purse), the French equivalent of +the Stock Exchange, and so used of the Paris Exchange, or of any foreign +money-market. The English form "burse," as in Sir Thomas Gresham's +building, which was known as "Britain's Burse," went out of use in the +18th century. The origin of the name is doubtful; it is not derived from +any connexion between purse and money, but rather from the use of a +purse as a sign. At Bruges a house belonging to the family de Bursa is +said to have been first used as an Exchange, and to have had three +purses as a sign on the front. + + + + +BOURSSE, ESAIAS (1630-1673), Dutch painter, was born in Amsterdam. He +was a follower of Pieter de Hooch, in whose manner he worked for many +years in his native town; then he took service with the Dutch East India +Company, and died on a sea voyage. His paintings are exceedingly rare, +perhaps because, in spite of their greater freedom and breadth, many of +them pass under the names of Vermeer of Delft and Pieter de Hooch. Two +of the paintings ascribed to the latter (one bears the false signature) +at the Ryks museum in Amsterdam, are now recognized as being the work of +Boursse. His subjects are interiors with figures, painted with great +precision and with exquisite quality of colour. The Wallace collection +has his masterpiece, an interior with a woman and a child in a cradle, +almost as brilliant as on the day it was painted, and reflecting +something of the feeling of Rembrandt, by whom he was influenced. Other +important examples are at the Ryks museum and at Aix-la-Chapelle. +Boursse's "Boy blowing Soap Bubbles," in the Berlin museum, was until +lately attributed to Vermeer of Delft. More than one picture bearing the +false signature of Boursse have been publicly shown of late years. + + + + +BOUSSINGAULT, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH DIEUDONNE (1802-1887), French +chemist, was born in Paris on the 2nd of February 1802. After studying +at the school of mines at Saint-Etienne he went, when little more than +twenty years old, to South America as a mining engineer on behalf of an +English company. During the insurrection of the Spanish colonies he was +attached to the staff of General Bolivar, and travelled widely in the +northern parts of the continent. Returning to France he became professor +of chemistry at Lyons, and in 1839 was appointed to the chair of +agricultural and analytical chemistry at the Conservatoire des Arts et +Metiers in Paris. In 1848 he was elected to the National Assembly, where +he sat as a Moderate republican. Three years later he was dismissed from +his professorship on account of his political opinions, but so much +resentment at this action was shown by scientific men in general, and +especially by his colleagues, who threatened to resign in a body, that +he was reinstated. He died in Paris on the 11th of May 1887. His first +papers were concerned with mining topics, and his sojourn in South +America yielded a number of miscellaneous memoirs, on the cause of +goitre in the Cordilleras, the gasses of volcanoes, earthquakes, +tropical rain, &c., which won the commendation of A. von Humboldt. From +1836 he devoted himself mainly to agricultural chemistry and animal and +vegetable physiology, with occasional excursions into mineral chemistry. +His work included papers on the quantity of nitrogen in different foods, +the amount of gluten in different wheats, investigations on the question +whether plants can assimilate free nitrogen from the atmosphere (which +he answered in the negative), the respiration of plants, the function of +their leaves, the action and value of manures, and other similar +subjects. Through his wife he had a share in an estate at Bechebronn in +Alsace, where he carried out many agricultural experiments. He +collaborated with J.B.A. Dumas in writing an _Essai de statique +chimique des etres organises_ (1841), and was the author of _Traite +d'economic rurale_ (1844), which was remodelled as _Agronomie, chimie +agricole, et physiologie_ (5 vols., 1860-1874; 2nd ed., 1884), and of +_Etudes sur la transformation du fer en acier_ (1875). + + + + +BOUTERWEK, FRIEDRICH (1766-1828), German philosopher and critic, was +born at Oker, near Goslar in Lower Saxony, and studied law at Gottingen. +From 1790, however, he became a disciple of Kant, published _Aphorismen +nach Kants Lehre vorgelegt_ (1793), and became professor of philosophy +at Gottingen (1802), where he died on the 9th of August 1828. As a +philosopher, he is interesting for his criticism of the theory of the +"thing-in-itself" (_Ding-an-sich_). For the pure reason, as described in +the _Kritik_, the "thing-in-itself" can be only an inconceivable +"something-in-general"; any statement about it involves the predication +of Reality, Unity and Plurality, which belong not to the absolute thing +but to phenomena. On the other hand, the subject is known by the fact of +will, and the object by that of resistance; the cognizance of willing is +the assertion of absolute reality in the domain of relative knowledge. +This doctrine has since been described as absolute Virtualism. Following +this train of thought, Bouterwek left the Kantian position through his +opposition to its formalism. In later life he inclined to the views of +F.H. Jacobi, whose letters to him (published at Gottingen, 1868) shed +much light on the development of his thought. His chief philosophical +works are _Ideen zu einer allgemeinen Apodiktik_ (Gottingen and Halle, +1799); _Aesthetik_ (Leipzig, 1806; Gottingen, 1815 and 1824); _Lehrbuch +der philos. Vorkenntnisse_ (Gottingen, 1810 and 1820); _Lehrbuch der +philos. Wissenschaften_ (Gottingen, 1813 and 1820). In these works he +dissociated himself from the Kantian school. His chief critical work was +the _Geschichte der neuern Poesie und Beredsamkeit_ (Gottingen, 12 +vols., 1801-1819), of which the history of Spanish literature has been +published separately in French, Spanish and English. The _Geschichte_ is +a work of wide learning and generally sound criticism, but it is not of +equal merit throughout. He also wrote three novels, _Paulus Septimus_ +(Halle, 1795), _Graf Donamar_ (Gottingen, 1791) and _Ramiro_ (Leipzig, +1804), and published a collection of poems (Gottingen, 1802). + + + + +BOUTHILLIER, CLAUDE, SIEUR DE FOUILLETOURTE (1581-1652), French +statesman, began life as an advocate. In 1613 he was councillor in the +parlement of Paris, and in 1619 became councillor of state and a +secretary to the queen-mother, Marie de' Medici. The connexion of his +father, Denis Bouthillier (d. 1622), with Cardinal Richelieu secured for +him the title of secretary of state in 1628, and he was able to remain +on good terms with both Marie de' Medici and Richelieu, in spite of +their rivalry. In 1632 he became superintendent of finances. But his +great role was in diplomacy. Richelieu employed him on many diplomatic +missions, and the success of his foreign policy was due in no small +degree to Bouthillier's ability and devotion. In 1630 he had taken part +at Regensburg in arranging the abortive treaty between the emperor and +France. From 1633 to 1640 he was continually busied with secret missions +in Germany, sometimes alone, sometimes with Father Joseph. Following +Richelieu's instructions, he negotiated the alliances which brought +France into the Thirty Years' War. Meanwhile, at home, his tact and +amiable disposition, as well as his reputation for straightforwardness, +had secured for him a unique position of influence in a court torn by +jealousies and intrigues. Trusted by the king, the confidant of +Richelieu, the friend of Marie de' Medici, and through his son, Leon +Bouthillier, who was appointed in 1635 chancellor to Gaston d'Orleans, +able to bring his influence to bear on that prince, he was an invaluable +mediator; and the personal influence thus exercised, combined with the +fact that he was at the head of both the finances and the foreign policy +of France, made him, next to the cardinal, the most powerful man in the +kingdom. Richelieu made him executor of his will, and Louis XIII. named +him a member of the council of regency which he intended should govern +the kingdom after his death. But the king's last plans were not carried +out, and Bouthillier was obliged to retire into private life, giving up +his office of superintendent of finances in June 1643. He died in Paris +on the 13th of March 1652. + +His son, LEON BOUTHILLIER (1608-1652), comte de Chavigny, was early +associated with his father, who took him with him from 1629 to 1632 to +all the great courts of Europe, instructing him in diplomacy. In 1632 he +was named secretary of state and seconded his father's work, so that it +is not easy always to distinguish their respective parts. After the +death of Louis XIII. he had to give up his office; but was sent as +plenipotentiary to the negotiations at Munster. He showed himself +incapable, however, giving himself up to pleasure and fetes, and +returned to France to intrigue against Mazarin. Arrested twice during +the Fronde, and then for a short time in power during Mazarin's exile +(April 1651), he busied himself with small intrigues which came to +nothing. + + + + +BOUTS-RIMES, literally (from the French) "rhymed ends," the name given +in all literatures to a kind of verses of which no better definition can +be found than was made by Addison, in the Spectator, when he described +them as "lists of words that rhyme to one another, drawn up by another +hand, and given to a poet, who was to make a poem to the rhymes in the +same order that they were placed upon the list." The more odd and +perplexing the rhymes are, the more ingenuity is required to give a +semblance of common-sense to the production. For instance, the rhymes +_breeze, elephant, squeeze, pant, scant, please, hope, pope_ are +submitted, and the following stanza is the result:-- + + Escaping from the Indian _breeze_, + The vast, sententious _elephant_ + Through groves of sandal loves to _squeeze_ + And in their fragrant shade to _pant_; + Although the shelter there be _scant_, + The vivid odours soothe and _please_, + And while he yields to dreams of _hope_, + Adoring beasts surround their _Pope_. + +The invention of bouts-rimes is attributed to a minor French poet of the +17th century, Dulot, of whom little else is remembered. According to the +_Menagiana_, about the year 1648, Dulot was complaining one day that he +had been robbed of a number of valuable papers, and, in particular, of +three hundred sonnets. Surprise being expressed at his having written so +many, Dulot explained that they were all "blank sonnets," that is to +say, that he had put down the rhymes and nothing else. The idea struck +every one as amusing, and what Dulot had done seriously was taken up as +a jest. Bouts-rimes became the fashion, and in 1654 no less a person +than Sarrasin composed a satire against them, entitled _La Defaite des +bouts-rimes_, which enjoyed a great success. Nevertheless, they +continued to be abundantly composed in France throughout the 17th +century and a great part of the 18th century. In 1701 Etienne Mallemans +(d. 1716) published a collection of serious sonnets, all written to +rhymes selected for him by the duchess of Maine. Neither Piron, nor +Marmontel, nor La Motte disdained this ingenious exercise, and early in +the 19th century the fashion was revived. The most curious incident, +however, in the history of bouts-rimes is the fact that the elder +Alexandre Dumas, in 1864, took them under his protection. He issued an +invitation to all the poets of France to display their skill by +composing to sets of rhymes selected for the purpose by the poet, Joseph +Mery (1798-1866). No fewer than 350 writers responded to the appeal, and +Dumas published the result, as a volume, in 1865. + +W.M. Rossetti, in the memoir of his brother prefixed to D.G. Rossetti's +_Collected Works_ (1886), mentions that, especially in 1848 and 1849, he +and Dante Gabriel Rossetti constantly practised their pens in writing +sonnets to _bouts-rimes_, each giving the other the rhymes for a sonnet, +and Dante Gabriel writing off these exercises in verse-making at the +rate of a sonnet in five or eight minutes. Most of W.M. Rossetti's poems +in _The Germ_ were _bouts-rimes_ experiments. Many of Dante Gabriel's, a +little touched up, remained in his brother's possession, but were not +included in the _Collected Works_. (E. G.) + + + + +BOUTWELL, GEORGE SEWALL (1818-1905), American statesman, was born in +Brookline, Massachusetts, on the 28th of January 1818. He was reared on +a farm, and at an early age began a mercantile career at Groton, Mass. +There he studied law and in 1836 was admitted to the bar, but did not +begin practice for many years. In 1842-1844 and again in 1847-1850 he +served in the state house of representatives, and became the recognized +leader on the Democratic side; he was thrice defeated for Congress, and +was twice an unsuccessful candidate for governor. In 1851, however, by +means of "Free-Soil" votes, he was chosen governor, and was re-elected +by the same coalition in 1852. In the following year he took an active +part in the state constitutional convention. He became a member of the +Massachusetts Board of Education in 1853, and as its secretary in +1855-1861 prepared valuable reports and rendered much service to the +state's school system. The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill in 1854 +had finally alienated him from the Democratic party, and he became one +of the founders of the new Republican party in the state. He played an +influential part in the Republican national convention in 1860, and in +1862 after the passage of the war tax measures he was appointed by +President Lincoln the first commissioner of internal revenue, which +department he organized. From 1863 to 1869 he was a representative in +Congress, taking an influential part in debate, and acting as one of the +managers of President Johnson's impeachment. From 1869 to 1873 he was +secretary of the treasury in President Grant's cabinet, and from 1873 +until 1877 was a United States senator from Massachusetts. Under an +appointment by President Hayes, he prepared the second edition of the +_United States Revised Statutes_ (1878). In 1880 he represented the +United States before the commission appointed in accordance with the +treaty of that year, between France and the United States, to decide the +claims brought by French citizens against the United States for acts of +the American authorities during the Civil War, and the claims of +American citizens against France for acts of French authorities during +the war between France and Mexico, the Franco-German War and the +Commune. He opposed the acquisition by the United States of the +Philippine Islands, became president of the Anti-Imperialistic League, +and was a presidential elector on the Bryan (Democratic) ticket in 1900. +He died at Groton, Massachusetts, on the 28th of February 1905. He +published various volumes, including _The Constitution of the United +States at the End of the First Century_ (1895), and _Reminiscences of +Sixty Years in Public Affairs_ (2 vols., New York, 1902). + + + + +BOUVARDIA, a genus of handsome evergreen greenhouse shrubs, belonging to +the natural order Rubiaceae, and a native of tropical America. The +flowers are in terminal generally many-flowered clusters; the corolla +has a large tube and a spreading four-rayed limb. The cultivated forms +include a number of hybrids. The plants are best increased by cuttings +taken off in April, and placed in a brisk heat in a propagating frame +with a close atmosphere. When rooted they should be potted singly into +3-in. pots in fibrous peat and loam, mixed with one-fourth leaf-mould +and a good sprinkling of sand, and kept in a temperature of 70 deg. by +night and 80 deg. during the day; shade when required; syringe overhead +in the afternoon and close the house with sun-heat. The plants should be +topped to ensure a bushy habit, and as they grow must be shifted into +6-in. or 7-in. pots. After midsummer move to a cool pit, where they may +remain till the middle of September, receiving plenty of air and space. +They should then be removed to a house, and some of the plants put at +once in a temperature of about 70 deg. at night, with a few degrees +higher in the daytime, to bring them into flower. Others are moved into +heat to supply flowers in succession through the winter and spring. + + + + +BOUVET, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1753-1832), French admiral, son of a captain in +the service of the French East India Company, was born on the 23rd of +April 1753. He went to sea at the age of twelve with his father. Bouvet +served in the East Indies in the famous campaign of 1781-83 under the +command of Suffren, but only in a subordinate rank. On the outbreak of +the French Revolution he very naturally took the anti-royalist side. +Murder and exile had removed the great majority of the officers of the +monarchy, and the services of a man of Bouvet's experience were +valuable. He was promoted captain and received the command of the +"Audacieux" (80) in the first great fleet collected by the republic. In +the same year (1793) he was advanced to rear-admiral, and he commanded a +division in the fleet which fought the battle of the 1st of June 1794 +against Lord Howe. Until the close of 1796 he continued in command of a +squadron in the French Channel fleet. In the December of that year he +was entrusted with the van division of the fleet which was sent from +Brest to attempt to land General Hoche with an expeditionary force in +the south of Ireland. The stormy weather which scattered the French as +soon as they left Brest gave Bouvet a prominence which he had not been +designed to enjoy. Bouvet, who found himself at daybreak on the 17th of +December separated with nine sail of the line from the rest of the +fleet, opened his secret orders, and found that he was to make his way +to Mizen Head. He took a wide course to avoid meeting British cruisers, +and on the 19th had the good luck to fall in with a considerable part of +the rest of the fleet and some of the transports. On the 21st of +December he arrived off Dursey Island at the entry to Bantry Bay. On the +24th he anchored near Bear Island with part of his fleet. The continued +storms which blew down Bantry Bay, and the awkwardness of the French +crews, made it impossible to land the troops he had with him. On the +evening of the 25th the storm increased to such a pitch of violence that +the frigate in which Bouvet had hoisted his flag was blown out to sea. +The wind moderated by the 29th, but Bouvet, being convinced that none of +the ships of his squadron could have remained at the anchorage, steered +for Brest, where he arrived on the 1st of January 1797. His fortune had +been very much that of his colleagues in this storm-tossed expedition, +and on the whole he had shown more energy than most of them. He was +wrong, however, in thinking that all his squadron had failed to keep +their anchorage in Bantry Bay. The government, displeased by his +precipitate return to Brest, dismissed him from command soon afterwards. +He was compelled to open a school to support himself. Napoleon restored +him to the service, and he commanded the squadron sent to occupy +Guadaloupe during the peace of Amiens, but he had no further service, +and lived in obscurity till his death on the 21st of July 1832. + + Tronde, _Batailles navales de la France_, vols. ii. and iii., and + James, _Naval History_, vols. i. and ii., give accounts of the 1st of + June and the expedition to Ireland. There is a vigorous account of the + expedition in Tronde's _English in Ireland_, and it is dealt with in + Admiral Colomb's _Naval Warfare_. (D. H.) + + + + +BOUVIER, JOHN (1787-1851), American jurist, was born in Codogno, France, +in 1787. In 1802 his family, who were Quakers (his mother was a member +of the well-known Benezet family), emigrated to America and settled in +Philadelphia, and after varied experiences as proprietor of a book shop +and as a country editor he was admitted to the bar in 1818, having +become a citizen of the United States in 1812. He attained high standing +in his profession, was recorder of Philadelphia in 1836, and from 1838 +until his death was an associate justice of the court of criminal +sessions in that city. He is best known for his able legal writings. His +_Law Dictionary Adapted to the Constitution and Laws of the United +States of America and of the Several States of the American Union_ +(1839, revised and brought up to date by Francis Rawle, under the title +of _Bouvier's Law Dictionary_, 2 vols., 1897) has always been a +standard. He published also an edition of _Bacon's Abridgement of the +Law_ (10 vols., 1842-1846), and a compendium of American law entitled +_The Institutes of American Law_ (4 vols., 1851; new ed. 2 vols., 1876). + + + + +BOUVINES, a village on the French-Belgian frontier between Lille and +Tournay, the scene of one of the greatest battles of the middle ages, +fought on the 27th of July 1214, between the forces of Philip Augustus, +king of France, and those of the coalition formed against him, of which +the principal members were the emperor and King John of England. The +plan of campaign seems to have been designed by King John, who was the +soul of the alliance; his general idea was to draw the French king to +the southward against himself, while the emperor Otto IV., the princes +of the Netherlands and the main army of the allies should at the right +moment march upon Paris from the north. John's part in the general +strategy was perfectly executed; the allies in the north moved slowly. +While John, after two inroads, turned back to his Guienne possessions on +the 3rd of July, it was not until three weeks later that the emperor +concentrated his forces at Valenciennes, and in the interval Philip +Augustus had countermarched northward and concentrated an army at +Peronne. Philip now took the offensive himself, and in manoeuvring to +get a good cavalry ground upon which to fight he offered battle (July +27), on the plain east of Bouvines and the river Marque--the same plain +on which in 1794 the brilliant cavalry action of Willems was fought. The +imperial army accepted the challenge and drew up facing south-westward +towards Bouvines, the heavy cavalry on the wings, the infantry in one +great mass in the centre, supported by the cavalry corps under the +emperor himself. The total force is estimated at 6500 heavy cavalry and +40,000 foot. The French army (about 7000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry) +took ground exactly opposite to the enemy and in a similar formation, +cavalry on the wings, infantry, including the _milice des communes_, in +the centre, Philip with the cavalry reserve and the Oriflamme in rear of +the foot. The battle opened with a confused cavalry fight on the French +right, in which individual feats of knightly gallantry were more +noticeable than any attempt at combined action. The fighting was more +serious between the two centres; the infantry of the Low Countries, who +were at this time almost the best in existence, drove in the French; +Philip led the cavalry reserve of nobles and knights to retrieve the +day, and after a long and doubtful fight, in which he himself was +unhorsed and narrowly escaped death, began to drive back the Flemings. +In the meanwhile the French feudatories on the left wing had thoroughly +defeated the imperialists opposed to them, and William Longsword, earl +of Salisbury, the leader of this corps, was unhorsed and taken prisoner +by the warlike bishop of Beauvais. Victory declared itself also on the +other wing, where the French at last routed the Flemish cavalry and +captured Count Ferdinand of Flanders, one of the leaders of the +coalition. In the centre the battle was now between the two mounted +reserves led respectively by the king and the emperor in person. Here +too the imperial forces suffered defeat, Otto himself being saved only +by the devotion of a handful of Saxon knights. The day was already +decided in favour of the French when their wings began to close inwards +to cut off the retreat of the imperial centre. The battle closed with +the celebrated stand of Reginald of Boulogne, a revolted vassal of King +Philip, who formed a ring of seven hundred Brabancon pikemen, and not +only defied every attack of the French cavalry, but himself made +repeated charges or sorties with his small force of knights. Eventually, +and long after the imperial army had begun its retreat, the gallant +schiltron was ridden down and annihilated by a charge of three thousand +men-at-arms. Reginald was taken prisoner in the _melee_; and the +prisoners also included two other counts, Ferdinand and William +Longsword, twenty-five barons and over a hundred knights. The killed +amounted to about 170 knights of the defeated party, and many thousands +of foot on either side, of whom no accurate account can be given. + + See Oman, _History of the Art of War_, vii. pp. 457-480; also Kohler, + _Kriegsgeschichte, &c_., i. 140, and Delpech, _Tactique au XIII + siecle_, 127. + + + + +BOVEY BEDS, in geology, a deposit of sands, clays and lignite, 200-300 +ft. thick, which lies in a basin extending from Bovey Tracey to Newton +Abbot in Devonshire, England. The deposit is evidently the result of the +degradation of the neighbouring Dartmoor granite; and it was no doubt +laid down in a lake. O. Heer, who examined the numerous plant remains +from these beds, concluded that they belonged to the same geological +horizon as the Molasse or Oligocene of Switzerland. Starkie Gardiner, +however, who subsequently examined the flora, showed that it bore a +close resemblance to that of the Bournemouth Beds or Lower Bagshot; in +this view he is supported by C. Reid. Large excavations have been made +for the extraction of the clays, which are very valuable for pottery +and similar purposes. The lignite or "Bovey Coal" has at times been +burned in the local kilns, and in the engines and workmen's cottages, +but it is not economical. + + See S. Gardiner, _Q. J. G. S._ London, xxxv., 1879; W. Pengelly and O. + Heer, _Phil. Trans._, 1862; C. Reid, _Q. J. G. S._ lii., 1896, p. 490, + and _loc. cit._ liv., 1898, p. 234. An interesting general account is + given by A.W. Clayden, _The History of Devonshire Scenery_ (London, + 1906), pp. 159-168. + + + + +BOVIANUM, the name of two ancient Italian towns, (1) UNDECIMANORUM +[_Boiano_], the chief city of the Pentri Samnites, 9 m. N.W. of Saepinum +and 18 m. S.E. of Aesernia, on the important road from Beneventum to +Corfinium, which connected the Via Appia and the Via Valeria. The +original city occupied the height (Civita) above the modern town, where +remains of Cyclopean walls still exist, while the Roman town (probably +founded after the Social War, in which Bovianum was the seat of the +Samnite assembly) lay in the plain. It acquired the name _Undecimanorum_ +when Vespasian settled the veterans of the Legio XI. Claudia there. Its +remains have been covered by over 30 ft. of earth washed down from the +mountains. Comparatively few inscriptions have been discovered. (2) +VETUS (near Pietrabbondante, 5 m. S. of Agnone and 19 m. N.W. of +Campobasso), according to Th. Mommsen (_Corpus Inscrip. Lat._ ix. +Berlin, 1883, p. 257) the chief town of the Caraceni. It lay in a remote +situation among the mountains, and where Bovianum is mentioned the +reference is generally to Bovianum Undecimanorum. Remains of +fortifications and lower down of a temple and a theatre (cf. _Romische +Mitteilungen_, 1903, 154)--the latter remarkable for the fine +preservation of the stone seats of the three lowest rows of the +auditorium--are to be seen. No less than eight Oscan inscriptions have +been found. (T. As.) + + + + +BOVIDAE, the name of the family of hollow-horned ruminant mammals +typified by the common ox (_Bos taurus_), and specially characterized by +the presence on the skulls of the males or of both sexes of a pair of +bony projections, or cores, covered in life with hollow sheaths of horn, +which are never branched, and at all events after a very early stage of +existence are permanently retained. From this, which is alone sufficient +for diagnostic purposes, the group is often called the Cavicornia. For +other characteristics see PECORA. The _Bovidae_ comprise a great number +of genera and species, and include the oxen, sheep, goats, antelopes and +certain other kinds which come under neither of these designations. In +stature they range from the size of a hare to that of a rhinoceros; and +their horns vary in size and shape from the small and simple spikes of +the oribi and duiker antlers to the enormous and variously shaped +structures borne respectively by buffaloes, wild sheep and kudu and +other large antelopes. In geographical distribution the _Bovidae_ +present a remarkable contrast to the deer tribe, or _Cervidae_. Both of +these families are distributed over the whole of the northern +hemisphere, but whereas the Cervidae are absent from Africa south of the +Sahara and well represented in South America, the Bovidae are unknown in +the latter area, but are extraordinarily abundant in Africa. Neither +group is represented in Australasia; Celebes being the eastern limit of +the _Bovidae_. The present family doubtless originated in the northern +half of the Old World, whence it effected an entrance by way of the +Bering Strait route into North America, where it has always been but +poorly represented in the matter of genera and species. + +The _Bovidae_ are divided into a number of sections, or subfamilies, +each of which is briefly noticed in the present article, while fuller +mention of some of the more important representatives of these is made +in other articles. + +The first section is that of the _Bovinae_, which includes buffaloes, +bison and oxen. The majority of these are large and heavily-built +ruminants, with horns present in both sexes, the muzzle broad, moist and +naked, the nostrils lateral, no face-glands, and a large dewlap often +developed in the males; while the tail is long and generally tufted, +although in one instance longhaired throughout. The horns are of nearly +equal size in both sexes, are placed on or near the vertex of the skull, +and may be either rounded or angulated, while their direction is more or +less outwards, with an upward direction near the tips, and conspicuous +knobs or ridges are never developed on their surface. The tall upper +molars have inner columns. The group is represented throughout the Old +World as far east as Celebes, and has one living North American +representative. All the species may be included in the genus _Bos_, with +several subgeneric divisions (see ANOA, AUROCHS, BANTIN, BISON, BUFFALO, +GAUR, GAYAL, OX and YAK). + +The second group, or _Caprinae_, includes the sheep and goats, which are +smaller animals than most of the _Bovidae_, generally with horns in both +sexes, but those of the females small. In the males the horns are +usually compressed and triangular, with transverse ridges or knobs, and +either curving backwards or spiral. The muzzle is narrow and hairy; and +when face-glands are present these are small and insignificant; while +the tail is short and flattened. Unlike the _Bovinae_, there are +frequently glands in the feet; and the upper molar teeth differ from +those of that group in their narrower crowns, which lack a distinct +inner column. When a face-pit is present in the skull it is small. The +genera are _Ovis_ (sheep), _Capra_ (goats) and _Hemitragus_ (tahr). +Sheep and goats are very nearly related, but the former never have a +beard on the chin of the males, which are devoid of a strong odour; and +their horns are typically of a different type. There are, however, +several more or less transitional forms. Tahr are short-horned goats. +The group is unknown in America, and in Africa is only represented in +the mountains of the north, extending, however, some distance south into +the Sudan and Abyssinia. All the species are mountain-dwellers. (See +UDAD, ARGALI, GOAT, IBEX, MOUFLON, SHEEP and TAHR.) + +The musk-ox (_Ovibos moschatus_) alone represents the family +_Ovibovinae_, which is probably most nearly related to the next group +(see MUSK-OX). + +Next come the _Rupicaprinae_, which include several genera of +mountain-dwelling ruminants, typified by the European chamois +(_Rupicapra_); the other genera being the Asiatic serow, goral and +takin, and the North American Rocky Mountain goat. These ruminants are +best described as goat-like antelopes. (See ANTELOPE, CHAMOIS, GORAL, +ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT, SEROW and TAKIN.) + +Under the indefinable term "antelope" (q.v.) may be included the seven +remaining sections, namely _Tragelaphinae_ (kudu and eland), +_Hippotraginae_ (sable antelope and oryx), _Antilopinae_ (black-buck, +gazelles, &c.), _Cervicaprinae_ (reedbuck and waterbuck), _Neotraginae_ +(klipspringer and steinbok), _Cephalophinae_ (duikers and four-horned +antelopes) and _Bubalinae_ (hartebeests and gnus). (R. L.*) + + + + +BOVILL, SIR WILLIAM (1814-1873), English judge, a younger son of +Benjamin Bovill, of Wimbledon, was born at All-hallows, Barking, on the +26th of May 1814. On leaving school he was articled to a firm of +solicitors, but entering the Middle Temple he practised for a short time +as a special pleader below the bar. He was called in 1841 and joined the +home circuit. His special training in a solicitor's office, and its +resulting connexion, combined with a thorough knowledge of the details +of engineering, acquired through his interest in a manufacturing firm in +the east end of London, soon brought him a very extensive patent and +commercial practice. He became Q.C. in 1855, and in 1857 was elected +M.P. for Guildford. In the House of Commons he was very zealous for +legal reform, and the Partnership Law Amendment Act 1865, which he +helped to pass, is always referred to as Bovill's Act. In 1866 he was +appointed solicitor-general, an office which he vacated on becoming +chief justice of the common pleas in succession to Sir W. Erie in +November of the same year. He died at Kingston, Surrey, on the 1st of +November 1873. As a barrister he was unsurpassed for his remarkable +knowledge of commercial law; and when promoted to the bench his +painstaking labour and unswerving uprightness, as well as his great +patience and courtesy, gained for him the respect and affection of the +profession. + + + + +BOVILLAE, an ancient town of Latium, a station on the Via Appia (which +in 293 B.C. was already paved up to this point), 11 m. S.E. of Rome. It +was a colony of Alba Longa, and appears as one of the thirty cities of +the Latin league; after the destruction of Alba Longa the _sacra_ were, +it was held, transferred to Bovillae, including the cult of Vesta (in +inscriptions _virgines Vestales Albanae_ are mentioned, and the +inhabitants of Bovillae are always spoken of as _Albani Longani +Bovillenses_) and that of the _gens Iulia_. The existence of this +hereditary worship led to an increase in its importance when the Julian +house rose to the highest power in the state. The knights met Augustus's +dead body at Bovillae on its way to Rome, and in A.D. 16 the shrine of +the family worship was dedicated anew,[1] and yearly games in the circus +instituted, probably under the charge of the _sodales Augustales_, whose +official calendar has been found here. In history Bovillae appears as +the scene of the quarrel between Milo and Clodius, in which the latter, +whose villa lay above the town on the left of the Via Appia, was killed. +The site is not naturally strong, and remains of early fortifications +cannot be traced. It may be that Bovillae took the place of Alba Longa +as a local centre after the destruction of the latter by Rome, which +would explain the deliberate choice of a strategically weak position. +Remains of buildings of the imperial period--the circus, a small +theatre, and edifices probably connected with the post-station--may +still be seen on the south-west edge of the Via Appia. + + See L. Canina, _Via Appia_ (Rome, 1853), i. 202 seq.; T. Ashby in + _Melanges de l'ecole francaise de Rome_ (1903), p. 395. (T. As.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] It is not likely that any remains of it now exist. + + + + +BOW (pronounced "bo"), a common Teutonic word for anything bent[1] (O. +Eng. _boezha_; cf. O. Sax. and O.H.G. _bogo_, M.H.G. _boge_, Mod. Ger. +_bogen_; from O. Teut. stem _bug_- of _beugan_, Mod. Ger. _biegen_, to +bend). Thus it is found in English compound words, e.g. "elbow," +"rainbow," "bow-net," "bow-window," "bow-knot," "saddle-bow," and by +itself as the designation of a great variety of objects. The Old English +use of "bow," or stone-bow, for "arch," now obsolete, survives in +certain names of churches and places, e.g. Bow church (St +Mary-in-Arcubus) in Cheapside, and Stratford-le-Bow (the +"Stratford-atte-Bowe" of Chaucer). "Bow," however, is still the +designation of objects so various as an appliance for shooting arrows +(see ARCHERY), a necktie in the form of a bow-knot (i.e. a double-looped +knot), a ring or hoop forming a handle (e.g. the bow of a watch), +certain instruments or tools consisting of a bent piece of wood with the +ends drawn together by a string, used for drilling, turning, &c., in +various crafts, and the stick strung with horsehair by means of which +the strings of instruments of the violin family are set in vibration. It +is with this last that the present article is solely concerned. + +_Bow in Music_.--The modern bow (Fr. _archet_; Ger. _Bogen_; Ital. +_arco_) consists of five parts, i.e. the "stick," the screw or +"ferrule," the "nut," the "hair" and the "head." The stick, in +high-grade bows, is made of Pernambuco wood (_Caesalpinia +brasiliensis_), which alone combines the requisite lightness, elasticity +and power of resistance; for the cheaper bows American oak is used, and +for the double-bass bow beech. A billet rich in colouring matter and +straight in the grain is selected, and the stick is usually cut from a +templet so as to obtain the accurate taper, which begins about 4-1/4 in. +from the nut, decreasing according to regular proportions from 3/8 in. +at the screw to 3/16 at the back of the head. The stick is cut +absolutely straight and parallel along its whole length with the fibre +of the wood; it is then bent by heat until it is slightly convex to the +hair and has assumed the elegant _cambrure_ first given to it by +Francois Tourte (1747-1835). This process requires the greatest care, +for if the fibres be not heated right through, they offer a continual +resistance to the curve, and return after a time to the rigid straight +line, a defect often observed in cheap bows. The sticks are now of +either cylindrical or octagonal section, and are lapped or covered with +gold thread or leather for some inches beyond the nut in order to afford +a firm grip. The length of the stick was definitely and finally fixed by +Francois Tourte at 29.34 to 29.528 in. + + The centre of gravity in a well-balanced violin bow should be at 19 + cm. (7-1/2 to 7-3/4 in.) from the nut;[2] in the violoncello bow the + hair measures from 60 to 62 cm. (24 to 25 in.), and the centre of + gravity is at from 175 to 180 mm. (7 to 7-1/4 in.) from the nut. In + consequence of the flexure given to the stick, Tourte found it + necessary to readjust the proportions and relative height of head and + nut, in order to keep the hair at a satisfactory distance from the + stick, and at the necessary angle in attacking the strings so as to + avoid contact between stick and strings in bowing. In order to + counterbalance the consequent increased weight of the head and to keep + the centre of gravity nearer the hand, Tourte loaded the nut with + metal inlays or ornamental designs. + + The screw or ferrule, at the cylindrical end of the stick held by the + hand, provides the means of tightening or loosening the tension of the + hair. This screw, about 3-1/4 in. long, hidden within the stick, runs + through the eye of another little screw at right angles to it, which + is firmly embedded in the nut. + + The nut is a wooden block at the screw end of the stick, the original + purpose of which was to keep the hair at a proper distance from the + stick and to provide a secure attachment for the hair. The whole nut + slides up and down the stick in a groove in answer to the screw, thus + tightening or relaxing the tension of the hair. In the nut is a little + cavity or chamber, into which the knotted end of the hair is firmly + fixed by means of a little wedge, the hair being then brought out and + flattened over the front of the nut like a ribbon by the pressure of a + flat ferrule. The mother-of-pearl slide which runs along a mortised + groove further protects the hair on the outside of the nut. Bows + having these attachments of ferrule and slide, added by Tourte at the + instigation of the violinist Giovanni Battista Viotti, were known as + _archets a recouvrements_. + + The hair is chosen from the best white horsehair, and each of the 150 + to 200 hairs which compose the half-inch wide ribbon of the bow must + be perfectly cylindrical and smooth. It is bought by the pound, and + must be very carefully sorted, for not more than one hair in ten is + perfectly cylindrical and fit for use on a high-grade bow. Experience + determines the right number of hairs, for if the ribbon be too thick + it hinders the vibration of the strings; if too thin the friction is + not strong enough to produce a good tone. Fetis gives 175 to 250 as + the number used in the modern bow,[3] and Julius Ruhlmann 110 to + 120.[4] Tourte attached the greatest importance to the hairing of the + bow, and bestowed quite as much attention upon it as upon the stick. + He subjected the hair to the following process of cleansing: first it + was thoroughly scoured with soap and water to remove all grease, then + steeped in bran-water, freed from all heterogeneous matter still + adhering to it, and finally rinsed in pure water slightly blued. When + passed between the fingers in the direction from root to tip, the hair + glides smoothly and offers no resistance, but passed in the opposite + direction it feels rough, suggesting a regular succession of minute + projections. The outer epithelium or sheath of the hair is composed of + minute scales which produce a succession of infinitesimal shocks when + the hair is drawn across the strings; the force and uniformity of + these shocks, which produce series of vibrations of equal persistency, + is considerably heightened by the application of rosin to the hair. + The particles of rosin cling to the scales of the epithelium, thus + accentuating the projections and the energy of the attack or "bite" + upon the strings. With use, the scales of the epithelium wear off, and + then no matter how much rosin is applied, the bow fails to elicit + musical sounds--it is then "played out" and must be re-haired. The + organic construction of horsehair makes it necessary, in hairing the + bow, to lay the hairs in opposite directions, so that the up and down + strokes may be equal and a pure and even tone obtained. Waxed silk is + wound round both ends of the hair to form a strong knot, which is + afterwards covered with melted rosin and hardens with the hair into a + solid mass. + + The head, 1 in. long and 7/16 in. wide at the plate, is cut in one + piece with the stick, an operation which requires delicate + workmanship; otherwise the head is liable to snap at this point during + a _sforzando_ passage. The head has a chamber and wedge contrivance + similar to that of the nut, in which the other end of the hair is + immovably fixed. The hair on the face of the head is protected by a + metal or ivory plate. + + The model bow here described, elaborated by Francois Tourte as long + ago as between 1775 and 1780 according to Fetis,[5] or between 1785 + and 1790 according to Vidal,[6] has not since been surpassed. + + +That the violin and the bow form one inseparable whole becomes evident +when we consider the history of the forerunners of the viol family: +without the bow the ancestor of the violin would have remained a guitar; +the bow would not have reached its present state of perfection had it +been required only for instruments of the _rebec_ and _vielle_ type. As +soon as the possibilities of the violin were realized, as a solo +instrument capable, through the agency of the bow, of expressing the +emotions of the performer, the perfecting of the bow was prosecuted in +earnest until it was capable of responding to every shade of delicate +thought and feeling. This accounts in a measure for the protracted +development of the bow, which, although used long before the violin had +been evolved, did not reach a state of perfection at the hands of Tourte +until more than a century and a half after the Cremona master had given +us the violin. + +The question of the origin of the bow still remains a matter of +conjecture. Its appearance in western Europe seems to have coincided +with the conquest of Spain by the Moors in the 8th century, and the +consequent impetus their superior culture gave to arts and sciences in +the south-west of Europe. We have, however, no well-authenticated +representation of the bow before the 9th century in Europe; the earliest +is the bow illustrated along with the Lyra Teutonica by Martin +Gerbert[7], the representation being taken from a MS. at the monastery +of St Blaise, dating in his opinion from the 9th century. On the other +hand, Byzantine art of the 9th and 11th centuries[8] reveals +acquaintance with a bow far in advance of most of the crude contemporary +specimens of western Europe. The bow undoubtedly came from the East, and +was obviously borrowed by the Greeks of Asia Minor and the Arabs from a +common source--probably India, by way of Persia. The earliest +representation of a bow yet discovered is to be found among the fine +frescoes in one of the chapels of the monastery of Bawit[9] in Egypt. +The mural paintings in question were the work of many artists, covering +a considerable period of time. The only non-religious subject depicted +is a picture of a youthful Orpheus, assigned by Jean Cledat to some date +not later than the 8th century A.D., but more probably the work of a +6th-century artist. Orpheus is holding an instrument, which appears to +be a rebab, against his chin, in the act of bowing and stopping the +strings. The bow is similar in shape to one shown in the Psalter of +Labeo Notker, Leipzig, 10th century, mentioned farther on. On Indian +sculptures of the first centuries of our era, such as the Buddhist +_stupas_ of Amaravati, the risers of the topes of Jamal-Garhi, in the +Yusafzai district of Afghanistan (both in the British Museum), on which +stringed instruments abound, there is no bow. The bow has remained a +primitive instrument in India to this day; a Hindu tradition assigns its +invention to Ravanon, a king of Ceylon, and the instrument for which it +was invented was called _ravanastron_; a primitive instrument of that +name is still in use in Hindustan[10]. F.J. Fetis[11], Antoine +Vidal[12], Edward Heron-Allen[13], and others have given the question +some consideration, and readers who wish to pursue the matter farther +are referred to their works. + +There is thus no absolute proof of the existence of the bow in primitive +times. The earliest bow known in Europe was associated with the rebab +(q.v.), the most widely used bowed instrument until the 12th century. +The development of this instrument can be traced with some degree of +certainty, but it is quite impossible to decide at what date or in what +place the use of the bow was introduced. The bow developed very slowly +in Europe and remained a crude instrument as long as it was applied to +the rebab and its hybrids. Its progress became marked only from the time +when it was applied to the almost perfect guitar (q.v.), which then +became the guitar fiddle (q.v.), the immediate forerunner of the viols. + +[Illustration: Drawn from the ivory cover of the _Lothair Psalter_, by +permission of Sir Thomas Brooke. + +FIG. 1.--Earliest Bow of the Cremaillere Type (c. 11th century).] + +The first improvement on the primitive arched bow was to provide some +sort of handle in a straight line with the hair or string of the bow, +such as is shown in the MS. translation of the Psalms by Labeo Notker, +late 10th century, in the University library, Leipzig.[14] The length of +the handle was often greatly exaggerated, perhaps by the fancy of the +artist. Another handle (see Bodleian Library MS., N.E.D. 2, 12th +century) was in the form of a hilt with a knob, possibly a screw-nut, in +which the arched stick and the hair were both fixed. The first +development of importance influencing the technique of stringed +instruments was the attempt to find some device for controlling the +tension of the hair. The contrivance known as _cremaillere_, which was +the first step in this direction, seems to have been foreshadowed in the +bows drawn in a quaint MS. of the 14th century in the British Museum +(Sloane 3983, fol. 43 and 13) on astronomy. Forming an obtuse angle with +the handle of the bow is a contrivance shaped like a spear-head which +presumably served some useful purpose; if it had notches (which would be +too small to show in the drawing), and the hair of the bow was finished +with a loop, then we have here an early example of a device for +controlling the tension. Another bow in the same MS. has two round knobs +on the stick which may be assumed to have served the same purpose. + +[Illustriation: Drawn from bows the property of William E. Hill & Sons. + +FIG. 2.--A, B, Tartini Bows; C, Tourte Bow.] + +A very early example of the _cremaillere_ bow (fig. 1) occurs on a +carved ivory plate ornamenting the binding of the fine Carolingian MS. +Psalter of Lothair (A.D. 825), for some time known as the Ellis and +White Psalter, but now in the library of Sir Thomas Brooke at Armitage +Bridge House. The carved figure of King David, assigned from its +characteristic pose and the treatment of the drapery to the 11th +century, holds a stringed instrument, a rotta of peculiar shape, which +occurs twice in other Carolingian MSS.[15] of the 9th century, but +copied here without understanding, as though it were a lyre with many +strings. The artist has added a bow with _cremaillere_ attachment, +which is startling if the carving be accurately placed in the 11th +century. The earliest representation of a _cremaillere_ bow, with this +exception, dates from the 15th century, according to Viollet-le-Duc, who +merely states that it was copied from a painting.[16] Fetis (op. cit. p. +117) figures a _cremaillere_ bow which he styles "Bassani, 1680." +Sebastian Virdung draws a bow for a _tromba marina_, with the hair and +stick bound together with waxed cord. The hair appears to be kept more +or less tense by means of a wedge of wood or other material forced in +between stick and hair, the latter bulging slightly at this point like +the string of an archery bow when the arrow is in position; this +contrivance may be due to the fancy of the artist. + +The invention of a movable nut propelled by a screw is ascribed to the +elder Tourte (fig. 2); had we not this information on the best authority +(Vuillaume and Fetis), it might be imagined that some of the bows +figured by Mersenne,[17] e.g. the bass viol bow KL (p. 184), and another +KLM (p. 192), had a movable nut and screw; the nut is clearly drawn +astride the stick as in the modern bow. Mersenne explains (p. 178) the +construction of the bow, which consists of three parts: the _bois, +baton_ or _brin_, the _soye_, and the _demi-roue_ or _hausse_. The term +"half-wheel" clearly indicates that the base of the nut was cut round so +as to fit round the stick. In the absence of any allusion to such +ingenious mechanism as that of screw and nut, we must infer that the +drawing is misleading and that the very decided button was only meant +for an ornamental finish to the stick. We are informed further that _la +soye_ was in reality hairs from the horse or some other animal, of which +from 80 to 100 were used for each bow. The up-stroke of the bow was used +on the weak beats, 2, 4, 6, 8, and the down-stroke on the strong beats, +1, 3, 5, 7 (p. 185). The same practice prevailed in England in 1667, +when Christopher Simpson wrote the _Division Viol_. He gives information +concerning the construction of the bow in these words: "the viol-bow for +division should be stiff but not heavy. The length (betwixt the two +places where the hairs are fastened at each end) about seven-and-twenty +inches. The nut should be short, the height of it about a finger's +breadth or a little more" (p. 2). + +As soon as Corelli (1653-1713) formulated the principles of the +technique of the violin, marked modifications in the construction of the +bow became noticeable. Tartini, who began during the second decade of +the 18th century to gauge the capabilities of the bow, introduced +further improvements, such as a lighter wood for the stick, a straight +contour, and a shorter head, in order to give better equilibrium. The +Tourtes, father and son, accomplished the rest. + + After Francois Tourte, the following makers are the most esteemed: + J.B. Vuillaume, who was directly inspired by Tourte and rendered an + inestimable service to violinists by working out on a scientific basis + the empirical taper of the Tourte stick, which was found in all his + bows to conform to strict ratio;[18] Dominique Peccate, apprenticed to + J.B. Vuillaume; Henry, 1812-1870, who signs his name and "Paris" on + the stick near the nut; Jacques Lefleur, 1760-1832; Francois Lupot, + 1774-1837, the first to line the angular cutting of the nut, where it + slides along the stick, with a plate of metal; Simon, born 1808, who + also signs his bows on the stick near the nut; John Dodd of Richmond, + the greatest English bow-maker, who was especially renowned for his + violoncello bows, though his violin bows had the defect of being + rather short. + + The violoncello bow is a little shorter than those used for violin and + viola, and the head and nut are deeper. + + The principal models of double-bass bows in vogue at the beginning of + the 19th century were the _Dragonetti_, maintaining the arch of the + medieval bows, and the _Bottesini_, shaped and held like the violin + bow; the former was held over-hand with the hair inclining towards the + bridge, and was adopted by the Paris Conservatoire under Habeneck + about 1830; the great artist himself sent over the model from London. + Illustrations of both bows are given by Vidal (_op. cit._ pl. xviii.). + + Messrs W.E. Hill & Sons probably possess the finest and most + representative collection of bows in the world. (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] "Bow," the forepart or head of a ship, must be distinguished from + this word. It is the same word, and pronounced in the same way, as + "bough," an arm or limb of a tree, and represents a common Teutonic + word, seen in O. Eng. _bog_, Ger. _Bug_, shoulder, and is cognate + with Gr. [Greek: paechus], forearm. The sense of "shoulder" of a ship + is not found in O. Eng. _bog_. but was probably borrowed from Dutch + or Danish. "Bow," an inclination of the head or body, though + pronounced as "bough," is of the same origin as "bow," to bend. + + [2] See F.J. Fetis, _Antoine Stradivari_, pp. 120-121 (Paris, 1856). + + [3] Fetis, _op. cit._ p. 123. + + [4] J. Ruhlmann, _Die Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente_ (Brunswick, + 1882), p. 143. + + [5] Fetis, _op. cit._ p. 119. + + [6] Antoine Vidal, _Les Instruments a archet_ (Paris, 1876-1878), + tome i. p. 269 + + [7] _De Cantu et Musica Sacra_ (1774), tome ii. pl. xxxii. No. 18; + the MS. has since perished by fire. + + [8] See, for an illustration of the bowed instrument on one of the + sides of a Byzantine ivory casket, 9th century, in the Carrand + Collection, Florence, A. Venturi, _Gallerie Nazionali Italiane_, iii. + (Rome, 1897), plate, p. 263; and _Add. MS. 19,352, British Museum_, + Greek Psalter, dated 1066. + + [9] See Jean Cledat, "Le Monastere et la necropole de Baouit," in + _Mem. de l'Inst. franc. d'archeol. orient. du Caire_, vol. xii. + (1904), chap. xviii. pl. lxiv. (2); also Fernand Cabrol, _Dict. + d'archeol. chretienne, s.v._ "Baouit." + + [10] For an illustration, see Sonnerat, _Voyage aux Indes orientales_ + (Paris, 1806), vol. i. p. 182. + + [11] _Op. cit._ pp. 4-10. + + [12] _Op. cit._ vol. i. p. 3 and pl. ii. + + [13] Edward Heron-Allen, _Violin-making as it was and is_ (London, + 1884), pp. 37-42, figs. 5-10. + + [14] MS. 774, fol. 30. For an illustration of it see Hyacinth Abele, + _Die Violine, ihre Geschichte und ihr Bau_ (Neuburg-a-D., 1874), pl. + 5, No. 7. + + [15] See CROWD for fig. from the Bible of Charles le Chauve; and also + King David in the Bible of St Paul _extra muros_, Rome (photographic + facsimile by J.O. Westwood, Oxford, 1876). + + [16] See _Dictionnaire raisonne du mobilier francais_ (Paris, 1871), + vol. ii. part iv. pp. 265 D. and 266 note. + + [17] Marin Mersenne, _L'Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636-1637), pp. + 184 and 192. + + [18] Vuillaume's diagram and explanation are reproduced by Fetis, op. + cit. pp. 125-128. + + + + +BOWDICH, THOMAS EDWARD (1790-1824), English traveller and author, was +born at Bristol in 1790. In 1814, through his uncle, J. Hope-Smith, +governor of the British Gold Coast Settlements, he obtained a writership +in the service of the African Company of Merchants and was sent to Cape +Coast. In 1817 he was sent, with two companions, to Kumasi on a mission +to the king of Ashanti, and chiefly through his skilful diplomacy the +mission succeeded in its object of securing British control over the +coast natives (see ASHANTI: _History_). In 1818 Bowdich returned to +England, and in 1819 published an account of his mission and of the +study he had made of the barbaric court of Kumasi, entitled _Mission +from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee, &c._ (London, 1819). His African +collections he presented to the British Museum. Bowdich publicly +attacked the management of the African committee, and his strictures +were instrumental in leading the British government to assume direct +control over the Gold Coast. From 1820 to 1822 Bowdich lived in Paris, +studying mathematics and the natural sciences, and was on intimate terms +with Cuvier, Humboldt and other savants. During his stay in France he +edited several works on Africa, and also wrote scientific works. In +1822, accompanied by his wife, he went to Lisbon, where, from a study of +historic MSS., he published _An Account of the Discoveries of the +Portuguese in ... Angola and Mozambique_ (London, 1824). In 1823 Bowdich +and his wife, after some months spent in Madeira and Cape Verde Islands, +arrived at Bathurst at the mouth of the Gambia, intending to go to +Sierra Leone and thence explore the interior. But at Bathurst Bowdich +died on the 10th of January 1824. His widow published an account of his +last journey, entitled _Excursions in Madeira and Porto Santo ... to +which is added.... A Narrative of the Continuance of the Voyage to its +Completion, &c._ (London, 1825). Bowdich's daughter, Mrs Hutchinson +Hale, republished in 1873, with an introductory preface, her father's +_Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee_. + + + + +BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL (1773-1838), American mathematician, was born at +Salem, Massachusetts. He was bred to his father's business as a cooper, +and afterwards apprenticed to a ship-chandler. His taste for mathematics +early developed itself; and he acquired Latin that he might study +Newton's _Principia_. As clerk (1795) and then as supercargo (1796, +1798, 1799) he made four long voyages; and, being an excellent +navigator, he afterwards (1802) commanded a vessel, instructing his +crews in lunar and other observations. He edited two editions of +Hamilton Moore's _Navigation_, and in 1802 published a valuable work, +_New American Practical Navigator_, founded on the earlier treatise by +Moore. In 1804 he became president of a Salem insurance company. In the +midst of his active career he undertook a translation of the _Mecanique +celeste_ of P.S. Laplace, with valuable annotations (vol. i., 1829). He +was offered, but declined, the professorship of mathematics and +astronomy at Harvard. Subsequently he became president of the Mechanics' +Institute in Boston, and also of the American Academy of Arts and +Sciences. He died at Boston on the 16th of March 1838. + + A life of Bowditch was written by his son Nathaniel Ingersoll Bowditch + (1805-1861), and was prefixed to the fourth volume (1839) of the + translation of Laplace. In 1865 this was elaborated into a separate + biography by another son, Henry Ingersoll Bowditch (1808-1892), a + famous Boston physician. + + + + +BOWDLER, THOMAS (1754-1825), editor of the "family" Shakespeare, younger +son of Thomas Bowdler, a gentleman of independent fortune, was born at +Ashley, near Bath, on the 11th of July 1754. He studied medicine at the +universities of St Andrews and Edinburgh, graduating M.D. in 1776. After +four years spent in foreign travel, he settled in London, where he +became intimate with Mrs Montague and other learned ladies. In 1800 he +left London to live in the Isle of Wight, and later on he removed to +South Wales. He was an energetic philanthropist, and carried on John +Howard's work in the prisons and penitentiaries. In 1818 he published +_The Family Shakespeare_ "in ten volumes, in which nothing is added to +the original text; but those words and expressions are omitted which +cannot with propriety be read aloud in a family." Criticisms of this +edition appeared in the _British Critic_ of April 1822. Bowdler also +expurgated Edward Gibbon's _History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman +Empire_ (published posthumously, 1826); and he issued a selection from +the Old Testament for the use of children. He died at Rhyddings, near +Swansea, on the 24th of February 1825. + +From Bowdler's name we have the word to "bowdlerize," first known to +occur in General Perronet Thompson's _Letters of a Representative to his +Constituents during the Session of 1836_, printed in Thompson's +_Exercises_, iv. 126. The official interpretation is "to expurgate (a +book or writing) by omitting or modifying words or passages considered +indelicate or offensive." Both the word and its derivatives, however, +are associated with false squeamishness. In the ridicule poured on the +name of Bowdler it is worth noting that Swinburne in "Social Verse" +(_Studies in Prose and Poetry_, 1894, p. 98) said of him that "no man +ever did better service to Shakespeare than the man who made it possible +to put him into the hands of intelligent and imaginative children," and +stigmatized the talk about his expurgations as "nauseous and foolish +cant." + + + + +BOWDOIN, JAMES (1726-1790), American political leader, was born of +French Huguenot descent, in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 7th of August +1726. He graduated at Harvard in 1745, and was a member of the lower +house of the general court of Massachusetts in 1753-1756, and from 1757 +to 1774 of the Massachusetts council, in which, according to Governor +Thomas Hutchinson, he "was without a rival," and, on the approach of the +War of Independence, was "the principal supporter of the opposition to +the government." From August 1775 until the summer of 1777 he was the +president of the council, which had then become to a greater extent than +formerly an executive as well as a legislative body. In 1779-1780 he was +president of the constitutional convention of Massachusetts, also +serving as chairman of the committee by which the draft of the +constitution was prepared. Immediately afterward he was a member of a +commission appointed "to revise the laws in force in the state; to +select, abridge, alter and digest them, so as to be accommodated to the +present government." From 1785 to 1787 he was governor of Massachusetts, +suppressing with much vigour Shays' Rebellion, and failing to be +re-elected largely because it was believed that he would punish the +insurrectionists with more severity than would his competitor, John +Hancock. Bowdoin was a member of the state convention which in February +1788 ratified for Massachusetts the Federal Constitution, his son being +also a member. He died in Boston on the 6th of November 1790. He took +much interest in natural philosophy, and presented various papers before +the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, of which he was one of the +founders and, from 1780 to 1790, the first president. Bowdoin College +was named in his honour. + +His son, JAMES BOWDOIN (1752-1811), was born in Boston on the 22nd of +September 1752, graduated at Harvard in 1771, and served, at various +times, as a representative, senator and councillor of the state. From +1805 until 1808 he was the minister plenipotentiary of the United States +in Spain. He died on Naushon Island, Dukes county, Massachusetts, on the +11th of October 1811. To Bowdoin College he gave land, money and +apparatus; and he made the college his residuary legatee, bequeathing to +it his collection of paintings and drawings, then considered the finest +in the country. + + + + +BOWELL, SIR MACKENZIE (1823- ), Canadian politician, son of John +Bowell, carpenter and builder, was born at Ricking-hall, England, on the +27th of December 1823. In 1833 he moved with his family to Belleville, +Canada, where he finally became editor and proprietor of the +_Intelligencer_. He was elected grand master of the Orange Association +of British America, and was long the exponent in the Canadian parliament +of the claims of that order. From 1867 till 1892 he represented North +Hastings in the House, after which he retired to the senate. From 1878 +till 1891 he was minister of customs in the cabinet of Sir John +Macdonald; then minister of militia; and under the premiership of Sir +John Thompson, minister of trade and commerce. From December 1894 till +April 1896 he was premier of Canada, and endeavoured to enforce remedial +legislation in the question of the Manitoba schools. But his policy was +unsuccessful, and he retired from the government. From 1896 till 1906 he +led the Conservative party in the senate. In 1894 he presided over the +colonial conference held in Ottawa, and in 1895 was created K.C.M.G. + + + + +BOWEN, CHARLES SYNGE CHRISTOPHER BOWEN, BARON (1835-1894), English +judge, was born on the 1st of January 1835, at Woolaston in +Gloucestershire, his father, the Rev. Christopher Bowen of Hollymount, +Co. Mayo, being then curate of the parish. He was educated at Lille, +Blackheath and Rugby schools, leaving the latter with a Balliol +scholarship in 1853. At Oxford he made good the promise of his earlier +youth, winning the principal classical scholarships and prizes of his +time. He was made a fellow of Balliol in 1858. From Oxford Bowen went to +London, where he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1861, and +while studying law he wrote regularly for the _Saturday Renew_, and also +later for the _Spectator_. For a time he had little success at the bar, +and came near to exchanging it for the career of a college tutor, but he +was induced by his friends, who recognized his talents, to persevere. +Soon after he had begun to make his mark he was briefed against the +claimant in the famous "Tichborne Case." Bowen's services to his leader, +Sir John Coleridge, helped to procure for him the appointment of junior +counsel to the treasury when Sir John had passed, as he did while the +trial proceeded, from the office of solicitor-general to that of +attorney-general; and from this time his practice became a very large +one. The strain, however, of the Tichborne trials had been great, so +that his physical health became unequal to the tasks which his zeal for +work imposed upon it, and in 1879 his acceptance of a judgeship in the +queen's bench division, on the retirement of Mr Justice Mellor, gave him +the opportunity of comparative rest. The character of Charles Bowen's +intellect hardly qualified him for some of the duties of a puisne judge; +but it was otherwise when, in 1882, in succession to Lord Justice +Holker, he was raised to the court of appeal. As a lord justice of +appeal he was conspicuous for his learning, his industry and his +courtesy to all who appeared before him; and in spite of failing health +he was able to sit more or less regularly until August 1893, when, on +the retirement of Lord Hannen, he was made a lord of appeal in ordinary, +and a baron for life, with the title of Baron Bowen of Colwood. By this +time, however, his health had finally broken down; he never sat as a law +lord to hear appeals, and he gave but one vote as a peer, while his last +public service consisted in presiding over the commission which sat in +October 1893 to inquire into the Featherstone riots. He died on the 10th +of April 1894. + +Lord Bowen was regarded with great affection by all who knew him either +professionally or privately. He had a polished and graceful wit, of +which many instances might be given, although such anecdotes lose force +in print. For example, when it was suggested on the occasion of an +address to Queen Victoria, to be presented by her judges, that a passage +in it, "conscious as we are of our shortcomings," suggested too great +humility, he proposed the emendation "conscious as we are of one +another's shortcomings"; and on another occasion he defined a jurist as +"a person who knows a little about the laws of every country except his +own." Lord Bowen's judicial reputation will rest upon the series of +judgments delivered by him in the court of appeal, which are remarkable +for their lucid interpretation of legal principles as applied to the +facts and business of life. Among good examples of his judgment may be +cited that given in advising the House of Lords in _Angus_ v. _Dalton_ +(6 App. Cas. 740), and those delivered in _Abrath_ v. _North Eastern +Railway_ (11 Q.B.D. 440); _Thomas_ v. _Quartermaine_ (18 Q.B.D. 685); +_Vagliano_ v. _Bank of England_ (23 Q.B.D. 243) (in which he prepared +the majority judgment of the court, which was held to be wrong in its +conclusion by the majority of the House of Lords); and the _Mogul +Steamship Company_ v. _M'Gregor_ (23 Q.B.D. 598). Of Lord Bowen's +literary works besides those already indicated may be mentioned his +translation of Virgil's _Eclogues_, and _Aeneid_, books i.-vi., and his +pamphlet, _The Alabama Claim and Arbitration considered from a Legal +Point of View._ Lord Bowen married in 1862 Emily Frances, eldest +daughter of James Meadows Rendel, F.R.S., by whom he had two sons and a +daughter. + + See _Lord Bowen_, by Sir Henry Stewart Cunningham. + + + + +BOWEN, FRANCIS (1811-1890), American philosophical writer and +educationalist, was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 8th of +September 1811. He graduated at Harvard in 1833, taught for two years at +Phillips Exeter Academy, and then from 1835 to 1839 was a tutor and +instructor at Harvard. After several years of study in Europe, he +settled in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and was editor and proprietor of +the _North American Review_ from 1843 to 1854. In 1850 he was appointed +professor of history at Harvard; but his appointment was disapproved by +the board of overseers on account of reactionary political opinions he +had expressed in a controversy with Robert Carter (1819-1879) concerning +the Hungarian revolution. In 1853 his appointment as Alford professor of +natural religion, moral philosophy and civil polity was approved, and he +occupied the chair until 1889. In 1876 he was a member of the Federal +commission appointed to consider currency reform, and wrote (1877) the +minority report, in which he opposed the restoration of the double +standard and the remonetization of silver. He died in Boston, +Massachusetts, on the 22nd of January 1890. His writings include lives +of Sir William Phipps, Baron von Steuben, James Otis and Benjamin +Lincoln in Jared Sparks' "Library of American Biography"; _Critical +Essays on the History and Present Condition of Speculative Philosophy_ +(1842); _Lowell Lectures on the Application of Metaphysical and Ethical +Science to the Evidences of Religion_ (1849); _The Principles of +Political Economy applied to the Condition, Resources and Institutions +of the American People_ (1856); _A Treatise on Logic_ (1864); _American +Political Economy_ (1870); _Modern Philosophy from Descartes to +Schopenhauer and Hartmann_ (1877); and _Gleanings from a Literary Life, +1838-1880_ (1880). + + + + +BOWEN, SIR GEORGE FERGUSON (1821-1899), British colonial governor, +eldest son of the Rev. Edward Bowen, afterwards rector of Taughboyne, +Co. Donegal, was born on the 2nd of November 1821. Educated at +Charterhouse school and Trinity College, Oxford, he took a first class +in classics in 1844, and was elected a fellow of Brasenose. In 1847 he +was chosen president of the university of Corfu. Having served as +secretary of government in the Ionian Islands, he was appointed in 1859 +the first governor of Queensland, which colony had just been separated +from New South Wales. He was interested in the exploration of Queensland +and in the establishment of a volunteer force, but incurred some +unpopularity by refusing to sanction the issue of inconvertible paper +money during the financial crisis of 1866. In 1867 he was made governor +of New Zealand, in which position he was successful in reconciling the +Maoris to the English rule, and saw the end of the struggle between the +colonists and the natives. Transferred to Victoria in 1872, Bowen +endeavoured to reduce the expenses of the colony, and in 1879 became +governor of Mauritius. His last official position was that of governor +of Hong-Kong, which he held from 1882 to 1887. He was made a K.C.M.G. in +1856, a privy councillor in 1886, and received honorary degrees from +both Oxford and Cambridge. In December 1887 he was appointed chief of +the royal commission which was sent to Malta with regard to the new +constitution for the island, and all the recommendations made by him +were adopted. He died at Brighton on the 21st of February 1899, having +been married twice, and having had a family of one son and four +daughters. Bowen wrote _Ithaca in 1850_ (London, 1854), translated into +Greek in 1859; and _Mount Athos, Thessaly and Epirus_ (London, 1852); +and he was the author of Murray's _Handbook for Greece_ (London, 1854). + + A selection of his letters and despatches, _Thirty Years of Colonial + Government_ (London, 1889), was edited by S. Lane-Poole. + + + + +BOWER, WALTER (1385-1449), Scottish chronicler, was born about 1385 at +Haddington. He was abbot of Inchcolm (in the Firth of Forth) from 1418, +was one of the commissioners for the collection of the ransom of James +I., king of Scots, in 1423 and 1424, and in 1433 one of the embassy to +Paris on the business of the marriage of the king's daughter to the +dauphin. He played an important part at the council of Perth (1432) in +the defence of Scottish rights. During his closing years he was engaged +on his work the _Scotichronicon_, on which his reputation now chiefly +rests. This work, undertaken in 1440 by desire of a neighbour, Sir David +Stewart of Rosyth, was a continuation of the _Chronica Gentis Scotorum_ +of Fordun. The completed work, in its original form, consisted of +sixteen books, of which the first five and a portion of the sixth (to +1163) are Fordun's--or mainly his, for Bower added to them at places. In +the later books, down to the reign of Robert I. (1371), he was aided by +Fordun's _Gesta Annalia_, but from that point to the close the work is +original and of contemporary importance, especially for James I., with +whose death it ends. The task was finished in 1447. In the two remaining +years of his life he was engaged on a reduction or "abridgment" of this +work, which is known as the _Book of Cupar_, and is preserved in the +Advocates' library, Edinburgh (MS. 35. 1. 7). Other abridgments, not by +Bower, were made about the same time, one about 1450 (perhaps by Patrick +Russell, a Carthusian of Perth) preserved in the Advocates' library (MS. +35. 6. 7) and another in 1461 by an unknown writer, also preserved in +the same collection (MS. 35. 5. 2). Copies of the full text of the +_Scotichronicon_, by different scribes, are extant. There are two in the +British Museum, in _The Black Book of Paisley_, and in Harl. MS. 712; +one in the Advocates' library, from which Walter Goodall printed his +edition (Edin., 1759), and one in the library of Corpus Christi, +Cambridge. + + Goodall's is the only complete modern edition of Bower's text. See + also W.F. Skene's edition of Fordun in the series of _Historians of + Scotland_ (1871). Personal references are to be found in the + _Exchequer Rolls of Scotland_, iii. and iv. The best recent account is + that by T.A. Archer in the _Dict, of Nat. Biog._ + + + + +BOWERBANK, JAMES SCOTT (1797-1877), English naturalist and +palaeontologist, was born in Bishopsgate, London, on the 14th of July +1797, and succeeded in conjunction with his brother to his father's +distillery, in which he was actively engaged until 1847. In early years +astronomy and natural history, especially botany, engaged much of his +attention; he became an enthusiastic worker at the microscope, studying +the structure of shells, corals, moss-agates, flints, &c., and he also +formed an extensive collection of fossils. The organic remains of the +London Clay attracted particular attention, and about the year 1836 he +and six other workers founded "The London Clay Club"--the members +comprising Dr Bowerbank, Frederick E. Edwards (1799-1875), author of +_The Eocene Mollusca_ (Palaeontograph. Soc.), Searles V. Wood, John +Morris, Alfred White (zoologist), N.T. Wetherell, surgeon of Highgate +(1800-1875), and James de Carle Sowerby. In 1840 Bowerbank published _A +History of the Fossil Fruits and Seeds of the London Clay_, and two +years later he was elected F.R.S. In 1847 he suggested the establishment +of a society for the publication of undescribed British Fossils, and +thus originated the Palaeontographical Society. From 1844 until 1864 he +did much to encourage a love of natural science by being "at home" every +Monday evening at his residence in Park Street, Islington, and +afterwards in Highbury Grove, where the treasures of his museum, his +microscopes, and his personal assistance were at the service of every +earnest student. In the study of sponges he became specially interested, +and he was author of _A Monograph of the British Spongiadae_ in 4 +vols., published by the Ray Society, 1864-1882. He retired in 1864 to St +Leonards, where he died on the 8th of March 1877. + + + + +BOWIE, JAMES (1796-1836), American pioneer, was born in Logan county, +Kentucky. He was taken to Louisiana about 1802, and in 1818-1820 was +engaged with his brothers, John J. and Rezin P., in smuggling negro +slaves into the United States from the headquarters of the pirates led +by Jean Lafitte on Galveston Island. Bowie removed to Texas in 1828 and +took a prominent part in the revolt against Mexico, being present at the +battles of Nacogdoches (1832), Concepcion (1835) and the Grass Fight +(1835). He was one of the defenders of the Alamo (see SAN ANTONIO), but +was ill of pneumonia at the time of the final assault on the 6th of +March 1836, and was among the last to be butchered. Bowie's name is now +perpetuated by a county in north-eastern Texas, and by its association +with that of the famous hunting-knife, which he used, but probably did +not invent. + + + + +BOW-LEG (_Genu Varum_), a deformity characterized by separation of the +knees when the ankles are in contact. Usually there is an outward +curvature of both femur and tibia, with at times an interior bend of the +latter bone. At birth all children are more or less bandy-legged. The +child lies on its nurse's knee with the soles of the feet facing one +another; the tibiae and femora are curved outwards; and, if the limbs +are extended, although the ankles are in contact, there is a distinct +space between the knee-joints. During the first year of life a gradual +change takes place. The knee-joints approach one another; the femora +slope downwards and inwards towards the knee-joints; the tibiae become +straight; and the sole of the foot faces almost directly downwards. +While these changes are occurring, the bones, which at first consist +principally of cartilage, are gradually becoming ossified, and in a +normal child by the time it begins to walk the lower limbs are prepared, +both by their general direction and by the rigidity of the bones which +form them, to support the weight of the body. If, however, the child +attempts either as the result of imitation or from encouragement to walk +before the normal bandy condition had passed off, the result will +necessarily be either an arrest in the development of the limbs or an +increase of the bandy condition. If the child is weakly, either rachitic +or suffering from any ailment which prevents the due ossification of the +bones, or is improperly fed, the bandy condition may remain persistent. +Thus the chief cause of this deformity is rickets (q.v.). The remaining +causes are occupation, especially that of a jockey, and traumatism, the +condition being very likely to supervene after accidents involving the +condyles of the femur. In the rickety form the most important thing is +to treat the constitutional disease, at the same time instructing the +mother never to place the child on its feet. In many cases this is quite +sufficient in itself to effect a cure, but matters can be hastened +somewhat by applying splints. When in older patients the deformity +arises either from traumatism or occupation, the only treatment is that +of operation. + +A far commoner deformity than the preceding is that known as +_knock-knee_ (or _Genu Valgum_). In this condition there is close +approximation of the knees with more or less separation of the feet, the +patient being unable to bring the feet together when standing. +Occasionally only one limb may be affected, but the double form is the +more common. There are two varieties of this deformity: (i.) that due to +rickets and occurring in young children (the rachitic form), and (ii.) +that met with in adolescents and known as the static form. In young +children it is practically always due to rickets, and the constitutional +disease must be most rigorously dealt with. It is, however, especially +in these cases that cod-liver oil is to be avoided, since it increases +the body weight and so may do harm rather than good. The child if quite +young must be kept in bed, and the limbs manipulated several times a +day. Where the child is a little older and it is more difficult to keep +him off his feet, long splints should be applied from the axilla or +waist to a point several inches below the level of the foot. It is only +by making the splints sufficiently long that a naturally active child +can be kept at rest. The little patient should live in the open air as +much as possible. + +The static form of Genu Valgum usually occurs in young adolescents, +especially in anaemic nurse-girls, young bricklayers, and young people +who have outgrown their strength, yet have to carry heavy weights. +Normally in the erect posture the weight of the body is passed through +the outer condyle of the femur rather than the inner, and this latter is +lengthened to keep the plane of the knee-joint horizontal. This throws +considerable strain on the internal lateral ligament of the knee-joint, +and after standing of long duration or with undue weight the muscles of +the inner side of the limb also become over-fatigued. Thus the ligament +gradually becomes stretched, giving the knee undue mobility from side to +side. If the condition be not attended to, the outer condyle becomes +gradually atrophied, owing to the increased weight transmitted through +it, and the inner condyle becomes lengthened. These changes are the +direct outcome of a general law, namely, that diminished pressure +results in increased growth, increased pressure in diminished growth. +The best example of the former principle is the rapid growth that takes +place in the child that is confined to bed during a prolonged illness. +The distorted, stunted, shortened and fashionable foot of the Chinese +lady is an example of the latter. Flat-foot (see CLUB-FOOT) and lateral +curvature of the spine, scoliosis, are often associated with this form +of Genu Valgum, the former being due to relaxation of ligaments, the +latter being compensatory where the deformity only affects one leg, +though often found merely in association with the more common bilateral +variety. In the early stages of the static form attention to general +health, massage and change of air, will often effect a cure. But in the +more aggravated forms an apparatus is needed. This usually consists of +an outside iron rod, jointed at the knee, attached above to a pelvic +band and below to the heel of the boot. By the gradual tightening of +padded straps passing round the limbs the bones can be drawn by degrees +into a more natural position. But if the patient has reached such an age +that the deformity is fixed, then the only remedy is that of operation. + + + + +BOWLES, SAMUEL (1826-1878), American journalist, was born in +Springfield, Massachusetts, on the 9th of February 1826. He was the son +of Samuel Bowles (1779-1851) of the same city, who had established the +weekly _Springfield Republican_ in 1824. The daily issue was begun in +1844, as an evening newspaper, afterwards becoming a morning journal. To +its service Samuel Bowles, junior, devoted his life (with the exception +of a brief period during which he was in charge of a daily in Boston), +and he gave the paper a national reputation by the vigour, incisiveness +and independence of its editorial utterances, and the concise and +convenient arrangement of its local and general news-matter. During the +controversies affecting slavery and resulting in the Civil War, Bowles +supported, in general, the Whig and Republican parties, but in the +period of Reconstruction under President Grant his paper represented +anti-administration or "Liberal Republican" opinions, while in the +disputed election of 1876 it favoured the claims of Tilden, and +subsequently became independent in politics. Bowles died at Springfield +on the 16th of January 1878. During his lifetime, and subsequently, the +_Republican_ office was a sort of school for young journalists, +especially in the matter of pungency and conciseness of style, one of +his maxims being "put it all in the first paragraph." Bowles published +two books of travel, _Across the Continent_ (1865) and _The Switzerland +of America_ (1869), which were combined into one volume under the title +_Our New West_ (1869). He was succeeded as publisher and editor-in-chief +of the _Republican_ by his son Samuel Bowles (b. 1851). + + A eulogistic _Life and Times of Samuel Bowles_ (2 vols., New York, + 1885), by George S. Merriam, is virtually a history of American + political movements after the compromise of 1850. + + + + +BOWLES, WILLIAM LISLE (1762-1850), English poet and critic, was born at +King's Sutton, Northamptonshire, of which his father was vicar, on the +24th of September 1762. At the age of fourteen he entered Winchester +school, the head-master at the time being Dr Joseph Warton. In 1781 he +left as captain of the school, and proceeded to Trinity College, Oxford, +where he had gained a scholarship. Two years later he won the +chancellor's prize for Latin verse. In 1789 he published, in a small +quarto volume, _Fourteen Sonnets_, which met with considerable favour at +the time, and were hailed with delight by Coleridge and his young +contemporaries. The _Sonnets_ even in form were a revival, a return to +the older and purer poetic style, and by their grace of expression, +melodious versification, tender tone of feeling and vivid appreciation +of the life and beauty of nature, stood out in strong contrast to the +elaborated commonplaces which at that time formed the bulk of English +poetry. After taking his degree at Oxford he entered the Church, and was +appointed in 1792 to the vicarage of Chicklade in Wiltshire. In 1797 he +received the vicarage of Dumbleton in Gloucestershire, and in 1804 was +presented to the vicarage of Bremhill in Wiltshire. In the same year he +was collated by Bishop Douglas to a prebendal stall in the cathedral of +Salisbury. In 1818 he was made chaplain to the prince regent, and in +1828 he was elected residentiary canon of Salisbury. He died at +Salisbury on the 7th of April 1850, aged 88. + +The longer poems published by Bowles are not of a very high standard, +though all are distinguished by purity of imagination, cultured and +graceful diction, and great tenderness of feeling. The most extensive +were _The Spirit of Discovery_ (1804), which was mercilessly ridiculed +by Byron; _The Missionary of the Andes_ (1815); _The Grave of the Last +Saxon_ (1822); and _St John in Patmos_ (1833). Bowles is perhaps more +celebrated as a critic of poetry than as a poet. In 1806 he published an +edition of Pope's works with notes and an essay on the poetical +character of Pope. In this essay he laid down certain canons as to +poetic imagery which, subject to some modification, have been since +recognized as true and valuable, but which were received at the time +with strong opposition by all admirers of Pope and his style. The "Pope +and Bowles" controversy brought into sharp contrast the opposing views +of poetry, which may be roughly described as the natural and the +artificial. Bowles maintained that images drawn from nature are +poetically finer than those drawn from art; and that in the highest +kinds of poetry the themes or passions handled should be of the general +or elemental kind, and not the transient manners of any society. These +positions were vigorously assailed by Byron, Campbell, Roscoe and others +of less note, while for a time Bowles was almost solitary. Hazlitt and +the _Blackwood_ critics, however, came to his assistance, and on the +whole Bowles had reason to congratulate himself on having established +certain principles which might serve as the basis of a true method of +poetical criticism, and of having inaugurated, both by precept and by +example, a new era in English poetry. Among other prose works from his +prolific pen was a _Life of Bishop Ken_ (2 vols., 1830-1831). + + His _Poetical Works_ were collected in 1855, with a memoir by G. + Gilfillan. + + + + +BOWLINE (a word found in most Teutonic languages, probably connected +with the "bow" of a ship), a nautical term for a rope leading from the +edge of a sail to the bows, for the purpose of steadying the sail when +sailing close to the wind--"on a bowline." + + + + +BOWLING (Lat. _bulla_, a globe, through O. Fr. _boule_, ball), an indoor +game played upon an alley with wooden balls and nine or ten wooden pins. +It has been played for centuries in Germany and the Low Countries, where +it is still in high favour, but attains its greatest popularity in the +United States, whence it was introduced in colonial times from Holland. +The Dutch inhabitants of New Amsterdam, now New York, were much addicted +to it, and up to the year 1840 it was played on the green, the principal +resort of the bowlers being the square just north of the Battery still +called Bowling Green. The first covered alleys were made of hardened +clay or of slate, but those in vogue at present are built up of +alternate strips of pine and maple wood, about 1 X 3 in. in size, set on +edge, and fastened together and to the bed of the alley with the nicest +art of the cabinet-maker. The width of the alley is 4l-1/2 in., and its +whole length about 80 ft. From the head, or apex, pin to the foul-line, +over which the player may not step in delivering the ball, the distance +is 60 ft. On each side of the alley is a 9-in. "gutter" to catch any +balls that are bowled wide. Originally nine pins, set up in the diamond +form, were used, but during the first part of the 19th century the game +of "nine-pins" was prohibited by law, on account of the excessive +betting connected with it. This ordinance, however, was soon evaded by +the addition of a tenth pin, resulting in the game of "ten-pins," the +pastime in vogue to-day. The ten pins are set up at the end of the alley +in the form of a right-angled triangle in four rows, four pins at the +back, then three, then two and one as head pin. The back row is placed 3 +in. from the alley's edge, back of which is the pin-pit, 10 in. deep and +about 3 ft. wide. The back wall is heavily padded (often with a heavy, +swinging cushion), and there are safety corners for the pin-boys, who +set up the pins, call the scores and place the balls in the sloping +"railway" which returns them to the players' end of the alley. The pins +are made of hard maple and are 15 in. high, 2-1/4 in. in diameter at +their base and 15 in. in circumference at the thickest point. The balls, +which are made of some very hard wood, usually lignum vitae, may be of +any size not exceeding 27 in. in circumference and 16-1/2 lb. in weight. +They are provided with holes for the thumb and middle finger. As many +may play on a side as please, five being the number for championship +teams, though this sometimes varies. Each player rolls three balls, +called a _frame_, and ten frames constitute a game, unless otherwise +agreed upon. In first-class matches two balls only are rolled. If all +ten pins are knocked down by the first ball the player makes a _strike_, +which counts him 10 plus whatever he may make with the first two balls +of his next frame. If, however, he should then make another strike, 10 +more are added to his score, making 20, to which are added the pins he +may knock down with his first ball of the third frame. This may also +score a strike, making 30 as the score of the first frame, and, should +the player keep up this high average, he will score the maximum, 300, in +his ten frames. If all the pins are knocked down with two balls it is +called a _spare_, and the player may add the pins made by the first ball +of his second frame. This seemingly complicated mode of scoring is +comparatively simple when properly lined score-boards are used. Of +course, if all three balls are used no strike or spare is scored, but +the number of pins overturned is recorded. The tens of thousands of +bowling clubs in the United States and Canada are under the jurisdiction +of the American Bowling Congress, which meets once a year to revise the +rules and hold contests for the national championships. + + Several minor varieties of bowling are popular in America, the most in + vogue being "Cocked Hat," which is played with three pins, one in the + head-pin position and the others on either corner of the back row. The + pins are usually a little larger than those used in the regular game, + and smaller balls are used. The maximum score is 90, and all balls, + even those going into the gutter, are in play. "Cocked hat and + Feather" is similar, except that a fourth pin is added, placed in the + centre. Other variations of bowling are "Quintet," in which five pins, + set up like an arrow pointed towards the bowler, are used; the "Battle + Game," in which 12 can be scored by knocking down all but the centre, + or king, pin; "Head Pin and Four Back," in which five pins are used, + one in the head-pin position and the rest on the back line; "Four + Back"; "Five Back"; "Duck Pin"; "Head Pin," with nine pins set up in + the old-fashioned way, and "Candle Pin," in which thin pins tapering + towards the top and bottom are used, the other rules being similar to + those of the regular game. + + The American bowling game is played to a slight extent in Great + Britain and Germany. In the latter country, however, the old-fashioned + game of nine-pins (_Kegelspiel_) with solid balls and the pins set up + diamond-fashion, obtains universally. The alleys are made with less + care than the American, being of cement, asphalt, slate or marble. + + + + +BOWLING GREEN, a city and the county-seat of Warren county, Kentucky, +U.S.A., on the Barren river, 113 m. S. by W. of Louisville. Pop. (1890) +7803; (1900) 8226, of whom 2593 were negroes; (1910) 9173. The city is +served by the Louisville & Nashville railway (which maintains car shops +here), and by steamboats navigating the river. Macadamized or gravel +roads also radiate from it to all parts of the surrounding country, a +rich agricultural and live-stock raising region, in which there are +deposits of coal, iron ore, oil, natural gas, asphalt and building +stone. The city is the seat of Potter College (for girls; non-sectarian, +opened 1889); of Ogden College (non-sectarian, 1877), a secondary +school, endowed by the bequest of Major Robert W. Ogden (1796-1873); of +the West Kentucky State Normal School, opened (as the Southern Normal +School and Business College) at Glasgow in 1875 and removed to Bowling +Green in 1884; and of the Bowling Green Business University, formerly a +part of the Southern Normal School and Business College. Bowling Green +has two parks, a large horse and mule market, and a trade in other +live-stock, tobacco and lumber; among its manufactures are flour, +lumber, tobacco and furniture. The municipality owns and operates the +water-works and the electric lighting plant. Bowling Green was +incorporated in 1812. During the early part of the Civil War Bowling +Green was on the right flank of the first line of Confederate defence in +the West, and was for some time the headquarters of General Albert +Sidney Johnston. It was abandoned, however, after the capture by the +Federals of Forts Henry and Donelson. + + + + +BOWLING GREEN, a city and the county-seat of Wood county, Ohio, U.S.A., +20 m. S. by W. of Toledo, of which it is a residential suburb. Pop. +(1890) 3467; (1900) 5067 (264 foreign-born); (1910) 5222. Bowling Green +is served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton and the Toledo & Ohio +Central railways, and by the Toledo Urban & Interurban and the Lake +Erie, Bowling Green & Napoleon electric lines, the former extending from +Toledo to Dayton. It is situated in a rich agricultural region which +abounds in oil and natural gas. Many of the residences and business +places of Bowling Green are heated by a privately owned central +hot-water heating plant. Among the manufactures are cut glass, stoves +and ranges, kitchen furniture, guns, thread-cutting machines, brooms and +agricultural implements. Bowling Green was first settled in 1832, was +incorporated as a town in 1855, and became a city in 1904. + + + + +BOWLS, + + History. + +the oldest British outdoor pastime, next to archery, still in vogue. It +has been traced certainly to the 13th, and conjecturally to the 12th +century. William Fitzstephen (d. about 1190), in his biography of Thomas +Becket, gives a graphic sketch of the London of his day and, writing of +the summer amusements of the young men, says that on holidays they were +"exercised in Leaping, Shooting. Wrestling, Casting of Stones [_in jactu +lapidum_], and Throwing of Javelins fitted with Loops for the Purpose, +which they strive to fling before the Mark; they also use Bucklers, like +fighting Men." It is commonly supposed that by _jactus lapidum_ +Fitzstephen meant the game of bowls, but though it is possible that +round stones may sometimes have been employed in an early variety of the +game-and there is a record of iron bowls being used, though at a much +later date, on festive occasions at Nairn,--nevertheless the inference +seems unwarranted. The _jactus lapidum_ of which he speaks was probably +more akin to the modern "putting the weight," once even called "putting +the stone." It is beyond dispute, however, that the game, at any rate in +a rudimentary form, was played in the 13th century. A MS. of that period +in the royal library, Windsor (No. 20, E iv.), contains a drawing +representing two players aiming at a small cone instead of an +earthenware ball or jack. Another MS. of the same century has a +picture--crude, but spirited--which brings us into close touch with the +existing game. Three figures are introduced and a jack. The first +player's bowl has come to rest just in front of the jack; the second has +delivered his bowl and is following after it with one of those eccentric +contortions still not unusual on modern greens, the first player +meanwhile making a repressive gesture with his hand, as if to urge the +bowl to stop short of his own; the third player is depicted as in the +act of delivering his bowl. A 14th-century MS. _Book of Prayers_ in the +Francis Douce collection in the Bodleian library at Oxford contains a +drawing in which two persons are shown, but they bowl to no mark. Strutt +(_Sports and Pastimes_) suggests that the first player's bowl may have +been regarded by the second player as a species of jack; but in that +case it is not clear what was the first player's target. In these three +earliest illustrations of the pastime it is worth noting that each +player has one bowl only, and that the attitude in delivering it was as +various five or six hundred years ago as it is to-day. In the third he +stands almost upright; in the first he kneels; in the second he stoops, +halfway between the upright and the kneeling position. + +As the game grew in popularity it came under the ban of king and +parliament, both fearing it might jeopardize the practice of archery, +then so important in battle; and statutes forbidding it and other sports +were enacted in the reigns of Edward III., Richard II. and other +monarchs. Even when, on the invention of gunpowder and firearms, the bow +had fallen into disuse as a weapon of war, the prohibition was +continued. The discredit attaching to bowling alleys, first established +in London in 1455, probably encouraged subsequent repressive +legislation, for many of the alleys were connected with taverns +frequented by the dissolute and gamesters. The word "bowls" occurs for +the first time in the statute of 1511 in which Henry VIII. confirmed +previous enactments against unlawful games. By a further act of +1541--which was not repealed until 1845--artificers, labourers, +apprentices, servants and the like were forbidden to play bowls at any +time save Christmas, and then only in their master's house and presence. +It was further enjoined that any one playing bowls outside of his own +garden or orchard was liable to a penalty of 6s. 8d., while those +possessed of lands of the yearly value of L100 might obtain licences to +play on their own private greens. But though the same statute absolutely +prohibited bowling alleys, Henry VIII. had them constructed for his own +pleasure at Whitehall Palace, and was wont to back himself when he +played. In Mary's reign (1555) the licences were withdrawn, the queen or +her advisers deeming the game an excuse for "unlawful assemblies, +conventicles, seditions and conspiracies." The scandals of the bowling +alleys grew rampant in Elizabethan London, and Stephen Gosson in his +_School of Abuse_ (1579) says, "Common bowling alleys are privy moths +that eat up the credit of many idle citizens; whose gains at home are +not able to weigh down their losses abroad; whose shops are so far from +maintaining their play, that their wives and children cry out for bread, +and go to bed supperless often in the year." + +Biased bowls were introduced in the 16th century. "A little altering of +the one side," says Robert Recorde, the mathematician, in his _Castle of +Knowledge_ (1556), "maketh the bowl to run biasse waies." And +Shakespeare (_Richard II_., Act. III. Sc. 4) causes the queen to +remonstrate, in reply to her lady's suggestion of a game at bowls to +relieve her ennui, "'Twill make me think the world is full of rubs, and +that my fortune runs against the bias." This passage is interesting also +as showing that women were accustomed to play the game in those days. It +is pleasant to think that there is foundation for the familiar story of +Sir Francis Drake playing bowls on Plymouth Hoe as the Armada was +beating up Channel, and finishing his game before tackling the +Spaniards. Bowls, at that date, was looked upon as a legitimate +amusement for Sundays,--as, indeed, were many other sports. When John +Knox visited Calvin at Geneva one Sunday, it is said that he discovered +him engaged in a game; and John Aylmer (1521-1594), though bishop of +London, enjoyed a game of a Sunday afternoon, but used such language "as +justly exposed his character to reproach." The pastime found favour with +the Stuarts. In the _Book of Sports_ (1618), James I. recommended a +moderate indulgence to his son, Prince Henry, and Charles I. was an +enthusiastic bowler, unfortunately encouraging by example wagering and +playing for high stakes, habits that ultimately brought the green into +as general disrepute as the alley. It is recorded that the king +occasionally visited Richard Shute, a Turkey merchant who owned a +beautiful green at Barking Hall, and that after one bout his losses were +L1000. He was permitted to play his favourite game to beguile the tedium +of his captivity. The signboard of a wayside inn near Goring Heath in +Oxfordshire long bore a portrait of the king with couplets reciting how +his majesty "drank from the bowl, and bowl'd for what he drank." During +his stay at the Northamptonshire village of Holdenby or Holmby--where +Sir Thomas Herbert complains the green was not well kept--Charles +frequently rode over to Lord Vaux's place at Harrowden, or to Lord +Spencer's at Althorp, for a game, and, according to one account, was +actually playing on the latter green when Cornet Joyce came to Holmby to +remove him to other quarters. During this period gambling had become a +mania. John Aubrey, the antiquary, chronicles that the sisters of Sir +John Suckling, the courtier-poet, once went to the bowling-green in +Piccadilly, crying, "for fear he should lose all their portions." If the +Puritans regarded bowls with no friendly eye, as Lord Macaulay asserts, +one can hardly wonder at it. But even the Puritans could not suppress +betting. So eminently respectable a person as John Evelyn thought no +harm in bowling for stakes, and once played at the Durdans, near Epsom, +for L10, winning match and money, as he triumphantly notes in his +_Diary_ for the 14th of August 1657. Samuel Pepys repeatedly mentions +finding great people "at bowles." But in time the excesses attending the +game rendered it unfashionable, and after the Revolution it became +practically a pothouse recreation, nearly all the greens, like the +alleys, having been constructed in the grounds and gardens attached to +taverns. + +After a long interval salvation came from Scotland, somewhat +unexpectedly, because although, along with its winter analogue of +curling, bowls may now be considered, much more than golf, the Scottish +national game, it was not until well into the 19th century that the +pastime acquired popularity in that country. It had been known in +Scotland since the close of the 16th century (the Glasgow kirk session +fulminated an edict against Sunday bowls in 1595), but greens were few +and far between. There is record of a club in Haddington in 1709, of Tom +Bicket's green in Kilmarnock in 1740, of greens in Candleriggs and +Gallowgate, Glasgow, and of one in Lanark in 1750, of greens in the +grounds of Heriot's hospital, Edinburgh, prior to 1768, and of one in +Peebles in 1775. These are, of course, mere infants compared with the +Southampton Town Bowling Club, founded in 1299, which still uses the +green on which it has played for centuries and possesses the quaint +custom of describing its master, or president, as "sir," and are younger +even than the Newcastle-on-Tyne club established in 1657. But the +earlier clubs did nothing towards organizing the game. In 1848 and 1849, +however, when many clubs had come into existence in the west and south +of Scotland (the Willowbank, dating from 1816, is the oldest club in +Glasgow), meetings were held in Glasgow for the purpose of promoting a +national association. This was regarded, by many, as impracticable, but +a decision of final importance was reached when a consultative committee +was appointed to draft a uniform code of laws to govern the game. This +body delegated its functions to its secretary, W.W. Mitchell +(1803-1884), who prepared a code that was immediately adopted in +Scotland as the standard laws. It was in this sense that Scottish +bowlers saved the game. They were, besides, pioneers in laying down +level greens of superlative excellence. Not satisfied with seed-sown +grass or meadow turf, they experimented with seaside turf and found it +answer admirably. The 13th earl of Eglinton also set an example of +active interest which many magnates emulated. Himself a keen bowler, he +offered for competition, in 1854, a silver bowl and, in 1857, a gold +bowl and the Eglinton Cup, all to be played for annually. These trophies +excited healthy rivalry in Ayrshire and Lanarkshire, and the enthusiasm +as well as the skill with which the game was conducted in Scotland at +length proved contagious. Clubs in England began to consider the +question of legislation, and to improve their greens. Moreover, Scottish +emigrants introduced the game wherever they went, and colonists in +Australia and New Zealand established many clubs which, in the main, +adopted Mitchell's laws; while clubs were also started in Canada and in +the United States, in South Africa, India (Calcutta, Karachi), Japan +(Kobe, Yokohama, Kumamoto) and Hong-Kong. In Ireland the game took root +very gradually, but in Ulster, owing doubtless to constant intercourse +with Scotland, such clubs as have been founded are strong in numbers and +play. + +On the European continent the game can scarcely be said to be played on +scientific principles. It has existed in France since the 17th century. +When John Evelyn was in Paris in 1644 he saw it played in the gardens of +the Luxembourg Palace. In the south of France it is rather popular with +artisans, who, however, are content to pursue it on any flat surface and +use round instead of biased bowls, the bowler, moreover, indulging in a +preliminary run before delivering the bowl, after the fashion of a +bowler in cricket. A rude variety of the game occurs in Italy, and, as +we have seen, John Calvin played it in Geneva, where John Evelyn also +noticed it in 1646. There is evidence of its vogue in Holland in the +17th century, for the painting by David Teniers (1610-1690), in the +Scottish National Gallery at Edinburgh, is wrongly described as +"Peasants playing at Skittles." In this picture three men are +represented as having played a bowl, while the fourth is in the act of +delivering his bowl. The game is obviously bowls, the sole difference +being that an upright peg, about 4 in. high, is employed instead of a +jack,--recalling, in this respect, the old English form of the game +already mentioned. + +Serious efforts to organize the game were made in the last quarter of +the 19th century, but this time the lead came from Australia. The +Bowling Associations of Victoria and New South Wales were established in +1880, and it was not until 1892 that the Scottish Bowling Association +was founded. Then in rapid succession came several independent +bodies--the Midland Counties (1895), the London and Southern Counties +(1896), the Imperial (1899), the English (1903) and the Irish and Welsh +(1904). These institutions were concerned with the task of regularizing +the game within the territories indicated by their titles, but it soon +appeared that the multiplicity of associations was likely to prove a +hindrance rather than a help, and with a view, therefore, to reducing +the number of clashing jurisdictions and bringing about the +establishment of a single legislative authority, the Imperial +amalgamated with the English B.A. in 1905. The visits to the United +Kingdom of properly organized teams of bowlers from Australia and New +Zealand in 1901 and from Canada in 1904 demonstrated that the game had +gained enormously in popularity. The former visit was commemorated by +the institution of the Australia Cup, presented to the Imperial Bowling +Association (and now the property of the English B.A.) by Mr Charles +Wood, president of the Victorian Bowling Association. An accredited team +of bowlers from the mother country visited Canada in 1906, and was +accorded a royal welcome. Perhaps the most interesting proof that bowls +is a true _Volksspiel_ is to be found in the fact that it has become +municipalized. In Edinburgh, Glasgow, and elsewhere in Scotland, and in +London (through the county council), Newcastle and other English towns, +the corporations have laid down greens in public parks and open spaces. +In Scotland the public greens are self-supporting, from a charge, which +includes the use of bowls, of one penny an hour for each player; in +London the upkeep of the greens falls on the rates, but players must +provide their own bowls. + + + The game. + +There are two kinds of bowling green, the level and the crown. The crown +has a fall which may amount to as much as 18 in. all round from the +centre to the sides. This type of green is confined almost wholly to +certain of the northern and midland counties of England, where it is +popular for single-handed, gate-money contests. But although the +crown-green game is of a sporting character, it necessitates the use of +bowls of narrow bias and affords but limited scope for the display of +skill and science. It is the game on the perfectly level green that +constitutes the historical game of bowls. Subject to the rule as to the +shortest distance to which the jack must be thrown (25 yds.), there is +no prescribed size for the lawn; but 42 yds. square forms an ideal +green. The Queen's Park and Titwood clubs in Glasgow have each three +greens, and as they can quite comfortably play six rinks on each, it is +not uncommon to see 144 players making their game simultaneously. An +undersized lawn is really a poor pitch, because it involves playing from +corner to corner instead of up and down--the orthodox direction. For +the scientific construction of a green, the whole ground must be +excavated to a depth of 18 in. or so, and thoroughly drained, and layers +of different materials (gravel, cinders, moulds, silver-sand) laid down +before the final covering of turf, 2-1/2 or 3 in. thick. Seaside turf is +the best. It wears longest and keeps its "spring" to the last. +Surrounding the green is a space called a ditch, which is nearly but not +quite on a level with the green and slopes gently away from it, the side +next the turf being lined with boarding, the ditch itself bottomed with +wooden spars resting on the foundation. Beyond the ditch are banks +generally laid with turf. A green is divided into spaces usually from 18 +to 21 ft. in width, commonly styled "rinks"--a word which also +designates each set of players--and these are numbered in sequence on a +plate fixed in the bank at each end opposite the centre of the space. +The end ditch within the limits of the space is, according to Scottish +laws, regarded as part of the green, a regulation which prejudices the +general acceptance of those laws. In match play each space is further +marked off from its neighbour by thin string securely fastened flush +with the turf. + +Every player uses four _lignum vitae_ bowls in single-handed games and +(as a rule) in friendly games, but only two in matches. Every bowl must +have a certain amount of bias, which was formerly obtained by loading +one side with lead, but is now imparted by the turner making one side +more convex than the other, the bulge showing the side of the bias. No +bowl must have less than No. 3 bias--that is, it should draw about 6 ft. +to a 30 yd. jack on a first-rate green: it follows that on an inferior +green the bowler, though using the same bowl, would have to allow for a +narrower draw. It is also a rule that the diameter of the bowl shall not +be less than 4-1/2 in. nor more than 5-1/4 in., and that its weight must +not exceed 3-1/2 lb. The jack or kitty, as the white earthenware ball to +which the bowler bowls is called, is round and 2-1/2 to 2-3/4 in. in +diameter. On crown-greens it is customary to use a small biased wooden +jack to give the bowler some clue to the run of the green. The bowler +delivers his bowl with one foot on a mat or footer, made of india-rubber +or cocoa-nut fibre, the size of which is also prescribed by rule as 24 +by 16 in., though, with a view to protecting the green, Australasian +clubs employ a much larger size, and require the bowler to keep both +feet on the mat in the act of delivery. + +In theory the game of bowls is very simple, the aim of the player being +to roll his bowl so as to cause it to rest nearer to the jack than his +opponent's, or to protect a well-placed bowl, or to dislodge a better +bowl than his own. But in practice there is every opportunity for skill. +On all good greens the game is played in rinks of four a side, there +being, however, on the part of many English clubs still an adherence to +the old-fashioned method of two and three a side rinks. Ordinarily a +match team consists of four rinks of four players each, or sixteen men +in all. The four players in a rink are known as the leader, second +player, third player and skip (or driver, captain or director), and +their positions, at least in matches, are unchangeable. Great +responsibility is thus thrown on the skip in the choice of his players, +who are selected for well-defined reasons. The leader has to place the +mat, to throw the jack, to count the game, and to call the result of +each end or head to the skip who is at the other end of the green. He is +picked for his skill in playing to the jack. It is, therefore, his +business to "be up." There is no excuse for short play on his part, and +his bowls would be better off the green than obstructing the path of +subsequent bowls. So he will endeavour to be "on the jack," the ideal +position being a bowl at rest immediately in front of or behind it. The +skip plays last, and directs his men from the end that is being played +to. The weakest player in the four is invariably played in the second +place (the "soft second"). Most frequently he will be required either to +protect a good bowl or to rectify a possible error of the leader. His +official duty is to mark the game on the scoring card when the leader +announces the result. He keeps a record of the play of both sides. The +third player, who does any measuring that may be necessary to determine +which bowl or bowls may be nearest the jack, holds almost as responsible +a position as the captain, whose place, in fact, he takes whenever the +skip is temporarily absent. The duties of the skip will already be +understood by inference. Before he leaves the jack to play, he must +observe the situation of the bowls of both sides. It may be that he has +to draw a shot with the utmost nicety to save the end, or even the +match, or to lay a cunningly contrived block, or to "fire"--that is, to +deliver his bowl almost dead straight at the object, with enough force +to kill the bias for the moment. The score having been counted, the +leader then places the mat, usually within a yard of the spot where the +jack lay at the conclusion of the head, and throws the jack in the +opposite direction for a fresh end. On small greens play, for obvious +reasons, generally takes place from each ditch. The players play in +couples--the first on both sides, then the second and so on. The leader +having played his first bowl, the opposing leader will play his first +and so on. As a rule, a match consists of 21 points, or 21 ends (or a +few more, by agreement). + +[Illustration: + +FIG. 1.--Drawing. + +FIG. 2.--Guarding. + +FIG. 3.--Trailing + +FIG. 4.--Driving. + +(In every case F is the Footer, B the Bowl, J the Jack.)] + + Certain points in the play call for notice. In throwing the jack, the + leader is bound to throw (i.e. roll) a legal jack. A legal jack must + travel at least 25 yds. from the footer and not come to rest within 2 + yds. of either side boundary; but it may be thrown as far beyond this + as the leader chooses, provided that it does not run within 2 yds. of + the end ditch or either side boundary. In English practice the leader + is entitled to a second throw if he fail to roll a legal jack at his + first attempt; should he fail again, the right to throw passes to his + opponent, but not the right of playing first. On Scottish greens the + leader has only a single throw. A legal jack should not be interfered + with except by the course of play. Should the jack be driven towards + the side boundary, it is legitimate for a player to cause his bowl to + draw outside of the dividing string, provided that when it has ceased + running it shall have come to rest entirely within his own space. If + it stop on the string, or outside of it, the bowl is "dead" and must + be removed to the bank. A "toucher" bowl is a characteristic of the + Scottish game to which great exception is taken by many English clubs. + Should a bowl running jackwards touch the jack, however slightly, it + is called a toucher and must be marked by the skip with a chalk cross + as soon as it is at rest. Such a bowl is alive until the end is + finished wherever it may lie, within the limits of the space. Even if + it run into the ditch or be driven in by another bowl, it will yet + count as alive. A bowl, however, that is forced on to the jack by + another is not a toucher. The feat of hitting the jack is so common + that it really calls for no special reward. Difference of opinion + prevails as to the condition of the jack after it has been driven into + the ditch. According to Scottish rules, unless it has been forced + clean out of bounds, such a jack is still alive. On most English + greens it is a "dead" jack and the end void. Every bowler should learn + both forehand and backhand play. In forehand play the bowl as it + courses to the jack describes its segment of a circle on the right, in + backhand play on the left. In both styles the biased side must always + be the inner. + + In the United Kingdom the regular bowling season extends from May day + till the end of September or the middle of October. At its close the + green must be carefully examined, weeds uprooted, worn patches + re-turfed, and the whole laid under a winter blanket of silver-sand. + + On Scottish greens the game of points is frequently played, but it is + rarely seen on English greens. Its main object is to perfect the + proficiency of players in certain departments of bowls proper. There + are four sections in the game, namely, drawing, guarding, trailing and + driving. In _drawing_ (fig. 1), the object is to draw as near as + possible to the jack, the player's bowl passing outside of two other + bowls placed 5 ft. apart in a horizontal line 15 ft. from the jack, + without touching either of them. Three points are scored if the bowl + come to rest within 1 ft. of the jack, two points if within 2 ft., and + one point if within 3 ft. Circles of these radii are usually marked + around the jack for convenience sake. In _guarding_ (fig. 2), two + jacks are laid at the far end of the green 12 ft. apart in a vertical + line. A thread is then pinned down between them, and on each side of + this thread three others are pinned down parallel with it and 6 in. + apart from each other. A bowl that comes to rest on the central line, + or within 6 in. of it, counts three points, a bowl 12 in. away two + points, and a bowl 18 in. off one point. In _trailing_ (fig. 3), two + bowls are laid on the turf 3 ft. apart, and straight lines are chalked + from bowl to bowl across their back and front faces, and a jack is + then deposited equidistant from each bowl and immediately before the + front line. A semicircle is then drawn behind the bowls with a radius + of 9 ft. from the jack. Three points are given to the bowl that trails + the jack over both lines into the semicircle and goes over them + itself. If a bowl trail the jack over both lines, but only itself + cross the first; or if it pass both lines, but the jack cross only the + first, two points are awarded. A bowl passing between the jack and + either of the stationary bowls, and passing over the back line; or + touching the jack, yet not trailing it past the first line, but itself + crossing the back line; or trailing the jack over the front line + without crossing it itself, receives one point. In no case must the + stationary bowls be touched, or the semicircle crossed by the trailed + jack or played bowls. In _driving_ (fig. 4), two bowls are laid down 2 + ft. apart, and then a jack is placed in front of them, 15 in. apart + from each, and occupying the position of the apex of an inverted + pyramid. The player who drives the jack into the ditch between the two + bowls scores three. If he moves the jack, but does not carry it + through to the ditch, he scores two. If he pass between the jack and + either bowl he scores one, although it is not easy to see what driving + he has done. The played bowl must itself run into the ditch without + touching either of the stationary bowls. It is obvious that the points + game demands an ideally perfect green. + + See W.W. Mitchell, _Manual of Bowl-playing_ (Glasgow, 1880); _Laws of + the Game issued by the Scottish B.A._ (1893, et sqq.); H.J. Dingley, + _Touchers and Rubs_ (Glasgow, 1893); Sam Aylwin, _The Gentle Art of + Bowling_, with 26 diagrams (London, 1904); James A. Manson, _The + Bowler's Handbook_ (London, 1906). (J. A. M.) + + + + +BOWNESS-ON-WINDERMERE, an urban district in the Appleby parliamentary +division of Westmorland, England, on the east shore of Windermere, 1-1/4 +m. S.W. of Windermere station on the London & North-Western railway. +Together with the town of Windermere it forms an urban district (pop. +5061 in 1901), but the two towns were separate until 1905. Its situation +is fine, the lake-shore here rising sharply, while at this point the +lake narrows and is studded with islands. The low surrounding hills are +richly wooded, and a number of country seats stand upon them. Bowness +lies at the head of a small bay, is served by the lake-steamers of the +Furness Railway Company, and is a favourite yachting, boating, fishing +and tourist centre. The church of St Martin is ancient, and contains +stained glass from Cartmel priory in Furness. (See WINDERMERE.) + + + + +BOWRING, SIR JOHN (1792-1872), English linguist, political economist and +miscellaneous writer, was born at Exeter, on the 17th of October 1792, +of an old Puritan family. In early life he came under the influence of +Jeremy Bentham. He did not, however, share his master's contempt for +_belles-lettres_, but was a diligent student of literature and foreign +languages, especially those of eastern Europe. As a linguist he ranked +with Mezzofanti and von Gabelentz among the greatest of the world. The +first-fruits of his study of foreign literature appeared in _Specimens +of the Russian Poets_ (1821-1823). These were speedily followed by +_Batavian Anthology_ (1824), _Ancient Poetry and Romances of Spain_ +(1824), _Specimens of the Polish Poets_, and _Servian Popular Poetry_, +both in 1827. During this period he began to contribute to the newly +founded _Westminster Review_, of which he was appointed editor in 1825. +By his contributions to the _Review_ he obtained considerable reputation +as political economist and parliamentary reformer. He advocated in its +pages the cause of free trade long before it was popularized by Richard +Cobden and John Bright. He pleaded earnestly in behalf of parliamentary +reform, Catholic emancipation and popular education. In 1828 he visited +Holland, where the university of Groningen conferred on him the degree +of doctor of laws. In the following year he was in Denmark, preparing +for the publication of a collection of Scandinavian poetry. Bowring, who +had been the trusted friend of Bentham during his life, was appointed +his literary executor, and was charged with the task of preparing a +collected edition of his works. This appeared in eleven volumes in 1843. +Meanwhile Bowring had entered parliament in 1835 as member for +Kilmarnock; and in the following year he was appointed head of a +government commission to be sent to France to inquire into the actual +state of commerce between the two countries. He was engaged in similar +investigations in Switzerland, Italy, Syria and some of the German +states. The results of these missions appeared in a series of reports +laid before the House of Commons. After a retirement of four years he +sat in parliament from 1841 till 1849 as member for Bolton. During this +busy period he found leisure for literature, and published in 1843 a +translation of the _Manuscript of the Queen's Court_, a collection of +old Bohemian lyrics, &c. In 1849 he was appointed British consul at +Canton, and superintendent of trade in China, a post which he held for +four years. After his return he distinguished himself as an advocate of +the decimal system, and published a work entitled _The Decimal System in +Numbers, Coins and Accounts_ (1854). The introduction of the florin as a +preparatory step was chiefly due to his efforts. Knighted in 1854, he +was again sent the same year to Hong-Kong as governor, invested with the +supreme military and naval power. It was during his governorship that a +dispute broke out with the Chinese; and the irritation caused by his +"spirited" or high-handed policy led to the second war with China. In +1855 he visited Siam, and negotiated with the king a treaty of commerce. +After the usual five years of service he retired and received a pension. +His last employment by the English government was as a commissioner to +Italy in 1861, to report on British commercial relations with the new +kingdom. Sir John Bowring subsequently accepted the appointment of +minister plenipotentiary and envoy extraordinary from the Hawaiian +government to the courts of Europe, and in this capacity negotiated +treaties with Belgium, Holland, Italy, Spain and Switzerland. In +addition to the works already named he published--_Poetry of the +Magyars_ (1830); _Cheskian Anthology_ (1832); _The Kingdom and People of +Siam_ (1857); a translation of _Peter Schlemihl_ (1824); translations +from the Hungarian poet, Alexander Petofi (1866); and various pamphlets. +He was elected F.R.S. and F.R.G.S., and received the decorations of +several foreign orders of knighthood. He died at Claremont, near Exeter, +on the 23rd of November 1872. His valuable collection of coleoptera was +presented to the British Museum by his second son, Lewin Bowring, a +well-known Anglo-Indian administrator; and his third son, E.A. Bowring, +member of parliament for Exeter from 1868 to 1874, became known in the +literary world as an able translator. + + Sir John Bowring's _Recollections_ were edited by Lewin Bowring (d. + 1910) in 1877. + + + + +BOWTELL, a medieval term in architecture for a round or corniced +moulding; the word is a variant of "boltel," which is probably the +diminutive of "bolt," the shaft of an arrow or javelin. A "roving" +bowtell is one which passes up the side of a bench end and round a +finial, the term "roving" being applied to that which follows the line +of a curve. + + + + +BOWYER, WILLIAM (1663-1737), English printer, was born in 1663, +apprenticed to a printer in 1679, made a liveryman of the Stationers' +Company in 1700, and nominated as one of the twenty printers allowed by +the Star Chamber. He was burned out in the great fire of 1712, but his +loss was partly made good by the subscription of friends and fellow +craftsmen, as recorded on a tablet in Stationers' Hall, and in 1713 he +returned to his Whitefriars shop and became the leading printer of his +day. He died on the 27th of December 1737. + +His son, WILLIAM BOWYER (1699-1777), was born in London on the 19th of +December 1699. He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, and in +1722 became a partner in his father's business. In 1729 he was appointed +printer of the votes of the House of Commons, and in 1736 printer to the +Society of Antiquaries, of which he was elected a fellow in 1737. In +1737 he took as apprentice John Nichols, who was to be his successor and +biographer. In 1761 Bowyer became printer to the Royal Society, and in +1767 printer of the rolls of the House of Lords and the journals of the +House of Commons. He died on the 13th of November 1777, leaving +unfinished a number of large works and among them the reprint of +Domesday Book. He wrote a great many tracts and pamphlets, edited, +arranged and published a host of books, but perhaps his principal work +was an edition of the New Testament in Greek, with notes. His generous +bequests in favour of his own profession are administered by the +Stationers' Company, of which he became a liveryman in 1738, and in +whose hall is his portrait bust and a painting of his father. He was +known as "the learned printer." + + + + +BOX (Gr. [Greek: puxos], Lat. _buxus_, box-wood; cf. [Greek: puxis], a +pyx), the most varied of all receptacles. A box may be square, oblong, +round or oval, or of an even less normal shape; it usually opens by +raising, sliding or removing the lid, which may be fastened by a catch, +hasp or lock. Whatever its shape or purpose or the material of which it +is fashioned, it is the direct descendant of the chest, one of the most +ancient articles of domestic furniture. Its uses are infinite, and the +name, preceded by a qualifying adjective, has been given to many objects +of artistic or antiquarian interest. + +Of the boxes which possess some attraction beyond their immediate +purpose the feminine work-box is the commonest. It is usually fitted +with a tray divided into many small compartments, for needles, reels of +silk and cotton and other necessaries of stitchery. The date of its +introduction is in considerable doubt, but 17th-century examples have +come down to us, with covers of silk, stitched with beads and adorned +with embroidery. In the 18th century no lady was without her work-box, +and, especially in the second half of that period, much taste and +elaborate pains were expended upon the case, which was often exceedingly +dainty and elegant. These boxes are ordinarily portable, but sometimes +form the top of a table. + +But it is as a receptacle for snuff that the box has taken its most +distinguished and artistic form. The snuff-box, which is now little more +than a charming relic of a disagreeable practice, was throughout the +larger part of the 18th century the indispensable companion of every man +of birth and breeding. It long survived his sword, and was in frequent +use until nearly the middle of the 19th century. The jeweller, the +enameller and the artist bestowed infinite pains upon what was quite as +often a delicate bijou as a piece of utility; fops and great personages +possessed numbers of snuff-boxes, rich and more ordinary, their +selection being regulated by their dress and by the relative splendour +of the occasion. From the cheapest wood that was suitable--at one time +potato-pulp was extensively used--to a frame of gold encased with +diamonds, a great variety of materials was employed. Tortoise-shell was +a favourite, and owing to its limpid lustre it was exceedingly +effective. Mother-of-pearl was also used, together with silver, in its +natural state or gilded. Costly gold boxes were often enriched with +enamels or set with diamonds or other precious stones, and sometimes the +lid was adorned with a portrait, a classical vignette, or a tiny +miniature, often some choice work by an old master. After snuff-taking +had ceased to be general it lingered for some time among diplomatists, +either because--as Talleyrand explained--they found a ceremonious pinch +to be a useful aid to reflection in a business interview, or because +monarchs retained the habit of bestowing snuff-boxes upon ambassadors +and other intermediaries, who could not well be honoured in any other +way. It is, indeed, to the cessation of the habit of snuff-taking that +we may trace much of modern lavishness in the distribution of +decorations. To be invited to take a pinch from a monarch's snuff-box +was a distinction almost equivalent to having one's ear pulled by +Napoleon. At the coronation of George IV. of England, Messrs Rundell & +Bridge, the court jewellers, were paid L8205 for snuff-boxes for foreign +ministers. Now that the snuff-box is no longer used it is collected by +wealthy amateurs or deposited in museums, and especially artistic +examples command large sums. George, duke of Cambridge (1819-1904), +possessed an important collection; a Louis XV. gold box was sold by +auction after his death for L2000. + +A jewel-box is a receptacle for trinkets. It may take a very modest +form, covered in leather and lined with satin, or it may reach the +monumental proportions of the jewel cabinets which were made for Marie +Antoinette, one of which is at Windsor, and another at Versailles, the +work of Schwerdfeger as cabinet-maker, Degault as miniature-painter, and +Thomire as chaser. + +A strong-box is a receptacle for money, deeds and securities. Its place +has been taken in modern life by the safe. Some of those which have +survived, such as that of Sir Thomas Bodley in the Bodleian library, +possess locks with an extremely elaborate mechanism contrived in the +under-side of the lid. + +The knife-box is one of the most charming of the minor pieces of +furniture which we owe to the artistic taste and mechanical ingenuity of +the English cabinet-makers of the last quarter of the 18th century. Some +of the most elegant were the work of Adam, Hepplewhite and Sheraton. +Occasionally flat-topped boxes, they were most frequently either +vase-shaped, or tall and narrow with a sloping lid necessitated by a +series of raised stages for exhibiting the handles of knives and the +bowls of spoons. Mahogany and satinwood were the woods most frequently +employed, and they were occasionally inlaid with marqueterie or edged +with boxwood. These graceful receptacles still exist in large numbers; +they are often converted into stationery cabinets. + +The Bible-box, usually of the 17th century, but now and again more +ancient, probably obtained its name from the fact that it was of a size +to hold a large Bible. It often has a carved or incised lid. + +The powder-box and the patch-box were respectively receptacles for the +powder and the patches of the 18th century; the former was the direct +ancestor of the puff-box of the modern dressing-table. + +The _etui_ is a cylindrical box or case of very various materials, often +of pleasing shape or adornment, for holding sewing materials or small +articles of feminine use. It was worn on the chatelaine. + + + + +BOXING (M.E. _box_, a blow, probably from Dan. _bask_, a buffet), the +art of attack and defence with the fists protected by padded gloves, as +distinguished from pugilism, in which the bare fists, or some kind of +light gloves affording little moderation of the blow, are employed. The +ancient Greeks used a sort of glove in practice, but, although far less +formidable than the terrible caestus worn in serious encounters, it was +by no means so mild an implement as the modern boxing-glove, the +invention of which is traditionally ascribed to Jack Broughton +(1705-1789), "the father of British pugilism." In any case gloves were +first used in his time, though only in practice, all prize-fights being +decided with bare fists. Broughton, who was for years champion of +England, also drew up the rules by which prize-fights were for many +years regulated, and no doubt, with the help of the newly invented +gloves, imparted instruction in boxing to the young aristocrats of his +day. The most popular teacher of the art was, however, John Jackson +(1769-1845), called "Gentleman Jackson," who was champion from 1795 to +1800, and who is credited with imparting to boxing its scientific +principles, such as countering, accurate judging of distance in hitting, +and agility on the feet. Tom Moore, the poet, in his _Memoirs_, asserted +that Jackson "made more than a thousand a year by teaching sparring." +Among his pupils was Lord Byron, who, when chided for keeping company +with a pugilist, insisted that Jackson's manners were "infinitely +superior to those of the fellows of the college whom I meet at the high +table," and referred to him in the following lines in _Hints from +Horace_:-- + + "And men unpractised in exchanging knocks + Must go to Jackson ere they dare to box." + +His rooms in Bond Street were crowded with men of birth and distinction, +and when the allied monarchs visited London he was entrusted with the +management of a boxing carnival with which they were vastly pleased. In +1814 the Pugilistic Club, the meeting-place of the aristocratic sporting +element, was formed, but the high-water mark of the popularity of boxing +had been reached, and it declined rapidly, although throughout the +country considerable interest continued to be manifested in +prize-fighting. + +The sport of modern boxing, as distinguished from pugilism, may be said +to date from the year 1866, when the public had become disgusted with +the brutality and unfair practices of the professional "bruisers," and +the laws against prize-fighting began to be more rigidly enforced. In +that year the "Amateur Athletic Club" was founded, principally through +the efforts of John G. Chambers (1843-1883), who, in conjunction with +the 8th marquess of Queensberry, drew up a code of laws (known as the +Queensberry Rules) which govern all glove contests in Great Britain, and +were also authoritative in America until the adoption of the boxing +rules of the Amateur Athletic Union of America. In 1867 Lord Queensberry +presented cups for the British amateur championships at the recognized +weights. + +For the history of pugilism in classic antiquity and an account of +modern prize-fighting see PUGILISM. At present two kinds of boxing +contests are in vogue, that for a limited number of rounds (as in the +amateur championships) and that for endurance, in which the one who +cannot continue the fight loses. Endurance contests, which contain the +essential element of the old prize-fights, are now indulged in only by +professionals. Among amateurs boxing is far less popular than it once +was, owing to the importance placed upon brute strength, and the +prevailing ambition of the modern boxer to "knock out" his opponent, +i.e. reduce him to a state of insensibility. Even in 3-round matches +between gentlemen, in which points win, and there is therefore no need +to knock an opponent senseless, it is nevertheless a common practice to +strike a dazed and reeling adversary a heavy blow with a view to ending +the battle at once. During the annual boxing competitions between Oxford +and Cambridge more than half the bouts have been known to end in this +manner. Undoubtedly the prettiest boxing is seen when two men proficient +in the art indulge in a practice bout--or "sparring." + +Boxing is the art of hitting without getting hit. The boxers face each +other just out of reach and balanced equally on both feet, the left from +10 to 20 in. in advance of the right. The left foot is planted flat on +the floor, while the right heel is raised slightly from it. The left +side of the body is turned a little towards the opponent and the right +shoulder slightly depressed. When the hands are clenched inside the +gloves the thumb is doubled over the second and third fingers to avoid a +sprain when hitting. The general position of the guard is a matter of +individual taste. In the "crouch," affected by many American +professionals, the right hip is thrust forward and the body bent over +towards the right, while the left arm is kept well stretched out to +keep the opponent at a distance. No good master, however, teaches a +beginner any other than the upright position. Some boxers stand with the +right foot forward, a practice common in the 18th century, which gives +freer play with the right hand but is rather unstable. A boxer should +stand lightly on his feet, ready to advance or retreat on the instant, +using short steps, advancing with the left foot first and retreating +with the right. Attacks are either simple or secondary. Simple attacks +consist in straight leads, i.e. blows aimed with or without preliminary +feints, at some part of the opponent's body or head. All other attacks +are either "counters" or returns after a guard or "block." A counter is +a lead carried out just as one is attacked, the object being to block +(parry) the blow and land on the opponent at the same time. Counters are +often carried out in connexion with a side-step, a slip or a crouch. In +hitting, a boxer seeks to exert the greatest force at the instant of +impact. Blows may be either straight, with or without the weight of the +body behind them ("straight from the shouder" hits); jabs, short blows +(usually with the left hand when at close quarters); hooks, or +side-blows with bent arm; upper cuts (short swinging blows from beneath +to the adversary's chin); chops (short blows from above); punches +(usually at close quarters, with the right hand); or swings (round-arm +blows, usually delivered with a partial twist of the body to augment the +force of the blow). Of the dangerous blows, which often result in a +knockout, or in seriously weakening an adversary, the following may be +mentioned:--on the pit of the stomach, called the solar plexus, from the +sensitive network of nerves situated there; a blow on the point of the +chin, having a tendency slightly to paralyse the brain; a blow under the +ear, painful and often resulting in partial helplessness; and one +directly over the heart, kidney or liver. As a boxer is allowed ten +seconds after being knocked down in which to rise, an experienced +ring-fighter will drop on one knee when partially stunned, remaining in +that position in order to recover until the referee has counted nine. + +Guarding is done with the arm or hand, either open or shut. If a blow is +caught or stopped short it is called _blocking_, but a blow may also be +shoved aside, or avoided altogether by _slipping, i.e._ moving the head +quickly to one side, or by ducking and allowing the adversary's swing to +pass harmlessly over the head. Still another method of avoiding a blow +without guarding is to bend back the head or body so as narrowly to +escape the opponent's glove. + +The rules of the Amateur Boxing Association (founded 1884) contain the +following provisions. "An amateur is one who has never competed for a +money prize or staked bet with or against a professional for any prize, +except with the express sanction of the A.B.A., and who has never +taught, pursued or assisted in the practice of athletic exercises as a +means of obtaining a livelihood." The ring shall be roped and between 12 +and 24 ft. square. No spikes shall be worn on shoes. Boxers are divided +into the following classes by weight:--Bantam, not exceeding 8 st. 4 lb +(116 lb); Feather, not exceeding 9 st. (126 lb); Light, not exceeding 10 +st. (140 lb); Middle, not exceeding 11 st. 4 lb. (158 lb); and Heavy, +any weight above. There shall be two judges, a referee and a timekeeper. +The votes of the judges decide the winner of a bout, unless they +disagree, in which case the referee has the deciding vote. In case of +doubt he may order an extra round of two minutes' duration. Each match +is for three rounds, the first two lasting three minutes and the third +four, with one minute rest between the rounds. A competitor failing to +come up at the call of time loses the match. When a competitor draws a +bye he must box for a specified time with an opponent chosen by the +judges. A competitor is allowed one assistant (second) only, and no +advice or coaching during the progress of a round is permitted. Unless +one competitor is unable to respond to the call of time, or is obliged +to stop before the match is over, the judges decide the winner by +_points_, which are for attack, comprising successful hits cleanly +delivered, and defence, comprising guarding, slipping, ducking, +counter-hitting and getting away in time to avoid a return. When the +points are equal the decision is given in favour of the boxer who has +done the most leading, i.e. has been the more aggressive. Fouls are +hitting below the belt, kicking, hitting with the open hand, the side of +the hand, the wrist, elbow or shoulder, wrestling or "roughing" on the +ropes, i.e. unnecessary shouldering and jostling. + +The boxing rules of the American Amateur Athletic Association differ +slightly from the British. The ring is roped but must be from 16 to 24 +ft. square. Gloves must not be worn more than 8 oz. in weight. The +recognized classes by weight are: Bantam, 105 lb. and under; Feather, +115 lb. and under; Light, 135 lb. and under; Welter, 145 lb. and under; +Middle, 158 lb. and under; and Heavy, over 158 lb. The rules for +officials and rounds are identical with the British, except that only in +final bouts does the last round last four minutes. Two "seconds" are +allowed. The rules for points and fouls coincide with the British. The +amateur rules are very strict, and any one who competes in a boxing +contest of more than four rounds is suspended from membership in the +Athletic Association. + + _Glossary_ of terms not mentioned above:--_Break away_, to get away + from the adversary, usually a command from the referee when the men + clinch. _Break ground_, retire diagonally to right or left. + _Catch-weight_, any weight. _Corners_, the opposite angles of the + square "ring," in which the boxers rest between the rounds. + _Cross-counter_, a blow in which the right or left arm crosses that of + the adversary as he leads off; the arm is slightly curved to get round + that of the opponent but is straightened at the moment of impact. + _Clinching_, grappling after an exchange of blows; when breaking from + a clinch one tries to pin the adversary's hands in order to prevent + his hitting at close quarters. _Drawing_ an opponent, enticing him by + leaving an apparent opening into making an attack for which a counter + is prepared. _Fiddling_, forward and back movements of the arms at the + beginning of a round, a part of sparring for an opening. _Footwork_, + the manner in which a boxer uses his feet. _In-fighting_, boxing at + very close quarters. _Mark_, the pit of the stomach. _Side-step_, + springing quickly to one side to avoid a blow, the movement being + usually followed up by a counter attack. _Timing_, a blow delivered on + the enemy's preparation of an attack of his own, but more quickly. + + See _Boxing_, by R. Allanson Winn (Isthmian Library, London, 1897); + _Boxing_, by Wm. Elder (Spalding's Athletic Library, New York, 1902) + (these two books are excellent for the technicalities of boxing). The + article "Boxing," by B. Jno. Angle and G.W. Barroll, in the + _Encyclopaedia of Sport_; _Boxing_, by J.C. Trotter (Oval Series, + London, 1896); _Fencing, Boxing and Wrestling_, in the Badminton + Library (London, 1892). + +FRENCH BOXING (_la boxe francaise_) dates from about 1830. It is more +like the ancient Greek _pankration_ (see PUGILISM) than is British +boxing, as not only striking with the fists, but also kicking with the +feet, butting with the head and wrestling are allowed. It is a +development of the old sport of _savate_, in which the feet, and not the +hands, were used in attack. Lessons in savate, which was practised +especially by roughs, were usually given in some low resort, and there +were no respectable teachers. While Paris was restricted to savate, +another sport, called _chausson_ or _jeu marseillais_, was practised in +the south of France, especially among the soldiers, in which blows of +the fist as well as kicks were exchanged, and the kicks were given +higher than in savate, in the stomach or even the face. It was an +excellent exercise, but could hardly be reckoned a serious means of +defence, for the high kicks usually fell short, and the upward blows of +the fist could not be compared with the terrible sledge-hammer blows of +the English boxers. Alexandre Dumas _pere_ says that Charles Lecour +first conceived the idea of combining English boxing with savate. For +this purpose he went to England, and took lessons of Adams and Smith, +the London boxers. He then returned to Paris, about 1852, and opened a +school to teach the sport since called _la boxe francaise_. Around him, +and two provincial instructors who came to Paris about this time with +similar ideas, there grew up a large number of sportsmen, who between +1845 and 1855 brought French boxing to its highest development. Among +others who gave public exhibitions was Lecour's brother Hubert, who +although rather undersized, was quick as lightning, and had an English +blow and a French kick that were truly terrible. Charles Ducros was +another whose style of boxing, more in the English fashion, but with low +kicks about his opponent's shins, made a name for himself. Later came +Vigneron, a "strong man," whose style, though slow, was severe in its +punishment. About 1856 the police interfered in these fights, and Lecour +and Vigneron had to cease giving public exhibitions and devote +themselves to teaching. Towards 1862 a new boxer, J. Charlemont, was not +only very clever with his fists and feet, but an excellent teacher, and +the author of a treatise on the art. Lecour, Vigneron and Charlemont may +be said to have created _la boxe francaise_, which, for defence _at +equal weights_, the French claim to be better than the English. + + See _L'Art de la boxe francaise et de la canne_, by J. Charlemont + (Paris, 1899); _The French Method of the Noble Art of Self Defence_, + by Georges d'Amoric (London, 1898). + + + + +BOXWOOD, the wood obtained from the genus _Buxus_, the principal species +being the well-known tree or shrub, _B. sempervirens_, the common box, +in general use for borders of garden walks, ornamental parterres, &c. +The other source of the ordinary boxwood of commerce is _B. balearica_, +which yields the variety known as Turkey boxwood. The common box is +grown throughout Great Britain (perhaps native in the chalk-hills of the +south of England), in the southern part of the European continent +generally, and extends through Persia into India, where it is found +growing on the slopes of the western Himalayas. There has been much +discussion as to whether it is a true native of Britain. Writing more +than 200 years ago, John Ray, the author of the important _Historia +Plantarum_, says, "The Box grows wild on Boxhill, hence the name; also +at Boxwell, on the Cotteswold Hills in Gloucestershire, and at Boxley in +Kent.... It grows plentifully on the chalk hills near Dunstable." On the +other hand the box is not wild in the Channel Islands, and in the north +of France, Holland and Belgium is found mainly in hedgerows and near +cultivation, and it may have been one of the many introductions owed to +the Romans. Only a very small proportion of the wood suitable for +industrial uses is now obtained in Great Britain. The box is a very +slow-growing plant, adding not more than 1-1/2 or 2 in. to its diameter +in twenty years, and on an average attaining only a height of 16 ft., +with a mean diameter of 10-1/2 in. The leaves of this species are small, +oval, leathery in texture and of a deep glossy green colour. _B. +balearica_ is a tree of considerable size, attaining to a height of 80 +ft., with leaves three times larger than those of the common box. It is +a native of the islands of the Mediterranean, and grows in Turkey, Asia +Minor, and around the shores of the Black Sea, and is supposed to be the +chief source of the boxwood which comes into European commerce by way of +Constantinople. The wood of both species possesses a delicate yellow +colour; it is very dense in structure and has a fine uniform grain, +which has given it unique value for the purposes of the wood-engraver. A +large amount is used in the manufacture of measuring rules, various +mathematical instruments, flutes and other musical instruments, as well +as for turning into many minor articles, and for inlaying, and it is a +favourite wood for small carvings. The use of boxwood for turnery and +musical instruments is mentioned by Pliny, Virgil and Ovid. + + + + +BOYACA, or Bojaca, an inland department of Colombia, bounded by the +departments of Santander and Cundinamarca on the N., W. and S., and the +republic of Venezuela on the E., and having an area of 33,321 sq. m., +including the Casanare territory. Pop. (1899, estimate) 508,940. The +department is very mountainous, heavily forested and rich in minerals. +The famous Muso emerald mines are located in the western part of Boyaca. +The capital, Tunja (pop. 1902, 10,000), is situated in the Eastern +Cordilleras, 9054 ft. above sea-level, and has a cool, temperate +climate, though only 5-1/2 deg. N. of the equator. It was an important +place in colonial times, and occupies the site of one of the Indian +towns of this region (Hunsa), which had acquired a considerable degree +of civilization before the discovery of America. Other towns of note in +the department are Chiquinquira (20,000), Moniquira (18,000), Sogamoso +(10,787), and Boyaca (7000), where on the 7th of August 1819 Bolivar +defeated the Spanish army and secured the independence of New Granada. + + + + +BOYAR (Russ. _boyarin_, plur. _boyare_), a dignity of Old Russia +conterminous with the history of the country. Originally the boyars were +the intimate friends and confidential advisers of the Russian prince, +the superior members of his _druzhina_ or bodyguard, his comrades and +champions. They were divided into classes according to rank, most +generally determined by personal merit and service. Thus we hear of the +"oldest," "elder" and the "younger" boyars. At first the dignity seems +to have been occasionally, but by no means invariably, hereditary. At a +later day the boyars were the chief members of the prince's _duma_, or +council, like the _senatores_ of Poland and Lithuania. Their further +designation of _luchshie lyudi_ or "the best people" proves that they +were generally richer than their fellow subjects. So long as the +princes, in their interminable struggles with the barbarians of the +Steppe, needed the assistance of the towns, "the best people" of the +cities and of the _druzhina_ proper mingled freely together both in war +and commerce; but after Yaroslav's crushing victory over the Petchenegs +in 1036 beneath the walls of Kiev, the two classes began to draw apart, +and a political and economical difference between the members of the +princely _druzhina_ and the aristocracy of the towns becomes +discernible. The townsmen devote themselves henceforth more exclusively +to commerce, while the _druzhina_ asserts the privileges of an +exclusively military caste with a primary claim upon the land. Still +later, when the courts of the northern grand dukes were established, the +boyars appear as the first grade of a fullblown court aristocracy with +the exclusive privilege of possessing land and serfs. Hence their title +of _dvoryane_ (courtiers), first used in the 12th century. On the other +hand there was no distinction, as in Germany, between the _Dienst Adel_ +(nobility of service) and the simple _Adel_. The Russian boyardom had no +corporate or class privileges, (1) because their importance was purely +local (the dignity of the principality determining the degree of dignity +of the boyars), (2) because of their inalienable right of transmigration +from one prince to another at will, which prevented the formation of a +settled aristocracy, and (3) because birth did not determine but only +facilitated the attainment of high rank, e.g. the son of a boyar was not +a boyar born, but could more easily attain to boyardom, if of superior +personal merit. It was reserved for Peter the Great to transform the +_boyarstvo_ or boyardom into something more nearly resembling the +aristocracy of the West. + + See Alexander Markevich, _The History of Rank-priority in the Realm of + Muscovy in the 15th-18th Centuries_ (Russ.) (Odessa, 1888); V. + Klyuchevsky, _The Boyar Duma of Ancient Russia_ (Russ.) (Moscow, + 1888). (R. N. B.) + + + + +BOY-BISHOP, the name given to the "bishop of the boys" (_episcopus +puerorum_ or _innocentium_, sometimes _episcopus scholariorum_ or +_chorestarum_), who, according to a custom very wide-spread in the +middle ages, was chosen in connexion with the festival of Holy +Innocents. For the origin of the curious authority of the boy-bishop and +of the rites over which he presided, see FOOLS, FEAST OF. In England the +boy-bishop was elected on December 6, the feast of St Nicholas, the +patron of children, and his authority lasted till Holy Innocents' day +(December 28). The election made, the lad was dressed in full bishop's +robes with mitre and crozier and, attended by comrades dressed as +priests, made a circuit of the town blessing the people. At Salisbury +the boy-bishop seems to have actually had ecclesiastical patronage +during his episcopate, and could make valid appointments. The boy and +his colleagues took possession of the cathedral and performed all the +ceremonies and offices except mass. Originally, it seems, confined to +the cathedrals, the custom spread to nearly all the parishes. Several +ecclesiastical councils had attempted to abolish or to restrain the +abuses of the custom, before it was prohibited by the council of Basel +in 1431. It was, however, too popular to be easily suppressed. In +England it was abolished by Henry VIII. in 1542, revived by Mary in 1552 +and finally abolished by Elizabeth. On the continent it survived longest +in Germany, in the so-called _Gregoriusfest_, said to have been founded +by Gregory IV. in 828 in honour of St Gregory, the patron of schools. A +school-boy was elected bishop, duly vested, and, attended by two +boy-deacons and the town clergy, proceeded to the parish church, where, +after a hymn in honour of St Gregory had been sung, he preached. At +Meiningen this custom survived till 1799. + + See Brand, _Pop. Antiquities of Great Britain_ (1905); Gasquet, + _Parish Life in Medieval England_ (1906); Du Cange, _Glossarium_ + (London, 1884), s.v. "Episcopus puerorum." + + + + +BOYCE, WILLIAM (1710-1779), English musical composer, the son of a +cabinet-maker, was born in London on the 7th of February 1710. As a +chorister in St Paul's he received his early musical education from +Charles King and Dr Maurice Greene, and he afterwards studied the theory +of music under Dr Pepusch. In 1734, having become organist of Oxford +chapel, Vere Street, Cavendish Square, he set Lord Lansdowne's masque of +_Peleus and Thetis_ to music. In 1736 he left Oxford chapel and was +appointed organist of St Michael's church, Cornhill, and in the same +year he became composer to the chapel royal, and wrote the music for +John Lockman's oratorio _David's Lamentation over Saul and Jonathan_. In +1737 he was appointed to conduct the meetings of the three choirs of +Gloucester, Worcester and Hereford. In 1743 was written the serenata +_Solomon_, in which occurs the favourite song "Softly rise, O southern +breeze." In 1749 he received the degree of doctor of music from the +university of Cambridge, as an acknowledgment of the merit of his +setting of the ode performed at the installation of Henry Pelham, duke +of Newcastle, as chancellor; and in this year he became organist of +All-hallows the Great and Less, Thames Street. A musical setting to _The +Chaplet_, an entertainment by Moses Mendez, was Boyce's most successful +achievement in this year. In 1750 he wrote songs for Dryden's _Secular +Masque_ and in 1751 set another piece (_The Shepherd's Lottery_) by +Mendez. He became master of the king's band in succession to Greene in +1757, and in 1758 he was appointed principal organist to the chapel +royal. As an ecclesiastical composer Boyce ranks among the best +representatives of the English school. His two church services and his +anthems, of which the best specimens are _By the Waters of Babylon_ and +_O, Where shall Wisdom be found_, are frequently performed. It should +also be remembered that he wrote additional accompaniments and choruses +for Purcell's _Te Deum_ and _Jubilate_, which the earlier musician had +composed for the St Cecilia's day of 1694. Boyce did this in his +capacity of conductor at the annual festivals of the Sons of the Clergy +at St Paul's cathedral, an office which he had taken in succession to +Greene. His twelve trios for two violins and a bass were long popular. +One of his most valuable services to musical art was his publication in +three volumes quarto of a work on _Cathedral Music_. The collection had +been begun by Greene, but it was mainly the work of Boyce. The first +volume appeared in 1760 and the last in 1778. On the 7th of February +1779 Boyce died from an attack of gout. He was buried under the dome of +St Paul's cathedral. + + + + +BOYCOTT, the refusal and incitement to refusal to have commercial or +social dealings with any one on whom it is wished to bring pressure. As +merely a form of "sending to Coventry" or (in W.E. Gladstone's phrase) +"exclusive dealing," boycotting may be, from a legal point of view, +unassailable, and as such has frequently been justified by its original +political inventors. But in practice it has usually taken the form of +what is undoubtedly an illegal conspiracy to injure the person, property +or business of another by unwarrantably putting pressure on all and +sundry to withdraw from him their social or business intercourse. The +word was first used in Ireland, and was derived from the name of Captain +Charles Cunningham Boycott (1832-1897), agent for the estates of the +earl of Erne in Co. Mayo. For refusing in 1880 to receive rents at +figures fixed by the tenants, Captain Boycott had his life threatened, +his servants compelled to leave him, his fences torn down, his letters +intercepted and his food supplies interfered with. It took a force of +900 soldiers to protect the Ulster Orangemen ("Emergency Men") who +succeeded finally in getting in his crops. He was hooted and mobbed in +the streets, and hanged and burnt in effigy. The system of boycotting +was an essential part of the Irish Nationalist "Plan of Campaign," and +was dealt with under the Crimes Act of 1887. The term soon came into +common English use, and was speedily adopted by the French, Germans, +Dutch and Russians. In the United States this method of "persuasion" was +taken up by the trade unions about 1886, an employer who refused their +demands being brought to terms by a combination to refuse to buy his +product or do his work, or to deal with any who did. Various cases have +occurred in America in which labour organizations have pronounced such a +boycott against a firm; and its illegal nature has been established in +the law-courts, notably in the case of the Bucks Stove Company v. The +American Federation of Labor (1907) in the Supreme Court of the district +of Columbia, and in a suit against the Hatters' Union (February 1908) in +the U.S. Supreme Court. A boycott has also been held by the U.S. Supreme +Court to be a violation of the Sherman Anti-Trust law. + + + + +BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON (1825-1899), Scottish author and divine, +was born at Auchinleck manse in Ayrshire on the 3rd of November 1825. He +studied at King's College, London, and at the Middle Temple, with the +idea of practising at the English bar. Returning to Scotland, however, +he entered Glasgow University and there qualified for the Scottish +ministry, being licensed as a preacher by the presbytery of Ayr. He +served in succession the parishes of Newton-on-Ayr, Kirkpatrick-Irongray +near Dumfries, St Bernard's, Edinburgh, and finally, in 1865, became +minister of the first charge at St Andrews. Here he advocated an +improved ritual in the Scottish church, his action resulting in the +appointment by the general assembly of a committee, with Boyd as +convener, to prepare a new hymnal. In 1890 he was appointed moderator of +the general assembly, and fulfilled the duties of the position with +admirable dignity and tact. He died at Bournemouth on the 1st of March +1899. Dr Boyd was a very famous preacher and talker, and his desultory +essays have very much of the charm of his conversation. Among his +numerous publications may be specially mentioned the two works (each in +three series), _Recreations of a Country Parson_ (1859, 1861 and 1878), +and _Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson_ (1862-1865 and 1875); he also +wrote _Twenty-five Years at St Andrews_ (1892), and _St Andrews and +Elsewhere_ (1894). He was familiarly known to the public as a writer by +his initials "A.K.H.B." + + + + +BOYD, ROBERT BOYD, LORD (d.c. 1470), Scottish statesman, was a son of +Sir Thomas Boyd (d. 1439), and belonged to an old and distinguished +family, one member of which, Sir Robert Boyd, had fought with Wallace +and Robert Bruce. Boyd, who was created a peer about 1454, was one of +the regents of Scotland during the minority of James III., but, in 1466, +with some associates he secured the person of the young king and was +appointed his sole governor. As ruler of Scotland he was instrumental in +reforming some religious foundations; he arranged the marriage between +James III. and Margaret, daughter of Christian I., king of Denmark and +Norway, and secured the cession of the Orkney Islands by Norway. +However, when in 1467 he obtained the offices of chamberlain and +justiciary for himself, and the hand of the king's sister Mary, with the +title of earl of Arran for his eldest son Thomas, his enemies became too +strong for him, and he was found guilty of treason and sentenced to +death. He escaped to England, and the date of his death is unknown. His +brother and assistant, Sir Alexander Boyd, was beheaded on the 22nd of +November 1469. + +Boyd's son Thomas, earl of Arran, was in Denmark when his father was +overthrown. However, he fulfilled his mission, that of bringing the +king's bride, Margaret, to Scotland, and then, warned by his wife, +escaped to the continent of Europe. He is mentioned very eulogistically +in one of the Paston Letters, but practically nothing is known of his +subsequent history. + +Lord Boyd's grandson Robert (d. c. 1550), a son of Alexander Boyd, was +confirmed in the possession of the estates and honours of his +grandfather in 1549, and is generally regarded as the 3rd Lord Boyd. His +son Robert, 4th Lord Boyd (d. 1590), took a prominent part in Scottish +politics during the troubled time which followed the death of James V. +in 1542. At first he favoured the reformed religion, but afterwards his +views changed and he became one of the most trusted advisers of Mary, +queen of Scots, whom he accompanied to the battle of Langside in 1568. +During the queen's captivity he was often employed on diplomatic +errands; he tried to stir up insurrections in her favour, and he was +suspected of participation in the murder of the regent Murray. He +enjoyed a high and influential position under the regent James Douglas, +earl of Morton, but was banished in 1583 for his share in the seizure of +King James VI., a plot known as the Raid of Ruthven. He retired to +France, but was soon allowed to return to Scotland. He died on the 3rd +of January 1590. + +William, 8th or 9th Lord Boyd (d. 1692), was created earl of Kilmarnock +in 1661, and this nobleman's grandson William, the 3rd earl (d. 1717), +was a partisan of the Hanoverian kings and fought for George I. during +the rising of 1715. His son William, the 4th earl (1704-1746), was +educated in the same principles, but in 1745, owing either to a personal +affront or to the influence of his wife or to his straitened +circumstances he deserted George II. and joined Charles Edward, the +Young Pretender. The 4th earl fought at Falkirk and Culloden, where he +was made prisoner, and was beheaded on the 18th of August 1746. The +title of earl of Kilmarnock is now merged in that of earl of Erroll. + + + + +BOYD, ZACHARY (1585?-1653), Scottish divine, was educated at the +universities of Glasgow and St Andrews. He was for many years a teacher +in the Protestant college of Saumur in France, but returned to Scotland +in 1621, to escape the Huguenot persecution. In 1623 he was appointed +minister of the Barony church in Glasgow, and he was rector of the +university in 1634, 1635 and 1645. He bequeathed to the university the +half of his fortune, a sum amounting to L20,000 Scots, besides his +library and twelve volumes of MSS. His poetical compositions, though +often eccentric, have some merit. The common statement that he made the +printing of his metrical version of the Gospels and other Biblical +narratives a condition of the reception of his grant to the university +is a mistake. In later years he was a staunch Covenanter, and though for +a time opposed to Oliver Cromwell, afterwards became friendly with him. +His best-known works are _The Battel of the Soul in Death_ (1629), of +which a new edition, with a biography by G. Neil, was published in +Glasgow in 1831; _Zion's Flowers_--often called "Boyd's Bible" (1644); +_Four Letters of Comfort_ (1640, reprinted, Edinburgh, 1878). + + + + +BOYDELL, JOHN (1719-1804), English alderman and publisher, was born at +Dorrington, and at the age of twenty-one came to London and was +apprenticed for seven years to an engraver. In 1746 he published a +volume of views in England and Wales, and started in business as a +print-seller. By his good taste and liberality he managed to secure the +services of the best artists, and his engravings were executed with such +skill that his business became extensive and lucrative. He succeeded in +his plan of a Shakespeare gallery, and obtained the assistance of the +most eminent painters of the day, whose contributions were exhibited +publicly for many years. The engravings from these paintings form a +splendid companion volume to his large illustrated edition of +Shakespeare's works. Towards the close of his life Boydell sustained +severe losses through the French Revolution, and was compelled to +dispose of his Shakespeare gallery by lottery. Boydell had previously +become an alderman, and rose to be lord mayor of London. + + + + +BOYER, ALEXIS (1757-1833), French surgeon, was born on the 1st of March +1757 at Uzerches (Correze). The son of a tailor, he obtained his first +medical knowledge in the shop of a barber-surgeon. Removing to Paris he +had the good fortune to attract the notice of Antoine Louis (1723-1792) +and P.J. Desault (1744-1795); and his perseverance, anatomical skill +and dexterity as an operator, became so conspicuous, that at the age of +thirty-seven he obtained the appointment of second surgeon to the Hotel +Dieu of Paris. On the establishment of the Ecole de Sante he gained the +chair of operative surgery, but soon exchanged it for the chair of +clinical surgery. In 1805 Napoleon nominated him imperial family +surgeon, and, after the brilliant campaigns of 1806-7, conferred on him +the legion of honour, with the title of baron of the empire and a salary +of 25,000 francs. On the fall of Napoleon the merits of Boyer secured +him the favour of the succeeding sovereigns of France, and he was +consulting surgeon to Louis XVIII., Charles X., and Louis Philippe. In +1825 he succeeded J.F.L. Deschamps (1740-1824) as surgeon-in-chief to +the Hopital de la Charite, and was chosen a member of the Institute. He +died in Paris on the 23rd of November 1833. Perhaps no French surgeon of +his time thought or wrote with greater clearness and good sense than +Boyer; and while his natural modesty made him distrustful of innovation, +and somewhat tenacious of established modes of treatment, he was as +judicious in his diagnosis and as cool and skilful in manipulating, as +he was cautious in forming his judgment on individual cases. His two +great works are:--_Traite complet de l'anatomie_ (in 4 vols., +1797-1799), of which a fourth edition appeared in 1815, and _Traite des +maladies chirurgicales et des operations qui leur conviennent_ (in 11 +vols., 1814-1826), of which a new edition in 7 vols. was published in +1844-1853, with additions by his son, Philippe Boyer (1801-1858). + + + + +BOYER, JEAN PIERRE (1776-1850), president of the republic of Haiti, a +mulatto, was born at Port-au-Prince on the 28th of February 1776. He +received a good education in France, and, returning to St Domingo, +joined the army in 1792. In 1794 he was already in command of a +battalion, and fought with distinction under General Rigaud against the +English. The negro insurrection under Toussaint l'Ouverture, which was +directed against the mulattoes as well as the whites, ultimately forced +him to take refuge in France. He was well received by Napoleon, and in +1802 obtained a commission in Leclerc's expedition. Being opposed to the +reinstitution of slavery, he turned against the French and succeeded in +producing an alliance between the negroes and mulattoes by which they +were driven from the island. Dessalines, a negro, was proclaimed king, +but his cruelty and despotism were such that Boyer combined with A.A.S. +Petion and General Christophe to overthrow him (1806). Christophe now +seized the supreme power, but Petion set up an independent republic in +the southern part of the island, with Boyer as commander-in-chief. +Christophe's efforts to crush this state were defeated by Boyer's +gallant defence of Port-au-Prince, and a series of brilliant victories, +which, on Petion's death in 1818, led to Boyer's election as president. +Two years later the death of Christophe removed his only rival, and he +gained almost undisputed possession of the whole island. During his +presidency Boyer did much to set the finances and the administration in +order, and to encourage the arts and sciences, and in 1825 obtained +French recognition of the independence of Haiti, in return for a payment +of 150,000 francs. The weight of this debt excited the greatest +discontent in Haiti. Boyer was able to carry on his government for some +years longer, but in March 1843 a violent insurrection overthrew his +power and compelled him to take refuge in Jamaica. He resided there till +1848, when he removed to Paris, where he died in 1850. + + See Wallez, _Precis historique des negociations entre la France et + Saint-Domingue, avec une notice biographique sur le general Boyer_ + (Paris, 1826). + + + + +BOYLE, JOHN J. (1851- ), American sculptor, was born in New York City. +He studied in the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and +in the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris. He is particularly successful in the +portrayal of Indians. Among his principal works are: "Stone Age," +Fairmount Park, Philadelphia; "The Alarm," Lincoln Park, Chicago; and, a +third study in primitive culture, the two groups, "The Savage Age" at +the Pan-American Exposition of 1901. His work also includes the seated +"Franklin," in Philadelphia; and "Bacon" and "Plato" in the +Congressional library, Washington, D.C. + + + + +BOYLE, ROBERT (1627-1691), English natural philosopher, seventh son and +fourteenth child of Richard Boyle, the great earl of Cork, was born at +Lismore Castle, in the province of Munster, Ireland, on the 25th of +January 1627. While still a child he learned to speak Latin and French, +and he was only eight years old when he was sent to Eton, of which his +father's friend, Sir Henry Wotton, was then provost. After spending over +three years at the college, he went to travel abroad with a French +tutor. Nearly two years were passed in Geneva; visiting Italy in 1641, +he remained during the winter of that year in Florence, studying the +"paradoxes of the great star-gazer" Galileo, who died within a league of +the city early in 1642. Returning to England in 1644 he found that his +father was dead and had left him the manor of Stalbridge in Dorsetshire, +together with estates in Ireland. From that time he gave up his life to +study and scientific research, and soon took a prominent place in the +band of inquirers, known as the "Invisible College," who devoted +themselves to the cultivation of the "new philosophy." They met +frequently in London, often at Gresham College; some of the members also +had meetings at Oxford, and in that city Boyle went to reside in 1654. +Reading in 1657 of Otto von Guericke's air-pump, he set himself with the +assistance of Robert Hooke to devise improvements in its construction, +and with the result, the "machina Boyleana" or "Pneumatical Engine," +finished in 1659, he began a series of experiments on the properties of +air. An account of the work he did with this instrument was published in +1660 under the title _New Experiments Physico-Mechanical touching the +spring of air and its effects_. Among the critics of the views put +forward in this book was a Jesuit, Franciscus Linus (1595-1675), and it +was while answering his objections that Boyle enunciated the law that +the volume of a gas varies inversely as the pressure, which among +English-speaking peoples is usually called after his name, though on the +continent of Europe it is attributed to E. Mariotte, who did not publish +it till 1676. In 1663 the "Invisible College" became the "Royal Society +of London for improving natural knowledge," and the charter of +incorporation granted by Charles II. named Boyle a member of the +council. In 1680 he was elected president of the society, but declined +the honour from a scruple about oaths. In 1668 he left Oxford for London +where he resided at the house of his sister, Lady Ranelagh, in Pall +Mall. About 1689 his health, never very strong, began to fail seriously +and he gradually withdrew from his public engagements, ceasing his +communications to the Royal Society, and advertising his desire to be +excused from receiving guests, "unless upon occasions very +extraordinary," on Tuesday and Friday forenoon, and Wednesday and +Saturday afternoon. In the leisure thus gained he wished to "recruit his +spirits, range his papers," and prepare some important chemical +investigations which he proposed to leave "as a kind of Hermetic legacy +to the studious disciples of that art," but of which he did not make +known the nature. His health became still worse in 1691, and his death +occurred on the 30th of December of that year, just a week after that of +the sister with whom he had lived for more than twenty years. He was +buried in the churchyard of St Martin's in the Fields, his funeral +sermon being preached by his friend Bishop Burnet. + +Boyle's great merit as a scientific investigator is that he carried out +the principles which Bacon preached in the _Novum Organum_. Yet he would +not avow himself a follower of Bacon or indeed of any other teacher: on +several occasions he mentions that in order to keep his judgment as +unprepossessed as might be with any of the modern theories of +philosophy, till he was "provided of experiments" to help him judge of +them, he refrained from any study of the Atomical and the Cartesian +systems, and even of the _Novum Organum_ itself, though he admits to +"transiently consulting" them about a few particulars. Nothing was more +alien to his mental temperament than the spinning of hypotheses. He +regarded the acquisition of knowledge as an end in itself, and in +consequence he gained a wider outlook on the aims of scientific inquiry +than had been enjoyed by his predecessors for many centuries. This, +however, did not mean that he paid no attention to the practical +application of science nor that he despised knowledge which tended to +use. He himself was an alchemist; and believing the transmutation of +metals to be a possibility, he carried out experiments in the hope of +effecting it; and he was instrumental in obtaining the repeal, in 1689, +of the statute of Henry IV. against multiplying gold and silver. With +all the important work he accomplished in physics--the enunciation of +Boyle's law, the discovery of the part taken by air in the propagation +of sound, and investigations on the expansive force of freezing water, +on specific gravities and refractive powers, on crystals, on +electricity, on colour, on hydrostatics, &c.--chemistry was his peculiar +and favourite study. His first book on the subject was _The Sceptical +Chemist_, published in 1661, in which he criticized the "experiments +whereby vulgar Spagyrists are wont to endeavour to evince their Salt, +Sulphur and Mercury to be the true Principles of Things." For him +chemistry was the science of the composition of substances, not merely +an adjunct to the arts of the alchemist or the physician. He advanced +towards the modern view of elements as the undecomposable constituents +of material bodies; and understanding the distinction between mixtures +and compounds, he made considerable progress in the technique of +detecting their ingredients, a process which he designated by the term +"analysis." He further supposed that the elements were ultimately +composed of particles of various sorts and sizes, into which, however, +they were not to be resolved in any known way. Applied chemistry had to +thank him for improved methods and for an extended knowledge of +individual substances. He also studied the chemistry of combustion and +of respiration, and made experiments in physiology, where, however, he +was hampered by the "tenderness of his nature" which kept him from +anatomical dissections, especially of living animals, though he knew +them to be "most instructing." + +Besides being a busy natural philosopher, Boyle devoted much time to +theology, showing a very decided leaning to the practical side and an +indifference to controversial polemics. At the Restoration he was +favourably received at court, and in 1665 would have received the +provostship of Eton, if he would have taken orders; but this he refused +to do, on the ground that his writings on religious subjects would have +greater weight coming from a layman than a paid minister of the Church. +He spent large sums in promoting the spread of Christianity, +contributing liberally to missionary societies, and to the expenses of +translating the Bible or portions of it into various languages. By his +will he founded the Boyle lectures, for proving the Christian religion +against "notorious infidels, viz. atheists, theists, pagans, Jews and +Mahommedans," with the proviso that controversies between Christians +were not to be mentioned. + +In person Boyle was tall, slender and of a pale countenance. His +constitution was far from robust, and throughout his life he suffered +from feeble health and low spirits. While his scientific work procured +him an extraordinary reputation among his contemporaries, his private +character and virtues, the charm of his social manners, his wit and +powers of conversation, endeared him to a large circle of personal +friends. He was never married. His writings are exceedingly voluminous, +and his style is clear and straightforward, though undeniably prolix. + + The following are the more important of his works in addition to the + two already mentioned:--_Considerations touching the Usefulness of + Experimental Natural Philosophy_ (1663), followed by a second part in + 1671; _Experiments and Considerations upon Colours, with Observations + on a Diamond that Shines in the Dark_ (1663); _New Experiments and + Observations upon Cold_ (1665); _Hydrostatical Paradoxes_ (1666); + _Origin of Forms and Qualities according to the Corpuscular + Philosophy_ (1666); a continuation of his work on the spring of air + (1669); tracts about the _Cosmical Qualities of Things_, the + _Temperature of the Subterraneal and Submarine Regions_, the _Bottom + of the Sea_, &c. with an _Introduction to the History of Particular + Qualities_ (1670); _Origin and Virtues of Gems_ (1672); _Essays of the + strange Subtilty, great Efficacy, determinate Nature of Effluviums_ + (1673); two volumes of tracts on the _Saltness of the Sea_, the + _Hidden Qualities of the Air, Cold, Celestial Magnets, Animadversions + on Hobbes's_ Problemata de Vacuo (1674); _Experiments and Notes about + the Mechanical Origin or Production of Particular Qualities_, + including some notes on electricity and magnetism (1676); + _Observations upon an artificial Substance that Shines without any + Preceding Illustration_ (1678); the _Aerial Noctiluca_ (1680); _New + Experiments and Observations upon the Icy Noctiluca_ (1682); a further + continuation of his work on the air; _Memoirs for the Natural History + of the Human Blood_ (1684); _Short Memoirs for the Natural + Experimental History of Mineral Waters_ (1685); _Medicina + Hydrostatica_ (1690); and _Experimenta et Observiationes Physicae_ + (1691). Among his religious and philosophical writings + were:--_Seraphic Love_, written in 1648, but not published till 1660; + an _Essay upon the Style of the Holy Scriptures_ (1663); _Occasional + Reflections upon Several Subjects_ (1665), which was ridiculed by + Swift in _A Pious Meditation upon a Broomstick_, and by Butler in _An + Occasional Reflection on Dr Charlton's Feeling a Dog's Pulse at + Cresham College_; _Excellence of Theology compared with Natural + Philosophy_ (1664); _Some Considerations about the Reconcileableness + of Reason and Religion_, with a _Discourse about the Possibility of + the Resurrection_ (1675); _Discourse of Things above Reason_ (1681); + _High Veneration Man owes to God_ (1685); _A Free Inquiry into the + vulgarly received Notion of Nature_ (1686); and the _Christian + Virtuoso_ (1690). Several other works appeared after his death, among + them _The General History of the Air designed and begun_ (1692); a + "collection of choice remedies," _Medicinal Experiments_ (1692-1698); + and _A Free Discourse against Customary Swearing_ (1695). An + incomplete and unauthorized edition of Boyle's works was published at + Geneva in 1677, but the first complete edition was that of Thomas + Birch, with a life, published in 1744, in five folio volumes, a second + edition appearing in 1772 in six volumes, 4to. Boyle bequeathed his + natural history collections to the Royal Society, which also possesses + a portrait of him by the German painter, Friedrich Kerseboom + (1632-1690). + + + + +BOYLE, a market town of Co. Roscommon, Ireland, in the north +parliamentary division, on the Sligo line of the Midland Great Western +railway, 106-1/4 m. N.W. by W. from Dublin and 28 m. S. by E. from Sligo. +Pop. (1901) 2477. It is beautifully situated on both banks of the river +Boyle, an affluent of the Shannon, between Loughs Gara and Key. Three +bridges connect the two parts of the town. There is considerable trade +in agricultural produce. To the north of the town stand the extensive +ruins of a Cistercian abbey founded in 1161, including remains of a +cruciform church, with a fine west front, and Norman and Transitional +arcades with carving of very beautiful detail. The offices of the +monastery are well preserved, and an interesting feature is seen in the +names carved on the door of the lodge, attributed in Cromwell's soldier, +who occupied the buildings. Neighbouring antiquities are Asselyn church +near Lough Key, and a large cromlech by the road towards Lough Gara. +Boyle was incorporated by James I., and returned two members to the +Irish parliament. + + + + +BOYNE, a river of Ireland, which, rising in the Bog of Allen, near +Carbery in Co. Kildare, and flowing in a north-easterly direction, +passes Trim, Navan and Drogheda, and enters the Irish Sea, 4 m. below +the town last named. It is navigable for barges to Navan, 19 m. from its +mouth. Much of the scenery on its banks is beautiful, though never +grand. About 2 m. west of Drogheda, an obelisk, 150 ft. in height, marks +the spot where the forces of William III. gained a celebrated victory +over those of James II., on the 1st of July[1] 1690, known as the battle +of the Boyne. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This was the "old style" date, which in the new style (see + CALENDAR) would be July 11th (not 12th, as Lecky says, _Hist, of + Ireland_, iii. p. 427). The 12th of July is annually celebrated by + the Orangemen in the north of Ireland as the anniversary, but this is + a confusion between the supposed new style for July 1st and the old + style date of the battle of Aughrim, July 12th; the intention being + to commemorate both. + + + + +BOYS' BRIGADE, an organization founded in Glasgow by Mr (afterwards Sir) +W.A. Smith in 1883 to develop Christian manliness by the use of a +semi-military discipline and order, gymnastics, summer camps and +religious services and classes. There are about 2200 companies connected +with different churches throughout the United Kingdom, the British +empire and the United States, with 10,000 officers and 100,000 boys. A +similar organization, confined to the Anglican communion, is the Church +Lads' Brigade. Boys' and girls' life brigades are a more recent +movement; they teach young people how to save life from fire and from +water, and hold classes in hygiene, ambulance and elementary nursing. + + + + +BOZDAR, a Baluch tribe of Rind (Arab) extraction, usually associated +with the mountain districts of the frontier near Dera Ghazi Khan. They +are also to be found in Zhob, Thal-Chotiali and Las Bela, whilst the +majority of the population are said to live in the Punjab. They are +usually graziers, and the name Bozdar is probably derived from Buz, the +Persian name for goat. Within the limits of their mountain home on the +outer spurs of the Suliman hills they have always been a turbulent race, +mustering about 2700 fighting men, and they were formerly constantly at +feud with the neighbouring Ustarana and Sherani tribes. In 1857 their +raids into the Punjab drew upon them an expedition under +Brigadier-General Sir N.B. Chamberlain. The Sangarh pass was captured +and the Bozdars submitted. Since Baluchistan has been taken over they +have given but little trouble. + + + + +BOZRAH. (1) A capital of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 33; Amos i. 12; Is. xxxiv. 6, +lxiii. 1), doubtfully identified with _el-Buseireh_, S.E. of the Dead +Sea, in the broken country N. of Petra; the ruins here are comparatively +unimportant. It is the centre of a pastoral district, and its +inhabitants, who number between 100 and 200, are all shepherds. (2) A +city in the _Mishor_ or plain country of Moab, denounced by Jeremiah +(xlviii. 24). It has been identified (also questionably) with a very +extensive collection of ruins of various ages, now called Bosra (the +Roman _Bostra_), situated in the Hauran, about 80 m. south of Damascus. +The area within the walls is about 1-1/4 m. in length, and nearly 1 m. +in breadth, while extensive suburbs lie to the east, north and west. The +principal buildings which can still be distinguished are a temple, an +aqueduct, a large theatre (enclosed by a castle of much more recent +workmanship), several baths, a triumphal and other arches, three +mosques, and what are known as the church and convent of the monk +Boheira. In A.D. 106 the city was beautified and perhaps restored from +ruin by Trajan, who made it the capital of the new province of Arabia. +In the reign of Alexander Severus it was made a colony, and in 244, a +native of the place, Philippus, ascended the imperial throne. By the +time of Constantine the Great it seems to have been Christianized, and +not long after it was the seat of an extensive bishopric. It was one of +the first cities of Syria to be subjected to the Mahommedans, and it +successfully resisted all the attempts of the Crusaders to wrest it from +their hands. As late as the 14th century it was a populous city, after +which it gradually fell into decay. It is now inhabited by thirty or +forty families only. Another suggested identification is with Kusur +el-Besheir, equidistant (2 m.) from Dibon and Aroer. This is perhaps the +same as the Bezer mentioned in Deuteronomy and Joshua as a levitical +city and a city of refuge. + +In 1 Macc. v. 26 there is mention of Bosor and of Bosora. The latter is +probably to be identified with Bosra, the former perhaps with the +present Busr el-Hariri in the south-east corner of the Leja. + (R. A. S. M.) + + + + +BRABANT, a duchy which existed from 1190 to 1430, when it was united +with the duchy of Burgundy, the name being derived from Brabo, a +semi-mythical Frankish chief. + +The history of Brabant is connected with that of the duchy of Lower +Lorraine (q.v.), which became in the course of the 11th century split up +into a number of small feudal states. The counts of Hainaut, Namur, +Luxemburg and Limburg asserted their independence, and the territory of +Liege passed to the bishops of that city. The remnant of the duchy, +united since 1100 with the margraviate of Antwerp, was conferred in 1106 +by the emperor Henry V., with the title of duke of Lower Lorraine, upon +Godfrey (Godefroid) I., "the Bearded," count of Louvain and Brussels. +His title was disputed by Count Henry of Limburg, and for three +generations the representatives of the rival houses contested the +possession of the ducal dignity in Lower Lorraine. The issue was decided +in favour of the house of Louvain by Duke Godfrey III. in 1159. His son, +Henry I., "the Warrior" (1183-1235), abandoned the title of duke of +Lower Lorraine and assumed in 1190 that of duke of Brabant. His +successors were Henry II., "the Magnanimous" (1235-1248), Henry III., +"le Debonnair" (1248-1261), and John I., "the Victorious" (1261-1294). +These were all able rulers. Their usual place of residence was Louvain. +John I., in 1283 bought the duchy of Limburg from Adolf of Berg, and +secured his acquisition by defeating and slaying his competitor, Henry +of Luxemburg, at the battle of Woeringen (June 5, 1288). His own son, +John II., "the Pacific" (1294-1312), bestowed liberties upon his +subjects by the charter of Cortenberg. This charter laid the foundation +of Brabantine freedom. By it the imposition of grants (_beden_) and +taxes was strictly limited and regulated, and its execution was +entrusted to a council appointed by the duke for life (four nobles, ten +burghers) whose duty it was to consider all complaints and to see that +the conditions laid down by the charter concerning the administration of +justice and finance were not infringed. He was succeeded by his son, +John III., "the Triumphant" (1312-1355), who succeeded in maintaining +his position in spite of formidable risings in Louvain and Brussels, +and a league formed against him by his princely neighbours, but he had +a hard struggle to face, and many ups and downs of fortune. He it was to +whom Brabant owed the great charter of its liberties, called _La joyeuse +entree_, because it was granted on the occasion of the marriage of his +daughter Johanna (Jeanne) with Wenzel (Wenceslaus) of Luxemburg, and was +proclaimed on their state entry into Brussels (1356). + +Henry, the only legitimate son of John III., having died in 1349, the +ducal dignity passed to his daughter and heiress, the above-named +Johanna (d. 1406). She had married in first wedlock William IV., count +of Holland (d. 1345). Wenzel of Luxemburg, her second husband, assumed +in right of his wife, and by the sanction of the charter _La joyeuse +entree_, the style of duke of Brabant. Johanna's title was, however, +disputed by Louis II., count of Flanders (d. 1384), who had married her +sister Margaret. The question had been compromised by the cession to +Margaret in 1347 of the margraviate of Antwerp by John III., but a war +broke out in 1356 between Wenzel supported by the gilds, and Louis, who +upheld the burgher-patrician party in the Brabant cities. The democratic +leaders were Everhard Tserclaes at Brussels and Peter Coutercel at +Louvain. In the course of a stormy reign Wenzel was taken prisoner in +1371 by the duke of Gelderland, and had to be ransomed by his subjects. +After his death (1383) his widow continued to rule over the two duchies +for eighteen years, but was obliged to rely on the support of the house +of Burgundy in her contests with the turbulent city gilds and with her +neighbours, the dukes of Julich and Gelderland. In 1390 she revoked the +deed which secured the succession to Brabant to the house of Luxemburg, +and appointed her niece, Margaret of Flanders (d. 1405), daughter of +Louis II. and Margaret of Brabant (see FLANDERS), and her husband, +Philip the Bold of Burgundy, her heirs. Margaret of Flanders had married +(1) Philip I. de Rouvre of Burgundy (d. 1361) and (2) Philip II., the +Bold, (d. 1404), son of John II., king of France (see BURGUNDY). Of her +three sons by her second marriage John succeeded to Burgundy, and +Anthony to Brabant on the death of Johanna in 1406. Anthony was killed +at the battle of Agincourt in 1415 and was succeeded by his eldest son +by Jeanne of Luxemburg St Pol, John IV. (d. 1427). He is chiefly +memorable for the excitement caused by his divorce from his wife Jacoba +(q.v.), countess of Holland. John IV. left no issue, and the succession +passed to his brother Philip I., who also died without issue in 1430. + +On the extinction of the line of Anthony the duchy of Brabant became the +inheritance of the elder branch of the house of Burgundy, in the person +of Philip III., "the Good," of Burgundy, II. of Brabant, son of John. +His grand-daughter Mary (d. 1482), daughter and heiress of Charles I., +"the Bold," (d. 1477) married the archduke Maximilian of Austria +(afterwards emperor) and so brought Brabant with the other Burgundian +possessions to the house of Habsburg. The chief city of Brabant, +Brussels, became under the Habsburg regime the residence of the court +and the capital of the Netherlands. In the person of the emperor Charles +V. the destinies of Brabant and the other Netherland states were linked +with those of the Spanish monarchy. The attempt of Philip II. of Spain +to impose despotic rule upon the Netherlands led to the outbreak of the +Netherland revolt, 1568 (see NETHERLANDS). + +In the course of the eighty years' war of independence the province of +Brabant became separated into two portions. In the southern and larger +part Spanish rule was maintained, and Brussels continued to be the seat +of government. The northern (smaller) part was conquered by the Dutch +under Maurice and Frederick Henry of Orange. The latter captured 's +Hertogenbosch (1629), Maastricht (1632) and Breda (1637). At the peace +of Munster this portion, which now forms the Dutch province of North +Brabant, was ceded by Philip IV. to the United Provinces and was known +as Generality Land, and placed under the direct government of the +states-general. The southern portion, now divided into the provinces of +Antwerp and South Brabant, remained under the rule of the Spanish +Habsburgs until the death of Charles II., the last of his race in 1700. +After the War of the Spanish Succession the southern Netherlands passed +by the treaty of Utrecht (1713) to the Austrian branch of the Habsburgs. +During the whole period of Austrian rule the province of Brabant +succeeded in maintaining, to a very large extent unimpaired, the +immunities and privileges to which it was entitled under the provisions +of its ancient charter of liberty, the Joyous Entry. An ill-judged +attempt by the emperor Joseph II., in his zeal for reform, to infringe +these inherited rights stirred up the people under the leadership of +Henry van der Noot to armed resistance in the Brabancon revolt of +1789-1790. + +Since the French conquest of 1794 the history of Brabant is merged in +that of Belgium (q.v.). The revolt against Dutch rule in 1830 broke out +at Brussels and was in its initial stages largely a Brabancon movement. +The important part played by Brabant at this crisis of the history of +the southern Netherlands was marked in 1831 by the adoption of the +ancient Brabancon colours to form the national flag, and of the lion of +Brabant as the armorial bearings of Belgium. The title of duke of +Brabant has been revived as the style of the eldest son of the king of +the Belgians. (G. E.) + + + + +BRABANT, the central and metropolitan province of Belgium, is formed out +of part of the ancient duchy. From 1815 to 1830, that is to say, during +the existence of the kingdom of the Netherlands, Belgian Brabant was +distinguished from Dutch by the employment of the geographical terms +South and North. The surface of Brabant is undulating, and the highest +points, some 400 ft. in altitude, are to be found at and near Mont St +Jean. The province is well cultivated, and the people are well known for +their industry. There are valuable stone quarries, and many manufactures +flourish in the smaller towns, such as Ottignies, as well as in the +larger cities of Brussels and Louvain. Brabant contains 820,740 acres or +1268 sq. m. Its principal towns are Brussels, Louvain, Nivelles, Hal, +Ottignies, and its three administrative divisions are named after the +first three of those towns. They are subdivided into 50 cantons and 344 +communes. In 1904 the population of the province was 1,366,389 or a +proportion of 1077 per sq. m. + + + + +BRABANT, NORTH, the largest province in Holland, bounded S. by Belgium, +W. and N.W. by the Scheldt, the Eendracht, the Volkerak and the +Hollandsch Diep, which separate it from Zealand and South Holland, N. +and N. E. by the Merwede and Maas, which separate it from South Holland +and Gelderland, and E. by the province of Limburg. It has an area of 231 +sq. m. and a pop. (1900) of 553,842. The surface of the province is a +gentle slope from the south-east (where it ranges between 80 and 160 ft. +in height) towards the north and north-west, and the soil is composed of +diluvial sand, here and there mixed with gravel, but giving place to +sea-clay along the western boundary and river-clay along the banks of +the Maas and smaller rivers. The watershed is formed by the +north-eastern edge of the Belgian plateau of Campine, and follows a +curved line drawn through Bergen-op-Zoom, Turnhout and Maastricht. The +landscape consists for the most part of waste stretches of heath, +occasionally slightly overlaid with high fen. Between the valleys of the +Aa and the Maas lies the long stretch of heavy high-fen called the Peel +("marshy land"). Deurne, a few miles east of Helmond, the site of a +prehistoric burial-ground, was an early fen colony. The work of +reclamation was removed farther eastwards to Helenaveen in the second +half of the 19th century. Agriculture (potatoes, buckwheat, rye) is the +main industry, generally combined with cattle-raising. On the clay lands +wheat and barley are the principal products, and in the western corner +of the province beetroot is largely cultivated for the beet sugar +industry, factories being found at Bergen-op-Zoom, Steenbergen and +Oudenbosch. There is a special cultivation of hops in the district +north-west of 's Hertogenbosch. The large majority of the population is +Roman Catholic. The earliest development of towns and villages took +place along the river Maas and its tributaries, and the fortified Roman +camps which were the origin of many such afterwards developed in the +hands of feudal lords. The chief town of the province, 's Hertogenbosch, +may be cited as an interesting historical example. Geertruidenberg, +Heusden, Ravestein and Grave are all similarly situated. Breda is the +next town in importance to the capital. Bergen-op-Zoom had originally a +more maritime importance. Rozendaal, Eindhoven and Bokstel (or Boxtel) +are important railway junctions. Bokstel was formerly the seat of an +independent barony which came into the possession of Philip the Good in +1439. The castle was restored in modern times. The precarious position +of the province on the borders of the country doubtless militated +against an earlier industrial development, but since the separation from +Belgium and the construction of roads, railways and canals there has +been a general improvement, Tilburg, Eindhoven and Helmond all having +risen into prominence in modern times as industrial centres. +Leather-tanning and shoe-making are especially associated with the +district called Langstraat, which is situated between Geertruidenberg +and 's Hertogenbosch, and consists of a series of industrial villages +along the course of the Old Maas. + + + + +BRACCIANO, a town in the province of Rome, Italy, 25 m. N.W. of Rome by +rail, situated on the S.W. shore of the Lake of Bracciano, 915 ft. above +sea-level. Pop. (1901) 3987. It is chiefly remarkable for its fine +castle (built by the Orsini in 1460, and since 1696 the property of the +Odescalchi) which has preserved its medieval character. The beautiful +lake is the ancient _Lacus Sabatinus_, supposed to derive its name from +an Etruscan city of the name of Sabate, which is wrongly thought to be +mentioned in the Itineraries; the reference is really to the lake +itself, which bore this name and gave it to one of the Roman tribes, the +_tribus Sabatina_, founded in 387 B.C. (O. Cuntz in _Jahreshefte des +Osterr. Arch. Instituts_, ii., 1899, 85). It is 22 sq. m. in area, 538 +ft. above sea-level, and 530 ft. deep; it is almost circular, but is +held to be, not an extinct crater, but the result of a volcanic +subsidence. The tufa deposits which radiate from it extend as far as +Rome; various small craters surround it, while the existence of warm +springs in the district (especially those of Vicarello, probably the +ancient _Aquae Apollinares_) may also be noted. Many remains of ancient +villas may be seen round the lake: above its west bank is the station of +Forum Clodii, and on its north shore the village of Trevignano, which +retains traces of the fortifications of an ancient town of unknown name. +About half-a-mile east of it was a post station called Ad Novas. The +site of Anguillara, on the south shore, was occupied by a Roman villa. +The water of the lake partly supplies the Acqua Paola, a restoration by +Paul V. of the Aqua Traiana. (T. As.) + + + + +BRACCIOLINI, FRANCESCO (1566-1645), Italian poet, was born at Pistoia, +of a noble family, in 1566. On his removing to Florence he was admitted +into the academy there, and devoted himself to literature. At Rome he +entered the service of Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, with whom he +afterwards went to France. After the death of Clement VIII. he returned +to his own country; and when his patron Barberini was elected pope, +under the name of Urban VIII., Bracciolini repaired to Rome, and was +made secretary to the pope's brother, Cardinal Antonio. He had also the +honour conferred on him of taking a surname from the arms of the +Barberini family, which were bees; whence he was afterwards known by the +name of _Bracciolini dell' Api_. During Urban's pontificate the poet +lived at Rome in considerable reputation, though at the same time he was +censured for his sordid avarice. On the death of the pontiff he returned +to Pistoia, where he died in 1645. There is scarcely any species of +poetry, epic, dramatic, pastoral, lyric or burlesque, which Bracciolini +did not attempt; but he is principally noted for his mock-heroic poem +_Lo Scherno degli Dei_, published in 1618, similar but confessedly +inferior to the contemporary work of Tassoni, _Secchia Rapita_. Of his +serious heroic poems the most celebrated is _La Croce Racquistata_. + + For the Italian humanist Poggio Bracciolini see POGGIO. + + + + +BRACE, CHARLES LORING (1826-1890), American philanthropist, was born on +the 19th of June 1826 in Litchfield, Connecticut. He graduated at Yale +in 1846, studied theology there in 1847-1848, and graduated from Union +Theological Seminary in 1849. From this time he practically devoted his +life to social work among the poor of New York, and to Christian +propaganda among the criminal classes; and he became well known as a +social reformer, at home and abroad. He started in 1852 to hold "boys' +meetings," and in 1853 helped to found the Children's Aid Society, +establishing workshops, industrial schools and lodging-houses for +newsboys. In 1872 he was a delegate to the international prison congress +which met in London. He died at Campfer, in Tirol, on the 11th of August +1890. He published from time to time several volumes embodying his views +on practical Christianity and its application to the improvement of +social conditions. + + See _The Life and Letters of Charles Loring Brace_ (New York, 1894), + edited by his daughter, Emma Brace. + + + + +BRACE, JULIA (1806-1884), American blind deaf-mute, was born at +Newington, Connecticut, on the 13th of June 1806. In her fifth year she +became blind and deaf, and lost the power of speech. At the age of +eighteen she entered the asylum for the deaf and dumb at Hartford. The +study of blind deaf-mutes and their scientific training was then in its +infancy; but she learnt to sew well, was neat in her dress, and had a +good memory. Dr S.G. Howe's experiments with her were interesting as +leading to his success with Laura Bridgman. She died at Bloomington, +Conn., on the 12th of August 1884. + + + + +BRACE (through the Fr. from the plural of the Lat. _bracchium_, the +arm), a measure of length, being the distance between the extended arms. +From the original meaning of "the two arms" comes that of something +which secures, connects, tightens or strengthens, found in numerous uses +of the word, as a carpenter's tool with a crank handle and socket to +hold a bit for boring; a beam of wood or metal used to strengthen any +building or machine; the straps passing over the shoulders to support +the trousers; the leathern thong which slides up and down the cord of a +drum, and regulates the tension and the tone; a writing and printing +sign ({) for uniting two or more lines of letterpress or music; a +nautical term for a rope fastened to the yard for trimming the sails +(cf. the corresponding French term _bras de vergue_). As meaning "a +couple" or "pair" the term was first applied to dogs, probably from the +leash by which they were coupled in coursing. In architecture "brace +mould" is the term for two ressaunts or ogees united together like a +brace in printing, sometimes with a small bead between them. + + + + +BRACEGIRDLE, ANNE (c. 1674-1748), English actress, is said to have been +placed under the care of Thomas Betterton and his wife, and to have +first appeared on the stage as the page in _The Orphan_ at its first +performance at Dorset Garden in 1680. She was Lucia in Shadwell's +_Squire of Alsatia_ at the Theatre Royal in 1688, and played similar +parts until, in 1693, as Araminta in _The Old Bachelor_, she made her +first appearance in a comedy by Congreve, with whose works and life her +name is most closely connected. In 1695 she went with Betterton and the +other seceders to Lincoln's Inn Fields, where, on its opening with +Congreve's _Love for Love_, she played Angelica. This part, and those of +Belinda in Vanbrugh's _Provoked Wife_, and Almira in Congreve's +_Mourning Bride_, were among her best impersonations, but she also +played the heroines of some of Nicholas Rowe's tragedies, and acted in +the contemporary versions of Shakespeare's plays. In 1705 she followed +Betterton to the Haymarket, where she found a serious competitor in Mrs +Oldfield, then first coming into public favour. The story runs that it +was left for the audience to determine which was the better comedy +actress, the test being the part of Mrs Brittle in Betterton's _Amorous +Widow_, which was played alternately by the two rivals on successive +nights. When the popular vote was given in favour of Mrs Oldfield, Mrs +Bracegirdle quitted the stage, making only one reappearance at +Betterton's benefit in 1709. Her private life was the subject of much +discussion. Colley Cibber remarks that she had the merit of "not being +unguarded in her private character," while Macaulay does not hesitate to +call her "a cold, vain and interested coquette, who perfectly understood +how much the influence of her charms was increased by the fame of a +severity which cost her nothing." She was certainly the object of the +adoration of many men, and she was the innocent cause of the killing of +the actor William Mountfort (q.v.), whom Captain Hill and Lord Mohun +regarded as a rival for her affections. During her lifetime she was +suspected of being secretly married to Congreve, whose mistress she is +also said to have been. He was at least always her intimate friend, and +left her a legacy. Rightly or wrongly, her reputation for virtue was +remarkably high, and Lord Halifax headed a subscription list of 800 +guineas, presented to her as a tribute to her virtue. Her charity to the +poor in Clare Market and around Drury Lane was conspicuous, "insomuch +that she would not pass that neighbourhood without the thankful +acclamations of people of all degrees." She died in 1748, and was buried +in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey. + + See Genest, _History of the Stage_; Colley Gibber, _Apology_ (edited + by Bellchambers); Egerton, _Life of Anne Oldfield_; Downes, _Roscius + Anglicanus._ + + + + +BRACELET, or ARMLET, a personal ornament for the arm or wrist, made of +different materials, according to the fashion of the age and the rank of +the wearer. The word is the French _bracelet_, a diminutive of _bracel_, +from _brac(c)hiale_, formed from the Latin _bracchium_, the arm, on +which it was usually worn. By the Romans it was called _armilla, +brachiale, occabus_; and in the middle ages _bauga, armispatha_. + +[Illustration: From _La Grande Encyclopedie._ + +FIG. 1.--Egyptian Bracelet, Louvre.] + +In the Bible there are three different words which the authorized +version renders by "bracelet." These are--(1) [Hebrew: 'es'adah] +_'es'adah_, which occurs in Num. xxxi. 50, 2 Sam. i. 10, and which being +used with reference to men only, may be taken to be the _armlet_; (2) +[Hebrew: samid] _samid_, which is found in Gen. xxiv. 22, Num. xxxi. 50, +Ezek. xvi. 11;--where these two words occur together (as in Num. xxxi. +50) the first is rendered by "chain," and the second by "bracelet"; (3) +[Hebrew: sheroth] _sheroth_, which occurs only in Isa. iii. 19. The +first probably meant armlets worn by men; the second, bracelets worn by +women and sometimes by men; and the third a peculiar bracelet of +chain-work worn only by women. In 2 Sam. i. 10 the first word denotes +the royal ornament which the Amalekite took from the arm of the dead +Saul, and brought with the other regalia to David. There is little +question that this was such a distinguishing band of jewelled metal as +we still find worn as a mark of royalty from the Tigris to the Ganges. +The Egyptian kings are represented with armlets, which were also worn by +the Egyptian women. These, however, are not jewelled, but of plain or +enamelled metal, as was in all likelihood the case among the Hebrews. + +In modern times the most celebrated armlets are those which form part of +the regalia of the Persian kings and formerly belonged to the Mogul +emperors of India, being part of the spoil carried to Persia from Delhi +by Nadir Shah in 1739. These ornaments are of dazzling splendour, and +the jewels in them are of such large size and immense value that the +pair have been reckoned to be worth a million sterling. The principal +stone of the right armlet is famous in the East under the name of the +_Darya-i-nur_, "sea (or river) of light." It weighs 186 carats, and is +considered the diamond of finest lustre in the world. The principal +jewel of the left armlet, although of somewhat inferior size (146 +carats) and value, is renowned as the _Taj-e-mah_, "crown of the moon." +The imperial armlets, generally set with jewels, may also be observed in +most of the portraits of the Indian emperors. + +Bracelets have at all times been much in use among barbaric nations, and +the women frequently wear several on the same arm. The finer kinds are +of mother-of-pearl, fine gold or silver; others of less value are made +of plated steel, horn, brass, copper, beads, &c. Chinese bracelets are +sometimes cut out of single pieces of jade. + +This species of personal ornament has been exceedingly common in Europe +from prehistoric times onward. The bracelets of the Bronze Age were of +either gold or bronze, silver being then unknown. In shape they were +oval and penannular with expanding or trumpet-shaped ends, having an +opening between them of about half an inch to enable them to be easily +slipped over the wrist. Those of gold were generally plain, hammered +rods, bent to the requisite shape, but those of bronze were often chased +with decorative designs. Some forms of spiral armlets of bronze, +peculiar to Germany and Scandinavia, covered the whole fore-arm, and +were doubtless intended as much for defence against a sword-stroke as +for ornament. Among the nations of classical antiquity, bracelets were +worn by both sexes of the Etruscans; by women only among the Greeks, +except in orientalized communities. Among the Romans they were worn by +women only as a rule, but they are also recorded to have been used +during the empire by _nouveaux riches_, and by some of the emperors. It +should also be mentioned that bracelets were conferred as a military +decoration in the field. + +[Illustration: From _La Grande Encyclopedie_. + +FIG. 2.--Greek Bracelet, Hermitage.] + +The bracelets of the Greeks are of two leading types, both of which were +also familiar to the Assyrians. The one class were in the form of coiled +spirals, usually in the form of snakes, a term which Pollux gives as a +synonym for bracelet. The other class were stiff penannular hoops, +capable of being slightly opened. In such examples the terminals are +finely finished as rams' heads, lions' heads, or (as in the accompanying +figure from a bracelet found at Kuloba) as enamelled sphinxes. In late +Etruscan art the bracelet may be formed of consecutive panels, as often +in modern jewelry. + +[Illustration: From La Grande Encydopedie. + +FIG. 3.--Etruscan Bracelet, Louvre.] + +The spiral forms were common in the Iron Age of northern Europe, while +silver bracelets of great elegance, formed of plaited and intertwisted +strands of silver wire, and plain penannular hoops, round or +lozenge-shaped in section and tapering to the extremities, became common +towards the close of the pagan period. The late Celtic period in Britain +was characterized by serpent-shaped bracelets and massive armlets, with +projecting ornaments of solid bronze and perforations filled with +enamel. In the middle ages bracelets were much less commonly used in +Europe, but the custom has continued, to prevail among Eastern nations +to the present time, and many of the types that were common in Europe in +prehistoric times are still worn in central Asia. + + A treatise, _De Armillis Veterum_, by Thomas Bartholinus, was + published at Amsterdam in 1676. + + + + +BRACHIOPODA, an important and well-defined but extremely isolated class +of invertebrates. The group may be defined as follows: Sessile solitary +_Coelomata_ with bivalved shells usually of unequal size and arranged +dorso-ventrally. The head is produced into ciliated arms bearing +tentacles. They reproduce sexually, and with doubtful exceptions are of +separate sexes. + +The name Brachiopod ([Greek: brachion], an arm, and [Greek: pous, +podos], a foot) was proposed for the class by F. Cuvier in 1805, and by +A.M.C. Dumeril in 1809, and has since been very extensively adopted. The +division of the group into _Ecardines_ (_Inarticulata_), with no hinge +to the shell and with an alimentary canal open at both ends, and +_Testicardines_ (_Articulata_), with a hinge between the dorsal and +ventral valves and with no anus, was proposed by Owen and has been +adopted by nearly all authors. In a later scheme based on our increased +knowledge of fossil forms, the Brachiopoda are divided into four primary +groups (orders). This is given at the end of the article, but it must +not be forgotten that the existing forms with an anus (Ecardines) differ +markedly from the aproctous members of the group (Testicardines). + +[Illustration: Figs. 1-11.--Various forms of Brachiopoda. + + 1. _Magellania [Waldheimia] cranium_. A, ventral, B, dorsal valve. + + 2. _Rhynchonella (Hemithyris) psittacea_. + + 3. and 4. _Thecidea_. + + 5. _Spirifer_. Dorsal valve, showing calcareous spiral coils. + + 6. _Orthis calligramma_. + + 7. _Leptaena transversalis_. A, ventral, B, dorsal valve. + + 8. _Productus horridus_. + + 9. _Lingula pyramidata_ (after Morse). + + 10. _Discinisca lamellosa_. + + 11. _Crania anomala_ Interior of dorsal valve, showing muscular + impressions and labial appendages.] + +The soft body of the Brachiopod is in all cases protected by a shell +composed of two distinct valves; these valves are always, except in +cases of malformation, equal-sided, but not equivalved. The valves are, +consequently, essentially symmetrical, which is not the case with the +Lamellibranchiata,--so much so, that certain Brachiopod shells were +named _Lampades_, or lamp shells, by some early naturalists; but while +such may bear a kind of resemblance to an antique Etruscan lamp, by far +the larger number in no way resemble one. The shell is likewise most +beautiful in its endless shapes and variations. In some species it is +thin, semi-transparent and glassy, in others massive. Generally the +shell is from a quarter of an inch to about 4 in. in size, but in +certain species it attains nearly a foot in breadth by something less in +length, as is the case with _Productus giganteus_. The valves are also +in some species very unequal in their respective thickness, as may be +seen in _Productus_ (_Daviesiella_)[1] _llangollensis_, _Davidsonia +verneuilii_, &c., and while the space allotted to the animal is very +great in many species, as in _Terebratula sphaeroidalis_, it is very +small in others belonging to _Strophomena_, _Leptaena_, _Chonetes_, &c. +The ventral valve is usually the thickest, and in some forms is six or +seven times as great as the opposite one. The outer surface of many of +the species presents likewise the most exquisite sculpture, heightened +by brilliant shades, or spots of green, red, yellow and bluish black. +Traces of the original colour have also been preserved in some of the +fossil forms; radiating bands of a reddish tint have been often seen in +well-preserved examples of _Terebratula_ (_Dielasma_) _hastata_, _T_. +(_Dielasma_) _sacculus_, _T. communis_, _T. biplicata_, and of several +others. Some specimens of _T. carnea_ are of a beautiful pale pink +colour when first removed from their matrix, and E. Deslongchamps has +described the tint of several Jurassic species. + +The valves are distinguished as _dorsal_ and _ventral_. The ventral +valve is usually the larger, and in many genera, such as _Terebratula_ +and _Rhynchonella_, has a prominent beak or umbo, with a circular or +otherwise shaped foramen at or near its extremity, partly bounded by one +or two plates, termed a deltidium. Through the foramen passes a +peduncle, by which the animal is in many species attached to submarine +objects during at least a portion of its existence. Other forms show no +indication of ever having been attached, while some that had been moored +by means of a peduncle during the early portion of their existence have +become detached at a more advanced stage of life, the opening becoming +gradually cicatrized, as is so often seen in _Leptaena rhomboidalis_, +_Orthisina anomala_, &c. Lastly, some species adhere to submarine +objects by a larger or smaller portion of their ventral valve, as is the +case with many forms of _Crania_, _Thecidium_, _Davidsonia_, &c. Some +_Cranias_ are always attached by the whole surface of their lower or +ventral valve, which models itself and fills up all the projections or +depressions existing on either the rock, shell or coral to which it +adhered. These irregularities are likewise, at times, reproduced on the +upper or dorsal valve. Some species of _Strophalosia_ and _Productus_ +seem also to have been moored during life to the sandy or muddy bottoms +on which they lived, by the means of tubular spines often of +considerable length. The interior of the shell varies very much +according to families and genera. On the inner surface of both valves +several well-defined muscular, vascular and ovarian impressions are +observable; they form either indentations of greater or less size and +depth, or occur as variously shaped projections. In the _Trimerellidae_, +for example, some of the muscles are attached to a massive or vaulted +platform situated in the medio-longitudinal region of the posterior half +or umbonal portion of both valves. In addition to these, there exists in +the interior of the _dorsal_ valve of some genera a variously modified, +thin, calcified, ribbon-shaped skeleton for the support of the ciliated +arms, and the form of this ribbon serves as one of the chief generic +characters of both recent and extinct forms. This brachial skeleton is +more developed in some genera than in others. In certain forms, as in +_Terebratula_ and _Terebratulina_, it is short and simple, and attached +to a small divided hinge-plate, the two riband-shaped lamina being bent +upwards in the middle (fig. 15). The cardinal process is prominent, and +on each side of the hinge-plate are situated the dental sockets; the +loop in _Terebratulina_ becomes annular in the adult by the union of its +crural processes (fig. 16). In _Magellania_ [_Waldheimia_] it is +elongated and reflected; the hinge-plate large, with four depressions, +under which originates a median septum, which extends more or less into +the interior of the shell (figs. 13 and 14). In _Terebratella_ the loop +is attached to the hinge-plate and to the septum (fig. 17). In +_Megerlia_ it is three times attached, first to the hinge-plate, and +then to the septum by processes from the diverging and reflected +positions of the loop. In _Magas_ the brachial skeleton is composed of +an elevated longitudinal septum reaching from one valve to the other, to +which are affixed two pairs of calcareous lamellae, the lower ones +riband-shaped; attached first to the hinge-plate, they afterwards +proceed by a gentle curve near to the anterior portion of the septum, to +the sides of which they are affixed; the second pair originate on both +sides of the upper edge of the septum, extending in the form of two +triangular anchor-shaped lamellae (fig. 18). In _Bouchardia_ the septum +only is furnished with two short anchor-shaped lamellae. Many more +modifications are observable in different groups of which the great +family _Terebratulidae_ is composed. In _Thecidium_ (figs. 3,4) the +interior of the dorsal valve is variously furrowed to receive the +lophophore folded in two or more lobes. In the family _Spiriferidae_ +there are two conical spires directed outwards, and nearly filling the +cavity of the shell (fig. 5); while in _Atrypa_ the broad spirally +coiled lamellae are vertical, and directed toward the centre of the +dorsal valve. In the _Rhynchonellidae_ there are two short slender +curved laminae, while in many genera and even families, such as the +_Productidae, Strophomenidae, Lingulidae, Discinidae_, &c., there exists +no calcified support for the labial appendages. The ventral valve in +many of the genera is provided with two curved hinge-teeth, which fit +into corresponding sockets in the opposite valve, so that the valves +cannot be separated without breaking one of the teeth. + +[Illustration: FIGS. 12-18. + + 12. _Magellania [Waldheimia] flavescens_. Interior of ventral valve. + f, foramen; d, deltidium; t, teeth; a, adductor impressions (= + occlusors, _Hancock_); c, divaricator (= cardinal muscles, _King_, = + muscles diducteurs principaux, _Gratiolet_); c', accessory + divaricators (muscles diducteurs accessoires, _Gratiolet_); b, ventral + adjuster (= ventral peduncular muscles, or muscles du pedoncule paire + superieure, _Gratiolet_); b', peduncular muscle. + + 13. _Magellania [Waldheimia] flavescens_. Interior of dorsal valve. c, + c', cardinal process; b', b', hinge-plate; s, dental sockets; l, loop; + q, crura; a, a', adductor impressions; c, accessory divaricator; b, + peduncle muscles; ss, septum. + + 14. _Magellania [Waldheimia] flavescens_. Longitudinal section of + valves. A, ventral, B, dorsal valves; l, loop; q, crura; ss, septum; + c, cardinal process. + + 15. _Terebratula (Liothyris) vitrea_. Interior of dorsal valve. l, + loop; b, hinge-plate; c, cardinal process. + + 16. Loop of _Terebratulina caput serpentis_. + + 17. Longitudinal section of _Terebratella dorsata_. (References as in + fig. 14.) + + 18. Longitudinal section of _Magas pumilus_.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.--_Magellania [Waldheimia] flavescens_. Interior +of dorsal valve, to show the position of the labial appendages. v, +Mouth. (A portion of the fringe of cirri is removed to show the brachial +membrane and a portion of the spiral extremities of the arms.)] + +Each valve of the shell is lined by a mantle which contains +prolongations of the body cavity. The outer surfaces of the mantle +secrete the shell, which is of the nature of a cuticle impregnated by +calcareous salts. These often have the form of prisms of calcite +surrounded by a cuticular mesh work; the whole is nourished and kept +alive by processes, which in _Crania_ are branched; these perforate the +shell and permit the access of the coelomic fluid throughout its +substance. These canals are closed externally and are absent in +_Rhynchonella_, where the amount of calcareous deposit is small. In +_Lingula_ the shell is composed of alternate layers of chitin and of +phosphate of lime. The free edges of the mantle often bear chitinous +bristles or setae which project beyond the shell. As in the case of the +Lamellibranchiata, the shell of the adult is not a direct derivative of +the youngest shell of the larva. The young Brachiopod in all its species +is protected by an embryonic shell called the "protegulum," which +sometimes persists in the umbones of the adult shells but is more +usually worn off. In all species it has the same shape, a shape which +has been retained in the adult by the Lower Cambrian genus _Iphidea_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20.--_Magellania [Waldheimia] flavescens_. +Logitudinal section with a portion of the animal. + + d, h, Brachial appendages. + a, Adductor + c, c', Divaricator muscles. + s, Septum. + v, Mouth. + z, Exremity of alimentary tube. The penduncular muscules have been + purposely omitted.] + +The body of the Brachiopod usually occupies about the posterior half of +the space within the shell. The anterior half of this space is lined by +the inner wall of the mantle and is called the mantle cavity. This +cavity lodges the arms, which are curved and coiled in different ways in +different genera. The water which bears the oxygen for respiration and +the minute organisms upon which the Brachiopod feeds is swept into the +mantle cavity by the action of the cilia which cover the arms, and the +eggs and excreta pass out into the same cavity. The mouth lies in the +centre of the anterior wall of the body. Its two lips fusing together at +the corners of the mouth are prolonged into the so-called arms. These +arms, which together form the lophophore, may be, as in _Cistella_, +applied flat to the inner surface of the dorsal mantle fold, but more +usually they are raised free from the body like a pair of moustaches, +and as they are usually far too long to lie straight in the mantle +cavity, they are folded or coiled up. The brachial skeleton which in +many cases supports the arms has been mentioned above. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.--A diagram of the left half of an _Argiope_ +(_Megathyris_), which has been bisected in the median plane. + + 1. The ventral valve. + 2. The dorsal valve. + 3. The pedicle. + 4. The mouth. + 5. Lip which overhangs the mouth and runs all round the lophophore. + 6. Tentacles. + 7. Ovary in dorsal valve. + 8. Liver diverticula. + 9. Occlusor muscle--its double origin is shown. + 10. Internal opening of left nephridium. + 11. External opening of the same. + 12. Ventral adjustor. + 13. Divaricator muscle. + 14. Sub-oesophageal nerve ganglion. + 15. The heart. + 16. Dorsal adjustor muscle.] + +A transverse section through the arm (fig. 22) shows that it consists of +a stout base, composed of a very hyaline connective tissue not uncommon +in the tissues of the Brachiopoda, which is traversed by certain canals +whose nature is considered below under the section (_The Body Cavity_) +devoted to the coelom. Anteriorly this base supports a gurrie or gutter, +the pre-oral rim of which is formed by a simple lip, but the post-oral +rim is composed of a closely set row of tentacles. These may number some +thousands, and they are usually bent over and tend to form a closed +cylinder of the gutter. Each of these tentacles (fig. 22) is hollow, and +it contains a diverticulum from the coelom, a branch of the vascular +system, a nerve and some muscle-fibres. Externally on two sides and on +the inner surface the tentacles are ciliated, and the cilia are +continued across the gutter to the lip and even on the outer surface of +the latter. These cilia pass on any diatoms and other minute organism +which come within their range of action to the capacious oval mouth, +which appears as a mere deepening of the gutter in the middle line. In +_Terebratulina, Rhynchonella, Lingula_, and possibly other genera, the +arms can be unrolled and protruded from the opened shell; in this case +the tentacles also straighten themselves and wave about in the water. + + _The Body Cavity._--The various internal organs of the brachiopod + body, the alimentary canal and liver, the excretory organs, the heart, + numerous muscles and the reproductive organs, are enclosed in a cavity + called the body cavity, and since this cavity (i.) is derived from the + archicoel and is from the first surrounded by meroblast, (ii.) + communicates with the exterior through the nephridia or excretory + organs, and (iii.) gives rise by the proliferation of the cells which + line it to the ova and spermatoza, it is of the nature of a true + coelom. The coelom then is a spacious chamber surrounding the + alimentary canal, and is continued dorsally and ventrally into the + sinuses of the mantle (fig. 21). Some of the endothelial cells lining + the coelom are ciliated, the cilia keeping the corpusculated fluid + contents in movement. Others of the endothelial cells show a great + tendency to form muscle fibres. Besides this main coelomic cavity + there are certain other spaces which F. Blochmann regards as coelomic, + but it must be remembered that his interpretation rests largely on + histological grounds, and at present embryological confirmation is + wanting. These spaces are as follows:--(i.) the great arm-sinus; (ii.) + the small arm-sinus together with the central sinus and the + peri-oesophageal sinus, and in _Discinisca_ and _Lingula_, and, to a + less extent, in _Crania_, the lip-sinus; (iii.) certain portions of + the general body cavity which in _Crania_ are separated off and + contain muscles, &c.; (iv.) the cavity of the stalk when such exists. + The great arm-sinus of each side of the lophophore lies beneath the + fold or lip which together with the tentacles forms the ciliated + groove in which the mouth opens. These sinuses are completely shut off + from all other cavities, they do not open into the main coelomic space + nor into the small arm-sinus, nor does the right sinus communicate + with the left. The small arm-sinus runs along the arms of the + lophophore at the base of the tentacles, and gives off a blind + diverticulum into each of these. This diverticulum contains the + blood-vessel and muscle-fibres (fig. 22). In the region of the mouth + where the two halves of the small arm-sinus approach one another they + open into a central sinus lying beneath the oesophagus and partly + walled in by the two halves of the ventral mesentery. This sinus is + continued round the oesophagus as the peri-oesophageal sinus, and thus + the whole complex of the small arm-sinus has the relations of the + so-called vascular system of a Sipunculid. In _Crania_ it is + completely shut off from the main coelom, but in _Lingula_ it + communicates freely with this cavity. In _Discinisca_ and _Lingula_ + there is further a lip-sinus or hollow system of channels which + traverses the supporting tissue of the edge of the mantle and contains + muscle-fibres. It opens into the peri-oesophageal sinus. It is better + developed and more spacious in _Lingula_ than in _Discinisca._ In + _Crania_, where only indications of the lip-sinus occur, there are two + other closed spaces. The posterior occlusor muscles lie in a special + closed space which Blochmann also regards as coelomic. The posterior + end of the intestine is similarly surrounded by a closed coelomic + space known as the peri-anal sinus in which the rectum lies freely, + unsupported by mesenteries. All these spaces contain a similar + coagulable fluid with sparse corpuscles, and all are lined by ciliated + cells. There is further a great tendency for the endothelial cells to + form muscles, and this is especially pronounced in the small + arm-sinus, where a conspicuous muscle is built up. The mantle-sinuses + which form the chief spaces in the mantle are diverticula of the main + coelomic cavity. In _Discinisca_ they are provided with a muscular + valve placed at their point of origin. They contain the same fluid as + the general coelom. The stalk is an extension of the ventral + body-wall, and contains a portion of the coelom which, in _Discinisca_ + and _Lingula_, remains in communication with the general body cavity. + + [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Diagrammatic section through an arm of the + lophophore of _Crania_. Magnified; after Blochmann. + + 1. The lip. + 2. The base of a tentacle bisected in the middle line. + 3. Great arm-sinus. + 4. Small arm-sinus, containing muscle-fibres. + 5. Tentacular canal. + 6. External tentacular muscle. + 7. Tentacular blood-vessel arising from the cut arm-vessel in the + small arm-sinus. + 8. Chief arm-nerve. + 9. Secondary arm-nerve. + 10. Under arm-nerve.] + + _The Alimentary Canal_.--The mouth, which is quite devoid of armature, + leads imperceptibly into a short and dorsally directed oesophagus. The + latter enlarges into a spherical stomach into which open the broad + ducts of the so-called liver. The stomach then passes into an + intestine, which in the Testicardines (Articulata) is short, + finger-shaped and closed, and in the Ecardines (Inarticulata) is + longer, turned back upon its first course, and ends in an anus. In + _Lingula_ and _Discina_ the anus lies to the right in the + mantle-cavity, but in _Crania_ it opens medianly into a posterior + extension of the same. Apart from the asymmetry of the intestine + caused by the lateral position of the anus in the two genera just + named, Brachiopods are bilaterally symmetrical animals. + + The liver consists of a right and left half, each opening by a broad + duct into the stomach. Each half consists of many lobes which may + branch, and the whole takes up a considerable proportion of the space + in the body cavity. The food passes into these lobes, which may be + found crowded with diatoms, and without doubt a large part of the + digestion is carried on inside the liver. The stomach, oesophagus and + intestine are ciliated on their inner surface. The intestine is slung + by a median dorsal and ventral mesentery which divides the body cavity + into two symmetrically shaped halves; it is "stayed" by two transverse + septa, the anterior or gastroparietal band running from the stomach to + the body wall and the posterior or ileoparietal band running from the + intestine to the body wall. None of these septa is complete, and the + various parts of the central body cavity freely communicate with one + another. In _Rhynchonella_, where there are two pairs of kidneys, the + internal opening of the anterior pair is supported by the + gastroparietal band and that of the posterior pair by the ileoparietal + band. The latter pair alone persists in all other genera. + + The kidneys or nephridia open internally by wide funnel-shaped + nephridiostomes and externally by small pores on each side of the + mouth near the base of the arms. Each is short, gently curved and + devoid of convolutions. They are lined by cells charged with a yellow + or brown pigment, and besides their excretory functions they act as + ducts through which the reproductive cells leave the body. + + _Circulatory System._--The structures formerly regarded as + pseudohearts have been shown by Huxley to be nephridia; the true heart + was described and figured by A. Hancock, but has in many cases escaped + the observation of later zoologists. F. Blochmann in 1884, however, + observed this organ in the living animal in species of the following + genera:--_Terebratulina, Magellania_ [_Waldheimia_]_, Rhynchonella, + Megathyris_ (_Argiope_), _Lingula_, and _Crania_ (fig. 21). It + consists of a definite contractile sac or sacs lying on the dorsal + side of the alimentary canal near the oesophagus, and in preparations + of _Terebratulina_ made by quickly removing the viscera and examining + them in sea-water under a microscope, he was able to count the + pulsations, which followed one another at intervals of 30-40 seconds. + + [Illustration: FIG. 23.--_Rhynchonella_ (_Hemithyris_) _psittacea._ + Interior of dorsal valve, s, Sockets; b, dental plates; V, mouth; + de, labial appendage in its natural position; d, appendage extended + or unrolled.] + + A vessel--the dorsal vessel--runs forward from the heart along the + dorsal surface of the oesophagus. This vessel is nothing but a split + between the right and left folds of the mesentery, and its cavity is + thus a remnant of the blastocoel. A similar primitive arrangement is + thought by F. Blochmann to obtain in the genital arteries. Anteriorly + the dorsal vessel splits into a right and a left half, which enter the + small arm-sinus and, running along it, give off a blind branch to each + tentacle (fig. 21). The right and left halves are connected ventrally + to the oesophagus by a short vessel which supplies these tentacles in + the immediate neighbourhood of the mouth. There is thus a vascular + ring around the oesophagus. The heart gives off posteriorly a second + median vessel which divides almost at once into a right and a left + half, each of which again divides into two vessels which run to the + dorsal and ventral mantles respectively. The dorsal branch sends a + blind twig into each of the diverticula of the dorsal mantle-sinus, + the ventral branch supplies the nephridia and neighbouring parts + before reaching the ventral lobe of the mantle. Both dorsal and + ventral branches supply the generative organs. + + The blood is a coagulable fluid. Whether it contains corpuscles is not + yet determined, but if so they must be few in number. It is a + remarkable fact that in _Discinisca_, although the vessels to the + lophophore are arranged as in other Brachiopods, no trace of a heart + or of the posterior vessels has as yet been discovered. + + _Muscles._--The number and position of the muscles differ materially + in the two great divisions into which the Brachiopoda have been + grouped, and to some extent also in the different genera of which each + division is composed. Unfortunately almost every anatomist who has + written on the muscles of the Brachiopoda has proposed different names + for each muscle, and the confusion thence arising is much to be + regretted. In the Testicardines, of which the genus _Terebratula_ may + be taken as an example, five or six pairs of muscles are stated by A. + Hancock, Gratiolet and others to be connected with the opening and + closing of the valves, or with their attachment to or movements upon + the peduncle. First of all, the adductors or occlusors consist of two + muscles, which, bifurcating near the centre of the shell cavity, + produce a large quadruple impression on the internal surface of the + small valve (fig. 13, a, a'), and a single divided one towards the + centre of the large or ventral valve (fig. 12, a). The function of + this pair of muscles is the closing of the valves. Two other pairs + have been termed _divaricators_ by Hancock, or _cardinal muscles_ + ("muscles diducteurs" of Gratiolet), and have for function the opening + of the valves. The divaricators proper are stated by Hancock to arise + from the ventral valve, one on each side, a little in advance of and + close to the adductors, and after rapidly diminishing in size become + attached to the cardinal process, a space or prominence between the + sockets in the dorsal valve. The _accessory divaricators_ are, + according to the same authority, a pair of small muscles which have + their ends attached to the ventral valve, one on each side of the + median line, a little behind the united basis of the adductors, and + again to the extreme point of the cardinal process. Two pairs of + muscles, apparently connected with the peduncle and its limited + movements, have been minutely described by Hancock as having one of + their extremities attached to this organ. The _dorsal adjusters_ are + fixed to the ventral surface of the peduncle, and are again inserted + into the hinge-plate in the smaller valve. The _ventral adjusters_ are + considered to pass from the inner extremity of the peduncle, and to + become attached by one pair of their extremities to the ventral valve, + one on each side and a little behind the expanded base of the + divaricators. The function of these muscles, according to the same + authority, is not only that of erecting the shell; they serve also to + attach the peduncle to the shell, and thus effect the steadying of it + upon the peduncle. By alternate contracting they can cause a slight + rotation of the animal in its stalk. + + [Illustration: FIG. 24.--_Magellania [Waldheimia] flavescens_. Diagram + showing the muscular system. (After Hancock.) + + M, Ventral, + N, Dorsal valve, + l, Loop. + V, Mouth. + Z, Extremity of intestine, + c, Divaricators. + c', Accessory divaricators. + a, Adductor. + b, Ventral adjusters. + b', Peduncular muscles. + b'', Dorsal adjusters. + P, Peduncle.] + + Such is the general arrangement of the shell muscles in the division + composing the articulated Brachiopoda, making allowance for certain + unimportant modifications observable in the animals composing the + different families and genera thereof. Owing to the strong and tight + interlocking of the valves by the means of curved teeth and sockets, + many species of Brachiopoda could open their valves but slightly. In + some species, such as _Thecidea_, the animal could raise its dorsal + valve at right angles to the plane of the ventral one (fig. 4). + + [Illustration: FIGS. 25, 26. _Lingula anatina._ + + 25, Interior of ventral valve. + 26, Interior of dorsal valve. + g, Umbonal muscular impressions (open valves). + h, Central muscles (close valves). + i, Transmedial or sliding muscles. + b, Parietal band. + j, k, l, Lateral muscles (j, anteriors; k, middles; l, outsiders), + enabling the valves to move forward and backward on each other. + + (After King.)] + + In the Ecardines, of which _Lingula_ and _Discina_ may be quoted as + examples, the myology is much more complicated. Of the shell or + valvular muscles W. King makes out five pairs and an odd one, and + individualizes their respective functions as follows:--Three pairs are + _lateral_, having their members limited to the sides of the shell; one + pair are _transmedians_, each member passing across the middle of the + reverse side of the shell, while the odd muscle occupies the umbonal + cavity. The _central_ and _umbonal_ muscles effect the direct opening + and closing of the shell, the _laterals_ enable the valves to move + forward and backward on each other, and the _transmedians_ allow the + similar extremities (the rostral) of the valves to turn from each + other to the right or the left on an axis subcentrically situated, + that is, the medio-transverse region of the dorsal valve. It was long + a matter in discussion whether the animal could displace its valves + sideways when about to open its shell, but this has been actually + observed by Professors K. Semper and E.S. Morse, who saw the animal + perform the operation. They mention that it is never done suddenly or + by jerks, as the valves are at first always pushed to one side several + times and back again on each other, at the same time opening gradually + in the transverse direction till they rest opposite to one another and + widely apart. Those who have not seen the animal in life, or who did + not believe in the possibility of the valves crossing each other with + a slight obliquity, would not consent to appropriating any of its + muscles to that purpose, and consequently attributed to all the + lateral muscles the simple function of keeping the valves in an + opposite position, or holding them adjusted. We have not only the + observations of Semper and Morse, but the anatomical investigations of + King, to confirm the sliding action or lateral divarication of the + valves of _Lingula_. + + [Illustration: FIG. 27.--_Lingula anatina_. + + Diagram showing the muscular system. (After Hancock.) The letters + indicate the muscles as in figs. 25 and 26. + + A, Dorsal, + B, Ventral valve. + p, Peduncle. + e, Heart. + a, Alimentary tube. + z, Anal aperture.] + + In the Testicardines, where no such sliding action of the valves was + necessary or possible, no muscles for such an object were required, + consequently none took rise from the lateral portions of the valves as + in _Lingula_; but in an extinct group, the _Trimerellidae_, which + seems to be somewhat intermediate in character between the Ecardines + and Testicardines, have been found certain scars, which appear to have + been produced by rudimentary lateral muscles, but it is doubtful + (considering the shells are furnished with teeth, though but rudely + developed) whether such muscles enabled the valves, as in _Lingula_, + to move forward and backward upon each other. _Crania_ in life opens + its valves by moving upon the straight hinge, without sliding the + valve. + + The _nervous system_ of Brachiopods has, as a rule, maintained its + primitive connexion with the external epithelium. In a few places it + has sunk into the connective-tissue supporting layer beneath the + ectoderm, but the chief centres still remain in the ectoderm, and the + fibrils forming the nerves are for the most part at the base of the + ectodermal cells. Above the oesophagus is a thin commissure which + passes laterally into the chief arm-nerve. This latter includes in its + course numerous ganglion cells, and forms, according to F. Blochmann, + the immensely long drawn out supra-oesophageal ganglion. The chief + arm-nerve traverses the lophophore, being situated between the great + arm-sinus and the base of the lip (figs. 22 and 28); it gives off a + branch to each tentacle, and these all anastomose at the base of the + tentacles with the second nerve of the arm, the so-called secondary + arm-nerve. Like the chief arm-nerve, this strand runs through the + lophophore, parallel indeed with the former except near the middle + line, where it passes ventrally to the oesophagus. The lophophore is + supplied by yet a third nerve, the under arm-nerve, which is less + clearly defined than the others, and resembles a moderate aggregation + of the nerve fibrils, which seem everywhere to underlie the ectoderm, + and which in a few cases are gathered up into nerves. The under + arm-nerve, which lies between the small arm-sinus and the surface, + supplies nerves to the muscles of both arm-sinuses (figs. 22 and 28). + Medianly, it has its origin in the sub-oesophageal ganglion, which, + like the supra-oesophageal, is drawn out laterally, though not to the + same extent. In the middle line the sub-oespphageal nerve mass is + small; the ganglion is in fact drawn out into two halves placed on + either side of the body. From each of these sub-oesophageal ganglia + numerous nerves arise. Passing from the middle line outwards they + are--(i.) the median pallial nerve to the middle of the dorsal mantle; + (ii.) numerous small nerves--the circum-oesophageal commissures--which + pass round the oesophagus to the chief arm-nerve or supra-oesophageal + ganglion; (iii.) the under arm-nerve to the lophophore and its + muscles; (iv.) the lateral pallial nerve to the sides of the dorsal + mantle. Laterally, the sub-oesophageal ganglia give off (v.) nerves to + the ventral mantle, and finally they supply (vi.) branches to the + various muscles. There is a special marginal nerve running round the + edge of the mantle, but the connexion of this with the rest of the + nervous system is not clear; probably it is merely another + concentration of the diffused sub-ectodermal nervous fibrils. + + The above account applies more particularly to _Crania_, but in the + main it is applicable to the other Inarticulata which have been + investigated. In _Discinisca_ and _Lingula_, however, the + sub-oesophageal ganglion is not drawn out, but lies medianly; it gives + off two posteriorly directed nerves to the stalk, which in _Lingula_ + unite and form a substantial nerve. Sense organs are unknown in the + adult. The larval forms are provided with eye-spots, but no very + specialized sense organs are found in the adult. + + [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Diagram of nervous system of _Crania_; from + the dorsal side. The nerves running to the dorsal parts are white, + with black edges; those running to the ventral parts are solid black. + Magnified. (After Blochmann.) + + 1. Oesophagus. + 2. Supra-oesophageal commisure. + 3. Circum-oesophageal commisure. + 4. Under arm-nerve. + 5. Great arm-sinus. + 6. Small arm-sinus. + 7. Tentacle. + 8. Lip of lophophore. + 9. Infra-oesophageal commisure. + 10. Chief arm-nerve. + 11. Secondary arm-nerve. + 12. Nerves to tentacles. + 13. Sub-oesophageal ganglion. + 14. Dorsal lateral nerve. + 15. Sub-oesophageal portion of the secondary arm-nerve. + 16. Median pallial nerve of dorsal lobe of mantle. + 17. Anterior occlusor muscle. + 18. Posterior occlusor muscle. + 19. Obliquus superior muscle. + 20. Levator brachii muscle.] + + The _histology_ of Brachiopods presents some peculiar and many + primitive features. As a rule the cells are minute, and this has + especially stood in the way of embryological research. The plexus of + nerve-fibrils which underlie the ectoderm and are in places gathered + up into nerves, and the great development of connective tissue, are + worthy of notice. Much of the latter takes the form of hyaline + supporting tissue, embedded in which are scattered cells and fibres. + The lophophore and stalk are largely composed of this tissue. The + ectodermal cells are large, ciliated, and amongst the ciliated cells + glandular cells are scattered. The chitinous chaetae have their origin + in special ectodermal pits, at the base of which is one large cell + which is thought to secrete the chaeta, as in Chaetopods. These pits + are not isolated, but are connected by an ectodermal ridge, which + grows in at the margin of the mantle and forms a continuous band + somewhat resembling the ectodermal primordium of vertebrate teeth. + + The ovary and testes are heaped-up masses of red or yellow cells due + to a proliferation of the cells lining the coelom. There are four of + such masses, two dorsal and two ventral, and as a rule they extend + between the outer and inner layer of the mantle lining the shells. The + ova and the spermatozoa dehisce into the body cavity and pass to the + exterior through the nephridia. Fertilization takes place outside the + body, and in some species the early stages of development take place + in a brood-pouch which is essentially a more or less deep depression + of the body-wall median in _Thecidea_, while in _Cistella_ (_? + Argiope_) there is one such pouch on each side, just below the base of + the arms, and into these the nephridia open. The developing ova are + attached by little stalks to the walls of these pouches. In spite of + some assertions to the contrary, all the Brachiopods which have been + carefully investigated have been found to be male or female. + Hermaphrodite forms are unknown. + + [FIG. 29.--Three larvae stages of _Megathyris_ (_Argiope_). A, Larva + which has just left brood-pouch; B, longitudinal section through a + somewhat later stage; C, the fully formed embryo just before + fixing--the neo-embryo of Beecher. Highly magnified. + + 1. Anterior segment. + 2. Second or mantle-forming segment. + 3. Third or stalk-forming segment. + 4. Eye-spots. + 5. Setae. + 6. Nerve mass (?). + 7. Alimentary canal. + 8. Muscles.] + + _Embryology._--With the exception of Yatsu's article on the + development of _Lingula_ (_J. Coll. Sci., Japan_, xvii., 1901-1903) + and E.G. Conklin's on "Terebratulina septentrionalis" (_P. Amer. Phil. + Soc._ xli., 1902), little real advance has been made in our knowledge + of the embryology of the Brachiopoda within recent years. Kovalevsky's + researches (Izv. Obshch. Moskov, xiv., 1874) on _Megathyris_ + (_Argiope_) and Yatsu's just mentioned are the most complete as + regards the earlier stages. Segmentation is complete, a gastrula is + formed, the blastopore closes, the archenteron gives off two coelomic + sacs which, as far as is known, are unaffected by the superficial + segmentation of the body that divides the larva into three segments. + The walls of these sacs give rise at an early stage to muscles which + enable the parts of the larva to move actively on one another (fig. + 29, B). About this stage the larvae leave the brood-pouch, which is a + lateral or median cavity in the body of the female, and lead a free + swimming life in the ocean. The anterior segment broadens and becomes + umbrella-shaped; it has a powerful row of cilia round the rim and + smaller cilia on the general surface. By the aid of these cilia the + larva swims actively, but owing to its minute size it covers very + little distance, and this probably accounts for the fact that where + brachiopods occur there are, as a rule, a good many in one spot. The + head bears four eye-spots, and it is continually testing the ground + (fig. 29, A, C). The second segment grows downwards like a skirt + surrounding the third segment, which is destined to form the stalk. It + bears at its rim four bundles of very pronounced chaetae. After a + certain time the larva fixes itself by its stalk to some stone or + rock, and the skirt-like second segment turns forward over the head + and forms the mantle. What goes on within the mantle is unknown, but + presumably the head is absorbed. The chaetae drop off, and the + lophophore is believed to arise from thickenings which appear in the + dorsal mantle lobe. The Plankton Expedition brought back, and H. + Simroth (_Ergeb. Plankton Expedition_, ii., 1897) has described, a few + larval brachiopods of undetermined genera, two of which at least were + pelagic, or at any rate taken far from the coast. These larvae, which + resemble those described by Fritz Muller (_Arch. Naturg._, 1861-1862), + have their mantle turned over their head and the larval shell well + developed. No stalk has been seen by Simroth or Fritz Muller, but in + other respects the larva resembles the stages in the development of + _Megathyris_ and _Terebratulina_ which immediately precede fixation. + The cirri or tentacles, of which three or four pairs are present, are + capable of being protruded, and the minute larva swims by means of the + ciliary action they produce. It can retract the tentacles, shut its + shell, and sink to the bottom. + + [FIG. 30.--Stages in the fixing and metamorphosis of _Terebratulina_. + Highly magnified. (From Morse.) + + A, Larva (neo-embryo) just come to rest. + B, C, D, Stages showing the turning forward of the second or mantle + segment. + E, Completion of this. + F, Young Brachiopod. + 1, 2, 3, The first, second and third segments.] + + C.E.E. Beecher (_Amer. Jour. Sci._ ser. 3, xli. and xliv.) has + classified with appropriate names the various stages through which + Brachiopod larvae pass. The last stage, that in which the folds of the + second segment are already reflected over the first, he calls the + Typembryo. Either before or just after turning, the mantle develops a + larval shell termed the protegulum, and when this is completed the + larva is termed the Phylembryo. By this time the eyes have + disappeared, the four bundles of chaetae have dropped off, and the + lophophore has begun to appear as an outgrowth of the dorsal mantle + lobe. The protegulum has been found in members of almost all the + families of Brachiopod, and it is thought to occur throughout the + group. It resembles the shell of the Cambrian genus _Iphidea + [Paterina]_, and the Phylembryo is frequently referred to as the + _Paterina_ stage. In some orders the Phylembryo is succeeded by an + _Obolella_ stage with a nearly circular outline, but this is not + universal. The larva now assumes specific characters and is + practically adult. + + [FIG. 31.--Shell of larval Brachiopod. Phylembryo stage. (From + Simroth.) 1, Protegulum; 2, permanent shell.] + + _Classification_.--Beecher's division of the Brachiopoda into four + orders is based largely on the character of the aperture through which + the stalk or pedicle leaves the shell. To appreciate his diagnoses it + is necessary to understand certain terms, which unfortunately are not + used in the same sense by all authors. The triangular pedicle-opening + seen in _Orthis_, &c., has been named by James Hall and J.M. Clarke + the delthyrium. In some less primitive genera, e.g. _Terebratula_, + that type of opening is found in the young stages only; later it + becomes partly closed by two plates which grow out from the sides of + the delthyrium. These plates are secreted by the ventral lobe of the + mantle, and were named by von Buch in 1834 the "deltidium." The form + of the deltidium varies in different genera. The two plates may meet + in the middle line, and leave only a small oval opening near the + centre for the pedicle, as in _Rhynchonella_; or they may meet only + near the base of the delthyrium forming the lower boundary of the + circular pedicle-opening, as in _Terebratula_; or the right plate may + remain quite distinct from the left plate, as in _Terebratella_. The + pro-deltidium, a term introduced by Hall and Clarke, signifies a small + embryonic plate originating on the dorsal side of the body. It + subsequently becomes attached to the ventral valve, and develops into + the pseudo-deltidium, in the Neotremata and the Protremata. The + pseudo-deltidium (so named by Bronn in 1862) is a single plate which + grows from the apex of the delthyrium downwards, and may completely + close the aperture. The pseudo-deltidium is sometimes reabsorbed in + the adult. In the Telotremata neither pro-deltidium nor + pseudo-deltidium is known. In the Atremata the pro-deltidium does not + become fixed to the ventral valve, and does not develop into a + pseudo-deltidium. The American use of the term deltidium for the + structure which Europeans call the pseudo-deltidium makes for + confusion. The development of the brachial supports has been studied + by Friele, Fischer and Oehlert. A summary of the results is given by + Beecher (_Trans. Connect. Acad._ ix., 1893; reprinted in _Studies in + Evolution_, 1901). + + The orders Atremata and Neotremata are frequently grouped together, as + the sub-class Inarticulata or Ecardines--the Tretenterata of + Davidson--and the orders Protremata and Telotremata, as the Articulata + or Testicardines--the Clistenterata of Davidson. The following scheme + of classification is based on Beecher's and Schubert's. Recent + families are printed in italic type. + + [FIG. 32.--Diagram of the pedicle-opening of _Rhynchonella_. Magnified. + + 1. Umbo of ventral valve. + 2. Deltidium. + 3. Margin of delthyrium. + 4. Pedicle-opening. + 5. Dorsal valve.] + + + Class I. ECARDINES (INARTICULATA) + + ORDER I. Atremata (Beecher).--Inarticulate Brachiopoda, with the + pedicle passing out between the umbones, the opening being shared by + both valves. Pro-deltidium attached to dorsal valves. + FAMILIES.--PATERINIDAE, OBOLIDAE, TRIMERELLIDAE, LINGULELLIDAE, + _LINGULIDAE_, LIGULASMATIDAE. + + ORDER II. Neotremata (Beecher).--More or less circular, cone-shaped, + inarticulate Brachiopoda. The pedicle passes out at right angles to + the plane of junction of the valves of the shell; the opening is + confined to the ventral valve, and may take the form of a slit, or may + be closed by the development of a special plate called the listrium, + or by a pseudo-deltidium. Pro-deltidium attached to ventral valve. + FAMILIES.--ACROTRETIDAE, SIPHONOTRETIDAE, TREMATIDAE, _DISCINIDAE_, + _CRANIIDAE_. + + + Class II. TESTICARDINES (ARTICULATA) + + ORDER III. Protremata (Beecher).--Articulate Brachiopoda, with + pedicle-opening restricted to ventral valve, and either open at the + hinge line or more or less completely closed by a pseudo-deltidium, + which may disappear in adult. The pro-deltidium originating on the + dorsal surface later becomes anchylosed with the ventral valve. + FAMILIES.--KUTORGINIDAE, EICHWALDIIDAE, BILLINGSELLIDAE, + STROPHOMENIDAE, _THECIDIIDAE_, PRODUCTIDAE, RICHTHOFENIDAE, ORTHIDAE, + CLITAMBONITIDAE, SYNTROPHIIDAE, PORAMBONITIDAE, PENTAMERIDAE. + + ORDER IV. Telotremata (Beecher).--Articulate Brachiopoda, with the + pedicle-opening, confined in later life to the ventral valve, and + placed at the umbo or beneath it. Deltidium present, but no + pro-deltidium. Lophophore supported by calcareous loops, &c. + FAMILIES.--PROTORHYNCHIDAE, _RHYNCHONELLIDAE_, CENTRONELLIDAE, + _TEREBRATULIDAE_, STRINGOCEPHALIDAE, MEGALANTERIDAE, + _TEREBRATELLIDAE_, ATRYPIDAE, SPIRIFERIDAE, ATHYRIDAE. + + _Affinities_.--Little light has been thrown on the affinities of the + Brachiopoda by recent research, though speculation has not been + wanting. Brachiopods have been at various times placed with the + Mollusca, the Chaetopoda, the Chaetognatha, the Phoronidea, the + Polyzoa, the Hemichordata, and the Urochordata. None of these + alliances has borne close scrutiny. The suggestion to place + Brachiopods with the Polyzoa, _Phoronis, Rhabdopleura_ and + _Cephalodiscus_, in the Phylum Podaxonia made in _Ency. Brit._ (vol. + xix, ninth edition, pp. 440-441) has not met with acceptance, and + until we have a fuller account of the embryology of some one form, + preferably an Inarticulate, it is wiser to regard the group as a very + isolated one. It may, however, be pointed out that Brachiopods seem to + belong to that class of animal which commences life as a larva with + three segments, and that tri-segmented larvae have been found now in + several of the larger groups. + + _Distribution._--Brachiopods first appear in the Lower Cambrian, and + reached their highest development in the Silurian, from which upwards + of 2000 species are known, and were nearly as numerous in the Devonian + period; at present they are represented by some 140 recent species. + The following have been found in the British area, as defined by A.M. + Norman, _Terebratulina caput-serpentis_ L., _Terebratula (Gwynia) + capsula_ Jeff., _Magellania (Macandrevia) cranium_ Mull., _M. + septigera_ Loven, _Terebratella spitzbergenensis_ Dav., _Megathyris + decollata_ Chemn., _Cistella cistellula_ S. Wood, _Cryptopora gnomon_ + Jeff., _Rhynchonella (Hemithyris) psittacea_ Gmel., _Crania anomala_ + Mull., and _Discinisca atlantica_ King. About one-half the 120 + existing species are found above the 100-fathoms line. Below 150 + fathoms they are rare, but a few such as _Terebratulina wyvillei_ are + found down to 2000 fathoms. _Lingula_ is essentially a very shallow + water form. As a rule the genera of the northern hemisphere differ + from those of the southern. A large number of specimens of a species + are usually found together, since their only mode of spreading is + during the ciliated larval stage, which although it swims vigorously + can only cover a few millimetres an hour; still it may be carried some + little distance by currents. + + Undue stress is often laid on the fact that _Lingula_ has come down to + us apparently unchanged since Cambrian times, whilst _Crania_, and + forms very closely resembling _Discina_ and _Rhynchonella_, are found + from the Ordovician strata onwards. The former statement is, however, + true of animals from other classes at least as highly organized as + Brachiopods, e.g. the Gasteropod _Capulus_, whilst most of the + invertebrate classes were represented in the Ordovician by forms which + do not differ from their existing representatives in any important + respect. + + A full bibliography of Brachiopoda (recent and fossil) is to be found + in Davidson's Monograph of British Fossil Brachiopods, _Pal. Soc. + Mon._ vi., 1886. The Monograph on Recent Brachiopoda, by the same + author, _Tr. Linn. Soc. London_, Zool. ser. ii. vol. iv., 1886-1888, + must on no account be omitted. (A. E. S.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Subgenera are indicated by round, synonyms by square brackets. + + + + +BRACHISTOCHRONE (from the Gr. [Greek: brachistos], shortest, and +[Greek: chronos], time), a term invented by John Bernoulli in 1694 to +denote the curve along which a body passes from one fixed point to +another in the shortest time. When the directive force is constant, the +curve is a cycloid (q.v.); under other conditions, spirals and other +curves are described (see MECHANICS). + + + + +BRACHYCEPHALIC (Gr. for short-headed), a term invented by Andreas +Retzius to denote those skulls of which the width from side to side was +little less than the length from front to back, their ratio being as 80 +to 100, as in those of the Mongolian type. Thus taking the length as +100, if the width exceeds 80, the skull is to be classed as +brachycephalic. The prevailing form of the head of civilized races is +brachycephalic. It is supposed that a brachycephalic race inhabited +Europe before the Celts. Among those peoples whose heads show marked +brachycephaly are the Indo-Chinese, the Savoyards, Croatians, +Bavarians, Lapps, Burmese, Armenians and Peruvians. (See CRANIOMETRY.) + + + + +BRACKYLOGUS (from Gr. [Greek: brachys], short, and [Greek: logos], +word), title applied in the middle of the 16th century to a work +containing a systematic exposition of the Roman law, which some writers +have assigned to the reign of the emperor Justinian, and others have +treated as an apocryphal work of the 16th century. The earliest extant +edition of this work was published at Lyons in 1549, under the title of +_Corpus Legum per modum Institutionum_; and the title _Brachylogus +totius Juris Civilis_ appears for the first time in an edition published +at Lyons in 1553. The origin of the work may be referred with great +probability to the 12th century. There is internal evidence that it was +composed subsequently to the reign of Louis le Debonnaire (778-840), as +it contains a Lombard law of that king's, which forbids the testimony of +a clerk to be received against a layman. On the other hand its style and +reasoning is far superior to that of the law writers of the 10th and +11th centuries; while the circumstance that the method of its author has +not been in the slightest degree influenced by the school of the +Gloss-writers (Glossatores) leads fairly to the conclusion that he wrote +before that school became dominant at Bologna. Savigny, who traced the +history of the _Brachylogus_ with great care, is disposed to think that +it is the work of Irnerius himself (_Geschichte des rom. Rechts im +Mittelalter_). Its value is chiefly historical, as it furnishes evidence +that a knowledge of Justinian's legislation was always maintained in +northern Italy. The author of the work has adopted the _Institutes_ of +Justinian as the basis of it, and draws largely on the _Digest_, the +_Code_ and the _Novels_; while certain passages, evidently taken from +the _Sententiae Receptae_ of Julius Paulus, imply that the author was +also acquainted with the Visigothic code of Roman law compiled by order +of Alaric II. + + An edition by E. Bocking was published at Berlin in 1829, under the + title of _Corpus Legum sive Brachylogus Juris Civilis_. See also H. + Fitting, _Uber die Heimath und das Alter des sogenannten Brachylogus_ + (Berlin, 1880). + + + + +BRACKET, in architecture and carpentering, a projecting feature either +in wood or metal for holding things together or supporting a shelf. The +same feature in stone is called a "console" (q.v.). In furniture it is a +small ornamental shelf for a wall or a corner, to bear knick-knacks, +china or other bric-a-brac. The word has been referred to "brace," +clamp, Lat. _bracchium_, arm, but the earliest form "bragget" (1580) +points to the true derivation from the Fr. _braguette_, or Span. +_bragueta_ (Lat. _bracae_, breeches), used both of the front part of a +pair of breeches and of the architectural feature. The sense development +is not clear, but it has no doubt been influenced by the supposed +connexion with "brace." + + + + +BRACKET-FUNGI. The term "bracket" has been given to those hard, woody +fungi that grow on trees or timber in the form of semicircular brackets. +They belong to the order _Polyporeae_, distinguished by the layer of +tubes or pores on the under surface within which the spores are borne. +The mycelium, or vegetable part of the fungus, burrows in the tissues of +the tree, and often destroys it; the "bracket" represents the fruiting +stage, and produces innumerable spores which gain entrance to other +trees by some wound or cut surface; hence the need of careful forestry. +Many of these woody fungi persist for several years, and a new layer of +pores is superposed on the previous season's growth. + + + + +BRACKLESHAM BEDS, in geology, a series of clays and marls, with sandy +and lignitic beds, in the Middle Eocene of the Hampshire Basin, England. +They are well developed in the Isle of Wight and on the mainland +opposite; and receive their name from their occurrence at Bracklesham in +Sussex. The thickness of the deposit is from 100 to 400 ft. Fossil +mollusca are abundant, and fossil fish are to be found, as well as the +_Palaeophis_, a sea-snake. Nummulites and other foraminifera also occur. +The Bracklesham Beds lie between the Barton Clay above and the +Bournemouth Beds, Lower Bagshot, below. In the London Basin these beds +are represented only by thin sandy clays In the Middle Bagshot group. +In the Paris Basin the "Calcaire grossier" lies upon the same geological +horizon. + + See F. Dixon, _Geology of Sussex_ (new ed., 1878); F.E. Edwards and + S.V. Wood, "Monograph of Eocene Mollusca," _Palaeontographical Soc._ + vol. i. (1847-1877); "Geology of the Isle of Wight," _Mem. Geol. + Survey_ (2nd ed., 1889); C. Reid, "The Geology of the Country around + Southampton," _Mem. Geol. Survey_ (1902). + + + + +BRACKLEY, THOMAS EGERTON, VISCOUNT (c. 1540-1617), English lord +chancellor, was a natural son of Sir Richard Egerton of Ridley, +Cheshire. The exact date of his birth is unrecorded, but, according to +Wood,[1] when he became a commoner at Brasenose College, Oxford, in +1556, he was about seventeen. He entered Lincoln's Inn in 1559, and was +called to the bar in 1572, being chosen a governor of the society in +1580, Lent reader in 1582, and treasurer in 1588. He early obtained +legal renown and a large practice, and tradition relates that his +skilful conduct of a case against the crown gained the notice of +Elizabeth, who is reported to have declared: "In my troth he shall never +plead against me again." Accordingly, on the 26th of June 1581, he was +made solicitor-general. He represented Cheshire in the parliaments of +1585 and 1586, but in his official capacity he often attended in the +House of Lords. On the 3rd of March 1589 the Commons desired that he +should return to their house, the Lords refusing on the ground that he +was called by the queen's writ to attend in the Lords before his +election by the House of Commons.[2] He took part in the trial of Mary, +queen of Scots, in 1586, and advised that in her indictment she should +only be styled "commonly called queen of Scots," to avoid scruples about +judging a sovereign. He conducted several other state prosecutions. On +the 2nd of June 1592 he was appointed attorney-general, and was knighted +and made chamberlain of Chester in 1593. On the 10th of April 1594 he +became master of the rolls, and on the 6th of May 1596 lord keeper of +the great seal and a privy councillor, remaining, however, a commoner as +Sir Thomas Egerton, and presiding in the Lords as such during the whole +reign of Elizabeth. He kept in addition the mastership of the rolls, the +whole work of the chancery during this period falling on his shoulders +and sometimes causing inconvenience to suitors[3]. His promotion was +welcomed from all quarters. "I think no man," wrote a contemporary to +Essex, "ever came to this dignity with more applause than this worthy +gentleman."[4] + +Egerton became one of the queen's most trusted advisers and one of the +greatest and most striking figures at her court. He was a leading member +of the numerous special commissions, including the ecclesiastical +commission, and was the queen's interpreter in her communications to +parliament. In 1598 he was employed as a commissioner for negotiating +with the Dutch, obtaining great credit by the treaty then effected, and +in 1600 in the same capacity with Denmark. In 1597, in consequence of +his unlawful marriage with his second wife, in a private house without +banns, the lord keeper incurred a sentence of excommunication, and was +obliged to obtain absolution from the bishop of London.[5] He was a firm +friend of the noble but erratic and unfortunate Essex. He sought to +moderate his violence and rashness, and after the scene in the council +in July 1598, when the queen struck Essex and bade him go and be hanged, +he endeavoured to reconcile him to the queen in an admirable letter +which has often been printed.[6] On the arrival of Essex in London +without leave from Ireland, and his consequent disgrace, he supported +the queen's just authority, avoiding at the same time any undue severity +to the offender. Essex was committed to his custody in York House from +the 1st of October 1599 till the 5th of July 1600, when the lord keeper +used his influence to recover for him the queen's favour and gave him +kindly warnings concerning the necessity for caution in his conduct. On +the 5th of June 1600 he presided over the court held at his house, which +deprived Essex of his offices except that of master of the horse, +treating him with leniency, not pressing the charge of treason but only +that of disobedience, and interrupting him with kind intentions when he +attempted to justify himself. After the trial he tried in vain to bring +Essex to a sense of duty. On the 8th of February 1601, the day fixed for +the rebellion, the lord keeper with other officers of state visited +Essex at Essex House to demand the reason of the tumultuous assemblage. +His efforts to persuade Essex to speak with him privately and explain +his "griefs," and to refrain from violence, and his appeal to the +company to depart peacefully on their allegiance, were ineffectual, and +he was imprisoned by Essex for six hours, the mob calling out to kill +him and to throw the great seal out of the window. Subsequently he +abandoned all hope of saving Essex, and took an active part in his +trial. On the 13th of February he made a speech in the Star Chamber, +exposing the wickedness of the rebellion, and of the plot of Thomas Lea +to surprise Elizabeth at her chamber door.[7] In July 1602, a few months +before her death, Elizabeth visited the lord keeper at his house at +Harefield in Middlesex, and he was one of those present during her last +hours who received her faltering intimation as to her successor. + +On the accession of James I., Sir Thomas Egerton was reappointed lord +keeper, resigning the mastership of the rolls in May 1603, and the +chamberlainship of Chester in August. On the 21st of July he was created +Baron Ellesmere, and on the 24th lord chancellor. His support of the +king's prerogative was too faithful and undiscriminating. He approved of +the harsh penalty inflicted upon Oliver St John in 1615 for denying the +legality of benevolences, and desired that his sentencing of the +prisoner "might be his last work to conclude his services."[8] In May +1613 he caused the committal of Whitelocke to the Fleet for questioning +the authority of the earl marshal's court. In 1604 he came into +collision with the House of Commons. Sir Francis Goodwin, an outlaw, +having been elected for Buckinghamshire contrary to the king's +proclamation, the chancellor cancelled the return when made according to +custom into chancery, and issued writs for a new election. The Commons, +however, considering their privileges violated, restored Goodwin to his +seat, and though the matter was in the present instance compromised by +the choice of a third party, they secured for the future the right of +judging in their own elections. He was at one with James in desiring to +effect the union between England and Scotland, and served on the +commission in 1604; and the English merchants who opposed the union and +community of trade with the Scots were "roundly shaken by him." In 1608, +in the great case of the Post Nati, he decided, with the assistance of +the fourteen judges, that those born after the accession of James I. to +the throne of England were English subjects and capable of holding lands +in England; and he compared the two dissentient judges to the apostle +Thomas, whose doubts only confirmed the faith of the rest. He did not, +however, always show obedience to the king's wishes. He opposed the +latter's Spanish policy, and in July 1615, in spite of James's most +peremptory commands and threats, refused to put the great seal to the +pardon of Somerset. In May 1616 he officiated as high steward in the +trial of the latter and his countess for the murder of Overbury. He was +a rigid churchman, hostile to both the Puritans and the Roman Catholics. +He fully approved of the king's unfriendly attitude towards the former, +adopted at the Hampton Court conference in 1604, and declared, in +admiration of James's theological reasoning on this occasion, that he +had never understood before the meaning of the legal maxim, _Rex est +mixta persona cum sacerdote_. In 1605 he opposed the petition for the +restitution of deprived Puritan ministers, and obtained an opinion from +the judges that the petition was illegal. He supported the party of +Abbot against Laud at Oxford, and represented to the king the unfitness +of the latter to be president of St John's College. In 1605 he directed +the judges to enforce the penal laws against the Roman Catholics. + +His vigorous and active public career closed with a great victory gained +over the common law and his formidable antagonist, Sir Edward Coke. The +chancellor's court of equity had originated in the necessity for a +tribunal to decide cases not served by the common law, and to relax and +correct the rigidity and insufficiency of the latter's procedure. The +two jurisdictions had remained bitter rivals, the common-law bar +complaining of the arbitrary and unrestricted powers of the chancellor, +and the equity lawyers censuring and ridiculing the failures of justice +in the courts of common law. The disputes between the courts, concerning +which the king had already in 1615 remonstrated with the chancellor and +Sir Edward Coke,[9] the lord chief justice, came to a crisis in 1616, +when the court of chancery granted relief against judgments at common +law in the cases of _Heath v. Rydley_ and _Courtney v. Granvil_. This +relief was declared by Coke and other judges sitting with him to be +illegal, and a counter-attack was made by a praemunire, brought against +the parties concerned in the suit in chancery. The grand jury, however, +refused to bring in a true bill against them, in spite of Coke's threats +and assurances that the chancellor was dead, and the dispute was +referred to the king himself, who after consulting his counsel and on +Bacon's advice decided in favour of equity. The chancellor's triumph was +a great one, and from this time the equitable jurisdiction of the court +of chancery was unquestioned. In June 1616 he supported the king in his +dispute with and dismissal of Coke in the case of the _commendams_, +agreeing with Bacon that it was the judge's duty to communicate with the +king, before giving judgments in which his interests were concerned, and +in November warned the new lord chief justice against imitating the +errors of his predecessor and especially his love of "popularity."[10] +Writing in 1609 to Salisbury, the chancellor had described Coke (who had +long been a thorn in his flesh) as a "frantic, turbulent and idle broken +brayned fellow," apologizing for so often troubling Salisbury on this +subject, "no fit exercise for a chancellor and a treasurer."[11] He now +summoned Coke before him and communicated to him the king's +dissatisfaction with his _Reports_, desiring, however, to be spared +further service in his disgracing. After several petitions for leave to +retire through failing health, he at last, on the 3rd of March 1617, +delivered up to James the great seal, which he had held continuously for +the unprecedented term of nearly twenty-one years. On the 7th of +November 1616 he had been created Viscount Brackley, and his death took +place on the 15th of March 1617. Half an hour before his decease James +sent Bacon, then his successor as lord keeper, with the gift of an +earldom, and the presidentship of the council with a pension of L3000 a +year, which the dying man declined as earthly vanities with which he had +no more concern. He was buried at Dodleston in Cheshire. + +As Lord Chancellor Ellesmere he is a striking figure in the long line of +illustrious English judges. No instance of excessive or improper use of +his jurisdiction is recorded, and the famous case which precipitated the +contest between the courts was a clear travesty of justice, undoubtedly +fit for the chancellor's intervention. He refused to answer any +communications from suitors in his court,[12] and it was doubtless to +Ellesmere (as weeding out the "enormous sin" of judicial corruption)[13] +that John Donne, who was his secretary, addressed his fifth satire. He +gained Camden's admiration, who records an anagram on his name, "Gestat +Honorem." Bacon, whose merit he had early recognized, and whose claims +to the office of solicitor-general he had unavailingly supported both in +1594 and 1606, calls him "a true sage, a salvia in the garden of the +state," and speaks with gratitude of his "fatherly kindness." Ben +Jonson, among the poets, extolled in an epigram his "wing'd judgements," +"purest hands," and constancy. Though endowed with considerable +oratorical gifts he followed the true judicial tradition and affected to +despise eloquence as "not decorum for judges, that ought to respect the +Matter and not the Humours of the Hearers."[14] Like others of his day +he hoped to see a codification of the laws,[15] and appears to have had +greater faith in judge-made law than in statutes of the realm, advising +the parliament (October 27, 1601) "that laws in force might be revised +and explained and no new laws made," and describing the Statute of Wills +passed in Henry VIII.'s reign as the "ruin of ancient families" and "the +nurse of forgeries." In the thirty-eighth year of Elizabeth he drew up +rules for procedure in the Star Chamber,[16] restricting the fees, and +in the eighth of James I. ordinances for remedying abuses in the court +of chancery. In 1609 he published his judgment in the case of the Post +Nati, which appears to be the only certain work of his authorship. The +following have been ascribed to him:--_The Privileges and Prerogatives +of the High Court of Chancery_ (1641); _Certain Observations concerning +the Office of the Lord Chancellor_ (1651)--denied by Lord Chancellor +Hardwicke in _A Discourse of the Judicial Authority of the Master of the +Rolls_ (1728) to be Lord Ellesmere's work; _Observations on Lord Coke's +Reports_, ed. by G. Paul (about 1710), the only evidence of his +authorship being apparently that the MS. was in his handwriting; four +MSS., bequeathed to his chaplain, Bishop Williams, viz. _The Prerogative +Royal, Privileges of Parliament, Proceedings in Chancery_ and _The Power +of the Star Chamber; Notes and Observations on Magna Charta, &c._, Sept. +1615 (Harl. 4265, f. 35), and _An Abridgment of Lord Coke's Reports_ +(see MS. note by F. Hargrave in his copy of _Certain Observations +concerning the Office of Lord Chancellor_, Brit. Mus. 510 a 5, also +_Life of Egerton_, p. 80, note T, catalogue of Harleian collection, and +Walpole's _Royal and Noble Authors_, 1806, ii. 170). + +He was thrice married. By his first wife, Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas +Ravenscroft of Bretton, Flintshire, he had two sons and a daughter. The +elder son, Thomas, predeceased him, leaving three daughters. The +younger, John, succeeded his father as 2nd Viscount Brackley, was +created earl of Bridgewater, and, marrying Lady Frances Stanley +(daughter of his father's third wife, widow of the 5th earl of Derby), +was the ancestor of the earls and dukes of Bridgewater (q.v.), whose +male line became extinct in 1829. In 1846 the titles of Ellesmere and +Brackley were revived in the person of the 1st earl of Ellesmere (q.v.), +descended from Lady Louisa Egerton, daughter and co-heir of the 1st duke +of Bridgewater. + + No adequate life of Lord Chancellor Ellesmere has been written, for + which, however, materials exist in the Bridgewater MSS., very scantily + calendared in _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 11th Rep. p. 24, and app. pt. vii. p. + 126. A small selection, with the omission, however, of personal and + family matters intended for a separate projected _Life_ which was + never published, was edited by J.P. Collier for the Camden Society in + 1840. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Athenae Oxon._ (Bliss), ii. 197. + + [2] D'Ewes's _Parliaments of Elizabeth_, 441, 442. + + [3] _Cal. of St. Pap., Dom._, 1601-1603, p. 191. + + [4] Birch's _Mem. of Queen Elizabeth_, i. 479. + + [5] _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 11th Rep. p. 24. + + [6] T. Birch's _Mem. of Queen Elizabeth_, ii. 384. + + [7] _Cal. of St. Pap., Dom._, 1598-1601, pp. 554, 583. + + [8] _State Trials_, ii. 909. + + [9] _Cal. St. Pap., Dom._, 1611-1618, p. 381. + + [10] _Cal. St. Pap., Dom._, 1611-1618, p. 407. + + [11] _Lansdowne MS._ 91, f. 41. + + [12] _Hist. MSS. Comm._ app. pt. vii. p. 156. + + [13] _Life of Donne_, by E. Gosse, i. 43. + + [14] Judgment on the Post Nati. + + [15] Speech to the parliament, 24th of October 1597. + + [16] _Harleian MS._ 2310, f. i.; Gardiner's _Hist. of England_, ix. 56. + + + + +BRACKLEY, a market town and municipal borough in the southern +parliamentary division of Northamptonshire, England, 59 m. N.W. by W. +from London by the Great Central railway; served also by a branch of the +London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 2467. The church of St +Peter, the body of which is Decorated and Perpendicular, has a beautiful +Early English tower. Magdalen College school was founded in 1447 by +William of Waynflete, bishop of Winchester, bearing the name of his +great college at Oxford. Of a previous foundation of the 12th century, +called the Hospital of St John, the transitional Norman and Early +English chapel remains. Brewing is carried on. The borough is under a +mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 3489 acres. + +Brackley (Brachelai, Brackele) was held in 1086 by Earl Alberie, from +whom it passed to the earl of Leicester and thence to the families of De +Quinci and Holand. Brilliant tournaments were held in 1249 and 1267, and +others were prohibited in 1222 and 1244. The market, formerly held on +Sunday, was changed in 1218 to Wednesday, and in answer to a writ of +_Quo Warranto_ Maud de Holand claimed in 1330 that her family had held a +fair on St Andrew's day from time immemorial. In 1553 Mary granted two +fairs to the earl of Derby. By charter of 1686 James II. incorporated +the town under a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 26 burgesses, granted three new +fairs and confirmed the old fair and market. In 1708 Anne granted four +fairs to the earl of Bridgewater, and in 1886 the borough had a new +charter of incorporation under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors +under the Municipal Corporations Act of 1882. Camden (_Brit._ p. 430) +says that Brackley was formerly a famous staple for wool. It first sent +members to parliament in 1547, and continued to send two representatives +till disfranchised by the Reform Act of 1832. The town formerly had a +considerable woollen and lace-making trade. + + + + +BRACQUEMOND, FELIX (1833- ), French painter and etcher, was born in +Paris. He was trained in early youth as a trade lithographer, until +Guichard, a pupil of Ingres, took him to his studio. His portrait of his +grandmother, painted by him at the age of nineteen, attracted Theophile +Gautier's attention at the Salon. He applied himself to engraving and +etching about 1853, and played a leading and brilliant part in the +revival of the etcher's art in France. Altogether he has produced over +eight hundred plates, comprising portraits, landscapes, scenes of +contemporary life, and bird-studies, besides numerous interpretations of +other artists' paintings, especially those of Meissonier, Gustave Moreau +and Corot. After having been attached to the Sevres porcelain factory in +1870, he accepted a post as art manager of the Paris _atelier_ of the +firm of Haviland of Limoges. He was connected by a link of firm +friendship with Manet, Whistler, and all the other fighters in the +impressionist cause, and received all the honours that await the +successful artist in France, including the grade of officer of the +Legion of Honour in 1889. + + + + +BRACTON, HENRY DE (d. 1268), English judge and writer on English law. +His real name was Bratton, and in all probability he derived it either +from Bratton Fleming or from Bratton Clovelly, both of them villages in +Devonshire. It is only after his death that his name appears as +"Bracton." He seems to have entered the king's service as a clerk under +the patronage of William Raleigh, who after long service as a royal +justice died bishop of Winchester in 1250. Bracton begins to appear as a +justice in 1245, and from 1248 until his death in 1268 he was steadily +employed as a justice of assize in the south-western counties, +especially Somerset, Devon and Cornwall. During the earlier part of this +period he was also sitting as a judge in the king's central court, and +was there hearing those pleas which "followed the king"; in other words, +he was a member of that section of the central tribunal which was soon +to be distinguished as the king's bench. From this position he retired +or was dismissed in or about the year 1257, shortly before the meeting +of the Mad Parliament at Oxford in 1258. Whether his disappearance is to +be connected with the political events of this turbulent time is +uncertain. He continued to take the assizes in the south-west, and in +1267 he was a member of a commission of prelates, barons and judges +appointed to hear the complaints of the disinherited partisans of Simon +de Montfort. In 1259 he became rector of Combe-in-Teignhead, in 1261 +rector of Barnstaple, in 1264 archdeacon of Barnstaple, and, having +resigned the archdeaconry, chancellor of Exeter cathedral; he also held +a prebend in the collegiate church at Bosham. Already in 1245 he enjoyed +a dispensation enabling him to hold three ecclesiastical benefices. He +died in 1268 and was buried in the nave of Exeter cathedral, and a +chantry for his soul was endowed out of the revenues of the manor of +Thorverton. + +His fame is due to a treatise on the laws and customs of England which +is sufficiently described elsewhere (see ENGLISH LAW). The main part of +it seems to have been compiled between 1250 and 1256; but apparently it +is an unfinished work. This may be due to the fact that when he ceased +to be a member of the king's central court Bracton was ordered to +surrender certain judicial records which he had been using as raw +material. Even though it be unfinished his book is incomparably the best +work produced by any English lawyer in the middle ages. + + The treatise was published in 1569 by Richard Tottel. This text was + reprinted in 1640. An edition (1878-1883) with English translation + was included in the Rolls Series. Manuscript copies are numerous, and + a critical edition is a desideratum. See Bracton's _Note-Book_ (ed. + Maitland, 1887); _Bracton and Azo_ (Selden Society, 1895). + (F. W. M.) + + + + +BRADAWL (from "brad," a flat nail, and "awl," a piercing tool), a small +tool used for boring holes (see TOOL). + + + + +BRADDOCK, EDWARD (1695?-1755), British general, was born in Perthshire, +Scotland, about 1695. He was the son of Major-General Edward Braddock +(d. 1725), and joined the Coldstream Guards in 1710. In 1747 as a +lieutenant-colonel he served under the prince of Orange in Holland +during the siege of Bergen-op-Zoom. In 1753 he was given the colonelcy +of the 14th foot, and in 1754 he became a major-general. Being appointed +shortly afterwards to command against the French in America, he landed +in Virginia in February 1755. After some months of preparation, in which +he was hampered by administrative confusion and want of resources, he +took the field with a picked column, in which George Washington served +as a volunteer officer, intended to attack Fort Duquesne (Pittsburg, +Pa.). The column crossed the Monongahela river on the 9th of July and +almost immediately afterwards fell into an ambuscade of French and +Indians. The troops were completely surprised and routed, and Braddock, +rallying his men time after time, fell at last mortally wounded. He was +carried off the field with difficulty, and died on the 13th. He was +buried at Great Meadows, where the remnant of the column halted on its +retreat to reorganize. (See SEVEN YEARS' WAR.) + + + + +BRADDOCK, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the +Monongahela river, 10 m. S.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 8561; (1900) +15,654, of whom 5111 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 19,357. Braddock +is served by the Pennsylvania, the Baltimore & Ohio, and the Pittsburg & +Lake Erie railways. Its chief industry is the manufacture of +steel--especially steel rails; among its other manufactures are +pig-iron, wire rods, wire nails, wire bale ties, lead pipe, brass and +electric signs, cement and plaster. In 1905 the value of the borough's +factory products was $4,199,079. Braddock has a Carnegie library. +Kennywood Park, near by, is a popular resort. The municipality owns and +operates the water-works. Braddock was named in honour of the English +general Edward Braddock, who in 1755 met defeat and death near the site +of the present borough at the hands of a force of French and Indians. +The borough was first settled at the close of the 18th century, and was +incorporated in 1867. + + + + +BRADDON, MARY ELIZABETH (1837- ), English novelist, daughter of Henry +Braddon, solicitor, of Skirdon Lodge, Cornwall, and sister of Sir Edward +Braddon, prime minister of Tasmania, was born in London in 1837. She +began at an early age to contribute to periodicals, and in 1861 produced +her first novel, _The Trail of the Serpent_. In the same year appeared +_Garibaldi_, accompanied by _Olivia_, and other poems, chiefly +narrative, a volume of extremely spirited verse, deserving more notice +than it has received. In 1862 her reputation as a novelist was made by a +favourable review in _The Times of Lady Audley's Secret_. _Aurora +Floyd_, a novel with a strong affinity to _Madame Bovary_, followed, and +achieved equal success. Its immediate successors, _Eleanor's Victory, +John Marchmont's Legacy, Henry Dunbar_, remain with her former works the +best-known of her novels, but all her numerous books have found a large +and appreciative public. They give, indeed, the great body of readers of +fiction exactly what they require; melodramatic in plot and character, +conventional in their views of life, they are yet distinguished by +constructive skill and opulence of invention. For a considerable time +Miss Braddon conducted _Belgravia_, in which several of her novels +appeared. In 1874 she married Mr John Maxwell, publisher, her son, W.B. +Maxwell, afterwards becoming known as a clever novelist and newspaper +correspondent. + + + + +BRADFORD, JOHN (1510?-1555), English Protestant martyr, was born at +Manchester in the early part of the reign of Henry VIII., and educated +at the local grammar school. Being a good penman and accountant, he +became secretary to Sir John Harrington, paymaster of the English +forces in France. Bradford at this time was gay and thoughtless, and to +support his extravagance he seems to have appropriated some of the money +entrusted to him; but he afterwards made full restitution. In April 1547 +he took chambers in the Inner Temple, and began to study law; but +finding divinity more congenial, he removed, in the following year, to +St Catharine's Hall, Cambridge, where he studied with such assiduity +that in little more than a year he was admitted by special grace to the +degree of master of arts, and was soon after made fellow of Pembroke +Hall, the fellowship being "worth seven pound a year." One of his pupils +was John Whitgift. Bishop Ridley, who in 1550 was translated to the see +of London, sent for him and appointed him his chaplain. In 1553 he was +also made chaplain to Edward VI., and became one of the most popular +preachers in the kingdom, earning high praise from John Knox. Soon after +the accession of Mary he was arrested on a charge of sedition, and +confined in the Tower and the king's bench prison for a year and a half. +During this time he wrote several epistles which were dispersed in +various parts of the kingdom. He was at last brought to trial (January +1554/5) before the court in which Bishop Gardiner sat as chief, and, +refusing to retract his principles, was condemned as a heretic and +burnt, with John Leaf, in Smithfield on the 1st of July 1555. + + His writings, which consist chiefly of sermons, meditations, tracts, + letters and prayers, were edited by A. Townsend for the Parker Society + (2 vols. 8vo, Cambridge, 1848-1853). + + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 4, Slice 3, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 33698.txt or 33698.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/6/9/33698/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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